You are on page 1of 128

Stephen Priest Page 1



An Essay in Philosophical Theology

Stephen Priest

Stephen Priest is a member of the Faculty of Philosophy in the
University of Oxford. He is Senior Research Fellow of Blackfriars
Hall, Oxford and a member of Wolfson College, Oxford and Hughes
Hall, Cambridge. Stephen Priest is the author of The British
Empiricists Penguin and Routledge), Theories of the Mind (Penguin
and Houghton Mifflin), Merleau-Ponty (Routledge) and The Subject
in Question (Routledge). He is editor of Hegels Critique of Kant
(Oxford University Press), Jean-Paul Sartre: Basic Writings
(Routledge) and co-editor (with Antony Flew) of A Dictionary of
Philosophy (Macmillan). He has lectured widely in the United States
and Europe and his writing has been translated into Spanish, Russian,
Japanese, Korean and Macedonian.

A dunce once searched for a fire with a lighted lantern.

Joshu Washes the Bowl, The Gateless Gate No. 7
Zen Flesh, Zen Bones
Compiled by Paul Reps. Translated by Paul Reps and Nyogen Senzaki
p. 176

Nietzsche and Zen


This book is a philosophical examination of the work of the nineteenth century
German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche and the Chinese and Japanese philosophy of
life, Zen. Although both philosophies appear radically anti-metaphysical, I argue that
they tacitly presuppose the metaphysics and theology they disparage or putatively
Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists make some strikingly similar claims about life,
death, suffering, illusion and reality, life after death, and the possible transformation
of what it is to be human. A central conclusion that I argue for is that Nietzsche's
bermensch is an enlightened being. The life of that 'superman' who is more
quintessimally human than the average human being is similar in philosophically
important respects to that of the the Zen monk who has undergone the transformation
in being called Satori or 'Enlightenment'. These affinities show that Nietzsche's
philosophy is, or essentially contains, Zen. However, my aim is not comparative
History of Ideas but the philosophical appraisal of Nietzsche's philosophy and Zen.
I first sat, or learned the meditative practice of letting-be that is zazen, over
thirty years ago. My interest in Nietzsche was caused by lectures delivered by
Michael Tanner and Bernard Williams in the University of Cambridge. I am grateful
to Keith Ansell-Pearson, Daniel Came, Richard Fitch, Benedikt Goecke, Michael
Inwood, Grahame Locke and Alexander Norman for useful discussion. I thank
Professor Hitoshi Nagai and his research student Shogo Shimizu, both of Chui
University, Japan, for visiting me in Oxford and for such a worthwhile exhange of

Stephen Priest Oxford
Michaelmas 2007





Who is Nietzsche? 5
What is Zen? 7


Facing Death 10
The End of Suffering 23
Is There Any Point in it All? 33


Perspectivism 37
Eating the Menu 40
What is What is? 44


Sense and Spirit 49
Pain and the Self 50
Do I Exist? 62


The Eternal Sandglass 64
Buddahood and Time 72
What Changes? 77


Freedom 84
Language and its Limits 87
Is God Dead? 105

Bibliography 107



BGE: Beyond Good and Evil. trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Random House,
The Birth of Tragedy. trans. Walter Kaufmann, in The Birth of Tragedy and The Case
of Wagner. New York: Random House, 1967
CW: Friedrich Nietzsche The Case of Wagner. trans. Walter Kaufmann, in The Birth
D: Friedrich Nietzsche Daybreak: Thoughts on the Prejudices of Morality. trans. R.
J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982
GM: Friedrich Nietzsche The Genealogy of Morals Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
HATH: Friedrich Nietzsche Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits. trans.
R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986
GS: Friedrich Nietzsche The Gay Science, with a Prelude of Rhymes and an
Appendix of Songs. tr. WalterKaufmann. New York: Random House, 1974
W: The Will to Power. trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Random House, 1967
Z: Friedrich Nietzsche Thus Spoke Zarathustra. trans. Walter Kaufmann, in The
Portable Nietzsche. New York: Viking Press, 1968

WD Kapleau, Philip, and Paterson Simons, eds. The Wheel of Death: A Collection of
Writings from Zen Buddhist and Other Sources on Death, Rebirth, Dying. (Harper
and Row, New York, 1971)

WZ Alan Watts The Way of Zen (Vintage Books, New York, 1957)
ZB D. T. Suzuki Essays in Zen 3 vols. (Rider and Co., 1949-53)
ZNM D. T. Suzuki The Zen Doctrine of No-Mind ed. Christmas Humphreys.
(Rider and Co., London, 1969)



Here I offer a summary of Nietzsches philosophical development and say something
about what Zen is. There is something inherently paradoxical about trying to do
either. Nietzsches philosophy and Zen are elusive, aphoristic and practical in ways
that render any prcis of them incomplete and misleading. Paradoxically, their
essence is to have no essence. The only way to understand Nietzsche is to read him
and think. The only way to understand Zen is to do it or, more accurately, be it.

Who is Nietzsche?

Nietzsche describes his own life phases as like masks. I suggest they are like the
phases in the development of a Zen monk. Nietzsche is concerned with the efficacy
of ideas, rather than establishing their realistic truth. Nietzsche is concerned to
change people's lives rather than to refute or prove their beliefs and theories. He
seeks to discredit and explain metaphysical and theological philosophy, he does not
seek to refute it by deductive argument. A brilliant prose stylist, Nietzsche authored
sharp philosophical interventions. He lived from 1844-1900 but went mad in January
1889 at the age of 44. It is possible to discern five main philosophical influences
which motivate his thought.
Firstly, Nietzsche was immersed in the literature and culture of ancient Greece as
a student at the Universities of Bonn and then Leipzig from 1864, and then as
professor of classical philology at the University of Basel at the age of twenty-four.
Secondly, Nietzsche discerns the crisis of Western civilisation in the 'Death of
God', that is, in atheism, and in 'the advent of nihilism' which implies that there is no
theological foundation for ethics. His own philosophy may be understood as an
attempt to overcome this crisis; to go beyond nihilism and 'affirm life'. Nietzsches
profound anti-Christianity is arguably also a reaction against the faith of his family.
His father and maternal grandfather were both Lutheran ministers. His paternal
grandfather was a Christian author.
Thirdly, Nietzsche studied the major work of the German neo-Kantian idealist
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860); The World as Will and Representation, while a
student at Leipzig. Nietzsche understood Schopenhauer as a pessimistic atheist
whose thought encapsulates the problem of the Death of God. In Schopenhauers
thought, the individual strives and suffers. Nietzsche aimed for a positive, or
optimistic, solution to this suffering and the possibility of a point to this striving.
Fourthly, through the personal and artistic influence of the German operatic
composer and music theorist Richard Wagner (1813-1883) Nietzsche thought
suffering could be transfigured though aesthetic creation.
Finally, Nietzsche was steeped in contemporary scientific materialist philosophy,
notably the then influential work of F.A. Lange: The History of Materialism (1865).
This seemed to open the possibility of sweeping away the old superstitions of
theology and metaphysics forever.
It is possible to discern four phases of Nietzsche's life, three sane and one mad:
an anti Socratic phase, a positivistic pro-Socratic phase, a relativist and pragmatist
Phase, and the final mad phase.
The anti-Socratic Phase lasts from 1869 to 1876. While holding the Chair of
Philology at the University of Basel (1864-1879) Nietzsche visited Richard Wagner
at Lake Lucerne. In The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music (1872) Nietzsche
searched for a new non-Christian ethics in the Ancient Greeks and subsequently in
Wagner. Nietzsche contrasts Greek culture before and after Socrates with German
culture before and after Wagner. He argues that life is essentially tragic and
inexplicable but transmuted by art. The affirmation of life through creative genius
transmutes life into an aesthetic phenomenon. Creative genius is the goal and
justification of culture. The Dionysian and the Appollonian were fused in the
tragedies of Aeschylus before the advent of Socrates effected their bifurcation. If
their fusion could not be reinstated, it is a model to be emulated. During this phase,
Nietzsche was heavily influenced by Schopenhauer. In Untimely Meditations (1873-
6), Nietzsche is critical of the German theologican David Strauss (1808-1874),
author of the controversial Leben Jesu (Life of Jesus) (1835) and advocates
Schopenhauers philosophy, and Wagners opera and operatic theory. In 1870
Nietzsche served as a volunteer medical orderly in the Franco-Prussian War.
The positivistic pro-Socratic phase lasts from 1876 to 1883. Nietzsche resigned
from the chair at Basel in 1879 through ill-health and spent 1879-1889 in
Switzerland, Italy, Germany, devoting his time to writing. The book Human, All-too-
Human (1898-9) is profoundly anti-metaphysical and materialist and includes
naturalistic explanations of morality. For example: that a distinction is drawn
between good and evil is a necessary condition for a society. Conscience is the
internalised voice of secular, not divine, authority: the father, the mother, the teacher.
Daybreak (1881) is a tirade against morality. There is no God, no responsibility and
no morality. Nietzsche undermines our confidence that in acting we have knowledge
of the essential nature of our actions. This is a 'terrible truth'. (116) Our actions are
never what they appear to be. Nor is there any security in the rest of knowledge:
Neither the external world nor the internal world is as it appears. There is no escape
from the perspectives of own subjectivity. Nietzsche has an existentialist
appreciation of the lived reality of ones own existence. He says that around every
being there is a circle, which has a mid point unique to that being, but this entails a
quasi-solipsism which makes knowledge impossible. Each of us is constrained by
their senses as if in a prison. When Nietzsche says 'It is all of it an error' (D 117) he
does not mean we can be even confident of this. His scepticism implies that any
belief we hold could in principle be mistaken. Our so called knowledge exists only
in relation to the kind of senses we have:

'The habits of our senses have woven us into lies and deception of sensation: these
again are the basis of all our judgments and 'knowledge' - there is absolutely no
escape, no backway or bypath into the real world!' (D 117)

Our web of belief is something we are caught in: 'our net'. (D 116) Daybreak
includes a Critique of European values. Our values are historically situated and
produced not God-given and discovered. The claim that God is dead and the
praising of free spirits, who are self-defining and, in a sense, de-conditioned, are in
the diatribe against Christianity in The Gay Science (1882).
The relativist and pragmatist phase lasts from 1883 to 1889. In Thus Spoke
Zarathustra (1883-5) the Persian sages words include the doctrine of Eternal Return,
the prophecy of the bermensch and the transvaluation of values: What is the value
of values? What are values for? In Beyond Good and Evil: a Prelude to a Philosophy
of the Future (1886), the distinction is drawn between master morality and slave
morality. A Genealogy of Morals (1887) is a genetic explanation of morals: Power
and politics are prior to morality. Master and Slave Morality are the 'Twofold pre-
history of good and evil' (GM 1.45) 'firstly in the soul of the ruling tribes' (GM 1.45).
'Then in the soul of the subjected, the powerless' (GM 1.45) 'Good and bad is for a
long time the same thing as noble and base, master and slave' (GM 1.45). Nietzsche
sees the origin of slave morality in Resentiment. The Case of Wagner (1888) and the
Nietzsche Contra Wagner essay are attacks on Wagner, with whom Nietzsche
ultimately breaks acrimoniously. The Antichrist (1895) is a diatribe against
Christianity. Nietzsche is the self-professed enemy of Christ. In an atheistic inversion
of Christianity, reminiscient of Feuerbach and Marx, Nietzsche says Christ is God
made into man but God is man made into God. The notebooks of the last few years
of his sane life were published posthumously as The Will to Power (1900).
The mad phase lasts from 1889 until Nietzsches death in 1900. He spent the final
eleven years of his life in Turin, Basel, Jena, Naumburg (with his sister) and in
Weimar. He died on August 25th 1900. Twilight of the Gods (1889) is a summary of
own philosophy, authored as he went mad. The autobiographical Ecce Homo,
published posthumously in 1908, includes the essays Why I am So Wise, Why I
am So Clever, and Why I write Such Excellent Books.

What is Zen?

The term Zen means meditation in Japanese. It derives from the Chinese chan,
which is etymologically related to the Sanskrit dhyana: meditation. Zen is also the
name of a practical movement in Chinese and Japanese Buddhism. Through a regime
of concentration and meditation the student is de-conditioned from ordinary thinking,
and detached from desire. This process discloses the Enlightened state, beyond being
and nothingness, which is not subject to thoughts and sensations. Although the state
is ineffable (and so cannot even in any ordinary sense be rightly called a state) it
might be induced by shocks to rational thought such as exposure to irresolvable
puzzles called koans (in the Rinzai school of Zen) or by sitting motionless for long
periods (in Soto Zen). Every person is already enlightened so it would be a
misunderstanding of Enlightenment to construe it as a future state to be attained.
Enlightenment is realized by detachment from desire and habitual means to end
thinking, and their eventual cessation. This cannot be done by will power, only as a
consequence of meditation or other Zen Buddhist practices. Trying to be
Enlightened, as well as construing Enlightenment as future, are obstacles to
Enlightenment, that is, being at one with ones true Enlightened state. Once the
present has been polished clean like a mirror by meditation, Enlightenment is
disclosed as already all here now. Although Zen is intensely practical, experiential
and non-linguistic, and the medium of philosophy is language, in its insistence on the
ineffable Zen has an affinity with the later Aquinas and the early Wittgenstein who
each thought philosophy reaches a certain limit in what cannot be said.
Zen was founded in China by Bodhidharma, who brought the doctrines of the
Lanka-Vatara Sutra from India the late 5th century. The genesis of Zen arguably lies
in the fusion of Bodhidharmas Buddhism with Chinese Tao. Bodhidharma was
succeeded as master by Hui-k'o (487593). The Zen emphasis on practice rather
than doctrine is well shown by Hui-neng (638713), the sixth patriarch of Chinese
Zen, who was both enlightened and illiterate. Ma-tsu, Nan-chuan, Huang-po, Lin-chi,
and Chao-chou were masters during the golden age of Zen in the 8th and 9th
centuries. Scripture and doctrine were regarded as unimportant, or even as
hinderances, to the realization of ones Enlightenment. Instead, there was an
emphasis on self-discipline, oral instruction and testing dialogue. Sometimes a monk
might be suddenly hit with a cane, for example if their alert meditation shaded off
into doziness.
There was severe persecution of Buddhism in China in 845. However, Zen not
only survived due to its isolation in mountain monasteries, but was left as the most
practiced form of Buddhism in China. As a result of the persecution, Zen divided into
two principal schools: Lin-chi and Ts'ao-tung. These were brought to Japan in the
century where they were known as Rinzai Zen and Soto Zen respectively.
In Soto Zen there is an emphasis on just sitting. As early as Bodhidharma there
had been the practice of looking at the wall. (The present author remembers long
periods sitting looking at a whitewashed wall in the 1970s. I, and others, asked
Why are we looking at the wall? Our monk would only ever reply Look at the
wall!) Just sitting is the kind of meditation known as zazen. That there is no point, or
no overtly stated point, to zazen allows a measure of deconditioning, a falling away
of the repetitive ordinary mind. It would not be completely wrong to say zazen
therefore has a point after all: deconditioning, detachment, Enlightenment, but this
could be misleading. If zazen is done with this (or anything) as a goal in mind,
paradoxically, the goal cannot be reached. Indeed, as we have seen,
Enlightenment is not a goal in the sense of a future state. The gate is a gateless gate.
The famous Soto Zen master Dgen (12001253) is notably associated with just
In Rinzai Zen, the student is presented with apparently insoluble problems in the
form of short questions called koans. Famously:

What is the sound of one hand clapping?

The solution to the problem is that there is no solution, or at least, the solution does
not consist in thinking this thought rather than that thought. The solution to the
problem of life is to cease regarding life as a problem. The student puzzles over what
the sound of one hand clapping might be. In the end, the thinking of this thought
rather than that thought ceases and, in the space where thoughts happen, there is
Enlightenment. I am inclined to say there is being rather than thinking, but
Enlightenment transcends the difference between being and nothingness. (In the
particular case of What is the sound of one hand clapping? it is in fact possible to
generate sound by striking the base of ones palm with the tops of ones fingers. It is
debatable whether, without amplification, this is loud enough to count as clapping.)

No Water, No Moon

The Zen nun Chiyono was carrying water in a rickety bucket. The bottom fell out and
the water was lost. At that moment Chiyono was Enlightened. No water in the pail,
no moon in the water. No mirror, no reflection. No mind, no world.
If there is a correct answer to a koan it is Mu (Chinese Wu). Mu means: Neither
yes nor no or The question rests on a false assumption. It could also be translated as:
Unask the question. For example, the answer to Does a dog have the Buddha nature?
might well be Mu. In ordinary Japanese, the prefix Mu has the sense of without or
less but in Rinzai practice its sense is not that of simple negation or privation. Its
meaning is beyond negation and affirmation.
In Zen, especially in Rinzai, there is sudden action:

An academic visited the Master Nan-in, to find out about Zen. Nan-in filled the
visitors tea cup until the tea flowed onto the floor.

Kakua was summoned by the emperor to talk about Zen. Kakua played one short
note on his flute, bowed, and left.

As he was dying, the old Zen Master Mu-nan entrusted his own writings to his
successor Shoju. Straight away, Shoju threw them on the fire. What are you doing!
exclaimed Mu-nan. What are you saying! exclaimed Shoju.

Zen became the ethos of the Samurai, the medieval Japanese feudal military class.
Zen monks generated a rich yet austere artistic culture which notably includes poetry,
calligraphy, painting, gardening, the tea ceremony and flower arrangement. Much of
what one thinks of as paradigmatically Japanese in culture is Zen.
The influence of Zen in Japan waned in the 16th and 17th centuries but
nevertheless spread to Korea and Vietnam. There was a renaissance in Japanese Zen
under the great Master Hakuin (16861769).


Both Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists hold that the most fearful force confronting
any person is their own death, and both offer teachings according to which the fear of
death may be overcome. Neither Nietzsche's bermensch nor the Zen Buddhist in
Satori fears death. Each has a power and an understanding which, although allegedly
non-metaphysical, allow death to be faced and undergone with equanimity.

Facing Death

The fear of death is not overcome by belief in a metaphysically transcendent afterlife.
For example, Nietzsche repudiates, and the Zen Buddhists do not endorse, any reality
similar to the Judeo-Christian heaven or hell. Rather they advocate a profound self-
transformation in what it is to be human. A human being has to become the kind of
being for whom death is not disturbing. This transformation is not essentially brought
about by the acquisition of new beliefs but by living in a different way. By the
practice of the kind of meditation called za-zen, and by ceasing to be subject to 'herd
morality or 'slave morality' a person becomes the kind of being who is not afraid to
die. Nevertheless, fear of death is defused by the acquisition of two central insights.
One concerns rebirth, the other concerns the self.
It is an entailment of Nietzsches doctrine of eternal return and the Zen doctrine
of rebirth that any human being has been born and has died innumerable times before
this life. We face innumerable births and deaths in lives to come. Both doctrines
admit of both a metaphysical and a non-metaphysical interpretation, or both a literal
and metaphorical reading.
Read metaphorically, Nietzsche is saying that one should have the strength to
live one's life as if one could bear for it to be repeated in every detail an infinite
number of times in the future. One would then live with a life-affirming energy and
an authenticity of commitment which would make living thoroughly worthwhile. The
French atheistic existentialist novelist and playwright, Albert Camus, says at the start
of his essay The Myth of Sisyphus (1942):

philosophy. All other questions follow from that.

Nietzsche would have urged us to answer in the affirmative.
Read literally, Nietzsche is saying that one's life as a matter of metaphysical
fact has been repeated in every detail an infinite number of times in the past and will
be in the future. Nietzsche, the anti-metaphysical philosopher, is showing us that he
can do metaphysical philosophy of the most disturbing and outrageous kind.
Read metaphorically, the Zen Buddhists are saying that within this life there is
a kind of birth and death from moment to moment; a coming to be and passing away
of the galaxy of thoughts and emotions that constitute one's 'self' or 'mind'. Inwardly,
or mentally, each of us is ceasing to be and beginning to be at any moment of our
lives, no matter how brief. I am always dying, always being reborn. (We shall see
later, however, that what we think of as the end of a life is not radically different
from these transitions. Up to a point, this blurs the distinction between the literal and
the metaphorical readings.)
Read literally, the Zen Buddhists are saying that at the moment of one's
biological death (or soon after), one is reborn as a new life. There is life after death in
the sense of another life after death. Each human person lives many karmically
induced lives. The life that one thinks of as 'my life' is only the current one. Clearly,
the metaphorical and the literal construals of each doctrine are mutually consistent. I
can live my life as though it would be infinitely repeated and it could be true that it
will be infinitely repeated. I might be psychologically reborn and die at every
moment of a life and be reborn at the end of that life.
There is however a clear point of inconsistency between the Buddhist doctrine of
reincarnation and Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal return. Buddhism allows the
possibility of escape. Indeed, it is essential to Enlightenment that the enlightened
person is not reborn. The cycle of death and rebirth can be broken by meditative
training and the state of Satori, or Nirvana, partly consists in the ending of the living
of lives.
The other thesis that putatively defuses fear of death concerns the self. Both
Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists maintain that there is no enduring self, soul, or
metaphysical ego that ends at death. Death is not to be feared because, in a sense,
there is no one to die. Of course, the human being exists, this human being exists.
But there is not, fundamentally, anyone who this human being is. A person is a
process, or set of psycho-physical events, rather than an entity. When a person dies, it
is not the case that a substance has ceased to exist, or that anyone or anything has
become separated from a body, or from human or worldly existence. Rather, a
process has ended. The relevant metaphor is not: It has left but It has stopped.
Both Nietzsche and Zen have accounts of how we mistakenly come to think of
ourselves as entities: either physical entities; our bodies, or spiritual entities; our
souls. Both entail that these reifications of ourselves are illusory. It follows that
neither a scientific materialist account of the person nor a Judeo-Christian theological
account of the person is fundamental. Rather, in so far as I exist at all, I am my
psycho-physical lives. In so far as I die, one psycho-physical life comes to an end. I
am a series of life processes. At birth one such process begins. At death this process
ends but I continue, or resume, as another such process. So when Roshi Hakun
Yasutani (b. 1885), the Master who attempted a synthesis of Rinzai and Soto in
Sanbo Kyodan (Fellowship of Three Treasures), says:

'Having once perceived the world of Buddha-nature, we are indifferent to death' (WD

this cannot be fully understood in terms of changes in belief. It is not as though the
Zen doctrines of no-mind and rebirth are consolations for something that remains
fearful. The Buddha-nature is more fundamental than death. The cycle of birth and
death depends upon the Buddha-nature but the Buddha-nature does not depend upon
the cycle of birth and death. Yasutanis 'perceived' does not mean 'perceived' in any
straightforward empirical sense. Yasutani is referring to the transformation in being
brought about by za-zen and other Zen techniques for awakening. The world is
ordinarily 'perceived' through thought and the five senses. (The mind is a sense in
Buddhism.) But the sensation of oneself as one being amongst others in that world is
no longer adhered to. Rather, that sensation is itself just one sensation amongst
others, one more recurrent episode in this life process. The sensation of self
repeatedly dies and is reborn. Once this is grasped, the cessation of this sensation is
not feared. After all, there are many moments without such a sensation. This is why
there was, all along, in a sense, no-one to die. The 'indifference' to death that
Yasutani speaks of is the absence of fear of death. It is not the presence of an
intellectual attitude but the absence of an emotion. Or, if the emotion arises, that too
is passively acknowledged as only another transient event. It is not felt. Or, if it is felt
(because it is essentially a feeling) there is no feeling of it over and above its being a
feeling and certainly no feeler of the feeling. Like other emotions, it arises and
subsides, is born and dies. It is not to be taken seriously.
Perceiving the Buddha-nature requires a certain de-conditioning or de-
socialisation. We have been taught and brought up to fear death. Zen does not so
much reverse this conditioning but exposeS it for what it is: a constellation of belief
and emotion based on authority. Nietzsche also thinks we are conditioned into
regarding death as necessarily an evil, necessarily the greatest evil. If we can begin to
be aware of how we are socialised into fearing death we can begin to lose that fear.
He provides this example:

When one witnesses a death there regularly arises a thought which, out of a false
sense of decency, one immediately supresses: that the act of dying is not as
significant as it is generally regarded as being, and that the dying man has probably
lost more important things in life than that which he is about to lose. Here the end is
certainly not the goal. (para 349 p. 165)

We repress the thought that death is not terrible. It is part of the herd morality that
death is necessarily an evil and life necessarily a good (as though there could, even in
principle, be life without death). The bermensch understands, and lives by the fact
that life and death are mutually dependent. Nietzsche suggests that how a life is lived
is more significant than the fact that it will end. He shares the Zen view in saying
'How one dies is indifferent'. (HATH 46) According to Yasutani, no matter how
death comes it is an illusion:

naturally, death has no more substantiality than the movements of [...] puppets. Or, to
bursting of bubbles, which reappear no matter how often they are broken' (WD 8)

What I think or as my biological death, or the end of 'my' life is yet another transition
in that birth and dying, beginning and cessation, that constitutes this life process.
Within any life there is repetitious birth and death. What we think of as death is just
such a transition but between lives. To unpack Yasutani's metaphors, the movements
of the puppets are the appearance and disappearance of the illusory self against the
background of the Buddha-nature. The cutting of the knife is death, and like death
appears dangerous. In fact, if the knife cuts only air it cuts nothing. If there is no real
substantial self to die, then at death nothing dies. Just as when bubbles burst others
replace it, so if I die, one series of thoughts and sensations ceases but another series
replaces it. Death is a transition within karmic processes.
In quite a literal sense, there is life after death in Nietzsche and Buddhism.
Although death is not a transition from earthly life to a metaphysical realm, it is a
transition from earthly life to earthly life. There is life after death because there is
another life after death. In both Nietzsche and Zen there is no heaven or hell because
the idea of a metaphysical realm is an illusion of the form the Indian Buddhists call
maya. For Nietzsche it is an illusion of herd morality, and the Platonic and Christian
metaphysics which is herd morality's historical antecedent and putative premise.
Nietzsche chastises humanity in the grip of herd morality for its fear of death:

'[...] as if dying were of much consequence and meant the crossing of bridges of the
most terrible kind - all this forbids our using death as a testimony concerning the
living' (HATH 46)

Death would be the crossing of a kind of terrible bridge if it were the transition to a
metaphysical heaven or hell. There would then be a metaphysical ground for the fear
of death, a fear about one's metaphysical destination. If there is no heaven or hell
there is nothing metaphysical to fear or hope for in death. In Nietzsche and
Buddhism, there is no fear without hope and no hope without fear. To fear something
is to hope that it will not happen. To hope for something is to fear that it will not
happen. (We see here that suffering is essentially tied to hope.) Both Nietzsche and
the Zen Buddhists present the possibility of living without metaphysical hopes and
fears. To hold out the hope of eradicating metaphysical hopes and fears would simply
reinstate the fear that metaphysical hopes and fears could not be eradicated.
Therefore, they claim to expose metaphysics as illusory, or at best irrelevant to the
way life is most fully lived. In the bermensch and the enlightened being the
temptation to metaphysics has been psychologically tamed.
According to Nietzsche, how we think of death profoundly affects the way we
live our lives. He thinks that if we think of death in the way we have been
conditioned by the Judeo-Christian tradition, our lives become pessimistic and
sluggish, gloomly and half-hearted. He says we can rethink death so that it becomes a
psychologically positive force in life:

DEATH. - The certain prospect of death could introduce into every life a precious,
sweet-smelling drop of levity - and yet you marvellous apothecary souls have made
of it an ill-tasting drop of poison through which all life is made repulsive! (HATH
para. 322 p. 390.)

The psychologically indubitable fact that my life will end could lend to it a frivolity;
a kind of reckless spontaneity which prohibits taking life too seriously. Like a game,
life will be over so should be fully engaged in while it lasts. Rather than doing this,
we allow our lives to be haunted by death:

'How everyone's shadow, his gloomy travelling companion stands behind him' (GS
para 278 p. 215)

Nietzsche compares death, as misconstrued by us, to a drug or a poison. As a drug
makes us half asleep or plunges us into illusion so death makes us half committed to
our lives and burdened with metaphysical images. As a poison produces illness and
ineffectiveness so death, as we foresee it, inhibits the living of life. Our concept of
death makes life 'hideous'. It is as though our lives have been poisoned: If we are
poisoned we are going to die. If we know we are poisoned we know we are going to
die. Life is hideous precisely in the existentialist sense: If we are going to die it
would have been better not to have been born. Facing death is so terrible that it
would have been far preferable to have had no life at all than to have to live a life
facing death as its end. After all, it really is going to happen to you.
In Nietzsche and Zen, there is no life without death. To ask for life without
death is to ask for something as impossible as death without life. To ask for birth
without death is to ask for something as impossible as death without birth.
Yasutani says:

'We die because we are alive. Living means birth and death. Creation and destruction
signify Life.
When you truly understand this fundamental principle, you will not be anxious
your daily life.' (WD 8)

The idea that we die because we are alive is open to several mutually consistent
interpretations. Dialectically, it does not make much sense to speak of something
dying unless it is alive (or unless it is the sort of thing that can be alive). Life and
death are, perhaps, reciprocally dependent opposites, for example, if each is the
absence of the other. Although (or because) life and death are opposites they are
mutually dependent or, at a profound level, two aspects of one and the same process.
Causally, in order to die it is necessary to be alive. Only those beings that are alive
may die. When Yasutani says that we die because we are alive he means that our
being alive makes us die; our being alive is causally sufficient for our death.
Anything alive is under the sentence of death. This is consistent with the painful truth
that it is a contingent fact that we die: a fact that could have been otherwise. It does
not follow as a matter of logic from the fact that I am alive that I will die. There is no
incoherence or inconsistency in the thesis that I am immortal. 'I will not die' is not
contradictory, just false. As a matter of human necessity I will die.
Yasutani says 'living means birth and death'. This is partly the thesis that what
lives began to live and will cease to live. Read that way, birth and death are
boundaries to living, or to a life. 'Living means birth and death' is also an expression
of the Zen thesis that there is a kind of birth and death at every moment within life: a
psychological coming to be and ceasing to be of thoughts and sensations, including
the illusory thought or sensation of a substantial self. Living in the sense of living
one's life implies this constant sequence of births and deaths.
Yatusani says 'creation and destruction signify life' because biologically, the
cells composing an organism are coming into existence and ceasing to be and
because animal life sustains itself by eating, digesting, and therefore destroying, plant
and other animal life. Nutrition requires destruction, or at least, a physical
transformation which, from the standpoint of the human world, we label 'destruction'.
Reproduction requires creation, creation out of the earlier destruction. Yasutani and
the Zen Buddhists see creation and destruction as two aspects of the same process.
We are misled into thinking they are only opposites, and not also mutually
dependent, because in perceiving or thinking of destruction, creation is usually
hidden and in perceiving or thinking of creation, destruction is usually hidden.
Arguably, creation and destruction are hidden by one another. We do not have to
read Yasutani as saying that 'creation and destruction' mean exactly the same as 'life'.
There could be creation and destruction without life: the inorganic and non-conscious
shifting of continents, or creation of mountains by glacial deposits, for example. He
is not saying creation and destruction imply life but that life implies creation and
destruction. Yasutami thinks that once the mutual dependence of birth and death,
creation and destruction are grasped then fear of death is dissipated.
Nietzsche also thinks our concept of death thoroughly informs our attitude to
life and makes a difference to who we are:

'The whole way in which a man thinks of death in the prime of his life and strength is
very expressive and significant for what we call his character' (HATH 46)

Were I to be correctly identified with my body or my soul then there would be
genuine grounds for my fear of my own destruction. God could perhaps destroy my
soul, and my body will in any case be dissolved in natural, biological death. If I am
my soul, and my soul is destroyed, then I am destroyed. If I am my body, and my
body is destroyed, then I am destroyed.
In Zen the self is 'reduced' to what we would normally think of as the psycho-
physical stream of events constituting a person's life (or, in Nietzsche and Buddhism,
lives). There are different kinds of reduction. If the self is reduced to a set of events
then it is nothing 'over and above' them, that is, the self is identical with those events
and so nothing more than or nothing other than those events. That the self is
reducible to a set of psycho-physical events might mean that 'self' and 'set of psycho-
physical events' have the same reference even though they differ in sense. In what
sense is the self 'reduced' to a set of psycho-physical life processes in Zen? Roshi
Yasutani gives this example of the absence of the fear of death:

'Even though heaven and earth were turned upside down, you would have no fear.
And if an atomic or hydrogen bomb were exploded, you would not quake in terror'
(WD 8)

and provides this explanation of the possibility of overcoming that fear:

'So long as you became one with the bomb what would there be to fear?
"Impossible!" you say. But whether you wanted to or not you would perforce become
one with it, would you not?' (WD 8)

What is it to become 'one with the bomb'? By 'the bomb' is meant the explosion of
the bomb. It at least follows from this identification that it is false that there are two
things: myself and the explosion of the bomb. Rather, the explosion of the bomb is
part of the same psycho-physical life process in which the sensation of self also
intermittently appears. At the moment of the explosion of the bomb there is only the-
experience-of-the-exploding-of-the-bomb. (Following the German and French
existentialists) I hyphenate this expression to signify that the items it refers to are not
separable in reality (only in thought, or conceptually, or in language). The event is
one, precisely not the tripartite structure I, experience and explosion. In particular;
there is no sensation of 'self' or 'me' as the victim of that explosion. This concept of
death in an atomic explosion is very different from the idea of a human being caught
in its blast. Clearly Yasutani does not deny that, on one level, that is exactly what
happens. Viewed objectively, or from a third-person perspective, a human body is
vaporised by the force of the explosion. Indeed, this is the point of his saying that you
would become one with the bomb whether you wished to or not. The particles of
one's own body and the particles of the bomb would be intermingled in the
explosion. One's body would be 'caught up' in the explosion, that is, become a
vaporising part of it.
From the subjective point of view of the enlightened person dying in the explosion,
or shortly before dying, this objective picture of the death of the body is not available
or, if it is, it is just one thought amongst others. If it occurs then it carries no greater
or less psychological weight than any other mental process. In Satori one is, so to
speak, not 'touched' by one's own mental processes. Even if there is fear, it is not felt
as fear and that is perhaps as good as its not being fear. In what sense, then, am I
reduced to the explosion? Clearly, from the objective or third person perspective I am
vaporised. I become nothing over and above the rush of vaporising particles.
Psychologically, or inwardly, there is only the experience-of-the-exploding-of-the-
bomb. There is no experience of myself plus the explosion. In the enlightened state
there is not acquaintance with three things: myself, the explosion and a relation
between them called 'experience'. Rather, there is just the monism of experience
itself. In dying in the explosion there is only the explosion. I am 'nothing over and
above' the explosion. The explosion is all-here-now.
Consciousness of death is intimately bound up with consciousness of time. We
think of death as the future and inevitable end of our lives, as though at any point in
life one exists at some time intermediary between birth and death. As life progresses,
the time that one has been alive becomes ever greater, the time that there remains to
live becomes ever shorter. Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists hold that this picture of
death causes a pessimism that spoils the present. Death is a distraction from life. In
particular, for Nietzsche, it causes us to live our lives 'ahead' of ourselves and to
devalue the past:

'And all, all, suppose that the past has been nothing, or a small matter, that the near
future is everything: hence this haste, this crying, this self-deafening and self-
overreaching!' (GS para 278 p. 215)

The irony of this attitude to time is that, on its own terms, the only certainty it holds
is death. We are keen to be in the future even though the end of the future is the very
death we fear:

'Everyone wants to be foremost in this future, - and yet death and the stillness of
death are the only things certain and common to all in this future!' (GS para 278 p.

There is an intuitive, or unargued, asymmetry in our attitude to past and future. We
anticipate with pleasure a pleasurable future event but view with trepidation an
unpleasant future event. Although there is such a thing as hoping or fearing that
something has happened, hopes and fears are paradigmatically about the future. I do
not normally fear having been tortured (although this is not impossible). From the
point of view of Nietzsche and Zen, our emotional commitments will cease to touch
us when our attention is directed to the present. The present is when our experiences
happen. The present is the only time when our hopes and fears are realised. Hopes
and fears distort the present and prevent one from being 'all here now'.
The Zen Master Hakuin Ekaku (1686-1769) is famous for halting the decline in
Rinzai influence by restoring strict meditation on the koan. He is credited with first
posing What is the sound of one hand clapping? Hakuin warns against construing
Enlightenment as a kind of life after death, or, indeed, any kind of future state:

'[...] it is extremely foolish to think that one must wait till after death in expectation
of obtaining all these benefits [of za-zen meditation]. It is also the most culpable
negligence. Do not grieve as though this is all a matter of something in the far
distance.' (WD 9)

Enlightenment is not a kind of metaphysical immortality but a disclosure of the
present; a profound recognition that the ever changing present is all there is.
Although directed towards the past and the future, hopes and fears arise and subside
only in the present. Everyone is already enlightened. The difficulty is disclosing this
state. Even though, in an obvious temporal sense, a person is unenlightened at an
earlier time and enlightened at a later time, emphasising this chronological sequence
is itself an obstacle to Enlightenment. It keeps the mind in its future orientation when
it is the aim of Buddhism to bring about the realisation that everything is present.
Viewed in that way, the ending of each present thought or sensation is itself a kind of
death. As the Haiku poet Matsuo Basho (1644-1694) puts it

'[...] every moment of life is the last' (WD 65)

What we think of as death is in fact akin to the ending of one thought or experience
and the beginning of another. There is no more to fear in death and rebirth than in the
ordinary arising and falling away of our psychological states. You, if it makes sense
to talk of you, are dying all the time anyway. As master Dogen puts it

'We are being born and we are dying at every moment' (WD 9)

In the present, which is all there is, there is incessant coming to be and ceasing to be.
This is not just everything anyone has ever come across. It is all anyone ever is.
It is common to Nietzsche and Zen that we repress the fear of death. We prefer
not to think about our own death. Nietzsche finds this odd, given that it is the only

'How strange that this sole thing that is certain and common to all, exercises almost
no influence on men, and that they are the furthest from regarding themselves as the
brotherhood of death!' (GS para 278 p. 215)

The background fact of our own mortality does lend a particular urgency to life for
many human beings. It is because we will die that we leave legacies, in children or in
work. It is a psychological fact that if we knew or believed we were to live forever
we would live differently; perhaps less urgently, perhaps with boredom, perhaps with
agoraphobic terror. Nietzsche does not disapprove of the repression of the thought of
death. He thinks it makes us concentrate more on living:

'It makes me happy to see that men do not want to think at all of the idea of death! I
would fain do something to make the idea of life even a hundred times more worthy
of their attention' (GS para 278 p. 216)

As we shall see in Chapter Four, it is the doctrine of eternal return which is supposed
to achieve exactly that.
Zen, in contrast, requires a direct psychological confrontation with death. Master
Sakuma Shozan (1811-1864), the son of a samurai, is noted for his contribution to
introducing Western military and naval technology to Japan.
He was assassinated by a hitokiri (human-slayer) hired by those who resisted
westernization as incompatible with the preservation of Japanese culture. The
following conversation is reported between Shozan and one of his monks:

'A man said to the master, "Of course I never think of death." To which the master
responded, "That's all very well, but you'll not get very far in Zen, I'm afraid' (WD

It is not just that the monk seeks to impress the master, in hypocritically misguided
disingenuousness. Concentration on death is part of the path to Enlightenment. In
Shozan's reply, 'man of Enlightenment' does not mean 'enlightened person', it means
something like 'person clearly advanced on the path to Enlightenment':

'That you do not think of death shows that you are not a man of Enlightenment,
because you are incapable of knowing your Self, whatever there is in you that uses
the six sense organs' (WD 10)

The considered view of Buddhism that there is no self, no physical or psychical
source of one's own thoughts and emotions, is facilitated by wondering what will die
when I die. Once the utter fruitlessness of this quest is seen, Enlightenment follows.
No one dies. No one searches for who dies.
This contemplation of death must not be confused with any metaphysical or
intellectual inquiry into life after death. As Nietzsche thinks the contemplation of
death is a distraction from life, the Zen Buddhist masters think speculation about
immortality is an impediment to Satori. In a Zen monastery, a stock reply to a monk's
inquiry about life after death goes like this:

'"Why do you want to know what will happen to you after you die? Find out who you
are now!"' (WD xvii)

Satori requires 'being all here now', or allowing one's attention to be wholly present.
Metaphysical speculation is thinking, trying to grasp an elusive content of thought.
Satori requires experience, now, rather than thinking this thought or that.
In Thus Spake Zarathustra, in the ninth discourse of Zarathustra, called 'The
Preachers of Death', Nietzsche distinguishes between attitudes to death. More
accurately, he distinguishes several types of person in terms of their ways of living
life in the face of death:

life must be preached' (Z 49)

The preachers of death are the theologians and philosophers who insist there is a
metaphysical afterlife. Those to whom desistance from life must be preached are the
people who need this metaphysical reassurance. They only half live their lives
because they are metaphysically distracted from the reality of the present by their
hopes and fears of a hereafter. Then there are 'the superfluous';

be decoyed out of this life by the "life eternal" (Z 49)

Nietzsche thinks the existence of heaven would make earthly existence redundant.
This is a problem for any philosophy which contrasts the perfection and happiness of
a metaphysical afterlife with the imperfection and suffering of the empirical world.
For example, Plato contrasts the communion of the soul with the perfect immaterial
forms, with the moral imperfection and unhappiness of existence in the spatio-
temporal world. The metaphysically embarrassing problem is Why should there be
earthly existence? If there is a perfect life after death (or before birth) what need is
there for being in the empirical world? What is the point in being born? As Nietzsche
puts it, such life on earth is 'superfluous'. Nietzsche is impatient with those who
endorse any metaphysical picture that generates this problem and says they deserve
their metaphysics.
A third response to life in the face of death is that of 'the terrible ones':

no choice except lusts or self-laceration. And even their lusts are self-laceration.
from life, and pass away themselves!' (Z 49)

The terrible ones either try to compensate for death by over indulgence in sensuous
gratification or they punish themselves, as though they perversely acquiesce in death.
Their lusts are themselves self-laceration because it is a paradox of hedonism that the
direct attempt to find pleasure leads to suffering. It is also an important part of the
Buddhist doctrine of karma that immediate sensory gratification leads to later
Another response to death is apathy and depression:

'There are the spiritually consumptive ones: hardly are they born when they begin to
die, and long for doctrines of lassitude and renunciation.
awakening those dead ones and of damaging those living coffins' (Z 49-50)

Nietzsche is suggesting, perhaps, that there is an affinity between the attitudes of
ascetic renunciation and apathy in life. Both have in common a lack of interest in
life. Indeed, Nietzsche devotes Part III of The Genealogy of Morals to a sustained
critique of asceticism.
In a sense, in both Nietzsche and the Zen, birth and death are the same event.
'Birth' and 'death' are different names for the transition from one life to the next. For
example Master Dogen says

'Birth from the Buddhist point of view is a temporary point between the preceding
and the succeeding, hence it can be called birthlessness. The same holds for death
and deathlessness. In life there is nothing more than life, in death nothing more than
death' (WD 9)

What is a temporary point? The use of the predicate 'temporary' here suggests that
birth or death has a duration, but a finite duration. The use of 'point' suggests that
birth or death is instantaneous, or at a time that takes no time. The two views are
incompatible because it is impossible that some event both takes and does not take
time. That Dogen talks of birthlessness and deathlessness suggests that his
considered view is that birth or death is instantaneous. Birth or death is an event, but
an event without duration. The idea that there are instants is not incoherent because
there are times that do not last. Suppose it is three o'clock. If we ask How long has it
been three o'clock for now? the answer is For no time at all. Nevertheless, at some
time or other, it is three o'clock.
Master Dogen thinks that our ordinary picture of life as the period bounded by birth
and death is not wholly wrong, but misleadingly incomplete:

'It is fallacious to think that you simply move from birth to death' (WD 9)

It is fallacious because what I think of as my birth was also one of my deaths, and
what I think of as my death will also be one of my births. Besides, there is no 'you' or
'me' who exists at one moment of life and then another. There is no self, or being
who lives first one part of life then another, rather, I am my life. More accurately, I
am my lives.
Suffering has a crucial role in both Nietzsche's philosophy and Zen. In both
philosophies there is an intimate connection between suffering and death.
Nietzsche thinks that the contemplation of death leads to pessimism in life and hence
psychological suffering. Some people essentially see only death in life;

'They meet an invalid, or an old man, or a corpse - and immediately they say: "Life is
(Z 50)

The fact that we will die spoils life;

'Shrouded in thick melancholy, and eager for the little casualties that bring death:
thus do they wait and clench their teeth' (Z 50)

Nietzsche endorses the Buddhist view that much of life is indeed suffering but says
some people mistakenly want to end their lives because that seems to promise an end
to suffering:

'"Life is only suffering": so say others, and lie not. Then see to it that ye cease! See to
it that the life ceaseth which is only suffering!' (Z 50)

If Buddhism admitted the concept of sin suicide would be a sin in Buddhism. In fact,
in Buddhism suicide is not so much immoral in any metaphysical sense but not in
one's interests, and conducive to the suffering of others. Suicide is inconsistent with
Nietzsche's insistence that we affirm life;

'[...] they want to be rid of life; what care they if they bind others still faster with their
chains and gifts!' (Z 50-1)

Suicide does not end suffering on either philosophy because death does not end
suffering. Death is the start of another life and that new life will include suffering.
Master Dogen advises

'In life identify yourself with life, at death with death' (WD 9)

In Zen terms, what is advised here is a recognition of the truth. What does 'identify'
mean? It does not just mean psychologically identify, even though thinking of oneself
as one's life is a true way of thinking. It means being one's life and then, being one's
death. It means, in the English idiom, 'being at one with' one's life and death.
Ontologically, we have no other option according to Buddhism. We are our lives.
Thinking of life after death is a distraction from being 'at one' with the life one is,
The desire to escape death is the most profound of all desires because it is the most
deeply felt and many other kinds of desire psychologically depend on it. Zen offers
techniques for ending desire and, therefore, ending the desire to escape death. Part of
what Dogen means by identifying oneself with death, at death, is not desiring to
escape death. He also means that in death one is one's death. At death there are not
two things, myself and my death, rather, I am my death. The Buddha not only claims
an intimate connection between desire and death. He says something extraordinary to
non-Buddhist ears. He claims that the eradication of desire eradicates death:

'Where obsessive desire is absent, there is neither coming nor going, and where
coming and going have ended there is no death, no birth; where death and birth do
not exist there is neither this life nor an afterlife, nor any in between - it is, disciples,
the end of suffering' (WD 7)

A putative hierarchy of dependencies is established here. If there is 'coming' or
'going', or both, there is 'becoming': Desire is necessary for becoming. Becoming is
necessary for birth and death. Birth and death are necessary for this life and an
afterlife. This life, or an afterlife, is necessary for suffering. The most counter
intuitive of these claims is desire is necessary for becoming (or coming or going).
Suppose we endorse a process ontology (as both Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists
do) then, in a quasi-Heraclitean way, everything that is, is really becoming. It is not
even fundamentally true that there are things that become other things, or things that
(undergo) change. Rather, change is so thoroughgoing that there are not even such
relatively unchanging subjects of change as things. A physical object, for example, is
a temporary constellation of space-time processes. Is seems strangely idealist to say
that the truth of this process ontology depends upon desire. Why should what seems
an objective and pervasive fact about the universe depend upon a fact about human
To understand this we have to understand something about some kinds of
Buddhist meditation. In meditation there is a profound and expansive peace of mind.
Nevertheless, it is natural in meditation, as in ordinary life, for thoughts and emotions
to arise and subside. Meditation, however, prevents desires being felt as desires.
One's emotional attitude is detached from the content of the desire. Once this
happens greater peace is experienced. With practice, a point is reached in meditation
when there is no thought, only an alert yet peaceful and expansive awareness. It is
desire that causes thought, so, with the cessation of desire thought ceases. It is in that
state that there is no becoming or neither coming nor going. The question about
whether becoming is only psychological or is a fact about the external world does not
arise in this state. The phenomenology of the state does not admit of an inner/outer or
psychological/physical) distinction.
It is intuitively plausible that without becoming, or change, there cannot be any
birth or death, any transition from one life to another. Any such transition logically
entails the existence of becoming, or change. Birth and death are necessary for a life
or an afterlife, if any life begins and ends, because birth and death are the beginning
and the end of a life. A life or afterlife is necessary for suffering because suffering
only occurs in a life so without a life there can be no suffering. If this hierarchy of
dependencies obtains, as the Buddha holds, then suffering depends upon desire. It
follows that the eradication of desire is sufficient for the eradication of suffering. We
should turn now to what suffering means, for Zen and for Nietzsche.

The End of Suffering

Buddhism, including Zen, is essentially a cure for suffering. Rather than a religion in
the Western sense, Zen is practical psychotherapy. The Buddha's First Noble Truth is
a description of what suffering (duhkha) consists in:

'Birth is duhkha, decay is duhkha, sickness is duhkha, death is duhkha, so also are
sorrow and grief [...]. To be bound with things which we dislike, and to be parted
from things which we like, these also are duhkha. Not to get what one desires, this
also is duhkha. In a word, this body, this fivefold aggregation based on clutching
(trishna), this is duhkha.' (WD 46)

There seems to be a clear and decisive disagreement between Nietzsche and Zen on
suffering. Because Zen offers a cure for suffering it follows on the Zen view that it is
possible to cure suffering. Whilst acknowledging that everyone wants an end to their
suffering Nietzsche seems to regard this as wholly impractical:

'You want if possible - and there is no madder "if possible" - to abolish suffering'
(BGE p. 155 Para 225) (old ref. p. 170)

Indeed he has little patience with philosophies of compassion:

'there are higher problems than the problems of pleasure and pain and pity; and every
philosophy that treats only of them is a piece of navet' (BGE para. 225 p. 156)

It is not right that Zen deals exclusively with suffering, but it is nearly right. Anything
that furthers suffering is not Zen. Buddhism, and therefore Zen, is a philosophy of
compassion. It seems that Nietzsche might well count Zen as a navet.
Nevertheless, some of Nietzsche's statements on the relation of philosophy to
suffering are more ambivalent. For example he says

'Every art and every philosophy may be regarded as a healing and helping appliance
in the service of growing suffering, life: they always presuppose suffering and
sufferers' (GS 332)

Nietzsche agrees with the Zen Buddhists that life as it is ordinarily lived entails
suffering. Because every art and philosophy is 'in the service' of life it is, whether this
is understood or intended or not, in the service of suffering. Furthering life is,
ironically, furthering suffering.
Nietzsche also says all arts and philosophies presuppose suffering. There are
different kinds of presupposition. Arts and philosophies causally presuppose
suffering and sufferers because they causally depend upon artists and philosophers.
These are people who are alive, and, because life involves suffering, they are
sufferers. It is harder to see how the existence of arts and philosophies logically
entails suffering, but a case could be made out for this. If we take the claims of all
the arts and all the philosophies together, then some of those claims are about the
whole of ordinary human lives. If we accept that ordinary human lives involve
suffering at some point, and this cannot be omitted in any complete account of them,
then those arts and philosophies are partly about suffering.
Zen also presupposes the existence of suffering. Although this presupposition
falls short of logical entailment (except through the premise that monks lead lives),
the point or raison d'tre of Zen in theory and practice is the elimination of suffering.
Zen presupposes suffering rather as a medical cure presupposes disease or illness.
Nietzsche distinguishes between

'two kinds of sufferers [...] those who suffer from overflowing vitality [...] those who
suffer from reduced vitality' (GS 332)

Those who suffer from reduced vitality are pessimistic and apathetic and

'Great natures [...] suffer most severely from the ignoble, petty emotions of certain
evil moments' (GS 206)

The great suffer 'from doubt of their own greatness' (GS 206).
Here there is a crucial similarity between Nietzsche's philosophy and Zen. It is
essentially our own thoughts which cause our suffering. Hopes and fears about the
future, regrets about the past, resentments at petty insults or refusals to recognise our
status, frustrated imaginings of happiness; these are the constituents of our ordinary
thought worlds which make us suffer. Nietzsche says

'the remedy for "the distress" is distress' (GS 85)

He means the remedy for pessimistic thought and negative emotions is severe
suffering. Much mental torment comes from what Nietzsche regards as a tacit
background assumption of most of our daily life:

'"existence is something evil"' (GS 85)

To put it less dramatically, many human beings treat their lives as a problem. It is an
important part of Zen not to treat life as a problem. The main problem in life arises
from assuming that life is a problem. If we cease to treat life as a problem it largely
ceases to be a problem.
The practice of the kind of Buddhist meditation called za-zen has as one of its aims
the elimination of torturing thoughts. We may understand this on different levels. Za-
zen allows one to think the thoughts one wishes to think, rather than being simply
'subject to' thoughts. This is by no means a licence for wishful thinking, which is an
obstacle to Zen. It is obtaining control over the contents of one's own mind. Za-zen
also allows an emotional detachment from one's thoughts. Although in meditation
thoughts may arise and subside, they are permitted to arise and subside,
dispassionately. Finally, in za-zen there is reached a point when there are no
thoughts, only empty but alert awareness. Nietzsche says

'[...] worst of all are petty thoughts. Truly, better even to have done wickedly than to
have thought pettily!' (Z 113)

A Zen Buddhist would find this an exaggeration. The karmic effects of evil deeds are
far more seriously detrimental than the thinking of petty thoughts. Nevertheless, the
Zen Buddhist would agree that a life spent thinking petty thoughts is a life wasted in
a kind of mental imprisonment; a daily imprisonment in the tormenting contents of
one's own mind.
Nietzsche recognises something akin to karma when he says

'The evil deed is like a boil: it itches and irritates and breaks forth - it speaks
honourably. (Z 113)

Guilt, shame, and bad conscience are consequences of an evil deed that are as hard to
escape as the discomfort of a physical boil. Nietzsche contrasts the evil deed with the
petty thought:

'But the petty thought is like a canker: it creeps and hides and wants to appear
nowhere. (Z 113)

Buddhism recognises that our thoughts hide. Our minds trick us. We find ourselves
thinking about something even (or especially) when we have decided not to think
about it, doing something when we have resolved not to do it, desiring something
when we desire not to desire.
In both Nietzsche's philosophy and Zen, there is an intimate and complex set of
causal relationships between suffering and desire. As the Buddha suggests in The
First Noble Truth, not to obtain what we desire causes suffering. Also, the frustrated
desire to be separated from some thing, person or situation causes suffering. (Of
course, I can unwittingly or forgetfully possess what I desire, or unknowingly be
released from a burden, so desiring does not logically presuppose the non-possession
of the desired.) More subtly, it is part of Buddhism that we are emotionally attached
to our ordinary thought processes by something appropriately called 'desire'. Our
emotions pull our thoughts at least as though we desired to think them. To suffer
through frustrated desire for something requires thinking about that thing. If the
emotional attachment to the thought could be broken, the frustrated desire would end.
Nietzsche says people have a desire for suffering:

'The Desire for suffering [...] I conceive that there must be a desire in them to suffer
something, in order to derive from their suffering a worthy motive for acting, for
doing something. Distress is necessary!' (GS 90)

Nietzsche is talking about the rather perverse tendency to tacitly welcome suffering,
so that one may appear strong in overcoming it, or pitiable in being subject to it. It
would be wrong to say that there is a desire for suffering according to Zen, but there
is a causal dependence of suffering on desire. That mental torment that we cause to
ourselves depends on desire.
Partly in reaction to Schopenhauer's pessimism, and partly as social comment,
Nietzsche prescribes the life-affirming philosophy of the bermensch and condemns
the perverse 'enjoyment' of suffering:

'This young world desires that there should arrive or appear from the outside - not
happiness - but misfortune; and their imagination is already busy beforehand to form
a monster out of it, so that they may afterwards be able to fight with a monster' (GS
90-1) 56

Both the bermensch and the Zen Buddhists are the opposite of what Nietzsche calls
the 'distress seekers' (GS 91)

Although Buddhism is a philosophy of compassion, the Buddha preaches
compassion for all living things, Zen has, if not a streak of brutality, then a certain
severity. Zen training is frugal and austere, eschewing the comfortable or the
complacent. Nietzsche's advice is:

'[...] if you have a suffering friend, be a resting-place for his suffering, but a resting-
(Z 113)

The Zen monastery is a resting place from suffering but not a comfortable one. It is a
zone where one is trained to be free from suffering. The training is hard, involving
early rises, simple food, menial tasks, obedience and self-discipline, physical stamina
and hours of mediation each day. The beds are hard too.
Because Zen is compassionate, it is a requirement that any suffering caused to a
Zen monk be forgiven by that monk. Revenge is out of the question. Nietzsche too
advises forgiveness but makes an astute remark which a practitioner of Zen would
probably endorse:

'And should your friend do you a wrong, then say: "I forgive you what you did to me;
but that you did it to yourself - how could I forgive that?"'
(Z 114)

It is a counter intuitive but often repeated tenet of Buddhism that in harming
someone I harm myself more than I harm that person. Independently of Buddhism,
we might think that this sometimes happens. The guilt I feel about having lied might
be worse than the consequences of the lie to the person I lied to. Of course, they
might not. Normally, however, we would not think the guilt of a murderer a worse
consequence than the death he caused. Buddhism, however, holds that always and
everywhere in harming someone I harm myself more than that person. Because of
karma, the adverse consequences of my thoughts and actions will be experienced in
the future and possibly in many lifetimes to come. They will constitute what I am.
What I suffer, what harm comes to me, does not have these karmic effects.
Nietzsche's view is not as extreme as this, but he implies that in harming someone
one harms oneself. Nietzsche means that what a person does to himself is
unforgivable in the sense that it should not be forgiven. I can forgive a person for
what they do to me. I can, under certain circumstances, forgive them for what they do
to someone else. Could I forgive them for what they do to themselves? This seems to
be possible if the harm someone does to himself also harms others. For example, if a
person attempts suicide, their friends or relatives might be meaningfully said to
forgive him for what he did to himself, but this is only because they are shocked or
upset by what he did.
If Nietzsche's philosophy and Zen were not atheistic it would be tempting to say
that they distinguish different degrees of spiritual advancement. In Nietzsche, most
human beings, in differing degrees, fall short of being bermenschen. In Zen, most
human beings, in differing degrees, fall short of being enlightened. It follows that
there is an implicit ranking of people in both philosophies. This ranking, or degree of
advancement, is related to suffering. Nietzsche says

'the extent to which a man can suffer almost determines the order of rank'
(CW 77)

This is partly because, for Nietzsche, the ability to bear suffering shows courage,
nobility, and strength of character. It is also because the sufferer gains wisdom:

'by virtue of his suffering he knows more than the shrewdest and wisest can ever
know' (CW 77-8)

The sufferer is better acquainted with life than those who have not suffered.
Suffering gives practical not just theoretical knowledge of what life and suffering
Zen does not rank people according to the degree of suffering they are able to
withstand. It ranks them according to the amount of suffering they have freed
themselves from. Buddhism is essentially freedom from suffering. Freedom from
suffering is brought about by detachment; emotional detachment from objects of
desire. One is, then, more or less a Buddhist to the extent that one has released
oneself from suffering. Nietzsche says

'Profound suffering makes noble; it separates' (CW 78)

and he speaks of

'[...] a higher kind of health, a sort of health which grows stronger under everything
that does not actually kill it' (CW 79)

In Zen, individuals who are very advanced in Zen training are able to withstand
physical or emotional treatment that would cause great suffering to other people (or
themselves prior to the training). They do not withstand this by withstanding
suffering, however, they withstand it by not suffering. Nietzsche, on the other hand,
is talking about people who withstand harm by withstanding suffering, not people
who are so detached from pain and emotion as not to feel them. Nevertheless, it
makes sense in both philosophies to talk of a 'higher kind of health'. Zen monks are
rendered physically and mentally tough and rugged, and the peace and decisiveness
produced by meditation could be called 'a higher kind of health'. So, of course, could
Satori itself. Nietzsche says

'Only great suffering is the ultimate emancipator of spirit' (CW 79)

Buddhists claim that one becomes a Buddhist when suffering becomes intolerable.
Nietzsches work, Human, All Too Human, carries the subtitle, A Book for free
Spirits (Ein Buch fr freie Geister). Free spirits, as both the German and the English
idiom suggest, are free thinking people, even rather wayward people. The playful yet
serious Zen monk who is emancipated from the ties of the conditioned world is a free
spirit in Nietzsches sense.
It is entailed by Zen that suffering is not necessary. Suffering can be cured by
Zen, so there is no need to endure it. Nietzsche has the thought that at least some
suffering is unnecessary, suffering premised on metaphysical or theological belief:

'To suffer for the sake of morality and then to be told that this kind of suffering is
founded on an error: this arouses indignation. (DD para 32 p. 24)

We can suffer not merely because we do what we think is right and then find out it
was wrong. We can discover that the distinction between right and wrong that we
were assuming in our guilt or mortification is false and only historically inherited. In
either case we now view our suffering as pointless. One can imagine cases where
people fight in a war because they think their side is right. It later turns out that their
erstwhile opponents had a much stronger moral case than their own side's
propaganda allowed. The veterans now regard their suffering as pointless.
Despite their avowedly anti-metaphysical stance, Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists
allow that there is a disclosure of reality. It is through suffering:

'For there is a unique consolation in affirming through one's suffering a "profounder
world of truth" than any other world is' (DD para 32 p.24)

Nietzsche is not identifying the deeper world of truth with suffering. That would be
at odds with his repudiation of Schopenhaurian pessimism. Rather, the route to the
deeper world of truth is through suffering. The transfiguration of the human is
enacted in suffering. It would be the antithesis of Buddhism to discover the truth to
be the suffering (even though it is profoundly true that there is suffering). In Zen, the
route to truth is through suffering, by the overcoming of suffering: by becoming the
kind of being who no longer suffers.
In Nietzsche and Zen, the escape from suffering is difficult to achieve. We are
ironically attached to suffering. Nietzsche says

'one would much rather suffer and thereby feel oneself exalted above reality [...]
than be without suffering' (DD para 32 p. 24)

Similarly, many would prefer their ordinary life of duhkha to the severe training of
the Zen monk, even though the latter promises an escape from suffering. Our
ordinary habits of valuing and the desires they sustain cause suffering. As Nietzsche
puts it

'Men have become suffering creatures in consequence of their morals' (DD 30)

In Buddhism, pride is a form of attachment to the origin of suffering. Nietzsche
thinks pride keeps us imprisoned in the morality we have been conditioned into:

'It is thus pride, and the customary manner in which pride is gratified, which stands
in the way of a new understanding of morality.' (DD para 32 p. 24)

In Zen, the person who has achieved Satori is able to view the world with a serene
detachment. For Nietzsche a different kind of detachment by suffering:

'He who suffers intensely looks out at things with a terrible coldness' (DD para 114

Both Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists think that by suffering it is possible to dispell
illusion. This is not because it is hard to be in error about whether one is suffering.
By and large if one thinks one is suffering one is. It is because unbearable suffering
causes the sufferer to seek a cure for suffering. In Nietzsche and Zen, this cure
requires exposing as illusions many of our supposed facts and values. Nietzsche says
of the sufferer:

'If until then he has been living in some perilous world of fantasy, this supreme
sobering-up through pain is the means of extricating him from it' (DD para 114 p. 69)

What Nietzsche calls 'dangerous fantasy' Buddhists subsume under the concept
illusion. As we shall see in the next chapter, both Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists
think that we largely inhabit a world that is our own mental construction. What we
think is real is essentially a projection of our hopes and fears. This causes suffering,
as reality repeatedly fails to meet our expectations.
A common response to suffering, including everyday frustrations, is resentment,
or vengeful feelings. We perceive others as weak, malicious or ignorant as we seek
causal explanations for our unhappiness. In Buddhism, these feelings count as
catastrophic. Their karmic repercussions are more sufferings in lifetimes to come.
Similarly, Nietzsche says

'Your revenge rebounds upon you yourself when you defame something' (DD para
214 p.134)

The Sixth Patriarch of Zen says the cure for resentment is the adoption of the
following principle:

'When others are wrong I am in the wrong. When I have done wrong I alone am to
blame' (WD 27)

The person who seethes with resentment is thereby unhappy. There is a clear sense in
which he is the author of his own unhappiness. If he could stop the resentment he
would be less unhappy. This psychological self-destruction is explicit in Buddhism.
Narada Mahathera says

'We ourselves are responsible for our own happiness and misery. We create our own
heavens. We create our own hells. We are the architects of our own fate' (WD 17)

Nevertheless, neither Nietzsche nor the Zen Buddhists envision a straightforward
transition from suffering to happiness. There is a philosophical problem standing in
the way of this. Happiness and unhappiness are dialectically related. In a quasi
Hegelian sense, happiness and unhappiness are antithetical. Although semantically,
psychologically and ontologically, opposites, happiness and unhappiness are
mutually dependent on all three levels. It follows that one can no more abolish
unhappiness and leave happiness as a residue that one may abolish up so that there
remains only down. This dialectical dependence is implicit in Nietzsche's remark:

'without our ready tolerance of pain we should have to give up too many pleasures!'
(DD para.354 p.166)

It is a commonplace (inexplicable by evolutionary theory) that many pleasurable
human activities cause us suffering. Harmful and addictive drugs such as alcohol,
heroin and nicotine bring disease and death. Sexual relationships might bring
anxiety, emotional trauma, and disease. Overeating causes obesity and heart disease.
These are specific instances of the dependence of happiness on unhappiness.
Nietzsche says

'happiness and misfortune are brother and sister' (GS 267)

Nietzsche calls his suffering his dog:

'My Dog. - I have given a name to my suffering, and call it "dog", - it is just as
other dog' (GS 244)

The metaphor is in many ways apposite. Suffering is faithful because it follows with
inevitability certain kinds of thought and action. Suffering is importunate and
shameless because it appears irrespective of one's wishes to the contrary. It is
entertaining because it is just about possible to view suffering with wry, cynical,
humour. It is wise because it teaches you about life. Nietzsche has already pointed
out that we are ironically attached to our suffering. We are also attached to pet dogs.
If Nietzsche were to push the metaphor to its Zen conclusion he would have to advise
freeing the dog.
Despite, or perhaps because of, their endorsement of the quasi-Hegelian identity
(ie, mutual dependency) between happiness and unhappiness, Nietzsche and the Zen
Buddhists think this opposition may be transcended in a higher form of happiness.
The transcendence is quasi-Hegelian because it is dialectical (or more accurately,
'speculative') even though both Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists reject the Hegelian
idea of Geist, or any spiritual connotation to higher happiness.
The new happiness of the bermensch, or the person in Satori, is the result of
rejecting conventional values and the patterns of desires that supervene on them. This
is not just an intellectual rejection. It is insight into the value system as only
psychological. Nietzsche thinks that even those people who suffer little in the
ordinary course of things do not approach the superior happiness of the bermensch:

ones!' (GS 266-7)

The Zen Buddhist in Satori is not emotionally affected by ordinary suffering.
Nietzsche says of the bermensch:

'the clamour of the present day, the noise of wars and revolutions, ought to be a
murmur to thee' (GS 268)

However, both feel compassion towards those who suffer, and both seek to advance
ordinary sufferers to the higher happiness. Despite his cynicism about philosophies
of compassion, Nietzsche says:

'Thou wilst also want to help, but only those whose distress thou entirely
understandest' (GS 268)

Full compassion presupposes full understanding of happiness. Only the bermensch
has that, because only the bermensch has experience of it.
Those in Satori and the bermenschen form a community, which Nietzsche calls
a 'fellowship in joy'. (GS 268) The Buddha speaks of as the realm of Satori:

'Disciples, there is a realm in which there is neither earth nor water, fire nor air; nor
endless space, infinite consciousness, nor nothingness; not perceptions nor
nonperceptions. In it there is neither this world nor another, neither sun nor moon. I
call it neither a coming nor a going nor a standing still; not death, nor birth; it is
without basis, change, or stability. Disciples, it is the end of sorrow.' (WD 7)

Is There Any Point in it All?

Why does suffering exist? This question divides into a causal question and a question
about reasons: What causes suffering? and What is the point of suffering? It might be
assumed that evolutionary theory (which Nietzsche favours) explains why there is
suffering: Species evolve pain receptors as warning systems, this facilitates their
survival etc. However, evolutionary theory cannot answer this question: Why does
pain hurt? Of course it looks as though evolution can answer that question: If pain
did not hurt it would not function as a warning system. However, this is giving a
function not a cause of pain hurting. The hard questions are: How come c-fibre
stimulation produces hurt?, What is the hurt itself? This is a version of the mind-
body problem, and the truth of evolutionary theory is not sufficient to answer it.
(Indeed, a neurological cause of adaptive behaviour that did not hurt would seem to
perform the evolutionary task just as well.) I suggest that it is because a person is a
soul that pain hurts. This only seems ridiculous or implausible to modern ears
because the difficulty of the mind-body problem, and the reality of ones own
existence, are underestimated within the modern scientific world-picture. The brain
is only billions and billions of atoms in motion in empty space. That is what the brain
is. C-fibre stimulation, and every other physical occurrence, is only billions and
billions of atoms in motion in empty space. Now, the hurting sensation of pain is not
one atom. It is not several atoms. It is not billions of atoms, no matter how arranged.
A hurting sensation is something qualitatively distinct from billions of atoms in
motion. The prospects of a scientific materialist explanation of pain are therefore
precisely zero. Scientific materialism has never told us anything about pain qua pain
and never will. Scientific materialism only ever tells us about matter in motion, and
pain is not matter in motion.
Although c-fibre stimulation is physical, public and scientifically observable,
the sensation of pain is non-physical, private, and opaque to science. The explanation
of pains being inner and private is its pertaining to the soul, its being felt or
undergone. Although c-fibre stimulation is a (contingently) necessary condition for
pain it is not sufficient. The occurrence of a sensation of hurt in the soul is sufficient
for pain. That is the causal explanation of pain.
The question still remains: What is the reason why suffering exists? Indeed, it
is one of the stock objections to the existence of God that suffering exists: God is
omniscient, omnipotent and benevolent. It is bad that suffering exists. Therefore,
either God does not know there is suffering (and he is is not omniscient) or God
cannot prevent the suffering (and he is not omnipotent) or he does not care to prevent
the suffering (and he is not benevolent). If God lacks one of these attributes he is not
God, or God does not exist.
It looks as though there could be a world without suffering, and this would be a
better world. However, I suggest a world without suffering is for two reasons
Firstly, a world without suffering would be a world without joy. One might
was well ask for a world which only contains happiness as ask for light without dark
or up without down or here without there. Suffering and happiness are opposites, but
opposites are mutually dependent, so a world with no pain, no death, no
bereavement, no frustration would also be a world with no pleasure, no life, no
attachment, no fulfilment. Is it better that there should be a world with both pain and
happiness rather than neither? I suggest it is. A world with neither would be a bland,
insipid, neutral world (if these value judgements are even applicable to a world with
neither suffering nor happiness). When Luther was asked whether happiness is the
goal of human life he replied: Happiness? No. Leiden! Leiden! Kreuz! Kreuz!
(Suffering! suffering; the Cross, the Cross!) (quoted by Sir Isaiah Berlin in Bryan
Magee Men of Ideas BBC, London, 1978 p. 22). I suggest that in a world without
suffering there would be nothing to live against. Being fully human entails facing
those human challenges presented by suffering. (Indeed, it is within the technological
and political power of todays decision-makers to cure or remove a great deal of
suffering from the world but they do not do this.) The Nietzsche scholar Daniel
Came has distinguished senses in which Nietzsche thinks suffering can be beautiful
and provide an aeswthetic enriching of life. Nietzsche is much closer to the Christian
than he realises. For the Christian, there is beauty in Christs terrible suffering on the
cross, spiritual beauty in Christ in his suffering.
Secondly, suppose, as Nietzsche rejects, God made the universe. If we
understand with clarity the question: Why is there a universe? we see with equal
clarity that the only plausible answer is: God made the universe. The reality which
makes any plausible answer true is (in some non-spatial sense of outside) outside
the universe. Whatever it is is not physical, or it would be part of the universe.
Whatever it is is powerful enough to create the universe and wise enough to contain
the reason for there being a universe. This reality can only be God. Suppose also that
God is perfectly good. It then seems to me that God has to draw a distinction
between what is on the one hand his creation and what is on the other hand a part of
himself. If the universe did not contain suffering the universe would be an extension
of God, a sort of hand of God. If the universe is Gods creation it has to fall short of
Gods perfection, and this means containing suffering. Does this mean God is not
omnipotent? Not at all. It is not any kind of constraint on Gods (or anyone elses)
power to be unable to do the impossible. It is only a limit on someones power not to
be able to do the possible.
I suggest that Gods action is sufficient for the creation of the universe, and
his sustaining the universe is necessary for its continued existence. However, I doubt
very much that God constantly intervenes in creation in a way that is causally
sufficient for every occurrence. This would not only make human free will
impossible but also, again, blurr the distinction between God and his creation. There
is then a sharp distinction between God and creation.
A kind of deism is by and large true even though, for example in response to prayer,
God intervenes in creation. The response might well not be what we wish for.


It follows from Buddhist doctrine that the world we think inhabit is not the world we
inhabit. This is precisely Nietzsche's view:

'Whatever standpoint of philosophy we may adopt today: from every point of view
thing we can get our eyes on' (BGE para 34 p. 64) (cf also 48 ff.)

What does this mean? The passage bears several mutually consistent interpretations,
but one of them concerns Christianity and another philosophical idealism.
Nietzsche's atheistic perspectivism is partly a sustained philosophical and
historical critique of Christianity. Nietzsche maintains that although the metaphysical
and ethical outlook of the West is essentially Christian, by the mid-nineteenth
century this outlook is in profound crisis. His claim that God is dead is that fewer and
fewer people believe in God. In so far as Christian faith is fundamentally shaken, all
moral values that rely on Christian theological premises are undermined. They lack
justification. It is not so much his own philosophical project to establish a new set of
non-Christian values as to predict and urge the emergence of a new kind of human
being who will freely create non-Christian values of his own: the bermensch. The
bermensch will be beyond good and evil: beyond conventional, western, Christian,
good and evil.
Read this way, the world in which we think we live is the Christian world, a world
not only of other people and physical objects but also the existence of God, the
divinity of Christ, the truth of the resurrection, the fall, purgatory, hell and heaven,
the possibility of eternal salvation or eternal damnation. Nietzsche is saying that on
any kind of philosophy contemporary with his own, atheism is true, or, to put it
another way, this entire theistic world picture is false.
It is indeed possible to view nineteenth century European philosophy as
increasingly atheistic. Although the Danish Lutheran philosophical theologian Sren
Kierkegaard is a strongly committed theist, his bleak and pessimistic existentialism
leaves logical and emotional room for doubting the existence of God. If the leap of
faith can be taken it can be not taken. Although there can be no genuine Christian
faith without the logical possibility of doubt, and if God's existence could be proven
using logic there would be no need for faith, Kierkegaard's theism contrasts with that
of his theistic predecessors. Not only the medieval scholastics, Anselm, Aquinas and
Scotus but also the continental 'rationalists' Descartes, Leibniz and, in a way,
Spinoza, thought the existence of God could be proven. They made strenuous efforts
to prove the existence of God by philosophical argument. The arguments against
arguments deployed by Hume in The Treatise of Human Nature and by Kant in The
Critique of Pure Reason seemed to cast doubt on the possibility of proving the
existence of God, and thereby contributed to the nineteenth century atheism
Nietzsche draws our attention to. Nevertheless Kant attempted an 'ethical' proof of
God's existence in his moral philosophy. Kierkegaard does not even attempt that.
Was Hegel a theist? Although in his private life the early nineteenth century
German idealist espoused an orthodox protestantism, it is far from clear that this is
logically consistent with the dialectical progress of Spirit as depicted in his The
Phenomenology of Spirit. It is his considered philosophical view that Spirit, or Geist,
is the totality of what is. The whole of existence is Geist and if Geist is God then God
is not only transcendent but also immanent in a way that pervades the spatio-
temporal universe. God is what is. This pantheistic 'improvement' on Christianity,
according to which human finite minds are aspects of one infinite mind or
consciousness might well not be endorsed by an orthodox Christian. It is certainly
not entailed by Christianity. It is a kind of Neo-Platonism.
Nietzsche's contemporaries are more obviously atheistic. Schopenhauer was an
atheist. Franz Brentano, the Austian philosophical psychologist, and Edmund
Husserl, the Moravian phenomenologist if not atheists, provide God with no role in
their 'empirical psychology' and early phenomenology respectively. The Kantian
critique of the possibility of the proof of God's existence has been endorsed largely
without question. In every significant pre-Kantian philosophy since the middle ages,
with the exception of Hume's, God had a positive role. By Nietzsche's time, overtly
at least, God has next to no philosophical role.
Nietzsche might well not have had this specific list of thinkers in mind when he
remarked on the rise of atheism. They do show however that his historical claim is
right. Although not all Buddhism is atheistic, Zen is clearly atheistic. Zen is not only
consistent with Nietzsche's philosophy on this point but consistent with much
nineteenth century European philosophy.
Just as Nietzsche's philosophy is an atheistic reaction against Christianity, so
Buddhist philosophy as a whole may be regarded as an atheistic reaction against the
metaphysics of Hinduism and Vedanta.


On the other hand, we may examine Nietzsche's claim that the world in which
we think we live is erroneous in relation to idealism. The kinds of idealism in
philosophy essentially have in common the thesis that reality is ultimately mental.
Someone who believes that is an idealist. Someone who does not is not an idealist.
For example, Berkeley's thesis that in the case of physical objects to be is to be
perceived (esse est percipi), by a finite or infinite mind, is an idealist thesis. Hegel's
view that reality is ultimately dialectically constituted by Geist is an idealist thesis.
Nietzsche's contemporary, the English philosopher F.H. Bradley thinks that the set of
all the perspectives of finite minds is the Absolute, so he is an idealist. Kant is
usually read as an idealist because his 'transcendental idealism' is usually taken to
imply that empirical reality is psychologically constructed and the world as it is in
itself is not spatio-temporal (and, therefore, not physical).
Now, although he shares Kants perspectivism, it is clear that in all these senses
of 'idealism' Nietzsche is not an idealist. Nietzsche thinks he is not doing
metaphysics but idealism is a kind of metaphysics. When he says the world we think
we live in is erroneous, he means it is not true. It is not the true world, as the world of
a work of fiction is not the true world. He asks rhetorically

'Why could the world which is of any concern to us - not be a fiction? (BGE para 34

Rather as someone reading a novel or watching a play is immersed in a world that is
not real, so we in our daily lives are preoccupied with a world that concerns us that is
not real. Nietzsche is suggesting that we live in an imaginary world.
Now, there is no reason to take this to mean that the ordinary physical objects
and the other people who surround us exist only in our imaginations. Nietzsche does
not hold that and, so far as I can tell, no philosopher has held that. However, what we
take the world of objects and people to be is something that is only imaginary. We
project onto the world our own hopes and fears, our desires and limitations. We try to
use the world as a means to our own ends and this largely takes the form of
perceiving it or conceiving it as a means to our ends. Nietzsche thinks we live out our
lives in this imaginary or fictitious way. Much of our mental time is taken up with
hoping, fearing, phantasising, worrying, in ways that correspond to very little outside
our minds.
Nietzsche is aware of a possible limitation of the analogy with works of fiction.
A work of fiction has an author, but one is not in any clear or direct sense the author
of the imaginary world in which one lives out one's life. Nietzsche says:

'And he who then objects: "but to the fiction there belongs an author?" - could he not
be met with the round retort: why?' (BGE para 34 p. 66)

From the fact that a work of fiction has an author it does not follow that that author is
an original creator. An originator causes to exist something original, something
without precedent, perhaps even without partial precedent. An originator creates
something ex nihilo. An originator creates perhaps with freedom and undetermined
spontaneity. An originator is a point of origin from which something emanates. Now,
even if we are the authors of our own imaginary life-worlds, and even if a writer is
the author of a work of fiction, it is doubtful that either is an originator in this very
strong sense. The causal chain that runs from the author to his imaginary product has
an origin that predates his work (if it has any kind of origin). A creator is caused to
create. A creator is caused to create what he creates.
Nietzsche is not an idealist because he denies that only the mental is real. He
does not think our imaginary world is the only world, or the real world. It is
erroneous because it contrasts with the real, true, or practical world. It is a fiction
because it is not a fact. Nevertheless, only our imaginary world is given to us as real:

'Granted that nothing is "given" as real except our world of desires and passions
[...]'(BGE para 36 p.66)

Nietzsche's claim is ambiguous between the thesis that no one is ever directly
acquainted with anything except the contents of their own minds and, on the other
hand, the thesis that our psychological preconceptions makes a difference to what is
presented to us, how it strikes us. Read the first way, Nietzsche is embracing the
quasi-Lockean view that I only directly know my own mind. Read the second way,
Nietzsche is endorsing the quasi-Kantian view that one's preconceptions alter, or
partly determine, the contents of ones perception.
Each view generates a different kind, or perhaps degree, of scepticism. On the
quasi-Kantian view, the external world exists but it is not as we perceive it. It
follows, at least psychologically, that we cannot perceive the world as it really is. We
are cognitively ill-equipped to do that. Indeed, we are equipped to do the opposite.
On the quasi-Lockean view, there might not be an external world. From the fact that
one's own mental states exist it does not follow that there is an external world. Ones
experience could be just like this even if there is no external world. From the fact that
one has a mind, and is directly acquainted with its contents, there is no valid
inference to the existence of anything outside that mind.
Nietzsche is aware of both kinds of scepticism but it is that generated by the quasi-
Kantian view that he is drawing our attention to when he says

'this which is "given" does not suffice, for an understanding even of the so-called
mechanical (or "material") world' (BGE para 36 p.66)

Here the mechanical (or material) world is assumed to exist but this assumption is
undermined on the quasi-Lockean view. The material world is at best be postulated
as a causal explanation of one's mental states. By 'this which is "given"' Nietzsche
means our world of desires and passions. By 'our counterparts' he means our thoughts
which more is less correspond to what they are about in the external world. Now,
Nietzsche is saying that our imaginary world, the psychologically constructed world
of desire in which we live, cannot provide any kind of explanation for what happens
in the material world, the world outside our minds. It is in this sense that the world in
which we think we live is erroneous. If we construe our thoughts as about the
external world most of them are false, rather as if we construe our desires as about
the external world most of them are unfulfilled. Indeed, most of them are desires for
things that do not even exist outside our depictions in thoughts and cravings.
So, far from being an idealist, Nietzsche is saying that as a matter of practical fact
we are not nearly so preoccupied with the real physical world, including other
people, as we think we are. What we normally think of as the real world is really
spun by our imagination. This is incompatible with idealism because it includes the
view that there really exists a physical world that is ontologically independent of our
psychologies. For all these reasons, I think Nietzsche has understood himself
correctly when he explicitly distances himself from certain idealists. He says of the
illusory or erroneous world

'I do not mean as a deception, an "appearance", an "idea" (in the Berkeleyan and
Schopenhaueran sense), but as possessing the same degree of reality as our emotions
themselves' (BGE para 36 p. 66)

Idealism is the attempt to reduce the external world to the internal world, to reduce
the physical to the mental, the objective to the subjective. Idealists typically wish to
translate claims about material reality into claims about non-material appearance.
Nietzsche is not attempting any such reduction. Indeed, he is trying to do precisely
the opposite. It is the fact that the external world cannot be logically reduced to our
imaginary projections that makes the latter erroneous or imaginary. The external
world is not the imaginary world.
Nietzsche thinks the content of our fictional world has as much reality as our
emotions. Both are psychological. Both are felt or undergone. Both matter to us. We
spend a great deal of mental time in both. Both are non-physical. Neither is part of
the external world. Neither is either true of the external world: not our thought-world
because it is erroneous, not our emotions because they are not the sorts of things that
could be true or false.

Eating the Menu

Crucially, the Buddhist doctrine is no more idealist than Nietzsche. There is no
doubt about this. Alan Watts warns from the outset that any idealist reading wil be

'Maya [...] in trying to grasp its meaning one must try to put aside the various
"idealist" philosophies of the West with which it is often confused - even by modern
Indian Vedantists' (WZ 40)

Maya, like the fictitious thought-world of Nietzsche, is an illusion that we
mistake for the external world. In both philosophies, that there does exist an external
world makes the illusion the illusion.
Having said this, there are many passages in Buddhist scripture which seem to lend
support to an idealist construal . The fact is that maya does have a radically
metaphysical and idealist meaning in the pre Buddhist philosophies of Vedanta and
Hinduism from which Buddhism tries to distance itself. In Buddhism, maya is
understood in a psychological rather than a metaphysical manner. I shall present
some seemingly idealist construals in Buddhism and suggest non-idealist or weak
idealist reading of them.
In the third series of his Essays in Zen D.T. Suzuki reports a conversation
between Subutu and the Buddha. The Buddha asks Subhutu:

'Do you think Maya to be different from Rupam ['form'] and Rupam from Maya?'
(ZB3 264)

Subhutu replies:

'No, Blessed One, they are not different. If Rupam is different from Maya, it is not
Rupam; if Maya is different from Rupam, it is not Maya. Maya is Rupam and Rupam
is Maya' (ZB3 264)

The Pali word rupam has several senses corresponding to philosophical uses of
'form'. 'Form' (besides narrowly meaning 'shape') denotes what something is. In this
sense, it is semantically equivalent to 'essence' where something's essence is what
that thing is. If we read rupam to mean 'essence' then it is difficult to avoid a strongly
idealist reading if maya and rupam are identical: Maya is illusion, mere
psychological phenomena, but rupam is maya so rupam is illusion, mere
psychological phenomena. If rupam is essence, what everything is, then what
everything is, is illusion, mere pyschological phenomena.
One way of reading Kant's Critique of Pure Reason entails that the form of what is
(or is presented to us) is psychologically imposed by the human mind. For example,
on this reading, it is taken seriously that space and time are forms of intuition and
appearances are rendered spatio-temporal by our perceptual faculties' apprehension
of them. Similarly, the categories of unity, plurality, causation, and so on, are
cognitively imposed on any sensory input to make it what it is, or at least, what it is
to us. On this reading of Kant, it is not too misleading to say that the form, or the
essence, of the world is psychologically imposed upon it by us. Nevertheless the
existence of the world does not depend upon us. As a reading of Kant this
interpretation is open to many criticisms which we cannot pursue here. (For example,
with dubious consistency, Existence, or at least Dasein, is a Kantian category and so
cannot be used to refer to a world beyond experience as this interpretation requires).
What matters is that this reading of Kant looks very much like the doctrine as rupam
as agreed between Subhutu and the Buddha. However enticing this analogy, it must
be misleading if Alan Watts is right that maya cannot be understood on the model of
Western idealism.
Another possibility is this. The medieval scholastic philosophers, following
Aristotle, drew an important distinction between form and matter. In the case of a
physical object, for example, St. Thomas Aquinas maintains that the matter of the
object is the existing material or substance that the object is composed of. The form
of the object is what the object is, the set of its properties. The properties of the
object are the properties of the matter or substance that compose it. Now, in the
perception of a physical object, or in the thought of a physical object, Aquinas
maintains that the form but not the matter of the object enter the mind. It could be
that this Thomist epistemology is closer to the idea than the quasi-Kantian model. Of
course, there is one glaring asymmetry. In the case of mentally apprehending the
form of an object according to Aquinas we perceive or think veridically but in the
case we think or perceive erroneously. Nevertheless the thesis that form is in the
mind is common to both philosophies.
Subhutu adopts a position which is equally open to an idealist construal when
he says:

'no distinction is to be made between all things and Maya or a dream; there is indeed
between them no dualistic contrast' (ZB3 266)

This claim admits of a Cartesian interpretation. Descartes, in the First Meditation,
entertains the sceptical logical possibility that the whole of his life is a dream. It
follows on this account that 'all things', or at least what we take to be 'all things',
would be a dream. Although Descartes' ontology is mind-body dualism, which is
inconsistent with idealism, the sceptical possibility of life being a dream entails
idealism because it implies that the physical objects that we ordinarily take to
constitute the external world have only a psychological existence. Although
Subhutu's claim does not rule out the Cartesian interpretation, there is nothing to
force it either. To see this we may adopt a suggestion of Alan Watts. Watts says

'To say [...] that the world of facts and events is maya is to say that the facts and
events are terms of measurement rather than realities of nature' (WZ 39)

On this understanding we make a mistake, a pervasive and systematic mistake. We
mistake our world-picture for the world. We mistake clock time for real time. We
mistake feet and inches for physical distances. We mistake words and concepts for
real things. We mistake our imaginings for the attitudes or behaviour of other
people. In Watts' acute image, we eat the menu.
If we eat the menu, it is not surprising that we feel uncomfortable. One reason why
eating the menu is a mistake is that we neglect the meal. Living in ones imagination
is not real living. On this view , maya is a representation, but not an accurate
representation. Our problem is that we think the representation is itself reality.
A menu is of course written in a language. Watts thinks that language is essential to

'words are the frames , the meshes of its net' (WZ 45)

It is a familiar thought, from, for example Augustine, Vico and Kant, that the way in
which the world is presented to us partly depends upon our linguistic taxonomy. In
the crude and hackneyed metaphor, as a fishing net lets some fish pass through but
captures others, so a language allows thought and talk about some things but not
others. Just as a fishing catch might not be a representative sample of all the kinds of
fish there are in the sea, so the ontology facilitated by a language might not be a true
depiction of all there is. Just as the fish caught in our net are the only ones that break
the surface of the water, so only the objects depicted in our language break into
consciousness. Languages are pragmatic. They allow us to perceive only enough of
things to allow us to 'get by' in the world. We perceive objects essentially as means to
our ends. We perceive only as much of an object as is necessary for it to serve those
In Subhutu's conversation with the Buddha, we may read 'all things' to mean all
things we believe in or all things we take to be real. It is those things which exist in a
dream. The dream is in fact a day dream. Subutu is claiming that we ordinarily
underestimate the extent to which our lives are spent day-dreaming. Much of what
we take to be cognitive contact with the external world is in fact just day-dream.
Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists speak of the bermensch or enlightened person
as awake, or awakened. The dream from which these people have awakened is not
nocturnal but the impressionistic sequence of day-dreams, which constitutes our
conscious life, from when we wake up in the morning to when we go to sleep at
night. The psychological difference between being awakened from ordinary day-
dream consciousness and being subject to it is much greater than the psychological
difference between being awake and being asleep, despite the appropriateness of
using 'awake' or 'awakened' in both cases.
This transition from conditioned living to Enlightenment entails the exposure . The
Buddha taught that:

'these five clinging Skandhas are no more than Maya itself' (ZB3 264) cf fn.

Skandha is usually translated as 'aggregate' or 'element'. The five skandhas are form
(rupam), sensation (vedana), thought (samjna), conformation (samskara), and
consciousness (vijnana). The empirical world, as we take it to be, is constituted
through these five routes.
There is a strong affinity on the one hand between the Buddhist doctrine and
Nietzsche's perspectivism and, on the other hand, between the 'Buddha nature' and
Nietzsche's concept of the Will to Power. The content , and Nietzsche's
perspectivism, is the conditioned empirical world. Its appearing as it does depends
upon the subjective point of view of the perceiver. The Buddha nature for Buddhists,
and the Will to Power for Nietzsche, is fundamentally all there is. The existence of
anything else depends logically, causally, or in some other way, on the Buddha
nature or the Will to Power. In both philosophies, the dispelling of illusion is
revelatory of underlying practical reality. Nietzsche says

'The world seen from within, the world defined and designated according to its
"intelligible character" - it would simply be "Will to Power," and nothing else' (BGE

Suzuki says

'To understand the Maya theory is to perceive the suchness of things' (ZB3 267)

What is What is?

If the world is an illusion, two questions are presupposed: Who is subject to the
illusion? and What is reality?
According to Nietzsche and Zen, no-one is subject to the illusion. Indeed, that
there is anyone to be deceived is itself part of the illusion. If this were the case, I
think we would have to give up talking about illusion here. Unless someone or
something is, or could, be deceived it does not make any sense to talk about an
illusion. In particular, the self or the subject cannot be an illusion. Otherwise, who
or what would be subject to the illusion that there is a self or subject? If there is the
putative illusion of the self or subject, there is a self or subject. Therefore, the Zen
and Nietzschean doctrine that the world, including the self, is an illusion is self
refuting. It is false. Indeed, it might well be an illusion.
According to Nietzsche, there is no reality to contrast with illusion. There is no
such thing as the way what is really is, to contrast with its illusory nature. On the Zen
view, either a view like Nietzsches is right, or else there is the emptiness of Satori,
which is beyond the duality of illusion and reality. Now, it does not make much
sense to say that there is illusion or deception but no reality. If nothing is the case, it
is impossible to be tricked into the false view that something is the case. It follows
that Nietzsches view that there is no reality, only illusion, is false. Of course
Nietzsche might still be right that the world as we ordinarily experience it is
presented to us in a perspectival way, and its appearance is constituted by power
relations. This might be importantly right. However, perspectives are perspectives
on, that is, they are perspectives on something rather than nothing. If there are no
facts, only interpretations, something is interpreted. The question is; What?
There is profound insight in the Buddhist view that it is possible to transcend the
dualities of the empirical world. It is important to Zen that there should be meditative
practice rather than the posing of metaphysical questions. Nevertheless, we might
ask, What is Satori? Is Satori the disclosure of an ultimate metaphysical reality?
Satori is beyond being and nothingness. Satori is beyond becoming. Becoming is the
transition from being to nothingness or from nothingness to being. In Satori there is
the cessation of becoming and, therefore, the cessation from being to nothingness or
nothingness to being. Nevertheless, I hesitate to call this the transcendence of being
and nothingness. I accept it is the transcendence of the empirical world, of this being
this way, that being that way. It is, in my view, a synthesis of being and nothingness
which I call no-thing-ness. No-thing-ness is a reality but not a physical or mental
reality. Although, Zen practicioners will not engage in metaphysics, only practice, I
maintain that no-thing-ness is a spiritual reality.


The question 'What am I?' is not the question 'Is a human being wholly physical ?'
but the two are logically related. For example, if I am a human being, and if a human
being is wholly physical, then I am wholly physical. If I am an irreducibly subjective
and spiritual source of consciousness, and a human being is wholly physical, then I
am not a human being. Implicit in the aphoristic writings of Nietzsche and Zen are
answers to these two questions. Their considered view is that the self is nothing, and
a human being is best viewed as a psycho-physical process. In reaching these
conclusions they evaluate alternative philosophies of mind.
Nietzsche repudiates a kind of mind-body dualism and endorses a kind of
materialism when he says

'"Body am I, and soul" - so saith the child. [...]
But the awakened one, the knowing one, saith:
in the body." (Z 35)

Nietzsche has no argument here but tendentiously presents the dualist as immature
and the materialist as 'awakened'. It is common to Nietzsche and Zen to ground
philosophical views and their rejection in experience, or insight, rather than through
a priori argument. In particular, the person who is awake sees through metaphysical
illusion. Although the thesis that I am a body and a soul entails mind-body dualism,
not every kind of mind-body dualism entails the existence of the soul. Dualism is the
doctrine that nothing mental is physical, and nothing physical is mental, but both
mental and physical items exist. For example, thoughts are mental on a dualist view
and no thought is identical with any brain process. Perceptions are mental on a
dualist view but no perception is identical with the physiology associated with it.
Nobody who holds these views is thereby committed to the existence of the soul. The
doctrine that the soul exists does not of itself entail mind-body dualism because it is
consistent with idealism; the thesis that there are only minds, or only minds and their
contents. The existence of the soul only entails mind-body dualism on the
assumption that there are bodies and a person is, in a sense, both body and soul. This
kind of dualism, according to which there are both mental and physical substances, is
notably endorsed by Plato, St. Augustine, Descartes and the Hinduism of the
Baghavad-Gita to which Buddhism, including Zen is a partial reaction. When
Nietzsches claim Body am I entirely is inconsistent with both kinds of dualism and
contributes to answering 'What am I ?'. It rules out the soul on the assumption that
the soul is not physical and the soul is putatively what I am. It does not fully answer
'What am I ?' because it is left wholly obscure what I have said about myself when I
have said that I am my body. It is reasonably clear what I am being identified with:
that living biological organism known as a human body. It is far less clear what it is
that is claimed to be that when I am claimed to be that. What makes I am my body
true ? Nietzsche has no answer to this question. Nietzsche's position is inconsistent
with the weaker kind of mind-body dualism on which there are mental events that are
not physical, but no soul. Soul is only the name of something in the body means that
mentality is only a physical property of the body. Thinking, for example, is only a
neurological process in the brain.
Although part of Nietzsche's strategy is to debunk spirituality as metaphysical
illusion, by reducing the spiritual and mental to the physical, his considered position
is not materialist. He thinks that a human being is their life (or lives) and aspects of
the life process may be thought of as mental, or physical, or neither. Nietzsche uses
materialism as a philosophical weapon against mind-body dualism, theism, and other
metaphysical theories but once it has been used he is happy to relinquish it. A similar
pragmatic emphasis on the physical world, and denigration of metaphysical
spirituality, can be found in Buddhism. In The Diamond Sutra, which recounts the
former lives of the Buddha, Siddhartha Gotama himself says

'when my body was cut to pieces by the king of Kalinga, I had neither the idea of an
ego, nor the idea of a person, nor the idea of a being, nor the idea of a soul' (ZNM
120/MZB 51)

Read one way, the Buddha is saying that in facing death he was facing the
destruction of his body not the destruction of something mental or immaterial. In his
previous incarnations the Buddha was not yet an enlightened being and so feared
death. Presented with dismemberment by the king of Kalinga, what he feared in
fearing his own destruction was the destruction of his body. The destruction of his
body is necessary and sufficient for his own destruction. This view is based on the
pragmatics of ordinary fear, not on metaphysical belief or a priori argument. Like
Nietzsche, the Buddha is presenting the identification of oneself with one's body as
the realistic view, the view one adopts in living practice rather than when doing
metaphysics or theology. Not only were the ideas of ego, person, being, and soul not
sufficient to dispel the immediate fear of death through dismemberment, these
philosophical concepts were not even present to his mind. Read another way, the
Buddha is saying that in his experience of dying he did not encounter ego, person,
being, or soul. These concepts do not denote anything in the transition from life to
death. In describing what it is to die, we should not have recourse to them because
dying is the destruction of the body. On both interpretations, death is a test of
metaphysics. In fearing death, our fear is for our body. In dying, it is the body that
dies. Practically, I am not my ego. Practically, I am my body. Nietzsche says:

'An instrument of the body is also thy little sagacity, my brother, which thou callest
"spirit"' (Z 36)


'"Ego," sayest thou, and art proud of that word. But the greater thing - in which thou
art unwilling to believe - is thy body with its big sagacity; it saith not "ego," but
doeth it' (Z 36)

My ego is my idea of myself, not myself. It is that constellation of images and
emotions which depicts me as the enduring psychological subject of my experiences.
In fact, according to Nietzsche, my body is the subject of all my experiences
including the idea of the ego. The existence of the body is a necessary condition for
the existence of the ego but the existence of the ego is not a necessary condition for
the existence of the body. The ego is something that is done by the body. The ego is
an activity not a thing. What I take to be myself is in fact a psychological activity of
my body. What I take to be my wisdom, or my ego's wisdom, is nothing. The body
has a 'greater' wisdom in its instincts and desires. The thesis that the ego is not a
thing but a kind of activity, or at least the trace of an activity, is also in Zen. Alan
Watts says

'...the ego exists in an abstract sense alone, being an abstraction from memory,
somewhat like the illusory circle of fire made by a whirling torch' (WZ 47)

If something is abstract then it has no real existence and no real causal efficacy. It is
a theoretical or psychological by-product, perhaps as numbers are abstractions from
counting, or mathematical points abstractions from the measuring of physical space.
It is the result of thinking as a thing something that is not a thing. Of course, the
circle of fire produced by a whirling torch does exist. There is a difference between
such a circle being produced in the air and no such circle being produced. The point
is that the circle is not real. This means it is not a self-sufficient entity that could exist
without the conditions that produce it. Because it is an activity, or the trace of an
activity, it is not a substance. Similarly, if I think about myself, the concretion of
memories should not be mistaken for what I am. Nor should it be taken as something
substantial, or self sufficient, which could exist without the activity of remembering.
Hinduism, and the philosophy of Vedanta which is its origin, includes a
doctrine of atman or self, or soul. In Vedanta, the individual human soul is ultimately
understood to be a part of the one universal or cosmic soul. It is the aim of the
practical philosophy called yoga (or 'union') to bring about the spiritual fusion of the
individual soul with the universal soul. (The English word yoke, denoting that
which unites two oxen as a pair, is derived from the Sanskrit yoga). In this rather
Neo-Platonist, or proto-Hegelian, philosophy the actual spiritual fusion is the same as
the practitioner's realisation of this fusion. In later Hinduism, the individuality of the
atman is retained in its immortality and the soul is not dissolved in the cosmic soul.
In its reaction against Vedanta and Hinduism, Buddhism, and therefore Zen,
repudiates both the doctrine of the individual soul and the universal soul. It holds the
opposite of the atman doctrine or 'anatman, absence of any self' (WZ 46). Alan
Watts describes the anatman doctrine as follows

'anatman might be expressed in the form, "The true Self is non-Self," since any
attempt to conceive the Self, believe in the Self, or seek for the Self immediately
thrusts it away' (WZ 47)

Two mutually inconsistent ideas need separating here. One is: there is no self, the
other is: there is a self but it is systematically elusive. The claim that 'the true Self is
non-Self' is the thesis that there is no psychic subject of one's own experiences, no
inner source of one's own thoughts and experiences. If we can still properly talk of a
true self, it is those experiences, or perhaps the series of psycho-physical events that
constitutes a life. This is an ontological doctrine, a doctrine about what does or does
not exist. It is not compatible with the view that there is an inner psychological self
which cannot itself be the object of thought and experience. On this view, the self is
that which thinks and so cannot be thought. It is that which experiences, and so
cannot be experienced. It is that which believes, so cannot be believed in. It is itself
the seeker and so cannot be found. The subjective self is, so to speak, so subjective
that it cannot ever be properly construed as objective.
It might be thought that this doctrine of the elusive nature of the self embodies
a logical fallacy. From the fact that the self is that which thinks and experiences it
would seem not to follow as a matter of logic that it cannot itself be thought or
experienced. In a way that is right. The inference is invalid. However, the point is
that as object of thought the self is not the subject of thought and as object of
experience the self is not subject of experience. Thinking of something is necessarily
thinking of it as an object of thought. Experiencing something is necessarily
experiencing it as an object of experience. This does not preclude also thinking of it,
or experiencing it as a subject, but it does at least present a psychological obstacle to
doing that. To draw an analogy, in seeing something, the eye that sees does not see
the eye that sees. This is not due only to contingent anatomical facts about the
location of the eyeball in the human body. It is also due to the fact that eyeballs are
subjective, they are part of the subjective standpoint of the seer. This whole doctrine
is not only ontological it is also epistemological. It is not only about what does or
does not exist, it is also about what we can or cannot know. It implies we cannot
know what we are, or, at least, we cannot know through ordinary methods of
thinking or experiencing what we are.
It is the first of the two doctrines about the self that Watts needs. It is not part of
Buddhism that there exists an inner, systematically elusive self. It is the Buddhist
doctrine that there is no self. As Suzuki puts it:

'Muga, wu-wo, anutman, 'non-ego', selflessness' [...] is the central concept of
Buddhism, both Hinayana and Mahayana' (ZNM 120)

Watts himself says

'It is fundamental to every school of Buddhism that there is no ego, no enduring
entity which is the constant subject of our changing experiences' (WZ 47)

Sense and Spirit

It is common to Nietzsche and Zen that human beings are subject to two kinds of
illusion, one empirical, the other metaphysical. Both are sources of suffering. Both
are distractions from the living of life. The empirical illusion is our belief in the
overwhelming reality of existence as it presents itself to us through the five senses
(or, in Buddhism, six senses. The mind is a sense.) The metaphysical illusion is the
belief in a spiritual world. Nietzsche says

'Sense and spirit would fain persuade thee that they are the end of all things: so vain
are they' (Z 36)

According to our scientific, theological, commonsensical or philosophical
persuasions we disagree about whether ultimate reality is spiritual or physical. The
common mistake according to Nietzsche is to assume that there is any such ultimate
reality. Nietzsche's philosophy is diagnostic, practical and prescriptive, rather than a
world-picture. The transition from Mensch to bermensch may be understood on the
Buddhist model of a way, or path, or dhamma. Nietzsche cannot avoid making
metaphysical assumptions , any more than Zen or any other putatively anti-
metaphysical philosophy. Overtly however, Nietzsche and Zen eschew depictions of
ultimate reality of the sort found in, for example, Plato, Leibniz or Spinoza or Hegel.
Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists regard the practice of living and dying as a test of
metaphysical philosophy. They tend to neglect the fact that any practical philosophy
carries implicitly its own metaphysical assumptions.
We can understand the attack on the existence of spirit and the importance of the
senses in Nietzsche and Zen as a critique of rationalism and empiricism in
philosophy. Rationalism is the view that thinking is the best guide to reality (or, more
technically, that there are synthetic a priori propositions which are metaphysical).
Empiricism is the view that experience, paradigmatically sense experience, is the
best guide to reality (or, more technically, there is no metaphysical synthetic a priori
knowledge). Rationalism in itself does not entail the existence of a spiritual world but
many rationalist philosophers have tried to establish the existence of a non-physical
reality by a priori means: the Socratic soul, Platonic Forms, Cartesian minds,
Leibnizian monads, the Hegelian Geist. Many empiricist philosophers have believed
in God and the soul, Locke and Berkeley for example, but belief is insufficient for
knowledge and they have usually argued that we cannot know any non-empirical
facts unless we know some empirical facts. Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists are
saying something inconsistent with both Rationalism and Empiricism: There is no
ultimate reality to be known. It follows that there is no ultimate reality to be known
through reason or the senses.
Nevertheless, Nietzsche does not avoid metaphysical commitments of his own.
Here 'the Self' is an ironic name for the body

'Instruments and playthings are sense and spirit: behind them there is still the Self.
The Self seeketh with the eyes of the senses, it harkeneth also with the ears of the
spirit' (Z 36)

Rather like Merleau-Ponty in Phenomenology of Perception Nietzsche depicts
subjectivity as physical. The subject is that which thinks and experiences but the
body is that which thinks and experiences, so the subject is the body. I am that which
has my thoughts and experiences, but my body has my thoughts and experiences, so I
am my body. If there is a semi-elusive self that is the perennial subject of my
experiences, it is my body:

'Ever hearkeneth the Self, and seeketh; it compareth, mastereth, conquereth, and
destroyeth. It ruleth, and is also the ego's ruler' (Z 36)

Nietzsche does not use the word 'brain' in the following passage, and it may plausibly
be read as about the body as a whole. Nevertheless, if we note that the brain is not
usually the direct object of its own experiences and so in that sense 'unknown', or
hidden, then we may read Nietzsche as claiming that the brain is the elusive self:

sage - it is called Self; it dwelleth in thy body, it is thy body' (Z 36)


'Thy Self laugheth at thine ego, and its proud prancings' (Z 36)

The brain is in the body and the brain is part of the body and is arguably the best
non-metaphysical candidate for the 'unknown sage'. Taken with his earlier claims, we
may read Nietzsche as saying that I am not my ego, I am not my soul. I am my brain.

Pain and the Self

The essential aim of Buddhism is life without suffering. Buddhism recognises three
sources of suffering: natural calamities, such as floods and earthquakes, the actions
of other people, and the thoughts in one's own mind. Of these three, the last is
overwhelmingly the greatest source of suffering. It is also the most eliminable. Its
negative emotional power is intimately bound up with the sense of self.
The Buddhist term that is translated 'suffering', dukkha, has the sense not only of
physical and emotional pain but also 'malaise' or 'dissatisfaction'. I suggest dukkha is
most accurately rendered into a European language by the existentialist terms Angst,
angoisse or 'anxiety'. In the writings of the existentialist writers Kierkegaard,
Heidegger and Sartre 'anxiety' does not denote fluctuating unease empirical events,
but an anxiety that pervades life in the fact of death. It is the feeling of not being fully
'at home' in the world, despite the fact that our existence is primordially and
precisely, in the technical terminology of Heidegger and Sartre, being-in-the-world.
This feeling of estrangement from one's life, this feeling that one's life is not all it
could or should be, is common to both existentialism and Zen.
Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists maintain that suffering depends upon the sense of
self or ego. A diminution in the sense of ego leads to a diminution in suffering.
Nietzsche suggests that pain is caused by the body but suffered by the ego. Again 'the
Self' denotes the body:

how it may put an end thereto - and for that very purpose it is meant to think'
(Z 36-7)

The role of the ego in the experience of pain is crucial here. It is the ego that feels the
pain that exists as a sensation in the body. The ego also makes the pain worse. We do
not need to ascribe to Nietzsche the implausible view that the revelation of the ego as
an illusion could eliminate that bodily sensation. However, if the ego is an illusion
then the pain it feels is to the same degree also an illusion. In the experience of pain
there is typically not only the bodily sensation but also uncomfortable psychological
attention paid to that sensation and the desire for the pain to cease. There is the
awkward thought that the pain is happening to me. Pain causes anxiety and, as
Nietzsche says, in pain I think how my pain may be caused to cease. It is these
uncomfortable psychological facts which would cease if the ego were unmasked as
not real. A diminution in the sense of ego causes a diminution of pain.
It is essential to Nietzsche and Zen that there is no pain without pleasure and no
pleasure without pain. Pain and pleasure arise in similar ways, so Nietzsche makes a
parallel causal claim about pleasure:

how it may oftimes rejoice - and for that very purpose it is meant to think' (Z 37)

There is however a crucial asymmetry between the psychology of pain and the
psychology of pleasure. The ego desires no repetition of pain but the ego desires
repetition of pleasure. This desire for the repetition of pleasure is equivalent to part
of the Buddhist doctrine of karma: pleasure creates the desire for pleasure. It is
entailed by Zen, and consistent with what Nietzsche says, that this desire will in
practice frequently be frustrated. It is one of the pervasive frustrations of the life of
the Mensch and the unenlightened person to feel unfulfilled desires. It is not as
though the plethora of desires of the bermensch and the enlightened person are
miraculously fulfilled. Rather, desire arises and falls in these people without being
experienced as desire. Desire does not touch them.
Nietzsche has expressed part of the Buddhist doctrine of karma here because in
Buddhism all attachment to thought is karmic. Te-chan says:

'Cherish an iota of thought, and this will cause karma to work, which puts you on evil
paths' (ZNM 129)

It is the cherishing rather than the thinking which creates the karma. It might seem
strange that Te-chan speaks of cherishing thought, rather than the object of thought;
what the thought is about. Normally we would think of someone desiring a cigarette,
rather than desiring the thought of a cigarette, wishing for a sexual relationship with
someone rather that wishing for the thought of that. It is clear in Zen, however, that
we are attached to our thoughts, rather than to what our thoughts are about. To see
the plausibility in this we have to consider the possibility that we are not emotionally
attached to exactly what we think we are emotionally attached to. Suppose the
putative object of our desire does not exist. In that case we are still emotionally
attached to something but the only plausible candidate for this is something
psychological; an image in the mind's eye perhaps. Even when the objects of desire
exist physically, what we desire still might not be what we think we desire. For
example, we might believe that we desire a sexual relationship with some specific
person we are thinking of. In fact, we may be desiring our own sexual satisfaction
and someone else would do. We might believe we desire a cigarette but, in fact, we
might desire to feed our nicotine addiction and a nicotine patch will do.
As we have seen, it is common to both Nietzsche and Zen that we largely live
out our lives in a mental construct. What we take to be the real world is projected by
our hopes, fears and beliefs. In Zen, this psychological world and its illusory subject
is constructed by the process of living itself. This is consistent with Nietzsche's
process ontology and his repudiation of the psychic subject. Nietzsche often writes as
though the mind is a construct of the body, something psychological that the body
has done. For example, here 'the creating Self' refers to the body:

'The creating Self created for itself esteeming and despising, it created for itself joy
and woe' (Z 37)

The body is the origin of emotion and value. Indeed, the body is the origin of
metaphysical ideas of the self:

'The creating body created for itself spirit, as a hand to its will' (Z 37)

It follows that even when we identify ourselves with our minds, we are really
responding to the desires or interests of the body:

'Even in your folly and despising ye each serve your Self, ye despisers of the body'
(Z 37)

As sometimes happens in Buddhism, here Nietzsche tacitly assumes the existence of
what he is trying to deny. Who are we? On the ontology of these passages we are our
bodies. But if each of us is his body, and each of us 'serves' his body, then it follows
that each person's body serves itself. That is not incoherent, but it is not clear that
Nietzsche realises it is an implication of his position. Nietzsche thinks death is a
hidden teleology of the body:

'I tell you, your very very Self wanteth to die, and turneth away from life' (Z 37)

Although Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal return implies that each person lives an
infinite number of qualitatively identical lives, it does not have to be the case that
numerically the same body exists across those distinct lifetimes for that qualitative
identity to hold. A qualitatively identical body would do just as well, so long as
personal identity across lifetimes does not depend upon the numerical identity of the
body. If we insist that the same body has to exist in numerically distinct lifetimes,
because for example, the passages identifying 'the Self' with the body seem to make
the identity of the self depend upon the identity of the body then it is wholly obscure
in Nietzsche how the same body may be the body of the same person in numerically
distinct consecutive lifetimes. He just does not explain this. However, we may
assume that although at death the atoms of a body are dissipated through the
universe, they are at a later date recomposed to form the same body again. There are
clear problems with this account. The human body constantly loses and gains atoms
and it might be that at death no atom is numerically identical with any atom in the
body at birth. However, there is such a thing as all and only the atoms composing a
human body in one lifetime. It would have to be just those atoms which compose that
body in the next lifetime. It might be thought that this is too strong a requirement on
Nietzsche. Might not just a sufficient number of those atoms to ensure the numerical
identity of the body across lives be sufficient? The problem is that Nietzsche not only
thinks each life of one person is exactly like each other life of that person. He also
thinks each later life is a repetition of the earliest life; that life. If just one atom was
numerically different between the earlier life and the new lifetime, arguably the
earlier life has not been repeated. Numerical identity of the atoms of a life over two
lives ensures that it is that life that is repeated.
In Buddhism there are plenty of passages depicting the destruction of the body at
death, for example when the Buddha recounts the dismemberment of his body in a
former life by the king of Kalinga. In rebirth, if the person is reborn with a body it is
a body numerically and qualitatively distinct from their previous body. It does seem
logically possible on Buddhism for someone to be reborn either as numerically the
same body or as some body numerically distinct from but qualitatively identical to
one of their previous bodies. However, this does not happen because the karmic
effects of one's behaviour in one life alter subsequent lives including what one is
reborn as. Such karmic effects are produced by thoughts and desires as much as by
bodily actions. The Buddha says of the time he was dismembered by the king of

'if I had had the idea either of an ego, or of a person, or of a being, or a soul, the
feeling of anger and ill-will would have been awakened in me.' (ZNM 120/MZB 51)

In being killed, the idea of oneself as someone dying (rather than the experience of
one process ending) produces resentment, resentment that I am being killed. This
resentment has adverse karmic consequences in future lives. The dependence of
resentment on a sense of self is also emphasised by Nietzsche. When he says

'[...] ye can no longer create beyond yourselves.
And therefore are ye now angry with life and with the earth' (Z 37)

he means we do not conceive of ourselves as freely creating ourselves. We do not
think we make ourselves what we are. We think of ourselves as fully formed agents
with fixed natures. This inauthentic failure to realise our own freedom leads to a
frustration with life and resentment. Nietzsche's cure for resentment is for us to freely
make ourselves what we are:

'"WILL A SELF." - Active, successful natures act, not according to the maxim,
"Know thyself'" but as if always confronted with the command, "Will a self, so you
will become a self." - Fate seems always to have left them a choice' (HATH II 168)

'Inactive, contemplative natures, on the other hand, reflect on how they have chosen
their self "once and for all" at their entry into life' (HATH II 168)

Free action is authentic action.

'Ah! my friends! That your very Self be in your action, as the mother is in the child:
let that be your formula of virtue' (Z 112)

If Nietzsche discovered the unconscious more than half a century before Freud,
Buddhism discovered it more than two millennia before Nietzsche. Nietzsche thinks
we would be horrified if we understood the contents of our own minds:

'What would they perceive if they could see to the bottom of themselves!' (GS 220)

In his book The Zen Doctrine of No Mind Daisetz Suzuki raises the question

'What is mushin (wu-hsin in Chinese)? What is meant by 'no-mind-ness' or 'no-
thought-ness'? It is difficult to find an English equivalent except the Unconscious'
(ZNM 120)

but immediately adds

'It is not the unconscious in the usual psychological sense' (ZNM 120)

There are different senses of 'unconscious' in different psychologies. However, I shall
take the 'usual' sense to be this: a person is in an unconscious mental state if they are
in that mental state but do not know they are in that mental state. Paradigmatically,
Freud thinks that there are unconscious drives and desires; drives and desires that we
are internally subject to, but not aware of. This notion of an unconscious mental life
is opposed to Descartes' theses that if I am in a mental state then I know I am in that
mental state, and if I believe I am in a certain mental state then that belief cannot be
Now, whatever the disaffinities Suzuki points to between this doctrine of the
unconcious and mushin in Zen, it is clear that on both views there are mental states
that are not the object of self-conscious acts of reflection. Alan Watts puts this well
when he guards against an even cruder misunderstanding of the unconscious in Zen:

'"Unconsciousness" is not a coma, but what the exponents of Zen [...] signified by
wu-hsin, literally "no-mind", which is to say un-selfconsciousness. It is a state of
second mind or ego standing over it with a club' (WZ 23)

It might be better, then, to translate mushin or wu-hsin as 'unselfconsciousness' rather
than 'unconscious'. It is living without the sceptic within. Despite the frequent
insistence of many Zen Buddhists that Zen is 'nothing special', Suzuki says mushin is
the same as

'the "abysmal ground" of the medieval mystics"' (ZNM 120)

and is what is denoted by

'the Divine Will even before its utterance of the Word' (ZNM 120)

in Judeo-Christian theism. If these remarks are to be taken seriously, then Suzuki is
talking about a most profound spiritual and metaphysical transformation of the
individual. How may this be reconciled with the view that Zen is ordinary? If this is
possible, it is only by emphasising that this transformation is effected 'here and now':
The creative source of all experience is the timeless present. Mushin is not 'behind
the scenes'. It is not too far from us to be immediately apparent, it is too near to us to
be immediately apparent. We are always on the way to somewhere else. However,
once the distractions of thought and desire are calmed by za-zen, mushin is disclosed
as the ground of what is.
Nietzsche, of course, would not wish to endorse the theological or spiritual
connotations Suzuki attributes to mushin, nor indeed would many Zen Buddhists.
Nevertheless, Nietzsche thinks a profound enjoyment of life is possible once the ego
is shown to be an illusion. He says of the majority, who are burdened with a sense of

'They are signally dissatisfied with themselves' (GS 220)

When Nietzsche speaks of 'Belief in oneself' (GS 220) we must not misunderstand
this to mean 'belief in a self'. My self is not myself. He means the kind of
unreflective, unselfconscious confidence that is found in Zen; the sensation of being
at one with the actions of one's life: at-one-ment.
In both Nietzsche's philosophy and Zen there is perceived to be a danger in the
kind of progress through de-conditioning that they advocate. Nietzsche puts it this

'There arises in us the scent of a kind of pleasure hithertoo unknown to us, and
consequently a new craving' (DD 109)

Craving is an obstacle to the affirmation of life, the strong, confident and optimistic
embracing of life. In Buddhism craving is the largest single obstacle to
Enlightenment. The unconsciousness Alan Watts speaks of here is not mushin, rather
it is the opposite of mushin: the lack of consciousness of how things are:

'the cause of frustration [...] is[...] trishna, clinging or grasping, based on avidya,
which is ignorance or unconsciousness' (WZ 47-8)


'avidya is the formal opposite of awakening' (WZ 48)

Avidya can in fact be understood as maya. In order to understand more fully the
Buddhist doctrine of unselfconsciousness, we need to analyse the concept of wu-
nien. Suzuki reports that

'Hui-neng defines wu-nien, "To have thoughts as not having them"' (ZNM 126)

but then Suzuki asks

'would it be better to translate: "To have thoughts and yet not to have them"?' (ZNM

On this point, Hui-neng's translation is more perspicuous than Suzuki's. Suzuki's
translation entails a contradiction and so says nothing but Hui-neng's translation
expresses an insight into the psychology of Zen. Hui-neng means there are thoughts:
thoughts do arise in the mind. However, these thoughts are not 'had' by the individual
in any stronger psychological sense. Psychological attitudes are not adopted towards
them. For example, they are not presented to the mind as desires, as hopes, as fears,
as beliefs. They are mental contents but they do not 'move' the thinker cognitively or
emotionally. Perhaps because of this elimination of psychological attitudes we
should give up talking of a thinker here. Suzuki reports Hui-neng as offering a
second definition of wu-nien:

'"Facing all environing objects the mind remains unstained" that is, no thoughts are
raised in the mind' (ZNM 126)

This looks inconsistent with the first definition because that implies 'to have
thoughts', but this definition implies 'no thoughts are raised in the mind'. Also, on the
second but not the first definition it is denied that external objects cause thoughts.
Another way of reading Hui-neng here is as drawing a distinction between two kinds
of meditative state. In the first, less advanced state, there are thoughts but no
attitudes to thoughts. This is wu-nien in the first sense. In the second, more advanced
mediatative state there are no thoughts, just awareness: no contents, just 'emptiness'.
Suzuki reports Hui-neng as suggesting yet another understanding of wu-nien, as no-

'What is wu-nien, no-thought-ness? Seeing all things and yet to keep your mind free
from stain and attachment, this is no-thought-ness' (ZNM 126)

On this view, in wu-nien there are no thought contents but there are experiential
contents. The mind (if we may still speak of a mind here) is intellectually passive or
non-judgemental. However, it still registers a phenomenology. In Kantian terms, the
mind receives an intuitive sensory input but imposes no judgement, imposes no
categories. (Kant, of course, thinks this separation impossible but if Hui-neng is right
Kant is wrong). With metaphysical insight, Nietzsche says

'Everyone is furthest from himself' (GS 259)

This is consistent with the Zen thesis that our ordinary conditioned attitudes distract
us from the reality of the present. Nietzsche describes phenomenological presence
with existential accuracy:

'Around every being there is described a [...] concentric circle, which has a mid point
and is peculiar to him' (D 117)

When Hui-neng speaks of self-nature he means mushin, what makes our
psychologically constructed self possible:

'When Self-nature is recognised, this understanding at once leads one to the Buddha
stage' (ZNM 127)

The Buddha stage is Enlightenment; unselfconsciousness, freedom from desire,
freedom from rebirth, and freedom from suffering. It follows from both Nietzsche's
philosophy and Zen hat in a profound sense we do not know what we are. Nietzsche
opens The Genealogy of Morals with

'We are unknown, we knowers, ourselves to ourselves' (GM 1)

Even though we are the knowers, human beings are the kinds of being who have
knowledge, we do not know what we are. We have only a superficial kaleidoscope of
impressions of our humanity. Does Nietzsche exaggerate when he says this is
necessarily the case?

'Of necessity we remain strangers to ourselves' (GM 2)

If we are necessarily strangers to ourselves it is not just a contingent fact that we lack
self-knowledge; self knowledge is systematically impossible for us. If this were true,
the bermenschs achievement of self-knowledge would be impossible, even on
Nietzsche's own terms. There is however a more subtle reading of this. We cannot
have self knowledge because there is no self to know. The truth about the self is that
there is no self. Self knowledge does not consist in knowing the self but seeing
through it. In the light of this we can understand Nietzsches further remarks in The
Geneaology of Morals:

'we understand ourselves not' (GM 2)


'in ourselves we are bound to be mistaken' (GM 2)


'as far as ourselves are concerned we are not "knowers"' (GM 2)

We do not understand ourselves because we do not understand our selves. We do not
understand our selves because we have no selves to understand. We are bound to be
mistaken in any claim about the self, because there is no self to make any such claim
true (or false). This profoundly anti-Cartesian doctrine of 'no self', and the
impossibility of self knowlege as knowledge of the self, is equivalent to the Zen
doctrine of 'no mind'. Nevertheless, both Nietzsche and Hui-neng are prepared to
acknowledge that personal pronouns have a referent. There are people, and people
can know things about themselves. Indeed, once the metaphysical idea of a self, or
ego, or psychic subject, is dropped, they claim, a new profound knowledge is
facilitated: knowledge of what makes the psychologically constructed self possible.
Nietzsche says

'He who looks into himself, as into an immense universe, and carries Milky Ways in
himself, knows how irregular all Milky Ways are; they lead into the very chaos and
labyrinth of existence' (GS 249)

and Hui-neng says:

'He who understands the idea of no-thought-ness has a perfect thoroughfare in the
world of multiplicities. He who understands the world of no-thought-ness sees the
realm of all the Buddhas; he who understands the idea of no-thought-ness attains to
the stage of Buddhahood' (ZNM 126)

Nietzsche's 'immense universe' is Hui-neng's 'world of multiplicities'. Both Nietzsche
and the Zen master are describing experience without the ego: experience without the
background sensation of being a psychic individual living in cognitive confrontation
with an 'external' world.
In this expanded state of consciousness there is no ego, or, if the sensation of ego
appears it appears as one thought or sensation amongst others. Crucially, it is not felt
to be me. Rather as Sartre describes in The Transcendence of the Ego, what was
previously taken to be the subjective source of experience is now presented as
another objective content. Nietzsche speaks of

' - the art of "putting ourselves on the stage" before ourselves. It is thus only that we
get beyond some of the paltry details in ourselves!' (GS 110)

One's ego is presented as an object, and appropriately, as an actor on stage. Like
Hume, whose ontology of the self is so similar to his own, Nietzsche compares the
mind to a theatre. In both philosophies, however, it has to be a theatre with no
audience but a theatre where acting nevertheless goes on. When the illusion of the
ego is seen through, there is freedom from the ego and genuine freedom of thought
and action. Suzuki says

'When your own mind is recognised, there is emancipation for you. When you have
emancipation, this means that you are in the Samadhi of Prajna, which is munen (no-
thought-ness)' (ZNM 127)

My own mind is not what I think it is. I think of it as an isolated ego in some sense
attached to the body and essential to the individual who I am. The ego, or
conventional mind, is a projection of mushin. If it makes sense for me to identify
myself with anything at all, then it is with mushin. I am in a sense 'reduced' to mushin
when in the state called munen which Suzuki translates as 'no-thoughtness'. There is
awareness but no self awareness. Nietzsche thinks that without the mental capacity to
be aware of the self as just one sensation amongst others we would grossly
overestimate the cognitive role of our own subjective perspective on the world:

'Without that art we should be nothing but foreground, and would live absolutely
under the spell of the perspective which makes the closest and the commonest
immensely large and like reality in itself' (GS 110)

We would take what is presented to us through the senses as fundamentally real, but
this is merely the existence that is most familiar to us.
So far, I have presented self-knowledge in Nietzsche's philosophy and in Zen as
a result of the individual working on himself, in particular, seeing through the ego to
the non-substantial nature of his own mind. The question arises now of the role of
other people in self knowledge. Philosophers divide over whether other people are a
help or a hindrance to self knowledge, essential or redundant. Hegel's so called
'Master and Slave Dialectic' in the 1807 work Phenomenology of Spirit is the locus
classicus of the idea that self-knowledge is necessarily social, that one person's
knowledge of their own mind depends upon an 'encounter' with another person. This
idea may also be found in Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, Peter Strawson and, in a linguistic
variant, the private language argument of the later Wittgenstein. It is thoroughly
opposed to Descartess claim that any individual could, in principle, have knowledge
of the nature and content of their own mind even if no other people existed. What are
the views of Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists on this?
For Nietzsche, paradoxically, the encounter with another both facilitates and
hinders self knowledge:

'WHEREIN WE KNOW OURSELVES. - As soon as one animal sees another it
mentally compares itself with it; and men of uncivilised ages did the same. The
consequence is that almost all men come to know themselves only as regards their
defensive and offensive faculties' (DD 225)

The reason one animal compares itself with another is to appraise its own fighting
capacity viz a vis the other. This is the prehistoric reason why we are self-conscious
in the presence of others. Now, this is both a help and a hindrance to self knowledge.
It is a help because it provides the prehistoric contingent necessary condition for our
knowledge of our own existence and our knowledge of part of our own nature. It is a
a hindrance because the very condition that makes some limited knowledge possible
constrains further knowledge. We only perceive in ourselves what it is biologically
useful for us to perceive in ourselves.
It is perhaps in relation to other people that we despise ourselves or feel pride or self
esteem. If I despise myself this may be for some immoral act, or act perceived as
immoral by myself, or actual or possible others, but it might also be that I despise
myself in relation to another. Nietzsche points to a paradox about despising:

'He who despises himself, nevertheless esteems himself thereby, as a despiser' (BGE

In despising myself I am both despiser and despised. As despised, I look down upon
myself or regard myself with contempt. As despiser, I esteem myself or look up to
myself as someone sufficiently noble or worthy to be a despiser. Although
paradoxical, there is no inconsistency in this. As despiser I esteem myself. As
despised I view myself with contempt. I can be doing both these things at exactly the
same time. However complex and paradoxical the strategies of the self, Nietzsche
thinks each of us makes a background Cartesian assumption about ourselves:

'In each cardinal problem there speaks an unchangeable "I am this"' (BGE 181)

I think of myself as the enduring subject of my life: as that which lives, thinks, acts,
experiences. As we have seen, Nietzsche thinks this assumption is false. He puts the
subject in question. Despite our Cartesian assumption, we fail to recognise its
subjectivist epistemological consequences. We do not notice that what we take to be
truths are our truths:

'they are merely - my truths' (BGE 182)

From the fact that I believe something is true it does not follow that it is true. Indeed,
it is an implication of the Nietzschean and the Zen view that we live in a
psychologically constructed world, that many of our ordinary commonsensical
beliefs are false. Of course, from the bare fact that we psychologically construct a
world it does not follow that we have any false beliefs. It is because our constructed
world is such a wildly inaccurate representation of the real world that that this
entailment holds. For Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists, the escape from suffering
requires not only the dispelling of illusion but also the end of self hatred:

'But he who wisheth to become light, and be a bird, must love himself: - thus do I
teach' (Z 235)

'[...] that one may endure to be with oneself, and not go roving about' (Z 235)

Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists think that we are largely the author of our own
misfortunes. Nietzsche draws a distinction between 'life' and 'man':

'[...] people say to us "Yea, life is hard to bear!"
But man himself only is hard to bear' (Z 236)

My life would be easier to bear if I did not cause my life to be hard to bear. Indeed,
most suffering originates from within oneself:

'Many a thing [...] that is our own is hard to bear' (Z 236)

The right solution to this problem is not a spiritualist self renunciation. That only
leads to metaphysical illusion:

'What does the self-renouncer do ? He strives after a higher world' (GS 69)

The right solution is the affirmation of life.

Do I Exist?

The question seems insane. Nevertheless, Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists seem to
give sense to answering No by insisting that there is no enduring or substantial self.
This human being that you are is a mass of psycho-physical processes, or even a
mass of fleeting sensations, and nothing more.
In meditation, it is certainly the case that there are sensations which arise and
subside. It is possible to reach a stillness when there is no awareness of oneself as
this human being. There is only the arising and subsiding of sensations, or the
coming or going of thoughts. It is possible to reach a further point, if reach and
point may be used, when sensations and thoughts cease and there is only alert
emptiness. The world and thoughts about it have gone. You as this human being have
gone. You as this concretion of emotion-saturated impressionistic self-image have
Zen monks will not do metaphysics. Nevertheless, it is possible to ask about the
metaphysical significance of emptiness. To do this, we need to understand two
philosophical problems.
The first problem is about the transcendence of the self. Suppose you are sitting
meditating, and across the room from you a Zen monk is sitting meditating. In both
your case and in the case of the Zen monk, there is a stillness. Thoughts and
sensations arise and subside, but eventually cease. In both your case and the Zen
monks, there is a loss of awareness of the body and a dissolving of the ego. You are
both transformed into states of emptiness or pure expanded alert awareness. I fully
accept this is possible and that this happens. This is how it is. Now, the metaphysical
problem is this: There are two of these zones of emptiness not one. The Zen monks
alert emptiness is not your alert emptiness. Why? Of course, Zen monk and your
are, in any empirical sense, inappropriate at this level. Conditioned reality has
dissolved. Nevertheless, in philosophical terminology, the two zones of emptiness
are numerically distinct: This one is not that one and that one is not this one. I
suggest, that although the body and the mind have dissolved the self has not
dissolved. In fact, it has been revealed or disclosed as a zone of no-thing-ness which
is primordial to both body and mind.
One reason for saying this is: The emptiness of the Zen monk is not accessible
from your emptiness. Even though the Zen monk and you as a human being have
dissolved, this emptiness is not accessible from that emptiness. Indeed, any
emptiness only knows its own interiority. You are an absolute interiority.
The other problem is this. If we return to the ordinary, empirical, ways of
thinking for the moment, you view the world from the human being you are. Other
people are presented to you as over there, as living, breathing, expressive, but as
objects in your visual and other sensory fields. There is, then an asymmetry between
being one of these human beings, the one that one is, and not being any of those
(billions of) other people. Just one person is odd: It has the feature of being you (if it
is right to speak of a feature here). The metaphysical question is Why? Why should
one of these human beings be you?
Now, Nietzsche, brilliant philosopher as he is, and Zen Buddhism, valuable
source of wisdom and insight as it is, have not noticed this problem. (They are by no
means alone in this. The scientific thinking of the West today does not have the
categories to pose it.) This question only admits of a metaphysical, indeed, a
theological answer. I suggest: The emptiness of the Buddhists is the interiority of the
soul. From the point of view of theology, Buddhism is then a philosophy of extreme
importance. Buddhism can put you in touch with your own soul. Of course, many
Buddhists do not know or do not realise that that is what they are in touch with.
Christianity, correctly understood, entails the existence of the soul. Unfortunately,
the rise of scientific secularism has causes a decline in spiritual exercises and
spiritual contemplation revelatory of the relation of ones soul to God. This ancient
spirituality should be recovered.
It might well be wondered: How is the existence of the soul supposed to solve
the philosophical problem about the self? It might be asked whether the existence of
the soul is necessary or sufficient for some existence being ones own. Well, there is
much greater room for doubt that ones body or ones mind is ones own. Because
the soul is an absolute interiority, it is what remains of you once the empirical has
dissolved. You have not dealt with anything other than yourself in the whole
meditative process.


In the chapter on suffering and death I argued that both the Buddhist doctrine of
rebirth and Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal return admit of a literal and a figurative
interpretation. From now on I construe these two doctrines only literally. I read them
as claims about life after death and life before birth, and try to make metaphysical
sense of them.

The Eternal Sandglass

There is a logical asymmetry between the Buddhist doctrine of rebirth and
Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal return. Although on both philosophies I have a first
life, in Zen but not in Nietzsche I have a last life. Zen Buddhists believe that the
series of lives is eventually halted in Satori. Nietzsche thinks that any life is followed
by an infinite number of lives.
The title of Nietzsche's book, Die Frhliche Wissenschaft, is sometimes
translated The Gay Science, sometimes The Joyful Wisdom. The Gay Science comes
closest to a literal translation of the Italian La Gaya Scienza. The German bears
translation as Happy Wisdom, where this means something like knowledge of how to
be happy. As we saw in Chapter 1, Buddhism is essentially a way of life designed to
avoid suffering and find genuine happiness. We may read Die Frhliche
Wissenschaft as denoting knowledge of exactly that. It is not false, but slightly
misleading, to say that Zen is knowledge. Knowledge' is too intellectual, too
propositional, in its connotations. Zen is wisdom. It contains knowledge of how to live
rather than knowledge of facts. Having information is not sufficient for being a
Buddhist. It is necessary to live in a different way. In this sense it is also appropriate
to name Buddhism 'Happy Wisdom'.
Nevertheless both Nietzsche's philosophy and Zen contain putative
metaphysical knowledge. Die Frhliche Wissenschaft contains one of Nietzsche's
most detailed and categorical descriptions of the eternal return:

and I myself [the demon] . The eternal sandglass of existence will ever be turned
once more, and thou with it, thou speck of dust' (GS 270-1)

What does this mean? Could it be true? This life is either the first life that the reader
lives, or any life that the reader lives. (What makes a life this life?) If this life is my
first life, then there is some point in the eternal return coming as news. How I live
my first life will dictate exactly how all my future lives will be lived because they
will be qualitatively identical to my first life. In my first life, I have a partial freedom
to live as I wish, notably, to be weak or strong, conditioned and morally obsequious
or free and morally inventive. In every subsequent life this freedom is absent. If this
life is any life I live, then although the doctrine of eternal return could still be true,
there is little point in its coming as news. (Of course it does come as news, in every
life of mine, because it came as news in the first life and every subsequent life is
qualitatively identical with the first.) There is no point in its coming as news in any
life after the first because in any of those I have lost the freedom to act on knowledge
of the eternal return. I cannot, for example, be inspired to live my life in a life
affirming way. That chance only comes once; at the beginning of the infinite
sequence of lives.
Any life I live will be followed by an infinite number of lives. Of any two lives,
one is later than the other but any later life is followed by a fewer number of lives
than any earlier life. This is true even though any life is followed by an infinite
number of lives. (There is no incoherence in this. Consider the fact that the number of
even numbers is fewer than the number of numbers even though both numbers of
numbers are infinite in size). Any later life is followed by an infinite number of lives
minus the number of lives that have preceded it. That still leaves an infinite number
of lives, but a smaller infinite number of lives.
Nietzsche also says this moment will be repeated an infinite number of times.
This claim is ambiguous between a sense in which it is false and a sense in which it
could be true. This moment can mean this very moment , in the sense of this
particular one, or it can mean exactly this type of moment. This very moment cannot
be repeated because any particular moment is a one-off. We should not read
Nietzsche's this moment in that way because it is inconsistent with the doctrine of
eternal return. Impossibly, a moment in a later life would be numerically identical
with a moment in an earlier life but that is incoherent, so false. If we read this
moment to mean exactly this type of moment then Nietzsche's claim is logically
consistent: Exactly this type of moment will be repeated. Any subsequent life will
include a moment that is numerically distinct from, but qualitatively identical to, a
moment in the first life. This is the sense in which this moment can be repeated.
Nietzsche claims that 'the eternal sandglass of existence will ever be turned once
more'. Unpacking the metaphor, the sandglass of existence is time. If existence
means my existence in one life, then one complete movement of the sand from one
part of the sandglass to the other is the time it takes for one life of mine to elapse.
The sandglass will ever be turned because each life of mine is immediately followed
by another. It is turned once more because every life except the first life was
immediately preceded by a life. This may also be read as a claim about events, or the
times at which they happen. Either way, some of the considerations about this
moment apply. For example, to say that an event of my first life will be infinitely
repeated is in a sense false (because particular or token events are one-offs) and in a
sense logically possible (because there could in principle obtain an infinite number of
numerically distinct events of exactly the same type).
Douglas Burns uses a famous Buddhist metaphor for rebirth:

'Rebirth is the continuation of a process rather than the transfer of a substance. If we
light a match and with the match light a candle, the process of combustion in the
match is carried over to the candle. Is the flame in the candle the same flame or a
different one than the one in the match? We can say both yes it is or no it is not.
Likewise the Buddha said that when one dies it is not quite correct to say that the
same person will live again, nor is it correct to say that he will not live again. The
truth lies between these two extremes' (WD 45)

In Buddhist philosophy, a person is not a substance but a process. 'Substance' can be
understood in two senses. Something is a substance if it depends upon nothing else
for its existence or if it is that which bears properties, or characteristics. For
example, physical objects and souls might be substances in both senses because
arguably they could exist even if there was nothing else, and they are not properties
but bearers of properties. If so, the Buddhist rejection of the thesis that people are
substances entails that people are not physical objects or souls. A process is a
sequence of events. Not any sequence of events is a process, but if some events are
the parts of a non-arbitrary whole sequence then the sequence is a process. For
example, if some events are causally connected, or immediately juxtaposed in the
sequence, or can be meaningfully specified as some whole, then they form a process.
The Buddhist view that a person is a process entails that a person is a sequence of
events. As we saw in Chapters 1 and 2, this is the Zen view.
If we take the view that a person is a substance then there is no acute problem
about what the identity of a person over time consists in. The person lasts as long as
the substance lasts. To say that a person at a later time is numerically identical with a
person at an earlier time is to say that the substance that is the later person is the
substance that is the earlier person. Life after death is easier to make sense of if a
person is a substance. When life ends the substance persists. If the substance is a
physical object, we have to assume that its dissipation into parts is temporary and
that the substance will be reconstituted at a later date. (To still talk of a substance
here we have to assume that the existence of a substance's parts is sufficient for its
existence). If the substance is a soul, we have to assume that when a life ends, and
the body is dissipated, the soul continues essentially unaffected. As Kierkegaard
says, following St. Paul: perhaps surprisingly, we remain. Nietzsche and Zen cannot
avail themselves of this account of personal identity and life after death. If a person is
a process, then a later person is numerically identical with an earlier person if both
persons are parts of the same process. For this to be plausible, some explanation is
needed of what makes a later part of a process part of the same process as an earlier
part. Buddhism, especially Zen is very weak on this point. Because Zen Buddhists
are not primarily concerned to do metaphysics, they provide no explicit account of
what the identity of a process over time consists in. In particular they provide no
account of the unity of one life process over time, even though they think a person is
their life process. Derek Parfit has suggested the quasi-Buddhist view that there is
continuity without identity. Without recourse to body or soul, or anything outside the
process, the unity of the process has to be accounted for from within the process
itself. It is the way in which the events of a life are internally related that makes them
parts of one and the same life. 'Internally related' is the name of complex and detailed
karmic imprints. For example that action is the result of that intention. The thought
about that was caused by the wish to do that and so on for innumerable
psychological and psycho-physical events. A Nietzschean account of the unity of a
life in terms of internal relations that include causal relations is consistent with the
Buddhist doctrine of Karma. A person is their lives in Zen. There is not anybody that
lives these lives. In particular, the body and the soul do not live any life. A person is
a psycho-physical constellation of life processes.
What makes a life that begins at a person's death the continuation of their life
process? It will not do just to say that someone is born at the moment that someone
dies. Although necessary for the continuation (but not resumption) of a life process,
it is not sufficient because someone could be born at the moment of my death who is
not me, or not continuous with me. In principle, any number of people could be born
at the moment of my death but, it seems, I can be identical with at most one of them.
An answer to the question What makes the new life mine?' is implicit in the Buddhas
remarks about memory. In The Diamond Sutra, the Buddha recollects his previous
lives. That I can remember a life is neither necessary nor sufficient for that life's
being mine. However, suppose I can veridically remember what it was like to live
that life. Plausibly, I can only do that if that life was my life. I can only rightly
remember my own life from the inside.
This provides us with a sufficient condition for some earlier life being one of mine.
(It is not necessary because I might not be able to remember my past lives. Indeed,
without training in za-zen, or something psychologically or metaphysically similar, it
is unlikely that one would.) It is part of Buddhism that most people most of the time
do not remember their previous lives, although they are subject to Karmic influence
by them. There is another problem. The English eighteenth-century philosopher
Bishop Butler suggested that memory presupposes personal identity, so cannot be
what personal identity consists in. It is because I am the earlier person that I can
remember being the earlier person, rather than vice versa. If any life of mine is
subject to karmic influences only from that life, or my previous lives, then we do
have a criterion which uniquely identifies a present and some past lives as mine. My
life is karmically continuous with my previous lives. It bears their karmic imprint.
So far, I have treated the Buddhist doctrine of rebirth as entailing that a person
survives their bodily death. The process that a person is continues in a new life.
However, the position is not nearly so straightforward. Douglas Burns raises the
question of whether, if we light a candle using a match, the flame of the candle is the
flame of the match. He says 'We can say both yes it is or no it is not'. Suppose Burns
is not just mentioning two mutually exclusive and jointly exhaustive possibilities: It
is the same flame or it is not the same flame. Suppose he is saying that the truth is: It
is and it is not the same flame. This looks impossible, because something cannot be
unambiguously both the case and not the case. We need a sense in which it is the
same flame and a sense in which it is not the same flame. The sense in which it is not
the same flame is this. The flame that is burning on the match, while it is burning on
the match, is not the flame burning on the candle while it is burning on the candle.
The flame while burning on the candle is not the flame burning on the match while it
is burning on the match. In a similar way, no later life of mine is any earlier life of
mine. The sense in which it is the same flame is this. Just one flame is transferred
from the match to the candle. The flame is uninterrupted in its burning and there is
no second flame involved. Similarly, my life process continues at my death. Parfit
thinks there is continuity without identity. From a Zen point of view it is a matter of
stipulation whether continuity is sufficient for identity. Parfit and Zen agree that
continuity and not identity is what is important. (J. L. Austin, when asked what the
importance of his work is, is supposed to have replied: Importance is not important.
Truth is.) Burns says the Buddha says it is not quite correct to say that the same
person will live again after death, nor is this incorrect. What the Buddha says in fact

'To say he is not reborn does not fit the case, nor is it any better to say he is both
reborn and not reborn, or that he is neither reborn nor not reborn' (WD 58)

This, in fact, only leaves one logical permutation: He is reborn. It leaves only clear
rebirth. Consider:

(1) He is reborn.

(2) He is not reborn.

(3) He is both reborn and not reborn.

(4) He is neither reborn nor not reborn.

The Buddha has ruled out (2), (3) and (4) but has not said anything here about (1).
(1) is theoretically possible. (2) is theoretically possible. (3), if unambiguous, is
logically impossible because contradictory. (4), if unambiguous, is logically
impossible because inconsistent with 'He is reborn' being either true or false, so
inconsistent with the law of excluded middle. If we say excluded middle does not
apply here and give up the assumption that 'He is reborn' is either true or false then
(4) implies the concept of an individual being reborn has no application here.
Nevertheless, the Buddha overtly repudiates the substantial view of personal identity
across lives. He says

'Nothing passes from life to life, but decease and rebirth take place nevertheless' (WD

There is nothing within any life of mine that is numerically identical with anything in
any earlier or later life. Indeed, it is metaphysically misleading to use first person
singular pronouns here, because that suggests that there is a psychological self who
exists in each of my lives. Lama Govinda says:

'there is no one who is reborn' (WD 49)

even though there is rebirth. Nietzsches Zarathustra says to the dwarf:

- that is another eternity.
inscribed above: 'This Moment'" (Z 190)

Nietzsche provides no causal explanation of the eternal return. He presents it as a
brute metaphysical fact. Zen does provide a causal explanation of rebirth, in terms of
karma. Roshi Yasutani says

'We are reborn when our karmic relations impel us to be reborn. We die when our
karmic relations decree that we die. And we are killed when our karmic relations lead
us to be killed' (WD 8)

My karma is the effect of my present thought and action on both what I will do what
happens to me. It is empirically obvious that something like this goes on. If I drink
excessively, I suffer a hangover. If I eat excessively, I become overweight. If I
smoke, I run the risk of bronchial diseases. If I am unpleasant to my family and
colleagues, I can expect them to be unpleasant back. If I leave important tasks
uncompleted, I may expect to worry about them at a later date. In many respects I am
the author of my own fortune or misfortune. Buddhism takes this fact most seriously.
Everything I think and do has some future karmic effect on my life. Karmic effects
accumulated in one life carry over into the next, or even some life long after that one.
Some dreadful deed, such as a murder, might require many lifetimes for its adverse
karmic effects to be expunged. It is necessary to do good deeds to erase the effects of
karma and future lives exist so that such bad karma may be erased. It is no
exaggeration to say that rebirth exists because of an ethical imperative for rebirth to
exist. Of course, in general we do not think that because something ought to be the
case that it will be the case. It is fallacious to argue that something will happen
because it ought, or because it facilitates goodness. It is not possible to derive a shall
from an ought, we might say. (The fallacy is embodied in Kant's moral argument
that because we are morally incomplete or imperfect in our earthly existence, there
must exist an afterlife in which moral perfection is possible.) However, deductive
validity is too strong a requirement here. We are used to the idea that something will
happen because it ought to happen. For example, someone might do something
because he thinks it ought to be done. If we assume that any thought or action of
mine has some effect on me, and if there is not time in one lifetime for such effects to
be operative, then there must be subsequent lifetimes in which such effects are
operative. If that is right, then my present thoughts and actions cause my rebirth.
That is in fact the Buddhist view.
We should now locate the ideas of rebirth and eternal return in the
Nietzschean and Buddhist ideas of eternity and repetition. Not only does Nietzsche
think that every event in a person's life is repeated an infinite number of times in
future lives, he thinks every event of every kind is infinitely repeated. For example
he says

'Everything goeth, eveything returneth; eternally rolleth the wheel of existence.
Everything dieth, everything blossometh forth again: eternally runneth on the year of
existence' (Z 266)

The image of existence as a rolling wheel captures two tenets essential to
Nietzschean metaphysics. The motion of a wheel suggests repetition. For example,
when a wheel rolls on the ground each part of the rim of the wheel is repeatedly in
contact with the ground. Similarly, each kind of event repeatedly exists and ceases to
exist. The idea of the wheel being in motion also expresses the view that being is
becoming. What we think of as being, or existence, is in fact incessantly beginning to
be and ceasing to be. As he puts it 'every moment beginneth existence'. (Z 266)
Choose any time interval, no matter how small, there is both beginning to be and
ceasing to be at that time. This what Nietzsche calls 'becoming'. (Z 270) The process
of spontaneous creation and destruction is endless. When Nietzsche says the year of
existence is eternal he means there will never be a time when the process of
becoming will cease.
Because there is no divine creator, in Nietzsche's view, it is the process of
becoming that itself creates and destroys its own component events. In this passage,
existence means what is or what happens:

'Everything breaketh, everything is integrated anew; eternally buildeth itself the same
true to itself remaineth the ring of existence' (Z 266)

The only fundamental metaphysical fact that does not change is the fact of becoming
itself. The 'ring' of existence remains true to itself because the cycle of repetitions
never stops and remains uniform. If everything happens an infinite number of times,
two questions arise: What are the units of repetition? and Has everything already
happened an infinite number of times? By a 'unit' of repetition I mean whatever it is
that bounds a sequence of numerically (and largely qualitatively) distinct events as
one whole repetition. We need to know the conditions under which one cycle ends
and another begins. In Hinduism and in physics whole universes go out of existence
and come into existence even though, on those two systems, it is not held that distinct
universes are qualitatively identical. Nietzsche thinks the unit of repetition is a
human life:

'all things eternally return, and ourselves with them, and [...] we have already existed
times without number, and all things with us' (Z 270)

This is a crucial statement. It seems to follow from it that Nietzsche is a kind of
idealist after all. There is nothing in his writing to suggest that he has noticed this
about himself, but in his own peculiar way, Nietzsche looks as much a German
idealist as Kant and Hegel, Fichte and Schelling. He is not a straightforward
psychological idealist. He does not think physical events are mental events. He is
what we could call a humanistic idealist. He is logically committed to the view that
reality is essentially human reality. This is not just an epistemological position. It is
not just the rather tautological thought that the only reality humans can know is
known by human means. It is a metaphysical position. If the processes of the
universe repeat themselves when and only when there are human life-times then, in a
clear sense, the universe depends upon humanity. This is Nietzsche's humanistic
idealism. In the passage from Thus Spake Zarathustra, he uses the expression and all
things with us. He did not write a sentence ending and us with all things. The
dependence holds in the direction: the universe on humanity, not humanity on the
universe. In a human birth and a human death Nietzsche has given us a clear criterion
for when one cycle of events ends and another begins. He has given us no other
criterion, including no objective or non-humanist criterion. One is left wondering,
What is so special about us? Why should human beings be invested with such cosmic
This humanistic implication of the doctrine of eternal return gives rise to a
severe problem. Human lifetimes overlap. Few human births are simultaneous and
few human deaths are simultaneous. It is therefore not possible for the cycles of
repetition in the whole universe to obtain in a one-one mapping on human life-times.
If there are human lifetimes, then this only becomes possible if we give up the
assumption that there is only one universe, just one sequence of cycles. There have to
be as many 'universes' as there are people. This is a conclusion that would have
appalled Nietzsche but it is a logical implication of his work. It makes him not only a
humanistic idealist but a humanistic solipsist.
In the same passage he claims we have already existed times without number.
This implies that the infinite sequence of human lifetimes is open at both ends. Not
only will I live an infinite number of times after my present life, I have lived an
infinite number of times before. Nietzsche has said something inconsistent with his
important claim that anyone lives for a first time. Clearly, it is logically impossible
for me to both live a first life and to have lived an infinite number of previous lives
because it is contradictory to imply that any series has both a first member and no
first member. It is not a viable solution to suggest that we read this passage as only
about subsequent lives and not about a first life. If it is true that any life in the series
has an infinite number of predecessors it is false that there is a first life. Nietzsche
has made a mistake because he does not know enough about the logic of infinity. It is
best forgotten.

Buddhahood and Time

Roshi Yasutani says:

'If we do not change, we are lifeless' (WD 8)

There are other notions of eternity in Nietzsche which are benign, not necessarily
inconsistent with his considered view, for example in this question;

'"And if everything hath already existed, what thinkest thou, dwarf, of This Moment?
Must not this gateway also - have already existed?"' (Z 191)

We do not have to read this to mean that an infinite number of moments like this
moment have existed, although it can mean that. We can take Nietzsche literally, as
saying that the present has always existed: there is (timelessly) not any time that is
not a present time. We could also take everything hath already existed not to mean
every kind of event has already happened but to mean; everything, the totality of
what is whatever is, has never not been.
We should turn now to the psychlogical responses to the eternal return in
Nietzsche's philosophy and rebirth in Zen. In Thus Spake Zarathustra, when
Zarathustra entertains the idea of the eternal return, he confesses

Z: 'I was afraid of mine own thoughts' (Z 191)

He feels the awesome responsibility of living his life authentically in the knowledge
of its infinite repetition. In Die Frhliche Wissenschaft Nietzsche considers two
possible responses to the doctrine of eternal return coming as news:

'Wouldst thou not throw thyself down and gnash thy teeth, and curse the demon that
so spake?' (GS 271) 341

Or, say:
'"Thou art a God, and never did I hear aught more divine!' (GS 271)

The same metaphysical information could provoke either the most pessmistic despair
or a spiritual delight. The eternal return presents us with a stark existentialist choice.
On the face of it we have to choose our own values. Fundamentally, we have to
choose whether to affirm life or deny it. Nietzsche urges affirmation. In the idiom of
Nietzsche's ironic atheism, the eternal return is 'circulus vitiosus deus' (BGE 74) 56 a
virtuous circle of God. The eternal return is Nietzsche's metaphysical substitute for
Lama Govinda says:

'Rebirth in heavenly realms [...] is not an aim which Buddhists think worth striving
for' (WD 50-1)

To live in the knowledge of the truth of eternal return requires a special kind of
human, an bermensch. Someone who is a transformation of the human condition.
The eternal return forces the choice between Mensch and bermensch:

'If that thought acquired power over thee, as thou art, it would transform thee and
perhaps crush thee' (GS 271)

The bermensch has the strength of character, the bravery, to welcome the eternal
return; to embrace it. The bermensch answers 'Yes' to this:

also for innumerable times?" (GS 271)

Indeed, the bermensch is happy in the knowledge of the eternal return, not because
of any metaphysical consolation for death, not because of immortality, but because of
this chance to live freely and authentically. It is the hidden teleology of Mensch to
aspire to be bermensch:

ardently than for this last eternal sanctioning and sealing[?]-' (GS 271)

The bermensch is favourably inclined to himself when he accepts the eternal return.
Similarly, in Zen, when rebirth is understood and accepted as a reality, this brings
great inner peace. Roshi Yasutani says

signify life.
your daily life' (WD 8)

In Nietzsche and in Buddhism, birth is not really birth and death is not really death.
The only real, or absolute, birth and death in these philosophies are the first birth in
both and the last death in Buddhism. Birth and death are mutually dependent and
death need be no more a cause for anxiety than birth. True, some Zen passages make
it sound as though rebirth is a metaphysical consolation. For example, Roshi
Yasutani says:

'Having once perceived the world of Buddha-nature, we are indifferent to death,
since we know we will be reborn' (WD 8)

Death is defused by rebirth but this should not be emphasised too strongly. Rebirth is
not itself desirable. This is partly because desiring rebirth is yet another form of
attachment, and so an obstacle to Enlightenment, but also because rebirth is in a
sense bad. Rebirth exists because bad karma exists and it is the ultimate aim of
Buddhism to end the cycles of rebirth in nirvana or, to use the Japanese Zen
Buddhist term, Satori. 'Ultimate aim' has to be used with caution here because Satori
is a disclosure of the present. It does not take place in a future which metaphysically
contrasts with the present. It is a profound realisation of the eternity of the present. It
is the existential appreciation that it is never not the present. This fact is not just
thought, or intellectually entertained, it is lived. Life is lived 'to the full' in the
Nietzsche's bermensch lives in eternity not to eternity;

'I love thee, O Eternity!' (Z 280)

The eternity of the bermensch is the eternity of the present, the fact that it is never
not now:

'the ideal of the most world-approving and vivacious man, who has not only learnt to
was and is, for all eternity' (BGE 74)56

One of the most salient asymmetries between Nietzsche's doctrine of eternal return
and the Buddhist doctrine of rebirth is that in Nietzsche's view every life a person
leads is the same, and on the Buddhist view every life a person lives is different.
Nevertheless, Nietzsche suggests:

'[...] if one were to imagine a man of eighty thousand years, one would have in him
an absolutely unchangeable character, so that a number of different individuals
would gradually develop out of him' (HATH 62)

If one life were much longer than it is, then a person at a late stage of this life would
be so qualitatively different from that person as an earlier stage that it hardly makes
sense to speak of the same person here. Although numerical identity over time is
maintained even in a very long life, conceptual room is made for us to speak of this
human being as different individuals, or personalities. We are familiar with the
psychological phenomenon of split personality and multiple personalities; where
numerically and qualitatively distinct psychologies seem to be associated with just
one human being. We have to imagine something like this in the case of the person
who lives for eighty thousand years, except the personalities or 'individuals' exist
consecutively, not simultaneously, in one and the same body. Nietzsche says such a
person would have an absolutely unchangeable character. The impossibility here
cannot be logical because there is no incoherence in the supposition that someone
who lived for an extraordinarily long time should change their character radically
near the end of their life. Nietzsche is suggesting perhaps, that such a person would
have exhausted the possibilities for character change. He anticipates the existentialist
thesis that once a life is over we may speak of a character as fixed, but not before
then. It follows that the number and kinds of personalities a person has are
contingently constrained by facts about human longevity. In so far as I am free, in so
far as I escape the conditioned morality of the 'herd', I determine my own character.
This freedom, however, does not exist in my future lives. My future lives are wholly
determined by the events of my first life, including what I choose in that life.
In Buddhism, future lives are determined, but not wholly determined by what I
choose in earlier lives. For example, the Buddha says

'the first thought on rebirth arises from two causes - the last thought of the previous
life as its governing principle, and the actions of the previous life as its basis. Thus a
man is reborn in the purgatories, or as an animal, a spirit, a demon, a human being, or
a god' (WD 56)

It is misleading to call rebirth 'reincarnation' not only because it suggests I could in
principle exist as something non-physical, but because in Buddhism nothing is
reincarnated. In particular, the Buddhists think no soul is conjoined with any body.
Nietzsche allows the use of the word 'soul' but not in any Platonic, metaphysical or
Christian sense. He says

'Souls are as mortal as bodies' (Z 270)

Nietzsche and the Buddhists rethink life after death without recourse to the idea of
soul. What am I? The Zen response to this question is that there is no one who is
born and no one who has the trouble of existing now. There are births. Lives do
begin. There is the trouble of existing now and it is the point of Zen to end this
trouble, but there is no enduring subject of experience who is born and who suffers
now. When Sri Ramana Maharshi says :

'That which is born must die'.

he asks straight away

Whose is the birth? Were you born?' (WD 57)

That which is born must die, because the process that is a single life not only begins
but ends. In a sense a birth was mine. I was born. A particular birth was the
beginning of the current life process that I am. In another sense it is false that I was
born. The psychological self that I (mistakenly) identify myself with did not undergo
that birth. It did not exist at the time of 'my' birth.
Some Zen passages are strongly deterministic. For example, Roshi Yasutani says:

'We are the manifestation of our karmic relations at any given moment, and upon
their modification we change accordingly. What we call life is no more than a
procession of transformations' (WD 8)

However, even Yasutani does not say we are only the manifestation of our karmic
relations. Conceptual room is left for the possibility of action in any life. Indeed, it is
this residual freedom that makes possible the gradual erasure of the the consequences
of bad karma and its gradual replacement by good karma. Some doctrines of free
will and determinism rest on the presupposition that there is an enduring or
substantial being who is the subject and object of change: an agent who really acts
on the free will doctrine, a being who is subject to causal influence on the
deterministic doctrine. Buddhism, including Zen, calls this common presupposition
into question. In so far as there is no agent there is no free agent, in so far as there is
no subject there is no determined subject. The Buddha says

'In the whole process no one acts and no one experiences the results of action, except
by verbal convention' (WD 56)

Rather like Kant, Wittgenstein, Gilbert Ryle, and others, the Buddha thinks we are
mislead by language into thinking there is an enduring or substantial subject of
change: a self or agent. Because natural languages such as Pali and Sanskrit contain
personal pronouns, and nouns used to denote the psychological, we miss the point
that we are processes, not entities. The use of language has a causal role in rebirth.
Language presupposes dialectically opposed concepts. Unless we are able to free
ourselves of the dualistic world constructed out of these we will be continually
subject to rebirth. As Master Obaku (Huang Po) puts it:

'Continued indulgence in [...] dualistic concepts [...] will lead to your rebirth among
the six orders of beings life after life, aeon upon aeon, forever and forever!' (WD 59)

For Nietzsche this is something we should be able to bear.

What Changes?

Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists share the view that this life is not your only life.
Nietzsche (construed literally) thinks that after death, your life will be repeated in the
same way an infinite number of times. The Zen Buddhists think this life will be
followed by a finite number of qualitatively distinct lives karmically continuous with
it. On the Zen view, future lives are either your lives or neither your lives nor not
your lives. On the first view, you survive death and live another life that is your life.
On the second view (if we do not just read it as deny what exhausts the universe),
some future lives are in a way yours and in a way not. In a future life, a person is
continuous with you but it not identical with you. Even if this life, on a Buddhist
view, you are strictly speaking continuous with your young self not identical with it.
Now, I suggest that the problem of personal identity arises for Nietzsches view
and for both versions of the Buddhist view. On Nietzsches and the first Buddhist
view, you in a later life are numerically identical with you in this life. We know that
in death the body and the soul are dissipated. We may ask the question, then: What
guarantees personal identity across lives? I suggest that there is only one viable
answer to this question: the existence of the soul. There are two reasons why this
view is right. Firstly, in death, all physical and psychological processes cease. That
only leaves the soul as a possible candidate for guaranteeing identity in a future life.
Secondly, the emptiness disclosed in meditation which is really the interiority of
your own soul does not admit of natural destruction (or creation). (Physical objects
pass through it like a thought.) I suggest that the death of the body and the mind takes
place within the soul, the soul that you were all along. As Kierkegaard says, perhaps
surprisingly we remain. As St. Augustine says, when you die, and this human being
dissolves, it is revealed that God was holding you all along.
There cannot be continuity without identity. It seems as though there can,
because clearly a butterfly may be continuous with a caterpillar but the butterfly is
not (numerically identical with) the caterpillar. In the case of death, however, body
and mind cease so there can be no ordinary physical or mental continuity between
this life and the next. Only the identity of you in this life with a person in the next life
guarantees the continuity of you in this life with a person in the next life. It follows
from this that if you are continuous with a person in the next life then you are
(numerically identical with) the person in the next life. Anything guarantees its own


How should bermensch be translated into English? It is often rendered as 'overman'
or 'superman' but this is wrong. Paradigmatically, Mensch does not mean 'man' in
German, but 'human being'. Although bermensch is a noun, the equivalent
adjectival form bermenschlich has the sense of the English adjectival term
'superhuman'. For example, the expression sich bermenschlich anstrengen means 'to
make superhuman efforts'. The bermensch is superhuman, that is, capable of feats
or a mode of being which most human beings are unable to achieve. The preposition
'ber' means 'over' or 'above'. Used with the accusative it implies motion, as in
'passing over' or 'passing above'. Used with the dative it implies static location, as in
'fixed above'. It can also mean at least: 'on top of', 'higher than', 'superior to', 'more
than', 'in the process of', 'during', 'while', 'across', 'beyond', 'on the other side of',
'upon', 'on', 'about', 'concerning' and 'with regard to'. Interestingly different readings
of Nietzsche may be obtained by considering these translations. Here I argue that the
bermensch is an enlightened human being, in the Zen sense.
Zen also uses the idea of being above, or over, to try to communicate the more
or less ineffable state of Enlightenment. For example D.T. Suzuki's says Satori is

'Just like ordinary everyday experience, except about two inches off the ground!'
(WZ 22)

The Japanese word Satori and its Chinese semantic equivalent Tun-wu means
'sudden awakening'. In Beyond Good and Evil Nietzsche has 'the philosopher'
prophecy the character of the bermensch:

'"He shall be the greatest who can be the most solitary, the most concealed, the most
divergent, the man beyond good and evil, the master of his virtues, and of
superabundance of will; precisely this shall be called greatness: as diversified can
become entire, as ample can be full" And to ask once more the question: Is greatness
possible - nowadays ?' (BGE 155)

The bermensch is solitary because although he is physically juxtaposed with other
human beings, his psychological state means he is not like them. He is not one of
them. The bermensch is concealed because he is not easily recognised as such by
ordinary humanity. He is beyond good and evil because he is not bound by ordinary
conditioned morality. He is the master of his virtues and has a superabundance of
will because he is able to do what he desires and able to refrain from doing what he
does not desire. The greatness of the bermensch is like the diversified become
entire because his unified, focused, mind is not distracted by incompatible thoughts.
The greatness of the bermensch is like something ample that can become full
because the bermensch is self realised. He has become what he really is.
The characteristics of the bermensch are strikingly similar to the features that
mark out the enlightened person in Zen. For example, Lieh-tzu speaks of the time
when he studied Zen under the master Lao Shang:

'At the end of seven years, there was another change. I let my mind reflect on what it
would, but it no longer occupied itself with right and wrong. I let my lips utter
whatever they pleased, but they no longer spoke of profit and loss. Then, at last, my
master led me in to sit on the mat beside him' (WZ 22)

The Zen Buddhist in Satori is beyond good and evil. Moral judgements do not arise
in the mind of the enlightened person, or, at least, if they do arise they are not felt to
be moral judgements. The person in Satori does not have the psychological attitude
of making judgments. It is common to Nietzsche's bermensch and the enlightened
Zen Buddhist to be de-conditioned from a moral point of view. Their socialisation
into conventional notions of right and wrong has been reversed. It has been 'seen
through' or 'unmasked'. The psychological attitudes that were previously value
judgements are now only thoughts, thoughts like any other thoughts that simply arise
and fall away.
It is common to the bermensch and the enlightened person to be
misunderstood. For example, the solitude of both can be mistaken for a religious
escape from the world. Nietzsche speaks of

'he whose solitude is misunders[tood by] the people, as though it were a flight from
reality' (GM 117)

On the contrary, the bermensch and the enlightened person are 'all here now'. They
are wide awake, de-conditioned, and all their faculties are deployed in the present. In
so far as it makes sense to talk about reality they are in direct contact with reality.
Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists are opposed to the idea that reality is somewhere
else. There is no meta-physical reality. Reality is in the immediacy of present
existence, present experience.
Neither the character of the bermensch nor the character of Satori can be fully
communicated in words, although words can sometimes have a use in a Zen
monastery in causing Satori. A transformation of life is necessary. Nietzsche says:

'It is difficult to learn what a philosopher is because it cannot be taught: one must
"know" it by experience' (BGE 155)

In the case of the bermensch and in the case of Satori it is necessary to have the
experience to know what the experience is like. This might be generally true, I mean,
not just true of esoteric experiences. For example, it is not clear that a congenitally
blind person knows what the colour red looks like. It is not clear that a prepubescent
person knows what sexual desire feels like. It is not clear that someone who has
never experienced the taste of a decent claret knows what the taste of a decent claret
is like. This empiricist thesis, that knowledge of an experience depends upon having
the experience itself must not be confused with a distinct thesis: having the
knowledge or the experience depends what paradigmatically causes the experience.
For example, it is not necessary to know what bananas taste like to have sampled
bananas. Some synthetic substitute that tastes like a banana will do. Similarly, the
neurology of a blind person could in principle be altered to cause an experience of
red imagery. Someone without sexual desire could in principle be neurologically
caused to have sexual desire in the absence of any object of sexual desire causing that
desire. The point is that the phenomenology is necessary for the knowledge of the
phenomenology, not that the phenomenology has to be caused in normal ways.
In the case of the bermensch and the person in Satori, the case is less
straightforward. It is not just that these people have one specific kind of experience
that the rest of us lack, some datable episode like a perception, a desire, or a taste.
The entirety of their experience has undergone a transformation. It follows that
'experience' is something of a misnomer for Satori. To see this, consider two Zen
poems, the first of which falls short of depicting Satori, the second of which
succeeds, at least in the view of some of those in Satori. Shen-hsiu's poem is

'The body is the Bodhi tree

The mind like a bright mirror standing.

Take care to wipe it all the time,

And allow no dust to cling.' (WZ 91-2)

but Hui-neng's (better) poem is:

'There never was a Bodhi tree,

Nor bright mirror standing.

Fundamentally, not one thing exists,

So where is the dust to cling?' (WZ 92)

Shen-hsiu's poem depicts za-zen meditation from the inside. The body is the Bodhi
tree because it is immobile. Breathing, and even circulation, are calmed to the point
that they do not appear to consciousness. There is no outward bodily movement. The
mind is like a bright mirror standing because it is clean and alert. Completely passive
it reflects or registers what appears to it without judgment. No dust is allowed to
cling to the mirror because no thought is held or retained by will. No emotional
attachment is made to any mental content.
Hui-neng's poem depicts Enlightenment, in so far as Enlightenment can be
depicted in words. Indeed, Hui-neng essentially says what is not rather than what is
because the experience of Satori is so difficult to express linguistically. In
meditation, the presentation of the body, the Bodhi tree, and the mind, the bright
mirror standing, are precisely obstacles to Enlightenment. So are the thoughts of
these, including linguistically formulated thoughts. Satori is a state of emptiness, or
pure being, or pure awareness. As Satori it has no content and so no mental and no
physical content.
How can Satori be emptiness, pure being and pure awareness? Satori is
emptiness because nothing is being thought about and nothing is being done. At
least, being in Satori does not consist in thinking this thought rather than that thought
or doing this thing rather than another. Clearly, an enlightened person engages in
thought and action. It is important to Zen that before and after Enlightenment you
carry on your ordinary tasks, for example, before Enlightenment chop sticks and
carry water, and then after Enlightenment, chop sticks and carry water. In the
moment of meditation that produces Enlightenment there are no thoughts and there
are no actions. The moment between thoughts is exploited and enlarged so that the
mind is emptied of thoughts. There is then pure awareness or pure consciousness
without intentionality, without awareness or consciousness of anything. After
Enlightenment thoughts and actions return but there is no attachment to them and
therefore no suffering caused by them. Emptiness is then absence of thought and
action. Pure awareness is the retention of conscious alertness despite the absence of
mental content.
Satori is pure being because it is being without being anything. This is perhaps
a hard and obscure thought but one like it will be familiar to readers of the opening
passages of Hegel's 'Doctrine of Being' in his The Science of Logic. There Hegel
draws a distinction not only between pure being (Sein) and pure nothing (Nichts) but
also between those two and determinate being, or being something (Dasein). Pure
being is existing tout court. Pure nothing is nothing whatsoever. Being something is
not only existing but possessing at least one property. Hegel thinks the result of
trying to think pure being is the same as the result of trying to think pure nothing and
vice versa. Even if we take the view that there cannot be being without being
something it should be clear that being is not exactly the same thing as being
something. To say that something exists is not the same as saying what it is, or even
partly saying what it is. However, once we accept that being is not being something it
follows that being cannot be characterised in terms of being something and that is as
good as saying it cannot be characterised. It then becomes extremely difficult to
distinguish pure being from pure nothing, or being from not-being, except perhaps by
saying that they are opposites. Hegel thinks they are dialectically antithetical; both
opposites and mutually dependent. We may now think of Satori in terms of this
Hegelian clarification. Satori is pure being yet emptiness. In the meditative moment
when thought ceases there is still being rather than non-being. However, this being is
pure being, nothing is apparently true of it except that it is. Indeed, 'it' does not pick
anything out here. Because of that, the pure being of Satori is a kind of emptiness. It
corresponds to the Hegelian dialectical 'identification' of being and nothingness and
is distinct from Hegelian Dasein or determinate being. We could say that this is a
description of Satori from the inside, with certain caveats: In Satori there is no
distinction between a psychological 'inside' and a physical (or psycho-physical)
'external world'. In Satori there are no descriptions or, as a being in Satori one is not
making descriptions.
Lieh-tzu reports that when he was a student of Zen under Lao Shang:

'My mind was frozen' (WZ 22)

This does not mean that Lieh-tzu entertained just one token thought for a longer
duration than usual. He means that his mind was unusually calm or undisturbed
whether there were thoughts or not. To unpack his metaphor, the ice is the pure being
or emptiness that replaces thought or, when there is thought, is the unchanging
background to thought.
Although Satori resists description, Zen Buddhists insist that it is nothing mystical
or metaphysical. We should examine this alleged ordinariness in relation to
Nietzsche. Nietzsche insists that the life of the bermensch is nothing metaphysical
and should not by no means be understood as a spiritual or mystical withdrawal.
Asceticism is a denial of life but Nietzsche urges precisely the affirmation of life:

monk - and what is thereby denied! This conception has now become deeper: it is
above all a discerning denial, a denial based on the will to be just; not an
indescriminate and wholesale denial' (CW 188)

In Nietzsche and in Zen a metaphysical religious sensibility is a distraction from
practical reality. Nietzsche says his wish is

'[...] to translate man back again into nature [...] homo natura' (BGE 181)

and Alan Watts claims that

'there is no incompatibility between Buddhahood and the everyday life of the world'
(WZ 83)

Before Enlightenment, things seem to be what they are. During the transition to
Enlightenment things seem to be other than what they are. After Enlightenment
things seem to be what they are. First there is a mountain, next there is no mountain,
then there is a mountain. Crucially, after Enlightenment nothing (not anything) is
viewed with attachment. The enlightened person is no longer emotionally tempted by
metaphysical or theological ideas. He lives happily in the present. Similarly,
Nietzsche says

'[...] man shall henceforth stand before man as he now, hardened by the discipline of
science, stands before the other forms of nature, with fearless OEdipus-eyes, and
have piped him much too long: "Thou art more! thou art higher! thou has a different
origin!" (BGE 181)

In Nietzsche and in Zen human beings are not spiritual beings. The Buddha never
claimed to be anything other than a human being. The bermensch is a human being.
Both Nietzsche's philosophy and Zen leave the world intact. Alan Watts says

'[...] in Zen there is always the feeling that awakening is something quite natural,
something startlingly obvious' (WZ 77)

Being an bermensch or being enlightened does not entail a special kind of self-
consciousness, if this means the mind's awareness of its own contents. It follows that
both Nietzsche and Zen are inconsistent with all forms of spiritual self-realisation
that essentially involve introspection. For example, they are incompatible with St.
Augustine's dictum that 'the truth dwells inside the man, in you yourself' 'in te redi, in
interiore homine habitat veritas' (PL 39 De vera religione 39, n72). In the poem
'Hsin-hsin Ming' (Treatise on Faith in the Mind), possibly authored by Seng-ts'an,
the question is put:

'If you work on your mind with your mind,
How can you avoid a great confusion?' (WZ 89)

There is a fundamental distinction between two putative routes to self-realisation;
inwardness and outwardness. Saint Augustine and Husserl think truth is to be found
by a kind of consciousness of consciousness, a kind of inner reflection of the mind on
its own workings and its own possibility. This is 'inwardness'. Other philosophers
think that self-realisation is to be found in action in the external world, as though we
are empty inside. Sartre is a paradigm case of this 'outwardness'. He thinks we make
ourselves what we are by our freely chosen actions in the external world. If we have
to locate Nietzsche and Zen either side of this dichotomy, it is better to think of them
as endorsing 'outwardness'. Both emphasise practical, even ordinary, action. Their
considered view is that the distinction between inner and outer is of little
consequence for being who you are, because we freely make ourselves what we are
by thought and by action.


There are many different kinds of freedom, but a fundamental distinction is between
freedom to and freedom from. Someone has freedom to do something if two
conditions are met: they are able to do it and they are able not to do it. Someone has
freedom from something if they are not subject to some impediment to their action or
well being. This claim of Nietzsche's may be taken to express both kinds of freedom:

'Until now no single individuality, or only the very rarest, have been free' (CW 184)

The bermensch is free from conventional 'herd' morality and is thereby free to
create his own values. There is another sense in which the bermensch is free. He
makes himself what he is through his own actions. His life is a process of self-
definition. It follows that the bermensch has no fixed essence. This is consistent
with Nietzsche's view that there is no self or soul that is the enduring subject of
experience. In Nietzsche and in Zen there is freedom, but there is no self that
exercises this freedom. Zen is sometimes referred to as a 'way of liberation' but this
is something of a misnomer. The story is told of a student of Zen, Tao-hsin, who asks
the master Seng-ts'an

"What is the method of liberation?"

Seng-ts'an replies

"Who binds you?"

Tao-hsin replies to this

"No one binds me"

"Why then," asked Seng-ts'an, "should you seek liberation?" (WZ 89)

This interchange causes Tao-hsin's Satori. Zen does not so much solve the problem
as show the student that there is no problem. Or: The solution to the problem is that
there is no problem. What we think is a problem is not a problem. To think of Zen as
a 'method of liberation' that must be 'followed' is an obstacle to Zen. It suggests a
future goal and some procedure to reach it. What is required is a startling
transformation of the present and thinking about the future is no help in that.
Nietzsche's bermensch has also not reached a future metaphysical goal. He too
lives in a transformed present. Nietzsche contrasts the bermensch with the saints of
traditional theism:

'The man who today wishes to be good and saintly has a more difficult task than
formerly: in order to be "good", he must not be so unjust to knowledge as earlier
"Providence", as the Indian saints likewise had nothing to do with them. He should
ascetic saint, but would be much more like a man of the world' (CW 188-9)

We may understand 'knowledge' here to denote either science, or common sense or
both. We cannot take it to mean 'metaphysics' or 'theology' or anything with a
transcendent sense. Nietzsche thinks earlier saints despised empirical knowledge
(which is certainly an unfair charge against many saints of diverse religious
traditions) but the bermensch should endorse, or at least, approve of it. This is
because he is thoroughly concerned with the empirical world and not at all concerned
with a transcendent reality. Here there are strong parallels with the life of a Zen
Buddhist monk. Both the bermensch and the Zen monk are 'in' the world but not 'of'
the world. Both are healthy. The Zen monks exist on a mainly vegan diet of rice with
vegetable soup and their monastic early mornings and agricultural work constitute a
tough spartan life style and cause rugged health. A Zen monk is a 'man of the world'
in Nietzsche's sense. Zen monks laugh and joke and have an easy manner. They are
happy in their simple, practical, tasks. The life of the Zen monk is hardly
comfortable. Discipline in the monastery is strict. Alcohol, other drugs and sexual
contacts are forbidden. In meditation a dozy monk might be suddenly struck on the
back with a wooden stick. Indeed, this kind of shock treatment is sometimes used as
an aid to Enlightenment; to break the hold on the monk of his ordinary conditioned
train of thought. Nietzsche says

'To make the individual uncomfortable is my task' (CW para 192 p. 189)

Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists are far from promoting the consolations of
philosophy or religion. They are trying to promote a sharp awakening of the
individual, an awakening from the 'sleep' of ordinary waking life. This awakening
brings great pleasure. Nietzsche speaks of

'The great pleasure experienced by the man who liberates himself by fighting' (CW
para 192 p. 189)

Zen monasteries are often located in cold mountainous areas where the climate is
conducive to a sharp immediacy of mind. Nietzsche says

'[...] we need habituation to sharp, rare air, to winter wanderings, to literal and
metaphorical ice and mountains' (GM 117)

The Zen monk is a paradigm case of mental and physical stamina achieved through
discipline and hardship. Nietzsche says

'we need (to summarise the awful truth) great health' (GM 117)

In the monastery, the Zen master might behave with brutal decisiveness to break the
monk's sentimental attachments which are an obstacle to their Enlightenment. For
example, if the monks take in a cat and begin to care for it the master might suddenly
chop the cat in half with a sword. Nietzsche's bermensch is equally decisive and

standard of their criticism to everything and sacrifice themselves to truth' (CW para
194 p. 189-90)

Yun-men says of life in his own monastery:

'"Our school lets you go any way you like. It kills and it brings to life - either way"'
(WZ 132)

In Zen there is no room for laziness, pessimism or apathy. Zen requires absolute and
immediate concentration in the present. Similarly, Nietzsche says at the end of The
Wagner Case:

'There are lazy pessimists and resigned ones in this world - and it is to their number
that we refuse to belong' (CW para 194 p. 190)

Nevertheless, some of Nietzsche's scathing characterisations of religious asceticism
might be thought to apply to Zen:

'The means of becoming a medicine man amongst the Indians, a saint among
Christians of the Middle Ages, an angecok among Greenlanders, a Pagee among
Brazilians, are the same in essence: senseless fasting, continual abstention from
sexual intercourse, isolation in a wilderness, ascending a mountain or pillar, "sitting
on an aged willow that looks out upon a lake," and thinking of absolutely nothing but
what may give rise to ecstacy or mental derangements' (DD para 14 p. 21-2)

Language and its Limits

One of the most conspicuous ways in which both Nietzsche's philosophy and Zen
differ from various movements in modern Western philosophy is in their attitude to
language. Twentieth century philosophy underwent a 'linguistic turn' which, although
originating in Kant, is most decisively initiated by the work of Frege and Saussure.
The work of these theorists of language was appropriated to make language
fundamental to philosophy. What I mean by 'fundamental' here is this: It is not
possible to solve, or dissolve, problems in philosophy without solving problems
about language. At least, it is necessary to pay careful attention to the language in
which philosophical problems are couched. Philosophy became essentially about its
own language. The principle exponents of this linguistic philosophy in the late
twentieth century are Wittgenstein, J.L. Austin, the French Structuralists, and
Derrida. Now, although all of linguistic philosophy, Nietzsche and Zen are anti-
metaphysical, Nietzsche and Zen are anti-linguistic. They think that language is an
obstacle not an aid to knowledge. They think that a preoccupation with language is
an obstacle to that transformation in what it is to lead a human life that they claim to
offer. Nietzsche puts it this way:

'WORDS BLOCK UP OUR PATH. - Wherever primitive men put down a word,
they thought they had made a discovery. How different the case really was! - they
had come upon a problem, and, while they thought they had solved it, they had in
reality placed an obstacle in the way of its solution' (DD 53)

Because we are language users there is a sense in which we 'inhabit' language. Our
ontological taxonomy is linguistically generated. We perceive things as sorts of
things because we unconsciously subsume them under the concepts of our language,
which are in turn pragmatically driven. To this extent, a quasi-Kantian linguistic
idealism is true. The trouble is, according to both Nietzsche and Zen, that we mistake
this linguistically determined ontology for reality. In fact: It is not the world. It is our
world. This is why Nietzsche claims that in naming something we have not explained
it. Rather, we have obscured it. We are likely to perceive in it, in fact, only the
properties it shares with other objects we call by the same name. In naming it as one
of those we become blind to its uniqueness, to how it differs from what it is not.
When thoroughly applied, this view of language has a drastic epistemological
consequence endorsed in different ways by the later Aquinas and the early
Wittgenstein: The way things really are cannot be expressed linguistically. Alan
Watts says that practicing Zen requires

'having nothing to say'

and this in turn is because

'the truth cannot be put into words' (WZ 77)

Indeed, the Zen impatience with linguistic distractions from Enlightenment is
expressed in the admonishment:

'"Wash out your mouth every time you say 'Buddha'!"' (WD 88fn)

In The Way of Zen Watts considers a four line summary of Zen. Zen is

(1) 'Outside teaching, apart from tradition'

(2) 'Not founded on words and letters'

(3) 'Pointing directly to the human mind'

(4) 'Seeing into one's nature and attaining Buddhahood' (WZ 88)

(1) implies that no propositional use of language is sufficient to communicate Zen.
(2) implies that no propositional language is necessary to communicate Zen. (3) and
(4) are nevertheless attempts to capture linguistically the experience needed to
understand or, better, do Zen. Alan Watts reports a conversation between Zen
Buddhists in which one asks rhetorically of the other

'You have no name [...]?' (WZ 89)

Although it is a contingent fact that people have names, it seems commonsensically
false that someone has no name. The monks in Zen monasteries have names. It is not
this clear truth that is being denied here. Rather, a practice is being advocated, the
practice of living without regard for one's name. It would be beneficial for this
practice to forget one's name, or even forget that one ever had one. This would make
the familar unfamiliar and disrupt habitual ways of experiencing or thinking of
oneself. Nietzsche thinks nothing is explained by being named. The Zen Buddhists
can be understood as subscribing to a special case of this; one's own case.
Zen inherits the idea of reality or truth being inexpressible in words from Taoism.
Indeed, historically and philosophically Zen may be understood as a fusion of Indian
Buddhism with Taoism. In the Tao Te Ching are the two lines:

'The nameless is the origin of heaven and earth;

Naming is the mother of the ten thousand things'
(WZ 130)

It cannot be stated what the nameless is, what it is that is the origin of heaven and
earth. However, the reader of Western philosophy is familiar with something like the
nameless in the idea of a primitive concept. Suppose we took the view that being is
the origin of heaven and earth, in the sense that there cannot be all the things that are
unless there is something rather than nothing, existence rather than non-existence.
(This is not a wholly implausible reading of Taoist claim so long as we read 'being'
adverbally rather than substantively, as denoting something that goes on). The
problem What is it to be? is an unsolved problem of Western thought. Despite the
efforts of Parmenides, Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, the Medieval Scholastics, Berkeley,
Kant, Hegel, Brentano, Heidegger and many lesser figures 'being' has resisted
definition. There is a clear sense in which being is not 'nameless'. If 'name' here
means 'word' then the name of being is 'being'. Also, even on the Taoist view, the
nameless has a name. The name of the nameless is 'the nameless'. The point is that
'being' seems terribly difficult to analyse in more primitive terms. 'Being' seems to be
a primitive concept. 'Naming is the mother of the ten thousand things' because in
Taoism, as in Nietzsche and Zen, a kind of nominalism is endorsed: Either all that
the things called by the same name have in common is that they are called by the
same name, or, distinctions between things and types of things are causally or
epistemologically dependent upon facts about the use of language. In one of Nan-
ch'uan's lectures it is claimed :

'If there are names, everything is classified in limits and bounds. Therefore the old
man West of the river (ie Ma-tsu) said: "It is not mind; it is not Buddha; it is not a
thing".' (WZ 129)

Whatever it is that cannot be named is implicitly characterised negatively; as not
classified in limits and bounds.

A poem of Ippen Shonin reads:

'When the Name is uttered,

Neither the Buddha nor the self

There is:


The voice alone is heard.'
(WZ 129)

But Ippen Shonin later submits better version:

'When the name is uttered,

Neither the Buddha nor the self

There is:



The point is that only the phonetics of the penultimate line are heard. There is at that
point an experience of the language without understanding of the language. This
counts as an achievement because it is a reversal of conditioning. It is in fact
extraordinarily difficult to hear one's own language clearly without thereby
understanding it.

Is Satori a kind of self knowledge? As we saw in the chapter on the self, the only
genuine self knowledge allowed by Nietzsche and Zen is seeing through the self;
appreciating that there is no inner psychic self. Nevertheless, on both philosophies
there is such a thing as knowing what one is: a life process, or series of life
processes, and on both philosophies this requires a calling into question of what we
could call the self/not-self distinction. Nietzsche says

'"KNOW THYSELF" IS THE WHOLE OF SCIENCE.- Only when man shall have
acquired a knowledge of all things will he be able to know himself. For things are but
the boundaries of man' (DD 53)

and Lieh-tzu, when studying Zen under the master Lao Shang reports this experience
of Enlightenment:

'Internal and external were blended into unity' (WZ 22)


'My body [was] in dissolution' (WZ 22)


'my flesh and bones all melted together' (WZ 22)

By a self/not-self distinction I mean: Each of us divides what is into two portions
which are mutually exclusive and jointly exhaustive; the portion that one is and the
remainder that one is not. It is not clear that this distinction is drawn in the same way
by different individuals, or different individuals in different cultures. It is not clear
whether it is a sharp or a vague distinction. It is not clear whether it can change over
time. What is reasonably clear is that most people draw it, albeit implicitly through
their behaviour rather than explicitly in their thought.
In rather different ways, Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists are saying that the self/not-
self distinction is not an ontological distinction. It is not a distinction in how things
are. In the Enlightenment of Lieh-tzu the distinction is obliterated. In this monistic
state of pure awareness and bliss no distinction between oneself and an external
world is apparent. This is because no self and no external world is apparent. The
sensation of oneself existing in confrontation with, or facing, an external world of
objects is lost. To say that the self/not-self distinction is not ontological in Zen is to
say that the findings of Enlightenment are privileged over ordinary beliefs and
experiences. Enlightenment is insight, ordinary metaphysics illusion. In Nietzsche
the distinction is not obliterated but exposed for what it is. He says 'things are the
boundaries of man'. Self and not-self are closely mutually dependent. Where I cease,
the external world begins. Where the external world ceases, I begin. The outside of
my body is the inside of the external world. Self knowledge is 'the whole of science'
because it is not possible to understand what I am in abstraction from my relations to
what I am not. To say that the self/not-self distinction is not ontological on
Nietzsche's view is to deny that it is a distinction between two substances and affirm
that it is mentallly constructed and, up to a point, arbitary.
The kinds of human transformation found in Nietzsche and Zen contrast
sharply with Platonic models of self realisation. Nietzsche says about Plato:

'Plato fled from actuality, and wished to contemplate things only in their pale mental
concepts' (DD para 448 p. 321)

Plato thinks that before birth and after death the human soul is in communion or
'participation' with the forms; the non-spatio-temporal and mind-independent,
universal, perfect, essences of things. For Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists, there is
no soul and there are no forms. What Plato takes to be ultimate reality is therefore
only further illusion on their view. The forms are not metaphysical universals but
'pale mental concepts' that is, psychological concepts abstracted empirically.
Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists think of their philosophies as the exact opposite of a
flight 'from actuality'. Like Hegel, they think the real is the actual. Reality is all here
In Die Frhliche Wissenschaft Nietzsche asks

'What then makes a person "noble"?'

and answers his own question:

'[...] the feeling of heat in things which feel cold to all other persons: a divining of
sufficiency which has superabundance, and imparts to men and things' (GS para 55 p.

These are examples of the nobility of the bermensch. The life of the bermensch is
'against the current'; his thoughts and experiences are not like those of other people,
they are, in a way, the opposite. It is not impossible that someone should feel heat in
the kind of object in which others feel cold (not because of the logical possibility of a
sceptical reversal according to which what feels hot to me feels cold to you and vice
versa) because arguably phenomenological heat is present in phenomenological cold.
If something feels extremely cold and if something else feels extremely hot then
there obtains a qualitative similarlity between how they feel. There is a physiological
reason from this: in feeling cold there is loss of heat from the body; in feeling hot
there is gaining heat by the body. The transition either way may be
phenomenologically indistinguishable. For example, carbon dioxide ice burns.
Noblity in the bermensch also consists in his free invention of values. Because he is
beyond good and evil, he is free to act authentically. His behaviour cannot be
understood by most people. Nobility includes bravery that does not depend upon
honour. If I am brave because I wish to be recognised as brave then my bravery is
lessened. I might act despite my fear, and be brave in that sense, but if my bravery
has no egotistical motivation, if it could be private bravery, then it would, other
things being equal, be pure bravery.
The bermensch, like the advanced Zen monk, is self-sufficient: physically and
emotionally. Because this self-sufficiency is 'superabundant' it allows altruism. It
allows compassion towards people and things, but compassion from a position of
strength not weakness. Lieh-tzu describes the experience of Enlightenment under the
master Lao Shang:

' [...] there was no distinction between eye and ear, ear and nose, nose and mouth: all
were the same' (WZ 22)

Although there is awareness in Satori, this is not awareness through one sensory
modality rather than another. It is the awareness common to all sensory modalites.
Not only is it possible to hear colours, smell sounds, and taste smells, in Satori there
is an appreciation of (being) the consciousness which operates through these senses.
One has, so to speak, become that consciousness and ideas of what one is are no
longer persuasive. They are just ideas.
It follows that Satori is an original state, in both senses of 'original'. It is both
highly unusual, experienced by few, and at the origin of ordinary awareness.
Nietzsche thinks originality is a hallmark of the bermensch:

'Originality. - What is originality ? To see something that does not yet bear a name,
that cannot yet be named, although it is before everybody's eyes' (GS 207-8)

What the bermensch discovers is 'before everybody's eyes'. Just as in the Zen there
is the discovery that only the present is real, so the bermensch draws our attention
to something that was too close to us for us to see, something that once pointed out,
is remarkably obvious. It is common to those in Satori and Nietzsche's bermensch
to be misunderstood. However, when Nietzsche says

'What we Do. - What we do is never understood, but only praised and blamed' (GS

'we' may be taken to denote all humans. Although the claim is exaggerated, it is a
familiar fact that enthusiasm for or denigration of a person, a thought, or an action is
an obstacle to understanding these things.
Both Nietzsche's bermensch and the Zen monks are hard on themselves. They
are intolerant of their own weaknesses. Neither will tolerate mediocrity in
themselves. Nietzsche says

'Where Cruelty is Necessary. - He who is great is cruel to his second-rate virtues and
judgments' (GS 208)

Zen includes a kind of teleology, from ordinary suffering to Satori. In a sense it is the
aim of each Zen monk to achieve Satori. Nietzsche says of the bermensch:

'With a high Aim. With a high aim a person is superior even to justice, and not only
to his deeds and his judges' (GS 209)

but caution is needed in speaking of Satori as an aim in Zen. Desire is an obstacle to
Satori, so if having Satori as an aim entails a desire for Satori, then Satori as an aim
is an obstacle to Satori. In grasping Satori, Satori eludes us. Satori cannot be
approached directly, or, in another sense, Satori can only be approached directly. It is
an immediate transformation of the present, not the achievement of a future goal.
Nietzsche speaks of the heroism of the bermensch:

'What makes Heroic ? - To face simultaneously one's greatest suffering and one's
highest hope' (GS 209)

The person in Satori is able to face his greatest hopes and fears, greatest pleasures
and greatest suffering with equanimity. It is not clear that we should call this heroic,
because in Satori one is detached from sensations and thoughts. If one, to that extent
does not feel them, one does not heroically face them. Compare the case where two
people walk some distance with a terrible leg injury, but one with an anaesthetic. We
should call the first but not the second 'heroic'. Similarly, Nietzsche's bermensch
acts with optimism, with life affirmation and hope, despite the greatest suffering, but
the person in Satori has escaped suffering. We should call the first but not the second
Both the bermensch and the person in Satori are in a position to revise their
values. Each sees the world in a new, more holistic way. Nietzsche says

'What dost thou Believe in? - In this: That the weights of all things must be
determined anew' (GS 209)

and asks

'What Saith thy Conscience ?

Once conventional morality is discarded, the distinction between right and wrong
becomes a matter for individual conscience.

The Students of Zen and the Pioneers of the bermensch

In The Gay Science Nietzsche lists some attributes of people whom he calls 'the
pioneers of the bermensch'. These are human beings who are on the way to being
bermenschen. There are some striking parallels between these people and Zen
monks who are advancing towards Satori. The are 'brave pioneers'. Suppose someone
is brave if and only if they act even though they are afraid of acting. The life of a Zen
monk must include many such moments. The atmosphere of the monastery is
forbidding and designed to intimidate the initiate. The monk must renounce worldly
attachments and humble himself before the master; perform tasks and pose questions
even though these will seem hopelessly inadequate. The pioneers of the bermensch

'men silent, solitary and resolute, who know how to be content and persistent in
invisible activity' (GS para 283 p. 219)

Zen monks are silent, solitary and resolute. Their activity of meditation is invisible.
One can perhaps see that someone is meditating, if that is what they are doing, but it
is not possible to see the meditating. That activity is invisible. In meditation there is
contentment and persistence; contentment through peace of mind, persistence in
meditating for many hours of the day. The pioneers of the bermensch are

'men who with innate disposition seek in all things that which is to be overcome in
them' (GS para 283 p. 219)

'Innate' is being used metaphorically here. Nietzsche does not think that advancement
to the stage of bermensch is biologically determined. 'Innate' means something like
'perennial' in this passage. Becoming an bermensch requires not shying away from
what is difficult or confrontational in one's life. Similarly, the Zen monk is trying to
overcome himself, not through a direct confrontation, but through monastic training
in za-zen. The pioneers are

'men to whom cheerfulness, patience, simplicity, and contempt of the great vanities
belong just as much as do magnaminity in victory and indulgence to the trivial
vanities of the vanquished' (GS para 283 p. 219)

'men with an acute and independent judgment regarding all victors, and concerning
the part which chance has played in the winning of victory and fame' (GS para 283
p. 218)

'men with their own holidays, their own work-days, and their own periods of
mourning' (GS para 283 p. 218)

'accustomed to command with perfect assurance, and equally ready, if need be, to
obey, proud in the one case as in the other, equally serving their own interests' (GS
para 283 p. 219)

Zen monks are used to obedience and, high in the monastic hierarchy, to
commanding. It is also true that they obey and command in what they perceive to be
their own interests, the achievement of Satori. Zen monks also operate ideally with
perfect assurance. In archery, in making tea, in chopping wood, they act with
unreflective spontaneous concentration. The pionniers are

'men more imperilled, more productive, more happy!' (GS para 283 p. 219)

Zen monks do not rely on the ordinary securities of income and family. The
monastery is largely a self-sufficient economic unit and so substitutes for both family
and job so they are not 'imperilled' there. However, the better one's Zen the greater
one's productivity and the greater one's happiness.
Nietzsche shares with Feuerbach and Marx the thesis that the more a person puts
into God, or any transcendent metaphysics, the less he leaves in himself:

'perhaps man will ever rise higher and higher [...] when he no longer flows out into a
God' (GS para 285 p. 221)

In Zen, eschewing theism and transcendent metaphysics is a necessary condition for
achieving Satori. These are distractions from the transfiguration of the present. The
pionner is not as ordinary humans but aims

'to be absolutely a man with a single lofty feeling, the incarnation of a single lofty
mood [...]' (GS para 288 p. 222)

As we saw in Suzuki's description of Satori as just like ordinary life but lived a few
inches off the ground, Satori could be accurately called a 'lofty feeling' or 'a single
lofty mood'. Nietzsche's 'Frhliche Wissenschaft', or wisdom of happiness, is like the
path to Satori. A Zen monastery has a rather formal, austere, quasi-military
atmosphere. Nietzsche says of those who are to be bermensch:

'it is rather as among soldiers - almost nothing but blame and sharp reprimand is
heard; for doing well prevails here as the rule, doing ill as the exception; the rule,
however, has, here as everywhere, a silent tongue' (GS para 293 p. 228)

For long periods of each day in the monastery there is silent meditation. This silence
is occasionally punctuated by the sound of a gong for a meal, or a word of command.
Sometimes the monks are reprimanded, but almost never praised. Nietzsche says:

'this "severity of science" [...] it frightens the uninitiated' (GS para 293 p. 228)

The same could be said of a visitor to a Zen monastery, or a novice monk. An
advanced Zen monk might well be reluctant to relinquish his progress and leave the
life of the monastery. Nietzsche says of the bermensch or near bermensch:

'He, however, who is accustomed to it, does not like to live anywhere but in this
clear, transparent, powerful, and highly electrified atmosphere, this manly
atmosphere. Anywhere else is not pure and airy enough for him' (GS para 293 p.

This imagery could equally be used to describe the monastic atmosphere conducive
to the mental clarity and strength of the Zen monk.
The question arises of whether, and if so in what sense, the bermensch or
enlightened person should 'return' to the world. In a metaphysical sense this question
does not arise because there is nothing but the world. 'The world' denotes the totality
of what is. Neither the bermensch nor the person in Satori claims to have visited
any transcendent metaphysical reality. However, the questions remain of whether the
bermensch and the person in Satori should revert to an ordinary mode of human
existence and whether they should socialise with ordinary people. The Zen answer to
both questions is clear. Maintaining Satori, the enlightened person should promote
good works amongst humanity and assist others to achieve Satori. In Buddhism, a
Boddhisatva is someone who actually postpones their own Enlightenment to bring
others to Enlightenment. It is also important to Zen Buddhists that they participate in
the tasks of ordinary life. Nietzsche's view of the bermensch is more ambiguous on
this point. He says of the bermenschs return to the world:

'he suspects that there his best art would neither be properly advantageous to anyone
else, nor a delight to himself, that through misunderstandings half of his life would
slip through his fingers' (GS para 293 p. 228)

We should not read this to mean that the bermensch should have no contact with
Menschen because there is a danger of losing the attributes of the bermensch. The
bermensch does move amongst the Menschen, even though he is misunderstood.
Rather the bermensch should be in ordinary society but not be subject to its values.
Beyond conventional good and evil he remains an bermensch:

'In this keen and clear element, however, he has his entire power: here he can fly' (GS
para 293 p. 228)

Similarly, when Nietzsche asks

'Why should he again go down into those muddy waters where he has to swim and
wade and soil his wings! - No! There it is too hard for us to live!' (GS para 293 p.

he is saying that there is no justification for the bermensch to revert to being only
Mensch. Some passages suggest that this is not an option for the bermensch
anyway, as though it is inevitable who will be an bermensch. For example,
Nietzsche says

'we cannot help it that we are born for the atmosphere, the pure atmosphere' (GS para
293 p. 228)

We need not take this too literally. Nietzsche is not a biological determinist. He is
saying the bermensch enjoys the status of bermensch and it is not a psychological
option not to savour that status. Similarly, in Zen, it is not possible for Satori to be
unpleasant. Far from being causally determined in his behaviour, the bermensch is
genuinely free. He exercises preferences:

'We prefer much rather to live on mountains' (GS para 377 p. 344)

The image of the mountain is recurrent in Nietzsche and Zen. Ch'ing-yuan:

got its very substance I am at rest. For its just that I see mountains once again as
mountains, and waters once again as waters'
(WZ 126)

It is of the essence of the Zen experience that the conditioned understanding of what
things are is exposed for just that. To habitually take mountains as mountains and
waters as waters is arguably a complex psychological achievement. To see something
as a mountain is to take it as a large four-dimensional physical object which does not
move, something which does not cease to exist when unperceived, something with a
far presently unobserved side, something that might or might not be climbable. To
see something as water is to see it as wet, as the sort of medium on which some
things can float, as something that it may be possible to swim in and so on. All these
are thoughts or background assumptions that are projected onto the mountain or the
water and allow it to be seen as such. Zen training places these preconceptions in
psychological abeyance and allows the direct apprehension of the object. Even this
way of describing the experience is somewhat misleading if it implies a relatively
enduring object, a perceiver, and a psychological relation of 'perceiving' between the
two. Rather, the Zen student undergoes a transformation in his or her being in which
the distinction between subjective perceiver and objective object is obliterated, or at
least exposed as one more level of conditioned reality. In this transformed state,
mountains are no longer mountains and waters are no longer waters. The object one
would normally perceive as a mountain is not presented as a mountain and the liquid
one would normally perceive as water is not perceived as water. What then appears
phenomenologically is usually held by Zen Buddhists to be indescribable, except
perhaps by poetic gesture. This is because language itself is an important component
of conditioned views of what is. In so far as the content of the state may be reported
in words it is usually described in terms of transient and chaotic events or processes
rather than objects. Before Enlightenment there is a mountain: conditioned existence.
During Enlightenment there is not a mountain: Satori. After Enlightenment there is a
mountain, but the mountain is known for the conditioned reality that it is. It is not
taken seriously.It follows from the Zen account that human beings are meaning
bestowers. In a quasi-Kantian sense our concepts are categories impregnate the
contents of experience so that we are ordinarily confronted with a world of more or
less familiar empirical objects. This quasi-Kantianism bears a close affinity to
Nietzsche's perspectivism; what things are cannot be specified independently of the
subjective point of view or 'perspective' of the human agent. Nietzsche goes so far as
to say

'The bermensch is the meaning of the earth' (Z 7)

Nietzsche also means that the bermensch is the teleology of the earth. If the world
has no metaphysical or theological meaning or goal, the only meaning it has is
bestowed by human beings. In so far as human meaning can be overcome or gone
beyond this is by the bermensch, the superhuman. Nietzsche urges us to adopt this
atheistic and existentialist world picture and dismiss the idea of a transcendent

'[...] remain true to the earth, and believe not those who speak unto you of
superearthly hopes' (Z 7)

Nietzsche's philosophy and Zen contain images of the conditioned as impure or dirty
and the unconditioned as pure or washed. For example Nietzsche says

without becoming impure' (Z 8)


[...] the bermensch: he is that sea [...]' (Z 8)

The practice of Zen is often described as polishing a mirror. The mirror is the empty
mind and the dust on the mirror is the repetitious constellation of thoughts and
emotions that the mind is subject to. A clean mirror is a mind stripped of
preconceptions that will reflect what is presented to it just as it is.
Satori is sometimes described as an ocean. Through meditation, one's sensation of
oneself as an isolated ego located in a body is lost and the direct experience of the
whole field of one's current awareness is made possible. It is this, one's
consciousness, or one's present being as revealed to itself, that is compared to the sea.
In this state it is no longer appropriate to talk of 'oneself'. The reading of Buddhist
scriptures after Enlightenment is sometimes compared to swimming in a swimming
pool arbitrarily set up by cordoning off part of the ocean. Because of the
overwhelming importance of direct experience and the transformation of one's own
being in Zen, after Enlightenment reading, even reading scriptures, is just one
experience amongst others.
Buddhism is essentially a set of techniques for stopping suffering. Both
Nietzsche and the Buddhists take the view that suffering and happiness are
inextricably linked. For this reason, the escape from suffering is also an escape from
happiness, at least as we ordinarily understand it. Indeed, Nietzsche thinks that
despising one's own happiness is an important step in self overcoming:

hour in which even your happiness becomes loathsome unto you, and so also your
reason and virtue' (Z 8)

Both Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists think that what we ordinarily term happiness
is not true happiness:

'What good is my happiness! It is poverty and pollution and wretched self-
complacency' (Z 8)

In Zen, ordinary happiness is simply one more turn of the wheel of karma. It is part
of the oscillation between a more depressed or apathetic mood and a more positive
and energetic mood that most human beings experience in their waking hours. It is
prerequisite to Zen training to become exasperated with this oscillation between the
happy and the unhappy, the suffering self and the non-suffering self. Nietzsche says

'How weary I am of my good and my bad!' (Z 8)

The experience of happiness and unhappiness depends upon our being conditioned
into the 'herd' morality.
Although Zen monks and priests are traditionally viewed with great respect in
Japan, it is unsurprising that their efforts to de-condition themselves should
occasionally appear eccentric to the outsider and make them objects of mirth or
ridicule. Similarly, Nietzsche says

'[...] all the people laughed at Zarathustra' (Z 9)

It is an unsolved philosophical problem what it is for something to be humorous, but
it is reasonably clear that people are sometimes motivated to laugh at what they find
threatening or do not understand.
Humanity has a similar existential status in Nietzsche's philosophy and in Zen. We
are not spiritual beings on either view, although Buddhists sometimes use the term
'spiritual' for human development through their techniques. Both philosophies reject
the view that humanity is made by and in the image of God. We have a natural origin
and we make ourselves what we are by our actions. Nietzsche says

'Man is a rope stretched between the animal and the bermensch - a rope over an
abyss' (Z 9)

'What is great in man is that he is a bridge and not a goal' (Z 9)

Similarly, in Buddhism, human beings have a greater consciousness of reality than
animals but only a minority has experienced Enlightenment. As we have seen, part of
the route to Enlightenment is ethical. In particular, the quality of one's present
experience is dictated by one's past actions. It is because I did that that I feel like this
now. In Zen, the antidote to karmic influence is to cultivate a spirit of giving. Instead
of trying to take from the world one tries to give to the world. This generosity, which
should inform every thought, every deed, every gesture produces a clear conscience.
Nietzsche says about giving:

he always bestoweth, and desireth not to keep for himself' (Z 10)

When the Buddha left his family and palatial home for his journeys across northern
India, he took only a robe and a begging bowl. The ideal of frugality is maintained in
the Zen monastery and endorsed by Nietzsche:

'Verily, he who possesseth little is so much the less possessed: blessed be moderate
poverty' (Z 57)

As in Buddhism, possessions are a burden. Ironically, we are possessed by our
possessions because we are afraid to lose them. They are costly to maintain. They
arouse jealousy in others who then wish to harm us. Nietzsche shares with Zen the
karmic view of property.
Both Nietzsche and Zen Buddhists think of the transformation of the human as
like light or lightning. Nietzsche says

'[...] the lightning [...] is the bermensch' (Z 11)

and 'Satori' is usually translated 'Enlightenment'. Light or lightning allows sudden
awareness. Enlightenment and the appearance of the bermensch are shocking.
Although both the bermensch and the enlightened person are human beings, they
are in a sense more human than the human. They are more completely human than
the ordinary human. This humanistic holism is made possible by a purification of the
body. The Zen Buddhist shuns substances which contaminate the body and is subject
to a rigorous physical training which builds stamina. The diet of rice and soup is
frugal. Similarly, Nietzsche says

'Intelligently doth the body purify itself' (Z 89)

and he praises

'[...] him who maketh himself whole' (Z 89)

Although both the enlightened person and the bermensch are 'beyond good and
evil' the Buddhist boddhisatva postpones his own full Enlightenment in order to
perform works of compassion for his fellow human beings. Nietzsche also finds
room for compassion in his philosophy, but compassion from the standpoint of the
personal strength and freedom of choice of the bermensch. With the advent of the

'Verily, a place of healing shall the earth become' (Z 89)

Nietzsche is not saying the earth ought to become a place of healing. He is reporting
what he takes to be a fact, or making a prediction. Zen is similarly practical. It is not
so much that Zen Buddhists morally disapprove of violence, self-induglence, lying
and other practices we might normally view as immoral. Rather, they are saying that
these phenomena cause suffering. If one wishes to avoid suffering, they should be
shunned. The Buddhist 'ought' is much closer to a prudential 'ought' than a moral
'ought'. Perhaps surprisingly, Nietzsche says

friends.' (Z 90)

Buddhists are taught to disregard the praise or flattery of friends as much as
denigration or chastisement by enemies. Both are distortions of the reality of the
Buddhism is not a faith. It is not necessary to believe anything in order to be a
Buddhist. Being a Buddhist depends upon living an ethical life, eradicating suffering
in one's own life and others by deed and thought, and making progress on the path to
Enlightenment. To the extent that someone is engaged in this they are a Buddhist.
Clearly, then, being a Buddhist admits of degrees. Nietzsche too thinks it is how life
is lived that is philosophically important rather than the beliefs that are held about it.
He says

'[...] all belief is of so little account' (Z 90)

An important part of the Buddhist antidote to suffering is non-attachment. On one,
rather superficial, level the mind of the enlightened person is like the mind of the
unenlightened person. It has the same kind of propositional content. The difference is
that the enlightened person is not an emotional prisoner of this content. Fluctuating
emotion is treated like a moderate change in the weather, it is not taken seriously.
This non-attachment, or breaking of the affective efficacy of one's own emotions
allows one not to fully feel grief, disappointment, or ordinary happiness based on
hope. It requires an emotional detachment from family, friends, objects of sexual
desire, food and drink.
Buddhists recognise that Buddhism itself might be an obstacle to Buddhism. If
the student of Buddhism is 'attached' to Buddhism this attachment is a further
hindrance to their Enlightenment. Ironically, the persistence of the desire to become
enlightened is incompatible with Enlightenment because Enlightenment entails the
cessation of desire. Attachment to the Buddha, or to images of the Buddha, impede
Buddhahood. Nietzsche's Zarathustra, the prophet of the bermensch, says

'Now do I bid you lose me and find yourselves' (Z 90)


'[...] only when ye have all denied me, will I return unto you' (Z 90)

The transfiguration of the human, like Satori, has to come obliquely. It can never
come as the direct object of desire. For a similar reason, Alan Watts says

In za-zen there must be no thought either of aiming at Satori or of avoiding birth-
and-death' (WZ 158)

Watts' requirement is rather too strong here. It is not the thought that is the problem,
but the desire, or attachment to what the thought is about. If the thought of aiming at
Satori or avoiding the cycle of birth and death could be regarded as just thoughts
amongst others a detachment would have been achieved and an obstacle to Satori
Although it seems Nietzsche's philosophy is atheistic and Zen is agnostic, this
asymmetry is not pronounced. Both Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists regard belief in
God as an obstacle to the development of the human individual. Nietzsche thinks the
ideal of the transformed human should replace the ideal of God:

'" Dead are all the Gods: now do we desire the bermensch to live." - Let this be our
final will at the great noontide!' (Z 91)

Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists regard themselves as eminently practical in their
transformations of the human. Nietzsche asks

well create the bermensch.' (Z 99)

In so far as the Zen Buddhists are willing to use terms such as 'holy' or 'spiritual' they
are given a naturalised sense. A holy or spiritual person is one who lives an ethical
life and has either achieved or is advanced on the path to Satori. The symptoms of
Enlightenment are never divine but always naturalistic. For example, Alan Watts
reports that Fa-Yung was so 'holy', so 'spiritually advanced', that the birds used to
bring him flowers. On full Enlightenment the birds stop bringing flowers. (WZ 89) In
Buddhism, the desire to be holy is an obstacle to practical naturalised holiness.
Attachment to the thought of God is another form of attachment which has to be
released. The thought of God in Buddhism has to treated as one thought amongst
others. For Buddhist practical purposes this is equivalent to Nietzsche's claim that

'God is a thought.' (Z 100)

It would be wrong to construe Zen as overtly atheistic. Because belief is not
important to Zen, neither is disbelief. Zen does not operate with a distinction between
the sacred and the profane. As Nan-ch'uan puts it in one of his lectures:

'In the great Tao there is absolutely nothing secular or sacred.' (WZ 129)

Atheism and theism are mutually dependent for their sense and equally beside the
point as far as Zen is concerned. If theism is a necessary component of religion then
Zen is not a religion. It is perhaps much closer to what people in the West would
understand by psychotherapy, but psychotherapy of an abrupt and rather shocking
kind. Despite the lack of recourse to God, Zen Buddhists would deny that their
practice was in any way pessimistic or nihilistic. It is neither optimistic nor
pessimistic because those two attitudes are premised on hope and fear, not immediate
insight. Nietzsche talks about the bermensch as

'this conqueror of God and of Nothingness' (GM 117)

He too offers a path of human self transformation that is at once non-theistic yet
putatively not pessimistic. There is a sense in which Nietzsche may appropriately be
called a nihilist. He regards ordinary moral values as herd morality, but in this sense
of going beyond moral conditioning it makes sense to call Zen nihilistic also. Both
the Zen monk in Satori and the bermensch are 'conquerors of nothingness'. The
experience of Enlightement is phenomenologically similar to the experience of the
life of the bermensch. Both Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists use the image of the
wind to try to capture the idea of a certain kind of route through the world. Nietzsche

'And as strong winds will we live above them (the impure), neighbours to the eagles,
neighbours to the snow, neighbours to the sun: thus live the strong winds' (Z 116)

The great Taoist teacher, Lieh-tzu, reports that when studying under master Lao

'I was wholly unconscious of what my body was resting on, or what was under my
feet. I was born this way and that on the wind, like dry chaff or leaves falling from a
tree. In fact, I knew not whether the wind was riding on me or I on the wind' (WZ 22)

According to Watts, Lieh-tzu was famous for power 'to ride upon the wind' (WZ 22)
Both the bermensch and the person in Satori are in the world but not of the world.
Nietzsche's advice is equivalent to attention to karma when he says we should

'Take care not to spit against the wind' (Z 116)

One has to become the wind. Despite all that has been said about the person in Satori
and the bermensch their manner of being is essentially ineffable. Nietzsche asks

'But what am I talking of? Enough! Enough? At this juncture I have only one proper
course, silence' (GM 118)

The famous Taoist sage Lao-tzu says

'Those who know do not speak;
Those who speak do not know.' (WZ 77)

According to a Zen story:

The Master Shoichi Kokushi (1202-1280) maintained the Tofuku-ji temple in Kyoto
in silence. After many years, the reciting of sutras and ringing of bells characteristic
of monastic life were heard. A neighbour knew that old Master Shoichi had died.

The bermensch is enlightened.

Is God Dead?

Nietzsche, because of his rage against Platonism and Christianity, and Zen because
of its practical emphasis on transcending suffering, both unknowingly rely on
metaphysical assumptions which are ultimately theological.
Their emphasis on the lived immediacy of the present moment invites the
questions: Why is there such a time as now?, Why is it now now? If past and future
do not exist, is it only ever now? If it is only ever now, is the present the eternal
present? If so, how is this eternal now possible?
Nietzsche and Zen are committed to the existence of the world as a world of
becoming. It is not that there is being, nothingness, and the transition between them.
Rather, there is only the transition between being and nothingness and this means we
have to give up talk of being and talk of nothingness in favour of just becoming.
There is only ceasing to be and beginning to be, no ended and and no begun. We can
ask about this world: Why is there becoming?, Why is there change?, For what
reason does anything happen at all?, How is it possible for anything to happen?,
Why is there a world, anyworld?, If this is all there is, what is this?
We can also ask: Why is a portion of this world of becoming me? As we saw in
the section Do I exist?, for all their insight, Nietzsche and the Zen Buddhists have
not seen the question Why is this human being me? meaning, given that this human
being exists, in every psycho-physical detail, Why is this human being me? Why am I
co-extensive with it? Why is there such a thing as my viewing the world from it (here
and now)?
Neither Nietzsche nor Zen has the conceptual rescources to answer these
questions. Neither do the modern natural sciences, or aspirant sciences. These
questions only admit of theological answers. If you think they can be answered
without recourse to God and the soul you have not understood them. By God I
understand the one omniscient, omnipotent, wholly benevolent spiritual being who
created you and the remainder of the universe. Only God has the power to make a
time now. Only God has the power to make it the case that there are events. Only
God has the power to make this human being you. Only God has the power to make
what is be.
Nietzsche intends his words God is dead to express his view that belief in
God is disappearing from history. But, ironically, Nietzsches words may be used to
express the Christian truth that God took human form in Christ to die on the Cross
for human salvation, even though Christ lives eternally through the resurrection. The
atheistic and secular paradigm which Nietzsche exemplifies is beginning to crumble.
The scientific and materialist attempts to answer philosophical questions over the last
two centuries have all ended in abject failure. This is because whether we like it or
not, not everything is physical and very little is scientifically explicable. There is a
spiritual world and you are part of it. Philosophical questions have theological

Nietzsches Works
Kritische Gesamtausgabe Briefwechsel. ed. G. Colli and M. Montinari, 24 vols.
Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1975.
The Antichrist. trans. Walter Kaufmann, in The Portable Nietzsche, ed. Walter
Kaufmann. New York: Viking Press, 1968.
Beyond Good and Evil. trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Random House, 1966.
of Wagner. New York: Random House, 1967.
The Case of Wagner. trans. Walter Kaufmann, inThe Birth of Tragedy and The Case
of Wagner. New York: Random House, 1967.
Daybreak: Thoughts on the Prejudices of Morality. trans. R. J. Hollingdale.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
Ecce Homo: How One Becomes What One Is. trans. Walter Kaufmann, in On
theGenealogy of Morals and Ecce Homo. New York: Random House, 1967.
The Gay Science, with a Prelude of Rhymes and an Appendix of Songs. tr.
WalterKaufmann. New York: Random House, 1974.
Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits. trans. R. J. Hollingdale.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Nietzsche Contra Wagner. trans. Walter Kaufmann, in The Portable Nietzsche. New
York: Viking Press, 1968.
On the Genealogy of Morals. trans. Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale, in On the
Genealogy of Morals and Ecce Homo. New York: Random House, 1967.
Philosophy and Truth: Selections from Nietzsche's Notebooks of the Early 1870's.
trans. and ed. Daniel Breazeale. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1979.
Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks. trans. Marianne Cowan. Chicago: Henry
Regnery Company, 1962.
Thus Spoke Zarathustra. trans. Walter Kaufmann, in The Portable Nietzsche. New
York: Viking Press, 1968.
Twilight of the Idols. trans. Walter Kaufmann, in The Portable Nietzsche. New York:
Viking Press, 1968.
Untimely Meditations. trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1983.
Secondary Literature
Allison, David B (ed.), 1985, The New Nietzsche: Contemporary Styles of
Interpretation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Allison, David, 2000, Reading the New Nietzsche. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman &
Littlefield Publishing.
Ansell-Pearson, Keith (ed.), 2006. A Companion to Nietzsche. Oxford: Basil
Aschheim, Steven E, 1992, The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany, 1890-1990. Berkeley
and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Babich, Babette E, 1994, Nietzsche's Philosophy of Science. Albany: State University
of New York Press.
Bataille, Georges, 1992, On Nietzsche. trans. Bruce Boone. London: Athlone Press.
Bloom, Harold (ed.), 1987, Modern Critical Views: Friedrich Nietzsche. New York,
New Haven, Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers.
Came, Daniel, V. (2004). Nietzsches Attempt at a Self-Criticism: Art and Morality
in The Birth of Tragedy Nietzsche-Studien 33.
Came, Daniel, V. (2005) Nietzsches Theodicy unpublished D. Phil. thesis,
University of Oxford, Bodlian Library
Came, Daniel, V. (2006). The Aesthetic Justification of Existence in Ansell-
Pearson (ed.) 2006.
Came, Daniel, V. (2006) Nietzsche on Art, Morality and Theodicy. Unpublished
D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford, Oxford.
Came, Daniel, V. (ed.) (forthcoming) Nietzsche and Aesthetics. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Clark, Maudemarie, 1990, Nietzsche on Truth and Philosophy. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Danto, Arthur C, 1965, Nietzsche as Philosopher: An Original Study. New York:
Columbia University Press.
Deleuze, Gilles, 1983, Nietzsche and Philosophy. trans. Hugh Tomlinson. New York:
Columbia University Press.
Derrida, Jacques, 1979, Spurs: Nietzsche's Styles. trans. Barbara Harlow. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Gilman, Sander L, 1987, ed., Conversations with Nietzsche: A Life in the Words of
his Contemporaries. trans. David J. Parent, New York: Oxford UniversityPress, Inc..
Hayman, Ronald, 1980, Nietzsche, a Critical Life. New York: Oxford University
Heidegger, Martin, 1979, Nietzsche, Vol. I: The Will to Power as Art. trans. David F.
Krell. New York: Harper & Row.
-----, 1984, Nietzsche, Vol. II: The Eternal Recurrence of the Same. trans. David F.
Krell. San Francisco: Harper & Row.
-----, 1986, Nietzsche, Vol. III: Will to Power as Knowledge and as Metaphysics.
trans. Joan Stambaugh and Frank Capuzzi. San Francisco: Harper & Row.
-----, 1982, Nietzsche, Vol. IV: Nihilism. trans. David F Krell. New York: Harper &
Higgins, Kathleen Marie, 1987, Nietzsche's "Zarathustra." Philadelphia: Temple
University Press.
Hollingdale, R.J., 1973, Nietzsche. London and New York: Routledge and Kegan
Hunt, Lester H, 1991, Nietzsche and the Origin of Virtue. London: Routledge.
Irigaray, Luce, 1991, Marine Lover of Friedrich Nietzsche. trans. Gillian C. Gill.
New York: Columbia University Press.
Jaspers, Karl, 1979, Nietzsche: An Introduction to the Understanding of His
Philosophical Activity. trans. Charles F. Wallraff and Frederick J. Schmitz. South
Bend, Indiana: Regentry/Gateway, Inc..
Jung, Carl G, 1988, Nietzsche's "Zarathustra." ed. James L. Jarrett. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Kaufmann, Walter, 1950, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist.
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Koelb, Clayton (ed.), 1990, Nietzsche as Postmodernist: Essays Pro and Contra.
Albany: State University of New York Press.
Klossowski, Pierre, 1993, Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle. London: Athlone.
Kofman, Sarah, 1993, Nietzsche and Metaphor. ed. and trans., Duncan Large.
London: Athlone Press; Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Krell, David Farrell, 1986, Postponements: Women, Sensuality, and Death in
Nietzsche. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Lambert, Laurence, 1987, Nietzsche's Teaching: An Interpretation of "Thus Spoke
Zarathustra." New Haven: Yale University Press.
Brian Leiter and John Richardson (eds.), (2001) Nietzsche. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Lwith, Karl, 1997, Nietzsche's Philosophy of the Eternal Recurrence of the Same."
[1956], translated by J. Harvey Lomax, foreword by Bernd Magnus. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Macintyre, Ben, 1992, Forgotten Fatherland: The Search for Elisabeth Nietzsche.
London: Macmillan.
Magnus, Bernd, 1978, Nietzsche's Existential Imperative. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press.
Magnus, Bernd, Stanley Stewart, and Jean-Pierre Mileur, 1993, Nietzsche's Case:
Philosophy as/and Literature. New York and London: Routledge.
Magnus, Bernd, and Higgins, Kathleen M (eds.), 1996, The Cambridge Companion
to Nietzsche. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mandel, Siegfried, 1998, Nietzsche & the Jews. New York: Prometheus Books.
Nehamas, Alexander, 1985, Nietzsche: Life as Literature. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press.
Oliver, Kelly, 1995, Womanizing Nietzsche: Philosophy's Relation to the
"Feminine." New York and London: Routledge.
Parkes, Graham (ed.), 1991, Nietzsche and Asian Thought. Chicago: The University
of Chicago Press.
Parkes, Graham, 1994, Composing the Soul: Reaches of Nietzsche's Psychology.
Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
Pletch, Carl, 1991, Young Nietzsche: Becoming a Genius. New York: Free Press.
Poellner, Peter, 1991, 2000. Nietzsche and Metaphysics. Oxford: Oxford University
Poellner, Peter, 2001, Perspectival Truth in Leiter and Richardson, 2001.
Poellner, Peter, 2006, Phenomenology and Science in Nietzsche in Ansell-Pearson,
Priest, Stephen (forthcoming), The End of the Will to Power in Came
Rosen, Stanley, 1995, The Mask of Enlightenment: Nietzsche's Zarathustra.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Salom, Lou, 1988, Nietzsche. ed. and trans. Siegfried Mandel. Redding Ridge,
Connecticut: Black Swan Books, Ltd..
Schacht, Richard, 1983, Nietzsche. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Shapiro, Gary, 1989, Nietzschean Narratives. Bloomington: Indiana University
Simmel, Georg, 1991, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. trans. Helmut Loiskandle,
Deena Weinstein, and Michael Weinstein. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois
Schrift, Alan D, 1990, Nietzsche and the Question of Interpretation: Between
Hermeneutics and Deconstruction. New York: Routledge.
Sedgwick, Peter R. (ed.), 1995, Nietzsche: A Critical Reader. Oxford, UK and
Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Stambaugh, Joan, 1987, The Problem of Time in Nietzsche. trans. John F. Humphrey.
Philadelphia: Bucknell University Press.
Solomon, Robert (ed.), 1973, Nietzsche: A Collection of Critical Essays. Garden
City, New York: Anchor Books.
Solomon, Robert C, and Higgins, Kathleen M. (eds.), 1988, Reading Nietzsche. New
York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Steinbuch, Thomas, 1994, A Commentary on Nietzsche's Ecce Homo. Lanham, MD:
University Press of America.
Tanner, Michael, 1994. Nietzsche. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
White, Alan, 1990, Within Nietzsche's Labyrinth. New York and London: Routledge.
Wilcox, John T, 1974, Truth and Value in Nietzsche. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press.
Young, Julian, 1992, Nietzsche's Philosophy of Art, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1992.
Yovel, Yirmiyahu (ed.), 1986, Nietzsche as Affirmative Thinker. Dordrecht: Martinus
Nihoff Publishers.
Zeitlin. 1994. Nietzsche: A Re-examination. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Japanese-English Buddhist Dictionary. Dait Shuppansha. Tky, 1991.
Abe Masao. 1985. Zen and Western Thought. William R. LaFleur, ed. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press.
Abe Masao. 1992. A Study of Dgen: His Philosophy and Religion.. New York: State
University of New York Press.
App, Urs. 1989. "Facets of the Life and Teaching of Chan Master Yunmen Wenyan
(864-949)." Temple University. Ph.D. dissertation, Temple University.
App, Urs. 1987. "Ch'an/Zen's Greatest Encyclopaedist Mujaku Dch (1653-1744)."
Cahiers d'Extrme-Asie 3: 155-174.
App, Urs. 1991. "The Making of a Chan Record: Reflections on the History of the
Records of Yunmen." Zenbunka kenkyjo kiy.
Arntzen, Sonja. 1986. Ikky and the Crazy Cloud Anthology: A Zen Poet of Medieval
Japan. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.
Barrett, Timothy H. 1989. "Arthur Waley, D. T. Suzuki and Hu Shih: New Light on
the 'Zen and History' Controversy." Buddhist Studies Review 6, 2: 116-121.
Barrett, Timothy. 1991. "The Date of the Leng-chia shih-tzu chi." Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society, Series 3, 1, 2, pp. 255-259.
Berling, Judith A. 1987. "Bringing the Buddha down to Earth: Notes on the
Emergence of Y-lu as a Buddhist Genre." History of Religions 27, 1: 56-88.
Bielefeldt, Carl. 1985. "Recarving the Dragon: History and Dogma in the Study of
Dgen." In William R. Lafleur, ed., Dgen Studies, pp. 21-53. Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Press.
Bielefeldt, Carl. 1986. "Chang-lu Tsung-tse's Tso-ch'an i and the 'Secret' of Zen
Meditation." In Peter N. Gregory, ed., Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism,
pp. 129-161. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Bielefeldt, Carl. 1988. Dgen's Manuals of Zen Meditation. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Bielefeldt, Carl. 1989. "No-Mind and Sudden Awakening: Thoughts on the
Soteriology of a Kamakura Zen Text." In Robert Buswell and Robert Gimello, eds.,
Paths to Liberation: The Marga and its Transformations in Buddhist Thought.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991.
Bielefeldt, Carl. 1992. "Dgen's Studies in America: Thoughts on the State of the
Field." Komazawa Daigaku Zen kenkyjo nenpo 3: 212-196.
Bielefeldt, Carl, and Lewis R. Lancaster. 1975. "T'an Ching (Platform Scripture)."
Philosophy East and West 25, 2: 197-212.
Bodiford, William M. 1991. "Dharma Transmission in St Zen: Manzan Dhaku's
Reform Movement." Monumenta Nipponica 46, 4: 423-451.
Bodiford, William M. 1992. "Zen in the Art of Funerals: Ritual Salvation in Japanese
Buddhism." History of Religions 32, 2:146-164.
Bodiford, William M. 1993. The Growth of the St Zen Tradition in Medieval
Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Braverman, Arthur, trad. 1989. Mud and Water: A Collection of Talks by the Zen
Master Bassui. San Francisco: North Point Press.
Brinker, Helmut, R. P. Kramers, and C. Ouwehand, eds. 1985. Zen in China, Japan,
and East Asian Art: Papers of the International Symposium on Zen, Zrich
University, 16-18.11.1982. Berne: Peter Lang.
Broughton, Jeffrey L. 1975. "The Convergence of Ch'an and the Teachings." Ph.D.
dissertation, Columbia University.
Broughton, Jeffrey L. 1983. "Early Ch'an Schools in Tibet." In Robert Gimello and
Peter N. Gregory, eds. Studies in Ch'an and Hua-yen, pp. 1-68. Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Press.
Bush, Susan H. and Victor H. Mair. 1977-78. "Some Buddhist Portraits and Images
of the L and Ch'an Sects in Twelfth- and Thirteenth-century Chaina." Archives of
Asian Art 31: 32-51.
Buswell, Robert E., Jr. 1983. The Korean Approach to Zen: The Collected Works of
Chinul. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Buswell, Robert E., Jr. 1986. "Chinul's Systematization of Chinese Meditative
Techniques in Korean Son Buddhism." In Peter N. Gregory, ed., Traditions of
Meditation in Chinese Buddhism, pp. 199-242. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Buswell, Robert. 1987. "The "Short-cut" Approach of K'an-hua Meditation: The
Evolution of a Practical Subitism in Chinese Ch'an Buddhism." In Peter N. Gregory,
ed., Sudden and Gradual, pp. 321-377. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Buswell, Robert. 1988. "Ch'an Hermeneutics: A Korean View." In Donald S. Lopez,
Jr., ed. Buddhist Hermeneutics, pp. 231-256. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Buswell, Robert E., Jr. 1989. The Formation of Ch'an Ideology in China and Korea:
The Vajrasamdhi-Stra, A Buddhist Apocryphon. Princeton: Princeton University
Buswell, Robert E., Jr. 1991. Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of
Zen. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. [Revised ed. of Buswell 1983]
Buswell, Robert E., Jr. 1992. The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Practice in
Contemporary Korea. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Chang, Chung-yan, transl. 1969. Original Teachings of Chan Buddhism: Selected
from the Transmission of the Lamp. New York.
Chappell, David W. 1986. "From Dispute to Dual Cultivation: Pure Land Responses
to Ch'an Critics." In Peter N. Gregory , ed., Traditions of Meditation in Chinese
Buddhism, pp. 163-197. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Chappell, David W. 1983. "The Teachings of the Fourth Ch'an Patriarch Tao-hsin
(580-651)." In Whalen Lai and Lewis R. Lancaster, eds., Early Ch'an in China and
Tibet, pp. 89-129. Berkeley Buddhist Studies Series. Berkeley: Asian Humanities
Cleary, Christopher (J.C.), transl. 1977. Swampland Flowers: The Letters and
Lectures of Zen Master Ta Hui. New York: Grove Press.
Cleary, Christopher (J.C), transl. 1986. Zen Dawn: Early Texts from Tun Huang.
Boston and London: Shambala.
Cleary, Thomas, transl. 1990. Transmission of Light (Denkroku): Zen in the Art of
Enlightenment by Zen Master Keizan. San Francisco: North Point Press.
Cleary, Thomas, and J. C. Cleary, transl. 1977. The Blue Cliff Record. 3 vols.
Boulder and London: Shambhala.
Collcutt, Martin. 1981. Five Mountains: The Rinzai Zen Monastic Institution in
Medieval Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Collcutt, Martin. 1982. "The Zen Monastery in Kamakura Society." In Jeffrey P.
Mass, ed., Court and Bakufu in Japan: Esays in Kamakura History, pp. 191-220.
New Haven: Yale University Press.
Collcutt, Martin. 1983. "The Early Ch'an Monastic Rule: Ch'ing-kuei and the
Shaping of Ch'an Community Life." In Whalen Lai and Lewis R. Lancaster, eds.,
Early Ch'an in Tibet and China, pp. 165-184. Berkeley Buddhist Studies Series.
Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press.
Covell, Jon Caster. 1980. Unraveling Zen's Red Thread: Ikkyu's Controversial Way.
Seoul: Hollym International Corporation.
Demiville, Paul. 1947. "Le miroir spirituel." Sinologica 1, 2: 112-137. Repr. in
Choix d'tudes bouddhiques (1929-1970), pp. 131-156.
Demiville, Paul. 1952. Le concile de Lhasa: Une controverse sur le quitisme entres
les bouddhistes de l'Inde et de la Chine au VIIIe sicle de l're chrtienne. Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France.
Demiville, Paul. 1961. "Deux documents de Touen-houang sur le Dhyna chinois."
In Essays on the History of Buddhism presented to Professor Zenry Tsukamoto, pp.
1-27. Kyoto: Nagai Shuppansha. Repr. in Choix d'tudes bouddhiques, 1973, pp.
Demiville, Paul. 1970a. "Le recueil de la Salle des patriarches (Tsou-t'ang tsi)."
T'oung Pao 56: 262-286.
Demiville, Paul. 1970b. "Le Tch'an et la posie chinoise." Herms 7: 123-136. Repr.
in Choix d'tudes bouddhiques (1929-1970), 1973, pp. 456-469.
Demiville, Paul, transl. 1972. Entretiens de Lin-tsi. Paris: Fayard.
Demiville, Paul. 1973. Choix d'tudes bouddhiques (1929-1970). Leiden: E.J. Brill.
Demiville, Paul. 1978. "Appendice sur "Damoduolo" (Dharmatr[ta])." In Jao
Tsong-yi et al., eds., Peintures monochromes de Tun-huang (Dunhuang baihua), pp.
43-49. Paris: Ecole Franaise d'Extrme-Orient.
Demiville, Paul. 1979. "L'introduction au Tibet du bouddhisme sinis d'aprs les
manuscrits de Touen-houang (Analyse de rcents travaux japonais)." In Michel
Soymi, ed., Contributions aux Etudes sur Touen-houang, pp. 1-16. Genve-Paris:
Demiville, Paul. 1987 [1947]. "The Mirror of the Mind." In Peter N. Gregory, ed.,
Sudden and Gradual, pp. 13-40. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. [Translation
of Demiville 1947].
Despeux, Catherine, transl. 1980. Les entretiens de Mazu: Matre Chan du VIIIe
sicle. Paris: Les Deux Ocans.
Donner, Neil. 1977. "The Mahayanization of the Chinese Dhyna Tradition." The
Eastern Buddhist (n. s.) 10, 2: 49-64.
Donner, Neil. 1987. "Sudden and Gradual Intimately Conjoined: Chih-i's T'ien-t'ai
view." In Peter N. Gregory, ed., Sudden and Gradual, pp. 201-226. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press.
Dumoulin, Heinrich, S. J. 1953. The Development of Chinese Zen after the Sixth
Patriarch in the Light of the Mumonkan. Transl. Ruth Fuller Sasaki. New York The
First Zen Institute of America.
Dumoulin, Heinrich, S. J. Zen Enlightenment (1979)
Dumoulin, Heinrich, S. J. 1988-90. Zen: A History. 2 vols. New York: Macmillan.
Dumoulin, Heinrich, S. J. 1992. Zen in the 20th Century. Transl. Joseph O'Leary.
New York: Weatherhill.
Early Ch'an in China and Tibet. Ed. by W. Lai and L.R Lancaster. Berkeley
Buddhist Studies Series. Asian Humanities Press. Berkeley, 1983. David W.
Chappell "The TeachIngs of the Fourth Ch'an Patriarch Tao-hsIn (580-651)",
pp. 89-129.
Faber, Flemming. 1985. "A Tibetan Dunhuang Treatise on Simultaneous
Enlightenment: The Dmyigs Su Myed Pa Tshul Gcig Pa'i Gzhung ". Acta Orientalia
46: 47-77.
Faber, Flemming. 1986. "The Council of Tibet according to the sBa bzhed." Acta
Orientalia 47: 33-61.
Faure, Bernard. 1984. "Shen-hsiu et l'Avatamsaka." Zinbun 19: 1-15.
Faure, Bernard. 1986a. Le Trait de Bodhidharma: Premire anthologie du
bouddhisme Chan. Aix-en-Provence: Le Mail.
Faure, Bernard. 1986b. "Bodhidharma as Textual and Religious Paradigm." History
of Religions 25, 3: 187-198.
Faure, Bernard. 1986c. "The Theory of One-Practice Samdhi (i-hsing san-mei) in
Buddhism, pp. 99-128. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Faure Bernard. 1986d. "Le matre de dhyna Chih-ta et le 'subitisme' de l'cole du
Nord." Cahiers d'Extrme-Asie 2: 123-132.
Faure, Bernard. 1987a. "Space and Place in Chinese Religious Traditions." History of
Religions 26, 4: 337-356.
Faure, Bernard. 1987b. "The Daruma-sh, Dgen and St Zen." Monumenta
Nipponica 42, 1: 25-55.
Faure, Bernard. 1987c. La vision immdiate: Nature, veil et tradition selon le
Shbgenz. Aix-en-Provence: Le Mail.
Faure, Bernard. 1988. La volont d'orthodoxie dans le bouddhisme chinois. Paris:
Editions du C.N.R.S.
Faure, Bernard. 1989. Le bouddhisme Ch'an en mal d'histoire: Gense d'une
tradition religieuse dans la Chine des T'ang. Paris: Ecole Franaise d'Extrme-
Faure, Bernard. 1991a. The Rhetoric of Immediacy: A Cultural Critique of the
Chan/Zen Tradition. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Faure, Bernard. 1991b. "Relics and Flesh Bodies: The Creation of Ch'an Pilgrimage
Sites." In Susan Naquin and Chn-fang Y, eds. Pilgrims and Sacred Sites in China,
pp. 150-189. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Faure, Bernard. 1993. Chan Insights and Oversights: An Epistemological Critique of
the Chan Tradition. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Foulk, Theodore Griffith. 1987. "The "Ch'an School" and its Place in the Buddhist
Monastic Tradition." Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan.
Foulk, Griffith. 1988. "The Zen Institution in Modern Japan." In Kenneth Kraft, ed.,
Zen: Tradition and Transition. New York: Grove Press.
E. Fromm, ed., Zen and Psychoanalysis (1960, repr. 1970)
Gardner, Daniel K. 1991. "Modes of Thinking and Modes of Discourse in the Sung:
Some Thoughts on the Y-lu ('Recorded Conversations') Texts." Journal of Asian
Studies 50, 3: 574-603.
Gernet, Jacques. 1949. Les entretiens du matre de dhyna Chen-houei du Ho-ts
(668-760). Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve.
Gernet, Jacques. 1951. "Biographie du matre de Dhyna Chen-houei du Ho-ts
(668-760): Contribution l'histoire de l'cole du Dhyna." Journal Asiatique 139, 1:
Gernet, Jacques. 1954. "Complment aux Entretiens du matre de Dhyna Chen-
houei." Bulletin de l'Ecole Franaise d'Extrme-Orient 44, 2: 453-466.
Gernet, Jacques. 1955. "Les entretiens du Matre Ling-yeou du Kouei-chan (771-
853)." Bulletin de l'Ecole Franaise d'Extrme-Orient 45: 65-70.
Gimello, Robert M. 1983. "Early Hua-yen, Meditation, and Early Ch'an: Some
Preliminary Considerations." In Whalen Lai and Lewis R. Lancaster, eds., Early
Ch'an in China and Tibet, pp. 149-164. Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press.
Gimello, Robert M., and Peter N. Gregory, eds. 1983. Studies in Ch'an and Hua-yen.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Gmez, Luis O. "The Direct and the Gradual Approaches of Zen Master Mahyna:
Fragments of the Teachings of Mo-ho-yen." In Robert M. Gimello and Peter N.
Gregory, eds., Studies in Ch'an and Hua-yen, pp. 69-168. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press.
Gmez, Luis O. 1987. "Purifying Gold: The Metaphor of Effort and Intuition in
Buddhist Thought and Practice." In Peter N. Gregory, ed., Sudden and Gradual, pp.
67-165. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Gregory, Peter N. "Tsung-mi and the Single Word 'Awareness' (chih)." Philosophy
East and West 35, 3: 249-269.
Gregory, Peter N., ed. 1986. Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Gregory, Peter N., ed. 1987a. Sudden and Gradual: Approaches to Enlightenment in
Chinese Thought. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Gregory, Peter N. 1987b. "Sudden Enlightenment Followed by Gradual Cultivation:
Tsung-mi's Analysis of Mind." In Peter N. Gregory, ed., Sudden and Gradual, pp.
279-320. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Gregory, Peter N. 1988. "The Integration of Chan/Son and the Teachings (chiao/kyo)
in Tsung-mi and Chinul." Journal of the International Association of Buddhist
Studies 12, 2: 7-19.
Gregory, Peter N. 1991. Tsung-mi and the Sinification of Buddhism. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Hanson-Barber, A. W. "No-Thought in Pao-T'ang Ch'an and Early Ati-Yoga."
Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 8, 2: 61-73.
Haskel, P. trans., Bankei Zen (1984)
Heine, Steven. 1989. "Dgen and the Japanese Religio-Aesthetic Tradition." The
Eastern Buddhist (n. s.) 22, 1: 71-95.
Heine, Steven. 1994. Dgen and the Kan Tradition: A Tale of Two Shbgenz
Texts. Albany, NY: SYNY Press.
Herrigel, Eugen. 1971. Zen In the Art of Archery New York: Weatherill.
Herrigel Gustie L. Zen In the Art of Flower Arrangement trans. R. F. C. Hull, with a
Foreward by Daisetz T. Suzuki. London and New York: Routledge.
Herms. 1985 [1970]. Tch'an (Zen): Racines et floraisons. vol. 4. Paris: Les Deux
Hirai Shun'ei. "The School of Mount Niu-t'ou and the School of the Pao-T'ang
Monastery." Transl. Silvio Vita. East and West , pp. 337-372.
Houston, G. W. 1977. "The System of Ha Sang Mahyna." Central Asiatic Journal
21, 2: 105-110.
Hsu, Sung-peng. 1979. A Buddhist Leader in Ming China: The Life and Thought of
Han-shan Te-ch'ing, 1546-1623. University Park: Pennsylvania State University
Hu Shih. 1932. "The Development of Zen in China." The Chinese and Political
Science Review 15,4: 475-505.
Hu Shih. 1953. "Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism in China: Its History and Method."
Philosophy East and West 3, 1: 3-24.
Hurvitz, Leon. 1970. "Chu-hung's One Mind of Pure Land and Ch'an Buddhism." In
Wm. Theodore de Bary, ed., Self and Society in Ming Thought, pp. 451-482. New
York: Columbia University Press.
Iriya, Yoshitaka. 1973. "Chinese Poetry and Zen." The Eastern Buddhist (n. s.) 6,1:
Jan, Yn-hua. 1972. "Tsung-mi: His Analysis of Ch'an Buddhism." T'oung Pao 8: 1-
Jan, Yn-hua. 1977. "Conflict and Harmony in Ch'an Buddhism." Journal of Chinese
Philosophy 4, 3: 287-301.
Jan, Yn-hua. 1983. "Seng-ch'ou's Method of Dhyna." In Whalen Lai and Lewis R.
Lancaster, eds., Early Ch'an in China and Tibet, pp. 51-63. Berkeley Buddhist
Studies Series. Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press.
Jorgensen, John A. 1979. "The Earliest Text of Ch'an Buddhism: The Long Scroll."
M.A. Thesis, Australian National University (Camberra).
Jorgensen, John. 1987. "The 'Imperial' Lineage of Ch'an Buddhism: The Role of
Confucian Ritual and Ancestor Worship in Ch'an's Search for Legitimation in the
mid-T'ang Dynasty." Papers on Far Eastern History 35: 89-133.
Kasulis, Thomas P. 1978. "The Zen Philosopher: A Review Article on Dgen
Scholarship in English." Philosophy East and West 28, 3: 353-373.
Kasulis, Thomas P. 1985. Zen Action - Zen Person. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Kasulis, Thomas P. 1985. "The Incomparable Philosopher: Dgen on How to Read
the Shbgenz." In William R. LaFleur, ed., Dgen Studies, pp. 83-98. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press.
Kim, Hee-Jin. 1975. Dgen Kigen: Mystical Realist. Tucson: University of Arizona
Kim, Hee-Jin. 1985. "'The Reason of Words and Letters': Dgen and Kan
Language." In William R. LaFleur, ed., Dgen Studies, pp. 54-82. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press.
Kodera, Takashi James. 1980. Dgen's Formative Years in China: An Historical
Study and Annotated Translation of the Hkyki. London: Routledge and Kegan
Kraft, Kenneth, ed. 1988. Zen: Tradition and Transition: A Sourcebook by
Contemporary Zen Masters and Scholars. New York: Grove Press.
LaFleur, William R. 1985a. "Dgen in the Academy." In William R. LaFleur, ed.,
Dgen Studies, pp. 1-20. Honololu: University of Hawaii Press.
Lai, Whalen. 1979. "Ch'an Metaphors: Waves, Water, Mirror, Lamp." Philosophy
East and West 29, 3: 243-253.
Lai, Whalen and Lewis R. Lancaster, eds., 1983. Early Ch'an in China and Tibet.
Berkeley Buddhist Studies Series. Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press.
Leighton, Taigen Daniel, and Shohaku Okumura, trans. 1996. Dgen's Pure
Standards for the Zen Community: A Translation of the Eihei Shingi. Albany, NY:
SUNY Press.
Levering, Miriam L. 1978. "Ch'an Enlightenment for Laymen: Ta-hui and the New
Religious Culture of the Sung." Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University.
Levering, Miriam L. 1982. "The Dragon Girl and the Abbess of Mo-shan: Gender
and Status in the Ch'an Buddhist Tradition." Journal of the International Association
of Buddhist Studies 5, 1: 19-35.
Levering, Miriam L. 1987. "Ta-hui and Lay Buddhists: Ch'an Sermons on Death." In
David W. Chappell, ed., Buddhist and Taoist Practice in Medieval Chinese Society,
pp. 181-214. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Liebenthal, Walter. 1953. "The Sermon of Shen-hui." Asia Major (n. s.) 3, 2: 132-
Liebenthal, Walter. 1956. "Notes on the Vajrasamdhi." T'oung Pao 44: 347-386.
Maraldo, John. 1985. "The Practice of Body-Mind: Dgen's Shinjingakud and
Comparative Philosophy." In William R. LaFleur, ed., Dgen Studies, pp. 112-130.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Maraldo, John. 1986a. "Is There Historical Consciousness Within Ch'an?" Japanese
Journal of Religious Studies 12, 2-3: 141-172.
Maraldo, John. 1986b. "Hermeneutics and Historicity in the Study of Buddhism."
The Eastern Buddhist (n. s.) 19, 1: 17-43.
McRae, John R. 1983. "The Ox-head School of Chinese Ch'an Buddhism: From
Early Ch'an to the Golden Age." In Robert M. Gimello and Peter N. Gregory, eds.,
Studies in Ch'an and Hua-yen, pp. 169-253. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
McRae, John. 1986. The Northern School and the Formation of Early Ch'an
Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
McRae, John. 1987. "Shen-hui and the Teaching of Sudden Enlightenment in Early
Ch'an Buddhism." In Peter N. Gregory, ed., Sudden and Gradual, pp. 227-278.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
McRae, John. 1988a. "Ch'an Commentaries on the Heart Stra: Preliminary
Inferences on the Permutation of Chinese Buddhism." Journal of the International
Association of Buddhist Studies 11, 2: 87-115.
McRae, John. 1988b. "The Story of Early Ch'an." In Kenneth Kraft, ed., Zen:
Tradition and Transition, pp. 125-139. New York: Grove Press.
McRae, John. 1992. "Encounter Dialogue and the Transformation of the Spiritual
Path in Chinese Ch'an." In R. Buswell and R. Gimello, eds., Paths to Liberation: The
Mrga and its Transformations in Buddhist Thought, pp. 339-369. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press.
Miura, Issh, and Ruth Fuller Sasaki. 1966. Zen Dust: The History of the Kan and
Kan Study in Rinzai (Lin-chi) Zen. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.
Nagatomo, Shigenori. 1992. Attunement Through the Body. Albany: State University
of New York Press.
Pachow, W. 1963. "A Buddhist Discourse on Meditation from Tun-huang."
University of Ceylon Review 21, 1: 47-62. Repr. in Pachow, Chinese Buddhism:
Aspects of Interaction and Reinterpretation. Washington, D. C., 1980.
Pelliot, Paul. 1923. "Notes sur quelques artistes des Six Dynasties et des T'ang."
T'oung Pao 22: 215-291.
R. M. Pirsig Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance (1984).
Pollack, David. 1984. "Kokan Shiren and Mus Soseki: 'Chineseness' vs.
'Japaneseness' in Thirteenth and Fourteenth Century Japan." Journal of the
International Association of Buddhist Studies 7, 2: 143-168.
Pollack, David, transl. 1985. Zen Poems of the Five Mountains. New York:
Powell, William, transl. 1986. The Record of Tung-shan. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press.
Powell, Robert. 1977. Zen and Reality: An Approach to Sanity and HappIness on a
Non-Sectarian Basis. Harmondsworth: PenguIn.
Priest, Stephen. 1999. 'A Note on the Zen Doctrine of No Mind', Preface to
Stephen Priest Theories of the MInd, Japanese Edition, Keio. Japan. pp. 355-357.
Priest, Stephen. 2002. Zen In Antony Flew and Stephen Priest (eds.) A Dictionary
of Philosophy. London: Macmillan.
Reader, Ian. 1985. "Transformations and Changes in the Teachings of the St Zen."
Japanese Religions 14, 1: 28-48.
Reader, Ian. 1986. "Zazenless Zen? The Position of Zazen in Institutional Zen."
Japanese Religions 14, 3: 7-27.
Ren Jiyu. 1984a. "A Brief Discussion of the Philosophical Thought of the Chan
Sect." Chinese Studies in Philosophy 15, 4: 3-69.
Ren Jiyu. 1984b. "On Hu Shih's Mistakes in his Study of the History of the Chan
Sect." Chinese Studies in Philosophy 15, 4: 70-98.
Reps, Paul. 1971. Zen Flesh, Zen Bones. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Sanford, James H. 1981. Zen-Man Ikky. Harvard Studies in World Religions 2.
Chico, Cal.: Scholars Press .
Sanford, James H. 1980. "Mandalas of the Heart: Two Prose Works by Ikky Sjun."
Monumenta Nipponica 25: 273-298.
Sanford, James H. 1977. "Shakuhachi Zen: The Fukesh and Komus." Monumenta
Nipponica 32, 4: 411-440.
Sasaki, R. Fuller, Yoshitaka Iriya and Dana R. Fraser, trans. 1971. A Man of Zen:
The Recorded Sayings of Layman P'ang. New York: Weatherhill.
Sasaki, Ruth Fuller. trans., The Record of Lin-Chi (1975)
Sasaki, Ruth Fuller. trans. 1975. The Recorded Sayings of Ch'an Master Lin-chi Hui-
chao of Chen Prefecture. Kyoto: The Institute for Zen Studies.
Schltter, Morten. 1989. "A Study of the Genealogy of the Platform Stra.". Studies
in Central and East Asian Religions 2: 53-114.
Schmidt, J.D. 1974. "Ch'an, Illusion, and Sudden Enlightenment in the Poetry of
Yang Wang-li." T'oung Pao 60,4-5: 230-281.
Seidel, Anna. "Denne". In Hbgirin, fasc. 7. Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve.
Shaner, David. 1985. The Body-Mind Experience in Japanese Buddhism: A
Phenomenological Perspective on Kkai and Dgen. Albany: State University of
New York Press.
Sharf, Robert H. 1992. "The Idolization of Enlightenment: On the Mummification of
Ch'an Masters in Medieval China." History of Religions 32, 1: 1-31.
Sharf, Robert H. 1994. "Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited." In James W.
Heisig and John C. Maraldo, eds., Rude Awakenings: Zen, the Kyoto School, and the
Question of Nationalism, pp. 40-51. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Srensen, Henrik H. 1983. "The Life and Thought of the Korean Son Master
Kyongho." Korean Studies 7: 9-33.
Srensen, Henrik H. 1989. "Observations on the Characteristics of the Chinese Ch'an
Manuscripts from Dunhuang." Studies in Central and East Asian Religions 2: 115-
Stambaugh, Joan. 1990. Impermanence is Buddha-nature: Dgen's Understanding of
Temporality. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Stein, Rolf A. 1971. "Illumination subite ou saisie simultane: Note sur la
terminologie chinoise et tibtaine." Revue d'Histoire des Religions 179, 1: 3-30.
Stein, Rolf. A. 1987. "Sudden Illumination or Simultaneous Comprehension:
Remarks on Chinese and Tibetan Terminology." In Peter N. Gregory, ed., Sudden
and Gradual, pp. 41-66. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Translation of Stein
Suzuki, Daisetsu Teitaro. 1949-53. Essays in Zen. 3 vols., London: Rider and
Su, Ying-hui. 1974. "A Study of the Identity of Monk Wu (Wu he-shang) in the Tun-
huang Manuscripts P. 2913, P. 4660, and S. 1947v." Chinese Culture 14, 5: 89-98.
Suzuki, D. T A Manual of Zen (1950, repr. 1960)
Suzuki, D.T. 1953. "Zen: A Reply to Hu Shih." Philosophy East and West 3, 1: 25-
Suzuki, D. T An Introduction to Zen (2d ed. 1957)

Suzuki, D. T Essentials of Zen (1962, repr. 1973)
Suzuki, D.T. 1976. "Dgen, Hakuin, Bankei: Three Types of Thought in Japanese
Buddhism." The Eastern Buddhist (n. s.) 9, 1: 1-17; 9, 2: 1-20.
Suzuki, D. T. Essays in Zen Buddhism, 3 vols. Daisetsu Teitaro Suzuki. Rider
and Company. London, 1949-53.
(new ed., 3 vol., 1971)
Suzuki, Shunryu. 1977. Zen MInd, BegInners MInd: Informal talks on Zen
meditation and practice, edited by Trudy Dixon, with a preface by Huston Smith,
and an Introduction by Richard Baker. New York and Tokyo: Weatherill.
Tanaka, Kenneth K., and Raymond E. Robertson. 1992. "A Ch'an Text from Tun-
huang: Implications for Ch'an Influence on Tibetan Buddhism." In Steven D.
Goodman and Ronald M. Davidson, eds., Tibetan Buddhism: Reason and Revelation,
pp. 57-78. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Tanaka Rysh. 1981. "Relations between the Buddhist Sects in the T'ang Dynasty
through the Ms. P. 3913." Journal Asiatique 269: 163-169.
Tokiwa Gishin and Yanagida Seizan. 1973. A Dialogue on the Contemplation-
Extinguished: Translated from the Cheh-kuan lun, an Early Chineze Zen Text from
Tun-huang. Kyoto: Institute for Zen Studies.
Tucci, Giuseppe. 1958. Minor Buddhist Texts: Part II. Rome: Is.M.E.O.
Ueyama Daishun. 1983. "The Study of Tibetan Ch'an Manuscripts recovered from
Tun-huang: A Review of the Field and its Prospects." Transl. Kenneth W. Eastman
and Kyoko Tokuno. In Whalen Lai and Lewis R. Lancaster, eds., Early Ch'an in
China and Tibet. Berkeley Buddhist Studies Series. Berkeley: Asian Humanities
Verdu, Alfonso. 1966. "The 'Five Ranks' Dialectics of the St Zen School in the
Light of Kuei-feng Tsung-mi's 'ariya-shiki' Scheme. " Monumenta Nipponica 21:
Waddell, Norman, transl. 1977-1978. "Dgen's Hkyki." The Eastern Buddhist (n.
s.) 10, 2: 102-139; 11, 1: 66-84.
Waddell, Norman, transl. 1979. "Being Time: Dgen's Shbgenz Uji." The
Eastern Buddhist (n. s.) 12, 1: 114-129.
Waddell, Norman. 1984. The Unborn: The Life and Teaching of Zen Master Bankei,
1622-1693. San Francisco.
Waddell, Norman, and Abe Masao, transl. 1971. "Dgen's Bendwa." The Eastern
Buddhist (n. s.) 4, 1: 88-115.
Waddell, Norman, and Abe Masao, transl. 1972. "Dgen's Shbgenz Zenki and
Shji." The Eastern Buddhist (n. s.) 5, 1: 70-80.
Watson Burton. 1988. "Zen Poetry." In Kenneth Kraft, ed., Zen: Tradition and
Transition. New York: Grove Press.
Watts, Alan. 1957. The Way of Zen. New York: VIntage Books.
Wayman, Alex. 1977. "Doctrinal Disputes and the Debate of bSam Yas." Central
Asiatic Journal 21, 2: 139-144.
Weinstein, Stanley. 1987. Buddhism under the T'ang. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Wu, Pei-yi. 1975. "The Spiritual Autobiography of Te-ch'ing." In W.T. De Bary, ed.,
The Unfolding of Neo-Confucianism, pp. 67-92. New York: Columbia University
Yampolsky, Philip B. 1967. The Platform Stra of the Sixth Patriarch. New York:
Columbia University Press.
Yampolsky, Philip, transl. 1971. Zen Master Hakuin: Selected Writings. New York.
Yampolsky, Philip B. 1983. "New Japanese Studies in Early Ch'an Manuscripts
Recovered from Tun-huang: A Review of the Field and its Prospects." In Whalen Lai
and Lewis R. Lancaster, eds., Early Ch'an in China and Tibet, pp. 1-11. Berkeley
Buddhist Studies Series 5. Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press.
Yanagida, Seizan. 1983. "The Li-tai fa-pao chi and the Ch'an Doctrine of Sudden
Awakening." Transl. Carl Bielefeldt. In Whalen Lai and Lewis R. Lancaster, eds.,
Early Ch'an in China and Tibet, pp.13-49. Berkeley Buddhist Studies Series.
Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press.
Yanagida, Seizan. 1982. "The Search for the Real Dgen: Challenging Taboos
concerning Dgen," Young East 8,1 (Winter 1982): 3-19.
Yanagida, Seizan. 1972. "The Life of Lin-chi I-hsan." The Eastern Buddhist (n. s.)
5, 2: 70-94.
Yanagida, Seizan. 1983b. "The Development of the 'Recorded Sayings' Texts of
Chinese Ch'an Buddhism." Transl. John R. McRae, in Whalen Lai and Lewis R.
Lancaster, eds., Early Ch'an in China and Tibet, pp. 185-205. Berkeley Buddhist
Studies Series. Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press.
Yokoi, Yh, and Daizen Victoria, transl. 1976. Zen Master Dgen. New York and
Tokyo: Weatherhill.
Y, Chn-fang. 1981. The Renewal of Buddhism in China: Chu-hung and the Late
Ming Synthesis. New York: Columbia University Press.
Y, Chn-fang. 1982. "Chung-feng Ming-pen and Ch'an Buddhism in the Yan." In
Hok-lam Ch'an and W. Theodore de Bary, eds., Yan Thought: Chinese Thought and
Religion under the Mongols, pp. 419-477. New York: Columbia University Press.
Zeuschner, Robert B. 1976. "The Hsien-tsung chi: An Early Ch'an (Zen) Buddhist
Text." Journal of Chinese Philosophy 3: 252-276.
Zeuschner, Robert B. 1977. "An Analysis of the Philosophical Criticisms of Northern
Ch'an Buddhism." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawaii.
Zeuschner, Robert B. 1978a. "The Understanding of Mind in the Northern Line of
Ch'an (Zen)." Philosophy East and West 28, 1: 69-79.
Zeuschner, Robert B. 1978b. "The Meaning of Hnayna in Northern Ch'an." The
Eastern Buddhist (n. s.) 11, 1: 37-49.
Zeuschner, Robert B. 1983. "The Concept of li nien ("being free from thinking") in
the Northern Line of Ch'an Buddhism." In Whalen Lai and Lewis R. Lancaster, eds.,
Early Ch'an in China and Tibet, pp. 131-148. Berkeley Buddhist Studies Series.
Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press.