Posts Tagged ‘The New England Journal of Medicine’

Pacemakers, Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators (ICD) and Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT)

Curators: Justin D Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC and Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

Updated on 2/16/2015

Mild, non-ischemic heart failure might be more deadly than thought, an Austrian group found, calling for broader ICD use.




The voice of our Series A Content Consultant: Justin D Pearlman, MD, PhD, FACC

Pacemakers place one or more wires into heart muscle to trigger electro-mechanically coupled contraction. A single wire to the right atrium is called an AAI pacemaker (atrial sensing, atrial triggering, inhibit triggering if sensed). A single wire to the right ventricle is called a VVI pacemaker (ventricular sensing, ventricular triggering, inhibit if sensed). With two wires to the heart more combinations are possible, including atrial-ventricular sequential activation, a closer mimic to normal function (DDDR pacemaker: dual sensing, dual triggering, dual functions, and rate-responsive to mimic exercise adjustment of heart rate). Three wires are used for synchronization: one to the right atrium, one to the right ventricle apex, and a third lead into a distal branch of the coronary sinus to activate the far side of the left ventricle. Resynchronization is used to compensate for a dilated ventricle, especially one with conduction delays, where the timing of activation is so unbalanced that the heart contraction approaches a wobbling motion rather than a well coordinated contraction. Adjusting timing of activation of the right ventricle and left ventricle can offset dysynchrony (unbalanced timing) and thereby increase the amount of blood ejected by each heart beat contraction (ejection fraction). Patients with dilated cardiomyopathy and significant conduction delays can improve the ejection fraction by 10 or more percentage points, which offers a significant improvement in exertion tolerance and heart failure symptoms.

Patients with ejection fraction below 35%, among others, have an elevated risk of life-ending arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia. Ventricular tachycardia is an extreme example of a wobbling heart in which the electrical activation sequence circles around the heart sequentially activating a portion and blocking its ability to respond until the electric signal comes around again. Whenever a portion of the heart is activated, ions shift location, and further activation of that region is not possible until sufficient time passes so that the compartmentalized ion concentrations can be restored (repolarization). Pacing can interrupt ventricular tachycardia by depolarizing a region that supported the circular activation pattern. Failing that, an electric shock can stop an ineffective rhythm. After all regions stop activation, they will generally reactivate in the normal pulsatile synchronous manner. An implanted cardiac defibrillator is a device designed to apply an internal electric shock to pause all activation and thereby interrupt ventricular tachycardia.
UPDATED on 12/31/2013

Published on Friday, 27 December 2013

S-ICD – Subcutaneous Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator – Boston Scientific

Boston Scientific Subcutaneous Implantable Cardiodefibrillator Device S-ICD

S-ICD – Subcutaneous Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator – Boston Scientific

Boston Scientific Subcutaneous Implantable Cardiodefibrillator Device S-ICD

‘Regular’ Pacemaker/ICD with Leads and a ‘Can’
When we think of Pacemakers and ICD’s we naturally think of a ‘Can’ and Leads that track down into the heart. Whilst these devices work fantastically well and will continue to do so. Unfortunately the ‘lead’ part of the device opens the door for a few complications to possibly arise. Those who have a Pacemaker or ICD will probably be familiar with concerns over;
  1. Systemic Infection – Infections travelling down the Leads into the Heart
  2. Lead Displacement – The Lead moving away from the heart tissue and thus becoming pretty useless.
  3. Vascular/Organ Injury – Damage to the blood vessels being used for access or perforation of heart wall.
  4. Pneumothorax (damage to the lining around the Lung), Haemothorax (build up of blood in the chest cavity), and air embolism (air bubble trapped in a blood vessel).
These complications are one of the key motivations behind developing ‘leadless’ devices the first of which the St Jude Nanostim, a small VVI Pacemaker that fits directly into the heart.
Another device to address these issues is the Boston Scientific S-ICD

What is the Boston Scientific S-ICD?

The S-ICD is what is sometimes referred to as a ‘shock box’ it does not have the pacemaker functionality that many other ICD’s do have. It is ONLY there to terminate dangerous Arrhythmias.
*It does not have the pacing functionality of traditional ICD‘s because it DOES NOT HAVE A LEAD THAT ENTERS THE HEART.*
It is not a Pacemaker!
Without the lead(s) ENTERING the heart via a blood vessel there is a reduction in the risks mentioned previously that are associated traditional device. Another of the benefits is that the S-ICD is positioned and implanted using anatomical landmarks (visible parts of your body) and not Fluoroscopy (video X-Ray) which reduces radiation exposure to the patient.

Positioning of the S-ICD.

Boston Scientific Subcutaneous Implantable Cardiodefibrillator Device S-ICD

The ‘Can‘ (metal box that contains all the circuitry and battery), is buried under the skin on the outside of the ribs. Put your arms down by your sides, the device would go where your ribs meet the middle of your bicep. A lead is then run under the skin to the centre of your chest where its is anchored and then north, under the skin again until the tip of the lead is roughly at the top of the sternum.
For you physicians out there the ‘can’ is positioned at the mid-axillary line between the 5th and 6th intercostal spaces, the lead is then tunnelled to a small Xiphoid incision and then tunnelled north to a superior incision.

How is an S-ICD Implanted?

Having spoken to Boston Scientific it is becoming more apparent that the superior incision (cut at the top of the chest) may actually be removed from the procedure guidance as simply tunnelling the lead and ‘wedging’ the tip at that point is satisfactory – THIS IS NOT CONFIRMED AT THE MOMENT AND IS THEREFORE NOT PROCEDURE ADVICE.
Boston Scientific Subcutaneous Implantable Cardiodefibrillator Device S-ICD
Image Courtesy of

How does the S-ICD Work?

A ‘Shock Box’ basically needs to do 2 things. Firstly be able to SENSE if the heart has entered a Dangerous Arrhythmia and Secondly, be able to treat it.
The treatment part of the functionality is the easy bit – it delivers an electric shock across a ‘circuit’ that involves a large amount of the tissue in the heart. The lead has two ‘electrodes’ and the ‘Can’ is a third electrode allowing you different shocking ‘vectors’. By vectors we mean directions and area through which the electricity travels during a shock. This gives us extra options when implanting a device as some vectors will work better than others for the treatment of dangerous arrhythmias.

Shocking Vectors?

This is a concept you are familiar with without even thinking about it… when you are watching ER or another TV program and they Defibrillate the patient using the metal paddles, where do they position them? One either side of the heart? Precisely!! this is creating a ‘vector’ across the heart to involve the cardiac tissue. The paddles would be a lot less effective if you put one on the knee and one on the foot!

Boston Scientific Subcutaneous Implantable Cardiodefibrillator Device S-ICD

Now because the ‘Vectors’ used by the S-ICD are over a larger area than those with a traditional device – more energy has to be delivered to have the same desired affect. The upshot of this is that a larger battery is required to deliver the 80J! Bigger Battery = Bigger Box. This image shows a demo device but this is the exact size compared to a One Pound Coin! Now yes it is big but because of the extra room where they place the device it is pretty discrete and hidden in even slender patients.
The S-ICD System delivers up to 5 shocks per episode at 80 J with up to 128 seconds of ECG storage per episode and storage of up to 45 episodes.
The heart rate that the S-ICD is told to deliver therapy is programable between 170 and 250 bpm. Quite cleverly the device is able to also deliver a small amount of ‘pacing’ after a shock, when the heart can often run slowly. This is external pacing and will be felt!! It can run for 30s.

Sensing in an S-ICD.

The S-ICD uses its electrodes to produce an ECG similar to a surface ECG. 
Now the Sensing functionality is the devices ability to determine what Rhythm the heart is in! Without a lead in the heart to give us really accurate information the device is using a large area of heart, ribs and muscle. This means there is more potential for ‘artefact’. Artefact is the electrical interference and confusion – that could potentially lead to a patient being shocked when they do not require it – or not being shocked when they do…
Boston Scientific have come up with a very clever software/algorithm called ‘Insight’. Insight uses 3 separate methods to determine the nature of a heart rhythm.
  • Normal Sinus Rhythm Template (Do your heart beats look as they should)
  • Dynamic Morphology Analysis (A live comparison of heart beat to previous heart beat, do they all look the same or do they keep changing?)
  • QRS Width analysis (Are the tall ‘peaks’ on your ECG, the QRS’, wider than they normally are?)
These questions (with some very complex maths) and the rate of a rhythm are used to decide whether to ‘shock’ or not.
Insight Algorithm S-ICD

Image Courtesy of  http://www.bostonscientific.com/

How does Insight and the S-ICD compare to other ICD Devices?

The statistics for treatment success and inappropriate shocks (an electrocuted patient that did not need to be) actually compare very similarly if not favourably compared to other devices on the market – these two studies are well worth a read if you have the time 🙂
1. Burke M, et al. Safety and Efficacy of a Subcutaneous Implantable-Debrillator (S-ICD System US IDE Study). Late-Breaking Abstract Session. HRS 2012.
2. Lambiase PD, et al. International Experience with a Subcutaneous ICD; Preliminary Results of the EFFORTLESS S-ICD Registry. Cardiostim 2012.
3. Gold MR, et al. Head-to-head comparison of arrhythmia discrimination performance of subcutaneous and transvenous ICD arrhythmia detection algorithms: the START study. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2012;23;4:359-366.
Who qualifies?
Template S-ICD Eligibility

Template used to assess eligibility!
Image Courtesy of
Well essentially anyone who qualifies for a normal ‘shock box’ ICD but with one other requirement. The Insight Software requires that a person has certain characteristics on their ECG. This is essentially showing that they have tall enough and narrow enough complexes to allow the algorithm to perform effectively. A simple 12 lead ECG Laying and Standing will be obtained and then a ‘Stencil’ is passed over the Print out – If the complexes fit within the boundaries marked on the ‘stencil’ then you potentially qualify. If your ECG does not meet requirements then it will not be recommended for you to have the S-ICD.

There you have it a quick overview of the Boston Scientific S-ICD.

Thanks for Reading

Cardiac Technician



UPDATED on 10/15/2013

Frequency and Determinants of Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator Deployment Among Primary Prevention Candidates With Subsequent Sudden Cardiac Arrest in the Community

  1. Kumar Narayanan, MD;
  2. Kyndaron Reinier, PhD;
  3. Audrey Uy-Evanado, MD;
  4. Carmen Teodorescu, MD, PhD;
  5. Harpriya Chugh, BS;
  6. Eloi Marijon, MD;
  7. Karen Gunson, MD;
  8. Jonathan Jui, MD, MPH;
  9. Sumeet S. Chugh, MD

+Author Affiliations

  1. From The Heart Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA (K.N., K.R., A.U.-E., C.T., H.C., E.M., S.S.C.); and Departments of Pathology (K.G.) and Emergency Medicine (J.J.), Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR.
  1. Correspondence to Sumeet S. Chugh, MD, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, The Heart Institute, AHSP Suite A3100, 127 S. San Vicente Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90048, Los Angeles, CA 90048. E-mail sumeet.chugh@cshs.org


Background—The prevalence rates and influencing factors for deployment of primary prevention implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs) among subjects who eventually experience sudden cardiac arrest in the general population have not been evaluated.

Methods and Results—Cases of adult sudden cardiac arrest with echocardiographic evaluation before the event were identified from the ongoing Oregon Sudden Unexpected Death Study (population approximately 1 million). Eligibility for primary ICD implantation was determined from medical records based on established guidelines. The frequency of prior primary ICD implantation in eligible subjects was evaluated, and ICD nonrecipients were characterized. Of 2093 cases (2003–2012), 448 had appropriate pre– sudden cardiac arrest left ventricular ejection fraction information available. Of these, 92 (20.5%) were eligible for primary ICD implantation, 304 (67.9%) were ineligible because of left ventricular ejection fraction >35%, and the remainder (52, 11.6%) had left ventricular ejection fraction ≤35% but were ineligible on the basis of clinical guideline criteria. Among eligible subjects, only 12 (13.0%; 95% confidence interval, 6.1%–19.9%) received a primary ICD. Compared with recipients, primary ICD nonrecipients were older (age at ejection fraction assessment, 67.1±13.6 versus 58.5±14.8 years, P=0.05), with 20% aged ≥80 years (versus 0% among recipients, P=0.11). Additionally, a subgroup (26%) had either a clinical history of dementia or were undergoing chronic dialysis.

Conclusions—Only one fifth of the sudden cardiac arrest cases in the community were eligible for a primary prevention ICD before the event, but among these, a small proportion (13%) were actually implanted. Although older age and comorbidity may explain nondeployment in a subgroup of these cases, other determinants such as socioeconomic factors, health insurance, patient preference, and clinical practice patterns warrant further detailed investigation.

Key Words:

  • Received March 11, 2013.
  • Accepted August 21, 2013


UPDATED on 9/15/2013

based on 9/6/2013 Trials and Fibrillations — The Heart.org


Echo-CRT trial: Most important study released at ESC 2013

Cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) is a multilead pacing device that can extend lives and improve the quality of life of selected patients who suffer from reduced performance of the heart due to adverse timing of contraction (wobbling motion from conduction delays that cause asynchrony or  delayed activation of one portion of the left ventricle compared to others reducing net blood ejection).

The degree of benefit in CRT responders depends not only on the degree of asynchrony, but also on the delayed activity location in relation to the available locations for lead placement. CRT is an adjustment in the timing of muscle activiation to improve the concerted impact on blood ejection. Only patients likely to improve should be exposed to the risks and costs of CRT.

The Echo-CRT trial, presented September 3, 2013 at the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) 2013 Congressand simultaneously published in the New England Journal of Medicine, helps identify which patients may benefit from CRT devices. (See Steve Stiles’ report on heartwire),

Echo-CRT trial summary

Background is important

Previous CRT studies enrolled patients with QRS duration >120 or >130 ms for synchronizing biventricular pacing. Additional work confirmed the greatest benefit occurred in patients with QRS durations >150 ms and typical left bundle branch block (LBBB). Conflicting observational and small randomized trials were less clear for patients with shorter QRS durations—the majority of heart-failure patients. What’s more, most cardiologists have seen patients with “modest” QRS durations respond to CRT. In theory, wide QRS is only expected if the axis of significant delay projects onto the standard ECG views, whereas significant opportunity for benefit can be missed if the axis of significant delay is not wide in the standard views. CRT implanters have heard of patients with normal-duration QRS where echo shows marked dyssynchrony. This raised the  question: Are there CHF patients with mechanical dyssynchrony (determined by echo) but no electrical delay (as measured by the ECG) benefit from CRT?Unfortunately, echo does not resolve the issue either. Thus there is the residual question of who should be evaluated by a true 3D syncrhony assessment by cardiac MRI.

Echocardiographic techniques held promise to identify mechanical dyssynchrony, but like the standard 12 lead ECG, they also utilize limited orientations of views of the heart and hence the directions in which delays can be detected. Cardiac MRI Research (not limited in view angle) by JDPearlman showed that the axis of maximal delay in patients with asynchrony is within 30 degrees of the ECG and echo views in a majority of patients with asynchrony, but it can be 70-110 degrees away from the views used by echocardiography and by ECG in 20% of cases. Hence some patients who may benefit can be missed by ECG or Echo criteria.


Echo-CRT was an industry-sponsored (Biotronik) investigator-initiated prospective international randomized controlled trial. All patients had mechanical dyssynchrony by echo, QRS <130 ms, and an ICD indication. CRT-D devices were implanted in all patients. Blinded randomization to CRT-on (404 patients) vs CRT-off (405 patients) was performed after implantation. Programming in the CRT-off group was set to minimize RV pacing. The primary outcome was a composite of all-cause mortality or hospitalization.

Six key findings

1. Although entry criteria for the trial was a QRS duration <130 ms, the mean QRS duration of both groups was 105 ms.

2. The data safety monitoring board terminated the trial prematurely because of an increased death rate in the CRT group.

3. No differences were noted in the primary outcome.

4. More patients died in the CRT group (hazard ratio=1.8).

5. The higher death rate in the CRT group was driven by cardiovascular death.

6. More patients in the CRT group were hospitalized, due primarily to device-related issues.

These findings send clear and simple messages to all involved with treating patients with heart failure. My interpretation of Echo-CRT is as follows:

Do not implant CRT devices in patients with “narrow” QRS complexes.

The signal of increased death was strong. A hazard ratio of 1.8 translates to an almost doubling of the risk of death. This finding is unlikely to be a statistical anomaly, as it was driven by CV death. The risks of CRT in nonresponders are well-known and include: increased RV pacing, possible proarrhythmia from LV pacing, and the need for more device-related surgery. Patients who do not respond to CRT get none of the benefits but all the potential harms—an unfavorable ratio indeed.

Echo is not useful for assessing dyssynchrony in patients with narrow QRS complexes.

Dr Samuel Asirvatham explains the concept of electropathy in a review article in the Journal of Cardiovascular Electrophysiology. He teaches us that the later the LV lateral wall is activated relative to the RV, the more the benefit of preexciting the lateral wall with an LV lead. That’s why the benefit from CRT in many cases increases with QRS duration, because—in a majority—a wide QRS means late activation of the lateral LV.

Simple triumphs over complicated—CRT response best estimated with the old-fashioned ECG.

In a right bundle branch block, the left ventricle is activated first; in LBBB, the LV lateral wall is last, and with a nonspecific ICD, there’s delayed conduction in either the His-Purkinje system or in ventricular muscle. What does a normal QRS say? It says the wave front of activation as projected onto the electric views obtained activates the LV and RV simultaneously. If those views capture the worst delay then they can eliminate the  need for resynchrony.

CRT benefit with mild-moderate QRS prolongation still not settled

Dr Robert Myerburg (here and here) teaches us to make a distinction between trial entry criteria and the actual values of the cohort.

Consider how this applies to QRS duration:  COMPANION and CARE-HF are clinical trials that showed definitive CRT benefit. Entry required a QRS duration >120 ms (130 ms in CARE-HF). But the actual mean QRS duration of enrolled patients was 160 ms. A meta-analysis of CRT trials confirmed benefit at longer QRS durations and questioned it below 150 ms. CRT guideline recommendations incorporate study entry criteria, not the mean values of actual patients in the trial. Patients enrolled in Echo-CRT had very narrow QRS complexes (105 ms). What to recommend in the common situation when a patient with a typical LBBB has a QRS duration straddling 130 ms is not entirely clear. The results of Echo-CRT might have been different had the actual QRS duration values been closer to 130 ms.


Echo-CRT study reinforces expectations based on cardiac physiology. In the practice of medicine, it’s quite useful to know when not to do something.

The trial should not dampen enthusiasm for CRT. Rather, it should focus our attention to patient selection—and the value of the 12-lead ECG.


Rethinking QRS Duration as an Indication for CRT


Author Information

  1. Department of Pediatric Cardiology, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
  2. Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
  3. Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA

*Samuel J. Asirvatham, M.D., Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine and Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN 55905, USA. E-mail: asirvatham.samuel@mayo.edu

J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, Vol. 23, pp. 169-171, February 2012.


Indications for Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators Based on Evidence and Judgment FREE

Robert J. Myerburg, MD; Vivek Reddy, MD; Agustin Castellanos, MD
J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54(9):747-763. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2009.03.078

Implantable Cardioverter–Defibrillators after Myocardial Infarction

Robert J. Myerburg, M.D.

Division of Cardiology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami.

N Engl J Med 2008; 359:2245-2253 November 20, 2008DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra0803409


Electrical conduction of the Human Heart

  • Physiology and
  • Genetics

were explained by us in the following articles:



Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Decisions on implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs) using left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF)

Reduction in Inappropriate Therapy and Mortality through ICD Programming

Below, we present the following complementary topics:

Options for Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy (CRT) to Arrhythmias:

  • Implantable Pacemaker
  • Insertable Programmable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD)

UPDATED 8/6/2013

Medtronic Pacemaker Recall



Australia’s regulatory authority, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) has issued a hazard alert pertaining to one of Medtronic’s pacing devices, the Consulta® Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy Pacemaker (CRT-P). The alert coincides somewhat with Medtronic’s own issuance of a field safety notice concerning Consulta and Syncra® CRT-P devices.


Consulta and Syncra CRT-Ps are implantable medical devices used to treat heart failure. The devices provide pacing to help coordinate the heart’s pumping action and improve blood flow.

The two devices are the subject of a global manufacturer recall after Medtronic had identified an issue with a subset of both during production, although as yet there had been no reported or confirmed device failures. However, because of the potential for malfunction, Medtronic is requiring the return of non-implanted devices manufactured between April 1 and May 13, 2013 for re-inspection.

Seemingly this manufacturing issue could compromise the sealing of the device. Should an out-of-spec weld fail this could result in body fluids entering the device, which could cause it to malfunction leading to loss of pacing output. This could potentially see the return of symptoms including

  • fainting or lightheadedness,
  • dyspnoea (shortness of breath),
  • fatigue and
  • oedema.

Medtronic’s recall is thought to relate to 265 devices, 44 of which have been implanted in the US.

The Australian warning letter, issued by the TGA states that only one “at risk” Consulta CRT-P device has been implanted in the country and there have been no reports of device failures or patient injuries relating to this issue.

Neither Medtronic nor the TGA are suggesting any specific patient management measures other than routine follow-up in accordance with labelling instructions.

Pacemaker/Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator (ICD) Insertion

Procedure Overview

What is a pacemaker/implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) insertion?

A pacemaker/implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) insertion is a procedure in which a pacemaker and/or an ICD is inserted to assist in regulating problems with the heart rate (pacemaker) or heart rhythm (ICD).


When a problem develops with the heart’s rhythm, such as a slow rhythm, a pacemaker may be selected for treatment. A pacemaker is a small electronic device composed of three parts: a generator, one or more leads, and an electrode on each lead. A pacemaker signals the heart to beat when the heartbeat is too slow.

Illustration of a single-chamber pacemaker
Click Image to Enlarge

A generator is the “brain” of the pacemaker device. It is a small metal case that contains electronic circuitry and a battery. The lead (or leads) is an insulated wire that is connected to the generator on one end, with the other end placed inside one of the heart’s chambers.

The electrode on the end of the lead touches the heart wall. In most pacemakers, the lead senses the heart’s electrical activity. This information is relayed to the generator by the lead.

If the heart’s rate is slower than the programmed limit, an electrical impulse is sent through the lead to the electrode and the pacemaker’s electrical impulse causes the heart to beat at a faster rate.

When the heart is beating at a rate faster than the programmed limit, the pacemaker will monitor the heart rate, but will not pace. No electrical impulses will be sent to the heart unless the heart’s natural rate falls below the pacemaker’s low limit.

Pacemaker leads may be positioned in the atrium or ventricle or both, depending on the condition requiring the pacemaker to be inserted. An atrial dysrhythmia/arrhythmia (an abnormal heart rhythm caused by a dysfunction of the sinus node or the development of another atrial pacemaker within the heart tissue that takes over the function of the sinus node) may be treated with an atrial pacemaker.

Illustration of a dual-chamber pacemaker
Click Image to Enlarge


It is possible to have both atrial and ventricular dysrhythmias, and there are pacemakers that have lead wires positioned in both the atrium and the ventricle. There may be one lead wire for each chamber, or one lead wire may be capable of sensing and pacing both chambers.

A new type of pacemaker, called a biventricular pacemaker, is currently used in the treatment of congestive heart failure. Sometimes in heart failure, the two ventricles (lower heart chambers) do not pump together in a normal manner. When this happens, less blood is pumped by the heart.


Implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD)



The ICD has another type of treatment for certain fast rhythms called anti-tachycardia pacing (ATP). When ATP is used, a fast pacing impulse is sent to correct the rhythm. After the shock is delivered, a “back-up” pacing mode is used if needed for a short while.



The heart’s electrical conduction system

Click Image to Enlarge

The heart is, in the simplest terms, a pump made up of muscle tissue. Like all pumps, the heart requires a source of energy in order to function. The heart’s pumping energy comes from an indwelling electrical conduction system.


The sinus node generates an electrical stimulus regularly at 60 to 100 times per minute under normal conditions. This electrical stimulus travels down through the conduction pathways (similar to the way electricity flows through power lines from the power plant to your house) and causes the heart’s chambers to contract and pump out blood.


The electrical impulse travels from the sinus node to the atrioventricular (AV) node, where it stops for a very short period, then continues down the conduction pathways via the “bundle of His” into the ventricles. The bundle of His divides into right and left pathways to provide electrical stimulation to both ventricles.

What is an ECG?

This electrical activity of the heart is measured by an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG). By placing electrodes at specific locations on the body (chest, arms, and legs), a tracing of the electrical activity can be obtained. Changes in an ECG from the normal tracing can indicate one or more of several heart-related conditions.

Dysrhythmias/arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms) are diagnosed by methods such as EKG, Holter monitoring, signal-average EKG, or electrophysiological studies. These symptoms may be treated with medication or procedures such as a cardiac ablation (removal of a location in the heart that is causing a dysrhythmia by freezing or radiofrequency).

Reasons for the Procedure

A pacemaker may be inserted in order to provide stimulation for a faster heart rate when the heart is beating too slowly, and when other treatment methods, such as medication, have not improved the heart rate.

An ICD may be inserted in order to provide fast pacing (ATP), cardioversion (small shock), or defibrillation (larger shock) when the heart beats too fast.



Some examples of rhythm problems for which a pacemaker or ICD might be inserted include:

  • atrial fibrillation – occurs when the atria beat irregularly and too fast
  • ventricular fibrillation – occurs when the ventricles beat irregularly and too fast
  • bradycardia – occurs when the heart beats too slow
  • tachycardia – occurs when the heart beats too fast
  • heart block – occurs when the electrical signal is delayed after leaving the SA node; there are several types of heart blocks, and each one has a distinctive ECG tracing

There may be other reasons for your physician to recommend a pacemaker or ICD insertion.

Risks of the Procedure

Possible risks of pacemaker or ICD insertion include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • bleeding from the incision or catheter insertion site
  • damage to the vessel at the catheter insertion site
  • infection of the incision or catheter site
  • pneumothorax – air becomes trapped in the pleural space causing the lung to collapse

If you are pregnant or suspect that you may be pregnant, you should notify your physician. If you are lactating, or breastfeeding, you should notify your physician.




Before the Procedure

  • Notify your physician if you have heart valve disease, as you may need to receive an antibiotic prior to the procedure.

During the Procedure

Chest X-ray with Implanted Pacemaker

A pacemaker or implanted cardioverter defibrillator may be performed on an outpatient basis or as part of your stay in a hospital. Procedures may vary depending on your condition and your physician’s practices.

Generally, a pacemaker or ICD insertion follows this process:

  9. The pacemaker or ICD insertion site will be cleansed with antiseptic soap.
  13. A sheath, or introducer, is inserted into a blood vessel, usually under the collarbone. The sheath is a plastic tube through which the pacer/ICD lead wire will be inserted into the blood vessel and advanced into the heart.
  14. It will be very important for you to remain still during the procedure so that the catheter placement will not be disturbed and to prevent damage to the insertion site.
  17. Once the lead wire has been tested, an incision will be made close to the location of the catheter insertion (just under the collarbone). You will receive local anesthetic medication before the incision is made.
  18. The pacemaker/ICD generator will be slipped under the skin through the incision after the lead wire is attached to the generator. Generally, the generator will be placed on the non-dominant side. (If you are right-handed, the device will be placed in your upper left chest. If you are left-handed, the device will be placed in your upper right chest).
  21. A sterile bandage/dressing will be applied.

After the Procedure

In the hospital

After the procedure, you may be taken to the recovery room for observation or returned to your hospital room. A nurse will monitor your vital signs for a specified period of time.




The insertion site may be sore or painful, but pain medication may be administered if needed.

Your physician will visit with you in your room while you are recovering. The physician will give you specific instructions and answer any questions you may have.


If the procedure is performed on an outpatient basis, you may be allowed to leave after you have completed the recovery process. However, if there are concerns or problems with your ECG, you may stay in the hospital for an additional day (or longer) for monitoring of the ECG.


At home

You should be able to return to your daily routine within a few days. Your physician will tell you if you will need to take more time in returning to your normal activities. In addition, you should not do any lifting or pulling on anything for a few weeks. You may be instructed not to lift your arms above your head for a period of time.

You will most likely be able to resume your usual diet, unless your physician instructs you differently.

It will be important to keep the insertion site clean and dry. Your physician will give you specific bathing instructions.

Your physician will give you specific instructions about driving. If you had an ICD, you will not be able to drive until your physician gives you approval. Your physician will explain these limitations to you, if they are applicable to your situation.

You will be given specific instructions about what to do if your ICD discharges a shock. For example, you may be instructed to dial 911 or go to the nearest emergency room in the event of a shock from the ICD.


Notify your physician to report any of the following:

  • fever and/or chills
  • chest pain/pressure, nausea and/or vomiting, profuse sweating, dizziness and/or fainting
  • palpitations


Pacemaker/ICD precautions

The following precautions should always be considered. Discuss the following in detail with your physician, or call the company that made your device:

  • Always carry an ID card that states you are wearing a pacemaker or an ICD. In addition, you should wear a medical identification bracelet that states you have a pacemaker or ICD.
  • Use caution when going through airport security detectors. Check with your physician about the safety of going through such detectors with your type of pacemaker. In particular, you may need to avoid being screened by hand-held detector devices, as these devices may affect your pacemaker.
  • Turn off large motors, such as cars or boats, when working on them (they may temporarily €œconfuse” your device).
  • If you are having a surgical procedure performed by a surgeon or dentist, tell your surgeon or dentist that you have a pacemaker or ICD, so that electrocautery will not be used to control bleeding (the electrocautery device can change the pacemaker settings).
  • When involved in a physical, recreational, or sporting activity, you should avoid receiving a blow to the skin over the pacemaker or ICD. A blow to the chest near the pacemaker or ICD can affect its functioning. If you do receive a blow to that area, see your physician.



In Summary: Who Needs a Pacemaker?

Doctors recommend pacemakers for many reasons. The most common reasons are bradycardia and heart block.

Bradycardia is a heartbeat that is slower than normal. Heart block is a disorder that occurs if an electrical signal is slowed or disrupted as it moves through the heart.

Heart block can happen as a result of aging, damage to the heart from a heart attack, or other conditions that disrupt the heart’s electrical activity. Some nerve and muscle disorders also can cause heart block, including muscular dystrophy.

Your doctor also may recommend a pacemaker if:

  • Aging or heart disease damages your sinus node’s ability to set the correct pace for your heartbeat. Such damage can cause slower than normal heartbeats or long pauses between heartbeats. The damage also can cause your heart to switch between slow and fast rhythms. This condition is called sick sinus syndrome.
  • You’ve had a medical procedure to treat an arrhythmia called atrial fibrillation. A pacemaker can help regulate your heartbeat after the procedure.
  • You need to take certain heart medicines, such as beta blockers. These medicines can slow your heartbeat too much.
  • You faint or have other symptoms of a slow heartbeat. For example, this may happen if the main artery in your neck that supplies your brain with blood is sensitive to pressure. Just quickly turning your neck can cause your heart to beat slower than normal. As a result, your brain might not get enough blood flow, causing you to feel faint or collapse.
  • You have heart muscle problems that cause electrical signals to travel too slowly through your heart muscle. Your pacemaker may provide cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) for this problem. CRT devices coordinate electrical signaling between the heart’s lower chambers.
  • You have long QT syndrome, which puts you at risk for dangerous arrhythmias.

Doctors also may recommend pacemakers for people who have certain types ofcongenital heart disease or for people who have had heart transplants. Children, teens, and adults can use pacemakers.

Before recommending a pacemaker, your doctor will consider any arrhythmia symptoms you have, such as dizziness, unexplained fainting, or shortness of breath. He or she also will consider whether you have a history of heart disease, what medicines you’re currently taking, and the results of heart tests.

Diagnostic Tests

Many tests are used to detect arrhythmias. You may have one or more of the following tests.

EKG (Electrocardiogram)

An EKG is a simple, painless test that detects and records the heart’s electrical activity. The test shows how fast your heart is beating and its rhythm (steady or irregular).

An EKG also records the strength and timing of electrical signals as they pass through your heart. The test can help diagnose bradycardia and heart block (the most common reasons for needing a pacemaker).

A standard EKG only records the heartbeat for a few seconds. It won’t detect arrhythmias that don’t happen during the test.

To diagnose heart rhythm problems that come and go, your doctor may have you wear a portable EKG monitor. The two most common types of portable EKGs are Holter and event monitors.

Holter and Event Monitors

A Holter monitor records the heart’s electrical activity for a full 24- or 48-hour period. You wear one while you do your normal daily activities. This allows the monitor to record your heart for a longer time than a standard EKG.

An event monitor is similar to a Holter monitor. You wear an event monitor while doing your normal activities. However, an event monitor only records your heart’s electrical activity at certain times while you’re wearing it.

For many event monitors, you push a button to start the monitor when you feel symptoms. Other event monitors start automatically when they sense abnormal heart rhythms.

You can wear an event monitor for weeks or until symptoms occur.


Echocardiography (echo) uses sound waves to create a moving picture of your heart. The test shows the size and shape of your heart and how well your heart chambers and valves are working.

Echo also can show areas of poor blood flow to the heart, areas of heart muscle that aren’t contracting normally, and injury to the heart muscle caused by poor blood flow.

Electrophysiology Study

For this test, a thin, flexible wire is passed through a vein in your groin (upper thigh) or arm to your heart. The wire records the heart’s electrical signals.

Your doctor uses the wire to electrically stimulate your heart. This allows him or her to see how your heart’s electrical system responds. This test helps pinpoint where the heart’s electrical system is damaged.

Stress Test

Some heart problems are easier to diagnose when your heart is working hard and beating fast.

During stress testing, you exercise to make your heart work hard and beat fast while heart tests, such as an EKG or echo, are done. If you can’t exercise, you may be given medicine to raise your heart rate.



What Are the Risks of Pacemaker Surgery?

Pacemaker surgery generally is safe. If problems do occur, they may include:

  • Swelling, bleeding, bruising, or infection in the area where the pacemaker was placed
  • Blood vessel or nerve damage
  • A collapsed lung
  • A bad reaction to the medicine used during the procedure

Talk with your doctor about the benefits and risks of pacemaker surgery.

How Does a Pacemaker Work?

A pacemaker consists of a battery, a computerized generator, and wires with sensors at their tips. (The sensors are called electrodes.) The battery powers the generator, and both are surrounded by a thin metal box. The wires connect the generator to the heart.

A pacemaker helps monitor and control your heartbeat. The electrodes detect your heart’s electrical activity and send data through the wires to the computer in the generator.

If your heart rhythm is abnormal, the computer will direct the generator to send electrical pulses to your heart. The pulses travel through the wires to reach your heart.

Newer pacemakers can monitor your blood temperature, breathing, and other factors. They also can adjust your heart rate to changes in your activity.

The pacemaker’s computer also records your heart’s electrical activity and heart rhythm. Your doctor will use these recordings to adjust your pacemaker so it works better for you.

Your doctor can program the pacemaker’s computer with an external device. He or she doesn’t have to use needles or have direct contact with the pacemaker.

Pacemakers have one to three wires that are each placed in different chambers of the heart.

  • The wires in a single-chamber pacemaker usually carry pulses from the generator to the right ventricle (the lower right chamber of your heart).
  • The wires in a dual-chamber pacemaker carry pulses from the generator to the right atrium (the upper right chamber of your heart) and the right ventricle. The pulses help coordinate the timing of these two chambers’ contractions.
  • The wires in a biventricular pacemaker carry pulses from the generator to an atrium and both ventricles. The pulses help coordinate electrical signaling between the two ventricles. This type of pacemaker also is called a cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) device.

Cross-Section of a Chest With a Pacemaker

The image shows a cross-section of a chest with a pacemaker. Figure A shows the location and general size of a double-lead, or dual-chamber, pacemaker in the upper chest. The wires with electrodes are inserted into the heart's right atrium and ventricle through a vein in the upper chest. Figure B shows an electrode electrically stimulating the heart muscle. Figure C shows the location and general size of a single-lead, or single-chamber, pacemaker in the upper chest.


Types of Pacemaker Programming

The two main types of programming for pacemakers are

  • demand pacing and
  • rate-responsive pacing.

A demand pacemaker monitors your heart rhythm. It only sends electrical pulses to your heart if your heart is beating too slow or if it misses a beat.

A rate-responsive pacemaker will speed up or slow down your heart rate depending on how active you are. To do this, the device monitors your

  • sinus node rate,
  • breathing,
  • blood temperature, and
  • other factors to determine your activity level.

Your doctor will work with you to decide which type of pacemaker is best for you.



What To Expect During Pacemaker Surgery

Placing a pacemaker requires minor surgery. The surgery usually is done in a hospital or special heart treatment laboratory.

Before the surgery, an intravenous (IV) line will be inserted into one of your veins. You will receive medicine through the IV line to help you relax. The medicine also might make you sleepy.

Your doctor will numb the area where he or she will put the pacemaker so you don’t feel any pain. Your doctor also may give you antibiotics to prevent infection.

First, your doctor will insert a needle into a large vein, usually near the shoulder opposite your dominant hand. Your doctor will then use the needle to thread the pacemaker wires into the vein and to correctly place them in your heart.

An x-ray “movie” of the wires as they pass through your vein and into your heart will help your doctor place them. Once the wires are in place, your doctor will make a small cut into the skin of your chest or abdomen.

He or she will slip the pacemaker’s small metal box through the cut, place it just under your skin, and connect it to the wires that lead to your heart. The box contains the pacemaker’s battery and generator.

Once the pacemaker is in place, your doctor will test it to make sure it works properly. He or she will then sew up the cut. The entire surgery takes a few hours.



What To Expect After Pacemaker Surgery

Expect to stay in the hospital overnight so your health care team can check your heartbeat and make sure your pacemaker is working well. You’ll likely have to arrange for a ride to and from the hospital because your doctor may not want you to drive yourself.

For a few days to weeks after surgery, you may have pain, swelling, or tenderness in the area where your pacemaker was placed. The pain usually is mild; over-the-counter medicines often can relieve it. Talk to your doctor before taking any pain medicines.

Your doctor may ask you to avoid vigorous activities and heavy lifting for about a month after pacemaker surgery. Most people return to their normal activities within a few days of having the surgery.



How Will a Pacemaker Affect My Lifestyle?

Once you have a pacemaker, you have to avoid close or prolonged contact with electrical devices or devices that have strong magnetic fields. Devices that can interfere with a pacemaker include:

  • Cell phones and MP3 players (for example, iPods)
  • Household appliances, such as microwave ovens
  • High-tension wires
  • Metal detectors
  • Industrial welders
  • Electrical generators

These devices can disrupt the electrical signaling of your pacemaker and stop it from working properly. You may not be able to tell whether your pacemaker has been affected.

How likely a device is to disrupt your pacemaker depends on how long you’re exposed to it and how close it is to your pacemaker.

To be safe, some experts recommend not putting your cell phone or MP3 player in a shirt pocket over your pacemaker (if the devices are turned on).

You may want to hold your cell phone up to the ear that’s opposite the site where your pacemaker is implanted. If you strap your MP3 player to your arm while listening to it, put it on the arm that’s farther from your pacemaker.

You can still use household appliances, but avoid close and prolonged exposure, as it may interfere with your pacemaker.

You can walk through security system metal detectors at your normal pace. Security staff can check you with a metal detector wand as long as it isn’t held for too long over your pacemaker site. You should avoid sitting or standing close to a security system metal detector. Notify security staff if you have a pacemaker.

Also, stay at least 2 feet away from industrial welders and electrical generators.

Some medical procedures can disrupt your pacemaker. These procedures include:

  • Magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI
  • Shock-wave lithotripsy to get rid of kidney stones
  • Electrocauterization to stop bleeding during surgery

Let all of your doctors, dentists, and medical technicians know that you have a pacemaker. Your doctor can give you a card that states what kind of pacemaker you have. Carry this card in your wallet. You may want to wear a medical ID bracelet or necklace that states that you have a pacemaker.

Physical Activity

In most cases, having a pacemaker won’t limit you from doing sports and exercise, including strenuous activities.

You may need to avoid full-contact sports, such as football. Such contact could damage your pacemaker or shake loose the wires in your heart. Ask your doctor how much and what kinds of physical activity are safe for you.

Ongoing Care

Your doctor will want to check your pacemaker regularly (about every 3 months). Over time, a pacemaker can stop working properly because:

  • Its wires get dislodged or broken
  • Its battery gets weak or fails
  • Your heart disease progresses
  • Other devices have disrupted its electrical signaling

To check your pacemaker, your doctor may ask you to come in for an office visit several times a year. Some pacemaker functions can be checked remotely using a phone or the Internet.

Your doctor also may ask you to have an EKG (electrocardiogram) to check for changes in your heart’s electrical activity.

Battery Replacement

Pacemaker batteries last between 5 and 15 years (average 6 to 7 years), depending on how active the pacemaker is. Your doctor will replace the generator along with the battery before the battery starts to run down.

Replacing the generator and battery is less-involved surgery than the original surgery to implant the pacemaker. Your pacemaker wires also may need to be replaced eventually.

Your doctor can tell you whether your pacemaker or its wires need to be replaced when you see him or her for followup visits.



Clinical Trial on Pace Makers

clinical trials related to pacemakers, talk with your doctor. You also can visit the following Web sites to learn more about clinical research and to search for clinical trials:

For more information about clinical trials for children, visit the NHLBI’s Children and Clinical Studies Web page.



RESOUCES on PaceMakers

Links to Other Information About Pacemakers

NHLBI Resources

Non-NHLBI Resources

Clinical Trials



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Curator: Aviva Lev-Ari, PhD, RN

UPDATED on 6/13/2013

with a CASE of  Anti-Ro Antibodies and Reversible Atrioventricular Block

N Engl J Med 2013; 368:2335-2337 June 13, 2013 DOI: 10.1056/NEJMc1300484

As an Introduction to the Genetics of Conduction Disease, we selected the following article which represents the MOST comprehensive review of the Human Cardiac Conduction System presented to date:

Circulation.2011; 123: 904-915 doi: 10.1161/​CIRCULATIONAHA.110.942284

The Cardiac Conduction System

  1. David S. Park, MD, PhD;
  2. Glenn I. Fishman, MD

+Author Affiliations

  1. From the Leon H. Charney Division of Cardiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY.
  1. Correspondence to Glenn I. Fishman, MD, Leon H. Charney Division of Cardiology, New York University School of Medicine, 522 First Ave, Smilow 801, New York, NY 10016. E-mail glenn.fishman@med.nyu.edu

Key Words:

The human heart beats 2.5 billion times during a normal lifespan, a feat accomplished by cells of the cardiac conduction system (CCS). The functional components of the CCS can be broadly divided into the impulse-generating nodes and the impulse-propagating His-Purkinje system. Human diseases of the conduction system have been identified that alter impulse generation, impulse propagation, or both. CCS dysfunction is primarily due to acquired conditions such as myocardial ischemia/infarct, age-related degeneration, procedural complications, and drug toxicity. Inherited forms of CCS disease are rare, but each new mutation provides invaluable insight into the molecular mechanisms governing CCS development and function. Applying a multidisciplinary approach, which includes human genetic screening, biophysical analysis, and transgenic mouse technology, has yielded a broad array of gene families involved in maintaining normal CCS physiology (Figure 1). In this review, we discuss gene families that have been implicated in human CCS diseases of rhythm, conduction block, accessory conduction, and development (Table). We also investigate evolving therapeutic strategies that may serve as adjuvant or replacement therapy to current implantable pacemakers.

Figure 1.

View larger version:

Figure 1.

Cardiac conduction system cell. Genes identified in human cardiac conduction system disease are highlighted.


Genetic Basis of Conduction System Disease

Diseases of Automaticity

The human sinoatrial node (SAN) is a crescent-shaped, intramural structure with its head located subepicardially at the junction of the right atrium and the superior vena cava and its tail extending 10 to 20 mm along the crista terminalis.26 The SAN has complex 3-dimensional tissue architecture with central and peripheral components made up of distinct ion channel and gap junction expression profiles.27 Central and peripheral cells have different action potential characteristics and conduction properties (Figure 2).27Experimental and computational models have demonstrated that SAN heterogeneity is necessary to maintain normal automaticity and impulse conduction.28,,30

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Electrophysiological heterogeneity of the sinoatrial node (SAN). The central SAN, the site of dominant pacemaking, is electronically insulated from the hyperpolarizing atrial myocardium through the differential expression of connexins and ion channels. Peripheral SAN cells are electrophysiologically intermediate between central cells and atrial cardiomyocytes. SR indicates sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Pacemaker automaticity is due to spontaneous diastolic depolarization of phase 4, which depolarizes the membrane to threshold potential generating rhythmic action potentials. The current paradigm of SAN automaticity has been modeled as 2 clocks that function in concert, the “membrane voltage clock” and the “calcium clock.” The membrane voltage clock is produced by the net disequilibrium between the decay of outward potassium currents (IK) and the activation of inward currents that include, but are not limited to, background sodium-sensitive current (Ib Na), L- and T-type calcium currents (ICa,L,ICa,T), sustained inward (Ist) current, and hyperpolarization-activated current (If) (Figure 2).27,31,,33

The subsarcolemmal calcium clock contributes to SAN diastolic depolarization through the spontaneous, rhythmic release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) via the ryanodine type 2 receptor (RYR2).34 The local intracellular calcium (Cai) elevations drive the sodium-calcium exchange current (INCX) to substitute 1 intracellular Ca2+ for 3 extracellular Na+. The net gain in positive charge results in membrane depolarization.35The elevation of intracellular Ca2+ occurs in the latter third of diastolic depolarization and is sensitive to β-adrenergic stimulation.36

Human mutations affecting the voltage clock

  • (SCN5A and HCN4),

  • calcium clock (RYR2 and CASQ2), or both mechanisms

  • (ANKB) have been identified that negatively affect sinus node function.37,38

Diseases of Conduction BlockConduction block can occur at any level of the CCS and can manifest as sinoatrial exit block, atrioventricular block, infra-Hisian block, or bundle branch block. Impaired conduction can be caused by ion channel defects that alter action potential shape or by defective coupling between cardiomyocytes. Inherited defects in cardiac conduction have been linked to mutations in SCN5A and SCN1B (both affect phase 0) and KCNJ2 (affects phase 3 and 4). 

The cardiac sodium channel consists of the pore-forming α-subunit (encoded by SCN5A) and a modulatory β-subunit (encoded by SCN1B). The α-subunit contains a voltage sensor that allows for rapid activation in response to membrane depolarization. After depolarization, the sodium channel undergoes a period of inactivation, in which it is refractory to further impulses. SCN5A requires membrane repolarization to relieve the inactivated state. The inward rectifier potassium channel, Kir2.1, encoded by KCNJ2, maintains the resting membrane potential. Therefore, proper functioning of Nav1.5 and Kir2.1 is necessary for normal cardiac excitability.


Progressive cardiac conduction defect, or Lev-Lenègre disease, is characterized by age-related, fibrosclerotic degeneration of the His-Purkinje system.6 Impulse propagation through the proximal ventricular conduction system progressively declines, resulting in bundle branch blocks and eventually complete atrioventricular block. An inherited form of Lev-Lenègre disease is associated with loss of function mutations in SCN5A and can exist alone or as overlap syndromes with Brugada or long QT syndrome 3.6 Inherited progressive cardiac conduction defect is associated with a high risk of complete atrioventricular block and Stoke-Adams syncope without ventricular dysrhythmia.7 Schott et al8 identified a mutation in SCN5A that cosegregates with Lenègre disease in a large French family. Affected individuals had variable degrees of conduction block requiring pacemaker implantation in 4 family members because of syncope or complete heart block. Linkage analysis and candidate gene sequencing identified a T>C substitution at position +2 of the donor splice site of intron 22 (IVS22+2 T>C), which results in a mutant lacking the voltage-sensitive segment.8 Functional analysis demonstrated no transient inward sodium current in response to depolarization, consistent with a loss-of-function mutation.6


The majority of patients with Brugada and conduction disease do not have SCN5Amutations. Therefore, modifiers of Nav1.5 expression or function have become the target of candidate gene sequencing approaches. Watanabe et al9 identified SCN1B mutations in 3 families with conduction disease with or without Brugada syndrome. Coexpression of mutant β-subunits with Nav1.5 resulted in diminished sodium current.


Mutations in KCNJ2 have been found in a rare autosomal dominant condition called Andersen-Tawil syndrome, characterized by periodic paralysis, dysmorphic features, polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, and cardiac conduction disease.10,11 ECG evaluation of 96 patients with Andersen-Tawil syndrome from 33 unrelated kindreds revealed conduction defects at multiple levels from the atrioventricular node to the distal conduction system.55 Cardiomyocytes expressing a dominant-negative subunit of Kir2.1 exhibited a 95% reduction in IK1, resulting in significant action potential prolongation. Mouse models of Andersen-Tawil syndrome exhibited a slower heart rate and significant slowing of conduction.56,57

Diseases of Accessory Conduction

Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome is characterized by preexcitation of ventricular myocardium via an accessory pathway (bundle of Kent) that bypasses the normal slow conduction through the atrioventricular node. Ventricular preexcitation is common, with a disease prevalence of 1.5 to 3 per 1000 people.22,58 Histological evaluation of Kent bundles resected from human subjects displayed features of typical ventricular myocytes with expression of connexin 43 (Cx43).59 The expression of high-conductance gap junctions in bypass tracts enables them to preexcite ventricular myocardium, manifesting as a short PR and a slurred QRS complex, or “delta wave,” on the ECG. The vast majority of WPW cases are sporadic, and the underlying mechanism remains unknown; however, rare inherited forms have been reported. Vidaillet et al60 determined that 3.4% of probands with WPW had 1 or more first-degree relatives with accessory conduction.


A familial form of WPW with an autosomal dominant mode of transmission was identified in 2 families. Thirty-one affected individuals had evidence of preexcitation and cardiac hypertrophy. A missense mutation in PRKAG2 was identified that results in a constitutively active form of the γ2 regulatory subunit of AMP-activated protein kinase.22,23 Under normal conditions, AMP-activated protein kinase responds to energy-depleted states by increasing glucose uptake and promoting glycolysis. Transgenic mice expressing a heart-restricted, constitutively active mutant, PRKAG2N488I, recapitulated the human WPW phenotype of cardiac hypertrophy, preexcitation, and conduction defects. The predominant histological finding was ventricular myocyte engorgement with glycogen-laden vacuoles. The disruption of the annulus fibrosus by vacuolated ventricular myocytes resulted in the preexcitation phenotype.61 Using a mouse model of reversible glycogen-storage defect, Wolf et al62 demonstrated that the cardiomyopathy and CCS degeneration seen in PRKAG2N488I mice were reversible processes.


Lalani et al24 reported a novel WPW syndrome associated with microdeletion of the bone morphogenetic protein-2 (Bmp2) region within 20p12.3 that is characterized by variable cognitive deficits and dysmorphic features. The BMPs are members of the transforming growth factor-β superfamily and play a critical role in cardiac development. Mice with cardiac deletion of BMP receptor type Ia (Bmpr1a) were embryonic lethal before E18.5 because of abnormal development of trabecular and compact myocardium, interventricular septum, and endocardial cushion.63 More restricted deletion of Bmpr1a in the atrioventricular canal resulted in defective atrioventricular valve formation and maturation defects in the annulus fibrosus, resulting in preexcitation.64,65


Diseases of CCS Development

Congenital heart disease is the most common form of birth defect, affecting 1% to 2% of live births.66 Arrhythmias may result from defective CCS specification/patterning, malformation or displacement of the conduction system, altered hemodynamics, prolonged hypoxic states, or postoperative sequelae.67,68 Developmentally, the conduction system derives from myocardial precursor cells within the fetal heart.69,,71The process by which conduction cells are specified or recruited into a “conduction” versus “working myocyte” lineage is determined by the regional expression of transcription factors.69,,74 The main transcription factors identified in human CCS development are the T-box and homeobox factors.


Holt-Oram syndrome is an autosomal dominant condition characterized by preaxial radial ray limb deformities (defects of the radius, carpal bones, and/or thumbs) and cardiac septation defects. The septal defects are typically ostium secundum atrial septal defects, muscular ventricular septal defects, and atrioventricular canal defects. Patients with Holt-Oram syndrome manifest variable degrees of CCS dysfunction, such as sinus bradycardia and atrioventricular block, even in the absence of overt structural heart disease. In 1997, Basson et al18 screened 2 families with Holt-Oram syndrome and identified mutations in the T-box transcription factor, TBX5. The T-box transcription factors can function as transcriptional activators or repressors and are known to be critical regulators of cardiac specification and differentiation. Seven TBX family members are expressed in the developing heart, 3 of which (TBX1, TBX5, TBX20) have been linked to human congenital heart disease.75

Mice deficient in Tbx5 were embryonic lethal at E10.5 because of arrested development of the atria and left ventricle. Tbx5+/− mice recapitulated the upper limb and cardiac manifestations of human Holt-Oram syndrome, including the conduction abnormalities.72,76 Significant maturation defects in the atrioventricular canal and ventricular conduction system were present.76 Moskowitz et al76 demonstrated thatTbx5+/− mice have maturation failure of the atrioventricular canal manifesting as persistent atrioventricular rings around the tricuspid and mitral valves. Patterning defects were noted in the His bundle and bundle branches, including complete absence of right bundle branch formation in some cases. Expression of CCS-enriched markers, such as atrial natriuretic factor and Cx40, were found to be significantly downregulated, implicating TBX5 as a transcriptional activator of these genes. TBX5 and the homeobox transcription factor NKX2-5 were found to act synergistically in upregulating atrial natriuretic factor and Cx40 expression.76

Conduction Disease Associated With Neuromuscular Disorders

Neuromuscular disorders represent a diverse collection of diseases that commonly present with cardiac involvement. Mutations have been identified in genes involved in the cytoskeleton, nuclear envelope, and mitochondrial function. Cardiac involvement typically manifests as dilated or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, atrioventricular conduction defects, and atrial and ventricular dysrhythmias.82


Mutations affecting the nuclear envelope have been associated with significant CCS dysfunction. The inner membrane of the nuclear envelope is a highly organized structure, composed of integral membrane proteins and nuclear cytoskeletal proteins that function together in higher-order chromatin structure and transcriptional regulation. The lamins (A, B, and C) are an integral part of an intermediate filament network that imparts structural rigidity to the inner nuclear membrane. Emerin, a member of the nuclear lamina-associated protein family, putatively mediates anchoring of chromatin to the cytoskeleton. Mutations in emerin (EMD) or lamin A/C (LMNA) result in X-linked Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy and autosomal dominant Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy,20respectively. Individuals with Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy develop progressive skeletal muscle weakness in the first decade of life and cardiac involvement (dilated cardiomyopathy and atrioventricular block) in the second decade.82,83

Arimura et al84 engineered a mouse model of autosomal dominant Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy by knocking-in an Lmna missense mutation (H222P) previously identified from a family with typical autosomal dominant Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy. The mouse model faithfully recapitulated the human disease with LmnaH222P/H222P mice exhibiting locomotive defects, dilated cardiomyopathy, and CCS dysfunction. Telemetric evaluation of the mutant mice revealed PR prolongation and QRS complex widening. A similar CCS defect was seen in mice haploinsufficient in the Lmna gene. Lmna+/− mice exhibited sinus bradycardia with variable degrees of atrioventricular block. Histological evaluation of these mice revealed nuclear deformation and apoptosis in atrioventricular node cells.85 Another engineered mouse line expressing LmnaN195K, known to cause autosomal dominant dilated cardiomyopathy with conduction disease in humans,86 exhibited high-grade atrioventricular block and complete heart block. Biochemical evaluation revealed reduced expression and mislocalization of Cx40 and Cx43 in mutant atrial tissue.87 Desmin staining also revealed structural defects of the sarcomere and intercalated discs.87

Genome-wide expression profiling of Lmna H222P mouse hearts revealed significant increases in mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways.88Hyperactivation of MAPK pathways is associated with cardiomyopathy and CCS dysfunction. A significant increase of the activated forms of 2 MAPKs, JNK and ERK1/2, was noted in mutant hearts that predated the onset of overt or molecularly defined cardiomyopathy.88 Treatment of Lmna H222P mice with an inhibitor of ERK phosphorylation abrogated the increase in biomarkers of cardiomyopathy and restored ejection fraction to normal levels. These findings directly link MAPK hyperactivation to the cardiomyopathic phenotype in Lmna H222P mice.89

On the basis of the phenotypes of these mouse models, lamin A/C appears to maintain the functional integrity of the CCS in 2 ways: (1) protection of the nucleus against mechanical stress and (2) maintenance of proper chromatin organization to ensure accurate gene expression, such as in connexin expression and MAPK signaling pathways.83

Future Directions

Linkage analysis with positional cloning has been a highly effective means of identifying gene mutations within kindreds of monogenic disease. More than 1000 genes have been identified with this approach, including those in this review. With the sequencing of the human genome, the promise of identifying genetic causes of complex, multifactorial diseases is becoming more of a reality. One major step in this direction was the development of genome-wide association studies.94

The genome-wide association study is a test of association between a disease and genetic markers that span the entire genome. The technique relies on the fact that variance at one locus predicts with high probability variance of an adjacent locus because of linkage disequilibrium. In other words, there is nonrandom cosegregation of a series of genetic markers that are close together in the genome. This cluster of linked markers is known as a haplotype. The first study of haplotype structure within 4 populations (Yoruban, Northern/Western Europeans, Chinese, and Japanese) was published in Naturein 2005 by the International HapMap Consortium. Their work reported that individual genetic markers (single nucleotide polymorphisms) predict adjacent markers typically with a resolution of ≈30 000 bp. Considering that the human genome is ≈3×109 bp, they projected that <500 000 single nucleotide polymorphisms would be needed to survey the entire genome for all common genetic variants.94,95

Genome-wide association studies have now been used to identify genetic variants that influence ECG parameters in different populations. Intermediate parameters, such as heart rate or PR interval, were used as surrogate markers of disease for 2 reasons: (1) They have an association with cardiovascular morbidity and atrial fibrillation, and (2) they have tighter associations with gene variants than the actual disease. Holm et al96reported several genome-wide associations using a cutoff P value <1.6×10−9. One locus harboring MYH6 was associated with heart rate, 4 loci (TBX5SCN10ACAV1, andARHGAP24) were associated with PR interval, and 4 loci (TBX5SCN10A6p21, and10q21) were associated with QRS duration. They went on to test these associations with individuals manifesting different arrhythmias in an Icelandic and Norwegian population. Correlations were found between atrial fibrillation and TBX5 and CAV1 (P=4.0×10−5 andP=0.00032, respectively), between advanced atrioventricular block and TBX5 (P=0.0067), and between pacemaker implantation and SCN10A (P=0.0029).

Similar loci were identified by 2 additional independent genome-wide association studies in a European population and an Indian Asian population. Pfeufer et al97 reported 9 loci that were highly associated with PR interval (P<5×10−8) from a meta-analysis of the CHARGE Consortium with >28 000 European subjects. One locus had associations with 2 sodium channels (SCN10A and SCN5A), and 6 loci were near genes involved in cardiac development (CAV1-CAV2NKX2-5SOX5WNT11MEIS1and TBX5-TBX3). Of these,SCN10ASCN5ACAV1-CAV2NKX2-5, and SOX5 were found to be associated with atrial fibrillation. Chambers et al98 also reported the association between SCN10A and PR interval in 6543 Indian Asians. Physiological testing of Scn10a-deficient mice revealed shortened PR intervals in knockout mice with no significant difference in all other ECG and echocardiographic parameters.

The discovery of novel gene families associated with human conduction and arrhythmic diseases with the use of genome-wide association studies is well under way. Identification of SCN10A by 3 independent groups studying different populations confirms the fidelity of this approach. Further experiments confirming the significance of these associations will need to be performed. In addition to identifying novel gene targets, this technique will also aid in the discovery of new associations with noncoding regions in which new epigenetic modifiers and transcriptional/translational regulators, such as microRNAs, will be identified.

Therapeutic Strategies

The current standard of care for symptomatic bradycardia due to conduction system disease is the implantation of an electronic pacemaker. Despite their success, electronic pacemakers have limitations, which include lead complications, finite battery life, potential for infection, lack of autonomic responsiveness, and size restriction in younger patients. These limitations have spurred on the development of biological pacemakers, the premise of which is to restore pacemaking activity with the use of viral-based or stem cell–based gene delivery systems.99 The identification and characterization of genes involved in generating pacemaker currents have allowed biological pacemaker technology to become a reality.

The restoration of sinus pacing rates can be achieved by modulating inward and outward currents to establish or increase the slope of diastolic depolarization in cardiac tissue. Increasing inward currents and/or decreasing outward currents increase the slope of diastolic depolarization and therefore the pacing rate. Genes that have been investigated or are under current investigation include the following: (1) β2-adrenergic receptor,100,101(2) dominant-negative Kir2.1 mutants,102 (3) adenylate cyclase type VI (ACVI),103,104and (4) HCN channels.105 The β2-adrenergic receptor and adenylate cyclase type VI both increase cAMP levels, leading to activation of endogenous HCN channels and calcium clock mechanisms. Although initial animal models using the β2-adrenergic receptor showed promise with transient increases in heart rate, the potential for proarrhythmia and the inability of this approach to establish de novo pacemaker activity limited its efficacy.101

Another approach focused on modifying ionic currents that convert working myocardial cells, which have relatively stable diastolic potentials, into cells with phase 4 diastolic depolarization. It was postulated that atrial and ventricular myocytes have the potential for automaticity, but that hyperpolarizing currents, such as IK1, prevent diastolic depolarization by stabilizing the resting membrane potential. Miake et al102 confirmed this hypothesis when they demonstrated that adenoviral delivery of a dominant-negative Kir2.1 construct into the left ventricle of guinea pigs resulted in conversion of quiescent myocytes into pacemaker cells. Unfortunately, significant action potential prolongation limited the clinical utility of this treatment strategy.102

Rosen and colleagues105,106 demonstrated that automaticity could be induced in quiescent myocardium with the use of heterologous expression of HCN channels that produce the pacemaker current If. Qu and Plotnikov et al demonstrated that stable autonomous rhythms could be generated when adenovirus encoding HCN2 was injected into the left atrium105 or left bundle branch106 of a canine heart. To bypass the limitations of viral-based systems, such as host immune response, several groups reported the successful use of cell-based delivery systems. Plotnikov et al107 reported the successful implantation of human mesenchymal stem cells expressing HCN2 in the left ventricle of a canine model of atrioventricular block. Dogs maintained stable ectopic pacemaker activity for >6 weeks without the use of immunosuppression.107 Human mesenchymal stem cells electronically couple to host myocardium through gap junctions; therefore, conditions with significant gap junction remodeling may affect the efficacy of this method.

Although standalone biological pacemakers may be far into the future, adjuvant biological pacemakers may find real-world utility for current deficiencies of electronic pacemakers, such as limited battery life and device infections. For example, biological preparations used in conjunction with device therapy may be used to extend battery life, decreasing the frequency of generator changes. Transient injectable pacemakers may also function as bridge therapy after lead extraction of an infected device. The need for adjuvant biological pacemakers is clear, but continued refinement of gene- and cell-based delivery systems will be necessary to make this technology a reality.99


Although rare, inherited arrhythmias have become an invaluable tool in identifying the genetic determinants of CCS function. Each new mutation enhances our understanding and appreciation of the biochemical and structural complexity needed for cardiac impulse generation and propagation. This methodology is hampered, however, by the relative scarcity of inherited conditions affecting the CCS. The addition of genome-wide association studies has broadened this search for novel genes beyond rare familial afflictions to include common, multifactorial conditions. It is hoped that this exciting new frontier will bring to light the complex interplay of genes and genetic/epigenetic modifiers that influence the prevalence of common diseases. These genetic screens will ultimately yield a bevy of new gene targets for pharmaceutical or gene-based therapeutics of the future.

Sources of Funding

Studies in the Fishman laboratory are supported by National Institutes of Health grants HL64757, HL081336, and HL82727 and a New York State STEM award (to Dr Fishman) and a Heart Rhythm Foundation Fellowship (to Dr Park).

Genetics of Atrioventricular Conduction Disease in Humans.

Benson DW.


Division of Cardiology, ML7042, Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA. woody.benson@cchmc.org


Atrioventricular (AV) conduction disease (block) describes impairment of the electrical continuity between the atria and ventricles. Classification of AV block has utilized biophysical characteristics, usually the extent (first, second, or third degree) and site of block (above or below His bundle recording site). The genetic significance of this classification is unknown. In young patients, AV block may result from injury or be the major cardiac manifestation of neuromuscular disease. However, in some cases, AV block has unknown or idiopathic cause. In such cases, familial clustering has been noted and published pedigrees show autosomal dominant inheritance; associated heart disease is common (e.g., congenital heart malformation, cardiomyopathy). The latter finding is not surprising given the common origin of working myocytes and specialized conduction system elements. Using genetic models incorporating reduced penetrance (disease absence in some individuals with disease gene), variable expressivity (individuals with disease gene have different phenotypes), and genetic heterogeneity (similar phenotypes, different genetic cause), molecular genetic causes of AV block are being identified. Mutations identified in genes with diverse functions (transcription, excitability, and energy homeostasis) for the first time provide the means to assess risk and offer insight into the molecular basis of this important clinical condition previously defined only by biophysical characteristics.


Additional Studies on Genetic Congenital AV Block

1) 12738236
Na+ channel mutation leading to loss of function and non-progressive cardiac conduction defects.
BACKGROUND: We previously described a Dutch family in which congenital cardiac conduction disorder has clinically been identified. The ECG of the index patient showed a first-degree AV block associated with extensive ventricular conduction delay. Sequencing of the SCN5A locus coding for the human cardiac Na+ channel revealed a single nucleotide deletion at position 5280, resulting in a frame-shift in the sequence coding for the pore region of domain IV and a premature stop codon at the C-terminus. METHODS AND RESULTS: Wild type and mutant Na+ channel proteins were expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and in mammalian cells. Voltage clamp experiments demonstrated the presence of fast activating and inactivating inward currents in cells expressing the wild type channel alone or in combination with the beta1 subinut (SCN1B). In contrast, cells expressing the mutant channels did not show any activation of inward current with or without the beta1 subunit. Culturing transfected cells at 25 degrees C did not restore the Na+ channel activity of the mutant protein. Transient expression of WT and mutant Na+ channels in the form of GFP fusion proteins in COS-7 cells indicated protein expression in the cytosol. But in contrast to WT channels were not associated with the plasma membrane. CONCLUSIONS: The SCN5A/5280delG mutation results in the translation into non-function channel proteins that do not reach the plasma membrane. This could explain the cardiac conduction defects in patients carrying the mutation.
2) 12956334
The genetic origin of atrioventricular conduction disturbance in humans.
Atrioventricular (AV) conduction disturbance (block) describes impairment of the electrical continuity between the atria and ventricles. Clinical classification of AV block has utilized biophysical characteristics, usually the extent (1st, 2nd, 3rd degree) and site of block (above or below His bundle recording site). The genetic significance of this classification is not known. In some casesAV block occurrence is associated with intrauterine exposure to maternal antibody (anti-Ro, anti-La), and other cases are associated with injury (e.g. surgery). Based on familial clustering of idiopathic AV block, a genetic cause has also been suspected. Published pedigrees show autosomal dominant inheritance, and associated heart disease is common (e.g. congenital heart malformation, cardiomyopathy, etc.). The latter finding is not unexpected given the common origin of working myocytes and elements of the specialized conduction system. Using genetic models incorporating reduced penetrance (presence of disease genotype in absence of phenotype), variable expressivity (presence of a disease genotype with variable phenotypes) and genetic heterogeneity (similar phenotypes, different disease genotypes), molecular genetic causes of AV block are being identified. These findings are significant as they provide insight into the molecular basis of a clinical condition previously defined only by biophysical characteristics.
3) 15372490
Genetics of atrioventricular conduction disease in humans.


Anti-Ro Antibodies and Reversible Atrioventricular Block

N Engl J Med 2013; 368:2335-2337 June 13, 2013DOI: 10.1056/NEJMc1300484

To the Editor:

Transplacental transfer of anti-Ro antibodies is a well-known cause of conduction defects and permanent atrioventricular block in newborns.1 In adults, conduction disturbances related to these antibodies are rare.2

We report a case of a 26-year-old woman with no history of this condition who was admitted to the hospital through the emergency department after having several syncopal episodes. Electrocardiography (ECG) performed while the patient was at rest showed complete atrioventricular block and ventricular escape rhythm associated with left bundle-branch block (Figure 1AFIGURE 1Electrocardiographic Findings.). Laboratory evaluation included a positive test for antinuclear antibodies (with the HEp-2 cell substrate) at a titer of 1:320, with a speckled pattern and specificity for extractable nuclear antigens, including antibodies against Ro52 confirmed by means of immunoblot and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (first measurement of antibodies, 1.2 U per milliliter). No clinical manifestations of rheumatologic disease were present. Other causes of reversible atrioventricular block were ruled out. The patient had no history of cardiac surgery, ablation procedures, or drug use. There was no evidence of infiltrative diseases (e.g., sarcoidosis or amyloidosis) or myocardial ischemia, nor was there clinical suspicion of infectious diseases that cause conduction disturbances (e.g., Lyme disease or Chagas’ disease). Levels of electrolytes and thyrotropin were normal. Transthoracic echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging were unremarkable.

During the first 4 days after admission, the patient had varying degrees of atrioventricular block. An electrophysiological study showed a mildly prolonged HV interval of 62 msec during sinus rhythm (normal values, 35 to 55 msec) and a pathologic response to atrial pacing, with atrioventricular block occurring after the deflection of the bundle of His during continuous stimulation at a fixed cycle length of 490 msec (Figure 1B). Intravenous methylprednisolone was initiated at a dose of 1 mg per kilogram of body weight per day, and 1:1 atrioventricular conduction was subsequently maintained on surface ECG. A second electrophysiological study during treatment showed normal atrioventricular conduction.

Maintenance immunosuppressive therapy with azathioprine (at a dose of 100 mg daily) and methylprednisolone (at a dose of 4 mg daily) was initiated and continued for 12 months. Serial anti-Ro (SS-A) levels fluctuated during follow-up and became negative after 1 year. Because of the uncertainty of the outcome, a backup pacemaker was implanted. The patient remained completely asymptomatic for 12 months with sustained normal atrioventricular conduction.

In this case of atrioventricular block in an adult patient with positive anti-Ro antibodies, we used electrophysiological testing to localize the conduction defect below the atrioventricular node. This finding, together with left bundle-branch block detected on ECG, suggests specific involvement of the Purkinje fibers. The pathogenesis of cardiac conduction disturbances in adults with positive anti-Ro (SS-A) antibodies remains unclear.3 Experimental studies suggest that anti-Ro antibodies interact with calcium channels and cause reversible inhibition of calcium currents. In fetal hearts, the internalization of these channels leads to apoptosis and fibrosis of the conduction tissue. The presence of a fully developed sarcoplasmic reticulum and the apparent lack of antibody-induced apoptosis in adult cardiomyocytes may explain the differential susceptibility of adult hearts to anti-Ro antibodies2 and, conceivably, the reversibility of the conduction disease in such persons.

Irene Santos-Pardo, M.D.
Melania Martínez-Morillo, M.D.
Roger Villuendas, M.D.
Antoni Bayes-Genis, M.D., Ph.D.
Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain



Chameides L, Truex RC, Vetter V, Rashkind WJ, Galioto FM Jr, Noonan JA. Association of maternal systemic lupus erythematosus with congenital complete heart block. N Engl J Med 1977;297:1204-1207
Full Text | Web of Science | Medline

Lazzerini PE, Capecchi PL, Laghi-Pasini F. Anti-Ro/SSA antibodies and cardiac arrhythmias in the adult: facts and hypotheses. Scand J Immunol 2010;72:213-222
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline

Costedoat-Chalumeau N, Georgin-la-Vialle S, Amoura Z, Piette J-C. Anti-SSA/Ro and anti-SSB/La antibody-mediated congenital heart block. Lupus 2005;14:660-664
CrossRef | Web of Science | Medline



New Research on the Genetics of Conduction Disease

Heart failure clinics


conduction diseases (CD) include defects in impulse generation and conduction. Patients with CD may manifest a wide range of clinical presentations, from asymptomatic to potentially life-threatening arrhythmias. The pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying CD are diverse and may have implications for diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. Known causes of functional CD include cardiac ion channelopathies or defects in modifying proteins, such as cytoskeletal proteins. Progress in molecular biology and genetics along with development of animal models has increased the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of these disorders. This article discusses the genetic basis for CD and its clinical implications.
(Beinart et al. 2010)
Beinart R, Ruskin J, et al. (2010). The genetics of conduction disease. Heart Fail Clin 6 (2): 201-14.
PMID: 20347788  DOI: 10.1016/j.hfc.2009.11.006  PII: S1551-7136(09)00108-1
PLoS genetics


(Curran and Mohler 2012)
Curran J and Mohler PJ (2012). Defining the Pathways Underlying the Prolonged PR Interval in Atrioventricular Conduction Disease. PLoS Genet. 8 (12): e1003154.
PMID: 23236297  DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003154  PII: PGENETICS-D-12-02668
BMC medical genetics


BACKGROUND: Mutations in the gene encoding the nuclear membrane protein lamin A/C have been associated with at least 7 distinct diseases including autosomal dominant dilated cardiomyopathy withconduction system disease, autosomal dominant and recessive Emery Dreifuss Muscular Dystrophy, limb girdle muscular dystrophy type 1B, autosomal recessive type 2 Charcot Marie Tooth, mandibuloacral dysplasia, familial partial lipodystrophy and Hutchinson-Gilford progeria.METHODS: We used mutation detection to evaluate the lamin A/C gene in a 45 year-old woman with familial dilated cardiomyopathy and conduction system disease whose family has been well characterized for this phenotype 1.RESULTS: DNA from the proband was analyzed, and a novel 2 base-pair deletion c.908_909delCT in LMNA was identified.CONCLUSIONS: Mutations in the gene encoding lamin A/C can lead to significant cardiac conductionsystem disease that can be successfully treated with pacemakers and/or defibrillators. Genetic screening can help assess risk for arrhythmia and need for device implantation.
(MacLeod et al. 2003)
MacLeod HM, Culley MR, et al. (2003). Lamin A/C truncation in dilated cardiomyopathy with conduction disease. BMC Med. Genet. 4: 4.
PMID: 12854972  DOI: 10.1186/1471-2350-4-4
Heart (British Cardiac Society)


(MacRae 2012)
MacRae CA (2012). Pattern recognition: combining informatics and genetics to re-evaluate conduction disease. Heart 98 (17): 1263-4.
PMID: 22875820  DOI: 10.1136/heartjnl-2012-302408  PII: heartjnl-2012-302408


(Benson 2004) – ORIGINAL FIRST PAPER on the Subject
Benson DW (2004). Genetics of atrioventricular conduction disease in humans. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol 280 (2): 934-9.
PMID: 15372490  DOI: 10.1002/ar.a.20099
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Other related articles published on this Open Access Online Scientific Journal, include the following:


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Treatment for Infective Endocarditis

Curator: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FACP

UPDATED on 3/4/2019



Tricuspid Valve Reconstruction for Infective Endocarditis: Operative Highlights (Video)

There are no easy solutions for acute infective tricuspid valve endocarditis in IV drug users, as the risk of prosthetic endocarditis in this population is high. Complete valve resection without replacement is feasible but leads to progressive right-sided heart failure. Reconstruction of the tricuspid valve with autologous pericardium is an alternative option, as demonstrated in the video case study below.

A 29-year-old female drug abuser with fever, hemoptysis and MRSA bacteremia was started on IV antibiotics. She looked frail and had prominent jugular venous pressure as well as 95 percent saturation on 2 liters of nasal cannula oxygen. She was not on inotropes and had a pulmonary artery pressure of 40/20 mmHg with a good cardiac index. Chest CT showed a large left pleural effusion with associated atelectasis of the left lung. The right lung had manifestations of septic emboli and a smaller pleural effusion.

A Cleveland Clinic surgical team led by cardiothoracic surgeon Faisal Bakaeen, MD, proceeded to excise the patient’s extensive infected and devitalized tissue around the tricuspid valve, leaving only a portion of the anterior leaflet to serve as a reference for reconstruction using autologous pericardium. Dr. Bakaeen walks us through the essential surgical steps — and their underlying rationale — in the narrated operative video below.




An article that appeared in NEJM compares early surgery versus conventional treatment for infective endocarditis.
Early Surgery versus Conventional Treatment for Infective Endocarditis
Duk-Hyun Kang, Yong-Jin Kim, Sung-Han Kim, Byung Joo Sun, et al.

N Engl J Med June 28, 2012; 366:2466-2473. http://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1112843

Background and Purpose: While current guidelines advocate surgical management for complicated left-sided infective endocarditis and early surgery for patients with infective endocarditis and congestive heart failure, the indications for surgical intervention to prevent systemic embolism remain unclear. Surgery is favored by experience with complete excision of infected tissue and valve repair, and low operative mortality, but it does not remove concerns about residual active infection, which results in two sets of guidelines, the 2006 ACC-AHA for class IIa indication only for recurrent emboli and persistent vegetation, and the 2009 ESC guidelines for class IIb indication for very large, isolated vegetations. The Early Surgery versus Conventional Treatment in Infective Endocarditis (EASE) trial was conducted to determine whether early surgical intervention woulddecrease rate of death or embolic events.

Patient Enrollment: The study enrolled 76 consecutive patients, 18 years of age or older, with left-sided, native-valve infective endocarditis and a high risk of embolism. For all patients with suspected infective endocarditis, blood cultures were obtained and transthoracic echocardiography was performed within 24 hours after hospitalization. Patients were only eligible for enrollment if they had received a diagnosis of definite infective endocarditis and had severe mitral valve or aortic valve disease and vegetation with a diameter greater than 10 mm. Patients were excluded if they had moderate-to-severe congestive heart failure, infective endocarditis complicated by heart block, annular or aortic abscess, destructive penetrating lesions requiring urgent surgery, or fungal endocarditis, or were over 80 years age, or coexisting major embolic stroke with a risk of hemorrhagic transformation at the time of diagnosis, and a serious coexisting condition. Patients were also excluded if they had infective endocarditis involving a prosthetic valve, right-sided vegetations, or small vegetations (diameter, ≤10 mm) or had been referred from another hospital more than 7 days after the diagnosis of infective endocarditis.
The protocol specified that patients who were assigned to the early-surgery group should undergo surgery within 48 hours after randomization. Patients assigned to the conventional-treatment group were treated according to the AHA guidelines, and surgery was performed only if complications requiring urgent surgery developed during medical treatment or if symptoms persisted after the completion of antibiotic therapy. Details of the study procedures are provided in the Supplementary Appendix, available at NEJM.org.

Study End Points: The primary end point was a composite of in-hospital death or clinical embolic events that occurred within 6 weeks after randomization. An embolic event was defined as a systemic embolism fulfilling both prespecified criteria: the acute onset of clinical symptoms or signs of embolism and the occurrence of new lesions, as confirmed by follow-up imaging studies. Prespecified secondary end points, at 6 months of follow-up, included death from any cause, embolic events, recurrence of infective endocarditis, and repeat hospitalization due to the development of congestive heart failure.

Clinical and Echocardiographic Characteristics of the Patients at Baseline, According to Treatment Group:

The mean age of the patients was 47 years, and 67% were men. The mitral valve was involved in 45 patients, the aortic valve in 22, and both valves in 9. Severe mitral regurgitation was observed in 45 patients, severe aortic regurgitation in 23, severe aortic stenosis in 3, severe mitral regurgitation and stenosis in 1, and both severe mitral regurgitation and aortic regurgitation in 4. The median diameter of vegetation was 12 mm (interquartile range, 11 to 17). All patients met the Duke criteria for definite endocarditis; the most common pathogens in both groups were viridans streptococci (in 30% of all patients), other streptococci (in 30%), and Staphylococcus aureus (in 11%). Characteristics of Antibiotic Therapy, According to Treatment Group: There were no significant between-group differences in terms of control of the underlying infection, the antibiotic regimen used, or the duration of antibiotic therapy.

Surgical Procedures: All patients in the early-surgery group underwent valve surgery within 48 hours after randomization; the median time between randomization and surgery was 24 hours (interquartile range, 7 to 45). Of the 22 patients with involvement of the mitral valve, 8 patients underwent mitral-valve repair and 14 underwent mitral-valve replacement with a mechanical valve. Of the 15 patients with involvement of the aortic valve or both the mitral and aortic valves, 14 underwent mechanical-valve replacement and 1 underwent valve replacement with a biologic prosthesis. Concomitant coronary-artery bypass grafting at the time of valve surgery was performed in 2 patients (5%).

Conventional Therapy: Of the 39 patients assigned to the conventional-treatment group, 30 (77%) underwent surgery during the initial hospitalization (27 patients) or during follow-up (3). The surgical procedures included 11 mitral-valve repairs, 6 mitral-valve replacements (with 5 patients receiving a mechanical valve and 1 a biologic prosthesis), 11 aortic-valve replacements (with 9 patients receiving a mechanical valve and 2 a biologic prosthesis), and 2 combined aortic-valve replacements (with 1 patient receiving a mechanical valve and 1 a biologic prosthesis) and mitral-valve repairs. In 8 patients (21%), indications for urgent surgery developed during hospitalization (median time to surgery after randomization, 6.5 days [interquartile range, 6 to 10]). Elective surgery was performed in an additional 22 patients owing to symptoms or left ventricular dysfunction more than 2 weeks after randomization. Surgical results are shown in the Supplementary Appendix.

Primary End Point: The primary end point of in-hospital death or embolic events within the first 6 weeks after randomization occurred in one patient (3%) in the early-surgery group, as compared with nine (23%) in the conventional-treatment group (hazard ratio, 0.10; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.01 to 0.82; P=0.03). In the early-surgery group, one patient died in the hospital and no patients had embolic events; in the conventional-treatment group, one patient died in the hospital and eight patients had embolic events (Table 3TABLE 3).

At 6 weeks after randomization, the rate of embolism was 0% in the early-surgery group, as compared with 21% in the conventional-treatment group (P=0.005). No patient in either group had an embolic event or was hospitalized for congestive heart failure during follow-up. Recurrence of infective endocarditis within 6 months after discharge was not observed in any patient in the early-surgery group but was reported in 1 patient in the conventional-treatment group. Among the 11 patients (28%) in the conventional-treatment group who were treated medically and discharged without undergoing surgery, 1 (3%) died suddenly, 7 (18%) had symptoms related to severe valve disease or recurrence of infective endocarditis (3 of whom underwent surgery during follow-up), and 3 (8%) had no symptoms or embolic events (Table S3 in the Supplementary Appendix).
There was no significant difference between the early-surgery and conventional-treatment groups in all-cause mortality at 6 months (3% and 5%, respectively; hazard ratio, 0.51; 95% CI, 0.05 to 5.66; P=0.59) (Figure 2AFIGURE 2).
Kaplan–Meier Curves for the Cumulative Probabilities of Death and of the Composite End Point at 6 Months, According to Treatment Group.

At 6 months, the rate of the composite of death from any cause, embolic events, recurrence of infective endocarditis, or repeat hospitalization due to the development of congestive heart failure was 3% in the early-surgery group, as compared with 28% in the conventional-treatment group (hazard ratio, 0.08; 95% CI, 0.01 to 0.65; P=0.02). The estimated actuarial rate of end points was significantly lower in the early-surgery group than in the conventional-treatment group (P=0.009 by the log-rank test) (Figure 2B).

Conclusion: Early surgery performed within 48 hours after diagnosis reduced the composite primary end point of death from any cause or embolic events by effectively reducing the risk of systemic embolism. Moreover, these improvements in clinical outcomes were achieved without an increase in operative mortality or recurrence of infective endocarditis.

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Lp(a) Gene Variant Association

Reporter: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP

Lp(a) Gene Variant Associated With Aortic Stenosis

Reported by Lisa Nainggolan Feb 06, 2013; GThanassoulis et al. NEJM http://www.theheart.org/article/1503525.do

People carrying this single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) had a doubling of the risk of valve calcification on computer tomography (CT) compared with those without the variation. The same SNP has previously been identified as a risk factor for increased Lp(a) levels and coronary artery disease (CAD). Findings Could Reawaken Interest in Therapies Targeting Lp(a)

A Single Nucleotide Polymorphism is a change o...

A Single Nucleotide Polymorphism is a change of a nucleotide at a single base-pair location on DNA. Created using Inkscape v0.45.1. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)


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Personalized Medicine in NSCLC

Reviewer: Larry H Bernstein, MD, FCAP


Early in the 21st century, gefitinib, an epi­dermal growth factor receptor (EGFRtyrosine kinase inhibitor became available  for the treatment of non-small cell lung can­cer (NSCLC). Over 80% of selected patients

  • EGFR mutation-positive patients, respond to gefitinib treatment;
  • most patients develop acquired resistance to gefitinib within a few years.
Recently, many studies have been performed to determine precisely how to select patients who will respond to gefitinib, the best timing for its administration, and how to avoid the development of acquired resistance as well as adverse drug effects.
Lung cancers are classified according to their his­tological type. Because each variant has different bio­logical and clinical properties, including response to treatment, a precise classification is essential to pro­vide appropriate therapy for individual patients. Lung cancer consists of two broad categories—non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and small cell lung cancer (SCLC).

NSCLC  – 20%–40% RR to chemotherapy

  • ade­nocarcinoma (AC),  40%–50% ( most common form)
    • higher sensitivity to chemotherapy than SCC or LC
  • squamous cell carcinoma (SCC),  ∼30%
  •  large cell carcinoma (LCC). 10%
The majority of patients with SCLC are diagnosed with
  • advanced cancer with distant metastasis
  • high sensitivity to chemotherapy.
  • response rate (RR) for SCLC is reportedly 60%–80%
  • complete remission is observed in only 15%–20% of patients
The Potential of Personalized Medicine in Advanced NSCLC
Personalized medicine—
  • matching a patient’s unique molecular profile with an appropriate targeted therapy—
  • is transforming the diagnosis and treatment of non–small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

Through molecular diagnostics, tumor cells may be differentiated based on the presence or absence of

  • receptor proteins,
  • driver mutations, or
  • oncogenic fusion/rearrangements.

The convergence of advancing research in drug development and genetic sequencing has permitted the development of therapies specifically targeted to certain biomarkers, which may offer a differential clinical benefit.

Putting personalized medicine in NSCLC into practice
With the data on the prognostic and predictive biomarkers EGFR and ALK, biomarker testing is increasingly important in therapy decisions in NSCLC.1,2
Biomarker Testing in Advanced NSCLC: Evolution in Pathology Clinical Practice
Multidisciplinary Approaches in the Changing Landscape of Advanced NSCLC
Oncology Perspectives on Biomarker Testing

1. National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN). NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology™: Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer. Version 2.2012.
http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/PDF/nscl.pdf.                   August 6, 2012.
2. Gazdar AF. Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibition in lung cancer: the evolving role of individualized therapy. Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2010;29(1):37-48.

Over the last decade, a growing number of biomarkers have been identified in NSCLC.3,4 To date, 2 of these molecular markers have been shown to have both prognostic and predictive value in patients with advanced NSCLC: epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations and anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) rearrangements.5-8 Testing for these biomarkers may provide physicians with more information on which to base treatment decisions, and reflex testing may permit consideration of appropriate therapy from the outset of treatment.2,9,10

Lovly CM, Carbone DP. Lung cancer in 2010: one size does not fit all. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2011;8(2):68-70.
Dacic S. Molecular diagnostics of lung carcinomas. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2011;135(5):622-629.
Quest Diagnostics. Lung Cancer Mutation Panel (EGFR, KRAS, ALK).                       Sept 17, 2012

Rosell R, Gervais R, Vergnenegre A, et al. Erlotinib versus chemotherapy (CT) in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients (p) with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations: interim results of the European Erlotinib Versus Chemotherapy (EURTAC) phase III randomized trial. Presented at: 2011 American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) Annual Meeting, J Clin Oncol. 2011;29(suppl). Abstract 7503.                        Aug 6, 2012.                    http://www.asco.org/ASCOv2/Meetings/Abstracts?&vmview=abst_detail_view&confID=102&abstractID=78285.
Kwak EL, Bang YJ, Camidge DR, et al. Anaplastic lymphoma kinase inhibition in non–small-cell lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(18):1693-1703.
http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/PDF/nscl.pdf.                        Aug 6, 2012
College of American Pathologists (CAP)/International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer (IASLC)/Association for Molecular Pathology (AMP) expert panel. Lung cancer biomarkers guideline draft recommendations. http://capstaging.cap.org/apps/docs/membership/transformation/new/lung_public_comment_supporting_materials.pdf.      Aug 6, 2012.

 Background Studies
In 2002, gefitinib (ZD1839; AstraZeneca) , the first epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor, became available as an innovative molecular-targeted drug for the treatment of unresectable NSCLC. Initially, many NSCLC patients were expected to respond to gefitinib because many solid tumors, including NSCLC, are known to overexpress EGFR, which has a role in tumor pro­liferation and is used as a biomarker to predict poor prognosis. Gefitinib was shown to have a dra­matic effect on a limited number of patients; but  it was ineffective in 70%–80% of patients with NSCLC. There have been reports of death caused by interstitial pneumonia (IP), one of the critical adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with gefitinib use. Therefore, there is a need for  predicting the effects of gefitinib, and criteria for select­ing patients who could be treated with gefitinib.
 In 2004, Lynch et al. and Paez et al. each pub­lished, on the same day, sensational reports in the New England Journal of Medicine and Science, identifying somatic mutations in the tyrosine kinase domain of the EGFR gene in patients with gefitinib-sensitive lung cancer, as compared with none of the patients who had no response. Therefore, screening for EGFR mutations in lung cancer showed potential for identifying patients who would respond to gefi­tinib therapy. It then was found that patients with EGFR mutations in the area of the gene cod­ing for the ATP-binding pocket of the tyrosine kinase domain responded to gefitinib. Consequently, the EGFR genotyping has been used to select patients who will respond to gefitinib. Other genetic mutations have also been reported as indicators of the response or resistance to gefitinib; for example, mutations of the KRAS gene are associated with primary resistance to gefitinib. Thus, screening of EGFR and KRAS is used to
  • predict the effects of gefi­tinib and
  • to select patients who will respond to gefitinib in the clinical setting.
Until now, the effects of gefitinib have been predicted only by genotyping factors, such as EGFR and KRAS mutations. However, Nakamura et al showed a relationship between the blood concentration of gefitinib and its clinical effects. In their study of 23 NSCLC patients with EGFR mutations, the ratio of the gefitinib concentration on day 8 to that on day 3 after the first administration of gefitinib (C8/C3) correlated with the progression-free survival (PFS) period. Patients with a higher C8/C3 ratio had a significantly lon­ger PFS (P = 0.0158, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.237–0.862), which  suggests the importance of the PK of gefitinib on its clinical outcome.   Chmielecki et al. concurrently reported that maintain­ing a high concentration of erlotinib, another EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKIs) with the same mechanism of action as gefitinib, could
  1. delay the establishment of drug-resistant tumor cells and
  2. decrease the proliferation rate of drug-resistant cells compared to
    • treatment using a lower concentration of erlotinib.
Pharmacogenetic profile
Initially, gefitinib was expected to induce a response in patients with tumors that overexpressed EGFR because it exerts its antineoplastic effects by com­petitively inhibiting the binding of ATP to the ATP-binding site of EGFR.  A number of studies contradict this hypothesis:
(1) while approxi­mately 40%–80% of NSCLC overexpress EGFR, only 10%–20% of NSCLC patients respond to gefi­tinib;5,6 and
(2) while EGFR overexpression is known to be more common in SCC than AC, gefitinib shows a higher antineoplastic effect on AC than on SCC, while other reports indicated no correlation between the expression levels of EGFR and clinical outcomes.
In 2004, somatic mutations were identified in the EGFR tyrosine kinase domain of patients with gefitinib-responsive lung cancer, as compared with no mutations in patients exhibiting no response, and the presence of an EGFR mutation was highly correlated with a good response to gefitinib.The conformational change of the EGFR ATP-binding site caused by genetic mutations constitutively acti­vates the EGFR downstream signaling pathway and increases the malignancy of cancer. Conversely, the conformational change of the ATP-binding site can also increase its affinity for gefitinib; therefore, gefi­tinib can inhibit the downstream signaling pathway more easily, strongly induces apoptosis, and reduces the proliferation of cancer cells.
Mutations in exons 18–21 of EGFR are predictive factors for the clinical efficacy of gefitinib;
  • deletions in exon 19 and missense mutations in exon 21 account for ∼90% of these mutations.

The detection of EGFR muta­tions in exons 19 and 21 is considered to be essential to predict the clinical efficacy of gefitinib.
Acquired resistance
All responders eventually develop resistance to gefitinib but in 2005, an EGFR mutation in exon 20, which substitutes methionine for threonine at amino acid position 790 (T790M), was reported to be one of the main causes of acquired resistance to gefitinib. The EGFR T790M vari­ant

  1. changes the structural conformation of the ATP-binding site, thereby
  2. increasing the affinity of ATP to EGFR, while
  3. the affinity of gefitinib to ATP is unchanged.

Screening methods for EGFR and KRAS mutations
The detection of EGFR and KRAS mutations has been usually achieved by sequencing DNA amplified from tumor tissues; however, sequencing techniques are too complex, time-consuming, and expensive.  The selection of an appropri­ate method to detect EGFR and KRAS mutations is essential to make an exact prediction of the efficacy of gefitinib in individual patients. Advances in diagnostics and treatments for NSCLC have led to better outcomes and higher standards of what outcomes are expected. These new understandings and treatments have raised multiple new questions and issues with regard to the decisions on the appropriate treatment of NSCLC patients.

  • Biomarkers are increasingly recognized and applied for guidance in diagnosis, prognosis and treatment decisions and evaluation.
  • Biologics and newer cancer treatments are enabling the possibility for new combined treatment modalities in earlier stage disease
  • Maintenance therapy has been shown to be useful, but optimal therapy choices before and after maintenance therapy need clarification
  • The importance of performance status on treatment decisions
  • Comparative effectiveness is becoming an expectation across all treatments and diseases, and will prove difficult to accomplish within the complexity of cancer diseases
NCCN Molecular Testing White Paper: Effectiveness, Efficiency, and Reimbursement
PF Engstrom, MG Bloom,GD Demetri, PG Febbo, et al.
Personalized medicine in oncology is maturing and evolving rapidly, and the use of molecular biomarkers in clinical decisionmaking is growing. This raises important issues regarding the safe, effective, and efficient deployment of molecular tests to guide appropriate care, specifically regarding laboratory-developed tests and companion diagnostics. In May 2011, NCCN assembled a work group composed of thought leaders from NCCN Member Institutions and other organizations to identify challenges and provide guidance regarding molecular testing in oncology and its corresponding utility. The NCCN Molecular Testing Work Group identified
challenges surrounding molecular testing, including health care provider knowledge, determining clinical utility, coding and billing for molecular tests, maintaining clinical and analytic validity of molecular tests, efficient use of specimens, and building clinical evidence. (JNCCN 2011;9[Suppl 6]:S1–S16)
Executive Summary
The FDA recently announced plans for oversight of laboratory-developed tests (LDTs) and released draft guidance regarding the development of companion diagnostics concurrently with therapeutics, both areas over which the FDA has regulatory authority. As recognized by the FDA, these types of diagnostic tests are used increasingly to directly inform treatment decisions, and this especially impacts patients with cancer and their oncologists. However, because of the increasing complexity of some LDTs and increasing commercial interest in oncology-related LDTs in general, the FDA is considering whether its policy of exercising “enforcement discretion”

for LDTs is still appropriate. To provide guidance regarding challenges of molecular testing to health care providers and other stakeholders, NCCN assembled a work group composed of thought leaders from NCCN Member Institutions and other organizations external to NCCN.  The NCCN Molecular Testing Work Group agreed to define molecular testing in oncology as

  • procedures designed to detect somatic or germline mutations in DNA and
  • changes in gene or protein expression that could impact the
    • diagnosis,
    • prognosis,
    • prediction, and
    • evaluation of therapy of patients with cancer.
Therefore, the discussion focused on molecular tests that predict outcomes for therapy.
Realizing the importance of personalized medicine in advanced NSCLC
E Topol, B Buehler, GS Ginsburg.       Medscape Molec Medicine
Lung Cancer in the Never Smoker Population: An Expert Interview With Dr. Nasser Hanna

Lung cancer in the never smoker population is a distinct disease entity with specific molecular changes, offering the potential for targeted therapy.
Experts And Viewpoint, Medscape Hematology-Oncology, December 2007

An Update on New and Emerging Therapies for NSCLC
Simon L. Ekman, MD, PhD; Fred R. Hirsch, MD, PhD
On completion of these readings participants will be thoroughly familiar with these issues:
  1. The influence of histologic types and genetic and molecular markers on choosing and personalizing therapy in patients with advanced NSCLC
  2. The role of the pathologist in properly classifying subtypes of NSCLC and reporting the presence of molecular markers in tumor samples
  3. Familiarize themselves with effective methods of obtaining adequate tissue samples from patients and recognize the importance of accurate pathologic assessment of NSCLC
The rapid developments in molecular biology have opened up new possibilities for individualized treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), and, in recent years, has mainly focused on the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). A greater understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind
  • tumorigenesis and
  • the identification of new therapeutic targets
    • have sparked the development of novel agents
    • intended to improve the standard chemotherapy regimens for NSCLC.
Along with the advent of targeted therapy, identifying biomarkers to predict the subset of patients more likely to benefit from a specific targeted intervention has become increasingly important.
tumor-associated mutations in the tyrosine kinase domain of EGFR have been associated with response to EGFR TKIs
The most common EGFR-sensitizing mutations encompass deletions in exon 19 and a point mutation at L858R in exon 21; together,
  • they account for approximately 85% of EGFR mutations in NSCLC.
  • Other EGFR mutations have been detected, particularly in exon 20.
    •  mutations identified in exon 20 have been linked to resistance to EGFR TKIsNon-Small Cell Lung Cancer: Biologic and Therapeutic Considerations for Personalized Management
      Taofeek K. Owonikoko, MD, PhD
What is the role and application of molecular profiling in the management of NSCLC?
It is essential to:
  1. Identify advances in the understanding of molecular biology and histologic profiling in the treatment of NSCLC
  2. Summarize clinical data supporting the use of tumor biomarkers as predictors of therapeutic efficacy of targeted agents in NSCLC
  3. Devise an individualized treatment plan for patients with advanced NSCLC based on a tumor’s molecular profile
  4. Identify methods for overcoming barriers to effective incorporation of molecular profiling for the management of NSCLC into clinical practice
Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC),the most common type of lung cancer, usually grows and spreads more slowly than small cell lung cancer.
The three common forms of NSCLC are:
  1. Adenocarcinomas are often found in an outer area of the lung.
  2. Squamous cell carcinomas are usually found in the center of the lung next to an air tube (bronchus).
  3. Large cell carcinomas occur in any part of the lung and tend to grow and spread faster than the other two types
Smoking causes most cases of lung cancer. The risk depends on the number of cigarettes you smoke every day and for how long you have smoked. Some people who do not smoke and have never smoked develop lung cancer.
Working with or near the following cancer-causing chemicals or materials can also increase your risk:
  • Asbestos
  • Certain alloys, paints, pigments, and preservatives
  • Products using chloride and formaldehyde
Non-small cell lung c

(NSCLC) accounts for
  • approximately 85% of all lung cancers.
Lung cancer  may produce no symptoms until the disease is well advanced, so early recognition of symptoms may be beneficial to outcome.
At initial diagnosis,
  • 20% of patients have localized disease,
  • 25% of patients have regional metastasis, and
  • 55% of patients have distant spread of disease.
Revisiting Doublet Maintenance Chemo in Advanced NSCLC 
H. Jack West, MD
  • Pemetrexed Versus Pemetrexed and Carboplatin as Second-Line Chemotherapy In Advanced Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer
Ardizzoni A, Tiseo M, Boni L, et al
J Clin Oncol. 2102;30:4501-4507
Historically, our second-line therapy has evolved into a strategy of pursuing single-agent therapies for patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) who have received prior chemotherapy. This approach was developed on the basis of benefits conferred by such established treatments as docetaxel, pemetrexed, and erlotinib — each well-tested as single agents — and evidence indicating a survival benefit in previously treated patients.
A study out of Italy by Ardizzoni and colleagues published in the Journal of Clinical Oncology directly compares carboplatin/pemetrexed with pemetrexed alone, and
  • it provides more evidence that our current approach of sequential singlet therapy remains appropriate.
This randomized phase 2 trial enrolled 239 patients with advanced NSCLC, initially of any histology, then later amended (September 2008) to enroll
  • only patients with non-squamous NSCLC because of mounting evidence that pemetrexed is not active in patients with the squamous subtype of advanced NSCLC.
Patients must have received prior chemotherapy (without restriction on regimen except that it could not include pemetrexed). Participants were randomly assigned 1:1 to receive pemetrexed at the standard dose of 500 mg/m2 IV every 21 days or the same chemotherapy with carboplatin at an area under the curve of 5, also IV every 21 days.
The primary endpoint for the trial was progression-free survival (PFS), and the trial was intended to have results pooled with a nearly identically designed trial that was done in The Netherlands. The Dutch trial compared pemetrexed with carboplatin/pemetrexed at the same dose and schedule. The vast majority of patients (97.5%) had a performance status of 0 or 1, and the median age was 64 years.
The Italian study found no evidence to support a benefit in efficacy from the more aggressive doublet regimen. Specifically,
  • median PFS was 3.6 months with pemetrexed alone vs 3.5 months with carboplatin/pemetrexed.
  • Response rate (RR) and median overall survival (OS) were also no better with the doublet regimen
      • RR 12.6% vs 12.5%, median OS 9.2 vs 8.8 months, for pemetrexed and carboplatin/pemetrexed.

Moreover, pooling the data from the Italian trial with the Dutch trial demonstrated no significant differences between the 2 strategies. Subgroup analysis showed that

  • the patients with squamous NSCLC had a superior median PFS of 3.2 months with the carboplatin doublet vs 2.0 months with pemetrexed alone.

Unfortunately, this only confirms that adding a second agent is beneficial for patients receiving an agent previously shown to be ineffective in that population.

Putting it in the context of previous data, these results only provide further confirmation that more is not better.
  • combinations are associated with more toxicity than single-agent therapy, and
  • this is likely to be especially relevant in previously treated patients whose ability to tolerate ongoing therapy over time may be reduced.

It is critical to balance efficacy with tolerability to enable us to deliver the treatment over a prolonged period. We need to recognize the importance of pacing ourselves if our goal is to administer treatments in a palliative setting for an increasingly longer duration.

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signal...

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling pathway. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

EGFR structure

EGFR structure (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

ATP synthase

ATP synthase (Photo credit: Ethan Hein)

Non-small cell carcinoma - FNA

Non-small cell carcinoma – FNA (Photo credit: Pulmonary Pathology)

Articles on NSCLC in Pharmaceutical Intelligence:
Key Sources:
  1. Realizing the importance of personalized medicine in advanced NSCLC
    E Topol, B Buehler, GS Ginsburg. 

    Medscape Molec Medicine The Potential of Personalized Medicine in Advanced NSCLC

  2. Revisiting Doublet Maintenance Chemo in Advanced NSCLC
    H. Jack West, MD     http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/777367
    Ardizzoni A, Tiseo M, Boni L, et al
    J Clin Oncol. 2102;30:4501-4507
  3. Lung Cancer in the Never Smoker Population: An Expert Interview With Dr. Nasser Hanna
    Experts And Viewpoint, Medscape Hematology-Oncology, December 2007
  4. Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: Biologic and Therapeutic Considerations for Personalized Management
    Taofeek K. Owonikoko, MD, PhD   August 24, 2011.   Medscape
  5. An Update on New and Emerging Therapies for NSCLC

  8. Herbst RS, Heymach JV, Lippman SM. Lung cancer. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(13):1367-1380.

    Cancer Metastasis Rev. 2010;29:37-48.

  10. NCCN Oncology Insights Report on Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer 1.2010
  11.   Review of the Treatment of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer with Gefitinib
    T Araki, H Yashima, K Shimizu, T Aomori
    Clinical Medicine Insights: Oncology 2012:6 407–421  http://dx.doi.org/10.4137/CMO.S7340


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