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Skeletal formula of sucrose
Ball-and-stick model of sucrose
3d animation of sucrose
IUPAC name
?-D-Fructofuranosyl ?-D-glucopyranoside
Systematic IUPAC name
Other names
  • Sugar;
  • Saccharose;
  • ?-D-glucopyranosyl-(1->2)-?-D-fructofuranoside;
  • ?-D-fructofuranosyl-(2->1)-?-D-glucopyranoside;
  • ?-(2S,3S,4S,5R)-fructofuranosyl-?-(1R,2R,3S,4S,5R)-glucopyranoside;
  • ?-(1R,2R,3S,4S,5R)-glucopyranosyl-?-(2S,3S,4S,5R)-fructofuranoside;
  • Dodecacarbon monodecahydrate;
  • ((2R,3R,4S,5S,6R)-2-[(2S,3S,4S,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl)oxapent-2-yl]oxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxahexane-3,4,5-triol)
3D model (JSmol)
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.304
EC Number
  • 200-334-9
RTECS number
  • WN6500000
Molar mass 342.30 g/mol
Appearance white solid
Density 1.587 g/cm3, solid
~200 g/dL (25 °C) (see table below for other temperatures)
log P -3.76
1,349.6 kcal/mol (5,647 kJ/mol)[2] (Higher heating value)
Safety data sheet ICSC 1507
NFPA 704
Flammability code 1: Must be pre-heated before ignition can occur. Flash point over 93 °C (200 °F). E.g. canola oilHealth code 0: Exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond that of ordinary combustible material. E.g. sodium chlorideReactivity code 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no codeNFPA 704 four-colored diamond
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
29700 mg/kg (oral, rat)[4]
US health exposure limits (NIOSH):
PEL (Permissible)
TWA 15 mg/m3 (total) TWA 5 mg/m3 (resp)[3]
REL (Recommended)
IDLH (Immediate danger)
Related compounds
Related compounds
?Y verify (what is ?Y?N ?)
Infobox references

Sucrose is common sugar. It is a disaccharide, a molecule composed of two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose. Sucrose is produced naturally in plants, from which table sugar is refined. It has the molecular formula C12H22O11.

For human consumption, sucrose is extracted, and refined, from either sugar cane or sugar beet. Sugar mills are located where sugarcane is grown to crush the cane and produce raw sugar which is shipped around the world for refining into pure sucrose. Some sugar mills also process the raw sugar into pure sucrose. Sugar beet factories are located in colder climates where the beet is grown, and process the beets directly into refined sugar. The sugar refining process involves washing the raw sugar crystals before dissolving them into a sugar syrup which is filtered and then passed over carbon to remove any residual colour. The sugar syrup, by now clear, is then concentrated by boiling under a vacuum and crystallized as the final purification process to produce crystals of pure sucrose. These crystals are clear, odourless, and have a sweet taste. En masse, the crystals appear white.

Sugar is often an added ingredient in food production and food recipes. About 185 million tonnes of sugar were produced worldwide in 2017.[5]


The word sucrose was coined in 1857 by the English chemist William Miller[6] from the French sucre ("sugar") and the generic chemical suffix for sugars -ose. The abbreviated term Suc is often used for sucrose in scientific literature.

The name saccharose was coined in 1860 by the French chemist Marcellin Berthelot.[7] Saccharose is an obsolete name for sugars in general, especially sucrose.

Physical and chemical properties

Structural O-?-D-glucopyranosyl-(1->2)-?-D-fructofuranoside


Sucrose crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P21 with room-temperature lattice parameters a = 1.08631 nm, b = 0.87044 nm, c = 0.77624 nm, ? = 102.938°.[8][9]


Thermal and oxidative degradation

Solubility of sucrose in water vs. temperature
T (°C) S (g/dL)
50 259
55 273
60 289
65 306
70 325
75 346
80 369
85 394
90 420

Sucrose does not melt at high temperatures. Instead, it decomposes at 186 °C (367 °F) to form caramel. Like other carbohydrates, it combusts to carbon dioxide and water. Mixing sucrose with the oxidizer potassium nitrate produces the fuel known as rocket candy that is used to propel amateur rocket motors.[10]

C12H22O11 + 6 KNO3 -> 9 CO + 3 N2 + 11 H2O + 3 K2CO3


C12H22O11 + 6.288 KNO3 -> 3.796 CO2 + 5.205 CO + 7.794 H2O + 3.065 H2 + 3.143 N2 + 2.998 K2CO3 + 0.274 KOH [11]


8 HClO3 + C12H22O11 -> 11 H2O + 12 CO2 + 8 HCl


H2SO4(catalyst) + C12H22O11 -> 12 C + 11 H2O + Heat (and some H2O + SO3 as a result of the heat).

The formula for sucrose's decomposition can be represented as a two-step reaction: the first simplified reaction is dehydration of sucrose to pure carbon and water, and then carbon oxidises to CO2 with O2 from air.

C12H22O11 + heat -> 12 C + 11 H2O
12 C + 12 O2 -> 12 CO2



Given (higher) heats of combustion of 1349.6 kcal/mol for sucrose, 673.0 for glucose, and 675.6 for fructose,[13] hydrolysis releases about 1.0 kcal (4.2 kJ) per mole of sucrose, or about 3 small calories per gram of product.

Synthesis and biosynthesis of sucrose


Chemical synthesis

Model of sucrose molecule



In nature, sucrose is present in many plants, and in particular their roots, fruits and nectars, because it serves as a way to store energy, primarily from photosynthesis.[15][16] Many mammals, birds, insects and bacteria accumulate and feed on the sucrose in plants and for some it is their main food source. Seen from a human consumption perspective, honeybees are especially important because they accumulate sucrose and produce honey, an important foodstuff all over the world. The carbohydrates in honey itself primarily consist of fructose and glucose with trace amounts of sucrose only.[17]

As fruits ripen, their sucrose content usually rises sharply, but some fruits contain almost no sucrose at all. This includes grapes, cherries, blueberries, blackberries, figs, pomegranates, tomatoes, avocados, lemons and limes.



History of sucrose refinement



Other scholars point to the ancient manuscripts of China, dated to the 8th century BC, where one of the earliest historical mentions of sugar cane is included along with the fact that their knowledge of sugar cane was derived from India.[20] Further, it appears that by about 500 BC, residents of present-day India began making sugar syrup and cooling it in large flat bowls to make raw table sugar crystals that were easier to store and transport. In the local Indian language, these crystals were called khanda (?), which is the source of the word candy.[21]

The army of Alexander the Great was halted on the banks of river Indus by the refusal of his troops to go further east. They saw people in the Indian subcontinent growing sugarcane and making granulated, salt-like sweet powder, locally called s?khar (?), pronounced as sakcharon () in Greek (Modern Greek, zachari ). On their return journey, the Greek soldiers carried back some of the "honey-bearing reeds". Sugarcane remained a limited crop for over a millennium. Sugar was a rare commodity and traders of sugar became wealthy. Venice, at the height of its financial power, was the chief sugar-distributing center of Europe.[20] Arabs started producing it in Sicily and Spain. Only after the Crusades did it begin to rival honey as a sweetener in Europe. The Spanish began cultivating sugarcane in the West Indies in 1506 (Cuba in 1523). The Portuguese first cultivated sugarcane in Brazil in 1532.



Beginning in the late 18th century, the production of sugar became increasingly mechanized. The steam engine first powered a sugar mill in Jamaica in 1768, and, soon after, steam replaced direct firing as the source of process heat. During the same century, Europeans began experimenting with sugar production from other crops. Andreas Marggraf identified sucrose in beet root[28] and his student Franz Achard built a sugar beet processing factory in Silesia (Prussia). The beet-sugar industry took off during the Napoleonic Wars, when France and the continent were cut off from Caribbean sugar. In 2010, about 20 percent of the world's sugar was produced from beets.[29]




Table sugar (sucrose) comes from plant sources. Two important sugar crops predominate: sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) and sugar beets (Beta vulgaris), in which sugar can account for 12% to 20% of the plant's dry weight. Minor commercial sugar crops include the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), and the sugar maple (Acer saccharum). Sucrose is obtained by extraction of these crops with hot water; concentration of the extract gives syrups, from which solid sucrose can be crystallized. In 2017, worldwide production of table sugar amounted to 185 million tonnes.[5]


In mid-2018, India and Brazil had about the same production of sugar – 34 million tonnes – followed by the European Union, Thailand, and China as the major producers.[30] India, the European Union, and China were the leading domestic consumers of sugar in 2018.[30]




High-fructose corn syrup

High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is significantly cheaper as a sweetener for food and beverage manufacturing than refined sucrose.[31] This has led to sucrose being partially displaced in U.S. industrial food production by HFCS and other non-sucrose natural sweeteners.[31][32]

Although reports in public media regard HFCS as unhealthy,[31][32] clinical dietitians, medical professionals, and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) dismiss such concerns because "Sucrose, HFCS, invert sugar, honey, and many fruits and juices deliver the same sugars in the same ratios to the same tissues within the same time frame to the same metabolic pathways".[31][33] While scientific authorities agree that dietary sugars are a source of empty calories associated with certain health problems, the belief that glucose-fructose syrups such as HFCS are especially unhealthy is not supported by scientific evidence.[31][33] Health authorities and the FDA recommend limiting the overall consumption of sugar-based sweeteners.[31][32][33]



Harvested sugarcane from Venezuela ready for processing


Sugarcane is a major component of Brazilian agriculture; the country is the world's largest producer of sugarcane and its derivative products, such as crystallized sugar and ethanol (ethanol fuel).[34]


Sugar beets


Sieving the resultant white sugar produces different grades for selling.

Cane versus beet





Culinary sugars

Grainy raw sugar
Mill white


Blanco directo


White refined



Sugars; clockwise from top left: Refined, unrefined, brown, unprocessed cane
  • Granulated, familiar as table sugar, with a grain size about 0.5 mm across.[37] "Sugar cubes" are lumps for convenient consumption produced by mixing granulated sugar with sugar syrup.
  • Caster (0.35 mm),[37] a very fine sugar in Britain and other Commonwealth countries, so-named because the grains are small enough to fit through a Sugar caster which is a small vessel with a perforated top, from which to sprinkle sugar at table.[38] Commonly used in baking and mixed drinks, it is sold as "superfine" sugar in the United States. Because of its fineness, it dissolves faster than regular white sugar and is especially useful in meringues and cold liquids. Caster sugar can be prepared at home by grinding granulated sugar for a couple of minutes in a mortar or food processor.
  • Powdered, 10X sugar, confectioner's sugar (0.060 mm), or icing sugar (0.024 mm), produced by grinding sugar to a fine powder. The manufacturer may add a small amount of anticaking agent to prevent clumping -- either cornstarch (1% to 3%) or tri-calcium phosphate.
Brown sugar crystals



Dissolved sugar content




Refined sugar was a luxury before the 18th century. It became widely popular in the 18th century, then graduated to becoming a necessary food in the 19th century. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic and social changes.[22] Eventually, table sugar became sufficiently cheap and common enough to influence standard cuisine and flavored drinks.

Sucrose forms a major element in confectionery and desserts. Cooks use it for sweetening -- its fructose component, which has almost double the sweetness of glucose, makes sucrose distinctively sweet in comparison to other carbohydrates.[39][clarification needed] It can also act as a food preservative when used in sufficient concentrations. Sucrose is important to the structure of many foods, including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy, and ice cream and sorbets. It is a common ingredient in many processed and so-called "junk foods".

Nutritional information

Fully refined sugar is 99.9% sucrose, thus providing only carbohydrate as dietary nutrient and 390 kilocalories per 100 g serving (USDA data, right table).[40] There are no micronutrients of significance in fully refined sugar (right table).[40]

Metabolism of sucrose

Granulated sucrose

In humans and other mammals, sucrose is broken down into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, by sucrase or isomaltase glycoside hydrolases, which are located in the membrane of the microvilli lining the duodenum.[41][42] The resulting glucose and fructose molecules are then rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream. In bacteria and some animals, sucrose is digested by the enzyme invertase. Sucrose is an easily assimilated macronutrient that provides a quick source of energy, provoking a rapid rise in blood glucose upon ingestion. Sucrose, as a pure carbohydrate, has an energy content of 3.94 kilocalories per gram (or 17 kilojoules per gram).

If consumed excessively, sucrose may contribute to the development of metabolic syndrome, including increased risk for type 2 diabetes, weight gain and obesity in adults and children.[43][44]

Tooth decay

Tooth decay (dental caries) has become a pronounced health hazard associated with the consumption of sugars, especially sucrose. Oral bacteria such as Streptococcus mutans live in dental plaque and metabolize any sugars (not just sucrose, but also glucose, lactose, fructose, and cooked starches[45]) into lactic acid. The resultant lactic acid lowers the pH of the tooth's surface, stripping it of minerals in the process known as tooth decay.[46][47]

All 6-carbon sugars and disaccharides based on 6-carbon sugars can be converted by dental plaque bacteria into acid that demineralizes teeth, but sucrose may be uniquely useful to Streptococcus sanguinis (formerly Streptococcus sanguis) and Streptococcus mutans.[48][49] Sucrose is the only dietary sugar that can be converted to sticky glucans (dextran-like polysaccharides) by extracellular enzymes. These glucans allow the bacteria to adhere to the tooth surface and to build up thick layers of plaque. The anaerobic conditions deep in the plaque encourage the formation of acids, which leads to carious lesions. Thus, sucrose could enable S. mutans, S. sanguinis and many other species of bacteria to adhere strongly and resist natural removal, e.g. by flow of saliva, although they are easily removed by brushing. The glucans and levans (fructose polysaccharides) produced by the plaque bacteria also act as a reserve food supply for the bacteria. Such a special role of sucrose in the formation of tooth decay is much more significant in light of the almost universal use of sucrose as the most desirable sweetening agent. Widespread replacement of sucrose by high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) has not diminished the danger from sucrose. If smaller amounts of sucrose are present in the diet, they will still be sufficient for the development of thick, anaerobic plaque and plaque bacteria will metabolise other sugars in the diet,[49] such as the glucose and fructose in HFCS.

Glycemic index

Sucrose is a disaccharide made up of 50% glucose and 50% fructose and has a glycemic index of 65.[50] Sucrose is digested rapidly,[51][52] but has a relatively low glycemic index due to its content of fructose, which has a minimal effect on blood glucose.[51]

As with other sugars, sucrose is digested into its components via the enzyme sucrase to glucose (blood sugar) and fructose. The glucose component is transported into the blood where it serves immediate metabolic demands, or is converted and reserved in the liver as glycogen.[52]



Sucrose intolerance

UN dietary recommendation


Religious concerns

The sugar refining industry often uses bone char (calcinated animal bones) for decolorizing.[56][57] About 25% of sugar produced in the U.S. is processed using bone char as a filter, the remainder being processed with activated carbon. As bone char does not seem to remain in finished sugar, Jewish religious leaders consider sugar filtered through it to be pareve, meaning that it is neither meat nor dairy and may be used with either type of food. However, the bone char must source to a kosher animal (e.g. cow, sheep) for the sugar to be kosher.[57]

Trade and economics



World raw sugar price from 1960 to 2014
World raw sugar price from 1960 to 2014


In 2004, the WTO sided with a group of cane sugar exporting nations (led by Brazil and Australia) and ruled the EU sugar-régime and the accompanying ACP-EU Sugar Protocol (whereby a group of African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries receive preferential access to the European sugar market) illegal.[58] In response to this and to other rulings of the WTO, and owing to internal pressures on the EU sugar-régime, the European Commission proposed on 22 June 2005 a radical reform of the EU sugar-régime, cutting prices by 39% and eliminating all EU sugar exports.[59] The African, Caribbean, Pacific and least developed country sugar exporters reacted with dismay to the EU sugar proposals.[60] On 25 November 2005, the Council of the EU agreed to cut EU sugar prices by 36% as from 2009. In 2007, it seemed[61] that the U.S. Sugar Program could become the next target for reform. However, some commentators expected heavy lobbying from the U.S. sugar industry, which donated $2.7 million to US House and US Senate incumbents in the 2006 US election, more than any other group of US food-growers.[62] Especially prominent lobbyists include The Fanjul Brothers, so-called "sugar barons" who made the single largest individual contributions of soft money to both the Democratic and Republican parties in the political system of the United States of America.[63][64]




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Further reading

  • Yudkin, J.; Edelman, J.; Hough, L. (1973). Sugar: Chemical, Biological and Nutritional Aspects of Sucrose. Butterworth. ISBN 978-0-408-70172-3.

External links




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