Endocrine-like glands and secretions

In addition to the well-defined hormones, other substances, which are found in blood and in tissues and are of uncertain function, may be concerned in various ways with physiological regulation in vertebrates, although their hormonal status has not yet been established.

Blood contains kinins, which are polypeptides that originate in the blood and perhaps elsewhere; bradykinin, for example, causes contraction of most smooth muscles and has a very potent action in dilating certain blood vessels. Its function, which is not yet established, may be to regulate the rate of blood flow or to participate in the inflammatory response of an animal to injury.

Some endocrine-like glands are associated with organs. One example in mammals is the carotid bodies, which are found on the carotid arteries that supply blood to the head. The carotid glands are stimulated by a decrease in the oxygen content of the blood and are considered to be the source of a substance, the nature of which has not yet been established with certainty, that promotes the process of red blood cell formation (erythropoiesis).

The pineal gland is an endocrine-like body found in the brain of all vertebrates. In lower vertebrates, it contains sensory and supporting cells and functions as a light-sensitive organ; in higher vertebrates, beginning with amphibians, the pineal gland has secretory functions, and in mammals, it is exclusively a secretory organ, producing from an amino acid (tryptophan) the compound serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5HT) and a derivative of serotonin called melatonin. Preparations of melatonin, when given to amphibians, stimulate the concentration of pigment granules in chromatophores, an effect comparable to that of melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) but much more powerful. The normal physiological function of melatonin in higher vertebrates has not yet been established, although involvement in the regulation of reproduction is suspected. Serotonin is widely distributed in animals, especially in the brain and alimentary tract of vertebrates.

The thymus is essential for the normal development in mammals of the system responsible for immunological responses. Its removal in newborn mice results in a deficiency of one type of white blood cells (lymphocytes) and a consequent likelihood of early death from infection. Preparations of thymus glands from various species contain a protein component, called thymosin, that promotes the development of lymphocytes. Although thymosin is sometimes regarded as a possible thymus hormone, the evidence is not yet complete.

The urohypophysis, an organ found only in elasmobranch and bony fishes, probably developed independently in each group. The neurosecretory cells comprising the urohypophysis are concentrated at the hind end of the spinal cord, where they are associated with a vascular plexus to form a neurohemal organ. The urohypophysis resembles the neurosecretory system of the hypothalamus and the neural lobe.

The corpuscles of Stannius, found only in bony fishes, are sac-like bodies in the kidney. Although they were once thought to be a form of adrenocortical tissue, they differ from it in embryological origin as well as in cytological characteristics; moreover, although the corpuscles of Stannius are capable of limited steroid biosynthesis, they cannot convert cholesterol into corticoids, a process that occurs in adrenocortical tissue. Evidence suggests that these corpuscles secrete some substance, as yet uncharacterized, which plays a part in maintaining ionic homeostasis, perhaps in conjunction with the corticoid hormones.

The hormones of invertebrates

Some form of endocrine regulation probably occurs in all invertebrates; in arthropods (as exemplified in insects and crustaceans) it attains a level of complexity similar to that of vertebrates.

Hormones of insects

Insects secrete hormones from neurosecretory cells and also from endocrine glands. Important neurosecretory centres occur in the pars intercerebralis region of the brain. The several cell types found in these centres indicate that more than one hormone is produced there.


One of the brain hormones is thoracotropic hormone. This is released from nerve endings located in a neurohemal organ called the corpus cardiacum; the relationship between the corpus cardiacum and the brain closely parallels that between the neural lobe of the pituitary gland and the hypothalamic region of the brain of vertebrates. The thoractropic hormone is transferred in the blood to the thoracic glands in the body region called the thorax. It stimulates the production and release from the glands of ecdysone, a hormone that initiates molting, which is the periodic shedding of the outer skeleton that typically occurs in insects and other arthropods.

A neurosecretion of the insect brain distinct from the thoracotropic hormone and called bursicon acts directly on the adult cuticle (skin) of arthropods to stimulate darkening and hardening processes. Bursicon has a molecular weight of about 30,000. The brain of insects also produces a third neurohormone, which has a hyperglycemic (increase in level of blood glucose) effect in a tissue mass called the fat body, and a fourth neurohormone, which acts on the malpighian tubules (excretory organs) and rectum to facilitate the removal of excess fluid taken in with food; these two hormones, which may actually be one hormone with two effects, are also probably polypeptides. Another more active hyperglycemic hormone is formed within the corpora cardiaca, perhaps under the control of cerebral neurosecretion.

Additional Information
Britannica presents a time-travelling voice experience
Guardians of History