You are on page 1of 366




ENG 281



The African Novel COURSE GUIDE

ENG 281
Course Developer/Writer Mr. Anthony C. Oha Department of Arts
(English Unit) Benson Idahosa University Benin City Course Editor
Ile-Ife Programme Leader Dr. Christine I. Ofulue National Open
University of Nigeria Course Coordinator Mrs. Onyeka Iwuchukwu
National Open University of Nigeria Prof. Mary E. E. Kolawole
(Obafemi Awolowo University)


ii The African Novel COURSE GUIDE ENG 281

National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu

Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja Office NOUN Building No. 5,
Dar es Sallam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent Wuse II, Abuja


Published by

National Open University of Nigeria Printed 2008 ISBN: 978-058-

150-2 All Rights Reserved

iii The African Novel COURSE GUIDE ENG 281


Introduction.. 1

Course Aims. 1

Course Objectives. 1

Working through this Course. 2

Course Materials... 2

Study Units 2

Textbooks and References... 3

Assessments.. 3

Tutor-Marked Assignment.... 3

Final Examination and Grading... 4

Course Marking Scheme... 4

Course Overview... 4

Presentation Schedule 4

How to Get the Most from this Course... 5

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials... 7
Summary.... 7

The materials have been developed with Nigerian context in view.
language and structure Course Objectives To achieve the aims
above. west/south and north African novels

a) To give an overview of the origin and development of the

African novel

b) To give the evolution of the African novel from oracy to

contemporary novel

c) To explore with the learner the socio-cultural cum political

experiences that gave rise to different themes of the African

d) To see the indexical ties of the different blocs of African novels-


e) To study the thematic concerns of African novels as distinct

from western values and literature

f) To understand and distinguish the thematic concerns of the

modern writers as distinct in themes but related in style. one
semester undergraduate course. Lusophonic. we have some
overall objectives. Anglophone. These will guide you in your
study. The African Novel ENG 281 Introduction Welcome to ENG
The African Novel The African Novel is a 3 credit. On completion
of the course. It also provides you with information on the
organization and requirements of the course. you should be able

Understand the polemics of the African Novel

Relate the novels with their ideological/socio-political types

Trace the evolution of the African novel from the oracy to the
present pattern

Make a critique of any African novel giving it a succinct


Appreciate the major impulses on the African novel

Distinguish African fiction according to their themes

Recognize African fiction as pure African literary genre . This

course guide gives you an overview of the course. Each unit also
has objectives. They are usually stated at the beginning of the
each unit and when you are through with studying the units go
back and read the objectives. It comprises 25 study units
subdivided into modules. This would help you assimilate the task
you have set out to achieve. Course Aim

Relevant textbooks including the ones listed under each unit 4. a

notebook. At the end of each unit. Assignment file 5. Course
Materials The major materials you will need for this course are: 1.
Course guide

2. Presentation schedule Study Units There are 25 study units in

this course as follows: Module 1 The Rise of the African Novel Unit

1 The African Novel: Polemics of a Definition Unit

2 Beginning of the Novel in Africa

1: Orality Unit 3 Beginning of the Novel in Africa

2: Pamphleteering Unit 4 The Rise of Formal Novels Unit 5 The

African Milieu and the African Novel Module 2 Major Themes &
Threads in African Novel Unit 1 Politics of Land Unit 2 Politics of
Apartheid Unit 3 Independent Africa Unit 4 Politics of Corruption
Unit 5 Politics of Militarism Module 3 Varieties of the African
Novels Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 ii Anti-Colonial African
Novel African Novel and Marxism Novel of Social Realities Gender
& Class in African Novel War Fiction . you will be required to
submit written assignments for assessment purposes. and other
materials that will be listed in this guide. Study units 3. At the
end of the course. you will write a final examination. you are
required to read the study units and other related materials. The
exercises are to aid you in understanding the concepts being
presented. You will also need to undertake practical exercises for
which you need a pen.The African Novel ENG 281 Working
through this Course To complete the course.

iii . contact your tutor to discuss the possibility of an extension.

you cannot complete your work on time. Assignment questions
for the unit in this course are counted in the Assignment File.
together with the TMA (tutor-marked assignment) form to your
tutor. Further information on assignments will be found in the
assignment file itself and later in this Course Guide in the section
on assessment.The African Novel ENG 281 Module 4 Major Blocs
of African Novels Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 The
Francophone Africa Fiction North African Novels The Lusophonic
African Fiction Central African Blocs Ethnic Novels in West Africa
Module 5 Contemporary African Novels/Themes Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit
3 Unit 4 Unit 5 The New Writers in Africa The Diaspora Novelists
Alternative History Novels: Biography The Short Fiction Other
New Novels Textbooks and References Certain books and
recommended in the course. You may wish to purchase them for
further reading Assignment File An assignment file and a marking
scheme will be made available to you. Every unit in this course
has a tutor marked assignment. Tutor-Marked Assignment You
will need to submit a specified number of the Tutor Marked
Assignments (TMAs). you will find all the details of the work you
must submit to your tutor for marking. When you have completed
each assignment. Extension will not be granted after due date
unless under exceptional circumstances. The total marks for the
best four (4) assignments will be 30% of your total work. send it.
the highest four of the fifteen marks) will be counted. If. Make
sure each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the
deadline for submission. The marks you obtain from these
assignments will count towards the final mark you obtain for this
course. for any reason. You will be assessed on four of them but
the best four (that is. In this file.

You will also be told the date for completing the study units and
dates for examinations. You are advised to revise the entire
course after studying the last unit before you sit for the
examination. Unit Title of Work Activities Weeks (end of Guide
unit) Course Assessment Module 1 The Rise of the African Novel 1
The African Novel: Polemics of a Definition Week 1 Assignment 1
2 Beginning of the Novel in Africa

1: Orality Week 1 Assignment 2 3 Beginning of the Novel in Africa

2: Pamphleteering Week 2 Assignment 3 4 The Rise of Formal
Novels Week 2 Assignment 4 5 The African Milieu and the African
Novel Week 2 Assignment 5 iv . Course Marking Scheme The
following table lays out how the actual course mark allocation is
broken down. the number of weeks you should take to complete
them. Assessment Assignments (Best three Assignments out of
Four Marks marked) = t 30% Final Examination Total = 70%s =
100% Presentation Schedule The dates for submission of all
assignments will be communicated to you. All areas of the course
will be examined. The African Novel ENG 281 Final Examination
and Grading The final examination of ENG 281 will be of three
hours duration. Course Overview This table brings together the
units. practice exercises and tutor-marked assignments you have
previously come across. All areas of the course will be assessed.
The final examination will attract 70% of the total course grade.
and the assignments that follow them. You will also find it useful
to review your tutor-marked assignments and the comments of
your tutor on them before the final examination. Find time to
read the unit all over before your examination. The examination
will consist of questions which reflect the type of self-testing.

You should use these objectives to guide your study. and at a

time and place that suits you best. Think of it as reading the
lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular
unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole.
This is one of the advantages of distance learning. the study units
tell you when to read your set books or other materials. If you
make a habit of doing this. you can read and work through
specially designed study materials at your own pace. These
objectives let you know what you should be able to do by the
time you have completed the unit. Next is a set of learning
objectives. In the same way that a lecturer might give you some
reading to do. your study units provide exercises for you to do at
appropriate points. The African Novel ENG 281 Module 2 Major
Them es & Threads in African Novel 1 Politics of Land 2 Politics of
Apartheid Week 3 Assignment 1 Week 3 Assignment 3
Independent Africa 2 4 Politics of C orruption Week 3 Assignment
3 5 Politics of Militarism Week 4 Assignment 4 Week Module 4
Assignment 5 3 Varieties of the African Novels 1 Anti-Colonial
African Novels Week 5 Assignment 1 2 African Novel and Marxism
Week 5 Assignment 2 3 Novel of Social Realities Week 6
Assignment 3 4 Gender & Class in African Novel Week 7
Assignment 4 5 War Fiction 4 Major Blocs of African Novels Week
Module 7 Assignment 5 1 The Francophone Africa Fiction Week 8
Assignment 1 2 North African Novels 3 The Lusophonic African
Week 8 Assignment 2 Fiction Week 9 Assignment 3 4 Central
African Blocs 5 Ethnic in West Week 9 Novels Assignment 4 Africa
Week 10 Assignment 5 Module 5 Contem porary African Novels &
Themes 1 The New Writers in Africa Week 11 Assignment 1 2 The
Diaspora Novelists 3 Alternative History Novels: Memoirs Week 13
Assignment 3 Week 12 Assignment 2 4 The Short Fiction Week
Assignment 5 Other14 New Fictions 4 REVISION Week 15
Assignment 5 One Week EXAMINATION One Week TOTAL 17
Weeks How to Get the Most from this Course In distance learning
the study units replace the university lecturer. you will
significantly improve your chances of passing the course. Each of
the study units follows a common format. When you have finished
the units you must go back and check whether you have achieved
the objectives. The main body of the unit v . Just as a lecturer
might give you an in-class exercise.

Use the unit to guide your reading. When you need assistance. do
not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Consult
your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or
problems. If you run into trouble. When you have submitted an
assignment to your tutor for marking. The following is a practical
strategy for working through the course. 6. You will almost
always need both the study unit you are working on and one of
your set books on your desk at the same time. The content of the
unit itself has been arranged to provide a sequence for you to
follow. 4. Whatever method you chose to use. If you feel unsure
about any of the objectives. do not hesitate to call and ask your
tutor to provide it. 8. please let your tutor know before it is too
late for help. 7. Assemble the study materials. Turn to Unit 1 and
read the Introduction and the Objectives for the Unit. review the
study material or consult your tutor. do everything you can to
stick to it. Follow the following advice carefully: 1. Keep to your
schedule. Remember that your tutors job is to help you.
Information about what you need for a unit is given in the
Overview at the beginning of each unit. telephone your tutor.
you should decide on and write own dates for working on each
unit. 3. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace
your study so that you keep yourself on schedule. As you work
through the unit you will be instructed to read sections from your
set books or other articles. When you are confident that you have
achieved a units objectives. you can then start on the next unit.
Note the time you are expected to spend each unit and how the
assignments relate to the units. Refer to the Course Overview for
more details. 5. 9. it is your first assignment 2. This will usually
be either from your set books or from your course guides. vi .
Read this Course Guide thoroughly. Work through the unit.The
African Novel ENG 281 guides you through the required reading
from other sources. If you get into difficulties with your schedule.
The major reason that students fail is that they get behind with
their course work. Review the objectives for each unit to inform
that you have achieved them. Once you have created your own
study schedule. Organize a study schedule.

how the African novel developed. You have difficulty with the
self-tests exercises. Summary This course guide gives you an
overview of what to expect in the course of this study.
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials There are 8 hours of tutorials
provided in support of this course.face contact with your tutor
and ask questions which are answered instantly. vii . Keep in
touch with your study centre. This is the only chance to have
face-to. You have a question or problem with assignment. 11.
as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. After completing
the last unit.The African Novel ENG 281 10. times and location of
these tutorials. e-mail. keep a close watch on your progress and
on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to
you during the course. review the course and prepare yourself for
the final examination. Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by
telephone. or discussion board if you need help. You can raise any
problem encountered in the course of your study. Check that you
have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each
unit) and the Course Objectives (listed in the Course Guide). You
will learn a lot from participating in discussions actively. the
thematic concern of the different blocs of African novels the
emergence of contemporary African novels. Up-to-date course
information will be continuously available there. The following
might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary.
Contact your tutor if: You do not understand any part of the
study units or the assigned readings. prepare a question list
before attending them. with your tutors comments on an
assignment or with the grading of an assignment You should try
your best to attend the tutorials. You will be notified of the dates.
You must mail your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well
before the due date (at least two working days are required). To
gain the maximum benefit from course tutorials. They will be
marked by your tutor and retuned to you as soon as possible. the
major themes and threads in African novels. ENG 281 introduces
you to the basics of the African novel. together with the name
and phone number of your tutor. Your tutor will mark and
comment on your assignments.
E. Christine I. Anthony C.The African Novel ENG 281 MAIN
COURSE Course Code ENG 281 Course Title African Novel Course
Developer/Writer Mr. Ofulue National Open University of Nigeria
Course Coordinator Mrs. Oha Department of Arts (English Unit)
Benson Idahosa University Benin City Course Editor Ile-Ife
Programme Leader Dr. Onyeka Iwuchukwu National Open
University of Nigeria Prof. Mary E. Kolawole (Obafemi Awolowo

Abuja Nigeria. URL: e-mail:

Published by National Open University of Nigeria Printed 2008
ISBN: 978-058-150-2 All Rights Reserved ix .edu.The African
Novel ENG 281 National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja Office NOUN
Building No.nou. Dar es Sallam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II.

199 Unit 4 The Short Fiction.. 170

Module 5 Contemporary African Novels/Themes. 59

Unit 4 Politics of Corruption.. 76

Module 3 Varieties of the African Novels 85

Unit 1 Anti-Colonial African Novel.. 140

Unit 3 The Lusophonic African Fiction.. 69

Unit 5 Politics of Militarism. 51

Unit 3 Independent Africa.. 42

Unit 2 Politics of Apartheid... 217

x ...... 94 Unit 3 Novels of Social Realities.. 124

Module 4 Major Blocs of African Novels....... 192

Unit 3 Alternative History Novels: Memoir. 42

Unit 1 Politics of Land.. 1

Unit 2 Beginning of the Novel in Africa 1: Orality 9 Unit 3

Beginning of the Novel in Africa 2:
Pamphleteering. 209

Unit 5 Other New Novels. 36

Module 2 Major Themes and Threads in African

Novel.......... 132

Unit 1 The Francophone Africa Fiction.. 85

Unit 2 African Novel and Marxism. 180

Unit 2 The Diaspora Novelists.. 17

Unit 4 The Rise of Formal Novels 28

Unit 5 The African Milieu and the African Novel. 104

Unit 4 Gender & Class in African Novel 114

Unit 5 War Fiction. 180

Unit 1 The New Writers in Africa. 152

Unit 4 Central African Blocs.. 161 Unit 5

Ethnic Novels in West Africa... 132

Unit 2 North African novels.The African Novel ENG

281 CONTENTS PAGE Module 1 The Rise of the African
Novel 1

Unit 1 The African Novel: Polemics of a Definition..

The African novel is the most important example of the genre of

fiction. content and aesthetic coverage by critically studying the
various ideological dispositions that trailed the identity of African
novel as distinct from the other genres. Literature in Africa had to
undergo several polemics of definition considering the need to
make it separate from the vast world literature in several
continents. Fiction is distinct from drama and poetry. Apart from
the problem of identification of the African novel.5 African Fiction
in African Languages 4.0 Introduction 2.0 Main Content 3.0
INTRODUCTION In this unit. especially the early practitioners
have had to define it to suit their ideologies.4 African Fiction by
Africans in Diaspora 3. 1 .0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.2 African
Fiction by Non Africans 3.0 References/Further Readings 1. we
shall find out the major problems that have prevailed in the
development of the African novel. There shall be tutor-marked
assignments to guide the students understanding of the unit.1
General Overview 3.0 Conclusion 5. We shall explore all these
problems and find out how African fiction has come to be
recognized as a major genre in the vast field of literature in
English.0 Objectives 3.The African Novel ENG 281 MODULE 1 THE
RISE OF THE AFRICAN NOVEL Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5
The African Novel: Polemics of a Definition Beginning of the Novel
in Africa 1: Orality Beginning of the Novel in Africa 2:
Pamphleteering The Rise of Formal Novels The African Milieu and
DEFINITION CONTENTS 1. Many writers.3 African Fiction by
African Slaves 3. there have also been the problems of definition.
African literature has an oral beginning in its form and aesthetic
contours.0 Summary 6. This unit examines African fiction in
terms of meaning.

Literature can also imply an artistic use of words for the sake of
art alone. Without denying the important role of aesthetics in
Africa.1 General Overview African literature refers to the
literature of the African peoples. Rather than write or sing for
beauty in itself. that is. African awareness is all inclusive.0 MAIN
CONTENT 3. use beauty to help communicate important truths
and information to the society. Yet the African intelligentsia.
African writers. There were intense nationalist activities
challenging the whole idea and practice of colonialism in Africa.
The colonial powers had acquiesced to granting political. using
African folktale tradition as form. the new bourgeoisie or elite was
a product of missionary education. 3. we should keep in mind
that.The African Novel ENG 281 2. while European views of
literature often stressed a separation of art and content. The
African concept includes oral literature. That led the new African
social elite to engage in artistic form inherited from the West but
inspired by local tradition. an object is considered beautiful
because of the truths it reveals and the communities it helps to
build. In the 1950s and early 1960s. Indeed. traditionally.
Africans do not radically separate art from teaching. but not
economic and cultural independence to its colonies. taking their
cue from oral literature. One major problem of African fiction is
categorization. the African novel gained momentum at a time of
social upheaval in Africa. the students should be able to:
appreciate the fact that African fiction is one of the genres of
African literature in English understand that African fiction is not
ethnic literature since it is written in English language realize
that African fiction started as an oral form identify African fiction
as one of the genres of African literature see pamphleteering as
a part of the beginning for African fiction discuss African fiction
as a product of the African people and environment argue that
African fiction are those written by Africans about Africa accept
that English language is used in African fiction to reach wider
audience. For example. in 1952 Amos Tutuola wrote The
Palmwine Drinkard based on Yoruba mythology. to borrow
Emmanuel Ngara's expression.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of this
unit. He was followed in 1953 by Camara Laye with 2 .

A large number 3 . but more importantly. African Novel has much

in common with African oral tradition. In contrast. and pre-
colonial. which has been described as the African classical
tradition. apartheid. apartheid. political. which set out to correct
the ugly perception of Africans. Ngugi wa Thiong'o followed in
1964 with Weep Not Child. urban-life. colonialism. to mention
only a few. Ousmane. Thus. religion. tradition and culture. it was
due in part to its ability to borrow from tradition. it was a means
that the new intelligentsia. have never been naturalized in Africa.
the immediate community or village. Laye. could understand and
use to herald African values outside and inside Africa. Achebe.
colonial. ironies of life. With the voice of ordinary people.The
African Novel ENG 281 L'Enfant noir (translated into English as
The African Child and later in the American edition as The Dark
Child). indigenous and imported religions. an episodic novel.
African classical tradition then finds its renewal in the novel
because in a familiar way this genre puts in the context of today
a number of subjects relevant to traditional and modern African
values. the writer holds the audience spellbound by the very
beauty of the narrative. In 1958 and from a historical
perspective. religious and social situations relate to pre-colonial
Africa. etc. borrowed from Western hierarchies. Armah. They
began telling stories about self. The African novel writer tells
stories to entertain and educate people in a way they understand.
etc. but by and large they remained inaccessible and foreign to
the great majority of the African people. the themes dealt with by
African novelists include art. Like the storyteller. tradition and
civilization to a deaf world. African novel seems to belong to the
people rather than to the elite because its formal complexity and
intimidating status. the nation-state or the newly formed
proletariat. giving pleasure and also teaching morals and beliefs
of the community. If the genre of the novel came to dominate the
literary scene. The impact of other genres was progressively
overshadowed by that of novelists such as wa Thiong'o. Just as
the common storyteller of old. It shows how economic. which
relied heavily on African oral tradition to vaunt the merits of the
African past. neo-colonial independence. the novel claims to be
the legitimate heir of the traditional legends through which griots
chronicled community history. Often. novelists made oral tradition
and legends their springboard. the contemporary African fiction
writer aims at helping his/her society to change while retaining
the best features of authentic African cultures. Beti. educated in a
colonial context. race or nation. Chinua Achebe published the
novel Things Fall Apart. It was the year of Kenyan independence
and the novelist was making an urgent call to Africans to embrace
education and enterprise as a way of ending Western imperialism
and Indian entrepreneurship in East Africa. and neo-colonial
reality. Oyono.

one of the early historians gave a distorted history of Africa. More

so.2 African Fiction by Non Africans There has also been the
problem of classification. Chinua Achebe made a proposition that
fictional works about Africa written by non Africans tend to
rewrite the history and culture of African people in very bad
manner and intentions. Fiction is an imaginative recreation of real
life experiences. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Discuss the
major problems that arose in the categorization of African fiction.
The questions now are: should we call these fictions African
fiction because they presented Africans? What about the
authorship? Is African fiction to be written by Africans only? It is
true that the present form of written fiction in Africa is an
offshoot of Western literary culture infused in the western
education of Africans but is it possible to have African fiction in
African form that is without any hinge on the western form of
writing? These are impossibilities since the writers of African
fictions make use of western style and values in the craft. Mister
Johnson contained distorted pictures of the African society which
he tried to correct in Things Fall Apart. 3. Hence. Some literary
writers who wrote about Africa were not really Africans. So. One
very important fact here. is oral. He described Africa as a
continent of barbarians. we do not expect a better fiction from
non-Africans about Africa since they already have a distorted
history about Africa. in its basic form. African literature. In
defining African fiction. Herodotus of Halycahasus. According to
Achebe. To classify Joyce Cary and Joseph Conrad as African
writers and to call their fictions African fictions becomes a major
problem in the polemics of definition of African fiction. being that
every fictional work must show realism not mere fabrication of
unrealities purposely designed to distort the history of a people.
Joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness is also about Africa and the
African People. It was this novel which prompted the writing of
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe. and animal-like humans with
four legs without any form of culture or religion and this
historical distortion has often influenced the western judgment of
Africa and Africans.The African Novel ENG 281 of literary authors
of great talent have not lost sight of the novels potential to
enrich human lives and African societies. a story about Africans
and Africa. we get stuck 4 . written literature echoes western
values. This means that the subject matters in every fiction must
reflect the experiences of the society from which it emanated.
Joyce Cary wrote Mister Johnson.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Explain the contribution of slave

narratives to the development of African fiction.4 African Fiction
by Africans in the Diaspora Many African writers write abroad.
Interestingly. For sure.The African Novel ENG 281 about the
placement of these literatures written by non-Africans about
Africa. Ethiopia Unbound: Studies in Race Emancipation. the
African (1789).3 African Fiction by African Slaves Another
controversial aspect of identification of African fiction is the
inclusion of literary works by African slaves in America.
environment and society are not reflected in the stories. Joseph
Coast (now Ghana) published what is probably the first African
novel written in English. Many of these writers left the continent
out of protest while some left for economic reasons. The African
style. White 5 . The question now is: do we classify these works
as African literature merely because they are written by Africans
even though the subject matter in their stories does not reflect
Africa? Many African writers have become westernized to the
extent of preferring to write about New York. culture. Although
the work moves between fiction and political advocacy. Instead.
such as Olaudah Equiano's The Interesting Narrative of the Life
and Adventures of Olaudah Equiano. There is nothing African in
their works. The African works best known in the West from the
period of colonization and the slave trade are primarily slave
narratives. In the colonial period. 3. or Gustavus Vassa. In 1911.
3. India and Europe. the society and environment they write from
influence them a lot. the emergence of African American
literature now subsumes the literatures of slave Africans. SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain the proper categorization of
Fiction by non Africans about Africa. the stories are bent towards
celebrating western values and civilization. There is also Alex
Harleys Roots which also gave accurate account of the slave
trade experiences of the Africans in fictional mode. its publication
and positive reviews in the Western press mark a watershed
moment in African literature. Most of them write novels about the
experiences of the western world. Africans exposed to Western
languages began to write in those tongues.

0 CONCLUSION 6 . most of the critics began to suggest the

evolvement of an African lingua franca. They believed that African
novels are for the consumption of African people alone. They
advocated that African writers should use their native languages
in writing literatures. Niyi Osundare and recently Chimamanda
Adichie. Ben Okri. it becomes more appropriate using Western
languages such as English. The advocates of this theory believe
that African fiction will truly be identified as African if written in
African languages expressing African ideas and philosophies.
Many writers like Ngugi wa Thiongo. Okot PBitek. Chinua
Achebe. Ngugi wa Thiongo.The African Novel ENG 281 House.
Since Africans have thousands of languages. these African writers
in the Diaspora tend to consider the immediate interest of the
western populace. When it looked as if there was no compromise
in this direction. To get western readership. Some critics of
African literature believe that English Language is an imperial
language representing colonialism in all its facets. French and
Portuguese as the language of fiction in order to reach out to
millions of people with diverse language forms. many of them
were already known in Africa before they left the African shores.
Most novels written in African languages have not been accessible
to non-users of such languages unless the work is translated.
Hurricane Katrina etc instead of the immediate African
sociopolitical experiences. Although some African writers have
also made impact even though they wrote from outside Africa.
Chinua Achebe. We have such names as Wole Soyinka. SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5 How does the writing of African Fiction
in English help in the development of the genre? 4. Wole Soyinka
amongst others practised writing in their native dialects but these
never yielded wider acclaim. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4
Appreciate African Fiction by African writers in other continents as
truly African literature. Yoruba and Acoli languages. Most of these
critics undermined western audience for African literatures. Some
suggested Kiswahili while others suggested some other language
forms like Hausa. Helen Oyeyemi and Diana Evans.5 African
Fiction in African Languages Many critics of African literature
consider literatures written in African languages as ethnic
literatures since they serve the interest of the ethnic group that
uses the language of the literature. 3.

By tracing the history of the debate. appeals for a literature in

indigenous languages appear to serve the purpose of ethnic
signification on behalf of a tradition of writing that continues to
rely on European languages at the levels of both creative practice
and theoretical formulation. it must be presented in the form that
comes naturally to the people's appreciation of art. and the need
to establish the affinity of Africans and Diasporans becomes
paramount through reference to social experience and history.
This prediction by Raymond Williams is relevant to the whole
world. in time to come. and the ideological function of the debate
for Africans who write in European languages. Discussions of this
debate have in the past often highlighted the inherently
normative character of the idea of an African literature in African
languages. this unit seeks to distinguish between the actual role
played by African languages in the emergence of a literature
identified as African by its practitioners. The problem of defining
Africa's limits is relegated to the background. for literature to
reflect its society. 7 . the society will resort to less time-
consuming ways of reading and communicating what can be seen
as happening. as a historical development of social language
itself: finding new means. African literature does not merit its
existence. and Irele's suggestion that the focus of literary studies
should be on the social functions of African literature holds true.
and new forms and then new definitions of changing practical
consciousness become inevitable. Moreover. In my view.The
African Novel ENG 281 African literature as an institution of
several associated units has defied definition but some see it as
"the sum total of all national and ethnic literatures of Africa.
including that of the African literary genre. Furthermore. In each
transition. 5. because without its social functions." Abiola Irele
finds it futile to de-emphasize the social function of literature. by
African people and for African people. little has changed today
with regard to bringing together the distant cousins of Africa and
the African Diaspora. due to extreme pressures of life in modern
cities. From this perspective.0 SUMMARY The debate over the
scope of what is called African fiction has continued to generate
significant interest ever since the emergence of African literary
writing in European languages.

0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS Achebe. (1991) Studies on

the Nigerian Novel. Abiola. Taiwo. 7. Oladele. Simon. Morning Yet
On Creation Day. (1975). (1976). Reading the African Novel.
Chinua. Appreciate African fiction as a true semblance of African
oral art 3. Obiechina.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer
these questions 1. Ibadan: Heinemann. London: Macmillan. What
factors led to the emergence of ethnic or national literatures? 4.
London: Heinemann. Emenyonu. 8 . Emmanuel. Tradition and
Society in the West African Novel. Irele. The African Experience in
Literature and Ideology.The African Novel ENG 281 6. (1975).
Ernest N. Ibadan and Nairobi: Heinemann. London. Culture.
(1981). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Explain in
details why African literature defies definition 2. London:
Heinemann. Assess the categories of African fiction that have not
been certified as truly African fiction. Gikandi. (1987). Culture
and the Nigerian Novel.
0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6. fables.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit we examine whether or not there
is an authentic African orature.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of the
unit the students should be able to: recognize orature as the
beginning of African literature establish a link between the
orature and written African literature accept that oral narratives
embody the qualities of the written African novel appreciate the
inclusion of African oral narrative forms in the African novel
explain that early African novels derived from the form of oral
narratives see the pre-colonial African society as a creative one.
African oral tradition carries the African storytelling tradition with
it. They transmit and store the values of their experiences by
telling the tales to the younger generations as guide.4 African
Epic Narratives 3. proverbs.0 Main Content 3.1 General Overview
3.7 Orature in/as Early African Fiction 4.0 Objectives 3. the types
and the various influences it has had on the emerging African
novel. 9 . It embodies African beliefs and general attitudes to
life.3 African Myths & Legends 3.0 Introduction 2.6
Metamorphosis of Orature into Literature 3.2 African Oral
Narrative Forms 3.The African Novel ENG 281 UNIT 2 BEGINNING
idioms in order to establish the true development of African
novels after the emergence of writing through colonial education.
The myth and legends carry the historical realities in the life of
the primordial Africans. We shall also examine other oral forms
like the folktales. 2.5 Folktales as Fiction 3.0 References/Further
Readings 1.

0 MAIN CONTENT 3. Ijp or Mbe. work songs. Oral literature (or

orature) may be in prose or verse. occupational verse.
irrespective of the language chosen by the author to write her/his
piece. There are incidences of orature in most written fictions in
Africa and the early novels imbibed the oral traditional art in
creating the authentic African fiction from the African sociological
framework. and the Kebra Negast or book of kings from Ethiopia.
Examples of pre-colonial African literature include the Epic of
Sundiata composed in medieval Mali. there is a tendency to forget
that the whole of African art is linked with oral literature which
has been the mainstay of both traditional and modern Africa.
attitudes and culture. along with epigrams. translation or
exploitation of oral material. African belief systems. and Sungura.
Storytellers in Africa sometimes use call-and-response techniques
to tell their stories. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the
various forms of oral narratives and how they carry the peoples
belief system. One popular form of traditional African folktale is
the "trickster" story. They are fictional but they carry the peoples
culture. proverbs and riddles.The African Novel ENG 281 3.
communal expectations and cultural affinity are transmitted
through oral traditional methods like storytelling and other forms
of ritual recourse. children's songs. a tortoise in Yoruba or Igbo
folklore of Nigeria. 10 . African written literature is a
transcription. Often times. Also recited. ritual verse. These stories
are mostly fictions even though they tend to embody the belief
systems and attitudes of the people. traditional mores. Examples
of animal tricksters include Anansi. are: love songs. bards
sometimes known as "griots". attitudes. includes: narrative epic.
Praise singers. often sung. Poetry. often sung. This is called
education through entertainment. The older Epic of Dinga from
the old Ghana Empire.1 General Overview Africans have a rich
oral tradition. where a small animal uses its wits to survive
encounters with larger creatures. modes of worship. Oral
renditions existed and still exist as one of the ways by which
African value systems are transmitted into the upcoming
members of a community. praise poems for rulers and other
prominent people. a hare found in Central and East African
folklore. tell their stories with music. The prose is often
mythological or historical and can include tales of the trickster
character. In talking about African literature. a spider in the
folklore of the Ashanti people of Ghana. adaptation.

Legends are records of a communitys heroes.The African Novel

ENG 281 3. At night. fables. The stories are usually told to be
seen. Sometimes. Under what is sung we have oral poetic forms
like love songs. In the worship of gods. The elderly one tries to
arrest the attention of his audience through all forms of
dramatization and songs. folktales. It can also be a significant
agent of change capable of storing the peoples historical
experiences. This is where myths and legend emerge. dance.
idioms amongst others. when there is war. When labourers are
working. They are stories about those who founded a community
and how brave they were. lullabies are often rendered. SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain the various forms of African
orature studied in this course and how they overlap in practice.
responses. while under what is spoken we have the storytelling
forms like myths. The end result is entertainment and education
through orature. When a child cries. they sing war songs. Myths
are stories of origin or creation. a race or a community. it has
tripartite genres: what is sung (poetry). marriage songs.
children gather round a village sage who tells them folktales and
heroic tales like myths and legends. like other forms of popular
culture. chants and demonstrations typical to acting out the
actions in the stories. these three genres tend to overlap in the
rendition patterns of oral narratives. is not merely a form of
entertainment but a medium for commenting on contemporary
social and political events. war songs. what is spoken (prose)
and what is acted (drama). Each aspect of these genres tends to
manifest in the daily experiences of the growing ones in the
community. anecdotes. Ruth Finnegan (1980) expresses that
myths and legend capture the most 11 . invocation etc. where
Ezeulu is shown knocking staff with Ulu. Many communities
attribute their greatness to their beginning. legends.3 African
Myths/Legends African oral literature. Under what is acted we
have the masquerade forms. proverbs. lullabies and incantations.
the priests act out encounters with the gods. especially during
moonlight plays. Just like the European literary forms. the god of
Umuaro people. rituals. they sing work songs. They are stories
about the beginning of a people. A typical example is in Chinua
Achebes Arrow of God. work songs. In a typical folktale session.
3. the narrator keeps the audiences attention with songs.2
African Oral Narrative Forms The oral traditional art of Africans
come in various forms.

Myths have often occurred in African novels such as the origin of

Ulu in Arrow of God. a hare found in Central and East African
folklore. It also traces the beginning of traditions. In folktales.
They are stories about select animals personified to carry certain
human attributes in order to play out a needed role for moral
lessons. We have the legendary Sundiata: Epic of Great Mali.
where a small animal uses its wits to survive encounters with
larger creatures. We also have different forms of myths and
legends recounted in most African novels set in the rural
backgrounds. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Assess myths and
legends as one of the recurring oral narrative form in African
novels. We have seen the folktale forms occurring in African
novels. and the Kebra Negast or book of kings from Ethiopia. One
interesting thing about the folktale is the manipulation of animals
as humans playing out their political. craft. a tortoise in Yoruba or
Igbo folklore of Nigeria. cultural rites. This referent guides the
members of the community in certain observances. Ijp or Mbe.
This oral art is now written as a literary text. Others are the older
Epic of Dinga from the old Ghana Empire. Some animal tricksters
include Ananse. In folktales the essence of poetic justice is
expressed and this is a recurring 12 . Epic narratives also
occurred as one of the earliest forms of legendary fictions in
Africa. there are heroes and villains. sociological and cultural roles
in a fictional community. Myths and legends help to store or
preserve a peoples cultural beliefs about nature and their natural
habitats. which records the exploits of the great men in medieval
Mali. The heroes are human or animals that play the major
roles.4 Folktales as Fiction Folktales are animal stories. a spider in
the folklore of the Ashanti people of Ghana. A common type of
African folktale is also called the "trickster" story. and other lore.
3. This is one of the sources of truly African novels as one of the
earliest novels to have come out of Africa called Palmwine
Drinkard by Amos Tutuola which is truly an embodiment of
African orature in the written form. the exploits of the great
Umuofia men in Things Fall Apart. worship and the discovery of
food.The African Novel ENG 281 valued history of a people by
tracing how they began and how their beginning affected their
situation. Myths and legends are fictional but have traces of
reality as each of them has a physical referent in the real world.
and Sungura.
O. His heroes are usually Yoruba hunters. Herbert Isaac Ernest
Dhlomo of South Africa published the first Englishlanguage
African play. and Portuguese) and in traditional African languages.
Africans exposed to Western languages began to write in those
tongues. Joseph Ephraim Casely-Hayford (also known as Ekra-
probably the first African novel written in English titled Ethiopia
Unbound: Studies in Race Emancipation. 1954). Fagunwa
pioneered the Yoruba language novel. The folktale form is
arranged in a manner that there is a beginning in a distant land
with different wrongs being committed by a given animal at the
end of which poetic justice occurs. French. African plays began to
emerge.O. In 1962. African writers in this period wrote both in
Western languages (notably English. its publication and positive
reviews in the Western press mark a watershed moment in
African literature. Fagunwas My Life in a Forest of a Thousand
Demons is a pure written folktale. The Black Hermit. 1949).
Fagunwa's later works include Igbo Olodumare (The Forest of
God. In 1911. Again. similar to the form in Amos Tutuolas
Palmwine Drinkard. and even gods in their quests. Fagunwa's
novels draw heavily on folktale traditions and idioms. SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 How does the folktale tradition
influence the writing of African novels? 3. Fagunwa wrote his
Ogboju Ode ninu Igbo Irunmale. During this period. The effects of
oral narratives on the written literatures in Africa are mostly
structural and thematic. D. Ireke Onibudo (1949). Thematically.
Irinkerindo ninu Igbo Elegbeje (Expedition to the Mount of
Thought. who interact with kings. his novels also explore the
divide between the Christian beliefs of Africa's colonizers and the
continent's traditional religions. and Adiitu Olodumare (1961).
The Girl Who Killed to Save: Nongquase the Liberator in 1935. D.
The form of the folktale has a great influence on the present form
of the African novels. Although the work moves between fiction
and political advocacy. One interesting thing about these early
works is absorption of the oral arts in them.The African Novel
ENG 281 feature in some African novels. In 1938. a cautionary
tale about "tribalism" (racism between African tribes).5
Metamorphosis of Orature into Literature In the colonial period.
Wole Soyinka translated the book into English in 1968 as The
Forest of A Thousand Demons. sages. Fagunwa 13 . including
many supernatural elements. the first novel written in the Yoruba
language and one of the first to be written in any African
language. Ngugi wa Thiong'o of Kenya wrote the first East African
drama. This thematic form is often the structure of most African

14 . In Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart. they write as Africans

in European languages. especially Fagunwa. English served as the
only language that could make their message reach wider
audience. In Igbo area. Considering the root of the African
novelists first as Africans brought up in the African milieu and
secondly as the fortunate recipients of western education. Other
novels like Achebes Arrow of God. There is the form of drama
which manifested in the form of wrestling and the Egwugwu
Masquerade group. Soyinka amongst others relived orature in
African fiction. The same occurred in other novels especially in
novels set in rural background in Africa.The African Novel ENG
281 remains the most widely-read Yorb-language author.
Although. The resultant effect is that they represent the African
personality and culture and try to reveal that in their novels.
Elechi Amadis The Concubine. Western education enabled the
African people the opportunity to put down their oral narratives
into written words. the writers try as much as possible to
incorporate the oral literary form in their works. and a major
influence on such contemporary writers as Amos Tutuola. Some of
them who could write in their native languages using English
alphabetic forms attempted original works in their first languages.
Pita Nwana wrote Omenuko which is regarded as the first Igbo
epic. These are oral narratives manifesting in the written
literature. we have various oral heritage of the Igbos in the novel.
The early novels. Unlike the western novels.6 Orature in/as Early
African Fiction Orature occurs in various ways in African fiction.
Ngugi Wa Thiongos Weep not Child and The River Between
amongst other African novels contain elements of African orature
in them. It is not surprising though that the early novels in Africa
are mostly works generated from the oral tradition of the people.
The same occurred in the Hausa literature. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 6 Explain how African orature manifested in and as
early African novels. We have various manifestations of the oral
art in most African novels. Amadi. There are sessions where
folktales are narrated and various songs are rendered according
to the required circumstance. African novels contain the oral
heritage of the African people. 3. Achebe. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 5 Explain how orature metamorphosed into literature
in early African literature. Tutuola.

It is thoroughly evident that African novels began from the oral

literary tradition of the Africans. Western education only prepared
the African writer for the task of transmitting his cultural values
to a wider audience beyond his immediate environment. African
writers imbibe the oral tradition in the writing of literature. Quite
often. Besides. All these reflect the influence of the oral tradition
in the African novels. There was a smooth transition from orature
to literature. songs. Tutuola. songs and masquerades. proverbs.
Achebe. incantations.0 SUMMARY Orature is African heritage in
storytelling. The novels of Fagunwa. Amadi amongst others. not
surprising though. folktale forms. incantations and masquerade
forms in African novels. fable forms. 5. Early novels began as a
revisit on the African tradition. The three genres of literature also
manifests in African orature in various forms. the early African
novelists began with the writing of African orature as literature. It
is the most significant ways of transmitting cultural values and
belief systems of the people. The other forms like songs. The
difference is that African literature then was oral. They are local
colour because they capture the original African orature in its
entirety in the written form. Orature like literature has genres. In
the beginning. Western education marked the rise of African
literature. masquerades. This is evident in the works of the early
novelists like Fagunwa. 15 . folktale narration. Some of them
even wrote the oral arts as novels. There are elements of orature
in most genres of African literature and the African novel
embodies all the genres as the storyteller uses every means to
reach out to his immediate audience. rituals. We have the
application of African myths and legends. there are patterned
literary forms akin to the western types in Africa. the application
of proverbs and anecdotes amongst other African oral heritage
have become a regular form in African novels. idioms.The African
Novel ENG 281 4. and Achebe amongst others reveal a leaning
towards the oral art as an expression of a true African novel. The
application of these forms has been tagged local colour tradition
by critics of African literature.0 CONCLUSION It is clear that
Africa has a rich oral tradition. dance. We notice today that
African literature is identified mainly by the oral forms and African
inherent lore. Africans did not hear of literature for the first time
from the Europeans. This is because a writer is a product of his
environment and reflects that in his works. Tutuola. These genres
manifest in various forms. The epic and legends of Africa have
often occurred in the written literature. after the encounter with
western education. They reflect the African oral tradition in their

4) Must African fiction be written in African languages to reflect

Africanness? 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Obiechina. Oladele. 2) How does African orature manifest in
African novels? 3) Explain why orature has been termed local
colour tradition. (1975). 16 . Ruth. Tradition and Society in the
West African Novel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
London: Macmillan. (1980). Oral literature in Africa. Taiwo.0
ENG 281 the African novel still reflects the African orature in
various forms as these brings in what has been termed the
Africanness of the African novel. (1976) Culture and the Nigerian
Novel.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer these questions 1)
Categorize African orature into genres. 6. Culture. Emmanuel.

They were not really published but printed without ISBN

numbers.0 3.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit.4 3. They were
concerned with expressing themselves in pamphlets as means to
counseling.2 3. They had middle level of education equivalent to
the present secondary education.3 3. some intellectuals like
Cyprian Ekwensi among others wrote pamphlets.0 6.The African
PAMPHLETEERING CONTENTS 1.0 3. guiding or entertaining the
people. Although. Most of them were civil servants and traders.0
7. pamphlets of all types in all literary genres flourished and were
sold to interested members of the public for entertainment. At
that time.0 Introduction Objectives Main Content General
Overview Market Literature Onitsha Market Literature Kano
Market Literature Transition from Pamphlets into Novels
Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment
References/Further Readings 1. The first set of Africans that came
in contact with European education were excited about the
discovery and attempted several experiment through writing.0
2.5 4. We shall examine the historical development of pamphlets
and how they contributed immensely to the development of
African novels.1 3. Most of them had no university education and
it is only those who had the opportunity of attending the then
University College Ibadan that really turned their creative
sketches into full blown novels. we shall examine critically the
way the early educated Africans were able to write creatively.0 5.
17 . especially the type that allows them write and work as civil
servants. These group of Africans were actually not well educated
as most of them had little education.

in thirds. meaning "loved by all". political opinion. Pamphlets have

also long been an important tool of political protest and political
campaigning for similar reasons. It may consist of a single sheet
of paper that is printed on both sides and folded in half. or kept in
boxes that have approximately the dimensions of a hardcover
book and placed vertically on a shelf. pamphlets were used for
political campaigns and as guides. Pamphlet coined from
Pamphilus was derived from Greek. which created influential
moral and political communities of readers. In 18 . or in fourths
(called a leaflet). UNESCO requires a publication (other than a
periodical) to have 'at least 5 but not more than 48 pages
exclusive of the cover pages'. or it may consist of a few pages
book. a longer item is a book. without a hard cover or binding).
By the end of the seventeenth century the most effective means
of persuasion and communication in the world was the pamphlet.
3. they should either be kept in file folders in a file cabinet. and
thus formed a public sphere of popular.0 OBJECTIVES By the end
of the unit the students should be able to: understand
pamphlets as one of the beginnings of African fiction trace the
beginning of pamphlets to western education appreciate
pamphlets as motivation for full literature see market literature
as end product of pamphleteering explain how pamphlets
transited into novels recognize Onitsha Market Literature and
Kano Market Literatures as the most popular in Africa relate the
pamphlet themes to early novels themes. The word pamphlet
means a small work issued by itself without covers. The storage
of individual pamphlets requires special consideration because
they can be easily crushed or torn when shelved alongside
hardcover books.0 MAIN CONTENT 3. In Africa. In order to count
as a pamphlet. Pamphlets are very important in marketing as
they are cheap to produce and can be distributed easily to
customers.The African Novel ENG 281 2. It has the modern
connotation of a tract concerning a contemporary issue. For this
reason. Pamphlets can contain anything from information on
kitchen appliances to medical information and religious treatises.1
General Overview A pamphlet is an unbound booklet (that is.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain thoroughly the major

difference between a pamphlet and a book. some religious and
some pedagogical. They are usually written with less commercial
intention. The most popular are the Onitsha and Kano Market
Literature which flourished so much before the emergence of real
literatures. The language of market literatures is usually
entertaining and the lexical selection is usually unconnected but
creates fun in the reading. The Kano Market writers wrote mainly
in Hausa with just a handful in English. from sacred to profane.
The authors have the joy of being read by others and being
classified among the circle of writers. In 1946. SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 19 . Most of the subject matters go
from moral to amoral. the use of pamphlets was popularized
through the consistent use of it by market traders.The African
Novel ENG 281 Nigeria. They were pamphlets dealing with various
issues: some literary. Cheap production costs also made it
possible for large print runs to be produced. Market literatures
are printed as pamphlets. that People of the City regarded as the
first African novel per se published in 1945 was written by one of
the Onitsha Market pamphleteers called Cyprian Ekwensi. Market
literatures are regarded as popular literatures. from political to
apolitical and from pedagogical to generalities. the local market
places were flooded with romantic novelettes and chapbooks.
some political. They have no standard form or guiding rules
covering the subject matters. It is interesting to note however.2
Market Literature A market literature is a consistent form of
writing popularized by traders in a given market place or by
people living and working in a given commercial centre. There are
several factors which contributed to the success of these market
literatures. the colonial government of Nigeria sold their used
printing presses and shortly after. The pages are usually very few
and written in very simple and transliterated English forms. Some
of them are used as satiric attack on the frailties of man in his
society. Many traders in Onitsha bought these discarded
machines. The fact that the authors had declared that their main
concern was not to make money from their writing meant that
the publishers had a free hand to fix cheap prices for the
pamphlets. 3. The critical question has been: was the popular
pamphleteering in Nigeria a success or a failure? The obvious
answer is that it was a big success.

journalists. booksellers. Another factor which spurred people on

to writing the chapbooks was the end of the Second World War.
came back with copies of Indian and Victorian drugstore pulp
magazines which served as models for the pamphlet literature. All
these were published in 1947. Written by and intended for the
"common" or "uneducated" people. Starting in the 1960s. Most of
the pamphlet authors maintained that financial gain was not their
reason for writing the pamphlets. Most of the authors of the
Onitsha chapbooks were amateurs rather than professionals.
school leavers. Nigeria. The Nigerian soldiers. It has been said
that a good number of young people with the minimum
educational qualification of standard six found their ways to
Onitsha either to trade or to work as apprentices in various trades
and professions. what is known is that. It could be said that the
first publications in the Onitsha market literature were written by
Cyprian Ekwensi. plays. artisans. this literature covered a range
of genres including fiction. planned and worked out the details of
what they wanted to do in advance before they started publishing
and selling pamphlets in the Onitsha market literature series to
the public. However. The titles of the pamphlets written by
Ekwensi were "When love whispers" and a collection of Igbo
folktales called "Ikolo the wrestler and other Igbo tales". and
farmers. especially insofar as it reflected African social conditions.
railwaymen. It is not known whether any individual or group of
people ever came together.The African Novel ENG 281
Differentiate between a market literature and a real literature 3.
Some of the pamphlets were written by grammar school boys
who wrote under pseudo names so that their school authorities
would not identify and then punish them. sat down. European and
American scholars began to take an interest in this form of
popular literature. current events. according to Emmanuel
Obiechina. low-level clerks. It was this group of new literates.
school teachers. in the middle decades of the 20th Century. who
later became a famous Nigerian novelist. Another group of people
who wrote the Onitsha market pamphlets were local printing
press owners. The authors already had full-time employment
from which they earned their living and they merely took 20 .
traders. provincial correspondents of daily newspapers who now
devoted their time to writing the Onitsha market pamphlets.
social advice and language study.3 Onitsha Market Literature
Onitsha Market Literature is a term used to designate the popular
pamphlets that were sold at the large market in Onitsha. the first
pamphlets in the series were published in 1947. who fought in
India and the Far East.

The people had nowhere to go when they wanted to read some

light materials. Travellers passing through Onitsha boasted of
buying copies of the cheap chapbooks to show to their relatives
and friends at home. The publication and distribution of the
pamphlets coincided with the period when many people were
becoming educated in Eastern Nigeria. availed themselves of the
services of the Onitsha public scribes. This meant that for many
years. The popularity of the chapbooks quickly spread from
Onitsha to Enugu. decided to go to the night schools to learn how
to read and write. As already stated. These were educated people
who had it as their full-time job to read or write letters as well as
read stories from books to illiterates and charge them for the
service. the people were happy and the cheapness of the retail
price enabled them to buy the copies in large numbers.
Consequently. Onitsha is easily accessible from all parts of Nigeria
and people come from all parts of the Federation and also from
other countries in West Africa either to buy or sell their
commodities at Onitsha. Roadside hawkers as well as peripatetic
booksellers helped to sell thousands of copies of the pamphlets.
Usually such a preface gave the details as to how and why the
authors came to be personally involved in pamphlet writing.
During that period. 1958 to 1962 may be described as the heyday
of the Onitsha market literature pamphlets. public libraries did
not exist in Eastern Nigeria. The pamphlets were sold in various
bookshops in Onitsha as well as in the open markets. Some
illiterate traders who bought the pamphlets but decided not to go
to the night schools. By the time the first set of pamphlets was
published in 1947. By so doing. There are thousands of traders in
the Onitsha market and also thousands of grammar school boys
and girls in Onitsha who bought copies of the pamphlets. A good
number of the authors wrote a preface to the finished work in
which they gave biographical details of their lives. Even the
Onitsha traders who were not educated. even if they earned little
money from their writing.The African Novel ENG 281 up writing as
part-time and for the joy of it. they were able to read the stories
by themselves. The market booksellers concentrated their efforts
in selling prescribed school textbooks and not popular fiction and
general trade books. Nigerians were suffering from book hunger.
Onitsha town has a large home-based market and many
educational institutions. 21 . Port Harcourt. There were still other
factors which contributed to the success of the market literature.
that was regarded as a supplementary family income. Aba. The
strategic position of the city of Onitsha on the eastern bank of the
River Niger also contributed to the success of the market
literature. Consequently. Owerri. the 5-year period. one could
easily go to a bookshop and select up to 200 titles. when the
Onitsha market pamphlets were issued.

Subsequently. Kar-Kuzu. Samanja Mazan Fama. which made

some of the writers instantly famous. Late Alhaji Buguzun.000
copies each. monetary consideration was never a factor in
gauging the success or otherwise of the actors/actress. Dan
Hajiya. Golobo. evolved partly out of the booming Kano Market
Literature (KML). several methods that can appeal to their
understanding and comprehension were devised to enlighten
them on government policies and programs. DanMagori. The
success recorded.The African Novel ENG 281 Calabar and other
cities and towns in Eastern Nigeria. There were two titles which
sold over 30. it was more or less voluntary. we are very grateful
indeed. This gave rise to a medium of mass communication like
Town Criers and Drama Series which became very popular as a
result of its acceptability among the generality of the people.
Ghana and other countries in West Africa. Late Mallam Mamman.
In that golden period. Barmo and several others too numerous to
mention. suffice it to give a special mention of the following:
Kassimu Yero. were less enthusiastic in the pursuit of western
Education right from the colonial periods up to the present time.
what started as a small private 22 . the printing and production
were now contracted to companies based in Aba. Enugu and
Owerri. Hajiya Tambaya.4 Kano Market Literature Due to
historical peculiarities. What is now known as Kannywood. made
some exuberant youth to begin the conversion of the content of
their soyayya books into films. The average Onitsha market
pamphlet sold 3000-4000 copies per title. Late Karo-da-Goma.
Yaba in Lagos. Me Ayah. the Hausa-Fulani comprising all the
tribes that speak Hausa language as a first or second language.
with strict adherence to the rules and regulations which guard
against anything that will torch our sensibilities. to Cameroons.
As Onitsha could no longer cope with the popular demand.
Northern Nigeria and to Lagos. Port Harcourt. 3. The main
objectives were simply to enlighten the public. Consequently.
They used their God given talent effectively in mass mobilization
and enlightenment and for that. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
Trace the historical development of Onitsha Market Literature and
the factors responsible for its growth. From the East. it spread to
the West. The thespians were just happy and contented to
partake in a venture that will lead to the general understanding of
government aims and objectives on several issues. This ensured
the protection of our cultural norms and values jealously over the
years. Of the many prominent personalities that took part in the
drama series of yester years.

film making readily became a veritable source of employment and

instant fame and wealth. Such books are written for the non-
specialist reading public. such as biography. The 5-year period.
for highly educated people. especially those who enjoyed 23 . By
general trade books we mean those books written for the general
public. both fiction and non-fiction. these chapbooks and
novelettes became popular in Eastern Nigeria especially among
secondary school boys and girls and among thousands of traders
in Onitsha market. literature. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4
What are the major trusts of Kano Market Literature? 3. coupled
with the opulent life style of these writers. to the ready embrace
of the stakeholders in the industry. By the time the Biafran war
ended in January 1970. In a relatively short time. and they read
them for their own sake. 1958 to 1962 may be described as the
heyday when the total number of books published each year was
near the 50 titles mark. Ghana and other West African countries.
belles letters. novels. The same period in history also marked the
transition from writing novelettes with semi-literate population in
mind to writing serious tradebooks.5 Transition from Pamphlets
into Novels The first book in the Onitsha market literature series
was published in 1947. Many boys and girls in their teens
therefore migrated to Kano. and published by a commercial
publisher. leading to the resurgence of divorce cases in many
parts of the north. The language used in the books was suitable
were educated to primary and secondary school levels. Despite
the popularity which the Onitsha market literature enjoyed for
nearly a generation. With the governments inability to cater for
its citizens needs. This induced mass exodus of all characters
from every part of the North and even neighbouring countries to
Kano. the publication and selling of the Onitsha market pamphlets
and chapbooks was dying a natural death. From the Eastern
Region the popularity spread to the Cameroon. This was quickly
followed by other titles some of which were so slim that they
numbered less than 20 pages each. that literary phenomenon had
ceased to exist. mainly the adult population.The African Novel
ENG 281 affair suddenly metamorphosed into a full-blown money
spinning venture and the rest is now History. these are the kind
of books which people usually buy for their intrinsic merits. etc.
by the year 1975. in addition to endemic poverty. Incidentally. To
many people.

There was little or nothing left for them to use in starting a new
life. The disappearance of this literary genre was a loss not only
to the Igbos and to Eastern Nigerians but also to the whole of
Nigeria and to some West Africans. and some even lost their
lives. Few years after the war.The African Novel ENG 281
comfortable living as a result of this special book trade. Between
1950 and 1970. what they saw was a city which had been
systematically destroyed. the resumption of the production of
new pamphlets was capital-intensive. Moreover. when people
came back to Onitsha. it can be said that by the year 1975. The
whole fabric of society and the special characteristics which
distinguished Onitsha from other cities in Igboland had gone.
Buying new machines would obviously cost them more money.
even those who thrived on the pamphleteering business had no
alternative than to give up the trade. After the war. However. a
period of 20 years. Before the war. Aba and Port Harcourt. The
cover price for each new title produced would be increased
considerably. had gone. and partly because the new retail prices
were too high for them. It was like a ghost town. Some of the
well-known pamphlet authors had disappeared from Onitsha. The
people of Eastern Nigeria had to look elsewhere for their reading
materials. the author of Tragic. some classic novels 24 . there
were people who loved the Onitsha market literature so much
that they were determined to reactivate their business. The
Biafran war had changed the philosophy of life of the Igbo people
of Nigeria. they discovered that they were facing many odds.
People were no longer prepared to tell their fellow traders the
truth. the demise came rather too quickly and too unexpectedly.
Obiechina stated clearly that one of the famous pamphlet
authors. Before long. for which the inhabitants of Onitsha were
known. Thousands of people decided to leave Onitsha for good
and set up new lines of business in other cities like Enugu. People
even turned round and started blaming their fellow Onitsha
inhabitants for being the cause of their woes. hopelessness and
despair. Rather they started being cagey and secretive. The spirit
of comradeship. The informality and the openness of life in the
Onitsha market had gone. At the end of the war. the same traders
decided not to purchase the publications any more. Their printing
presses and other production equipment had either been stolen
or destroyed beyond repair. Consequently. Chike Okonyia. partly
because they had no money. Why was this the case? One obvious
answer is that the Biafran war of July 1967 to January 1970 had
abruptly halted the progress of the pamphlet business. People did
not trust one another any more. This state of affairs led to
frustration. some traders were prepared to buy every new
pamphlet title published. the Onitsha market literature had
ceased to exist. Niger Tales was killed during the war.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5 Explain thoroughly the factors

that led to the demise of pamphleteering. 4. Their works also
represent a transitional period from the novelettes and chapbooks
of the Onitsha market literature. Some of these novels were The
Palm-Wine Drinkard by Amos Tutuola (1952). We have already
seen how serious fiction was being published almost side by side
with the pamphlets of the Onitsha market literature. One Nigerian
novelist who may be said to have spearheaded the transition was
C. by Cyprian Ekwensi (1954). Kalu Okpis The Smugglers (1978)
and On the Road (1980). we had Wole Soyinkas novel The
Interpreters (1965) and Gabriel Okaras novel. Things Fall Apart.
The pamphlet writers concerned themselves with surface
appearances. In the Ditch (1972) and Second Class Citizen. Buchi
Emecheta. As Obiechina has rightly observed. The other female
novelist. as well as to forge a common cause with ordinary
people. The Concubine. Some of the novels of the Third Wave are
One is Enough. and Idu (1969). and ended with violence and a
coup. People of the City. These new Third Wave authors sought
not only to entertain like the Onitsha chapbooks. published her
autobiographical novels. but also to edify and instruct.0
CONCLUSION 25 . The Voice (1964). During the Second wave.
Those novels were written by first wave intellectual writers from
Nigeria. was published in 1966. It was during this Second Wave
that some of the novels of the pioneer Igbo women writers were
published.The African Novel ENG 281 written by Nigerian authors
were published. to serious fiction written by intellectual authors.
both the pamphlet writers and the intellectual West African
writers used their writing as media to provide insights into the
contemporary West African life.D. The first was Efuru. Achebes A
Man of the People dealt with corruption. (1974). by Flora Nwapa
(1966). He wrote for the Onitsha market literature as well as
serious novels for the more sophisticated readers. by Chinua
Achebe (1958). by Flora Nwapa (1981). It was during the Second
Wave that Chinua Achebe published his two next novels No
Longer at Ease (1960) and A Man of the People. The writers of
the Third Wave were young people writing for an African audience
and not for the Euro-Americans as was the case with the first
Wave authors. The same period coincided with the time when the
Onitsha market literature was in vogue from 1947 to 1975.
(1966).O. Elechi Amadis book. Ekwensi. and One Man One Wife
by Timothy Aluko (1959). These represent what Oyekan
Owomoyela called the First Wave Writers of West Africa. while the
intellectual writers tried to dig deep into underlying causes and

Explain the basic contribution of pamphlets to the development of

the African novel. The quantity of works produced is enormous
and represent many aspects of mans developmental needs from
the physical to the spiritual. The works reveal the budding desire
of young half educated Africans who wrote to bring African orality
into the print. It elevated the orality of literature to the status of
the printed matter.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer these
questions 1.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS 26 . it is clear
that they represent one of the first attempts at writing and
publishing what is real literature. From the above excursions into
the development of pamphleteering and the emergence of market
literatures.The African Novel ENG 281 No doubt. 7. American
literature was pamphlets until recently and even the pamphlets
still represent an important aspect of their literary heritage. This
is because most of the pamphlets were written by traders and
people living in the two most commercial areas in Nigeria:
Onitsha and Kano. pamphlets led directly to the real publishing of
African novels and other genres. Thus. themes and functionality.
The works of Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson were mainly in
pamphlets and they are one of the most revered documents in
American literature today. However. Early literature writers in
Europe and America started through pamphleteering.0 SUMMARY
Pamphleteering developed to market literature in Africa. This
development process is not an African thing. 6. 5. The market
literatures marked a real phase in the development of printing in
Africa. They are middle educated members of the society that
sought for fun and belongingness to the circle of writers. It brings
African novels to the realm of the printed words. Differentiate
critically the thematic differences between Onitsha and Kano
Market Literatures. What factors led to the emergence of
pamphleteering in Africa? 2. the pamphlets of Africa unlike the
revolutionary aspects of Europe and America constitute attempts
by the half literate Africans at expressing them in the printed
words. The quality reveals beginners with no clear-cut genres. 3.
pamphleteering constitutes a very important aspect of the
development of the African novel. Onitsha and Kano. It
represents a beginning that actually saw literature beyond the
ordinariness of the spoken words.

Obiechina.The African Novel ENG 281 Furniss. Culture. (1971).

Cambridge University Press. Tradition and Society in the West
African Novel. Obiechina. (1996). Prose and Popular Culture in
Hausa. London. Literature for the Masses: An Analytical Study of
Popular Pamphleteering in Nigeria. Emmanuel. Poetry. Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press. Emmanuel. Enugu. Nwankwo-Ifejika
Publishers. 27 . Nigeria. (1975). George.

Apart from the problem of non recognition. and affect their

societies. They tried like the Onitsha and Kano market literature
writers to express themselves in various genres and get the
works printed instead of being published. Many Africans who were
able to attend foreign universities under scholarship began to
write different forms of literature.6 The Post Independence Novels
4. writing literature was seen as hobby not a professional thing.4
The Novels of Rural Life 3.0 Main Content 3.5 The Classless
Novels 3. much of our examples would be drawn in Nigeria while
instances would be mentioned of other areas. the early writers of
fiction could not have outlets in Africa to publish their works.0
Introduction 2. However. Even when people began to learn how to
read and write. There shall be tutor-marked assignments to guide
the students understanding of the unit. we shall explore the
emergence of real novel in Africa. 28 . This is one way they hoped
to record their experiences.0 Objectives 3. At this early stage.The
African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281 281 UNIT 4 THE
Novels 3. The last three units have been able to tell us how fiction
began to manifest in Africa.0 Conclusion 5.1 General Overview
3.3 The Novels of the City 3.0 References/Further Readings 1. In
this unit we shall explore the various types of novels that
emanated in the evolution of African prose fiction.0
INTRODUCTION In this unit.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7. It is
clear now to explain that Africans have literature before
colonialism except that they were oral. they did not hesitate at
expressing themselves in pamphlet forms.

But it is also. their culture. there arose the need for these writers
to write in the languages of the colonizers. their institutions.
constitute a special kind of creators. However. Within the
framework of literature. rural and classless see early African
novels as tools for fighting for independence. and especially.
Unlike traditional poets or storytellers with whom they are in
contact. They tend to concerned with the change of this attitude
and value and express fears about the adverse effects. African
novelists. They believed that writing in English or other colonial
languages would enable them reach a wider audience. these early
writers were concerned about the changing society they found
themselves. There are new values and attitudes that came from
the colonial milieu. They wrote about the city and the rural
setting in the colonial society.1 General Overview Literature is
about people. their society.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit
the students should be able to: recognize the early novels in
Africa appreciate that African writers write fictions to express
their experiences understand that the novels come as urban. 3.
the medium through which the people's society. because of the
impossibility or difficulty for some African writers to write in their
mother tongues.The African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281
281 2. Because. Africans found themselves placed in this
linguistic situation. Although oral narratives have existed
abundantly in Africa for centuries. 29 . it is arguable whether
there were novelists or novels in sub-Saharan Africa before the
advent of colonization. about language. and institutions are
expressed.0 MAIN CONTENT 3. In their zeal to destroy the
stereotypical images of Africa and to project their African world
view. these writers may have considered the colonial languages
as mere tools or means to achieve their objectives. historically.
Language issue apart. culture. the early African writers started to
write in the languages of the colonizers without considering all
the implications involved in the use of such languages. The
educated ones were worried about the way Africa and Africans
are being portrayed. African novelists who express themselves in
European languages acquired their art through the possibility of
writing. Whichever way one looks at it. the immediate advantage
that writing offered to the African was the means to participate in
the development of the prevailing literary genre. since the
colonial period.

Thematically. his novels also explore the divide between the

Christian beliefs of Africa's colonizers and the continent's
traditional religions. thronged. There is no need for lofty theories
or forms. Fagunwa's later works include Igbo Olodumare (The
Forest of God. 1949). Fagunwa's novels draw heavily on folktale
traditions and idioms. Amos Tutuola was a Nigerian writer famous
for his books based in part on Yoruba folk-tales. One fascinating
thing about these early novels is the inclusion of the folktale
traditions in them. Amos Tutuolas Palmwine Drinkard was
described as a conscious attempt at serious fiction in English from
Africa. although the language of the novel was loaded with
fantastic realisms like a folktale while the language was full of
repetitions and emphasis. the novel was widely considered the
first novel written in the Yorb language and one of the first to
be written in any African language. His most famous novel. The
noted poet Dylan Thomas brought it to wide attention. Daniel O.
and a major influence on such contemporary writers as Amos
Tutuola. The Palm-Wine Drinkard was followed up by My Life in
Tutuola continued to explore Yoruba traditions and folklore. hence
his use of English in the novel was full of aberrations.The African
EXERCISE 1 Express the reasons why the early African prose
fiction writers wrote in the colonial language instead of their local
languages 3. and even gods in their quests. 1954). Ireke Onibudo
(1949). sages. The Palm-Wine Drinkard was written in 1946. In
1938. Amos Tutuola was barely literate. and Adiitu Olodumare
(1961). Fagunwa remains the most widely-read Yorb-language
author.2 The Early Novels The early African writers were living in
search of true identity. His heroes are usually Yoruba hunters.
calling it "brief. They believed that through literature they would
form the catharsis for redemption of African lives if they have
enough courage and suaveness to live them authentically.
published in 1952 in London by Faber and Faber. who interact
with kings. The works of Fagunwa 30 . The novel though in local
dialect marked a smooth transition from orature to literature. The
identity that was vandalized by colonial and imperialistic history.
Fagunwa wrote his Ogboju Ode Ninu Igbo Irunmale. Irinkerindo
ninu Igbo Elegbeje (Expedition to the Mount of Thought. Wole
Soyinka translated the book into English in 1968 as The Forest of
A Thousand Demons. grisly and bewitching". All that is needed is
finding true African identity that is not necessarily derived from
other forms and live by it. after entering a literary contest of the
Nigerian education ministry. including many supernatural

prostitution. His most successful novel was Jagua Nana (1961)

which was about a Pidgin-speaking Nigerian woman who leaves
her husband to work as a prostitute in a city and falls in love with
a teacher. Jagua Nana's Daughter. with its standard laws.The
African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281 281 and Tutuola are
written African tales that express African belief systems about
their culture. Cyprian Ekwensi People of the City in 1954 and
which was the first book by a Nigerian writer to garner
international attention. 3. The Colonial masters were busy
developing a new type of settlement for themselves and the
educated Africans. stealing. The city embodies everything ugly:
armed robbery. suicide. These works marked a transition from
orature to literature. 3. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain
the nature of the early novels especially those of Tutuola and
Fagunwa. urbanism became a focus. He also wrote a sequel to
this. The novels are written folktales. He offended his society by
desecrating the Week of Peace with provoked attempt at shooting
one of 31 . the spiritual essence and affinity with divine powers
and the general worldview of their culture. Ekwensi examined the
life of the urban dwellers and the effect of colonialism on the
Africans. In this novel. Most of these urban novels especially
Ekwensis Jagua Nana and Jagua Nanas Daughter explored
deeply the negative imports of urbanization on the Africans.
Umuofia. the city became a haven for the educated and the
foreigners. manslaughter and other negative vices which the rural
areas are not always known for. Okonkwo. Things fall Apart is a
story about an organized community.3 The Novels of the City
With the increasing effect of colonialism. One fascinating thing
about these urban novels is that they try to juxtapose the rural
setting with the urban setting in order to assess the rural and the
urban lives as it affects the Africans. The rural setting became
undeveloped because attention is paid to the city.4 The Novels of
Rural Life With the publication of Things Fall Apart in 1958. With
the arrival of electricity and other communication gadgets.
government and spiritual make-up. there was a critical look at the
rural setting with the penetration of the colonialists into the
hinterland. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Assess the major
trends in early urban novels. the hero is much concerned about
how to attain greatness in line with the dictates of his society.

He ran to his maternal home to serve the sentence. he committed

murder and hanged himself. the values and belief systems were
intact. Emenike her first husband died of locked chest after his
fight with Madume over a piece of land. There too. The story is
about the love life of a young woman called Ihuoma. In an effort
to fight a one mans war. Culture is naming and giving valuable
significance by unconscious intent to that which we all move in. it
cannot be contrived. The community had not been invaded by the
colonial masters. Put in another way. All efforts to bring his
people back to the former state of dignity where they were
proved abortive. he proved himself as a man of greatness. law
and values were imposed on the people. He eventually died after
all preparations to bind the sea king troubling Ihuoma was
made. He was found guilty by the elders and was exiled for seven
years. no one man can create or anticipate culture on his own.
When he returned to Umuofia after his seven years banishment.
proverbs. He discovered that things were no longer as it used to
be and that the white men had invaded the community and
imposed their taxes and churches. Ihuoma. It is a novel set in a
pure rural setting before the advent of the colonial masters. As
much as literature is the art of outpacing the times. African
writing should be the portrayal of African customs and manners
against historical background. and other African ways of
expressing aesthetics. 32 . Madume died when he made amorous
moves towards Ihuoma and was spat on by a cobra. the question
of an authentic rural novel remains when we see the authentic
African identity unshaded by colonial maladjustments. Everything
fell apart as the real African values of life were thrown into the
abyss while a strange culture. songs. He went blind before
committing suicide. All the men who indicated interests of
marrying her died mysteriously. This novel is about the pure rural
lives of the African with the tragic effect of colonialism destroying
the values of the people. the choice of language is usually filled
with local colour expressions like idioms. he met a new
community with weak men. It shows the values of Africans in
their natural state with their laws and values at play. Lastly was
Ekwueme the stubborn lover.The African Novel ENG AFRICAN
NOVEL ENG 281 281 his wives. Another rural novel of significance
is Elechi Amadis The Concubine. he rejected his childhood
betrothed girl for the widow. African beauty and vividness in
writing can also be portrayed through an individual throttling of
personal energy trying to improve his/her social condition and
achieve personal happiness. the society has their means of justice
and justice. The story took place in Omokachi Village. In these

set during the days of Mau Mau fight to relinquish colonialism.

She compared the rural and the urban settings favourable in the
novel. The terrible effect of this imposition of foreign values on
Africans became more revealed in Chinua Achebes No Longer at
Ease. There is usually a migration effect on the rural setting as
everyone attempts to move to the urban areas to earn livelihood.
Buchi Emechetas The Joys of Motherhood explored the effect of
urban life on Africans. To show continuity in the storyline. 3. This
pattern of setting allows the authors the opportunity of analogy of
the two settings as they affect the Africans.The African Novel ENG
Explain thoroughly what qualifies an African novel as a rural
novel. Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart and Arrow of God
attacked the odds of colonialism but his No Longer at Ease. A Man
of the People and Anthills of the Savannah attacked the African
leaders and Africans who have been destroying the cherished
African mores by imitating Western Values. lawful. They can not
be classed as urban or rural novels since they embody the
qualities of the two. Using the urban setting of Lagos. lawless and
disorganized urban setting of Lagos. 3. Most of these post-
independence novels examine the remains of the values and how
Africans are managing to put things right. Ayi Kwei Armahs The
Beautiful Ones are not yet Born in attacked corruption in Africa
using his country Ghana as a micro study. Most African writers
began to examine their environment with regards to what
Africans are doing with the independence they received from the
whites. organized Umuofia with the rough.6 The Post
Independence Novels With independence came a new vision of
writing. also explored the urban setting in Kenya during the
colonial days. Most times. Achebe contrasted the serene. this
juxtaposition allows the readers perceive the tragic effects of
colonialism on the values of the Africans. Post independence
writers write with a sense of 33 . Post independence novels are
mainly satirical as they attack misplaced values and propose
better means of running a hitch free republic. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 5 Distinguish a Classless Novel from the Urban and the
Rural novels. Ngugi Wa Thiongos Weep Not Child and Grain of
Wheat. They attack the individual and the state.5 The Classless
Novels Some African novels are located both in the rural and
urban settings. Obi Okonkwo the grandson of Okonkwo of Things
Fall Apart is the hero.

It would be recalled that Ekwensi was a major contributor to the

Onitsha Market Literature pamphleteering. The classless and post
independence novels satirize and direct for better governance.
They also made adequate use of the local communication
repertoires like proverbs. What are the major preoccupations of
rural and urban novels? The classless novels juxtapose African
settings. Why? Formal African novels stated out of curiosity.0
SUMMARY It is clear that formal novels started by taking cue
from African orature. Cyprian Ekwensis People of the City was the
first novel expressing the effect of colonialism in an urban setting.
4. formal novels in Africa began by expressing African worldviews
and projecting African culture. 34 Explain the major concerns of
early African novels. 2. 5. They try in various ways to express the
African situation in unique ways. They are more concerned with
what Africans are making out of the independence they fought
for. Explain The post independence African novel is satirical.
Fagunwa and Amos Tutuola.0 CONCLUSION One thing is
certain.The African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281 281
commitment to teach. 4. Explain. 5. The rural and urban novelists
try in various ways to examine the effects of colonialism in
juxtaposition with the natural values and belief system of
Africans. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer these
questions 1. directing and expressing African experiences. The
problem of identity and independence were major
preoccupations. Their works have elements of the supernatural
akin to the folktale tradition. The formal novels arose out of
curiosity and later manifested into a specialized genre satirizing.
the writers of formal novels began from the market literature.
Fagunwa and Tutuola were concerned about telling the African
tales. idioms. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6 Explain the major
thematic concerns of post independence novelists in Africa. 3.
Tutuola was interested in expressing himself in his new found
language using African mode of expressions. transliteration and
other forms of local colour. to direct. This can be seen from the
fiction of the pioneer prose writers like D. Besides. O. . to advise
and to attack anomalies.

London: Heinemann. Amos. Faber and Faber .0

Heinemann. 1958. 1972. The Palmwine Drunkard. Elechi. The
Concubine. Chinua. No Longer at Ease. Amadi. 35 . 1954.
London: Heinemann.The African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG
281 281 7. People of the City. Cyprian. Tutuola. 1964. Things Fall
Apart. London: Heinemann.

0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7. Many African writers present the

African society. the students should be able to: understand that
African novels are products of African social environment
explain why the African novelists project social mores relate the
form of African novels to African experiences see African novels
as society based distinguish African novels based on the
treatment of societal values. culture and personality in such
manners that reveal the totality of African values.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives 3. We explore how all these are achieved in African
novels using and authors relevant to this study. The novel is a
product of society and tries to direct the society by using the
aesthetic medium.6 African Novel and the Question of Leadership
3.7 African Novel as Custodian of Tradition 4.0 Conclusion 5.5
African Novel and African Culture 3. 36 .0 Main Content 3. The
issues of equality. 2.2 The Sociology of the African Novels 3. The
novel x-rays the societies in order to find out how the people
dictate and pilot their affairs according to stated values.1 General
Overview 3.0 References/Further Readings 1. The values of
leadership are also examined using the African leadership
parametres as yardsticks.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit.
cultural values and social mores are presented in manners that
show the placement of attitudes and societal requirements for
greatness.4 African Novel and Social Mores 3. we shall examine
the sociology of the African novels with regards to how the
African writers have been portraying the African society in their
works.3 The African Novel and African Personality 3.0 Summary
6.The African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281 281 UNIT 5
INTRODUCTION In this unit.

and by necessity. we see Omokachi Community in her natural

state. Things Fall Apart used to be a conventional way of telling
an African story. They mingled it with modern forms of art that
were in vogue in the West but had not yet caught on in the
African scene. Any greedy fellow dies in his greed.1 General
Overview Chinua Achebe explains that Africans did not hear of
culture for the first time from the Europeans. But this reached its
saturation point about the time Achebe published his second
novel. the only available vehicle for social change.0 MAIN
CONTENT 3. In Things Fall Apart. with their sophisticated
obfuscation. Anxiety over self-revelation is not much of a problem
when the exposure is channelled through conventional forms that
mask the writer's identity to some extent. In the African scene.
especially the West. Literature.The African Novel ENG AFRICAN
NOVEL ENG 281 281 3. This means that Africans have a system
of thought of values and of self-assertion. The social mores and
the cultural values have been of concern with them. in the
oppressive milieu of the African colonial scene. Before then. laws
and mores of the people. 3. He created a clearer picture of the
cultural values. There are natural justice and spiritual essence.
They have everything moving until the invasion of the whites that
disrupted their values.2 The Sociology of African Novels African
writers have been concerned with their society. Umuofia is
presented as a perfect society with their standard form of
government. was testimony to social aspirations. It was the
western values that destroyed African values and relegated
African laws as primitive and unrefined. simply telling tragic
stories like that of Okonkwo in Chinua Achebe's novel. No Longer
at Ease. Madume suffered that. African writing had always
favoured a political novel because it doubled over with fighting for
freedom. African society is presented as a barbarian society in
European novels and African writers have been struggling to
correct this ugly presentation. Chinua Achebe presented the
typical Igbo society before the advent of colonialism. The Igbo
society in the novel is presented as pure and full of life. The likes
of Nadine Gordimer and Wole Soyinka. That was why Achebe
stated in his creed that his mission is to espouse and correct the
years of denigration and self-abasement which the first
Europeans acting on Gods behalf delivered them. Ekwueme died
because he wanted to twist 37 . flirted and refined the African
political novel until it gained the attention of the world. Madume
died because he violated the laws of the gods. In Elechi Amadis
The Concubine. There are ways by which physical and spiritual
things are treated.

we see an urban city filled with prostitution and other forms of

vices. The community believes that the gods have superior
power.3 The African Novel and African Personality Apart from the
issue of culture the next issue that bothered African novelists is
the issue of African personality. In Ngugi wa Thiongos Weep Not
Child and A Grain of Wheat. three wives and three yam barns
which are the indices of growth in his society. 38 . Africans were
seen as people without value to life and a lawless people. Many
African writers have been trying in their various works at placing
the African personality in positive lights. In Things Fall Apart.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Explain how African novelists
have been presenting African personality. we see a writer
presenting the South African society at the grips of Apartheid and
how the black South Africans have been subjugated to live as
animals and turned to slaves in their own land. There is a belief
among the people that whoever challenges the gods to a fight
always fails. we see Obi Okonkwo in a mess because he wanted
to behave according to the whites by collecting bribe. In Jagua
Nana. 3. in No Longer at Ease. At the age of 18. he has three
titles. the author presented the problem of disinheritance of land
from the blacks. Okonkwo is presented as a perfect man who
acted according to the dictates of his society. The urban city is
synonymous with western values. In Peter Abrahams Tell
Freedom. by Cyprian Ekwensi. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Assess the major concern of African novelists with their
society.The African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281 281 the
hands of the gods. The East African society was engulfed with the
politics of land as a result of colonialism. Achebe tries to present
the fact that European values are distorted and worse than
African values. It is the arrival of western values that destroyed a
great personality like Okonkwo who got himself hanged for
discovering that the values of his society have been thrown into
the abyss. In some European novels like Joseph Conrads Heart of
Darkness and Joyce Carys Mister Johnson we have distorted
images of African personalities which made Europeans brand us
as uncivilized. African novelists became concerned about
correcting these anomalies. However.

The African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281 281 3. It is

difficult to get an African novel without elements of culture. we
see the Igbo culture concerning marriage. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 4 How do African Novelists reflect African social mores?
3. the individual himself being shaped by the socio-economic
circumstances in which he finds himself. there are salient aspects
of African cultures in most novels. belief in the supernatural.4
African Novel and Social Mores One fundamental character of the
contemporary African novel is that it provides a specific manner
of narration which identifies human names in such a way that
suggests that they are to be regarded as individuals in the
contemporary society. is the depiction of an age when the
individuals experience and the bourgeois exploration of the
individuals experience reaches its highest form and this individual
is not a fragmentary experience but the quintessential
representation of a particular historical social experience. Their
cognitive self-awareness and existence are not only an
individuals idiosyncrasy but a reflection of the shaping spirits of
their time and environment. Back to Elechi Amadis The
Concubine. the cultural placements of women in Senegal are
revealed. Here. The novel is a long letter narrating the
illtreatment of women according to Moslem rules.5 African Novel
and African Culture In most African novels. widowhood. a
womans attempts at reforming these odds were met with
stringent measures that left her desolate. respect for elders and
natural medicine. Every individual is judged by his way of life as
related to the social mores. The mark of true realism therefore.
The political life of a nation and its social national dilemma is thus
depicted through an individual experience. we see the African
culture in a Moslem society where the culture of the people and
their religion are mixed. In Sembene Ousmanes Gods Bits of
Woods. hunting. the issues of culture are presented. Idemudia
and his three friends depict the dilemma of the Nigerian worker.
Also in Mariama Bas So Long a Letter. Apart from Chinua Achebe
who presents African culture as a way of telling the whites that
Africans did not hear of culture first from them. In Festus Iyayis
Violence. We see women struggling to make a better place for
their society. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5 What elements of
culture are revealed in Achebes No Longer at Ease? 39 .

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6 How have African novelists been

reacting to the issue of leadership? 4. The abuse of political
power in Nigeria. Dambudzo Marecheres House of Hunger
exposes the feelings of hopelessness in Zimbabwe. Liberia and
Sierra Leone among other countries has been satirized in most
African novels. The same applies in most East African countries
like Kenya. Muamar Gaddafi of Libya has been in power for over
thirty years. This means that African writers see themselves as
custodians of the peoples history. In most parts of Africa.
Cameroon. They have acted as sensible needles in the record of
the 40 . was described as a prophetic novel because it predicted
the first ever military coup in Nigeria. Uganda. aspiration and
development.0 CONCLUSION It is clear that the African milieu
has so much effect on the African novel as the writers draw their
themes and subject matters from their environment. It was
glaring as at that time that the civilian government in Nigeria was
very corrupt and that military intervention was the only option.
African novels have been in the vanguard of projecting African
culture.The African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281 281 3.
This is why they question the problems of leadership. Chinua
Achebes A Man of the People.0 SUMMARY The African milieu has
provided enough space for the African novelists to weave their
stories. In 1966. for instance. In North Africa. This is why they
project the culture of the people and record every details of good
and bad governance for posterity. According to Ngugi wa Thiongo
the African writer is like a sensible needle who records with
varying degrees of accuracy and success the conflicts and
tensions in his changing society. The African novelists have been
commenting on the bad administration of most African countries.
Ghana. There are countries in Africa where dictatorship and
anarchy are the order of the government. Somalia. there have
been the issues of leadership problems. Congo DPR etc. 5. Since
independence the question of leadership has been a very
sensitive issue in Africa. Ayi Kwei Armahs The Beautyful Ones are
not Yet Born is an attack on the corrupt government in Ghana.
culture. personality. They are reflecting the desires and wishes of
their society. The sociology of the African novels revealed that the
African writers are expressing the society to which they belong.6
African Novel and the Question of Leadership Most African novels
seem to be an attack on the ruling class. social mores and the
question of leadership.

Most African novels are written with the commitment to express

the African hope. London: Heinemann. 41 .0 TUTOR-MARKED
ASSIGNMENT Answer these questions: 1) Explain how African
novels reflect the sociology of the people. No Longer at Ease.
Violence. Cyprian. they aspire to fashion a near-perfect society
for their people. In all. 4) What are the indices of culture in
African novels? 5) Relate the form of any African novels to the
African experiences in it.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Achebe. (1958). (1990). Explain. 6) Distinguish African novels
based on the treatment of societal values. The Beautiful Ones are
not Yet Born Ekwensi. Armah. (1972). social and the economic
changes in their societies. worldview and thought system. 6.
Things Fall Apart. Ibadan: Longman. London: Heinemann. 3)
Using an African novel explain how social mores are reflected in
them. 7. Chinua. Festus. 2) African novelists have been described
as sensitive needles. Ayi Kwei. A Man of the People (1966).The
African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281 281 political. Jagua
Nana Iyayi. London: Heinemann.
0 Objectives 3.2 3.0 General Overview The Politics of Land in East
Africa The Politics of Land in Weep Not Child The Politics of Land
in A Grain of Wheat The Politics of Land in other Novels
Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment
References/Further Readings 1. carrot.3 3. The British and Indian
immigrants and colonial masters decided to disinherit the Africans
of their land.0 6. This they converted to personal farms and
employed the Africans as slaves to work in their disinherited land.
The politics of land is a common feature of East African novels
especially in the novels of Ngugi wa Thiongo. The matter became
more worrisome when some Africans became agents for the
whites in this disinheritance business. cucumber. The Africans
reacted by organizing themselves into guerrilla groups to fight
these whites and regain their lands. East African land is very
fertile for the production of coffee and other cash crops like
cabbage. Some other writers wrote about land from the point of
view 42 . Other African writers also wrote about the issue of land
but in different forms from what the East African writers did. we
shall concentrate on the theme of land possession and
dispossession in select African novels.0 Main Content 3.0
INTRODUCTION In this unit.0 Introduction 2.4 3.The African
Unit 2 Politics of Apartheid Unit 3 Independent Africa Unit 4
Politics of Corruption Unit 5 Politics of Militarism UNIT 1 POLITICS
OF LAND CONTENTS 1.0 7.1 3. onions and other edible
vegetables and fruits.5 4. Many African writers wrote to express
their displeasure at this critical situation. The situation resulted in
anarchy and other forms of land policies that never favoured the
Africans.0 5.

The African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281 208 of identity
and patriotism.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of this unit. Most writers
wrote to protest the injustice.000 white settlers lived in the area
and were offered undue political powers because of their effects
on the economy. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 43 . and read
and appreciate Ngugis selected novels as reflective of this theme
3. The area was already home to over a million members of the
Kikuyu tribe. we shall concentrate on the politics of land in East
African novels for this unit. A massive exodus to the cities ensued
as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled. This
imposition of taxes and the inability of the natives to acquire land
for agriculture resulted in various forms of resistance from the
natives. These events were recorded by Ngugi Wa Thiongo in his
novels especially Weep Not Child and A Grain of Wheat. By the
1930s. To protect their interests. and the landless were granted
less and less land in exchange for their labour. who became
wealthy farming coffee and tea. We shall also examine briefly the
way land politics is portrayed in select African fiction. and lived as
itinerant farmers.1 General Overview During the early part of the
20th Century. most of whom had no land claims in European
terms (but the land belonged to the ethnic group). discuss
politics of land as a product of the African people and
environment. For the purposes of this course. approximately 30.
introduced a hut tax. We shall use these two novels in illustrating
this issue. 2. see Ngugi wa Thiongo as a major writer in this
theme of land. argue that other African writers wrote about land
in different forms. the settlers banned the growing of coffee by
the natives.0 MAIN CONTENT 3. the interior central highlands in
Kenya were occupied by British and other European farmers. the
students should be able to: realize that politics of land prevailed
in East African novels understand that East African climate led
to the disinheritance identify that East Africans protested
disinheritance by forming guerrilla groups.

amounting to 42 per cent of the total insurgents. In January

1953. General China) on 15 January 1954 and the subsequent
interrogation led to a better understanding of the Mau Mau
command structure. The governor requested and obtained British
and African troops.The African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG
281 281 Explain why the white settlers were interested in
acquiring lands 3. Operation Anvil opened on 24 April 1954 after
weeks of planning by the army with the approval of the War
Council. The Home Guard formed the core of the government's
anti-Mau Mau strategy as it was composed of loyalist Africans.686
Mau Mau. By the end of the emergency the Home Guard had
killed no fewer than 4.k.3 The Politics of land in Weep Not Child
As a novelist Ngugi made his debut with Weep Not Child (1964).
The story 44 . The operation effectively placed Nairobi under
military siege. May 1953 also saw the Home Guard officially
recognized as a branch of the Security Forces. The capture of
Dedan Kimathi on 21 October 1956 in Nyeri signified the ultimate
defeat of the Mau Mau and essentially ended the military
offensive. not foreign forces like the British Army and King's
African Rifles.2 The Politics of land in East Africa Considering the
issue of dispossession of land by the Europeans. From October
1952 to December 1959. which he started to write while he was
at school in England. They lived and operated from the forest.
Major General Hinde was appointed as director of counter-
insurgency operations. the Africans decided to take various
measures to fight the injustice. so General Sir George Erskine
was appointed commanderin-chief of the colony's armed forces in
May 1953. The situation did not improve for lack of intelligence.
Kenya was under a state of emergency arising from the Mau Mau
rebellion against British rule. One of such measures was the
formation of Mau Mau [a guerrilla group] that attacked the British
officers and some Africans who were in support of the
Europeans.a. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Discuss the major
reason for the rise of guerilla warfare in Kenya 3. including the
King's African Rifles. They had ammunitions with which they fight.
and the occupants were screened and the Mau Mau supporters
moved to detention camps. The capture of Waruhiu Itote (a. with
the personal backing of Winston Churchill. It was the first novel in
English to be published by an East African author.

The land sloped gently to rise again into the next ridge and the
next. are looked upon as saviours of the African land. The roles in
which men and women accept are very evident throughout the
entire book. Ngotho was puzzled. they will do anything to keep it
and make sure lower class people never reach the status. The
book is in essence about the hopes and dreams of a young boy
coming into being and affected by the outside world and how the
outside world changes a person. Weep not Child is a story about a
young boy. Njoroge takes his education seriously and excels to
the next level. feelings towards the different cultures. he is
beginning school. the youngest of four brothers. they will serve
their country . Due to the fact that Njoroge is at a so-called age
of innocence he has the opportunity to get schooling. One boy is
excited. is an apprentice carpenter. but for Njoroge. The story is
based entirely on the existence of the family of Ngotho in which
their views and ideas are clearly expressed. the other. to keep
guard over this shamba. Njoroge. the Mau Mau are waging war
against the white government. the living and the unborn of his
line. those who receive education are looked upon as intellectual
saviours of the land. the dreamer and accomplished student.
need to decide where their loyalties lie. Njoroge and Kamau. and
White people all have something in common. Conflicts have a
vast impact upon the development of the plot in Weep 45 .
Also.the teacher and the craftsman. In Kenya.The African Novel
ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281 281 entails the plight of the
African people. Together. The Black. his brother. the dream of
progress through learning is a hard one to give up. the
intellectual ones. wanted nothing more than to receive an
education and provide for the welfare of his family. He owed it to
the dead. and the two brothers. For the practical man. Two small
boys stand on a rubbish heap and look into the future. as he
grows up amidst the Mau Mau war and the conflict between the
African natives and the British colonial rulers. which resulted in
certain stereotypes helped in portraying the entire atmosphere in
which each culture saw the world through its own eyes. Beyond.
the choice is simple. The ironic aspect of the education is that it is
being handed down from British rule. In the forests. Indian.
Njoroge. and times are against them. In the beginning of the
book. Njoroge. the author explained the atmosphere which is
upheld throughout the book. Ngotho felt responsible for whatever
happened to this land. which they have worked so hard for. they
want and need power. But this is Kenya. the scholar. Ngotho could
see the African Reserve. Those who get their education. and the
rest of their family. Would the prophecy be fulfilled soon? Would
these people ever go? It was said that they would eventually
return the way they had come. The brothers before him have
already made their tracks in the roles they are going to take in
life. Once they obtain this power. must decide where his loyalty

war whose cause they never knew. his second novel. Ngugi.
conflicts have come in a variety of forms. and class struggles.
Weep Not Child is a novel by an African writer. I will explore each
of these conflicts in further detail. and it helps in the development
of the plot. which is mostly due to the conflicts surrounding each
character. his thoughts and his feelings but due to the length of
the novel (136 pages) one only gets a fairly superficial
explanation of the historical and cultural context of the book. And
when they came back? Their land was taken away for a
settlement of the white soldiers. dealing with Njoroge's life. In the
novel. Its author. Child is a powerful. The author incorporates a
description of the power of the white rulers. Also. Conflict is a
major issue in this novel. the bitterness of the Africans at being
enslaved on their own land and their attempt to rise up against
the tyranny.The African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL ENG 281 281
Not Child. Conflict is one of the main themes of this novel. this
was when the British were ruling over Africa. It is a very powerful
story. who are looked down upon by the black community. and
prove that conflict plays a key role in making this story
remarkable. and finally deals with the poor relations between the
blacks and Indian merchants. e. is one of the best-known novels
in Africa. Rather.g. Africans were controlled by their rulers. 46 .
Weep Not. forcing them to speak European languagesthey
attempted to teach children (future generations) that speaking
the foreign language was good and that native languages were
bad by using negative reinforcement. It can be seen that this
novel is set at the colonial times. "the bullet was the means of
physical subjugation. Here it is seen that Africans dislike the
British ruling them. political. so some of the sentence and
grammatical structure can be a bit tricky at times. The most
noticeable conflict present in this novel is the political conflict.
Later. this novel is a book in translation. and this. Ngugi argues
that colonization was not simply a process of physical force. The
characterization of the people in the novel are mainly a result of
the situation they are present in. The novel also addresses the
political conflict that was occurring in Kenya in the 1950s. Ngugi.
and taking over their lands. cultural. very moving story about the
effects of the Mau Mau war on the lives of ordinary men and
women. is one of Africa's most influential and exciting writers.
he goes through in the course of his life.

with a wealth of flashbacks and various twists and turns. and

through Ngugi's eyes. abandoned their loved ones. life was
unkind. Her strength is admirable. The main story is indeed the
coming of Independence Day. hard and brutal. The epitome of
manhood. and killed anyone who got in the way of their great
cause. Many of the flashbacks along this storyline 47 . the fear
felt by Africans and Europeans alike of the Mau Mau fighters. And
the Mau Mau fought to keep the struggle alive. and family. and
his own demons within.The African Novel ENG AFRICAN NOVEL
ENG 281 281 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Explain Njoroges
greatest wish for attending the Whitemans school. Ngugi tried to
show both sides of the coin. The place.4 The Politics of land in A
Grain of Wheat This is a novel by Ngugi Wa Thiongo set in pre-
independence days in Kenya in the early 1950s . The book is
centered on Mugo. the years in the State of Emergency. The
State of Emergency was a time when brother turned against
brother. industrious and you'll find he is a lot more than what you
would initially expect. There are also multiple storylines which are
well-woven into a fascinating tapestry. He rejected his father and
was brought up by a disgruntled Aunt who shaped Mugo into the
man we see today. The joys and tensions of this time in his life.
The central action in this novel takes place in December of 1963
(Independence).strong.60s. a rural village in the heart of central
Kenya. the plot is non-linear. a man affected by his childhood.
their freedom. a proud and beautiful young woman with a mind of
her own and a love for her brother Kihika. Each character has
something within him that we can all relate to. reflected in other
characters in the book and this leaves you feeling their hearts in a
that day and moment in time. sounds and smells of the area.
families lived in fear of their brethren and the ruling colonialists.
However. to borrow a phrase in a movie. "The greatest honor a
family could have was to have a daughter like you". decent. and
the people behind the name (Mau Mau) who sacrificed their
livelihoods. and can be described. A woman will relate to Mumbi.
Another character that gave insight into the soul of a man was
Gikonyo. realized their civic duty to their country and took up the
struggle to take back what was theirs. 3. It was a time when
anyone was arrested on suspicion of being a member of the Mau
Mau. part of which involves identifying the person who betrayed
Kihika. one of the leading freedom fighters from the village.
During the time of the State of Emergency. the landscape
becomes alive with the sights. hardworking.

Xuma is struggling to do his best for his country. Ezeulu was

imprisoned by Captain Winterbottom for not accepting the role of
a Warrant Officer in Umuaro. At another level. Most educated
Africans see the colonialists as scavengers who are willing to do
anything to disinherit the Africans. we see how the 48 . East and
South Africa are seen as people with negative values that impinge
on the development of Africa. Another example of the centrality
of land is seen in Peter Abrahams work. a man whom everyone
recognizes as different yet feels drawn to. The cause of the
dispute is basically greed as Nwaka would have wished to use his
financial might to acquire the lands whether it was theirs or not.
West. we see how Africans perceive land as a precious inheritance
in their cultures. Gikonyo and Karanja. This same theme runs
consistently in most southern and eastern African literatures. A
similar theme runs through Achebes novels. Thus. In Chinua
Achebes Arrow of God.The African Novel ENG 281 involve the
fight for freedom as well as details about what occurred in the
detention camps. In Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart. Earlier in
the novel. 3. Ezeulu played a positive role in resolving the land
dispute between his community Umuaro and Okperi. Madume and
Emenike struggled for a piece of land which led to Emenikes
death and later to Madumes death after being beaten by a
spitting cobra. the colonial masters from North. his land
undermining the harsh apartheid realities in South Africa. Ngugi
portrays his inner conflict masterfully. especially in using biblical
allusions to both Moses and Judas in relation to Mugo. Africans
who impose rules. Xuma discovers that he lives in a land where
love has vanished and the realities show that a typical black
South African has no right to his ancestral land. A third intriguing
storyline involves Mugo. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 Explain
the theme of betrayal in A Grain of Wheat. In Elechi Amadis The
Concubine. They are seen as people armed with guns and the
Bible to either dogmatize the Africans or force them to accept the
western values. taxes and acquire the peoples properties like
land under the guise of implementing the laws of the colony. The
English colonialists invaded the hinterlands through the use of
warrant officers. In Peter Abrahams Mine Boy.5 The Politics of
land in other novels The politics of land actually reared its head
during the hey days of colonialism. Another prominent storyline is
that involving a love triangle between Mumbi and her two suitors.
a neighbouring village.

The trauma was unbearable to the extent that the people decided
to take up arms to fight for their land. 5. The other literary blocks
revealed the politics of land in diverse ways but the East African
block is very glaringly presented especially in the works of Ngugi
wa Thiongo. we see the South African treatment of land politics
as a more serious one. Especially in East Africa Novelists like
Ngugi Wa Thiongo attempted to present through fictional
recollections how the issue of land disinheritance caused the
people to go into guerrilla warfare with the colonialists and the
African saboteurs. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5 How do
African novelists reveal the theme of land politics beyond
colonialism? 4. This led to the years of guerrilla wars in East
Africa until the demise of colonialism in the region. It is believed
that a landless person has no ancestry. Apart from the East
African treatment of land politics.0 SUMMARY African writers write
with a purpose. birth and death. This is because Apartheid was a
very stringent policy of the white rulers in South Africa that
maimed the blacks and made them voiceless and powerless.0
CONCLUSION African novelists have been treating the theme of
land politics in Africa with extreme concern. In Ngugi Wa
Thiongos novels: Weep Not Child and A Grain of Wheat. Land is
a spiritual facility to Africans. we see how Kenyans fought to
recover their land because of the way the white settlers took over
their land and use them as manual labourers on their land.The
African Novel ENG 281 acquisition of farm lands ranks as one of
the indices for measuring a mans greatness. The issue of land is
an age-long fact relating to the essence of African culture and
personality. It symbolizes a culture. The formation of the Mau
Mau fighters is a case beyond the independence of Africans.
ancestry. The main focus of African writing is to reflect the
experiences of African people in time and space especially
regarding their historical experiences. This is the reason why the
theme of apartheid dominated the entire South African
literatures. Ngugi Wa Thiongo presented the realities of 49 . The
African novelists see the disinheritance of their lands as a real
colonial omen which affected the peoples psychological and
mental growth. There is no African community without recourse
to land as a high spiritual essence. It is a reaction forced out of a
basic necessity revolving on the issue of land politics.


Elechi. How did Chinua Achebe and Elechi Amadi present politics
of land in their novels. (1972). 2. Arrow of God. Chinua. London:
Heinemann.The African Novel ENG 281 the war of land in Kenya
and the fight for Uhuru (Independence). London: Heinemann.
There are other treatments of politics of land in African novels but
none can be seen as very serious like the East African situation.
Ngugi Wa Thiongo. 50 . (1982). Weep Not Child. Things Fall
Apart. Mine Boy. (1966). What factors portray Mugo as a betrayer
in A Grain of Wheat? 4. London: Heinemann. 5. 6. Differentiate
between politics of land in East Africa and South Africa. The
Concubine. In Weep Not Child Njoroge sees education as a basic
requirement. 7. (1960). A Grain of Wheat. Achebe. Explain.
(1963). Peter. 3. London: Heinemann. London: Heinemann.
Explain the reason for the forced acquisition of land by the
colonialist in Kenya. London: Longman. The other writers
reflected politics of land in other ways as in Achebes and Amadis
novels earlier treated.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Attempt
these questions 1.

Many South Africans were killed and many were inhumanly

treated. The blacks are mainly indigenous South Africans. we
shall examine the issue of apartheid as a predominant subject
matter in the novels of South African writers. Many freedom
fighters and groups emerged to fight and bring independence to
South Africa. also fought alongside Nelson Mandela and other
patriots for the dismantling of apartheid.0 6.0 2. Many South
African writers. South Africa has a complex sociological make-up.
More so. one of the most popular South African poets is coloured.
had early European and Indian settlers who took over power from
the citizens of the country and imposed draconian measures to
subdue them and make them powerless. Racism was at its peak.1
3. because of her rich natural resources like gold and diamond.
which is a reflection of their ugly historical experience. The most
troubled groups are the Blacks and the Coloureds. His poetry
reflects the evils of apartheid.0 7.The African Novel ENG 281
different types of races: the blacks. Unfortunately.3 3. Dennis
Brutus.5 4. Desmond Tutu. the radical Anglican priest.2 3.
Caucasians. Nelson Mandela is known for his dogged fight in the
removal of apartheid from South Africa. Indians and Asians while
the Coloureds are products of mixed marriages between the
whites and the blacks.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit. Most South
African writers wrote from diaspora because of the fear of being
killed. The novelists that really exposed apartheid were mainly
the blacks and the Coloured writers. The Coloureds are regarded
as blacks by the imperialists though some of them still look like
pure whites.0 Introduction Objectives Main Content General
Overview The Politics of Apartheid in South Africa The Politics of
Apartheid in Mine Boy The Politics of Apartheid in A Walk in the
Night The Politics of Apartheid in other novels Conclusion
Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1. the blacks regard the 51 . South Africa.0 3.4 3.0 3.0 5. the
whites are made up of Europeans. For instance. the whites and
the Coloureds. journalists and politicians went into exile.

about solitary confinement that "nothing is more dehumanizing

than the absence of human companionship" and that his son's
death while he was in prison "left a hole in [his] heart that can
never be filled". After a struggle with his own early African
nationalism. These factors and other reasons were the major
attractions to the European and Asian immigrants and/or
merchants who decided to make South Africa their mainstay. not
always compatible discourses that in both South Africa and the
world opposed apartheid. A resistance from the blacks resulted in
apartheid policy which was aimed at checkmating the excesses of
the blacks vis--vis their protest for independence. Mandela
acknowledges that he was fighting for a truly united country
devoid of class. Besides. The ANC has had to transform itself
rapidly from a liberation movement espousing revolutionary
socialism to a political party defending a culture of human rights.
With the family as the model of community. and Mandela reveals
his indebtedness to several. The situation became more
complicated with 52 . 2. They realized that political power would
enable them control the natives and at the same time have more
advantage in their trading. Most of the writers write out of the
desire to express the experiences in their environment politically
and sociologically.1 General Overview The key political party in
the struggle for South African independence is the African
National Congress [ANC]. Literature in South Africa is a literature
of commitment. Mandela states unabashedly.The African Novel
ENG 281 Coloureds as whites while the whites regard the
Coloureds as blacks. they have a good natural landscape for
agriculture and other forms of arts and crafts.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.
They are the most segregated because they have no strong
anchor in the apartheid situation. South Africa is rich in gold and
diamond. They write to reflect and expose the oddities of their
history and corruption in their polity.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of
the unit the students should be able to: understand the
meaning and origin of apartheid appreciate South African
Novels see apartheid as a dominant feature of Early South
African novels discus South African novels as South African
experiences interpret apartheid as reflected in other African
novels 3. race or colour.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 What are the major factors that

gave rise to apartheid? 3. but conveniently when the Afrikaners
and the English ganged up against blacks. who were regarded as
derivative of the British and. The latest attempts at a national
narrative is to explain these issues as they occur thereby
reflecting the tensions in the peoples historical experience. many
rural Africans cannot be sure where the power of the
government .The African Novel ENG 281 years as there were
interracial marriages and high level of racism. created in African
communities both urbans and rurals so that while the majority
ideal today might be post-apartheid nationals.begins. the
common white identity tended to be regarded amorphously as
Western and middle class. since they had rapidly become
townspeople. Afrikanerdom saw itself as culturally distinct from
English-speaking South Africans. Sothos. The South African
novelists like Peter Abrahams and Alex Laguma amongst others
reflected the evils of apartheid in their works.ends and where the
power of the chief . Xhosas. Under apartheid.3 The Politics of
Apartheid in Peter Abrahams Mine Boy Mine Boy (1946) by Peter
Abrahams was published "two years before the Nationalists
gained control of South African politics" and "just before
apartheid became entrenched into the South African legal system
and racialism became a sanctified governmental policy (Abrahams
53 . however. the State decreed a rural identity for all Africans:
the journey to the city was by government permit. and so forth.2
The Politics of Apartheid in South Africa Under apartheid.utilized
to its advantage either its Western European inheritance or its
long African rootedness. having little connection to the South
African soil. black people were ethnicised by the State into
Zulus.local and ethnic . When things do not go its way. SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain briefly the major trust of South
African literature. The reality of urbanization. While Indians and
mixed-race "Coloureds" fell somewhere between whites and
Africans. whites were given a political-racial identity which
conterminous with superiority . Thus there were also "urban" and
"rural" identities. Within this political-racial identity.styled as
nonracial and democratic . 3. the government has not been
averse to stepping out of its nonracial role and calling the
Africanist race card.
revised 1971). as best as they can. he was detained for five
months. with somatic. The novel started on the Eve of the
Apartheid Era. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Critically assess
the apartheid conditions experienced by Xuma 3. Tell Freedom
(1954). about the Boers' trek. During the State of Emergency
following the Sharpeville massacre."Xuma. Mine Boy his first
novel centres on the effects of the South African apartheid
policy.4 The Politics of Apartheid in Alex LaGumas A Walk in the
Night Alex La Guma (1925-1986). Now (1966. A striking
revelation of the problems of apartheid as it affects the social and
the mental balance of the people who perceive the negative
effects of colonialism as something beyond human
comprehension. and psychosomatic diseases in ways that
highlight the racism of colonial South Africa." Peter Abrahams
fictionally recreates this area of colonial history. A Wreath for
Udomo (1955). psychological. This Island. it views the future of
the Third World pessimistically. was born to a "coloured" (mixed-
race) family in Cape Town in 1925. recreates his childhood in the
Johannesburg slums. Of French and Malagasy ancestry. His
autobiography. characters confront and deal. Peter Abrahams was
born in 1919. La Guma left South Africa as a refugee in 1966 and
lived in exile in London and 54 . The View from Coyaba (1985) is
the story of four generations of a Jamaican family and the
struggle for black autonomy. This was one of the first books to
draw attention to the condition of black South Africans under
apartheid. he endured house arrest and solitary confinement. a
writer and political activist. One commentator has noted that
Abrahams "is the first South African novelist to pose a possible
solution to the continuing crisis of black experience in the
industrial city. the major character faces the complexities of
urban life in Johannesburg. and Wild Conquest (1950). one of his
most effective novels. Although Abrahams left for England in
1939 and in 1955 moved to Jamaica. which presents us with
characters who negotiate the uncertain and often tragic terrain of
the colonial experiences introduced and induced by diseases. tells
of the murder of a native leader. Like Abrahams's first work with
a Caribbean setting.The African Novel ENG 281 5). He is a South
African-born novelist and journalist. including the short-story
collection Dark Testament (1942). In particular. he was involved
in South African politics from an early age and was arrested for
treason with 155 others in 1956 and finally acquitted in 1960.
Continuing to write. Africa continued to dominate his work.

and thus suffer alone. How true is this in the story? 55 . focusing
on the conflict between the races. whose residents are frequently
too absorbed by their own miserable state to react to it. A Walk in
the Night (1962). He focuses on the decay and despair of the
slum. In doing so. Although the main character reached the
conclusion that collective action is essential to solving the
problems of South Africa's system. Throughout his work. He was
repeatedly harassed by the South African government as a result
of his political activities. La Guma describes the political and
social existence of the "coloured" people of the District Six slum
in Cape Town. laying bare the lives of the poor and the outcasts
who filled the ghettoes and shanty-towns. unlike the lonely
victims of his earlier works. La Guma describes the South African
struggles through characters who are involved in political
resistance. La Guma explores the tension between human rights
and social responsibility against the backdrop of the nation's
separatist policies. His parents were active in left wing politics
and the labour movement. He examines the life of the district
through the actions of four characters during the course of one
night. Throughout his fictional writings about South Africa. These
works reveal the plight of non-whites in apartheid South Africa. A
Walk in the Night and Other Stories reveals La Guma as one of
the most important African writers of his time. The characters
overcome the isolation and disconnectedness which plague the
subjects in his earlier works in order to work together towards
their goal. he explores the connection between rights and
responsibilities through the unfolding of his characters' decisions
and actions. Most of his work. He died in 1986. He did not begin
writing fiction until after he turned thirty. The moral development
of his characters is closely tied to their potential to improve their
country's future. In his first novel. and La Guma grew up
conscious of the political and socio-economic implications of
South Africa's separatist policies. over a dozen short stories and
many political essays. fiction and non-fiction deal with South
African subjects. and emigrated to England in 1966.The African
coloured. the author uses flashbacks to reveal the squalor and
despair which are the source of the political movement. He wrote
five novels. Alex La Guma reflects on his apartheid experiences.
he stresses the importance of collective action and the need to
care for others.

the South African experience marked the height of these human

degradations in Africa. 4. Many African writers lamented the
carnage and brutality. The world also reacted and imposed
sanctions on the country. Explain thoroughly the experiences of
colonialism in other parts of Africa. They wrote to express their
belief in Africa and the hope that peace would return. Most
times.0 CONCLUSION Apartheid was a very ugly experience for
Africans as it marked the height of imperialists injustice. They
were subjected to all manners of injustices just to allow the
whites have full control of the country. dramatists and novelists
revealed in their works the various evils associated with
apartheid. The black South 56 . Africans were made to become
slaves in their own land. They were reacting just the way the
other parts of Africa were reacting. the imperialists used arms to
achieve their aims. However. The colonial masters wanted to use
every means possible to subject Africans towards accepting their
religion and their political power. Many poets. South Africans were
shocked at the imperialists posture of treating them like animals.
Many African novelists who wrote in the 60s and 70s reflected the
South African experiences in their works and each of them wrote
with the utmost desire to criticize the deadly system and draw
world sympathy towards eradicating it.5 The Politics of Apartheid
in other Novels Many African writers wrote about apartheid in
South Africa. West Africa battled indirect rule system with its
incessant constitutional odds.The African Novel ENG 281 3. In
some ways it worked as the world imposed sanctions on the
system and forced them to step down. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 5 Many African writers criticized apartheid. the total
aim is to make the Africans feel inferior and subjective in their
own land. The francophone were made to accept alien cultures as
superior to theirs. In all these policies. The imperialists applied
every diplomatic and practical means towards actualizing their
economic interests. The experiences of colonialism in Africa
brought with it several odds in African continent because of the
imperialists economic interests. The first step was to make the
Africans feel inferior and thereby have feelings of
underdevelopment. African writers recorded these dark historical
days of Africa. Nelson Mandela was used as super hero by some
novelists in their works and in most cases there are typologies of
him. They wrote to criticize the evils against blacks in South
Africa. Literature is a product of environment.
Many South African writers were arrested. many human rights
bodies especially Amnesty International amongst others fought to
ensure clear measure of justice. we see two different accounts of
the apartheid politics in South Africa. The blacks were ill-treated
and made to live in utter impoverishment in shanty towns were
no infrastructure is provided. A Walk in the Night paints clearer
pictures of poverty and anarchy. The stories are written in gutter
language for the realization of the true picture of things. The two
authors treated in this unit: Peter Abrahams and Alex La Guma
were among the South African writers who told their apartheid
tales from the outside. Most of them went back home after
democracy was enthroned and peace. injustice and
dehumanization as clearly presented in Xumas narration. The
fight to restore democracy in the country took 57 . The fight
against apartheid was not easy. Before sanctions began to be
imposed on the traumatic government. 5. We read the story and
see the scenes painted in reality. In order to control these natural
resources.0 SUMMARY From the study of Peter Abrahams Mine
Boy and Alex LaGumas A Walk in the Night. It took time. We feel
the pains of the people and record the memories of trauma. Both
races were the most affected in South Africa. The South African
political history is never a story of lies rather it is the story of a
people who became victims of their environment because they
have some natural resources which attracted the imperialists.
They wrote mainly from outside the South African shores for fear
of being killed. especially like beasts of burden. Apartheid is not
an experience to be forgotten in a hurry in African colonial history
because Africans were not only brutally murdered. They were
incarcerated. incarcerated and imprisoned. There are clear
pictures of anarchy. the imperialists made life unbearable for the
helpless indigenes of the land. South Africa is rich in diamonds
and gold. they were imprisoned. many years to be reacted to.
They were treated like animals. dehumanized and subjected to
the most denigrated height of human injustice. Peter Abrahams is
black while Alex Laguma was Coloured. Most of them went on
exile. justice and equity returned. Mine Boy accounts for the
injustices meted out to the blacks even in a black enclave where
they were subjected as miners to excavate minerals for the
development of the white enclaves. impoverished and enslaved.
Justice took time to come because the imperialists had to satisfy
their greedy lusts against the backdrop of human justice and
equity.The African Novel ENG 281 Africans and the coloured were
the most discriminated as they received all manner of ill-
treatment from the whites.

0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Attempt the following questions

1. Explain how Alex La Guma achieved the presentation of
impoverishment in A Walk in the Night. 6. Explain the various
racial make up in South African and the groups most
discriminated against among them.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER
READINGS Abrahams. A Walk in the Night.The African Novel ENG
281 the joint efforts of the church. 6. 5. their writers and the
humane world to actualize. 7. 3. Trace the roles of Nelson
Mandela in the destruction of apartheid policies in South Africa.
La Guma. Ibadan. (1982). (1962). What factors gave rise to
apartheid in South Africa? 2. Explain the reason for Xumas
trauma in the Peter Abrahams Mine Boy. 58 . Alex. Nigeria:
Mbari. Peter. Mine Boy. 4. London: Heinemann. the people.
Differentiate between politics of land in East Africa and Apartheid
politics in South Africa.

1 General Overview 3. Through the 1970s this optimism turned to

despair. Similarly.0 Summary 6. By the time Things Fall Apart was
published. Cyprian Ekwensi. His thrillers reach a popular audience
in Kenya.2 The Essence of African Independence 3.0
INTRODUCTION From the independence of Ghana in 1957
through the 1960s there was a period of intense excitement
about the potential of newly independent African countries.4
Independence and Neo-Colonialism in Wizard of the Crow 4.0
Objectives 3. another Nigerian. Such writers are relevant here.0
Conclusion 5.0 References/Further Readings 1. There 59 . as the
writers I have been discussing are consciously trying to relate to
a popular audience themselves. Achebe was one of the editors of
the Heinemann African Writers Series. His novels of modern
Kenya also range from dealing with the Mau Mau in Carcase for
Hounds (1974) to life in contemporary Nairobi in Going Down
River Road (1976) or Aids in The Last Plague (2000). which
helped popularise African writers. the inertia and corruption that
had dogged the more conservative countries became the norm.
another Kenyan writer.The African Novel ENG 281 UNIT 3 THE
Congos Patrice Lumumba and Ghanas Kwame Nkrumah were
seen as revolutionary icons on a par with Che Guevara. has
approached the problems of the post-colonial state from a
different angle. Meja Mwangi.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.
Rather than pan-Africanist ideals spreading across the continent
from vanguard states.3 Independence of Ghana in The Beautiful
Ones are not Yet Born 3. the authors I have discussed fought for
their alternative view to be seen and accepted.0 Introduction 2.
was already writing popular novels such as People of the City
(1954) and Jagua Nana (1961) about the contradictions of
colonial society. Activists and artists have been wrestling with the
causes and solutions ever since.0 Main Content 3. Still. Since the
1960s the amount and range of African writing available has
increasednotably the number of women writers.

secessions. The rise in intertribal wars. environmental

degradation as a result of the exploration and mining of natural
resources like oil. It is on record that many Africans have
distinguished themselves in many fields of learning. and give us
an idea of what artistic masterpieces will emerge from the current
antiglobalisation movement.The African Novel ENG 281 is an
ongoing fight to defend resistance against romanticisation of
empire. 2. However. Religions like Christianity and Islam found
their way to African shores thereby improving and/or adding to
the moral development of Africans. language and religion. the
colonial experience brought with it western education. It had its
positive and negative effects. gold. Communication in these world
languages created the room for this affinity. Western education
also afforded Africans the opportunity of studying and
contributing to world development. African countries joined the
League of Nations that use the languages and interestingly these
two languages are spoken by 70 per cent of the world population.
the students should be able to: identify novels that centre on
independent African experiences see the different views of
novelists in post-colonial Africa discuss the shift in focus from
colonial experience to pure African experience appreciate the
African novels as products of African experiences realize that
African novelists in independent Africa concentrate on the
individual than the society. The negative effects are quite
numerous especially regarding the partitioning of Africa for
western interests.0 MAIN CONTENT 3. whether in the Iraq war or
Niall Fergusons attempts to rehabilitate the British Empire. These
are positive because with the acquisition of languages like English
and French. 60 . Africans are now policy makers in the United
Nations and Africans have had to be the secretary general of
United Nations for years. 3. Sembne and Ngugi remind us that
alternatives are possible. diamond and the imposition of political
leaders that rule according to western control among other
factors constitute the bane of Africas underdevelopment.0
OBJECTIVES By the end of this unit. Writers such as Achebe.1
General Overview The colonial experience is not an experience
that Africans would forget in a hurry.

brutality and economic sabotage. greed. the acquisition of

western education by Africans. These dreams 61 . Liberia got an
early independence in 1948 because of Americas treatment of
the place as a country where free slaves were resettled. Many
African nations fought for their independence because the
western powers refused to relinquish power to the Africans in
their own country. It marks the beginning of true politics by the
people for the people. Unfortunately for the imperialists. which
was introduced mainly for the economic intentions. The last of the
fight and the most grievous was the South African fight for
independence. opened the critical minds of the African
intellectuals who reasoned that Africans should be allowed to
decide and rule their countries. Ghana in 1957. 3. It marks a
period of re-orientation from the shackles of colonialism to the
goodness of internal rulership. parochialism.The African Novel
ENG 281 One of the major concerns of African nations is how to
extricate themselves from the grip of western interests. They saw
Africans as sub-humans who have no sense of culture and
refinement. The masses suffer from the corruption which
emanated from the imperialists and now being practised by the
African ruling class. anarchy. One question trailing these fights for
independence was: Why did the colonialists find it difficult to
allow Africans govern themselves? The basic answer was greed.
Independence is hoped to bring about peace and an end to
rancour. greed and all manners of abuse. culture and politics on
the African intellectuals who eventually took over power after the
exit of the colonial masters. The point now remains that it was as
if colonialism was removed and replaced with colonial attitudes.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Critically assess the negative and
the positive aspects of colonialism and how they affected the
independent African countries. Another unfortunate aspect of
western education was that it inculcated western values. It marks
a new phase of history and experience. power.2 The Essence of
African Independence Independence to Africans marks a new
dawn. have been recording the African experiences in
independent African states. The masses now fight to restore
sanity and cultural values of the Africans. It marks the beginning
of greater things and hopes. cultural and human development for
the nations. politics. just like African historians. social. It marks
the hope for economic. Nigeria got her independence in 1960.
The African writers. They wanted to rule the world and acquire all
the natural and economic benefits of Africa. Independence is
expected to accord Africans respect for being able to pilot their
affairs without interference. knowledge. It marks the end to
western slavery in governance.
Things Fall Apart. However. the first before Achebes Things Fall
Apart. A Man of the People. This manchild is a metaphor for post-
independence Ghana. The work was in part motivated by 62 .
Girls at War and Anthills of the Savannah are post-colonial or
neo-colonial accounts.3 Independence of Ghana in Armahs The
Beautiful Ones are not Yet Born Armah's first and best-known
novel. The temporal setting coincides with the twilight of Kwame
Nkrumahs administration. The novel depicts with bewildering
harshness post-independence Ghanaian society. Cyprian
Ekwensis People of the City. The book is filled with images of
birth. most notably in the form of a manchild who goes through
the entire life cycle in seven years. At times he perceives himself
as a moral failure for not providing his family with the money
which would allow them to have the beautiful things that they
seek. Chinua Achebe has had to write about African historical
experiences. Apart from the early experimental novelists like D.
His honesty also makes him a social misfit. The Beautiful Ones
Are not Yet Born (1968). Fagunwa and Amos Tutuola who went
back to the African oral tradition to tell their tales.O. Arrow of
God and No longer at Ease are creative accounts of the colonial
phase in Africa. decay and death. The other workers who accept
bribes are able to live a prosperous life. and he is a man who is
truly alone. if not worse than the colonial pattern of politics. is an
account of the life in the city of Lagos in contrast to the life in the
rural settings. The effects of colonialism on the lives of the people
in the city are juxtaposed with the people in the rural setting.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain the major concern of
Africans for fighting for independence and how did African writers
capture it? 3. while he and his family live from paycheck to
paycheck as a result of his honesty. the later works examined the
colonial experiences and postcolonial situation. The African
intellectuals and ruling class are products of the same evil they
fought against.The African Novel ENG 281 have come to a
stalemate as African leaders have been exhibiting the same. The
African writers have been examining what the African leaders
have been doing with the power they got from the imperialists.
describes the life of an unnamed rail worker who is pressured by
his family and fellow workers to accept bribes and involve himself
in corrupt activities in order to provide his family with material
goods. The city is presented as a symbol of negativity because of
the excesses exhibited by the Africans who practice western

entangled in the web of neo-colonial dependence. which holds

much promise in its gleaming whiteness when it was first
installed. the socialist ideals upon which independence was
erected were no longer decipherable. Hence. although the
problem was not peculiar to Ghana but in most post-independent
African nations. They include the bus conductor at the beginning
of the novel. the toilet in the mans house and the chichidodo.
The man is a sort of allegorical figure who hovers indistinctly in
the realm of familiar reality. The untimely decay is further shown
through the interconnections of oppositeslight and darkness.
Abednego Yamoah and Koomson. gleam and gloom.The African
Novel ENG 281 the authors disappointment with the sudden
collapse of the socialist democratic ideal inaugurated at
independence in 1957. to old age and natural death. The
preponderance of those who participate in the popular game of
graft informs the authors gloomy apprehension of reality. It is as
if the whole essence of independence is not to dismantle the
colonial structure. far more thoroughly decayed than any ordinary
old man could ever have looked (63). the driver of the bus on the
way to Cape Coast who offers a bribe to the police. a character
who has a clear perception of the origin and nature of the nations
crises. Causality as narrative principle is displaced for episodicity.
Nkrumahs regime was like the public waste disposal receptacle
(depicted in the novel). Armah wraps in symbols and metaphors a
nation that is firmly. The harsh economic climate which fuels
corruption in the society also results in a low sense of self-worth
among the people as paradoxically expressed in a writing on the
where corruption becomes infectious. sameness and difference.
He feels completely apart from all that takes 63 . the landlord
who is a party loyalist. In fact. the space allocation clerk. almost
irretrievably. the public lavatory. the Teacher. There is a collapse
of the distinction between freedom and bondage in this newly
independent nation. Examples of such symbols include the
banisterat the Railway administration building. In its style of
narration. Amankwa the timber contractor. the driver of the bus
at the end of the novel. The man child has all the features of a
human baby and within seven years it has completed the cycle
from infancy to adulthood. Armah captures his pessimism through
the Teacher. characterization and setting. newness and decay. The
Beautyful Ones does not present a sequentially ordered story of a
protagonist whose life affects the course of events in the universe
of the novel. the man and his friend. The manchild looked more
irretrievably old. Zaccharias Lagos. But it is soon overwhelmed by
moral filth and decadence. much of the narration takes place in
the interiority of the protagonist. but to push a few black men
closer to the former colonial masters (126).

Colonial and independence struggles produce no true saviours.

which Abiola Irele describes as a willed movement out of the self
(1982: 25).The African Novel ENG 281 place around him. An
attempt by his wife and his mother-inlaw to get rich through a
fishing boat partnership business fails. Pressure from the mans
family further deepens his confusion. To escape further insult. the
ceiling fan. The novel begins with the man going to work at dawn
in a decrepit old bus. returning home. using their offices. the
general despondency provides the enabling environment for a
forceful overthrow of the government. visiting the Teacher or the
Koomsons. the man exemplifies the drab life of the Ghanaian
bureaucrats. a bird that hates excrement but feeds on maggots.
At the office. the bus conductor insults him. His motivation for
movement is ironically not so much a striving to make things
better. more often seen on the road. The public officer shirks his
responsibility or delays its performance. To make up. evident in
his compromise. It deepens his condition of alienation. But
beyond the personal. but also asks the boatman to increase the
bribe being offered to the night watchman who is standing in the
way of a timely escape of Koomson: give it to him. The man
declines the offer and tells his wife about it at home. who has
withdrawn into solitude in order to escape participating in the
general game of graft. they create opportunities to extract
reward. another alienated being. The man who rejects the offer of
a bribe from Amankwa the timber contractor not only aids the
escape of a corrupt minister from the hands of the law. he is a
one-dimensional character who is not potent enough to change
things around him. Politicians of the old regime become birds of
prey. Koomson only fools them. Koomson escapes from the
country 64 . His movement from the bus stop to his office at the
Railway Administration offers snapshots of physical and moral
decadenceindividual and collectivethe banister. Egya Akon and
Slim Tano. if theres another one (176). the man visits the
Teacher. That creates a condition for desperation.His life shows
how Herculean a task it is to steer clear of corruption in a society
with distorted social values. That is the situation when Amamkwa
approaches the man to get his timber transported from the bush
for a reward. his wife sarcastically refers to him as Chichidodo.
which the officer explores to advantage. but a psychological
response to failure that would not let him rest in peace (46).
hunted by the new rulers. but physical and emotional wrecks like
Sister Manaan. For dirtying the bus with saliva. The only change
observed in him is in the direction of deep cynicism. Whatever
still retains some physical allure like the Atlantic Caprice is
connected with rot. going to work. Essentially. Poorly paid
workers trudge from one brief moment of prosperity to long days
of penury (Passion Week). But rather than being commended.

4 Independence and Neo-Colonialism in Ngugis Wizard of the

Crow Though he has continued to write on both literature and
politics. The novel ends with the man returning home from the
harbour. and his dull working environment. To celebrate his
birthday one suggests that they build a tower to heaven. Along
with the radical political activist and feminist Nyawira he uses his
notoriety to help the poor and cure the rich of their various
illnesses with his magic mirror. the epic Wizard of the Crow. His
three fawning ministers have each undergone plastic surgery to
enlarge respectively their eyes. The Free Republic of Abuririaa
surrealistically exaggerated Kenyais governed by a dictator
known only as the Ruler.The African Novel ENG 281 with the
active collaboration of the man. The trickster is very interesting
because he is always changing. The book is a satire on neo-
colonialism and the attitudes of the black ruling class. the Wizard
of the Crow. He always questions the stability of a word or a
narrative or an event. it was not until 2006 that another novel
was published in English. In West Africa it is Anansi the spider.
the land of the silent ones. The humiliating process of his escape
through the lavatory and the harbour underscores the vanity of
irresponsible power. which incapacitates sufferers through a
burning desire to be white. The man is going back to his home.
He is 65 . The trickster character appears in tales all over the
world. ears and tongue. hear and denounce dissent. like their old
colonial masters. Soldiers and police still extort kolaa
euphemism for a bribefrom travellers. Out in the city the
impoverished Kamiti accidentally gains a reputation as a powerful
sorcerer. and particularly a group of militant women. The coup
has not really changed anything fundamentally in the life of the
nation. The most debilitating of these illnesses is whiteache.
Elsewhere it is Hare or Tortoise. the better to see. but are set
back again and again by the activity of the poor. All through the
book the Aburirian government try to get the Global Bank to fund
Marching to Heaven. Ngugi says of the book: I was very much
influenced by the trickster tradition. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 3 Critically comment on the basic symbolic reference
used by Armah in The Beautiful Ones are not yet Born. In a
luxurious world separated from the suffering poor. to reveal the
corrupt independent state of Africa 3. the ministers compete to
flatter the Ruler. so that the Ruler will be able to pop in on god.

including the rural/urban division. it 66 . but more importantly.

there is a price to pay for making the characters archetypes.
using African folktale tradition as form. Chinua Achebe published
the novel Things Fall Apart." Ngugi wa Thiong'o followed in 1964
with Weep Not Child. If the genre of the novel came to dominate
the literary scene. the African novel gained momentum at a time
of social upheaval in Africa. tradition and civilization to a deaf
world. "to set the score right about my [his] ancestors. which set
out in the very words of its author. One of the strengths of Gods
Bits of Wood is in the subtle complexity of the portrayal of the
strike and its participants. 4. It was the year of Kenyan
independence and the novelist was making an urgent call to
Africans to embrace education and enterprise as a way of ending
Western imperialism and Indian entrepreneurship on the eastern
coast of Africa. it was due in part to its ability to borrow from
tradition. The colonial powers had acquiesced to granting political.
an episodic novel.0 CONCLUSION In the 1950s and early 1960s.
In 1958 and from an historical perspective. in 1952 Amos Tutuola
wrote The Palm-wine Drinkard based on Yoruba mythology. There
were intense nationalist activities challenging the whole idea and
practice of colonialism in Africa. He was followed in 1953 by
Camara Laye with L'Enfant noir (translated into English as The
African Child and later in the American edition as The Dark
Child). The main characters Kamiti (of the trees) and Nyawira
(she of work) are archetypal figures. Yet the educated Africans
that is the new bourgeoisie or elite was a product of missionary
education. which relied heavily on African oral tradition to vaunt
the merits of the African past. He challenges the prevailing
wisdom of who is strong and who is weak. and black pride versus
class struggle. For example. but not economic and cultural
independence to its colonies. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4
Assess the presentation of neo-colonial situations in Africa as
presented in Wizard of the Crow.The African Novel ENG 281
continually inventing and reinventing himself. However. In Ngugis
books Devil on the Cross and Wizard of the Crow most of the
struggle takes place off stage. That led the new African social
elite to engage in artistic form inherited from the West but
inspired by local tradition. and appear to represent a number of

That dislocation accentuates crises of development after

independence. democracy and good governance. poverty. mass
unemployment. rather than dismantling colonial structures of
social injustice and oppression merely. from dependency theory
to Marxism. Neo-colonialism concentrates political and economic
power not in the hands of the people but in the hands of minority
elite whose loyalty seems to be more toward the advanced
nations of Europe/America. therefore. prescriptions for the
continents development are as varied as the perceived symptoms
of its ailment. From a wide range of theoretical perspectives.
electoral fraud. self-reliant. They advocate with great clarity a
system of education that has Africa as its starting point. However.
the quest of African nations for political liberation and
socioeconomic transformation has remained at the fore of
discourse among politicians. communitarian and egalitarian
principles of traditional African societies is suggeted. political
independence has not resulted in the much desired freedom and
transformation. The elite. many African novelists contend that the
source of Africas underdevelopment is the dislocation of
indigenous social formations by Euro-Arabian imperialism.The
African Novel ENG 281 was a means that those educated in a
colonial context. corruption. the post-independence years in
many ex-colonies of Africa are characterized by indices of under
development: economic dependency. 5. African writers. Efforts to
address the problem should. during and after colonialism.
cooperation. huge local and foreign debts. ethno-religious
violence. from a functionalist approach to modernization and
postmodern options. politicians and scholars. social researchers
and intellectualsa group to which creative writers belong. Their
literary creations need to be considered along with other modes
of social inquiry in a bid to achieve a holistic understanding of the
root of the continents unending crises. like nationalists. They
commend a social formation that promotes partnership. begin
with a constructive engagement with and not a destructive
displacement of the past (as imperialism implies). could
understand and use to herald African values outside and inside
Africa. Since the 1950s. Here.0 SUMMARY Unfortunately.
inadequate or dysfunctional infrastructure and so on. who took
over power from the colonialists. preserve them for opportunistic
ends. in the study of the worlda system that truly seeks to
liberate African intelligence to work for the benefit of the 67 .
illiteracy. In this regard. have shown an abiding concern with the
condition of Africa before. They are also necessary in the task of
re-making Africa. Thus. Expectedly. scholars have interrogated
the challenges of governance and development in contemporary

Lagos: Farafina Said. (1993). Ngugi believes that even after

independence most African countries are still under the grip of
European manipulations. Ayi Kwei. Explain this issue with
reference to Wizard of the Crow.The African Novel ENG 281
continent. Critically assess the state of Ghana immediately after
independence as exemplified in Armahs The Beautiful Ones are
not Yet Born. These novels interrogate the nature and causes of.
on Africas well-being by most post-independent African novelists.
However. and possible solutions to. Wizard of the Crow. Ngugi wa
Thiongo. London: Heinemann. Edward.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER
READINGS Armah. 7. and fundamental inferiority. London:
Heinemann.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Attempt these
questions: 1. What factors were responsible for the agitation of
independence by African countries? 2. New York: Alfred Knopf.
there seems to be a measure of agreement about the negative
impact of the trans-Atlantic and trans-Sahara slave trade. 6.
Fraser. The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born. Explain the major
discontent of African novelists in the new independent Africa. As
Mazrui rightly submits. malleability. 4. The Novels of Ayi Kwei
Armah. Robert. Culture and Imperialism. All these are depicted in
African novels about the post independence era. (1980). African
societies are marked by conquerability. 68 . (1968). (2007).
Euro-Arabian domination as well as neo-colonialism. 3. docility.
the myriad of problems confronting Africa.

rigging.0 Objectives 3.3 The Politics of Corruption in The Beautiful

Ones are not Yet Born 3. manipulation of political roles. One of
the most endemic problems African nations have been faced with
since the exit of colonialism is the problem of corruption. there
was a hope of new beginning.1 General Overview 3.4 The Politics
of Corruption in Other Novels 4. There have been
underdevelopments in many aspects of African lives due to the
cases of financial misappropriation. This shows 69 . etc.0
Summary 6. poverty in the economy. The effect of these corrupt
practices resulted in borrowing from the World Bank/ IMF for all
Third World countries seeking its loans to restructure its economy
by engaging in market reforms. After the colonial experiences.
unemployment.0 References/Further Readings 1.0 Tutor-Marked
Assignment 7.2 The Politics of Corruption in No Longer at Ease 3.
Walter Rodney shows that the roots of neocolonialism lie in
colonialism. The goal of the policy reforms was to diversify the
economic base by allowing the private sector to drive the
economy based on the principle that this process would generate
economic growth that will reduce the observable cases of
inequality. African writers have been recording with much
accuracy the changing tensions in their society. African leaders
have been exhibiting all types of corrupt practices that have
hampered the proper development of African states.0 Main
Content 3. Corruption comes in various forms: bribery.The African
liberalization. privatization.0 Introduction 2. There was a hope of
a greater tomorrow in the hands of the leaders.0 Conclusion 5.0
INTRODUCTION Corruption is the act of exploiting the society by
taking undue advantage of political power to accumulate common
wealth as personal property. In discussing the role of colonial
education. giving of nonexistent contracts. devaluation of its
currency and a minimalist role of the state. deregulation. financial
misappropriation. stealing from public treasury. All the reform
proposals were also aimed at enriching the educated Africans.

The African Novel ENG 281 that African literature have been
recording that neocolonialism is the result of a historical process
of class formation by colonialism. Absolutely central to
neocolonialism. African writers. This will enable us appreciate the
efforts of African novelists at attacking and/or satirizing
corruption in order to correct it.1 General Overview Since the exit
of the Europeans from African shores. according to Ngugi wa
Thiongo are sensitive needles that record the tensions and
conflicts in their ever changing societies.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.
Many Africans thought that independence would bring a 70 . the
students will be able to: see African writers as people that are
conscious change agents in their societies appreciate the attack
on corruption by African novelists understand that African elites
imitate western values which corruption is a part of. have
recorded the existence of these strange acts of corruption among
the educated elite who are occupying the political posts. In this
unit. assess the regular occurrence of corruption in African
novels as a reflection of Africas worries. neocolonialism prevails
today in Africa because of the continuation after "independence"
of the economic. For example. we shall explore how the theme of
corruption is treated in at least two select African novels. 3.
Corruption which comes in various forms has been the key factor
hampering Africas development. 2. the educated Africans have
been in control of political powers in their various countries. Many
African writers believe that African literature exists in a historical
continuum. and which form the real basis of support for the
regime which succeed the colonial administration. political and
social practices established by colonialism. is the formation of
classes or strata within a colony which are closely allied to and
dependent on foreign capital. An analysis of the economic.0
OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit. political and social
contradictions created by colonialism has revealed that the state
of anomy in Africa is created by colonialism which has hampered
Africa's development. Most African writers especially those that
wrote after colonialism.

a Nigerian girl who eventually reveals that she is an osu. Some

novels like Achebes No Longer at Ease. Obi is developing a
romantic relationship with Clara. He takes a job with the
Scholarship Board and is almost immediately offered a bribe by a
man who is trying to obtain a scholarship for his little sister. A
Man of the People. The novel opens with the trial of Obi Okonkwo
on a charge of accepting a bribe. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
Explain critically how European education facilitated corruption in
Africa. The novel is the sequel to Achebe's Things Fall Apart. Obi
switches his major to English. how corruption has been the bane
of Africas underdevelopment. another offer Obi rejects. It is the
story of Obi Okonkwo. have taken up a collection to send Obi to
England to study law. meaning that Obi can not marry her under
the traditional ways of the Igbo in Nigeria. We shall study two of
the novels mentioned here to show how this theme is treated.
and his mother begs him on her deathbed not to marry Clara until
after her death. 3. It then jumps back in time to a point before
his departure for England and works its way forward to describe
how Obi ended up on trial. a group of Igbo men who have left
their villages to live in major Nigerian cities. he is visited by the
girl herself who implies that she will bribe him with sexual favours
for the scholarship. When Obi indignantly rejects the offer. who
colonial civil service. Anthills of the Savannah. in the hope that he
will return to help his people navigate English colonial society.
threatening to kill 71 . Obi returns to Nigeria after four years of
studies and lives in Lagos with his friend Joseph. Wole Soyinkas
The Interpreters. an outcast by her descent. which concerned the
struggle of Obi Okonkwo's grandfather Okonkwo against the
changes brought by the English people.2 The Politics of
Corruption in No Longer at Ease No Longer at Ease is a 1960
novel by Chinua Achebe. While he remains intent on marrying
Clara. But once there. The members of the Umuofia Progressive
Union (UPU). Ayi Kwei Armahs The Beautiful Ones are not Yet
Born amongst other works have treated the issue of corruption
with disdain by outlining in major plots of stories. but who
struggles to adapt to a Western lifestyle and ends up taking a
bribe.The African Novel ENG 281 change but it turned out to be a
worse aspect of colonial administration. At the same time. even
his Christian father opposes it.

and in part due to the cost of the illegal abortion.The African

Novel ENG 281 herself if Obi disobeys. an osu. Obi juggles all of
these problems. he ends up "digging a new pit to fill up an old
one. Obi sinks into a deep depression. Clara breaks the
engagement and intimates that she is pregnant. he honors their
tradition of relatively honest civil service. only to discover that the
bribe was part of a sting operation. Meanwhile. offers of money
grandson of the protagonist in Things Fall Apart. When Obi
informs Clara of these events. As financial and romantic
pressures continue to mount and his beloved mother sickens and
dies. Chinua Achebe faces head on the issues which confront the
developing nations in a postColonial world. even as he pokes fun
at the remaining English bureaucrats and their condescending
ways. is the pride of his Nigerian village. He bears the burden of
his people's expectations but his exposure to Western culture has
distanced him from tribal life and though he is now earning a
magnificent living by their standards. He is arrested. which Clara
reluctantly undergoes. one of the socio-religious outcasts who
also figured prominently in Things Fall Apart. bringing us up to
the events that opened the story. Borrowing money. The villagers
educated and Obi was chosen. he begins to accept bribes in a
reluctant acknowledgement that it is the way of his world. For as
long as he can. More directly than almost any author I'm aware
of. in part due to the need to repay his loan to the UPU and to
pay for his siblings' educations. After hearing of his mother's
death. Obi must also deal with temptation. Obi Okonkwo.
Umuofia. Obi arranges an abortion. he questions whether at least
this first generation of natives who are replacing the departing
Europeans are truly prepared to meet the same standards or
whether a slide into corruption is nearly inevitable. but she
suffers complications and refuses to see Obi afterwards. Obi sinks
deeper into financial trouble. but gradually they come crashing
down on him. All the while. he has trouble making ends meet as
he tries keeping up with the Joneses in the big city. in part due to
poor planning on his end. 72 . The novel closes as Obi takes a
bribe and tells himself that it is the last one he will take. In No
Longer at Ease. Now he has returned to a prestigious job with the
civil service in Lagos-he's the Administrative Assistant to the
Inspector of Schools. and refuses to go home for the funeral.
When he recovers." Further complicating matters is his love affair
with the lovely Clara.

bringing tragedy down upon himself and disgrace to his

village.The African Novel ENG 281 Obi is a decent enough man
and he has the best of intentions. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
What factors are responsible for Obi Okonkwo bowing to the act
of corruption? 3. as portrayed by Achebe-caught between the
traditions and expectations of his village on the one hand and the
modern ways and legal constraints of the West on the other-puts
him in an untenable position. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 The
Man is a victim of corruption even as he denies being a part of it.
Achebe offers a fully realized portrait of one of those returned
who are "no longer at ease. it filled him/her with abnormal
complexes which alienated him/her from the needs of his/her
environment. 3. Many African states like Ghana followed similar
paths in which corruption and the greed of African elite became
rampant. is culturally alienated because of his Western education.
In 73 ." aliens in their own country. Colonial education has thus
dispossessed Africans from developing their societies. The
narrator in Dambudzo Marechera's House of Hunger. It's a terrific
book. The novel provides a description of the existential angst of
the book's hero who struggles to remain clean when everyone
else around him has succumbed to 'rot'. [Refer to Module 2 Unit 3
Section 3. Explain thoroughly. Corruption in turn filtered down to
the rest of society and the 'rot' that characterized post-
independent Ghana in the last years of Nkrumah is a dominant
theme in the book. but he gets in way over his head. his wife is
furious and he can't help feeling guilty despite his innocence.4
The Politics of Corruption in Other Novels Colonial education did
more than corrupt the thinking and sensibilities of the African.3
for more details on The Beautiful Ones are not Yet Born]. The
novel expresses the frustration many citizens of the newly-
independent states in Africa felt after attaining political
independence.3 The Politics of Corruption in The Beautiful Ones
are not Yet Born The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born by
Ghanaian writer Ayi Kwei Armah tells the story of a nameless
man who struggles to reconcile himself with the reality of post-
independence Ghana. one where something must give. His
situation. for instance. He works at a railway station and is
approached with a bribe. when he refuses.

" (96) This was the case with Obi Okonkwo in Achebes No Longer
at Ease. 4. In The Beautiful Ones are not yet Born. Before
colonialism and with their indigenous learning mode.The African
Novel ENG 281 Mission to Kala by Mongo Beti. The neocolonial
situation in Ngugi's Devil on the Cross is a legacy and a logical
consequence of the situation depicted in Beti's Mission to Kala.
Medza cannot make decisions in relation to the needs of his
society nor have a new vision relevant to African society. they
were battered and succumbed to the white capitalist system.
therefore. At each further stage of education. That further
transformed their mentality.0 SUMMARY Colonial education.0
CONCLUSION According to Walter Rodney. Africans had a system
of justice and decency. He was pushed to take bribe and even to
marry an Osu (outcaste). He discovers that the colonialists have
implanted corruption and other types of social vices on the
African society. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 Briefly explain
how corruption as theme has been applied in some African
novels. Okonkwo is a man who believes in self struggle rather
than cheap accolades. He sees everything Africa as odd. He rose
to the highest position in his society by hardwork and
dedication. . and after being given salaries. Colonial education did
more than corrupt the thinking and sensibilities of the African.
they could then afford to sustain a style of life imported from
outside . Medza's colonial education makes him a privileged
political and economic functionary in a colonial system that
militates against the interests of his own people. . He was a man
from the great lineage of Okonkwo who would do anything
positive to retain his image in his community. creates black elite
to succeed it and perpetuate its political and economic interests in
the post-independence period. He prefers being corrupt and
acting according to the dictates of western values that are
detrimental to his African belief system. But obi Okonkwo seemed
different from him. 5. it filled him/her with abnormal complexes
which de-Africanized and alienated him/her from the needs of
his/her environment. we see The Man struggling to come to
terms with the rot in his society. This links African literature of the
two periods because neocolonialism is the result of a historical
process of class formation by 74 . Medza's role model is America.
truth and sincerity were the order of the society. The educated
Africans were the most alienated Africans on the continent. Thus.

7. Armah. and which form the real basis of support for the regime
which succeed the colonial administration. 6. Explain thoroughly
what corruption means. London: Heinemann. At the end both of
them compromised as they became a disgrace to their society
and culture. The two novels treated here have represented the
theme of corruption by revealing the various causes of such ills.
No Longer at Ease. It is clear that African elite are imitating the
characteristic behaviours of their masters who have inculcated
the act of corruption into them. The Beautiful Ones are Not Yet
Born. According to Walter Rodney. It is clear that Obi Okonkwo
and The Man are victims of foreign cultures in Africa. 75 .0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Attempt the following questions:
1. Ayi Kwei. Explain thoroughly how Armah and Achebe captured
the theme of corruption in the two novels treated in this unit.
Central to neocolonialism. (1958). African writers have responded
to this social malaise. Chinua. Obi is a product of western
education which alienated him from his culture while The Man is a
product of the same western education but refused to bow even
as he sees himself unable to fight the cankerworm alone. They
have created works of fiction out of their social and political
experiences impinging on the very acts of corruption. How correct
is the claim that corruption is part of human nature as every
literature reflects it. London: Heinemann. (1968). They have
recorded in several ways the different manifestations of
corruption in their countries. Chinua. Things Fall Apart. London:
Heinemann. 3. 2. The educated Africans were the most alienated
Africans on the continent How correct is this statement? 4.
Achebe. (1960).0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS Achebe. is
the formation of classes or strata within a colony which are
closely allied to and dependent on foreign capital.The African
Novel ENG 281 colonialism.

More so.The African Novel ENG 281 UNIT 5 POLITICS OF

MILITARISM CONTENTS 1.3 3.1 3.0 Introduction 2.0 7.0 Main
Content 3. Most of these military leaders still govern the people
like the military they are: imposing 76 . These African military
men encountered European soldiers in battle field. when the
colonialists came into Africa. In African culture. This led to the
emergence of military governors and presidents in Africa some of
who later turned into brutal monarchs in their countries.0 General
Overview The Politics of Militarism in A Man of the People The
Politics of Militarism in Anthills of the Savannah The Politics of
Militarism in Other Novels Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked
Assignment References/Further Readings 1. They learnt new
logistics of military intelligence. We still have Muarmar Ghadaffi of
Libya amongst others still governing with military might in their
countries.0 INTRODUCTION Military politics is one of the
unfortunate offshoots of colonialism in Africa and consequently a
recurrent theme in the African novel.4 4. However. Some of them
were later trained in military tactics abroad and in some of such
trainings they were taught on how to govern their countries as
corrective governments. General Charles Taylor of Liberia and
General Sani Abacha of Nigeria. We have had such tyrannical
leaders as Field Marshal Idi Amin Dada of Uganda.2 3. They
exposed Africans to wars by recruiting them into fighting the first
and the second world wars. they trained Africans in their art of
wars. there are people traditionally trained to fight wars in case of
external aggression. These trained men are often seen in the time
of need. They obey those occupying political or traditional
executive positions that they vowed to protect.0 6. They do not
imagine themselves occupying the political positions as heads of
government or heads of their communities.0 5.0 Objectives 3. the
political scenes in Africa are occupied by retired military men who
still hunger for power in their countries.

Chinua Achebe believed then that the corruption going on among

the First Republic politicians in Nigeria might trigger off a possible
coup as a corrective measure. Many African writers who wrote
about militarism have presented them as being corrupt more than
the people they are supposed to correct.1 General Overview The
military rulers who tasted power never wanted to relinquish
power. The military rulers held on to power with endless promises
of democracy. since Nigerias independence 48 years ago.0
OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit the students should be able
to: understand the reasons for military politics in Africa assess
the extent of military damage in African politics appreciate the
use of militarism as theme in African fiction identify African
fiction with military politics as subject matter. imposing sanctions
on the people and introducing stringent governmental protocols.
Many Africans believe that military politics was a reaction to the
corrupt practices of the political class. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 1 77 . we shall use two African novels to explore how
African novelists have treated the theme of militarism in their
novels. One still sees the same military politics even as the
people are hopeful of a democratic government in place. For
instance. this dream of correction turned into pure anarchy as the
military leaders projected their militarism as tactics in
governance. Many African countries are still under the grip of
militarism because it is either their leaders are military rulers or
ex-military in civilian rulership.The African Novel ENG 281
decrees. 2.0 MAIN CONTENT 3. African writers in these countries
have been recording these experiences for the world to read and
react. 3. For instance. These military rulers siphon the peoples
economic base and save huge sums of money in foreign
accounts. Chinua Achebes A Man of the People was described as
a prophetic work because it was launched almost at the brink of
the first military coup detat in Nigeria. The situation seems very
pathetic. the military have served in the political arena for over
30 years. However. Most of them developed into being dictators
like Muarma Ghadaffi of Libya and the late Sani Abacha of
Nigeria. They turn the countrys treasury into their personal
accounts. In this unit. violating human rights.

The story ends with a military coup that foreshadows the Nigerian
Revolution of 1966. The conflict between the old and new ways is
portrayed through the two characters as they not only disagree
and quarrel over political views but also women. because he
considers himself closer to the common man and far away from
the intellectual. who represents a more European style of living
and thinking. and the most approachable politician in the country.
But as Odili tells the story. and women. Chief Nanga is supposed
to be standing up for the tradition and beliefs of the pre-colonial
African culture by defending the common man and opposing the
European-oriented post-colonial intellectuals. He is the minister of
culture and his speeches to the public represent everything that a
politician should do and be. two contrasting groups of people.
Achebe captures the inside reality of the lives of the contrasting
characters as he demonstrates energy and brightness as well as
violence and corruption. Chinua Achebe proved to be a better
prophet than any of the political scientists. The money that is
supposed to go towards helping his community he uses instead to
build four-storey buildings. 78 . it becomes clear that Chief Nanga
does not practice what he preaches. money. As Odili explains the
story. In the novel. The groups are the old and the new
generations of politicians and two characters represent them.
represents the new intellectual generation. By representing his
country after colonialism he has the incentive to stay as far away
from the European style of life and politics as possible. Odilis
former teacher. power. one from a political base and the other
from a social aspect base in West Africa are presented. which he
rents out for profit. Chief Nanga only tells the people what they
want to hear about defending their culture and way of thinking.
represents the old style of politicians. however. in his writing of
the novel. He relates to them more. as a man of the people. Odili.
while Chief Nanga. The politicians in this novel stand as an
intermediary between the government and the common people
but are portrayed by Achebe as the evil side.The African Novel
ENG 281 What factors led to the rise of military politics in Africa?
3.2 The Politics of Militarism in Achebes A Man of the People In A
Man of the People. the narrator. Chief Nanga learns to be greedy
and learns how to win elections through the corrupt system of
politics he was against in the first place. Chief Nanga is referred
to by the narrator. and Nanga acts in a voracious way to obtain
what he wants in his personal life. The important thing for Chief
Nanga is that the people trust him. Chief Nanga's corrupt way of
leading the people by telling them one thing and doing another is
what eventually brings his reign to an end. Odili.

and they desperately needed to experience a little shelter. The

point is that a person who goes from having nothing (Nanga) to
having everything is going to be more reluctant to go back to
having nothing compared to someone that has had everything the
whole time. but together in the rain. We had all been in the rain
together until yesterday. It was not finally realized though. He
goes on to talk about his group of people as the smart and the
lucky and how they had scrambled to the one shelter their former
rulers left and taken it over. The trouble with our new nation as I
saw it then lying on that bed was that none of us had been
indoors long enough to be able to say. until he actually had the
chance to live with Chief Nanga and witness how Nanga abused
way with the women he desired. A man who has just come in
reluctant to go out again than another who has been indoors the
whole time. thus making him more greedy to gain power and
more defensive against giving up this power. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 2 Explain clearly the reasons for the rivalry between
Chief Nanga and Odili? 79 . as some critics do. Odili emphasizes
that the new rulers were never indoors. He learned many things
from him and was happy when he heard he was first elected. The
arrival of the military seemed like an aborted dream to the
politicians. But as Nanga grew more powerful within his office and
country. Odili began to grow smarter and he became more aware
of the corrupt reality. Odili gives his insight on this situation when
he narrates: We ignore man's basic nature if we say. The
metaphor here is very powerful and it really clarifies the point
Achebe is trying to explain. The question now is: were the
military able to bring about the desired change or correct the
corrupt politicians? Chinua Achebe gave answer to this question
in his last novel entitled Anthills of the Savannah. to hell with
it.The African Novel ENG 281 Nanga taught Odili when he was
young and Odili respected and liked him as a teacher. that
because a man like Nanga has risen overnight from poverty and
insignificance to his present opulence he could be persuaded
without much trouble to give it up again and return to his original
The speech is purposefully misquoted in the Gazette the next day.
It is later revealed that he was followed by State Research
Council agents who needed proof that Ikem had actually visited
the delegation in order to be able to accuse him of treason for
siding with the rebellious Abazonians. Sam has caused them to
suffer by shutting down water-holes in the province. and has
come to be greatly respected by the Abazonians as the famous
editor of the National Gazette. Chris feels he can no longer work
under President Sam as Commissioner for Information. and goes
into hiding. Upon hearing this he joins a celebration on the street
and meets a drunken policeman. but he refuses. claiming it was
an accident. He is afraid he is going to end up like Ikem. which is
suffering from drought. as it later turns out. After being sacked. A
while later. When he reaches the province. After this episode.
Ikem goes to meet the delegation. Chinua Achebe writes about
the problems facing newly independent African states. After the
session is closed it turns out that outside the palace there is
crowd of people from the province of Abazon who try to get to
meet the President. In Anthills of the Savannah. The prevailing
theme and the most visible one of these problems is the corrupt.
Ikem is fired from the National Gazette by orders from the
President. Some time after this. soldiers come to pick him up
from his home and shoot him dead.3 The Politics of Militarism in
Achebes Anthills of the Savannah The novel starts out by
describing a Cabinet meeting. he decides to travel away from the
capital to the province of Abazon.The African Novel ENG 281 3.
The President actually wants Chris to do the firing. Ikem makes a
radical speech at the University of Bassa (the capital of Kangan).
born and raised in Abazon. who thinks Ikem's writing in the
Gazette is too critical of his "administration". He's charged for
treason and conspiracy. dictatorial rule set up in Kangan (Nigeria)
and most of the other "new" African states that let down the
dreams and hopes that were associated with independence. he is
stopped by the traffic police because of some misdemenour. it
turns out that there has been some kind of a coup d'tat and the
President has fled the country. The people are dissatisfied
because. He refuses to meet the delegation. the man shoots him
dead. After a couple of weeks hiding. and although they were a
80 . It turns out that he is in a way one of them. giving the
impression that Ikem wants the President dead. When he leaves
the Abazonian delegation that day. Although the rulers were no
longer European. he too is charged with treason and becomes a
fugitive for real. By accident. After this event.

an African who has come back to his country after a longer stay
in the West. This is also the case with freedom of speech in
Kangan. The dilemma is pointed out to him by a taxi driver: by
driving himself. Instead of going out to meet them by himself.
and Braimoh. There is a direct reference to the West in the scene
in which Beatrice goes to a party that Sam has organized to
impress an American journalist. he is taking away a job
opportunity from some poor Kangan chauffeur. A good example is
Sam. The first instance of this alienation in the novel is the way
Sam deals with the problem of the Abazonian delegation. is
censored and orders regarding its contents often seem to come
straight from the President. The way Sam deals with Ikem is
reminiscent of traditional totalitarian states. a cab driver. The
larger problem here is the position of the black. the military
despot in Achebe's Anthills of the Savannah. but drives by himself
in an old beat-up car. lecturing them about how Kangan should
take care of its foreign affairs and debt. Another theme of the
book is described in Ikem's peculiar dilemma. Rodney also
observes that the colonial machinery created a military elite that
later became military dictators in the postindependence era. he
assigns someone else to do it. The fact that he's built himself a
luxurious lakeside mansion is another representation of this. a
university student leader. The paper. She represents the attitudes
of the West to the African countries in general and their unequal
standing in world politics.The African Novel ENG 281 lot closer to
the people than their European predecessors. African elite in the
new African countries. especially the Latin American juntas. The
main characters are all been-tos and this is reflected in the ways
in which they try to position themselves in relation to the
"common" Kangans. they fairly soon distanced themselves from
the people. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Critically explain how
Sam. where the elite has traditionally been of European origin.
There was no elite class in the pre-colonial period in Africa. 81 .
There is also the theme of oppressive dictatorial rule. exhibited
dictatorial governance in Kangan. Therefore he doesn't ride a
company car to work. The journalist wraps the President and the
whole Cabinet around her finger. the military president. Despite
his position as editor of the Gazette. he wants to appear like just
another Kangan worker. apparently the only one in the country.
The novel also deals with the theme of being a been-to. An
example of this is how Chris relates to Emmanuel.

A novel like Frank Mowahs Eating by the Flesh is an incursion into

a typical military camp and what they do wrong which ought to
place them as people that lack the will power and the moral
standing for governance. They had series of wars. The war lasted
three years. 82 . Most of them went into the executive power
through coups and counter coups to the detriment of the masses.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 Explain the traumatic
experiences of African countries with military leaders. and
Mozambique have been having wars and they are under military
rulers. The state of these countries is totally pathetic because
these military leaders have been ruling in violation of democratic
procedures because they were not elected by the people. Some
writers have also treated the issue of militarism by exposing the
ills that go on in military barracks. There are numerous novels
treating the issue of militarism and wars in Africa. Sudan. They
lack human sympathy. Most times they go into exile so that they
will not be killed for exposing the state of human carnage in their
country. They kill each other. We shall learn more about this in
the unit treating war novels. A close reading of Biyi Bandeles
Burma Boy will expose so much about the odds of militarism from
a global perspective. military base. The writers in these countries
have been writing literatures of commitment where they expose
these sad history periods in their countries. Nigeria in 1966 under
the leadership of General Yakubu Gowon experienced the most
traumatic war because another military man Chukwuemeka
Odimegwu Ojukwu decided to secede with his people the Igbos
because of the marginalization and killings of the people.4 The
Politics of Militarism in other novels Many African countries have
had and still have military leaders in power. They sleep with each
others wives.The African Novel ENG 281 3. A country like Liberia
and Sierra Leone just got extricated from the military grip. They
rape their colleagues children amongst other atrocities. Literature
like history records these experiences. Rwanda. and military
headquarters. Many countries in Africa that suffered wars and
that had history of wars were the countries under military
leaderships. Kenya. Many African countries like Congo. They
declared Biafran Republic but this was resisted by the Nigerian

a form of identity. In such a situation. and of moral standing. But

though not irrelevant. defined by passports and legal instruments
merely. two of the principal thinkers in the novel. In such
regimes.has passed. also. erases nationalities. history is the
account of the post-colonial encounter because there are no
longer nations and peoples. Clearly. they come to correct but end
up destroying what they ought to correct. or more exactly. a
destiny conceived as having a life and purpose of its own. and
possibly a misleading. It is different from the condition created by
national histories. We see Sam. makes destiny irrelevant and
even problematic. a renewal that crashes at the point of hope.
society. as the narrative suggests in its time-line. is an age after
innocence. but about the destiny of particular peoples.0
SUMMARY Novels of militarism are common in Africa because of
the endless military leadership resulting from colonial
experiences. a post-independence. in this sense. Clearly. even
when that history is rife with exile and dispersal.The African Novel
ENG 281 4. It tells of an important.0 CONCLUSION The role of
the military in Africa has been more of the negative. the old-style
colonial era . A 'post-colonial' view of African history is an entirely
ugly record because of the ugly military imposition of power. one.
and there is nothing to remember or recall. and has been
replaced by the neocolonial but they are wrong since they think
act more like their colonial 83 . think they are intellectuals
engaged in the building of a new and just postcolonial. The
military reminds us that the experience of colonialism dissolves
all identities. The anthills of the savannah are eternal reminders
of the many wild fires of every national history. As seen in the
two novels under study. even crucial. of course. The military
created regimes of trauma. It acknowledges that colonialism was
a fact of history that Africans can not dismiss urgently. This study
enables us to understand what a people have become in the
process of a particular form of political and cultural contact. That
is why it helps to see that Anthills of the Savannah is not about
nation-building in the postcolonial era.the Age of European
Empire . Post-colonial African history thus becomes the story of
the end of old history. national identity is a mere fabrication. this
approach to history can be a limiting. Post colonialism. The coup
in A Man of the People which ought to bring respite to the people
ended up bring up a regime more traumatic than the preceding
government. moment in a process of becoming a stable political
nation. Chris and Ikem as the residues of western colonial might
entrenching western values in various ways in African polity. 5.
Their only theme is renewal. both Chris and Ikem. of old

6. London. The struggle which the elder speaks about is the

struggle of the Abazon people. Heinemann. Burma Boy. it would
not be totally absurd to see the action of the novel as post-
history. 5) Assess the influence of colonialism on post-
independent Africa as reflected in African novels of military
themes.The African Novel ENG 281 predecessors. only a re-
grouping for another start in Abazon. London. Mowah. acted
according to European directives in Anthills of the Savannah.
Heinemann. the climax of experiences of the novel returns us.
(2007). but to the national trauma. Bandele. (1987). Lagos:
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer these questions: 1)
Explain why African novelists use militarism as themes in their
works 2) What are the reasons for military intervention in A Man
of the People? 3) Sam. (1998). Frank. There is no lament for
Kangan at the end. The final issue is not about the future of the
state. Eating by the Flesh. Even so. Achebe. Anthills of the
Savannah. (1967). Odili and Max represent the same post
colonial odds that prevailed much in the military era. Chinua. but
the future of the people. Explain the roles of the two major
characters in the two novels under study here. Biyi. the military
president. 7. Chief Nanga. but the path to the future survival of
Ikem's people in a world whose delimitation now includes the
state of Kangan. and the path which will be kept open is not only
the path to the redeeming ideas associated with Ikem. With all
this present. Chinua. There is often an endless run of anarchy in
the African polity and the African novelists have been recording
these experiences while suggesting a regeneration of ideas and
ideals to make the African states anarchy free. How true is this
statement? 4) There are no differences between Sam and Nanga.
not to the country. Ibadan: Kraft. A Man of the People. The
endless strife continues especially as the western world fuels it
for their advantage.
0 General Overview Anti-colonial Disillusionment in Ngugis Petals
of Blood Anti-colonial themes in Arrow of God Conclusion
Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.The African Novel ENG 281 MODULE 3 VARIETIES OF THE
AFRICAN NOVELS Unit 1 Anti-Colonial African Novel Unit 2 African
Novel and Marxism Unit 3 Novels of Social Realities Unit 4 Gender
& Class in African Novel Unit 5 War Fiction UNIT 1 ANTI-
COLONIAL AFRICAN NOVEL CONTENTS 1. the negative import of
colonialism in Africa and on African people. They have often
attacked African politicians. Ngugi wa Thiongo.0 Introduction 2.0
6.0 7.0 Objectives 3. They have often exposed the evils of
colonialism and have strongly proved that the anomalies in
African politics and sociology stem from European indoctrination.
85 . Ayi Kwei Armah amongst others have often focused on anti-
colonial themes in their novels.0 Main Content 3. There are
reasons to believe that the educated Africans who embraced
European values and attitudes have started retracting their
colonial mentality and thereby exposing the evils associated with
colonialism.2 3. We shall examine Chinua Achebes Arrow of God
and Ngugi wa Thiongos Petals of Blood in treating this theme.
Most elite Africans have come to realize that colonialism affected
almost every aspect of African culture and sociology. Most works
of African literature in all genres have the thematic perspective of
revealing mostly.1 3.3 4.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit. African
writers have been at the fore-front of this retraction. we shall
examine what anti-colonialism entails in African novel. Some
African writers like Chinua Achebe. intellectuals and African who
practise European ideals against their rich African values.
Sembene Ousmane. leaders.0 5.

The African Novel ENG 281 2. there is the other kind in which a
new language prevails. and the African continent in general. The
multiple paths that are followed include a thorough examination
of the ideologies and context(s) within which the work was
produced. This is premised on the awareness that there is always
a close relationship between African literature and its historical
context(s). Chinua Achebe and Ngugi wa Thiongo have often
been described as anti-colonial writers because they have often
chronicled the experiences of Africans during colonial days. this is
relatively unfamiliar to many perhaps even most readers.
Some other writers like Ayi Kwei Armah. a reflection of the
problems of the authors immediate society. However.1 General
Overview The contemporary African novel is a vast phenomenon.
Second. They write to draw sympathizers from non-Africans and
to direct Africans properly in avoiding the repetition of such
experience. First. the students should be able to: understand
the reasons for anti-colonial themes in African novels appreciate
African novels with anti-colonial themes discuss anti-colonial
subject matters in African novels realize that African literature is
often a reaction to history and experiences assess the basic
historical reasons for anti-colonial novels.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.0
OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit. there is the social-realistic
narrative convention that has been familiar to readers and still
exists. Okot P Bitek. 3. that is. Taban Lo Liyong. It also exposes
the traumatic effects of colonial power on Africas development. A
more formidable problem arises from the fact that African writers
are writing two different kinds of fiction. the consideration of the
expression of life of disenchantment and pain in the novel. Many
African novelists have been termed anti-colonial because of the
manner in which the African colonial experiences are attacked. 86
. Cyprian Ekwensi are also among those who wrote anti-colonial
novels. in particular. that magnitude is perhaps the least of the
difficulties facing the critic in attempting to capture a fair view of
this ever-growing field. All lead to the unmasking of the novel as
a socially symbolic act.

the "black sheep" of an otherwise successful Christian family. "I

wanted to go deep into the country where I would have no
reminder of so bitter a betrayal" (255). It is the first of Ngugi's
novels which is fairly and squarely about independent Africa. until
interrupted by events. is to keep his head down. in which he
moves to reveal the anti-colonialist base in his early works.
during which time he marries a Kenyan "pagan" who converts to
Christianity to ingratiate herself to her powerful in laws. in fact."
Munira is preceded in arriving at Ilmorog by Abdulla. make their
way to the village. Petals of Blood was received as a "political
bombshell" in Kenya and elsewhere. His father Ezekiel Waweru is
a wealthy and pious landowner who had been attacked by the
Mau Mau rebels as a collaborator with the British colonizers. The
story is set in the small remote village of Ilmorog. Abdulla has the
psychological advantage over Munira of having participated as an
active fighter in the liberation struggle. Four characters. Munira
finds refuge as the headmaster of the poorly attended Ilmorog
Elementary School. Munira started on his path to "failure" when
he is expelled for his relatively minor role in a student strike at
the elite Sariana High School. The change in regime has hardly
affected his fortune. 3. each originally from the larger nearby city
of Limuru. losing part of a leg in the process.2 Anti-Colonial
Disillusionment in Ngugis Petals of Blood Petals of Blood is widely
regarded as an important work in Ngugi's career. After several
years as an itinerant educator. who shares to a lesser extent the
schoolteacher's demoralization and has come to the remote
village to run a small store. or "quietism. Abdulla had also once
worked in a shoe factory that experienced frequent labour
disputes. Godfrey Munira is a declass bourgeoisie. which had
caused him to become class conscious and to question the
realities of the national economy: 87 . which serves for Ngugi as
a metaphor for developments throughout Kenya in the
postcolonial era. His strategy for coping with the new Kenya. Each
character comes to Ilmorog motivated largely by a desire to
escape the pervasive malaise afflicting Kenya after Uhuru
(independence).The African Novel ENG 281 SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 1 It is the duty of the writer to direct his society
properly. However. it has offered additional opportunities. and
each of the four characters serves to illustrate a different strategy
for coping in the oppressive conditions of the new black-run
country. Explain how anti-colonial novels achieved this.

[. 88 .. Karega studies and travels.The African Novel ENG 281 He

had asked himself several times: how was it that a boss who
never once lifted a load. Why? Why? I asked myself. Karega
resolutely refuses to accept the new status quo. Why? Why? Had
he not sinned as much as me? That's how one night I fully
realized this law. who never once dirtied his hands in the smelly
water and air in the tannery or in any other part of the complex.
You sit on somebody or somebody sits on you.] this same Kimeria
was one of those who would benefit from the new economic
progress of Ilmorog. and eventually becomes a union organizer in
the new Ilmorog.. Karega settles into Ilmorog as the assistant
teacher in Munira's growing school. (291 .) Like the others. this
Kenya .. She abandons the infant child resulting from the affair."
Wanja finally succumbs to the apparent national creed of the new
postcolonial Kenya: This world .. and beginning a (largely
platonic) partnership that will continue throughout the book. he
comes to Ilmorog seeking answers to his own situation amid the
ubiquitous national confusion.. Wanja had been shaken by a
disastrous affair with the unscrupulous businessman Hawkins
Kimeria.." arrives in Ilmorog to begin anew. As the old Ilmorog is
destroyed by "progress. and former pupil of Munira (and erstwhile
lover of the headmaster's late sister Mukami. this Africa knows
only one law.. after a period of drunken dissipation in the city.]
No. shifting his principles within a narrow range.. who had ruined
my life [. She persuades Abdulla to hire her.. transforming the
sleepy store into a lively watering hole. You eat somebody or you
are eaten. the granddaughter of one of Ilmorog's elder
matriarchs. Soon Munira and Abdulla are joined by Wanja.
However. another one-time student rebel expelled from Sariana.
Dismissed from his Ilmorog teaching post by Munira's jealous
machinations. [. Eventually. could still live in a big house and own
a car and employ a driver and more than four people only to cut
grass in the compound? (136) Abdulla copes by reinventing
himself as circumstances demand. [.] Nothing would I ever let for
free.] Kimeria. seeking an answer in collective struggle. Wanja is
not one to passively take life's blows.294) The final arrival in
Ilmorog is Karega. I will never return to the herd of victims.. His
character provides the clearest articulation of Ngugi's politics.
another refugee from the city.. and survives by constantly
metamorphisizing into new roles. Eat or you are eaten.. A once
promising student. and after a brief career in the city as a
"barmaid. While sharing Wanja's and Abdullahs capacity for
personal transformation.

The lawyer becomes the Ilmorog contingent's most important

benefactor in Nairobi. Nderi wa Riera offers a reluctant welcome
before unleashing the police on his ragged constituents for
disturbing the (his) peace. refusing to provide the weary travelers
any food. The lawyer is also significant for helping to direct
Karega into classconscious political activism. Wealthy
businessman Kimeria holds some members of the delegation
hostage while raping Wanja. Ngugi uses the delegation's
reception in Nairobi to reveal the hypocrisy of various elite-run
institutions in postcolonial Kenya. such as Wanja's grandmother
Nyankinyua. The lawyer also benefits from the publicity
surrounding the Ilmorog delegation's visit and rebuke by their
MP.The African Novel ENG 281 Ngugi places these four characters
in remote Ilmorog. The most propitious event of the villagers'
urban sojourn is their connection with "the lawyer. offering them
shelter. but more importantly becoming their advocate and
spokesperson. When a persistent drought threatens the very
survival of the village's residents. Karega suggests something of
author Ngugi's own dissatisfaction with African literature:
Imaginative literature was not much different: the authors
described the conditions correctly: they seemed able to reflect
accurately the contemporary situation of fear. offers the ailing
Ilmorog group mere "spiritual" sustenance. obscurity and
mysticism: was there no way out except cynicism? Were people
helpless victims? (200). the unseen and mysterious occult priest.
now inhabited only by those too old. As he grows and develops
his politics. through conversation. young. feeble or tired to move
to a city and its greater opportunities. offer residual memories of
the village's former glory. eventually gaining election himself to
parliament. Jerrod Brown. Karega suggests a delegation travel to
Nairobi to appeal for assistance from their Member of
Parliament." a liberal or social-democratic Kenyan who attempts
to uphold the grand vision of Uhuru. once a thriving commercial
center. The educational leader Chui is entertaining a select crowd
and can't be bothered assisting poor villagers. water or shelter.
89 . The four former city dwellers lead a motley group of
peasants on a pivotal trip that will forever change the fortunes of
Ilmorog. The community is presided over by Mwathi wa Mugo.
correspondence and shared reading materials. A church leader.
And Ilmorog's MP. oppression and deprivation: but thereafter they
lead him down the paths of pessimism. A few of Ilmorog's older
residents. using his education to assist Kenya's poor.

In America vice is a selling commodity. and even the same

sickness. realizing a brief shared moment of personal satisfaction.
the same symptoms. led by the most despicable of selfish
exploiters: Kimeria. Just as this demonic trio are about to plot
their response to Karega's successful union agitation. complete
with all the urban vices. We worked overtime to make a meagre
living. I saw the same signs. While hosting the Ilmorog
delegation. He relates his experiences in the United States.. a
recent convert to fanatical Christian evangelism. What then is the
meaning of it all? Then I saw in the cities of America white people
also begging ." For a brief period the rains and optimism return to
Ilmorog. saw white women selling their bodies for a few dollars.
now that the black man has come to power. The lawyer. However.
(166). Mzigo and Chui. a black man is not safe abroad. the
African Economic Bank and eventually the Trans-Africa highway. I
saw a lot of unemployment in Chicago and other cities. has
crucial importance for relating Ngugi's political views. they are
consumed in a fire at Wanja's brothel started by Munira. I was
confused. a police station. though a relatively minimal presence
in Petals of Blood.. indicating the international class dimensions of
the postcolonial dilemma. And suddenly as in a flash of lightning I
saw that we were serving the same monster-god as they were in
America . Petals of Blood concludes by relating the destruction
brought to the old village by "progress. The New Ilmorog
becomes a boom town. After the pivotal Ilmorog delegations visit
to the national capitol.The African Novel ENG 281 When the
lawyer is assassinated--with little doubt as a consequence of his
reformist efforts in parliament--he provides another lesson to
Karega: that relief from neo-colonial oppression won't come from
elite institutions such as Parliament. allowing Karega and Wanja
time to fall in love. So I said: let me return to my home. where
he gained direct experience with racist violence and oppression
directed against blacks: Is this not what has been happening in
Kenya since 1896? So I said to myself: a black man is not safe at
home.. the village is soon visited by increasing intrusion from the
city: a church. I worked alongside white and black workers in a
Detroit factory.. the lawyer gives the most explicit account of how
Kenyan liberation was sacrificed to the capitalist "monster-god."
The lawyer also begins to transcend race and nationality. 90 .
which symbolically crushes the abode of the town's elder spirit
Mwathi wa Mugo.

Umuaro village is in peace until the arrival of the colonial masters

into the hinterlands of Nigeria. little did he know that it would
cause much harm to the village of Umuaro. More so. Nwaka. of
Umunneora village. which was in dispute between Umuaro and
Okperi. The rivalry becomes severe when Oduche imprisoned a
python in a box. He decides secretly to send his son Oduche to
the church in order to acquire their power. The eating of the last
yam predetermines the date for the new feast. He was expected
to eat the three sacred yams he missed as a result of his arrest
but he refused insisting that he would begin his count from the
day he was released. Ezeulus stubbornness led to famine and
starvation in Umuaro Village because he refused to name the day
for the new yam festival. He was attempting to kill the highly
revered snake which is the symbol of worship of Idemili. He
determines the day for the new yam feast as he meticulously eats
each of the select 12 yams at the appearance of every new
moon.The African Novel ENG 281 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Explain how European influence affects African politics and
government as presented in Petals of Blood. the god that protects
the whole villages of Umuaro. senses that Ezeulus decision might
affect the efficacy of Ulu. Obika and even went mad in the
process. Ulu the god is seen as the great protector of the village.
In all the confusion. Captain Winterbottom. the Chief priest Ulu.
He was really provoked and vowed to make life miserable for
them. They came with religion and their gun in order to force the
natives to work within their whims and caprices. He sees their
religion as something a little powerful.3 Anti-Colonial Themes in
Arrow of God Arrow of God centres on Ezeulu. He was challenged
by his arch-rival. Nwaka. He expected that his people would come
and rescue him from the Whitemans grip but they never budged.
Although this sincerity on the land issue drew him closer to the
colonial administrator in charge of the area. belonged to Okperi
sparked more trouble for him. revered and feared. so its priest is
respected beyond the usual spiritual control to a political height.
Captain Winterbottom had no option but to appoint him a Warrant
Chief because of his sincerity and integrity. The confused 91 . He
refused the offer and was held in Winterbottoms custody for
three months within which period he could not eat three sacred
yams. the Chief Priest of Idemili. Ezeulus insistence that the
land. he lost his most beloved son. Ezeulu has been very careful
in the management of the affairs of the village since his position
as the Chief Priest bestowed on him powers akin to that of a
political head in the village. He openly challenges Ezeulu on the
matter. Ezeulu saw the whites as people with high wisdom. 3.
4.The African Novel ENG 281 villagers had no option but to go to
the Christian god for solace and protection. He explained that
Africans did not hear of culture for the first time from the
Europeans.0 SUMMARY Anti-colonial novels are reactions by
African novelists to the evils of colonialism. 5. His novel Things
Fall Apart was a direct reaction to Joyce Carys Mister Johnson
which was a novel filled with ugly pictures about Africa and the
African people. Imagine the detention of Ezeulu for refusing to
accept an appointment from Winterbottom. They were told that
African religion was fetish while the European religion was the
only key to meeting God Almighty. He was treated with disrespect
and unnecessarily detained which led to the famine in the land.
More so. All these issues and more were attacked in the two
novels under study and these are anti-colonial elements. The
novel is anti-colonial because it exposed the inconsiderate
attitude of the colonialists who believe that the Africans have no
mind of their own. the use of arms in settling local conflicts was
intimidating. They were taught that African culture and systems
of government were impracticable and should be discarded.0
CONCLUSION It is clear from the two novels under study that
Ngugi wa Thiongo and Chinua Achebe have revealed to a large
extent. Africans were given the orientation that they were inferior
to the whites. Laws are imposed on the Africans as if they have
no human rights. delivered them. Africans were meant to believe
that they were inferior to the whites. Chinua Achebe. acting on
Gods behalf. They have explained how Africans were made slaves
in their own countries and how African customs and tradition
were manipulated to suit the interest of the colonial masters.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Ezeulu and Captain Winterbottom
represent two different cultures. Most of Africas 92 . Explain how
Achebe presented them with regards to their sense of politics and
religion. the negative influences of colonialism on Africans.
Chinua Achebe stated in his authorial creed that he would be
quite satisfied if his novels especially the ones he set in the past
could do no more than make his readers realize that their past
with all its imperfections was not one long night of savagery from
which the first Europeans. Ngugi wa Thiongo and most African
writers have been writing anti-colonial novels as a reaction to the
ugly of presentation Africa by European writers.


(1975). Chinua. Arrow of God.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Answer these questions: 1) What was the major anti-colonial
issue presented in Petals of Blood? 2) Explain the attack on
Christian religion as presented in Arrow of God. Petals of Blood
London: Heinemann. (1975). London: Heinemann. (1968).The
African Novel ENG 281 problems emanate from colonial times and
there are evidences of European manipulation of African
governments in order to have positive gains while imposing
negative vices like war and injustice on the Africans. 4) If anti-
colonial novels attack colonialism. Chinua. London: Heinemann.
what do they teach Africans? 5) Is it possible for a novel to be
anti-colonial without discussing colonialism? 7. Morning yet on
Creation Day. 6. Achebe. 93 . 3) Defend the statement by Achebe
that Africans did not hear of culture first from the Europeans.

Surplus value is the difference between what the worker is paid

and the price for which the product is sold. the workers.0 6. in
order to support their families are paid a bare minimum wage or
salary. and exchange.0 General Overview Marxism in Festus
Iyayis Violence Marxism in Meja Mwangis Kill Me Quick Other
Anti-Colonial Perspectives in African Novels Conclusion Summary
Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings 1.
characterized by a free competitive market and motivation by
profit. distribution. Marxism is the antithesis of capitalism which
is defined by Encarta as an economic system based on the
private ownership of the means of production and distribution of
goods. Marx continues. they have the ability only to sell their own
labour.0 7. The capitalists sell the products produced by the
workers at a proportional value as related to the labour involved.
94 . wars. we shall examine what Marxism is as a political and
literary theory and how African writers have responded to it.The
CONTENTS 1.3 3.0 Introduction 2.2 3.0 5. He proclaimed that
history is the chronology of class struggles. Marxism is an
economic and social system based upon the political and
economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. the
proletariat.0 INTRODUCTION In this Unit. Marxism is summed up
in the Encarta Reference Library as a theory in which class
struggle is a central element in the analysis of social change in
Western societies.0 Objectives 3.4 4. Under capitalism. The
worker is alienated because he has no control over the labour or
product which he produces. Marxism is the system of socialism
of which the dominant feature is public ownership of the means of
production.0 Main Content 3. own only their capacity to work.
the working class or the people.1 3. According to Marx a class is
defined by the relations of its members to the means of
production. Under capitalism. and uprisings. While it would take
veritably volumes to explain the full implications and ramifications
of the Marxist social and economic ideology.

1 General Overview Since the independence of most African

nations. 3.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit. A proletariat or
socialist revolution must occur. An increasing immiseration of the
proletariat occurs as the result of economic recessions. The
communist slogan varies thus: From each according to his
ability. The society still reflects some characteristic social and
economic structures created by colonial rule. according to Marx.
African novelists have been examining the political and economic
situation of their countries with the aim of correcting the
anomalies. Although the independence sought is ultimately
achieved by African countries. the students should be able to:
understand what Marxism is appreciate African novels with
Marxist themes assess Marxist tendencies in African novels
discuss the use of Marxism in African literature.The African Novel
ENG 281 Armed with this philosophy aimed at assessing the state
of polity in African states. The economies still reflect the interest
of the imperial power and the associated dominant groups.0
MAIN CONTENT 3. where the state (the means by which the
ruling class forcibly maintains their rule over the other classes) is
a dictatorship of the proletariat. The commoners or the masses
are not fairly treated and they constitute the majority in the
countries and reveal high poverty level because of the ever
increasing poverty. to each according to his work. African
novelists like Ngugi wa 95 . New forces and ideas come to the
fore. these recessions result because the working class is unable
not consume all of the surplus value. 2. We are going to examine
Festus Iyayis Violence and Meja Mwangis Kill Me Quick in the
application of this philosophy in African novels. presaging major
social and economic changes. Communism evolves from socialism
out of this progression: the socialist slogan is From each
according to his ability. to each according to his needs. Some of
the anomalies include the steady rise of the rich while the poor
get poorer resulting from the imbalance in the distribution of
resources. there have been lingering imbalances in the
distribution of the resources of the countries. nothing tangible has
happened to the resolution of the crises of status and the

He is used just like a horse needs only receive so as enables him

work. He is not considered for leisure as a human being and
rather than fulfill himself in the work. pp. 3. struggles with
unemployment and poverty in a social background of class
intolerance. The direct result of this is apparently a dichotomy
between two classes . Ayi Kwei Armah. Since he works for
someone else. The worker only receives an insignificant portion of
the proceeds only for survival. While at work. He does not
develop freely a physical and mental energy but is physically
exhausted and mentally debased. They have examined the
various deceits. Social crisis is therefore bound to arise as a
reaction by the exploited workers who are in the majority.the
labourer (the worker) who receives his means of subsistence in
exchange for his labour-power. injustice and all forms of economic
sabotage in their countries. and the capitalist who receives the
workers labour and appropriates all the proceeds arising from it.
he does deny himself. he does not belong to himself but to
another person (ibid. He is without capital or investment or
ground rent and lives entirely on his labour. Maik Nwosu among
others have been revealing Marxist ideals in their works. 177).
They have often attacked the excesses of governance that
impinges on the proper administration of the states. Right from
the cover design of the novel.The African Novel ENG 281
Thiongo.. Iyayi depicts clearly a class conflict. Festus Iyayi.
Idemudia. The means of production thus shifted. nepotism. SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the basic ideals of Marxism
and why African writers adopt it as a way of presenting the
African situation. the worker feels homeless because the work is
not his own. They are often seen as angry writers crying out for
peace and justice in Africa. the bourgeois class is represented by
a modern society. They have often examined what the elite are
doing with powers left in their hands by the colonialists. These
conditions are the consequent creation of the capitalist society as
portrayed by Iyayis Violence.the movers of the bourgeois society.
The masses 96 .2 Marxism in Festus Iyayi's Violence Socialist
realism as exemplified in Violence questions an existing social
order and articulates a revolutionary option. Capitalism is an
economic system in which the factors of production are
concentrated in a few hands resulting in the alienation of property
from the direct producers the workers. become the property of
the capitalist . enriched with skyscrapers. Wole Soyinka. In the
capitalist society the worker is an exploited and alienated.

whose ill-gotten affluence places them on the apex of the society.

At the work-site work condition is extremely unbearable. he sends
the child to the village. of getting medical attention cheaply. even
the educated are unsafe from exploitation. Iyayi portrays
Idemudias dilemma as not only arising from his poor education.
sacked at will.a life of agony of having to feed a loyal and
determined wife who grows increasingly bitter because of their
condition. the act of violence is committed against him (ibid.
193). Their social dilemma and deprivation is the subject of
Iyayis criticism in Violence. of getting a job. intimidated and
denied the opportunity to negotiate for a higher wage. quickly
and promptly. The bourgeois take the advantage of Idemudias
unskilled labour to exploit him. Omoifo and Patrick) represent the
Nigerian worker. When a man is denied opportunity. An indebted
Idemudia and his wife cannot pay their debts yet the man works
hard but is paid so little a paltry sum of N5 at the end of the
month.The African Novel ENG 281 are depicted in a dilapidated
tent in a shanty slum. Idemudia unfortunately ends his secondary
education in class four when his father could no longer pay his
school fees. own a fleet of cars. The Obofuns whose wealth is
accumulated through fraud in collusion with the government live
in sheer luxury. The Nigerian employer who Queen Obofun
represents is constructed as a slave driver who is insensitive of
the basic needs of his worker. of being educated. He fails to
secure employment after many years. The employment of
labourers in her construction company is to save her low-cost
housing contract which the government had threatened to
terminate for her delay in executing the project. In the Nigerian
capitalism. He is alternatively thrown into the labour market
unprepared. of feeding himself and his family properly. they
worked in subdued silence like prisoners. He is forced to hang
around Iyaro for hire as a common labourer . Marries and has a
son. his wife and his three friends. While Idemudia is so poor that
he cannot even replace an old broom in his room. (Osaro. He is
ever ready to extort and exploit especially those who lack the
guts to say No! And Iyayi calls this Violence. he is underpaid and
his condition suffers consistent degeneration. The workers are
slave-driven. and own a chain of hotels. the wealthy Queen (his
employer) throws away left-over food in her refuse bins. so that
though he works hard. coming and 97 . An overt contrast to this
condition is the world of the opulent depicted by Obofun and his
wife Queen. but also lacking an opportunity to improve himself
through his labour. Iyayi postulates that there is too much
injustice in this system. This explains the argument of Marx in his
appraisal of capitalist ideals as the worker is simply exiled and
dehumanized. pp. Idemudia.

Iyayi through the Defence counsel argues that every form of

sabotage. because individuals are no more responsible for their
actions than the society conditions them. Idemudias illness and
subsequent admission in the hospital reveals class consciousness
in the administration of the hospital. because the rich who seldom
fall sick have the best hospital facilities reserved for them while
the poor who are prone to frequent ailments have no hospitals. In
fact. He advocates for a mass revolt which hopefully would usher
in a new socio-economic order. 98 . and violence should be
answered with violence. The lack of privilege and opportunity to
the worker is a greater violence than whatever reaction the
aggrieved worker might project. Here again Iyayi insists that it is
the social institution that makes the man and determines his level
of morality. Senior service wards are for the rich and in most
cases the executive wards are virtually empty. crime or
prostitution in the society is a direct consequence of lack of
opportunity propagated by irresponsible government as well as
intolerant class stratification. To him capitalism is violence. Iyayi
insists that it is the poverty of Idemudias family. pp 246).
Idemudia and Osaro sell their blood to a man in a Mercedes Benz
car. Unlucky patients are forced to sleep on the bare floor along
the corridor in front of the wards.The African Novel ENG 281
going in the intense light of the sun (ibid. In the mock-drama
embedded within the plot of the novel. Festus Iyayi sees the
Nigerian capitalist society as committing various forms of violence
against the masses. through the Defence Counsel. showing that
capitalism saps the last drop of blood of the common man and
rapes his manhood. In Violence. Class dichotomy in a capitalist
society generates class discrimination and breeds hostility. This
condition eventually forced Idemudia and his co-workers to
embark on an industrial action. class intolerance affects even the
running of the hospital. the lack of food and the lack of money to
pay Idemudias hospital bill that drive Adisa to adultery. Iyayi
portrays this situation as injustice against workers. Idemudia can
only go to a lower Ogbe hospital where the general wards are so
congested that patients are paired up in beds irrespective of the
nature of their diseases. also titled Violence. Iyayi calls to
question the moral eligibility of judges. Adisa must convince
herself that her poverty justifies her offering her body as a way of
solving her material problem. And Iyayi argues that physical
violence is a moral option against psychological violence. the
Defence Counsel puts the whole society on trial and postulates
that the society lacks moral qualification to punish crimes.

which creates a motley array of failure and ridiculous figures.

Mwangis novel also reveals that in African neocolonial societies.
There is a concentration on the perennial dissonance among
individuals. His fiction reveals that one major unfortunate
problem runs through the (neo) colonial African societies
frustration or betrayal of trust. as well as most postcolonial
African texts. especially as this discord manifests itself in the
areas of prime interest to the novelist social classes. poverty.
work towards the same objective: the vitiation of human dignity.
and a pessimistic view of future evolution. Hence. The social
injustices of neo-colonialism constitute the driving dynamic in the
novel. These. agony. There emerges from Mwangis handling of
disillusionment and pain a virulent critique of the African past and
present. in forms of arrest.3 Marxism in Meja Mwangis Kill Me
Quick In Kill Me Quick the reader encounters a new realistic
fiction from Kenya. has been enmeshed since 1963 in the crucible
of deaths and births. Kill Me Quick. It highlights the dictatorial
and oppressive tendencies of the imperialists and neo-colonial
rulers in African nations. politics and domestics. In fact. like many
other postcolonial African novels. races. humiliation and an aura
of repression. This is the general visceral sentiment that forms
the background of Mwangis fiction. genders. hate. corruption and
other forms of oppression. corruption and rampant scarcity of
personal integrity have replaced the hitherto peaceful existence.
exile and execution. Kenya. despite their differentiating
phraseologies. dehumanization and starvation. which are
encumbered with dislocation. Common issues in postcolonial
literary works include tyranny. It presents a harsh account of
urban life in postcolonial Kenya. The problem of class
stratification in neo-colonial African societies is captured vividly at
the beginning of the novel: 99 . 3. depression and deprivation.
the referent society of the text.The African Novel ENG 281 SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain thoroughly how Idemudia and
Adisa tried to survive the harsh economic realities in their society.
Resonating through the novel is an echo of the painful existence
of the masses in the neo-colonial society. the novel has altered
the traditional map of African fiction beyond recognition because
of his undisguised depiction of postcolonial decadence and the
harshness and abruptness of its style. The novel is a chronicle of
the existential and societal realities of the neo-colonial Kenyan
nation. The theme of postcolonial decadence in the text thus
becomes a metaphor for the history of neo-colonial African
nations. religions. mediocrity and macabre corporate distrust
have been sown. the seeds of disharmony. reveals an atmosphere
of fear. alienation.

They scrutinized the ragged beggars who floated ghostly past him
as closely as they watched the smart pot-bellied executives
wrinkling their noses at the foul stench of backyards. As a
naturalist. 1).The African Novel ENG 281 Meja sat by the ditch
swinging his legs this way and that. and a common insistence on
postcolonial disillusionment. And between these two types of
beings. decay. frustration and incompatibility. and his novel
chronicles the fate of an impotent silent majority. As if natural
calamity is not an albatross about the neck of the Kenyans. He
exposes his societys filth. Social relationships are permanently
tense in the novel. In consequence. as a result of exploitation and
crises of the world. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Assess how
Mwangi presented the living condition of Kenyans in the hands of
neo-colonial elites. A few people passed by engrossed in their
daily problems and none of them gave the lanky youth a thought.
the text dwells on the suffering endured by innocent humanity. he
observes the panoramic view of his society and fictionalizes it as
it is. This is an index of unfulfilled hope. His fiction shows him to
be a humanist because human concerns like class and gender
inequality remain largely foregrounded in the novel. In the main.
The issues of disillusionment and pain. are shown in their
contemporary fullness in Kill Me Quick. in Kill Me Quick. there is
also the problem of class. 100 . the novel in which he takes up
the fact that conflict is unavoidable in human society. Mwangi
selects realistic details from ordinary life. contradictions and
conflicts with a view to presenting a true picture of it. It takes as
its thematic focus the foregrounding of the exploitation of the
masses by the ruling class. and are marked by continuous
dissonance. administrative bureaucracy. Meja made comparison
(Kill Me Quick. But the searching eyes of Meja missed nothing.
the painful. He has a vision of life as hell. which are found in
Mwangis previous novels. betrayal of public confidence. Mwangis
thematic focus centres on the portrayal of the terrifying. and
shows what happens when one engages in social conflict with
one's society. highly decadent and socially stratified society that
breeds and nurtures exploitation and oppression of the less
privileged in society. Mwangi gives a scathing indictment of the
failure of the new state to provide opportunities for the youths. In
the novel.

which is more ruthless than the colonial predecessors.The African

Novel ENG 281 3. colonialism and neo-colonialism. Devil on the
Cross. where modern literature has grown against the gory
background of European imperialism and its changing
manifestations: slavery. Matigari and recently Wizard of the Crow
were more explicit and outspoken about the atrocities of the
Kenyatta and Moi regimes. Ngugis early narratives . SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 Many African novelists write to attack
the imbalances in politics and economy in their countries.4
Marxism and African Novels Ayi Kwei Armah in his The Beautiful
Ones Are Not Yet Born and Debo Kotun in his Abiku are Marxist in
outlook especially in their thematic concerns. The relationship
between creative literature and these other forces cannot be
ignored. Examination of the past is one way of turning the
countrys attention to the present: highlighting the oppression of
the Neo-colonialists. His voice in these novels reveals him as a
hard core Marxist fighting against all manners of economic and
political slavery that his people have been subjected as a result of
neo-colonial capitalism and other forms of economic ills. What is
101 . However. Our culture over the last hundred years has
developed against the same stunting dwarfing background.0
CONCLUSION Literature does not grow or even develop in a
vacuum. shape. direction and even area of concern by social.
Aminata Sow Falls The Beggars Strike and Sembene Ousmenes
Gods Bits of Wood also reveal Marxist attacks on the political
anomalies of African states. especially in Africa. Many African
novels. Using some novels explain the Marxism inherent. he even
calls for the continuation of resistance.Petals of Blood. Like many
fellow African writers. Weep Not. Through these works. it is given
impetus. have often cried out about the anomalies in their various
countries with strong Marxist base. especially those examining
the state of politics in postindependence Africa. political and
economic forces in a particular society. Child and A Grain of
Wheat elegantly reconstruct the story of Kenyan freedom
movement. 4. Ngugis works since 1967 -. The touching
narratives prompt readers to take a fresh look at colonialism and
freedom struggle. capturing the hope of freedom and the
disillusionment that ensued. The sense of dismay with which they
confront the corruption and divisions in the new post-
independence regimes in their countries are unmistakably clear in
the novels. It examines where things had gone wrong. Ngugi
considers literature to be a weapon that brings about social and
political change.The River Between.

The characters in the novel constitute the class of people that

groans under "food crisis. as elsewhere. In Africa. and all culture.
The novel is a pure Marxist approach towards assessing the evils
of neo-colonial independent Nigeria. Kill Me Quick sums up
Mwangis concern for the prevalent social anomalies in neo-
colonial Kenya. they are frustrated 102 . We have here presented
an imbalanced class classification where the poor gets poorer and
the rich gets richer. is living in a world of anonymity. It is actually
the non-fulfillment of these hopes that leads to violence. and it is
a graphic demonstration of Mwangis sympathy for the
underprivileged members of his society. One senses a feeling of
commitment on the part of these writers as they identified the
political course for overturning the ugly political and economic
situations hampering the proper development of Africa. in fact.
The Marxist writers are protesting against all forms of anomalies
in the system. The novel is purely an assessment of the post
colonial Nigerian situation where capitalism is criminally imposed
on the helpless citizens who believe strongly in the power of the
educated elite to pilot the economy of the country properly in
order to give them respite and economic independence. It
protests the social and economic anomalies which could lead to
violence as portrayed in the plot of the story.0 SUMMARY Violence
is Iyayis intimate projection of the imbalance in Nigerias
economic situation after independence. which indeed afflicts the
global progressive movement. is also true for politics. the rest of
the world. At the beginning of the story. Immersed in the
postcolonial African milieu. reflecting his awareness of people's
predicament even in the midst of abundant resources. privileged
exploiter-class and the exploited. which create imbalances in the
development of Africa and most independent African writers have
residues of Marxism in their works. Meja and Maina are sketched
out in a society in which they think they are pariahs. The common
man rendered abstract and shadowy.The African Novel ENG 281
true for literature. His choice of this vision is unique. deplorable
mass poverty. decimating diseases and pervasive illiteracy".
egalitarian society in Kenya. the genuine Marxist tradition has
been marginalized in political discourse. Nigeria and. Mwangi and
Iyayi can only offer hints in Kill Me Quick and Violence of the
international struggle necessary to achieve a democratic. integrity
and passion suggest their great potential to overcome this
political malady. 5. This situation is common in most African
states. The novelist uses their daily experiences to harp on the
helplessness of the masses in neo-colonial African societies.
Mwangi and Iyayis intelligence. The characters are presented in
such a way that they signify the overwhelming disparity between
the dominant.

Meja Mwangi. London: Heinemann.The African Novel ENG 281

and almost destroyed by poverty. Violence. the old and shabby
dresses they wear locate them in their social class. His literary
agenda is to present life in all its details. 103 .0
REFERENCES/FURTHR READINGS Iyayi. Also. Ibadan: Longman.
simply depicts his society in the way it is without suggesting how
to change the situation. Kill Me Quick. Mwangi. Ensure that
adequate references are made to novels. (1973). free of any
preconceived notions of its meaning 6. Festus. With reference to
Iyayis Violence explain how extreme capitalism could lead to
unrest. 3. 2. (1989). Explain the major concerns of Marxist
novelists in Africa. 4. Do you believe that colonialism is the cause
of African capitalism? Assess how this issue is treated by African
novelists with Marxist intentions. their painful conditions of living
are revealed in their feeding and dressing. Relate the Nigerian
situation presented in Iyayis Violence with the Kenyan situation
portrayed in Mwangis Kill Me Quick. Actually. the naturalist. 7.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer these questions: 1. They
are entrapped in their woeful and painful world. Unlike the
socialist realist who believes in the inevitability of change.

They believe that the worker under the capitalist regimes was
miserable and alienated. marriage. Most African novels focus on
these issues and more in order to expose certain facts about
Africa with regards to her social structure and existence. Religion
here comes in two ways: the traditional original practice of
Africans and the foreign religions of the colonialists and the
invaders of Africas entity. Religion. and the soul of soulless
circumstances. Marx indicated in his writing that the working
class. As we discussed in Unit 2. What about religion in the
traditional setting before colonialism? What about politics in the
Traditional setting? Do the people believe in religion as escapism
or as a part of their worldview and necessary rite of passage? By
examining religion and politics as social realities in select novels
in this unit. community relations and cohesion. rites of passage
like birth. Thus.0 Main Content 3.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit
we shall examine the concept of social reality in African novels.
according to Marx was the response to the pain of being alive.The
CONTENTS 1. African Marxist writers attacked a lot about
religion.0 Conclusion 5. This provided the need for religion. was a
true revolutionary class.0 Objectives 3.0 References/Further
Readings 1. death. the response to earthly suffering. 104 .
Religion is a key factor in the definition of Africas social
development. Social realities include those prevalent behavioral
and social factors that reveal to a large extent the social make-up
of the African people. the feeling of a heartless world. One of
these strong social realities is religion.1 General Overview 3.0
Introduction 2. universal in character and acquainted with
universal suffering. religion becomes a tool for achieving political
motives. Other social realities include politics. the proletariat.
Marx wrote. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.2 Religion as Social Reality in Elechi
Amadis The Concubine 3. we shall give answers to these
questions. religious beliefs were sustained.0 Summary 6.3 Politics
as Social Reality in Debo Kotuns Abiku 4.

At a still further stage of evolution. we can expect to find

meaning in the existence of the people as some implication of
relevance in the particular social context where it has become
fixed. There was resistance because there was a structure on
ground. religion and marriage as social realities in African novels
assess social mores as essential social realities in African
novels. Most African novels have elements of religion and politics
in them. The reasons are not far-fetched. politics and religion are
interlinked in the development of every nation and African states
are part of these developmental frameworks that shape the social
realities of the people and development. man is a political animal
embellished in religious thought system. all natural and social
attributes of the numerous gods are transferred to one Almighty
God. In the beginning of history.1 General Overview Religion and
politics are two social factors that affect the social structure of
any society. So. Africans have strong religious and political
structures that worked for the people. They are both linked and
are tied to the proper management of the spiritual and spiritual
well-being of individuals in a community.The African Novel ENG
281 2. Religion is the fantastic reflection in mens minds of those
external forces which control their daily life.0 OBJECTIVES By the
end of this unit. it was the forces of nature which were first so
reflected and which in the course of further evolution underwent
the most manifold and varied personification among the various
peoples.0 MAIN CONTENT 3. If we assume that the religion of any
population have become co-coordinated to individuals and the
various levels of grouping that include them as a result of a
process of selection or politics based on perceived relevance to
particular goals at particular levels of structural reference. who is
but a reflection of the abstract man. Within a purely African
philosophical context. African states before the advent of
colonialism had strong religious and political structures that were
strong and made the inversion of colonialism difficult at the early
stage. the students should be able to: recognize African novels
with social realities as theme identify pre-colonial Social
realities in African novels appreciate post-colonial Social
realities in African novels discus politics. 3. Chinua Achebe tried
to a very large extent to reveal these structures in 105 .
3. It starts out as a depiction of village life. was published in
1966. the ruling spirit of the sea. a novel set in pre-colonial
times. he gradually exposed how colonialism destroyed these
structures in Africa. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Discus
religion and politics as basic social realities in Africas
development as applied in African novels. novelist and dramatist.
Ngugi wa Thiongo amongst others also towed the line of
exposing European destruction of African value system. He dies.
rationalism. The Great Ponds (1969). writing in English. its
conflicts. His stories often deal with people who try to change
their course of life but fail in it. are set in his traditional African
world. a comparative presentation of African religion before
colonialism and African politics after colonialism would be
thoroughly exemplified for proper understanding of Africas
historical experiences and the writers burden transmitting these
values for posterity. Amadi has interpreted in such novels as The
Concubine (1966). religion or political structure before
colonialism. They deny their love so that Ekwueme can marry
another woman. The story was set in the area near Port Harcourt.
but she had assumed the human form. to examine the true
structure of religion in Africa before colonialism while we use
Debo Kotuns Abiku in examining the political structure of Africa
after colonialism. Ihuoma is the most desirable woman in Omigwe
village and the tragic heroine. Amadi's early novels. The
Concubine. 106 . Amadi's first novel. but she has won the heart
of the hunter Ekwueme.The African Novel ENG 281 Things Fall
Apart as a reaction to the insinuations by the Europeans that
Africans did not have culture.2 Religion as Social Reality in Elechi
Amadis The Concubine Elechi Amadi is a Nigerian educator. And
in his subsequent novels. whose well-fed look does a great credit
to her husband. but they deal with timeless societies which are
not poisoned by the effects of colonialism. to whom he has been
betrothed since birth. We shall use Elechi Amadis The Concubine.
At the end Amadi reveals that Ihuoma is actually the wife of the
Sea-King. ancient customs. or modern change. the life and values
of the traditional village society. and gods. like Chinua Achebe's.
and The Slave (1978). six years after Nigerian independence. but
then it proceeds into mythological level. Thus.

The ritual act performed by Anyika is part of a complex structure

of religious observation defined by rules and ordinances. When
Ihuoma proposes a sacrifice to Amadioha on her sick husbands
behalf. and partake of human action in ways that are essentially
concrete. Amadioha is king of the skies.The African Novel ENG
281 The first half of the book pays particular attention to the
religious institutions of Omokachi village and demonstrates by aid
of apposite narrative incidents the central place these institutions
occupy in the daily life of the Omokachi villagers. elements
through which man comes into permanent experience of the
divine presence and influence. and concurrently to the principal
actors. the gods priest Nwokekoro answers: My daughter.
Ojukwu is the fair. Emenikes illness after the fight with Madume
provides the occasion for ritual intervention. The opening action
focuses on the fight between Emenike and Madume over a piece
of land. in the course of which the religious fabric is given sharper
scrutiny and exposition. Details of this kind demonstrate a
religious order with a solid internal logic and organization. that
will be on Eke. the usual day for sacrifices (9). the Earth. Having
defined a realistic frame of reference at the social level. Here is
revealed in a nutshell the religious basis of Omokachis social
organization: it is not the possibility of a court trial that fills
Madume with fear but the looming threat of divine chastisement.
The cost of the rites of purification was prohibitive and even after
that he would still be a branded man (3). and maintains it over
the new elements that result from and amplify the dispute. This
conflict sets the realistic tone. The priests too are men chosen for
their integrity: 107 . the gods and the ancestors communing in a
spirit of sacred and secular harmony. The gods are not far. and
the Rivers. and the other gods have dominion over the Night.
Invisible physically. Anyikas libation shows man. Amadi then
injects the religious element into it: Madume was relieved when
he heard that Emenike was back home. and so too do the
attributes of his office: Anyika the medicine man was sent for
to the villagers he was just a medicine man and a mediator
between them and the spirit world (56). A man who kills his
kinsman has wronged the gods primarily and must seek
absolution in purification sacrifices commensurate with his crime.
the central religious personage comes into view. in which he is
seen pouring libation and hanging amulets on doors to keep away
evil spirits. This presentation is then substantiated by the
practical exercise of his office. Anyika. they fill man and object
with their spiritual presence. The exposition is progressive and
judicious. It was true he was in very bad shape himself. The
reader is being introduced to the main corners of the stage. they
are near. but the possibility of killing a man filled him with fear.

The African Novel ENG 281 The next caller was Nwokekoro. It
showed no fear and the old men bowed their heads in reverence.
Mini Wekwu. 75) Ruler over the skies and purveyor of rain and
sunshine. (1718). thereby promoting good neighbourliness. the
men fell on the remains of the feast. He was getting too old for
active farming. Amadioha is the most feared and the most
venerated of all the gods. He never seemed to be bothered about
anything. The gods are brought down from their abode and
presented at work among the villagers. is one of concrete
communion. culminating as it does in Chineke. the priest of
Amadioha the god of thunder and of the skies. for instance.
through which complaints are resolved. He was friendly with
everyone and was highly respected. first among Gods
associates. wishes met. The god having been fed. His small house
was in his junior brothers compound. Omokachis principal deity.
a deity whose name no man can invoke when guilty. (59). But
the villagers relationship with Amadioha. The cocks were killed
according to ancient rites and boiled with the yams. Before any
part of the meal was touched. The gods of Omokachi are
deployed in a hierarchic order that points ultimately to the
superstructure of Omokachis religious belief. The review of the
village pantheon ends with Amadioha. the creator of spirits and
men. as indeed with all the other deities of the local pantheon.
old but well preserved and had an easy-going disposition. so his
yams were few and he owned very little property. curbs evil both
within and between the adjoining villages. (The Concubine. His
office as high priest of the most powerful god lent him great
dignity (8). He had no wife and no compound of his own. 108 .
He was a short fat man. the priest cut off one wing of the chicken
and threw it casually to the right side of the temple. Worship at
his shrine therefore takes on the nature of a close personal
dialogue between god and man. The old men were evidently used
to this and did not watch his movement in a matter of seconds a
huge grey serpent crawled out from behind the shrine and began
to swallow its share of the feast. He holds his worshippers in
chaste fear through which they acknowledge the gods supreme
authority and their own inferior humanity. and during which the
god reveals himself to men so that they can better testify to his
existence: After the main rites Nwokekoro built a fire from a
glowing orepe brand which one old man had brought along.
and more especially against that of his marriage with Ihuoma. the
principal actor in the collective drama of the village. like Okri. and
witchcraft to extermination by Mini Wekwu. lack of freedom and
all sorts of neocolonial decadence. This religious activity comes
against the background of Emenikes illness.The African Novel
ENG 281 This worship scene closes the first half of the novels
action. conflict and death as applied in Amadis The Concubine.
their powers. in order to artistically reconstruct the deadly
political subterfuge of Africa. and veers the dialectical significance
of structuring unto its main course. in Abiku. Kotun. Kotun relies
heavily on the method of magical realism. nepotism. He is able to
lampoon the military for ravishing and devaluing Nigeria. African
gods and goddesses are also called to a feast. A solid religious
foundation has already been laid. Emenike dies unexpectedly
shortly hereafter. Kotun makes use of highly abrasively bitter and
gruesomely satirical temper. As one reads the novel he naturally
gets immersed in his satiric agenda. graft. the novelist engages
history and societal realities set in Nigeria under military
dictatorship to provide a discourse in social history as he
refreshes ones knowledge of recent Nigerian history by
introducing literary embellishments which contribute to his
enduring brilliance as a creative writer. The reader has been
made familiar with the sea-kings other divine peers. Actually.
Thus. 3. In the novel. He depicts the foibles of the military rulers
lucidly . Improbable events are made probable. Debo Kotuns
Abiku can be situated within the inherent root-seeking quest of
the African self. and method of retribution: perjury exposes its
perpetrator to Amadiohas thunderbolt. brutality. In the novel.
that is to say as a living force within the specific socioreligious
context of Omokachi. he is accepted for the same reasons that
the other deities were accepted. and the intermittent 109 . the
dead enter into phatic communion with the living. vividly
illuminates some autochthonous oral traditions of African people
in general and the Yoruba people in particular. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 2 Assess the implication of religion in determining
marriage.3 Politics as Social Reality in Debo Kotuns Abiku Debo
Kotuns novel Abiku has reconstructed the myth of Abiku to
critique the evil machinations under military rule in Nigeria. the
hitherto giant of Africa. anti-social behaviour to Ojukwus
smallpox. press censorship. so that when the sea-king finally
appears.corruption. but no mention has as yet been made of the

on the bed. and virtually all the major events and personalities in
the countrys political landscape till 1994 are adequately
represented in his work. (46) These foregoing instantiates of
Kotuns attempt to assert mythic relevance unconsciously makes
his plot discordant. and thus brings Africas messiahs of pain to
the centre stage while scarcely veiling their identity thus he
describes a set of African rulers: Sakara looked up and saw a
seven-headed phantom seated where Akin had been only seconds
before. And in like manner. And notwithstanding. the novel
postulates. 144-145). Kotuns central character Sakara. Ademola
entered. The next one looked like that of the butcher of Entebbe.
a student of military power benefits from the machinations of
Babassa. the mood in the operating room changed. for example
when Dr. his satire is well orchestrated and satisfies the African
literary heritage of commitment to the letter. Next was the Tuareg
Colonel turned president for life from Tripoli (pp. lashing an
effeminate smile at the Sergeant-turned General from Monrovia.
and a conscious engagement in social reality. the five-billion
dollar man from Kinshasha. irritating its neighbor. Ngugi wa
Thiongo. and through Sakara. In the middle was the obnoxious
head of the sleeping giant of Africa from Lagos. Kotuns
experiment in fusing history into fiction and vice-versa is
remarkable. Wole Soyinka and others who incorporate the
satirical temerity of their works. which explains the political
activism of writers like Christopher Okigbo. Accordingly. The head
farthest from the neck on the left reminded Sakara of the warlord
from the horn of Africa. and in fact. But the ones that caught his
attention were the two old scars on each cheek of the boys
face.The African Novel ENG 281 remembrance of mythic
undercurrents in the book betrays the work as basically
committed to social and political reformation. highlights and
fictionalizes socialhistorical realties as we remind ourselves that
African literature and its writers share boundaries of social
consciousness and functionality. From the neck down the monster
was dressed in uniform of a general. Kotun blanks off pretension
and dons pungency in the novel that can possibly link to the
concrete situationally of the post-1983 Nigerian state. becomes a
searchlight who understands the psychology of power while the
consequences of unquenched thirst for power leaves the society
desolate economically and psychologically. norms and values: 110
. but certainly does not encumber his literary agenda. he uses his
characters to lament Nigerias breakdown of facilities.

This posture seemingly places Kotun as a meta-historical narrator

whose art is heavily dependent on social reality as he proves that
a constant revisit of history in African creative imagination is
pertinent for political order and tranquility. without leaving any
benefit of doubt for his critics. As a result.The African Novel ENG
281 Ademola walked over his desk in the parlor and.
Consequently. Kotun still succeeds in conserving the fiction
aspects of his historicity. hoping against all odds that a miracle
might be in the offing. This is interestingly not particularly
restricted to any military government in Nigeria. (p.24). the
phone did what it had always done. the preservation of history as
a well utilized modus in Abiku helps to drum the fictive essence of
the narrative while the characters hardly disguise. For example.
Ikeja hospital certainly exists in the Nigerian state (44).
Intimidated. he unifies them in logic rather than personality to
construct the event that informs the plot. irrespective of time or
space. a tendency situated in Kotuns confessed literary impetus.
and although there is a veiled attempt at presenting a peoples
history. we can say that approaching the subject of history in
contemporary African novel has been confounding. the grim
realities of misrule and socio-economic decadence are captured
by Kotun reflecting a reality of power play and corruption setting
the fulcrum of discourse.. Therefore.. and thus are identifiable
figures in Nigerias political history with the mention of specific
names and places. Abeokuta and Yola are evidences of a writers
commitment to representing the nations history in his fictional
work. Hence in representing military rulers. and in fact names of
towns like Lagos. there is a drive for social and historical
engagement which accounts for the novelists artistic honesty.
And like several other African writers. In refining the history of
the Abikus milieu. he shares a vision of social reformation via a
deployment of aesthetic and artistic light to champion a fresh
course. He stared at the black rotary telephone which looked
more like a decorative relic than a communication instrument.
Kotun sees a better society through a people with a perfect
knowledge of their history that would enable the right cause of
action as he fulfills the imperative of a literature and art of social
commitment. Thus. the novelist understands the role of the artist
as the societys teacher. placing it as instructive to understanding
the psychology of military adventurisms. 111 . as demonstrated
by Kotun illustrating that what is responsible is actually
inseparable from the economic woes that contribute to the African
literary canon.

In the novel. As military rulers. This novel exemplifies this social

reality.The African Novel ENG 281 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
3 Western politics destroys the social well-being of the African
people. All these worked until the invasion of Christianity.
represents a major voice as he reveals his perception of the
political anomy in Africa. We see a society that is enmeshed in
religious beliefs about everything around them. Here. In a final
consideration. they applied all manners of severe rules to destroy
the peoples well-being. Everything within the African society has
religious attachment which determines the way the people react
to their environment and to their social cohesion. we see a pure
African society before colonial invasion which corrupted the
peoples beliefs. The novel reveals that Africans have a workable
religion that sustained the peoples social structure. the 112 .
There are patterned modes of worship. African religious rites of
passage are a social factor that brings the people together in all
their beliefs and practices. gods and other elemental forces. and
locates the solution to the imperatives of the drama of existence
which compounds the drama of being within the Nigerian
society. We see a people with defined religious beliefs in God.
Undoubtedly. we see a strange political setting where force and
other forms of anarchy were the order of the day. The self
apprehension of the African world in terms of concepts and
categories can be embodied in properly placed African forms
which can be considered to have artistic merit for its true
revelations. 4. Every aspect of human rights is destroyed thereby
destroying the peoples well-being. Using Kotuns Abiku assess
this proposition. although not the first. In the novel. this novel
reveals the immediate engagement with history in order to unveil
political truths and odds about Africa. In Debo Kotuns Abiku.
Kotuns novel demonstrates the back and forth of Nigerias
history. Human values were destroyed because the government
practises politics of bitterness. in Abiku.0 SUMMARY Religion and
politics as social realities have been examined in the two novels
under study.0 CONCLUSION Elechi Amadis The Concubine
presents pure African religious realities before colonial time. 5. All
aspects of traditional religious beliefs are revealed in The
Concubine by Elechi Amadi. Kotuns convergence of history and
fiction. There are natural phenomena which have meaning in the
religious lives of the people. All aspects of African belief system
revolve around religion. we see military politics as it gradually
destroys the stronghold of the peoples social being.

Pasadena.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer the following

questions: what social realities are constant in African novels?
Discus them. 113 . assess the treatment of social realities in
any African novel of your choice. explain religion as a social
force in Amadis The Concubine. Elechi. These two novels have
shown to a large extent.The African Novel ENG 281 social realities
are harsh as the people lived in fear of the unknown. (1966). how
the African novelists have recorded the social realities of the
African people from different dimensions. Debo. appreciate
Debo Kotuns Abiku as a political satire.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER
READINGS Amadi. California: Nepotist. 6. (1998). Kotun. Abiku.
London: Heinemann. The Concubine. 7.

0 7. and the direct treatment of women by men. who are also

concerned about sexual politics. As a result. the debate concludes
that African women have to modify the word feminist in order
to articulate their own concerns fully.0 INTRODUCTION In this
unit. motherhood. They include: the representation and mis-
representation of women in literary texts. the access of women to
the economic means of survival. understand that a discussion of
feminism must grapple with more than the issue of sex. present.
2.0 General Overview Feminism in Bas So Long a Letter Issues of
Gender in Emechetas The Joys of Motherhood Conclusion
Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Readings
1.0 5. women's role in politics and revolution. black women who
claim the word feminist as part of their identity are often
criticized by African men and women who reject the notion of
African women being subjugated. and men by women. women as
part of their communities.0 6. We shall examine select African
novels to understand how African novelists treat gender issues.
sexuality. women in the domestic sphere. the education of
women. African women.0 OBJECTIVES By the unit the students
should be able to: understand what gender issues are in the
African novel appreciate African novels with gender themes
recognize gender themes in African novels distinguish novels
with gender bias from others with different themes.0 Main
Content 3.2 3. Again.3 4. and future.The African Novel ENG 281
2. 114 .1 3. we discuss feminism and gender issues as treated in
two African novels. Underlying this array of specific interests are
questions of gender in representation and of the reality or
realities of life for women in Africa past. So many issues are
raised when the issue of feminism is discussed in African
literature. All these offer much for the consideration of feminist
thought with respect to African literatures.0 Objectives 3.

as did other women in the Ibo society. The debate over feminist
criticism and the development of an African feminist theory has
been a concern to African gender scholars. 115 . In showing the
importance of women. Although that may have been the case.
who can you call your own?" (Emecheta 38). women should
identify themselves and also trust in themselves to overcome the
multiple darknesses that compose life. Again. She also shows that
to succeed in this life. Some would further argue that because
Nnu Ego's children were not raised in their native culture. SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Buchi Emecheta and Mariama Ba are
novelists with feminist background. a symbol of greatness and
height of womanhood. and your parents have gone.0 MAIN
CONTENT 3. Others argue that there was never any real
communication with regard to this expectation of Nnu Ego from
her children. Mariama Ba represents a kind of feminine Leopold
Sedar Senghor. although not fully expressed. bore many children
in the hope that she would have someone to take care of her in
her old age. Some argue that it is not the responsibility of the
children to support and care for Nnu Ego. was always understood.
their role in bringing up families and keeping them together in
time of calamity is clearly brought out in the novel. Buchi
Emecheta has a different view.1 General Overview The role and
history of feminist politics or activism on women's rights in Africa
is a discourse which African women are studying and clarifying for
themselves. As Nnu Ego herself tells her father: "When one grows
old. a cultural expectation that. As a Senegalese figure. that this
message was never expressed. the understanding was implicit. it
is a moral obligation for children to take care of elderly parents.
Explain their various views of gender. It was a cultural
understanding. one needs children to look after one. If you have
no children. they would not have known this was expected of
them. This still is a powerful expression of the unheeded voice of
the previously silent woman in Africa. She shows that not only
men are important in this world. They argue that Nnu Ego's
children had the right to choose in what manner and to what
extent they would do so. It is a case of motherhood appreciation.
if at all.The African Novel ENG 281 3. Ba is actually calling on
women to take responsibility for their lives throughout the novel.
this was an Ibo custom. Nnu Ego. in poor health or not. She
believes that a woman is worth anything if she becomes a
mother. Although it is not right for mothers to bear children with
the sole intent of having caretakers in their old age.

Aissatou rejects this notion and chooses her own life without
being denied a life of her own by her husband Mawdo. This
discriminatory power is in the novel a form of male domination
coming from society's construction of a patriarchal ideology. Ba
uses 116 . So Long a Letter was awarded the first Noma Award
for Publishing in Africa. to her childhood girlfriend. this sister.
Obye Diop. this mother. In it she depicts the sorrow and
resignation of a woman who must share the mourning for her late
husband with his second. To demonstrate how males are
instinctive. In 1981. before her second novel. Because
Ramatoulaye is a woman. from a widow. The woman is oppressed
by culture and by virtue of her position. was published. this
cousin and this friend is the mother of Africa and how important
she is for the society. but at an early age came to criticize what
she perceived as inequalities between the sexes resulting from
African and Islamic traditions. younger wife. who was active from
1979 to 1981 in Senegal. Mariama B was raised a Muslim home.
or a diary. Her frustration with the fate of African womenas well
as her ultimate acceptance of itis expressed in her first novel.
which describes the hardships a woman faces when her husband
abandons her for a younger woman he knew at youth. Bas
source of determination and engagement came from her
background. but divorced him and was left to care for their nine
children. this daughter. Ramatoulaye. So Long a Letter. she
seemingly has no right determining her destiny. her parents life
and her schooling. This book has already been published in more
than a dozen languages and is about to appear in more. because
they did not believe that girls should be educated. In this
book.The African Novel ENG 281 3.2 Issues of Feminism in So
Long a Letter Mariama Ba is a novelist. B died a year later after
a protracted illness. who lives in the United States. Scarlet Song.
a teacher and feminist. the author recognized the immense
contributions African women have made and continue to make in
the building of their societies. This situation led her to focus her
work on womens consideration and to show people how this
grandmother. Raised by her traditional grandparents. The book is
written in the form of a letter. Indeed. This strong exploration of
feminism is perhaps what makes the novel a strong voice for the
oppressed women in Africa. West Africa. her contribution is
significant because she explained and portrayed the
disadvantaged position of women in general and especially
married women. B later married a Senegalese member of
Parliament. Aissatou rejects this and slowly Ramatoulaye realizes
she cannot look to her culture for much. she had to struggle even
to gain an education. Aissatou. The discriminatory use of power
forces Ramatoulaye to deal with its consequences.

marries her daughters friend Binetou. Juxtaposition of words

from which springs the idea. while she urges her daughter
against them. Ramatoulaye has done everything which is needed
in the house. after twenty five years of marriage. She also
portrays mens irresponsibility by using their sexual
instincts.(Mariama Ba. Books knit generations together in the
same continuing effort that leads to progress. when her husband.
To overcome these shyness or shame. She writes to her friend to
relieve this stress. she use to go to the cinema to change her
mind. Ramatoulaye was stressed.The African Novel ENG 281
female rationality and responsibility. Ramatoulaye was lonely and
she misses her warm husband. She also refers to him and to
Sharia law concerning polygamy. Ramatoulaye started to forbid
117 . Aissatous husband. They enabled you to better yourself.
Even though Modou abandoned her and spent his money on
Binetou. Through her character Ramatoulaye. Taking care of her
family and paying duties and bills and finding food. At the
beginning of the story." She also shows that books can be a
weapon. but they are weapon. Science. this marvelous invention
of astute human intelligent. What society refused you.
Ramatoulaye. As a Muslim. differs from her. Mawdo. but alone. to
choose his power to attachment. because life goes on. Thought.
Life. is inspired by her friendship with Aissatou and by her
resolute behaviour in the face of adversity. his ability to reason.
Ramatoulaye decided to stay with him because of her faith.
According to her: The power of books. Having any choice.
unparalleled means of giving and receiving. they granted Let us
examine the characters of Ramatoulaye and Aissatou in order to
appreciate the feminine power in the novel. Various signs
associated with sound: different sounds that form the word.
Despite everything (disappointment and humiliations) hope still
lives within her the success of a nation depends inevitably on
just such families. that individual distinguishes himself from
animal. 1981). Sole instrument of interrelationship and of culture.
so she started living for it. Ramatoulaye The protagonist. a
peaceful weapon perhaps. History. 1981). Mariama Ba has
expressed herself.(Mariama Ba. She has only found peace and
warmth in her religion. she refers to God when her husband
Modou Fall died. She argues that a mans instinct is through his
self-control. This includes the statement that she: has not given
up waiting to refashion her life. He emphasizes the bestiality of
mens instincts.

Because the two have reacted to their husbands' polygamous

states differently. She is a radical woman and an inspiration for
Ramatoulaye and her daughter Daba. Her strong cultural beliefs
are in direct conflict with her new life in Lagos.The African Novel
ENG 281 trousers and occidental clothes to her daughter. Nnu
Ego's cultural background is one in which women are exploited to
men's advantage. Nnu Ego finds it difficult to adjust to her new
life. It is clear that she cannot be anywhere the same as young
Nabou but the fact that she still has a life to hold on to. The more
male children a woman has." Women are no longer having a large
number of children. She therefore is a character worth admiring
in the novel. Ramatoulaye wants to know if it was worth it staying
in this marriage. A childless woman is considered a "half 118 .
She therefore still acts as an inspiration for a woman suffocating
under the whims of culture. not children. Men now work as
household servants for the "white man. She finds it hard to
believe that gender roles have been exchanged. It is shocking to
her that money is now the status quo. These cultural beliefs are
the cause of her enslavement. Nnu Ego is caught between two
cultures. Aissatou takes her life into her hands and chooses to
walk out of a polygamous relationship. an integrity to move by
and an enslaving culture to challenge is an apparent aspect
developed through this woman. the higher her status.
Womanhood is defined by the ability to bear children. In this
patriarchal society. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Ramatoulaye
and Aissatou are strong feminists in a Moslem culture. Aissatou's
is so radical but still represents a woman who wants to be free
from the bondages of tradition. Ramatoulaye is actually reflecting
on her own experiences. Aissatou Aissatou rises out of her
position to disprove oppressive culture. a woman's duty is to bear
male children for her husband to continue his lineage. While she
sees that her old customs and beliefs are not conducive to a
better life for her or her children. How much feminism did they
achieve in their society? 3.3 Gender Issues in the Joys of
Motherhood One of the many issues raised in Buchi Emecheta's
The Joys of Motherhood is the conflict Nnu Ego feels in embracing
and accepting new ideas when she moves away from her Ibo
society to make a new life for herself in Lagos. they both take the
right decision. In talking to Aissatou about the hardships in her
life. One thing is for sure however. she is unable to come to terms
with Lagos's different societal rules.

All of these beliefs and customs are embedded in Nnu Ego's

subconscious. preferably males. In The Joys of Motherhood.
therefore. In Ibuza. In Nnu Ego's Ibo society. wife beating was
also common and. for a woman cannot bring forth a child without
a man. In Nnu Ego's society. she belongs to her father until she is
of an age where she can be sold. the better able she will be to
reproduce. He actually beats the pregnant Adaku when both she
and Nnu Ego go on strike for more housekeeping money. Wife
beating elevated a husband's self-esteem and gave him a sense
of control. They are still considered second class citizens. Nnaife
threatens to beat Nnu Ego when she presses him to find a job. A
husband who can father male children is greatly admired. It
further speaks of women's struggles to gain independence from
their subservient roles as wives and to gain a voice of their own.
In Nnu Ego's patriarchal society. The Ibos' way of thinking is that
daughters are raised to glorify another man when her turn comes
to produce male offspring. husbands had the authority to do as
they pleased. she is chattel and only valuable in terms of
"producing" offspring. The younger the woman is. She is not
surprised. Women are valued in terms of their economic worth.
This way of thinking can be seen in Adankwko's advice to Nnu
Ego: "Have you ever heard of a complete woman without a
husband?" (Emecheta 158). 48) The Joys of Motherhood is a
mirror image of today's society in Africa and in many other parts
of the world. in addition to taking care of 119 . a daughter's value
to her parents is only as high as the bride price she can fetch.
when Nnaife chides her for questioning him: "What did you say?
Did I not pay your bride price? Am I not your owner? "
(Emecheta. That is why daughters are not as highly regarded as
sons are. Although they work alongside the men in various fields.
She is his to command. How the daughter feels toward her
husband is of little importance. accepted. Since wives were
property.The African Novel ENG 281 woman. indeed. The man.
Prearranged marriages are normal. Her duty is to obey him
always. is of critical importance to the woman. Her new life in
Lagos does not change that. Things have not changed very much
for women in Third world countries. It speaks of the struggles and
conflicts of women and the gender roles imposed upon them." a
failed woman. a woman is always owned by a male. therefore.
Their objections to being treated unfairly are seen as
unimportant. women are viewed as tools of production. Women in
third world countries are still hesitant to speak out and make
themselves heard for fear of being punished by their husbands
and society in general. After acquiring her. First.

Nnu Ego is torn between her Ibo customs and the reality of her
poverty filled life in Lagos. As senior wife in Lagos. her husband
and her children. She was not even expected to demand more
money for her family. Her constant comparisons to Amatokwu
must have been a source of pain and humiliation for Nnaife. To
Nnu Ego. As she struggles to put food on the table for her
children with the little money Nnaife earns. it occurred to Nnu
Ego that she was a prisoner. she felt. Nnu Ego feels obligated to
her family.The African Novel ENG 281 the household. their
contributions are seen as insignificant. her attitude changes when
she realizes that because of him. that was considered below the
standard expected of a woman in her position. Gender Roles
When Nnu Ego first comes to Lagos. who is content with the work
that he does and does not understand Nnu Ego's exasperation
and disbelief. and imprisoned in her role as the senior wife.
Everyone makes demands on her. Nnu Ego comes from a male
dominated society where men and women each have their
assigned roles. Nnu Ego resents Adaku and does not like to share
Nnaife with her. She would have preferred that he had a "real"
man's job. imprisoned by her love for her children. she has many
responsibilities but none of the rewards that come with being a
senior wife in Ibuza: On her way back to their room. she is
shocked to discover that Nnaife works as a domestic servant who
washes "women's underwear. she also has to take charge of
supporting her family when Nnaife is unable to do so. Although
she takes care of the household. Nnaife proves his manhood by
fathering many children. She dreams of having the courage to
abandon Nnaife and leave her children with him. It was not fair.
Although in her Ibo society husbands have many wives who live
together harmoniously. she is a mother. Although at times Nnu
Ego expresses her anger and exasperation to Nnaife. therefore
she is complete. According to 120 . They are as one. she is a
woman. A woman is faceless." She questions his manhood and
loses all respect for him. Nnu Ego's conflict with her new life in
Lagos first becomes evident when Adaku comes to live with them.
the children and her husband in the traditional way. Her identity
is forever linked with that of her husband's. the way men cleverly
used a woman's sense of responsibility to actually enslave her.
like working on a farm. She reflects on the way her life would
have been in Ibuza as a senior wife. (Emecheta 137). she comes
to the conclusion that she is a prisoner because of her role as
mother and senior wife.

like a good woman. it was a confusing world. Bas source of

determination and engagement came from her background. her
parents life and her schooling. in her rags. West Africa. This
situation led her to focus her work on womens consideration and
to show people how this grandmother. she must do what she was
told. When she sees how elegantly dressed this woman is. Values
have changed. she must not question her husband in front of his
friends" (Emecheta 114). in her churning stomach. Nnu Ego's
conflict further comes into evidence when Adaku receives a visit
from Igbonoba's wife. Indeed. Nnu Ego is in a state of transition.
Although she is reluctant to be called a feminist.The African Novel
ENG 281 the Ibo ideology. Does this expectation reveal her
gender roles? 4. Emecheta writes about the plight of African
women and their struggle for freedom and equality. who was
active from 1979 to 1981 in Senegal. To express your opinions
could mean a night of abuse. but at herself. She has begun to
realize that the high status she so desperately sought by having
so many children is of little value in her new society in Lagos.
(Emecheta 167). The woman's role is to obey her husband and
accept any decisions he makes in silence. in her nail-biting agony.
. this daughter. she was supposed to be happy in her poverty.
although Nnu Ego loses respect for Nnaife when he doesn't find a
job. Oh. Nnaife has made her a woman. 121 . this sister. That is
why. a teacher and feminist. Ms. So Long a Letter is a novel
written with deep concern for the African woman who is under the
chain of religious and cultural manipulations that deprive them of
their freedom. this mother. she feels desperate and angry. She is
slowly moving away from her Ibuza customs and beliefs but is
still hesitant to fully embrace new ideas. this cousin and this
friend is the mother of Africa and how important she is for the
society. Money is now the status symbol. . Buchi Emecheta knows
firsthand the unfairness of a patriarchal society and the conflicts
it causes. Not at the visitor. Yet all because she was the mother of
three sons.0 CONCLUSION Mariama Ba is a novelist. "All the
same. Being a woman from Nigeria. she still clings to the Ibo
custom of silence. in her cramped room . Nnu Ego's hesitancy in
expressing her emotions and anger is common in many societies
even today. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Nnu Ego is a mother
who desired the joys of motherhood. her contribution is
significant because she explained and portrayed the
disadvantaged position of women in general and especially
married women.

Explain how her gender roles helped her achieve motherhood.

Nnu Ego is mother that knows the worth of her husband and
children. Does this reveal anything about African gender novels?
5. Did she achieve that in So Long a Letter? 3. They see
themselves in a male dominated culture and seek to redefine
their future. Nnaife remains complacent even as he marries a
second wife just for fun. cannot liberate herself from the chains of
poverty. 6. 4. The male characters in The Joys of Motherhood and
So Long a Letter are very queer. Being the first wife of a
polygamist in a religion that is compliant with polygamy places
her at very tight corner in attacking polygamy which Moslem
religion appreciates and African culture practices. during and after
colonization. because of the patriarchal society which she lives in.
On the other hand. Both of them are interested in their self
assertion and independence in a mans world.The African Novel
ENG 281 We can see that she does not think very highly of the
patriarchal society from which she came. Nnu Ego becomes a
victim of her cultural belief that children make motherhood great
while husbands should be adored even in their imperfections.
Only through education can these women overcome the many
obstacles in their paths. Mariama Ba believes that independence
is the key to a womans happiness. do not quite fit in.0 SUMMARY
Nnu Ego and Ramatoulaye are two different African women in two
different cultural and religious backgrounds. Nnu Ego is woman
who believes strongly that man gives a woman her relevance.
before. especially women from Third world countries. She toils to
feed her family and raise her children. to educate themselves.
Through her writings. 2. It is an honest look at women in the
society of a colonized nation who. Her children made her
relevant. 5.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer these
questions: 1. The Joys of Motherhood is about a woman from a
Third world country who. She needed children from her husband
who would eventually grow to be her joy. Appreciate feminism as
a major trend in the African novel? 122 . Ms Emecheta hopes to
be able to empower women. They are still enslaved by men and
their society. Ramatoulaye believed that being independent would
give her her long lost independence. Discuss the various issues of
gender that African novelists have been projecting.

(1981).The African Novel ENG 281 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHR

READINGS Ba. (1979). Mariama. So Long a Letter. Emecheta.
123 . The Joys of Motherhood. Buchi. London: Heinemann.

There are many war novels in Nigeria about the Nigeria-Biafra

war.0 Introduction 2. the students should be able to:
understand that African war novels exist appreciate African
novelists writing war novels assess any African novel with war
themes recognize African novels with war themes identify
African novelists that write about wars.0 5. Nigeria-Biafra War.
Rwandan war (or genocide) and now Sudan war. 2.0
INTRODUCTION In this unit.3 4. African countries have had
history of wars. Liberian war.0 6.0 Main Content 3. we shall
examine African novels that treated the issue of wars. Achebes
Girls at War amongst other numerous titles.0 General Overview
Africa and Civil War: Isidore Okpewhos The Last Duty Africa and
World War: Biyi Bandeles Burma Boy Conclusion Summary Tutor-
Marked Assignment References/Further Readings 1. Congo war.
Okpewhos The Last Duty. They include: Eddie Irohs Forty Eight
Guns for the General and Toads of War. 124 . We shall use
Okpewhos The Last Duty and Biyi Bandeles Burma Boy as
reference texts for this unit as both novels treated two different
war experiences: African Civil war and world war experiences by
Africans. There are many more not mentioned but the reasons for
the wars are not far from colonial experiences.0 Objectives 3.
Communal wars are common in Africa but the effect of civil wars
in most African countries over the past three decades has been
disastrous.The African Novel ENG 281 UNIT 5 AFRICAN WAR
NOVELS CONTENTS 1.2 3.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of this unit.
Some of these wars are caused by tribal differences while others
are caused by certain civil issues like the killing of an Umuofia
woman in Achebes Things Fall Apart and the war over land
dispute between Umuaro and Okperi in Achebes Arrow of God.0
7.1 3. The wars are direct manipulations of European powers that
cause wars among Africans for their selfish reasons. We have had
South African war. Ekwensis Survive the Peace.

John Milton's account of the war in Heaven in Paradise Lost.

cowardice. many modern war novels (especially those espousing
Hell in The Inferno. war. and ethics of war could be combined in
an essentially fictional framework. about the American Civil War
established the conventions of the modern war novel as it has
come down to us today. As the prose fiction novel rose to
prominence in the 17th Century. the Old English saga Beowulf. 3.
about the Napoleonic Wars in Russia. although most novels
featuring war were picaresque satires in which the soldier was a
rakish rather than realistic figure. especially Homer's The Iliad. All
of these works feature realistic depictions of major battles. and
significant insights into the nature of heroism. All of these epics
were concerned with preserving the history or mythology of
conflicts between different societies. We have committed
characters giving 125 .1 General Overview A war novel is a novel
in which the primary action takes place in a field of armed
combat. tactics. and Stephen Crane's The Red Badge of Courage.
and medieval periods. and the Apocalypse as depicted in The
Bibles Book of Revelations. or in a domestic setting (or home
front) where the characters are preoccupied with the preparations
for. Romances and satires in Early Modern Europe--Edmund
Spenser's The Faerie Queene and Miguel de Cervantes's Don
Quixote.The African Novel ENG 281 3. The war novel came of age
during the 19th Century. Virgil's The Aeneid. Works such as Leo
Tolstoy's War and Peace. and different versions of the legends of
King Arthur. visceral scenes of wartime horrors and atrocities.
Other important influences on the war novel included the
tragedies of such dramatists as Euripides. In this novel. and
morality in wartime. Seneca the Younger. the Federal and the
Secessionist armies are locked in a fierce battle. Shakespeare's
Henry V provided a model for how the history. or recovery from.
In terms of imagery and symbolism. But the author plays down
the drama of external violence and concentrates fully on its
deeper human dimensions. while providing an accessible
narrative that could reinforce the collective memory of a people.
Christopher Marlowe.2 Africa and Civil War: Isidore Okpewhos
The Last Duty Isidore Okpewhos The Last Duty is a war novel
that explores the psychological make up of characters in the war
drama. to name two of many-also contained elements of military
heroism and folly that influenced the later development of war
novels.0 MAIN CONTENT 3. and Shakespeare. the war novel
began to develop its modern form.

home and conscience. However. we see each character

contributing his quota to the main issue.The African Novel ENG
281 account of their experiences and roles in the war. one linking
the other until there is a complex network of themes: the
disruption in communal life. This leads to another tragedy which
marks the unending trauma of wars. Odibo. Both men
slaughtered each other. By presenting action from many points of
view. Akus son and the only child narrator in the story is busy
expecting the return of his father from prison. Oghenovo. we
watch without any inhibition. and response to the conflicts.
psychological depression. We have Chief Toje. even those that will
normally be suppressed as a result of public consciousness. Chief
Toje pretends offering her protection but with the intension of
exploiting her. In the novel. The main issue is not the civil war
demon that is currently 126 . Each characters narrative portion
and perspective is proportionate to his degree of involvement.
sexual impotence. the emotional burden and the moral state of
the characters in their process of formation. Aku is from the
secessionist part of the country and feels unprotected in the
course of the war. the adventures. He used the opportunity of
Oshevires arrest to attempt sexual exploitation of his wife. By
adopting the collective evidence technical style of narration.
Starting with Major Ali. The dramatized or pictorial adopted allows
Okpewho to give full and free verbal expression to his characters
emotions. being sexually abused without actualizing it decides to
allow Odibo calm her troubled sexual nerves. he decided to do his
last duty of restoring his image. the hopes. Aku. moral chastity
pulverized by destitution. the writer allows the reader to judge
the entire situation himself. The themes also come tumbling in
one by one. His nephew. the sexual oppression of a destitute and
forlorn woman. the mischievous manipulation of military
authorities for the settlement of private scores. He begins to
challenge Chief Toje and this leads to the most heinous
experiences of the war beyond the battlefront. domestic crises.
the heroic assertion of personal integrity in the face of daunting
odds. a big chief who conspired to the arrest and detention of his
greatest business rival Oshevire. Aku. All he does is to fight
against Onome or anyone who calls his father a thief. etc. the
feelings. This single act makes Odibo realize that he is beyond
destitution. both the narrative and the plot structures expand
gradually as if from an aperture into a wider channel until the
climax is reached when the three main characters lose their lives
tragically over a woman. At the return of Oshevire after being
proved innocent of the charges against him. the cripple often
goes on errand for him to Akus place. the fears. Aku is taken
over by Major Ali for protection. Tojes impotence could not allow
him achieve his evil intention. the abuse of children and the

The novel does not celebrate any heroic exploits in battle.

Oshevires struggle against war time wickedness. which allows no
intrusion. Major Alis fight to maintain law and order. There is
economy. Okpewho displays an impressive understanding and
insight into the deep world of his characters' inner lives. Okpewho
chooses appropriate characters to dramatize the tale. we are
offered the sense of an enclosed arena. Okpewho has helped to
make the war alive to us in a new and fresh way. the fratricidal
war between him and his servant over the beautiful wife of
another citizen who has been jailed on trumped up charges.
honesty. There is an effective combination of emotional
detachment and an incisive display of sympathy and fellow
feelings. choices stem from the characters inner selves. Akus
moral battle with destitution and unlawful sexual urges. from the
honorable to the villain. The war only reverberates at the
background and remains peripheral to the main plot of the
narrative. Each character makes his choice and bears the
consequences of his decision. thus he explores the characters'
thoughts fully. In Okpewho's artistic vision. more destructive and
more physically and spiritually agonizing than the real civil war.
The novel enlarges our sympathy and opens our eyes to areas of
civil war experience we never really knew well. The nature of the
human problem presented in the narrative is as complex. but a
heroic resolve to be just and compassionate under impossible
circumstances. He succeeds very well in deploying techniques to
make the reader a collaborator with him and with the characters
in creating a conception of the Civil War that leaps out of the
text.The African Novel ENG 281 devastating the land as this is
only a catalyst for the internal psychological crises plaguing all
the major characters. his pursuit of pre-war social and financial
privileges. By selecting a small border town as setting. from the
peasant to the noble. Oshevire. In the novel we see that there is
much emphasis on honor. or escape from this world of tragedy.
The writers emphasis is on the series of individualized civil wars
that each individual has to confront: the desperate tug-ofwar
between Chief Toje and his failing manhood. the ethical and moral
values of both pre-war and during-the-war Nigerian 127 . The
series of micro civil wars are bitter. his death-knell struggle with
his business rival. The tragedy is worked out within the strategic
temporal space of a border town. etc. touching and realistic as
the deft technical construction of the work. Okpewho explores
this grave human situation with responsibility and sympathetic
understanding. integrity and fellow feelings. not only of words
and action. The novel explores the dark places of human nature.
but also of details. He focuses his tragic vision on a closely-knit
series of events and maintains this vision through a supremely
controlled authorial distance as well as a dramatized angle of

3. a floating exercise leads to a fatal conclusion. Not even

children are immune. Burma Boy is dedicated to his memory.
shell-shock and hard-won compassion" with biographical research
into the lives of Orde Wingate and other Chindit leaders. tense
and utterly riveting tale of comrades-in-arms undergoing
conditions of such adversity as to defy belief. Besieged with
ambush after ambush and attack after attack the Brigade.
Bandele's portrayal of the manic. Many officers who later served
under Wingate in Burma may have wished it had been 128 .
Bandeles novel is inspired by his fathers participation in the war.
The novel has two heroes: Wingate himself. a veteran of
Wingate's Gideon Force in Abyssinia (where he lost an ear in
hand-to-hand fighting against the Italians). His father. bearded. a
group of Chindits. a thirteen-year-old former blacksmiths
apprentice who lies about his age to join the army. Yet there is no
whiff of the lamp about this taut. under his wing. War is an
organism that consumes all who come in contact with it. He
prefaces the Chindit story with a graphic account of a suicide
attempt by the (then) major during a bout of malaria in Cairo.
One basic tendency in some of the best war novels is that many
of the narrators see war in more personal than social terms.3
Africa and World War: Biyi Bandeles Burma Boy Burma Boy is set
in the Second World War. make their way to a British stronghold
where from there a routine troop. In the novel we meet Ali
Banana. a novel that tells the story of Nigerians that fought in the
Second World War as part of the Burma campaign of 1944. Old-
Testament-prophet-like Wingate is as vivid and compelling as
everything else in this novel. and further studies of the Second
World War's "least documented and most brutal theatre". He
becomes the youngest member of the D-Section Brigade. They
seem to have concentrated on the fate of the innocent individuals
who are trapped by a destructive machine whose magnitude they
cannot even imagine and whose power they are helpless to
oppose. for whom the saying about genius being akin to madness
might have been invented.The African Novel ENG 281 society. Biyi
Bandele combined childhood memories of his father's tales of
"carnage. The extent to which children are affected by war is
driven home by the experience of the little Oghenevo in The Last
Duty. 14-year-old Ali Banana. Biyi Bandele presents the comic
tale Burma Boy. Solomon Tommy Sparkle Bandele Thomas was
once a proud member of the Signal Corps of the Nigeria Regiment
of the Royal West African Frontier Forces in 1943. who takes the
novel's protagonist. and the scarred Sergeant Damisa. an
unconventional and quick strike special division whose job it is to
go behind the enemy lines of the Japanese. led by the one-eared
veteran Samanja Damisa.
Although written several decades after the Second World War. But
sadly for them. was like being trapped inside an airtight canister
filled with methane". it is a case of out of the frying-pan into the
fire. since they were deeply offended both by his attitude to the
wounded and his often unflattering remarks about their beloved
troops. they are known in the novel as "Thik Hais". It lingers
because of the scares and the endless pains. we see Africans
fighting each other against the backdrop of immoralities.0
CONCLUSION It is clear that wars are not good experiences to
humanity. War novels are records of 129 . Ali Banana is one of
the reinforcements flown in to shore up the besieged "White City"
fortress against frantic assaults by the Japanese. we see innocent
Africans as victims of wars they never caused. For every one who
thought him a genius there were others who dismissed him as a
charlatan whose strategy was not as original as he liked to make
out. or anywhere near it. 4. In Burma Boy. and feature only as
sure-footed walkers who provoke the Africans' curses as the latter
try to keep up with them on gruelling forced marches. As for the
Gurkhas. World War 11 was a training ground for blacks in the
atrocious wars man had caused for himself. The civil war in
Nigeria provided a lot of traumatic facts in the development of
this novel. from their constant use of the Urdu phrase for "all
right". being inside the block. Many people are victims of the war
because of fabricated facts. "the stronghold had turned into a
purgatory.The African Novel ENG 281 successful. After enduring
weeks of bombing raids by Mitsubishi Zeroes and suicidal mass
attacks on foot and by tank.. But such historical controversies are
outside the scope of this book. Burma Boy explores to the full the
inhumanity of modern warfare while celebrating the humanity of
warriors caught up in it. When they set out on a mission. after
three decades of the war. It gave the unheard West African
Chindits a voice of their own. In The Last Duty. Chimamanda
Adichie wrote Half of a Yellow Sun. Burma Boy reveals that the
effects and experiences of war are not easily forgotten memories.
It diminishes human integrity and arouses mans animalistic
nature to the extent of destroying feelings and fancy. Banana's
comrades are delighted to leave this hellhole that is a paradise
only for vultures and flies. and Bandele's account of the way
Wingate's sudden death in an aircraft crash orphaned the Chindits
is absolutely authentic. The two texts under study have given us
different views and experiences of wars from an African
perspective.. the story of Nigerian war.

the American Civil War. Sudan. Rulers prosecute it while political

philosophers rationalize it. statesmen and writers have had one
thing or the other to say about man and his numerous wars.
From the primordial tribal wars. and as bringing out the best and
the worst in individuals and the recent wars in
Algeria.The African Novel ENG 281 historical realities. very
ubiquitous and invincible even to modern man and his superior
intelligence. the list is endless and continues to expand by the
day. and more war novels will focus on the common soldier or
civilian rather than the general on horseback. War is one man-
made tragedy. Almost every society has one war story of some
sort to recount in history books and in fictional works. epics and
other manifestations of oral and written literature bequeath to us
traditional stories of war in ages past. the Greek/Trojan wars. the
Chinese Civil war. Myths. the Israelites' wars with their
neighbours. War has been portrayed variously as a heroic and
glorious adventure. Aniebos The Anonymity of Sacrifice.0
SUMMARY There exists in almost every part of the world a vast
body of literature on war. It seems to be a new literary
development. the Congo. legends. It has been described as an
inevitable manifestation of natural human. on the other hand. a
primitive monster. while. as an evil that destroys and kills. and
the ordinary country girl in Mitchells Gone With the Wind. and is
of such efficacy that it not merely maintains those who are born
princes. Many of the worlds notable philosophers. The great war
novels in this trend deal with ordinary heroes such as the recruit
soldier in Cranes The Red Badge of Courage. we often see that
when princes 130 . 5. It is expected that these new literary
developments will force writers to become more experimental in
motivating character. in fashioning new techniques in the fictional
use of history to portray the evil effects of war on ordinary lives.
but often enables men to rise to that eminence from a private
station. the man of integrity and the defenceless forlorn woman
in Okpewhos The Last Duty. the Burundi-Rwanda Civil Wars.
World Wars I & II. War has been an everrecurring theme in
human affairs all through the ages. He recommended that the
ruler should apply himself exclusively to war and to the
regulations and training it requires: War is the sole art looked for
in the one who rules. and in Saro-Wiwas Sozaboy. the Vietnam
War. the Nigerian Civil War . Niccolo Machiavelli in The Prince
(1513) one of the influential pioneering treaties on political
science asserted that the principal duty and profession of a
ruler is the prosecution of warfare. Even the law under certain
circumstances justifies it. A tragic conflict such as war must give
rise to stories because it is an event that is capable of altering the
human situation drastically and completely. aggressive instincts.

(1976). 6. (1974).N. Saro-Wiwa. what are the major causes of

civil wars in The Last Duty.C. N. London: Longman. Burma Boy.
New York: Dover Publications. The Last Duty.).0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS Aniebo. (1992). Philip Smith.
3. Niccolo. I. (1984). Explain the major concerns in most African
war novels. explain the exploitation of Africans in World War 11.
they lose their dominions.H. 4.The African Novel ENG 281 devote
themselves rather to pleasures than to arms. The Prince. The
Anonymity of Sacrifice. Ken.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Answer the following questions: 1. Appreciate the major themes
resulting from wars as exemplified in the two novels under study
in this unit. Thomas. Okpewho. Lagos: Farafina. (2007).
Distinguish between the war narration in Burma Boy and The Last
Duty. Isidore. 5. so to be a proficient in it is the surest way to
acquire power (37). And as neglect of this art is the prime cause
of such calamities. London: Longman. (ed. Bandele Biyi. 7. Using
the experiences of Major Ali Banana in Burma Boy. trans. London:
Heinemann. 131 . Sozaboy. Machiavelli. 2.

This approach made the blacks feel that they have nothing to
offer as humans. They were meant to believe that being a part of
French nation would give meaning to their existence.0
References/Further Readings 1. we shall study the major
characteristics of prose fiction from French African countries.3
Post-colonial Francophone Experience in Ousmenes Xala 4. We
shall use Ferdinand Oyonos Houseboy to x-ray the colonial
experiences and Sembne Ousmenes Xala to study the post-
colonial experiences of Francophone Africa. the French colonies
had quite a different experience.0 Main Content 3.2 Colonial
Francophone Experience in Oyonos House Boy 3. 132 . We shall
trace the historical development of prose fiction as genre in
French Africa. being a part of the French colonies did not stop the
high racism towards the blacks.0 Introduction 2.0 Conclusion 5.0
INTRODUCTION In this unit.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7. The
French colonies applied the principles of assimilation and
association in order to make the blacks a part of the French
nations. Thus. In this type of situation. Unlike the British African
countries. they become indirect slaves since they have no thought
system of their own. many of the blacks who had the opportunity
of western education could not but form movements that could
fight for the restoration of the dignity of the African people. One
of such movements is Negritude spearheaded by Aime Cessaire
of Martinique and Leopold Sedar Senghor of Senegal.0 Objectives
3.The African Novel ENG 281 MODULE 4 MAJOR BLOCS OF
AFRICAN NOVELS Unit 1 The Francophone African Fiction Unit 2
North African Novels Unit 3 The Lusophonic African Fiction Unit 4
Central African Blocs Unit 5 Ethnic Novels in West Africa UNIT 1
Overview 3.0 Summary 6. More so.

by Senegalese writer Ousmane Sembne. African fiction in French

emerged in the 1920s. These works were superseded in the years
leading to independence by fiction with a markedly different
attitude toward France. is typical of early Francophone fiction in
its admiration of the French. including Une vie de Boy (1956.
brings all his wishes to fruition.The African Novel ENG 281 2.
Other works 133 . Chad. The novel tells of a hard-working youth
whose diligence. like Ousmane Socs Mirages de Paris (Mirages
of Paris. This book. These critics felt that a continent beset with
severe social. 1971) by another Cameroonian writer.1 General
Overview The French began colonizing parts of Africa in the mid-
19th Century. and Senegalas well as Madagascar. 1920). 3.
Tunisia. which presents a denunciation of corrupt government
officials. Mali.0 MAIN CONTENT 3. translated 1976). Cte dIvoire.
Houseboy. After independence Ngritude came under severe
criticism from young Francophone intellectuals who regarded its
adulation of blackness as out of place. The areas they occupied
covered most of West Africaincluding what is now Morocco. the
students should be able to: discuss Negritude as a major
philosophy in Francophone African prose fiction assess the
Francophone colonial and post colonial experiences as revealed
in prose fiction identify the major characteristics of Francophone
African fiction understand that the experiences of Francophone
African people is akin to that of other colonized countries. In
fiction as in poetry. 1937). with the publication in Senegal of
Ahmadou Mapat Diagnes Les trois volonts de Malik (Maliks
Three Wishes. Niger. and economic problems was in need of self-
criticism and calls to action instead. Mauritania. Mongo Beti.
1966) by Ferdinand Oyono of Cameroon and Le pauvre Christ de
Bomba (1956. Algeria. writers turned their attention to social
problems soon after independence.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of
the unit. In response. combined with a benevolent colonial
atmosphere. The Poor Christ of Bomba. political. Both books
direct merciless satire at French colonialism. By the 1960s almost
all the French territories had gained independence. the tone of
Francophone prose shifted to match a growing disillusionment
and recognition of the need for change. A good example of this
shift is Xala (1973.

The African Novel

ENG 281

attest to the increasing visibility of women on the Francophone

literary scene. They include Une si longue lettre (1980; So Long a
Letter, 1981) by Senegalese writer Mariama B and La grve des
bttu (1979; The Beggars Strike, 1981) by Aminata Sow Fall,
also of Senegal. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Discus the
characteristics and emergence of Francophone prose fiction.

3.2 Colonial Francophone Experience in Oyonos House boy

In Houseboy, Oyono tells the story of Toundi Joseph, a boy from

French Cameroon who flees his fathers brutality to become the
houseboy of a priest at a Catholic mission in a nearby town. The
book is structured like a diary. The story starts in Spanish Guinea
with a Frenchman on vacation, who finds a man named Toundi.
He has been injured and soon dies. The Frenchman finds his
the story is of the diary (exercise book) that the Frenchman is
supposedly reading. There is no further discussion of the
Frenchman after this point. The first "exercise book" starts with
Toundi living with his family. His father beats him constantly, and
one day he runs away from his home. He runs to the rescue of
Father Gilbert, a priest who lives nearby. His father comes back
for him, telling Toundi that everything will be alright if he comes
back. He denies his father's offer and after this point he no longer
acknowledges his birth parents. Toundi treats Father Gilbert as his
new father. Father Gilbert teaches Toundi to read and write, and
he teaches Toundi about Catholicism. Toundi believes in
Catholicism, but as the story progresses he drifts from his beliefs
until the end, when he does not believe in God. Father Gilbert
dies in a motorcycle accident a few months after meeting Toundi.
Toundi is eventually taken to live with the Commandant, a
religious man who tours the countryside to spread religion. He
serves as the houseboy for the Commandant, and later Madame,
the Commandant's wife. It becomes very clear that the events
that go on in the house are more important to Toundi than his
own life. After about six months since Toundi comes to live with
the Commandant, Madame, the Commandant's wife arrives from
France. She initially is a warm and caring woman, who is very
beautiful. She catches the eye of almost every man in town,
much to the Commandant's excitement. Soon after Madame
arrives the Commandant leaves to go on tour again. Toundi is left
with Madame to take care of the house. As time goes on,
Madame becomes more and more hostile and disrespectful

The African Novel

ENG 281
Toundi. When the Commandant returns, she is portrayed as a
ruthless woman. While the Commandant was still on tour, it
becomes obvious that she is bored with her life. She begins to
have an affair with M. Moreau, the man in charge of the prison.
M. Moreau is perceived to be ruthless against the Africans. One of
Toundi's first experiences with M. Moreau had him whipping two
other Africans nearly to death. The Second Exercise book begins
as the Commandant returns from touring, and it is later
discovered that he knew about his wife's affair and returns
because of it. The Commandant has a terrible argument with her,
but after a few days they are getting along again. Madame
becomes very disrespectful towards Toundi, partly because she
does not like being there anymore, but mostly because she knows
that he knew about her affair. She informs M. Moreau that he was
stealing from the salaries from the other workers in the house,
and he is dragged away, as Madame Skips back into the house in
excitement. Toundi is held in a hut near the police headquarters.
Fortunately he has a friend who works there named Mendim, who
is described as a very muscular man. He is feared by most other
people but he soon comes to be known as Toundi's ally. M.
Moreau orders Mendim to beat up Toundi, but Mendim throws
ox's blood on him to make it look like he is injured. They spend
the rest of the day playing cards. Toundi becomes sick and
Mendim takes Toundi to the hospital. They have to wait a very
long time to see a doctor because the black doctor is the only
doctor there, the other white doctor was promoted to captain.
The doctor finds out that Toundi's ribs are broken and have
punctured his bronchi. While still at the hospital, while Toundi is
in a dazed state, M. Moreau returns with the white doctor. He
talks about punishing Toundi some more. At this point, after M.
Moreau has left, Toundi escapes from the hospital, not knowing
exactly where to go. In the work, Oyono showed himself a master
of irony, imagery, and keen observation. Toundis youth and
navet are foils for the evils of the colonials, who dominate the
natives. Scholars have found the images of physical destruction
to echo the colonials psychological destruction of the Africans.
The book, though short, is layered with irony. One commentator
notes, for example, Oyonos use of the name Joseph as the
priests name for Toundi, linking it with the Joseph of the Old
Testament of the Christian Bible, the Israelite who, enslaved in
Egypt, rises in the estimation of his masters until he is falsely
accused of desiring the wife of an Egyptian. It has also been
noted that Toundi enters into his relationships with the colonials
with frank admiration, accepting the alleged superiority of
Western ways and culture until disillusioned by the truth. Not only
is Toundi given a Christian name on joining the church and the
colonial world; it is practitioners of

The African Novel

ENG 281

Christianity who set him on the path that leads to his destruction
in spite of his innocence. Houseboy reveals insights into the
psychology of oppression. At first dazzled by the education his
servitude affords and the loveliness of the Commandants wife,
Toundi is eventually doomed by his close association with the
colonials because he learns too much about their real character.
Because he knows of the Commandants wifes indiscretion and of
the agricultural engineers affair, he represents a threat, although
his diary reveals no intent to betray anyone. Shortly before his
arrest, Toundi writes bitterly of his place in the Commandants
household: Kicks and insults have started again. He thinks this
humiliates me and he cant find any other way. He forgets that it
is all part of my job as a houseboy, a job which holds no more
secrets for me. Houseboy reveals the psychological aspect
colonialism has on its victims. The story is about a young boy
named Toundi who grows up in a small village. Life in the village
is rough, but Toundi, who is renamed Joseph, goes to work for a
mission led by Father Gilbert as his houseboy. Joseph develops a
close friendship with the father and he comes to look up to him.
The boy's attitude toward his own people and country is apparent
in the beginning: "My ancestors were cannibals." After the priest
is killed in a motorcycle accident, Joseph is sent to live with a
commandant and his wife. There Joseph is able to see the
peculiarities of the colonialists for whom he works. Joseph falls in
love with Madame, but she abuses him and other members of the
household staff, and has an affair with another man. The story
takes a tragic turn when one of the colonialists is robbed by his
lover, whom Joseph also knew. He is arrested and beaten as a
conspirator. Houseboy focuses on the imbalance of political power
that the Africans have under colonialism. Joseph is neither given
due justice of the law or an attorney, which would have been the
due course in France. He is arrested simply on the word of the
white lover who was robbed. All throughout the story, Joseph is
warned by Baklu, the laundryman, not to get too close to the
whites but he does not heed his words until it is too late. As a
houseboy, though, Joseph is given a bird's-eye view of the private
interactions of the whites. It is while watching the Commandant
and his wife that Joseph's opinions begin to change about whites
and the values they hold. Yet his closeness to them also puts him
in trouble. He is often dragged into their domestic squabbles and
is accused of spreading gossip of the Madame's affair with M.
Moreau, though it is apparent that her affair is a secret to no one
in the village but her husband.

The African Novel

ENG 281

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Explain thoroughly how religion

is used as a weapon of colonization in Houseboy.
3.3 Post-Colonial Francophone Experience in Ousmenes
Xala is the story of El Hadji Kader Beye, a Muslim businessman
living in Dakar, Senegal, and the misfortune he suffers after his
third marriage. The novel follows several weeks in El Hadji's life
and his "rapid decline from affluence to total humiliation and
ruin." After the wedding ceremony, El Hadji is unable to
consummate his marriage to N'Gone. He believes himself to have
been cursed with xala (pronounced "hala") a condition which
leaves him impotent. El Hadji agonizes over this dilemma and
sees numerous marabouts (healers) suggested by his trusted
friends and colleagues. None are able to help him and El Hadji
continues to obsess over his sexual loss, ignoring his business
and financial affairs, which he discovers are failing miserably. His
colleagues pounce on his misfortune and vote him out of their
business group. The next morning, a beggar comes to El Hadji's
door. He's the same beggar who has haunted El Hadji's office
building for several years. The beggar is accompanied by other
diseased beggars who pillage the villa. The beggar reveals to El
Hadji that it was he who cursed him with the xala because El
Hadji had ruined his life years before. The only cure to the curse
is for all the beggars to spit twice upon El Hadji while he stands
naked. Desperate, El Hadji agrees. As El Hadji endures this
abuse, the police, expecting a riot, surround the house with
loaded guns. Like in Things Fall Apart and Agatha Moudio's Son,
Xala represents a culture changed by Europeans. The novel
centers on El Hadji Abdou Kader Beye, a successful businessman
in Dakar, Senegal. He believes himself untouchable, refusing the
superstitions of his culture until the curse of the xala is placed
upon him. El Hadji has assimilated into a successful westernized
businessman power hungry, and seeking to restore his power
he has lost under the curse. There is Class Divisions in post-
colonial French. El Hadji, as a successful and wealthy man, has
separated himself from many others in his community. Because of
his wealth and power, he has chosen to alienate those in lower
socioeconomic classes than himself. He has turned his back on
the poor men of his community. Unlike the strong Efuru who does
not allow class differences to affect her, this stress between
socioeconomic classes creates the hole into which El Hadji

more powerfulhidden inside us" (Sembne 93). and eventually

articulates the impotence of his class. who "outsideraised their
weapons into the firing position" (Sembne 114). He recognizes
that to succeed. experiences.0 CONCLUSION From the two novels
under study. Joseph is a victim of indoctrination of western
values. The only cure is from the beggar who placed the xala on
him. El Hadji is stifled as in his business as much as he is by his
xala. Thus. He attended school only briefly before taking work as
a fisherman and trying his 138 . we see the indoctrination of the
young African to the fact that anything African is barbaric.
Sembne is a noted independent film director. "The colonist is
stronger. The curse of the xala that has inflicted impotence on El
Hadjitakes on a symbolic connotation as the impotence that
afflicts the emerging Senegalese bourgeoisies becomes apparent.
of uprising and revolution by those who are oppressed against
their oppressors. but El Hadji also realizes that there is a Colonial
empire profiting off of his group. He knows that it works as a
social system in which he and his business partners profit from
the poor. His alienation of the lower classes is similar to those of
characters in some Indian novels such as The Painter of Signs and
God of Small Things. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Assess the
effect of colonial education on the ruling class as exemplified in
Xala. and the Frenchman's politeness" (Sembne 85). the
American's flair. the rich and the poor and the peasants and the
rulers. is corrupt. 4. we have been able to examine a typical
Francophone colonial and post-colonial situation. In Houseboy.
Those at the top maltreat those below and make it impossible for
the poor to have basic conveniences. The beggar and the other
oppressed are surrounded by the police. The battle against the
colonist is not yet won. as he recognizes himself. El Hadji
represents.The African Novel ENG 281 allows himself to fall. He
was condemned even while innocent. he must assimilate to the
Colonial power using "the Englishman's self-control. Xala
epitomizes the class differences created by western education on
Francophone Africans. The novel then becomes a story of
independence. Hadji's business group. He never believed in his
Africanness and as a result he became a victim of a western
culture that places him in a bad state. Sembne does not leave
his novel to tie itself so easily at the end. western education
creates a wide gap between the educated and the uneducated.

The African Novel

ENG 281

hand at other manual labour jobs. While working as a stevedore,

he wrote his first novel, Le Docker Noir (The Black Docker),
opening his future in the arts. He is known not only for his
literature, but also his films. He is a product of the peasant
situation in Francophone Africa and reenacts that in his works.

The Francophone African states have been under severe identity
problem. The blacks are meant to see themselves as poor,
underdeveloped and without a thought system. The novel
Houseboy reveals to a large extent, the maltreatment of the
blacks during the colonial era. It shows how uncaring the
colonists were to the Africans. It also exposes the trauma of the
blacks in the hands of the whites who perpetuate evils in the
name of religion. Xala is a call to black sanity. It calls on the black
elite to avoid colonial behaviours of class consciousness. It calls
for the need to bring in the real African communal living where
the rich and the poor co-exist in harmony. It attacks the rulers
who want to hold firmly to power in order to achieve more
economic advantage. The xala disease is a reaction by the
people, a response by their gods and a revelation of impending
tragedy in the peoples polity if things are not properly done.
Francophone African experiences, as revealed in these colonial
and post colonial novels, are not easy traumas by which the
French colonials acting on economic pretences enslaved them.


Answer the following questions: 1. Explain the philosophy behind
ngritude in French Africa. 2. Assess the colonial indoctrination
which removed Joseph from his root with reference to Oyonos
Houseboy. 3. The post colonial Francophone African state is a
continuation of the colonial traumas. Discuss with reference to
Ousmenes Xala. 4. From the two texts discussed in this unit,
describe the characteristics of the colonial and post-colonial
African states.


Oyono, Ferdinand. (1966). Houseboy. London: Heinemann.
Ousmene, Sembene. (1976). Xala. London: Heinemann.


The African Novel

ENG 281


CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1
General Overview 3.2 Colonial Literature in North Africa: Driss
Chraibis The Simple Past 3.3 Post-Colonial Literature in North
Africa: Matar's In the Country of Men 4.0 Conclusion 5.0
Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further

In this unit we shall study the select novels from North Africa.
Before that, we shall examine the characteristics and the
historical experiences of the people which aided their creative
arts. North Africa had an early literate indigenous civilization
(Ancient Egypt) some of whose hieroglyphic writings survive.
North Africans also contributed to writing in Phoenician, Greek
and Latin. Phoenician material, from Carthage and other colonies
royal patronage of the Ptolemaic rulers, scholars in Alexandria
assembled the famous Library of Alexandria and Alexandrian
writers contributed not insignificantly to the material housed in
this institution. North Africans writing in Latin include Apuleius
and Saint Augustine. In Islamic times, North Africans, such as ibn
Khaldun attained great distinction within Arabic literature.
2.0 OBJECTIVES 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 General Overview
Maghrebian literature is the literature of Algeria, Morocco and
Tunisia. 'Maghreb' is also the Arabic word for Morocco and comes
from the word that means 'the place where the sun sets,' to
distinguish it from the eastern part of the Arab world. The area
has long been a crossroads of north-south and cultural commerce
between Europe and Africa south of the Sahara and east-west
religious/intellectual exchange. French, Arabic

The African Novel

ENG 281

and Berber are the major literary languages. The so-called

Greater Maghreb includes Mauritania and Libya, but the linguistic
bonding through French has tended to cause people to group the
first three countries, despite great differences in their internal
political and social structures. There are writers in North Africa
who were born and raised in North Africa but are, or were, French
Pieds-Noirs, that is descendants of French settlers and, thus, not
strictly-speaking Maghrebians. Literature written in French by
Arabs and Berbers exploded on the scene in the 1950s and '60s,
with the writings of Moroccans Ahmed Sefrioui and Driss Chraibi,
Algerians Mouloud Feraoun, Mohammed Dib, Mouloud Mammeri,
and Kateb Yacine, and Tunisian Albert Memmi. Some of these
novelists, like Feraoun, wrote in an ethnographic vein, describing
from the inside cultural attitudes and events which had previously
been ignored or misrepresented by European writers. Others, like
Chraibi, Kateb, and the later Dib, analyzed the implications of
colonization and cultural hybridization. The major works of this
early period are Kateb Yacine's masterpiece Nedjma (1956), Dib's
Qui se souvient de la mer (Who Remembers the Sea, 1962),
Chraibi's Le passe simple (The Simple Past, 1954) and Succession
ouverte (Heirs to the Past, 1962), Mammeri's La colline oubliee
(The Inspired Hill, 1952), Albert Memmi's La statue de sel (The
Pillar of Salt, 1953) and several essays on the psychology of
colonization, and Feraoun's Le fils du pauvre (The Poor Mans
Son, 1950, new ed., 1954), a novel widely read today in Algerian
schools. Algerian writers who survive are tormented by the
events and feel compelled to write about them and to honour
those who have died. For example, Assia Djebar's work in recent
years has dwelled on this tragedy. She has wanted to return to a
tetralogy that she has nearly completed, but when she tries to do
so, she feels she must first write yet again about the problem: Le
blanc de l'Algerie (1995) was followed by Oran, langue morte
(1997) and Les nuits de Strasbourg (1997). And BoudjeIdra (FIS
de la haine, 1992) and Mimouni (De la barbarie en gendral et de
l'integrisme en particulier, 1992) penned works critical of the rise
of fundamentalism in Algeria. Maghrebians started writing in
Arabic shortly after the Islamization and subsequent Arabization
of the people in the Eighth Century. If Tunisia still lags behind
Morocco, and especially Algeria, in Francophone literary
production, its Arabiclanguage literature is more significant both
in quantity and quality. The strength of Berber literature lies in its
strong allegiance to orality and the popular traditions of the folk
tale and poetry; and the drama of Berber literature lies in the fact
that the Berbers (or Imazighen) have long had to struggle to
vouchsafe the survival of their language and its cultural
corollaries. The Berber presence in Northern Africa goes back

The African Novel

ENG 281

to times shrouded in mystery and there is much debate as to the

origins of this group and its language(s). Despite this age-old
presence, of which they are justly proud and protective, the
Berber's "literature" has, in many areas, remained an "orature"
and does not have an extensive written tradition or canon. North
African experience is an ineradicable part of the lives, and writing
of a number of French authors. One can divide them roughly into
four categories: (1) those, like Gustave Flaubert and Andre Gide
whom some have termed tourist or "post-card" authors because
they came to North Africa as to a foreign, exotic land; (2) those,
like Jacques Derrida or Marie Cardinal, who were born and raised
in North Africa but who left and more or less minimized their
North-African roots until quite recently; (3) writers, like Camus,
who continued to live their lives as North-African Frenchmen until
Independence and then withdrew with some rancor; and 4)
writers who cast their lot with the Independence movement
and/or placed justice above personal interest, like Jean Senac,
Emmanuel Robles, and Jean Pelegri. Within these larger linguistic
categories of French, Arabic, and Berber, there are, of course,
differences, for the Maghreb has for centuries lain at the
crossroads of cultures of three continents that have interacted
and continued to interact synchronically and diachronically with
them. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Discuss in details the
complex characteristic make up of North African literature.

3.2 Colonial Literature in North Africa: Driss Chraibis The

Simple Past
Driss Chrabi is a French-Moroccan novelist, considered to be the
father of the modern Moroccan novel. Chrabi's works draw
heavily on his own life. Central theme in his novels is the clash
between different cultures, the East and the West, Arab and
French. Chrabi's range of style changes from epic to comedy. He
has been among the pioneers of Maghrebian writers to explore
the oppression of women and children in an Islamic, patriarchal
society. His father was a tea merchant, who perceived Western
education as a means to modern Morocco. Chrabi attended
Koranic school as a young boy. When the family moved to
Casablanca, Chrabi continued his studies at the French Lyce. At
age of nineteen he went to France planning to study chemical
engineering and neuropsychiatry. After abandoning his studies,
he traveled throughout Europe and Israel. Chrabi settled in
France with his first wife and children, and eventually devoted
himself in 1952 to literature and journalism. In 1954 Chrabi
began writing for the National Radio and

you are a reader of Voltaire and an admirer of Kant. Chrabi's

works have been translated into English. It gives him a history
lesson. your education. Chrabi was criticized as a traitor to the
Arab world and French conservatives saw that the book revealed
the reason for French presence in Morocco. Driss is an outsider in
his own country. and through your painful past. You are black
from generations back. Chrabi was so disturbed by critics. in an
accusatory manner. you are going to triumph over the Orient. a
student in a French missionary school confronts the violence he
has done to his identity: You were the issue of the Orient. It said
to me: you are black. Chabi taught in Canada for a year after his
second divorce but returned then to France. You are about to
cross the line. religious traditions. Italian. [9] Such existential
crises may no longer seem likely in postcolonial Morocco. To lose
your last drop of authentic black blood.The African Novel ENG 281
Television Broadcasting System. to the passing tourist eye at
least. your imaginings. The novel ends with Driss's departure for
France. crossed with white. In the novel. The book was banned in
Morocco until 1977. The father banishes Driss from the home and
Driss begins his wandering on the streets. Everything got misty in
front of my eyes so that it would be clear. In The Simple Past
(1954). and through 143 . The book arose much controversy
because of the inflammable political situation in North Africa.
Driss. In 1978 he married Sheena McCalliion. You have never
believed in Allah. As a novelist Chrabi made his debut with Le
Pass simple (The Simple Past). and Russian. You know how to
dissect the legends. more liberal and Westernized than most
Muslim societies. who revolts against his tyrannical Moslem
father. German. two years before Morocco gained its
independence. and questions his beliefs: The Thin Line is clear at
present. You were the issue of the Orient. you think in French.
makes fun of his predilection for things Western. that he publicly
rejected the novel in 1957. Arabic. Finally he returns home only
to find that his mother has committed suicide in his absence.
From his first marriage he had five children. The protagonist in
the novel is a young man. Driss Ferdi. Your facial angle opened
up. which seems. which was published in 1954. a strange
phenomenon called the Thin Line addresses the protagonist. and
you are no longer woolly-haired or thick-lipped. oppressed by his
family and the feudal. but later regretted his action.

an ambiguous intimate and distant awareness of one's states of

being. Only the occidental world for which you are destined
seems to you sewn with stupidities and ugliness you are fleeing
from. and alienation within oneself. A similar self-reflexive
moment surfaces in Paul Smail's Smile. flesh and wound and
avatars and grandoise complexes. All else disappears. with silent
anguish. I have told you: I am nothing but a hand (Chraibi 109).
perhaps. and. Chraibi writes: My hand? You probably do not even
feel it. and. What is not clear is where the Thin Line is located.
the author signifies this multiple movement of the self in the form
of the hand. It is not going to accept you right away. you are
nothing but an open wound (Chraibi 56). your education. the act
of writing. it manifests itself in the act of writing in Chraibi's
novel. however. is neither these locations. consciousness. It is a
metonym for his divided body. 144 . you feel that it is a hostile
world. If the Thin Line represents this sense of extimacy. It may
also 'mark' the distance. simultaneously. into delirium. and. You
know how to dissect the legends. That is why I appear to you. it
may not matter which is which. you have some setbacks. More
specifically. you are going to triumph over the Orient. the Thin
Line exists in the interior and exterior worlds of the protagonist.
The novel represents the shattering of the narrator's perceptions
due to the disjunctions in his psychic and social lives. The Thin
Line cautions Driss that he is about to cross over a line. your
imaginings. You have never believed in Allah. and.The African
Novel ENG 281 your painful past. and it is poised. more
importantly. in the difficulty in telling apart interior and exterior
realities. at the point of exchanging the box seat you now occupy
for a jump seat. intimacy. Moreover. you think in French. It is an
intensely subjective moment where the boundaries between the
inner and outer worlds of a person blur. except for this hand. with
its fragmented stream-ofconsciousness narration. in that hand as
in a kind of refuge. Nevertheless. This hallucinatory dissolution
between the interior and exterior states of being informs the form
of the novel. like the expressive hands in Picasso's Guernica. Is it
speaking from within Driss or outside of him? In essence. I shall
transform everything. it seems that he has already entered into
this strange state of extreme subjectivity that is both within and
outside of him. Driss Ferdi is in a state of irreconcilable realities.
Since the first day I appeared to you. you are a reader of Voltaire
and an admirer of Kant. In a way.

the act of writing causes at least a double movement of intimacy

and alienation within oneself. respectively? SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 2 How do western values create the thin line that
places the North African in a state of disconnection from his
society? Use The Simple Past as your reference point. this is
1979. it is through these self-reflexive moments of writing where
protagonist and writer intersect. In effect. or the entredeux that
occurs in the understanding of the Thin Line. Exalted as the
country's sole "Guide. contradictory realities. 3. Smail's 'trance-
like state' sounds a lot like the experience of the Thin Line. the
subject that is able to write and express his pain. Qaddafi's Libya
suffers from a similar blankness. among others. a businessman.
as though "urging Libya to look toward Rome. brings him his
most cherished gifts. However. it is in this intersection caused by
self-awareness that the painful subject is borne.3 Post-Colonial
North Africa: Hisham Matar's in the Country of Men In the
Country of Men. In both cases. Visiting Lepcis Magna. Libya
appears to have moved far from its cosmopolitan past. its
narrator Suleiman. and as Colonel Qaddafi ruthlessly consolidates
his regime. Yet what is interesting is what happens to
expressions. And it is through writing that both protagonist and
author are able to transform and represent their painful.
describes a statue of the Roman emperor Septimius Severus in
Tripoli's Martyrs' Square. a nine-year-old child in Libya. torturing
and murdering thousands of dissenters. from where his father. a
political and intellectual vacuum maintained through fear and
terror: in one of its scenes that dramatize the precariousness of
the independent thinker in Libya." Qaddafi not only disseminates
his half-baked 145 ." Suleiman himself often dreams about the
lands across the Mediterranean. Qaddafi's Revolutionary Guards
chase a man who has a typewriter." As In the Country of Men
goes on to describe. since it is mediated by a psychiatrist-activist
and an anthropologist. Moreover. What is the status of that kind
of language of pain." Standing in the antique city's ruins.
Suleiman finds that "absence was everywhere. the Roman
seaside colony where Septimius Severus was born. specifically
expressions of pain that are not as well articulated as in the
forms of literature. Suleiman's best friend's father. The Libya-born
Severus stands with one arm pointing toward the sea.The African
Novel ENG 281 which references Chraibi's novel. Ustath Rashid
one of the political liberals stealthily working against Qaddafi
recites an Arab poem: "Why this nothingness where once was a
city? /Who will answer? Only the wind.

Ustath Rashid is publicly interrogated and then hanged in a

basketball stadium. At the heart of the novel is Suleiman's great
love for his mother. and sorrows. she is forced into marriage at
the age of fourteen by male members of her family the so-
called "High Council. But it doesn't take long for them to be
discovered and then. drunk on surreptitiously bought alcohol.
books. under torture. Matar's primary fidelity is to the truth of
Suleiman's experience. to betray their colleagues. the obscure
deeds of distant adults have filled his life with more than the
usual private mysteries. Suleiman is able to reconstruct a central
event in her life. Suleiman spends his school holidays playing on
the roof of his house or in the streets with friends. they write
pamphlets inciting students to revolt against Qaddafi. and
climbing mulberry trees daily activities that the disappearance
of his father and the mysterious "illness" of his mother (what the
reader recognizes as alcoholism) do not much restrict. Listening
to his mother. the son whom she had tried to abort and who
develops a touching desire to protect her against a cruel world:
146 . A few educated and well-traveled men such as Ustath
Rashid and Suleiman's father dare to challenge the regime. the
pro-democracy activists in the novel come across as naive and
inept.) Each night. swimming at the nearby beach. enforcing
conformity through live telecasts of the interrogations and public
hangings of his opponents. Though he does not name Suleiman's
father as a coconspirator. (Given her experience of men.
Gathering in a flat in Martyrs' Square. the latter is nevertheless
kidnapped and tortured by Qaddafi's guards.The African Novel
ENG 281 ideology of Islamic socialism through billboards. and
magazines. In the Country of Men is not overtly political or
polemical. Far from being idealized. in a country dominated by
men. faces both domestic and political oppression. Since he lives
in Libya. Living in a well-to-do suburb. he also invades people's
homes through television. joys. she pours out her bitter stories to
Suleiman." an ironic reminder of Qaddafi's revolutionary councils
and committees. Suleiman's mother tends to regard her husband
and his colleagues as dangerous fools. For all the grim news it
brings us from a murky region. Caught by a relative while holding
hands with a boy at an Italian caf in Martyrs' Square (most of
the novel's dramatic events occur near the statue of the Roman
emperor pointing to the promise of Europe). who. It has few
details about the scale and scope of anti-Qaddafi dissent in Libya
in 1979.

Suleiman's feeling for his mother grows: She often. brushing her
fingers against the wall: a moment before the Italian Coffee
House. Matar shows how ordinary human beings under severe
pressures are as capable of great cruelty as of great sympathy.
then irrevocably into motherhood. The novel really describes the
arduous growth. I unable to leave her. walking home from school.
the sensations of extreme heat. if it is a hidden force that is
brought out by a person. And she never sang to herself in that
soft. That singing that had always evoked a girl unaware of
herself. for me that person was her. I was convinced that if my
attention was applied fully. no longer lost. but always love and
always the joy that surrounds the beginning of love. supple prose.
his parents decide to send him away to Egypt. "the city of 147 .
In this suffocating atmosphere. Suleiman's family phone is
tapped. "No. walked aimlessly around the house. disaster would
be kept at bay and she would return whole and uncorrupted.
absentminded way she often did when taking a bath or painting
her eyes in front of the mirror or drawing in the garden. a
moment sheltered in the clarity of innocence. like light off a
mirror. In this. fittingly in Alexandria. there is clean. even the
dark warm embrace of hate. His mother is forced to burn her
husband's books and put up pictures of Qaddafi on the walls.
abruptly beats up the local beggar. waiting alone. Suleiman.
without even the chance to say. there was pity. If love starts
somewhere. with threatening voices interrupting conversations.
to relax the grip of my gaze. before the quick force that. long
warm afternoons. But although her unpredictability and her
urgent stories tormented me. Revolutionary guards constantly
monitor the house from a car parked outside. my vigil and what I
then could only explain as her illness bound us into an intimacy
that has since occupied the innermost memory I have of love. in
extremely unfavorable conditions. There was anger. I worried how
away.The African Novel ENG 281 Mama and I spent most of the
time togethershe alone. stranded on the opposite bank. who is
fascinated by the apparently powerful guards who stalk his
house. without argument. Years pass before he sees his mother
again. and the coolness of shuttered interiors. After Suleiman's
father returns home with a face disfigured by Qaddafi's torturers.
during those empty days when Baba [her husband] was away. of
a moral and emotional sensibility." thrust her over the border and
into womanhood. This vividly evokes days of idleness.

Murad. who has been a radical Islamist as a student in Rabat.

Moroccans enjoy a higher degree of political freedom than their
North African neighbors. Another well-educated young man.
Morocco's economy is propped up by remittances sent by the
approximately four million Moroccans abroad roughly 12
percent of the country's population. However. lies just a few miles
across the Strait of Gibraltar. turns to hawking Moroccan artifacts.
Though Morocco's King Mohammed VI wields absolute power.
Unable to create enough jobs. Fleeing a violent husband in a
Casablanca slum. Having escaped Libya's oppressive solitude.
Having failed to interest tourists in visiting Paul Bowles's home in
Tangiers. the Algerians. who has a college degree in English
literature. the 148 . Rescued by her ten-year-old son. increasingly
prosperous and democratic. taints many politicians and
bureaucrats. The young hijab-clad Faten." The exile's experience
of deracination and painful self-invention is also the fate of Laila
Lalami's Moroccan characters in her novel Hope and Other
Dangerous Pursuits. they find the promise of modern life
incarnated with tempting vividness in Europe. becomes a
prostitute in Madrid." While still in Libya Suleiman had longed to
grow up and distinguish himself from the people around him.
Uprooted from their traditional livelihoods and exposed to modern
education and urban life. Tunisians. corruption. leaves a wife he
barely knows to work as a dishwasher in a Madrid restaurant.
which. commanding loyalty bordering on sycophancy from the
parliamentary parties. in Spain. uneasily satisfying the Arabian
Nights fantasy of a Spanish client. millions of them have found
their basic hopes disappointed throughout Morocco's postcolonial
history. And not to do all the things normally associated with
manhood and its license. often illegally. and Libyans. "I couldn't
wait to be a man. Halima almost drowns in the sea off Spain." It
is the renewal of the filial bond and remembrance and art that
seems to offer Suleiman some refuge from brutal machismo.
Aziz. Not surprisingly. Political despotism is only partly to blame
for the displacement and bewilderment suffered by Lalami's
characters. particularly Spain. especially in business deals with
France.The African Novel ENG 281 fallen grace. she returns to
Morocco to see him unexpectedly exalted as a folk saint.
Suleiman wonders about his new life in Egypt: "how readily and
thinly we procure these fictional selves. Many of these often well-
educated and skilled Moroccans live. one of Morocco's former
colonial overlords. increasing the appeal of radical Islamists
among the young and the unemployed. The intense and usually
thwarted search by young people for a stable job infects many
lives with anxiety and anomie.

when he thought of the future. their separate pasts and futures.

only two of them make it. As it turns out. moaning her pleasure
out loud. never realizing that his past was drifting. he feels he
has no inherited culture to pass on to his own children. bolstering
the local economies with their low-paid jobs. who was educated in
Rabat and London. In doing so. his own usually submissive wife
startles him by claiming that it is "the right way. And now. and
Italy. France. Distractedly making love to his wife. but he has also
found there a new idea of himself. and now lives in Portland. He'd
been living in the future. Their growing presence in relatively
homogeneous societies has helped right-wing politicians in
Europe to incite xenophobic sentiments against immigrants. in
careful. Oregon. Lalami. Aziz notices a growing number of women
wearing Islamic head-scarves. The rest of the novel describes.
straddling him. limpid prose. thinking of all his tomorrows in a
better place. has spent much of his life imagining a life for himself
in metropolitan Europe. Half-listening to Western backpackers
looking for bargains. unable 149 . her arms up in the air. he
reconsiders the larger consequences of his perennial longing for
the West: He'd been so consumed with his imagined future that
he hadn't noticed how it had started to overtake something inside
him. he saw himself in front of his children. he can't remember
any of the stories he heard as a child from his father. He couldn't
imagine Zohra doing it. Returning to Morocco after a spell in
Spain. and wonders "what his wife would look like in a sexy
bustier. he has cut himself off from his own society.The African
Novel ENG 281 Netherlands. bit by bit. Murad. that they manage
to represent a broad panorama of a Moroccan society in troubled
transition. particularly Muslims. writes about her home country
without the expatriate's self-indulgent and often condescending
nostalgia. her evenhandedness offers us no scope for easy
judgments. and so well chosen are they. the others are
intercepted by the Spanish police and sent back to Morocco. from
different classes and regions." In Madrid Aziz has suffered the
humiliations inflicted on all North African immigrants. Lalami
shows Aziz's growing alienation from his relatives and friends in
Morocco. as mute as if his tongue had been cut off. She brings a
calm sympathy to all her characters. he remembers the women
he has slept with in Spain. Even those of her characters who are
unable to make it to Europe find their inner lives in thrall to the
Continent. the English literature major and reader of Paul Bowles.
In a scene rich with irony he appears as a salesman in a gift
shop." Briskly and subtly.

With the best of intentions that went into setting up modern

educational institutions. expatiate on this issue. The thin line
situation in Chraibis The Simple Past is an inquiry into purpose of
being in their existence. There is the psychological torture which
has affected the sensibilities of the people and makes them
question the moral dispositions in their enslavement and/or
colonialism.0 CONCLUSION The North African novel is a complex
web of languages: French. Using Matar's In the Country of Men as
reference novel. against the backdrop of political despotism.
Murad follows in a long line of damaged men in postcolonial
African fiction whom a Western-style education has unmoored
from their tradition. a stagnant economy. One observes that the
novelists.The African Novel ENG 281 to recount for them the
stories he'd heard as a child. and who abandon their own
indigenous culture and society for the sake of the catastrophic.
even suicidal. an entire cultural tradition built upon the
transmission of memory. This shows why religion remains
attractive to so many North African writers because it would help
in dictating a particular national setting. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 3 Post-colonial Libya is a hybrid of corruption and
anarchy. the student radical Faten says. Islam seems the moral
board for their proper governance and existence. 4. to focus their
rage and despair on the modernizing West. material want and
constant fantasizing about a life elsewhere seem to have
gradually damaged individual memory and. as in many colonized
countries. this sentimental vision of faith nevertheless remains
popular among Muslims." More often disappointed than realized.
the past is not one simple past but a complex experience. Thus.
and deeply entrenched class divisions. eventually. There was that
search for self. Speaking of the corruption and injustice of the
Moroccan elite. who were likely. Hisham Matar's In the Country of
Men takes a jab at post-colonial Libya. especially the post colonial
writers are concerned with identity because of the enslavement
they experienced. In Morocco. eventually. The grim situation is
akin to the general experience in North Africa where monarchical
ruling drowns democracy. it created generations of rootless and
confused men. Maghrebian literature is a reaction to these
complex realities. Arabic and Berber. "If we had been better
Muslims. perhaps these problems wouldn't have been visited on
our nation and on our brethren elsewhere. journeys to the
Northern metropoles. 150 .

Pushpa Naidu Parekh & Siga Fatima.The African Novel ENG 281 5.
Both of them offer no false optimism. The Encyclopedia of World
Literature.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer these
questions: 1. As they reveal the darkening ambiguities of North
Africa and its relationship with the West. (1999). 4.0
novelists. Hisham Matar. Steven R. Compare the colonial
experiences in The Simple Past with the post-colonial experiences
in In the Country of Men. and the crippling dependence on a
widely distrusted West will continue to force many people in
Muslim countries into the simple solutions and consolations of
faith-based politics. 6. Serafin. (1954). Chraibi and Matar have
revealed the true states of North Africa at the two periods under
review. Postcolonial African Writers. North African experience is
an ineradicable part of the lives. these first novels make for
antique exhortation to learn that Europe is not a good experience
for them. What are the major thematic concern of colonial north
African Novels? 2. Le Pass Simple [The Simple Past]. Discus this
statement. (1974). who seem to have become subject to wilder
generalizations than would be deemed intellectually respectable
for non-Muslims. the stranglehold of corrupt ruling elite. 7. A
meager modern society that consists of severe economic
inequality. 3. and writing of a number of French authors. Assess
Maghrebian novels as Islamic teaching literature. In the Country
of Men. (1998). 151 . We see them focus on specificity and
distrusts large abstractions the abstractions that have become
of the greatest importance in understanding the diverse political
and cultural choices of Muslims.

0 Summary 6.0 OBJECTIVES the least extensive and least

known of the African literatures in European languages. and
Mozambique . We shall use da Silvas novel Chiquinho to examine
post Colonial Lusophone Prose and Bernardo Honwana We Killed
Mangy Dog and Other Stories to examine Colonial Lusophone
Prose.1 3.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7. and mestios (people of
mixed African and European ancestry). dates back to the 15th
Century. So Tom and Prncipe.0 Objectives 3.The African Novel
1. and Lusophone works are not as readily available in English
translation as are Francophone works.0 INTRODUCTION In this
unit.0 Main Content Angola. its blossoming marked the rise
of political consciousness among intellectuals. As early as the
1930s.2 Post-Colonial Lusophone Prose: Bernardo Honwana We
Killed Mangy Dog 3. 2.0 References/Further Readings 1. Cape
Verde. the longest of any European country. who used poetry to
celebrate a unique identity and 152 . we shall examine the prose
fiction from the Lusophone African countries.0 Conclusion 5.2
MAIN CONTENT General Overview Poetry was the first genre to
thrive in Lusophone literature. Members of this class are
responsible for African literature in Portuguese.0 Introduction 2.
Lusophone literature are the literatures from Portugals former
colonies . Portugals contact with Africa. Portugals African empire
was small compared with the empires of France and Great Britain.
Guinea-Bissau.1 General Overview 3. Africans. It gave rise to an
intellectual class constituted of European whites who lived in the
urban centers.3 Colonial Lusophone Prose: da Silvas Novel
Chiquinho 4.
1976). Noteworthy among Angolan plays is Henrique Guerras O
crculo de giz de bomb (The Manioc Chalk Circle. whose best
work appears in A inadivel viagem (The Urgent Voyage.
economic. Drama was the least developed of the literary genres
in the colonial era because of strict Portuguese censorship of all
mass media. Belo Marques inaugurated a series of radio dramas.
and Mozambican Nomia de Sousa. 1962) by Cape Verdean
Ovdio Martins exemplifies the poetry of this movement.
Mozambican Lus Patraquim.The African Novel ENG 281
experience. in 1978. structured after traditional storytelling
sessions. Angolas capital. One of the few Lusophone works
available in English is Ns matamos o co tinhoso (1964. gave
rise to a poetry that called for action. and language with what one
critic has described as tropical 153 . The new trend in Lusophone
African literature manifests itself mainly in poetry and combines
an interest in issues of identity. Their works typically borrow
extensively from oral traditions. however. The wars of liberation.
Luuanda: Short Stories of Angola. represents this change. Cape
Verdean Baltasar Lopes da Silvas novel Chiquinho (1947) tells of
a man who leaves Cape Verde to follow his father to America. and
other Angolan writers experimented with language by
superimposing features of their native Kimbundu language on the
Portuguese and by using Kimbundu words liberally. best known
for the poem Sangue Negro (Black Blood. alienation. freedom
fighters encouraged performances of politically charged works in
the areas they controlled. whose volume Arquiplago
(Archipelago) was published in 1935. author of Luuanda (1964.
which began in the 1960s in the Portuguese colonies. In
Mozambique. which renounced the escapism of earlier poets in its
insistence on addressing social. During the liberation struggle.
Anti-evaso (Anti-Evasion. a childrens play inspired by a play
by German dramatist Bertolt Brecht. The beginning of drama in
the Portuguese territories is generally dated to a bilingual musical
about bride pricea payment by a groom or his family to the
brides familywhich was performed in Luanda. 1979). the first
female Lusophone poet in Africa. and political issues. 1969) by
Mozambican Lus Bernardo Honwana. We Killed Mangy Dog and
Other Stories. Notable among the poets of cultural authentication
are the Cape Verdean Jorge Barbosa. and independence brought
about the establishment of urban theater groups. The end of
colonialism in 1975 brought about a new type of poetry
characterized by delight in language. Lusophone prose writers
sought to provide a more authentic image of Africa than that
popularized by colonial writers. in 1971. 1985). Beginning in the
1940s. which tended toward racism. ethnicity. Jos Luandino
Vieira. Theatrical performances began to flourish after the
Angolans dislodged the Portuguese from urban centers. 1980).

Owing to the juxtaposition of the forced labour of Madala with its

pleasant physical setting. What is the effect of these open-ended
structures? As the reader's attention has been directed wholly at
and through the figure of Madala. Other writers whose work
exemplifies this trend include the Mozambicans Hlder Muteia. a
lacuna is created in the reading experience. Examples appear in
the works of two Angolan writers: Ritos de Passagem (Rites of
Passage. The world of the stories of Luis Bernardo Honwana is no
longer a world of belief: the structures of traditional society are
absent in the post-contact phase. and the weeds seem to be the
keys to revealing the latent meanings. odores & sonho (Flavors.
As in many of Honwana's stories. the 'sea' of the cornfield.
However. With regard to the action. Then follows the unexpected
acceptance of the wine. 3. 1988). a strong structural organisation
is also no longer present in the narratives which concern
themselves with this time. his reaction. Scents & Reveries. in O
pas de mim (The Country That Comes from Me. 1989).2 Colonial
Lusophone Prose: Luis Bernardo Honwana We Killed Mangy Dog &
Other Stories These are colonial stories set in the colonial era.
there is the fact of expectation created by the story and then
denied or frustrated. spatial features such as (in this story) the
cornfield. Whether or not there are any consequences of this
second violent act is again not given.The African Novel ENG 281
sensuousness. When the Overseer realizes that he has committed
a shameful act. aspects of space provide a key to interpreting this
world in which the relationships between the personae are as
tenuous as the narrative situations often are. and the reaction of
the men. 1985) by Paula Travares and Sabores. the outcome of
which is not fully shown. In the case of the story called "Dina".
lead the reader to believe that the situation of the Overseer may
well be precarious. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the
major characteristics of Lusophone African literature. and the
outspoken youth of the kraal gang is killed. by lining up the
weeds he 154 . Accordingly. and Eduardo White. firstly. author of
Verdades dos mitos (Truths of Myths. although there is no central
spatial framework. the wine. The result is that the reader seeks
meaningful connexions elsewhere than in the action. his work is
made to seem even more painful by being placed in this
contrastive setting. 1985) by Ana de Santana. a confrontation is
developed between the Overseer and the men. The way Madala
organises his work is also significant: out of the pain and difficulty
of his labour he creates a little order.

in the connexion between the mother figure and the "good years"
as 155 . thus giving him back belief in his own freewill.
intellectual activity. if one looks closely at the juxtaposition of
spatial features.The African Novel ENG 281 pulls up. the Overseer
on the other hand never shares. which are mostly related to
Papa. but only by inferring an ideology in the work. The reader
has to work hard to find the strangeness in the story. one sees
the incongruity of the richness of the intellectual life of the
narrator's family as contrasted with the poverty of their material
circumstances. But again.except perhaps to the obsessiveness
that Madala has developed as a defence against the destructive
nature of his life. It is only when he is driven by the shame which
the reader must imagine he feels as a result of his degraded act
that he gives the dregs of his wine to the offended father. In "The
Old Woman" also. The former is implied by the presence of the
narrator's drawing materials and the magazines. this order seems
meaningless. The attempt to harmonise man with this landscape
deliberately fails.anger. Perhaps then it is the denatured state of
Madala and his friends that we can see in them the "strange fish"
of the ending of the story. No reason is given for his
imprisonment. even if it were not a conventional symbol for the
experience of communality. because it is not related to anything .
imprisonment and injury. the latter is obvious in most of the other
details. but pulling up only imaginary weeds. that he accepts the
offer. precisely because it is presented so familiarly. The use of
this natural image implies how very unnatural the situation of the
peonised worker is. which are not only very numerous but also
placed in a hierarchy of value. an offering which is utterly
inadequate to heal such a wound. An examination of this kind
enables the reader to fill the undetermined gaps in the implied
action. although he does not finish the bottle. it is implied. The
tone of the ending ironically merely appears to pacify the anger
which is latent in the action . this meaning is established in any
case by Madala's reflections. however. As for the wine. However.
which in fact has been taken away from him. On the other hand
he has become so profoundly conditioned to the habit of hard
work that he goes on working during the dinner break. with the
story which follows it in the collection. He is in the habit of
sharing his wine with friends at the cantina. which cannot and
should not be allayed while the situation remains. Whereas the
anger is at least partially demonstrated in the case of "Dina". The
line of weeds is evidence of what he personally has done of his
own volition. It is possible for the reader to close these gaps by
inferring a connexion between the factors mentioned: poverty. an
ideational structure is buried in the work. it is well concealed. nor
is his hospitalization with what we infer a back injury. Such is
Madala's degradation.

It seems to be merely an anticipatory interruption. however.the

superficially derogatory title for example . However.
retrospectively. In this way. and at the print level. the contents of
the section are not necessarily related to the preceding 'headline'.
The statement is not of the conventional form of a sub-heading.
But in the present case. as it is only relevant to the first two
pages. this is not necessarily so. as opposed to being part of the
mediation process. soft erosion".and actual fact implies also the
ending which merely seems to resolve the situation while in the
impossibility of such a resolution. It remains unclear. It seems
that the 156 . Honwana's text draws attention to itself as such.
yet appealing. This is carried through the narrator's ambivalent
feelings towards his mother . in that we do not know why exactly
the mother is crying. simultaneously sick. why the subheadings
are indecisive and sometimes misleading. under the direct control
of the author. The mother's story is the only one which is
manifestly moral. it therefore causes all the others to be seen.
and examination reveals that a particularly elusive kind of textual
indeterminacy is operating. the second subtitle (p. Turning to the
title story. in a moral light.82) is clearly mediated by the figure of
the narrator. involving one more degree of complexity. in a more
superficial way. as he is forced to create his own meaning for the
relationships between different aspects of the text. that is. What
is clear is the ideology of the story.The African Novel ENG 281
opposed to the present with its "nauseous. such as the subtitles.
which recalls for example the Aeolus section of Ulysses. However.
In "We killed Mangy-Dog" the first subtitle could well be authorial.
and does not seem adequate to head the whole section. Titles
and subtitles are usually seen as being in the authorial register.
The ending of "The Hands of the Blacks" is also ambivalent. In
that part of the novel which deals with the newspaper offices. as
it sums up both the subject of the first section and also directs
attention to the ambivalence of the image of Mangy-Dog's
pathetic blue eyes. the reader becomes more involved in the
reading process. but by devices in the authorial register.
nauseating stares" and feelings of "a slow. A dialectic is thus set
up by the expectation created by the text which the reader has to
try to resolve. Joyce makes use of a quasi-headline for each small
section of the chapter. although initially not by self-reflexive
elements in the narration. one is immediately struck by certain
aspects of the print level. The attempt to hold onto the past only
reveals the fact that it is past. Different versions of myths
explaining the origin of the pale hands of the black peoples reveal
different degrees of intolerance or concern.

3. The same thing applies to the variations in typeface which

occur in the climactic passages.3 Post-Colonial Lusophone Prose:
Baltasar Lopes da Silva Chiquinho Chiquinho is a Cape Verdean
novel written by Baltasar Lopes da Silva in 1947. As such. Along
with Claridade. found in the Cape Verdean city of Mindelo. As a
facsimile of one of the metropolitan capitals most famous
edifices. it marked the beginning of the typical literature in Cape
Verde along with local themes in Creole culture. The probability of
the literary work is the most common in Cape Verde. 157 . Their
main effect is to indicate confusion in the narrator's mind about
how strongly he should be feeling the force of what he is saying
or thinking. the Cape Verdean tower was clearly designed to
evoke the mother countrys glorious Age of Discovery and. SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Using any story from Bernardo
Honwanas We Killed Mangy Dog & Other Stories examine the
immediate expectations of hope in most Lusophone countries. to
generate local pride in the role that Cape Verde played in
Portugals heroic past. There is a quality of hysterical
overstatement and repetition which suggests that he is not sure
that his feelings and thoughts are appropriate to the
circumstances. thereby. There is some uncertainty as to what the
use of a particular typeface precisely denotes. why does he allow
himself to be persuaded by the gang to fire a shot when later he
holds onto a mere girl while she blocks his ears? All these
confusions at different levels accord with confusions which are
essential to the text's ideology. which leaves much to be inferred.
Baltazar Lopes participated with Manuel Lopes and Jorge Barbosa
as founding members of the literary league /review and the name
was the movement in the main activists of the same replica of
Lisbons famous Torre de Belm.The African Novel ENG 281
indeterminacy and the ambivalence of the subtitles (in their
partial misdirection of expectation) is congruent with the
indeterminate nature of the presentation of the narrator's
consciousness. it stands as a concrete reminder that not only
political control of their archipelago originated in the metropolis
the bases of a Cape Verdean historical imaginary were also to be
dictated by metropolitan models. in which manliness is construed
as a pose of cynical callousness and affection is perverted and
shameful. This confusion may be seen in his actions also: why
does Ginho run to fetch his gun if he is sympathetic to Mangy-
Dog. which stands today as a physical reminder of the continued
role played by colonial subjects in Portugals 20th literary Century

The African Novel

ENG 281

In Chiquinho, the title character and his fellow teenage friends

join the revelry at one of Mindelo's raucous nightclubs during
Carnaval. Suddenly, a badiu (someone from Santiago Island)
initiates a batuque, and the narrative voice in the novel
proclaims: The room is in pure Africa, sun on the plain and a view
of the savannah, with monkeys cavorting. The badi[u] takes
everyone with him on a trip back through the centuries. (23) The
novel is a tribute to the island of Chiquinho. The Isle of Chiquinho
which was a shrine to knowledge and an understanding of that
found in streams of the island as in the mountains, valleys and
the beauty of Cape Verde. Indeed, Baltasar Lopes boasts and
celebrates the island that saw his birth. Chiquinho is considered
quintessentially Cape Verdean: after growing up in a rural
community on Sao Nicolau, a young man discovers a more
cosmopolitan life when he moves to Mindelo for his secondary
education, and ultimately, when drought strikes Cape Verde, he
decides to follow in his father's footsteps and embark on the next
boat for America. This novel problematically posits Portugal as the
origin of a one-way cultural flow, with Portuguese travelers
disseminating the seeds of Lusophone culture on three
continents, it also suggests a way for Cape Verdeans to live both
in the "homeland" and the "host country" when they venture to
Portugal. Since Cape Verde is an integral part of Lusofonia, Cape
Verdeans do not in theory have to shed their national identity
when integrating into a larger "Lusophone" identity in Portugal.
This poses a challenge to the formulation of diaspora
communities, wherein alienation and segregation in the host
country is tempered by mythical memories of a homeland.
Lusofone literatures imagine that a perfect Lusophone community
is always possible, whether or not the various speakers of
Portuguese involved were born in Portugal. The metaphor of
"utopia" (which literally means "no place") is particularly apt,
since Lusofonia suggests that the Lusophone identity exists
betwixt and between the territorial boundaries of the seven
Portuguese-speaking countries. Baltasar Lopes semi-
autobiographical novel Chiquinho like-wise inscribes the colonial
relation and explores questions arising from Cape Verdes
political, cultural and economic dependence on the metropolitan
centre. However, the story told in Lopes novel originates in the
colonial periphery and the dynamics linking the copy to its
original are reversed, as the narrator engages in a version of
mimicry that closely parallels Homi Bhabhas theories regarding
the ambivalence of colonial

The African Novel

ENG 281

discourse. Baltasar Lopes conceived his novel as promoting of a

theory of Cape Verdean Creole culture and language that was
similar to and dependent upon metropolitan models, but
unwittingly, perhaps, he concurrently ensured the strategic failure
of this project. This novel, therefore, constitutes an effect of
flawed colonial mimesis that at once entails both resemblance
and menace. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Chiquinho is a Cape
Verdean novel written to expose the quest for identity. Explain.

Certainly, the Lusophone literary culture is not as consistent and
popular as other literary cultures in Africa. The Anglophone and
Francophone writers in Africa are more prolific than the
Lusophone. Besides they enjoy wider readership since the writers
in Lusophone countries write mostly in Portuguese, a less wide
language than the other two languages. Only a few of Lusophone
literature writers have been translated into English. African
Literary writing has historically been tied to resistance to
Portuguese colonialism and for this reason was largely censored
before independence. Writers such as Luis Bernardo Honwana
were imprisoned for their work. Many of the writers have the
quest for identity as a major concern. Chiquinho by Baltasar
Lopes da Silva explores the inevitable traumas of colonialism on
the people and how the necessity of general reaction inspired
creative impulses. This work has been described as a typical
literature of Cape Verde and Lusophone world because of the
inherent ideological quest for peace, justice and proper identity.
From the study of the two texts here selected to cover the two
most important Lusophone periods in history, it is clear that the
Lusophone bloc in Africa have the same historical experience with
the other blocs. Baltasar Lopes da Silva is one of the popular
writers in Lusophone bloc. His works contributed so much to the
development of literature in Portuguese Africa. Chiquinho is one
of his collections of stories about the Portuguese experiences in
the colonial times and the battle for survival and identity.
Honwana, another writer here treated, is best known for the book
We Killed Mangy Dog, which combines personal and cultural
autobiography. Virtually all the poets and writers use the colonial
Portuguese language as their medium. Many of the writers use
Portuguese, particularly with the infusion of local African words,
as an important part of their nation's cultural heritage. Many
other Lusophone

The African Novel

ENG 281

writers apply this medium of creative art in their literatures. They

regard it as means of retaining their culture and calling for the
application of African languages as their national languages.
Because of a lack of education and other disadvantages, women
have been underrepresented in the literary realm. One exception
is Noemia De Sousa, who is known as the mother of Mozambican
writers. When she began writing in the 1950s and 1960s, she was
the only mestia writing in Portuguese in Africa. She takes on the
subject of African women and their work and has become a voice
for the women of her country.


Answer the following questions: 1. Discus the emergent factors
which gave rise to Lusophone novels. 2. Critically evaluate the
major impulses which affected the development of Lusophone
literature like the other blocs. 3. Review the themes in Honwanas
short stories in We Killed Mangy Dog. 4. Compare and contrast
the major thematic concerns in Lusophone fiction with those of
Francophone and Anglophone fiction. 5. Examine critically how
Baltasar Lopes da Silva treated the issue of disillusionment in his
novel Chiquinho.


Baltasar Lopes. (1997). Chiquinho. Mindelo, Cape Verde: Edicoes
Calabedotche. Bernardo Honwana. We Killed Mangy Dog & Other
Stories. Nwezeh, E. C. (1986). Literature & Colonialism in
Lusophone Africa. Lagos: Centre for Black Arts & Civilization.


The African Novel

ENG 281


CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content 3.1
General Overview 3.2 East African Prose: Ngugi wa Thiongos The
River Between 3.3 Central African Prose: Nuruddin Farahs From a
Crooked Rib 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor-Marked
Assignment 7.0 References/Further Readings

In this unit, we shall examine African prose fiction from the East
African bloc. East Africa is one of the regions in Africa with strong
historical experiences which resulted from the rough colonial
roads they treaded. The use of guerrilla war fare among other
tactics that aided them in securing independence from the
colonial masters, revealed the region as one of the most troubled
zones in Africas historical and political experiences. During the
post-colonial era, east African countries experienced the reign of
vicious leaders like Obote, Idi Amin and other self imposed
leaders who wanted to remain as president for life. There were
leaders with draconic governance in the region. In Central African
countries, there are terrifying experiences of war, hunger,
starvation, gender inequalities among other socio-political factors
which have been the bane of their traumas. Most novels from this
region reflect these problems. We shall use Ngugis The River
Between and Farahs From a Crooked Rib in studying this literary

By the end of the unit, the students should be able to: trace the
background to East African prose fiction know East African
literary bloc understand the recurrent themes in east African
prose fiction
appreciate Ngugis The River Between and Farahs From a

Crooked Rib.


The African Novel

ENG 281

3.0 3.1

MAIN CONTENT General Overview

East African literature includes literatures from Kenyan, Ugandan

and Tanzanian amongst others. It is literature with one entity, but
the justification proposed-that the three countries were joined
under British rule as the East African Protectorate is misleading.
Tanzania has a double German-British colonial heritage, Kenya
was a settler colony where the peasants in the highlands were
expropriated, while in the Ugandan Protectorate the established
kingdoms of Buganda, Toro, and Bunyoro continued to play
important roles under "indirect rule." All these factors make for
very different post-independence histories. Beyond the political
differences, language policies in all three countries have varied
drastically: In Tanzania, Swahili was adopted as the national
language, whereas in Uganda, Luganda speakers rejected Swahili,
considering it as the language of the military and of oppression.
The significance of Idi Amin's era in Uganda lies in creative
impulses it engendered among Ugandans and non-Ugandans
alike, leading to an almost unprecedented flowering of literature
in East Africa. It is true that Amin's reign of terror provided
subject matter for a number of novels, plays, and films. But it is
also true that Amin not only killed intellectuals and writers but
also destroyed the whole cultural infrastructure, driving writers,
artists, and intellectuals into exile. At the end of the Amin-Obote
terror, the flourishing literature, publishing, and theatre scene of
the "Golden Age" had completely vanished, and the only thing left
was the shallow commercial theatre of domestic farce. In the
case of Ugandan literature, the issue of selection also becomes
apparent. It is always easy, of course, to argue about inclusions
and exclusions in reference works. Uniformity and consistency in
structure and methodology are essential in a reference work.
Okot p'Bitek from Uganda and Taban Io Liyong are among the
most significant writers from East Africa, whose works have
impacted on their countries positively. Many East African writers,
especially Ngugi wa Thiongo, has emphasized that East Africa is
not a literary desert undermining the peoples government which
pounces heavily on writers and most often sends them on exile.
Other writers like Grace Ogot, Micere Mugo and the recent Caine
Prize Winner Biyavanga Wainana have been in the pivot of
making literature live in East Africa. Central Africa seems a large
expanse including East Africa. It includes countries such as
Congo, Cameron, Somalia, Gabon and Rwanda amongst other
countries. They all have complex colonial experiences.

The African Novel

ENG 281

Most of the countries were colonized by the French and the

Portuguese. A country like Somalia was colonized by Britain and
Italy at the same time. Unlike West Africa with French and British
colonial experiences, the Central African bloc had a hybrid of
colonial invasion with complex linguistic, political and sociological
make up. These are parts of the reasons why Central African
countries have been described as enclave of freight and the
suburb of scavengers SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the
complex socio-political make-up of Central and East Africa which
are reflected in most of their prose fiction.
3.2 East African Prose: Ngugis The River Between
The River Between is a good example of colonial East African
novel. Ngugi's first novel was originally to be called The Black
Messiah: it was written during 1961 during a period when he was
reading for his degree. He read D. H. Lawrence who he says
influenced him with "his way of entering into the spirit of things."
Such an attitude could easily be potentially attractive to anyone
whose inherited culture sees an essential unity between the
spiritual and physical aspects of the world. Ngugi goes on: "You
know I felt as if he was entering into the soul of the people, and
not only of the people, but even of the land, of the countryside,
of things like plants, of the atmosphere." This interpenetration
may be seen in The River Between, in the role of spatial features
such as trees, the ridges and the river. Ngugi's use of spatial
features in his longer works if prefigured by certain of his early
stories. In the earliest of these, "The Fig Tree", the tree of the
title is the locus of the turning point. The central character
Mukami achieves a kind of spiritual vindication and self-
knowledge in the shelter of the sacred Mugumo tree. And in "The
Return" the River Honia plays an important role. Kamau returns
from the camps of the Emergency period carrying a bundle which
"held the bitterness and hardships of the years spent in the
detention camps." He is dismayed to hear that his wife has in the
meantime gone with another man, but begins to find
reconciliation with this and other changes when the symbolic
bundle is washed away by the healing river. Both the sacred fig
tree and River Honia reappear in The River Between, the former
when Waiyaki's father takes him to the Mugumo tree and reveals
his destiny. The tree is sacred because it was there that Gikuyu
and Mumbi, the father and mother of the tribe, stood; so Chege
brings him here to tell him that he is born of a line of prophets,
and is very likely to be the foretold saviour who will come from
the hills to deliver

The African Novel

ENG 281

the tribe from the white man. Waiyaki remembers the occasion as
he endures the pain of the circumcision (p.53); and he revisits
the place as he prepares for the final confrontation of the action,
in an attempt to understand the nature of his dedication and to
renew his contact with the mythic past (pp.161-164). Another
sacred place in The River Between, and one which is central to
the work, is the initiation grove, where Waiyaki and Muthoni are
both circumcised, and where he and Nyambura meet. The
connexion with the soil is established at the moment of the
symbolic operation: "Blood trickled freely on to the ground,
sinking into the soil. Henceforth a religious bond linked Waiyaki to
the earth..." (p.53) The same place is later the scene of Waiyaki's
declaration of love for Nyambura. It is here, where Muthoni was
initiated, that she can feel close to her dead sister. The area is
given further significance when it is associated in Waiyaki's
thoughts with the precinct of the fig tree: "Waiyaki could not tell
why the place reminded him so much of the sacred grove where
long ago his father had taken him and revealed the ancient
prophecy. This place she was in was sacred too." (p.119). Finally,
it is the "sacred ground" where Waiyaki and Nyambura make
love. The confluence of all these elements of the action with this
spatial feature is completed by the proximity of the river. The
River Honia is, as the title suggests, the most significant of these
features in the work, the central element in its structure. The
structure of The River Between is lucid: its ideology finds its basic
symbolic expression in a simple combination of three elements,
the river and the two ridges between which it runs. The ridges, it
seems, represent the opposition which exists between two social
groups as a result of their espousing a different metaphysics,
while at the same time showing their common humanity; the
river also corresponds to other features of the work in its
ambivalence. While obviously dividing the two ridges and the two
factions, it further embodies the possibility of union - by joining
the two banks. It is emphasized that its name "Honia" means
'cure' or 'bring-back-to-life' (p.1). The ridges, Makuyu and
Kameno, are the most predominant of a series of binary
oppositions. Each of the groups living on the ridges claims
predominance over the other because of its own favourable
version of the origin myth. Each has its patriarchal figure; but
whereas Chege of Kameno is a descendant of Mugo wa Kibiro, the
seer who warned the tribe of the coming of the white man,
Joshua of Makuyu has been won over to the European religion
and is its local representative. The ridges have now been divided:
the ideal of the conservation of tribal beliefs and customs
confronts the pragmatic acceptance of Europeanization.
Attempting to overcome this opposition and unite the divided
people are

. and also to become eligible for marriage. However. so as to

become "a real woman. knowing all the ways of the hills and
ridges" (p. He can see the strengths of both the opposing
religions but cannot reconcile their systems. at the crucial
moment he 'forgets to speak of it. attempts to live in both worlds.
He is set apart by his birth for the role of hero who must perform
the rites of passage: separation. Waiyaki is unable to close the
gap: he embodies the ambivalence which runs through the book
at all levels.The African Novel ENG 281 the children of the
patriarchs. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Carefully assess the
juxtaposition of African and Christian religions and how they
affected the lives of the people in The River Between.. he wants
to give Western education as his gift brought back from outside.
reaching into the heart of the people of Makuyu and Kameno".
Her death hardens attitudes on either side. The open structure in
the narration is resumed in the final image of the river. Muthoni.
who are associated with the river in its role as a symbol of
healing and unity. unlike Muthoni who is prepared to live out the
ideal of unification. Although "committed to reconciliation" (p. He
is sent by Chege away from his family to the European school at
Siriana. its "beat . he sees the need for political unity and joins
but then leaves the Kiama. Although not wishing to give up
Christianity. 165 . The hero returns from the mission school
having been 'initiated' into the ways of the Europeans. she
nevertheless wants to be circumcised. Joshua's younger daughter.
At this point. the organisation for tribal unity and purity. thus
allowing the possibility of unity.125). it also has the effect of
altering the way in which she is seen by the reader: her role in
the work takes on a deeper significance. while at the same time
continuing to manifest division. Waiyaki's role is special from the
outset as has been indicated above. return. This ambivalence
may also be seen in the way the narrative breaks off before the
resolution of the fate of Waiyaki and Nyambura. The space of the
action expands to include an only partially seen quasi-European
environment. so that he will be better able to help his people to
resist them. Waiyaki is separated from the 'here' of the tribal
environment and enters the 'there' of the territory of the
newcomers. but knows that the tribe will disintegrate without its
roots in the past. 29). But she is disowned by Joshua and then
dies as a result of infection after the operation. The main threat
to the world of the book is thus distanced and left somewhat
mysterious. initiation.

she must rely on another self-sufficient older woman in her

building. Farah's novels are noted for their poetic and symbolic
nature and for their epic and satirical elements as well. she is
spurning the traditional values of her culture perhaps
foreshadowing for the societal changes that will come with
independence and modernity. In doing so. The story is written
from the perspective of Ebla (perhaps so named because at the
time of the writing in 1968. The history of colonization and border
conflicts in Somalia. Italian archeologists had just identified the
site of ancient city of the same name in Syria). From a Crooked
Rib examines the plight of women in traditional Islamic societies
through the eyes of a young village girl. a nation in the Horn of
Africa. His works typically address the theme of individual
freedom in the face of arbitrary power that is relevant to Africans
and non-Africans alike. Here. this time to Mogadishu with the
nephew of the neighbour." 166 . Ebla. leaving her brother and
grandfather behind. The rich oral culture in Somalia and Farah's
command of several languages also make his writing unique.The
African Novel ENG 281 3. Farah's experiences as a young person
in Somalia give his writings an international appeal. She
somewhat passively reacts to this abandonment by allowing
herself to be propelled into the arms of yet another man. coupled
with Farah's travels and educational opportunities. as she
becomes his bride. Drawn into smuggling by her cousin and
alerted to his plan to sell her off as a bride. There. as she
struggles with issues of female circumcision. an 18-year-old
nomad woman who flees her rural settlement when she learns of
her impending marriage to a middle-aged man. she flees without
a plan. When he leaves for several months training in Italy.
arranged marriages. While Farah's work contains an undeniable
political element. life is even more confusing. Sneaking out of her
hut in the wee hours. and polygamy. he does not preach a
particular political vision for his nation.3 Central African Prose:
Nuruddin Farahs From a Crooked Rib Nuruddin Farah is known as
one of the most stimulating contemporary prose writers in Africa.
and frequently focus on political and social issues in his homeland
of Somalia. she cares for her cousin's pregnant wife and makes
the acquaintance of a confident woman next door. where she
stays with a distant cousin. Her first stop is a small town
(although quite large and bewildering to her). Farah's novels
demonstrate a facility with poetic language and great intellectual
depth. she flees again. gives him access to a wide variety of
cultures and enables him to write about Somalia with a detached
perspective. who pays her for the distinction of becoming his

there's a good deal of nuance that lost along the way. some
background on the quasi-Islamic practice of informal "temporary"
marriages at the time would provide some much-needed context
for some of Ebla's actions. "struggle" has been developing. 4. The
influence of Somalia's oral tradition on Farah's style reveals in the
powerful imagery. "Struggle" is a part of nature and a part of our
history and cultures in East Africa.The African Novel ENG 281 The
cultural mechanics of all this are somewhat confusing to the
nonnative reader and a certain amount of annotation would
certainly help this almost 40-year-old book. This is because there
are still high neo-colonial effects in their governance. the English
prose is rather awkward and makes for choppy reading. Heroes
emerge from among the commoners to fight the rich and the
colonials in order to restore peace in their enclaves. While
certainly of interest to those interested in feminism in Africa. For
example. I think. and richly textured language. In The River
Between. which are traits evolved out of the rich poetic heritage
of Somalia. "Struggle" is central to nature. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 3 Nuruddin Farah is male but writes for the cause of
women. to human art and to my history. Written when Farah was
only in his early 20s. those seeking a more accessible
introduction to Farah's work might be better off trying his more
recent novels. Italian culture. and Anglo-Irish modernism. but the
language of international revolution. One can see this theme
become more and more dominant in my cultural theory and
aesthetic theory. starting from my essays on writers and politics.
So while the broad theme of Ebla's treatment as just another
"beast" or "cattle" subject to the whim of the men around her is
evident. Farah's artistic sources are an eclectic mixture of Somali
oral traditions. The influence of Italy on Farahs works is
enormous because both Italy's colonization of Somalia and the
time that Farah spent living in Italy affected his 167 . Explain how
the socio-cultural situation in Somalia prompted this. not the
language of national revanche. Links and Knots. exotic
symbolism. For the proletariat to be able to dictate its will to
modern society. we see the struggle by the people to overcome
the forces of oppression. which are set in Mogadishu during and
after the American peacekeeping efforts in the early '90s. its
party must not be ashamed of being a proletarian party and of
speaking its own language. According to Ngugi.0 CONCLUSION
East and Central African states were and still are environments of
anarchy. Reviewers praise Farah for his highly textured prose
style and mythical imagination. As a central concept in my
aesthetic or cultural vision.

According to Ngugi. Ngugi has been in the vanguard of fighting

imperialism and this is reflected in most of his novels. 5. as they
portray gender and social equality. The rich oral culture in
Somalia and Farah's command of several languages also make his
writing unique. Farah's novels are noted for their poetic and
symbolic nature and for their epic and satirical elements as well.
he does not preach a particular political vision for his nation.
critics are quick to point out that Farah does not espouse a
particular ideology. Farah's novels demonstrate a facility with
poetic language and great intellectual depth. It was mainly
through the colonial system of education that cultural and
psychological colonization of Africans was achieved. How true is
this in Ngugis The River Between? 3) What gender issues did
Farah attack in From a Crooked Rib? 168 . they are thematically
relevant not only to the realities of African societies. Although
Farah's novels are essentially African. It is also possible to view
his works as Marxist or feminist.The African Novel ENG 281
writing style. praising him as one of a select few male writers
willing to critique a patriarchic system. While Farah's work
contains an undeniable political element. 6. but also to universal
human conditions. Nuruddin Farah is known as one of the most
stimulating contemporary prose writers in Africa. a nation in the
Horn of Africa. especially in From a Crooked Rib.0 TUTOR-
MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer these questions: 1) Critically
assess the socio-political climate in Central African Somalia as
reflected in Nuruddin Farahs From a Crooked Rib. Though calling
Ngugi an antiimperialist may be fitting.0 SUMMARY East and
Central African prose fiction reflect the socio-political make-up of
their countries. His works typically address the theme of
individual freedom in the face of arbitrary power that is relevant
to Africans and non-Africans alike. in a manner which transcends
the contemporary settings of his works. Christian religion and
English language were the two imperial spells that stole the soul
and mind of Africans. Ngugi though. Although there is a definite
element of political commentary in Farah's work. Many people
laud Farah for his stark portrayal of the effects of patriarchal
subjugation of women. 2) Colonial East Africa was described as a
climate of fear. understanding his works merely in that context
might limit his wider aspirations. and frequently focus on political
and social issues in his homeland of Somalia. would like to gloss
over such minor confines.

London: Heinemann. 169 . Ngugi wa Thiongo. Nuruddin. London:

Heinemann. (1965). From a Crooked Rib. 7. (1970).0
African Novel ENG 281 4) Explain the roles played by Waiyaki
which portrayed him as the hero in The River Between? 5)
Compare the colonial situation in Kenya and Somalia as portrayed
in the two novels under study in this unit.


CONTENTS 1. Fagunwas The Forest of a Thousand Daemon as
translated by Wole Soyinka and Ken Waliboras Kipara-Ngoto
[Clean shaven] a short story written in Swahili in Kenya. we
shall study ethnic prose in Africa.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit.
Somali. and few Africans know an African language other than
their own. These works are actually meant for the promotion of
reading in local languages. In this vein.0 References/Further
Readings 1. 170 .0 OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit. Sotho.
Ethnic literature has been described as literatures written in
African languages which carry the peoples cultural and
sociological make-up.3 Ethnic Literature 2: Ken Waliboras
KiparaNgoto [Clean shaven] 4.0 Main Content 3.2 Ethnic
Literature 1: Wole Soyinkas The Forest of a Thousand Daemon 3.
O. The best-known literatures in African languages include those
in Igbo.0 Summary 6.0 Introduction 2.1 General Overview 3. We
shall use D.0 Objectives 3. Xhosa and Zulu in Southern Africa. it
is a literature written purposely for people to read in their
L1language situation. Yoruba and Hausa in West Africa. the
students should be able to: understand the concept of ethnic
literature discuss ethnic literature as a part of African literature
in translation appreciate The Forest of a Thousand Daemon as
translated by Wole Soyinka and Ken Waliboras Kipara-Ngoto
[Clean shaven] a short story written in Swahili in Kenya
Realize that literatures in African languages are relevant. Another
barrier is that few scholars of African culture know any African
languages. It is called ethnic because it is made to be read by
those who can read in the languages in which they are written.0
Tutor-Marked Assignment 7. and Amharic. Literatures in African
languages have received little scholarly attention. and Swahili in
East Africa. in part because of a Western bias in favor of literature
in European languages.0 Conclusion 5.

used his writings to commend Christian virtues to the public. In

East Africa. Yoruba writing emerged after Bishop Ajayi Crowther.
In addition to the Bible. 1934). Also associated with the Lovedale
mission is Samuel Edward Krune Loliwe Mqhayi. and its greatest
figure is Sayyid 171 . a fearless hunter in a forest infested with a
myriad of unnatural creatures. developed a script for the
language and in 1900 published the first Yoruba translation of the
Bible. with such works as Wakar Muhammadu (Song of
Muhammad.The African Novel ENG 281 3. by Magema ka
Magwaza Fuze. a portrait of the prophet Muhammad by poet Asim
Degel. Thomas Mofolos Moeti Oa Bochabella (1906. Daniel
Olorunfemi Fagunwa. 1914) recreates the legal proceedings he
observed at the court of his great-uncle. In Southern Africa as
well. In the Zulu language. His first work is also the first full-
length novel published in Yoruba: gbj ode nn igb irnmal
(1938) was translated by Nigerian Nobel laureate Wole Soyinka
as The Forest of a Thousand Daemons: A Hunters Saga (1968).
This work provided the model for the first South African work of
fiction. It appeared in serial form in Akde k. writing was
introduced by missionaries who established themselves in the
1820s at Lovedale. for which admirers named him Imbongi
yesizwe jikelele (the poet of the whole nation). Sgilol elyinj
eg (Segilola of the Seductive Eyes. 1845?). one of the texts the
missionaries translated for instruction was ThePilgrims Progress
(1678 and 1684) by English author John Bunyan. He is also
known for his poetry. whose Xhosa-language novel Ityala
lamawele (The Case of the Two Brothers. 1929). translated as
TheTraveller of the East. and draws extensively on Yoruba
folklore. a chief. a system of writing for the Somali language was
not developed until the early 20th Century. Abantu abamnyama
lapha bavela ngakhona (1922.1 General Overview In West Africa.
1979). and warns of the woes in store for women who live a life
of prostitution. The most important Yoruba writer. Writing
emerged in the Hausa language earlier than in the Yoruba
language. this Sotho-language work uses allegory to tell the story
of a mans spiritual journey after converting to Christianity. It tells
of the exploits of Akara-Ogun. near Alice (now in Eastern Cape
Province). long after writing in Arabic had become widespread
among Somali-speaking peoples. Nigeria. Literature in Somali is
predominantly in verse. The Black People and Whence They
Came. Isaac Babalola Thomas published the first work of fiction in
Yoruba. a former slave. Like Bunyans book. a newspaper in
Lagos.0 MAIN CONTENT 3. tells of Zulu history and presents an
early plea for black unity in Africa.

and Portuguese. a police thriller by Tanzanian writer Faraji

Katalambulla. and Uganda) adopted Swahili as the only African
language for use in their schools. Tanzania. Uganda. God willing
may good sense never leave you). Sudan. is the African literature
best known outside Africa. but it generally made a later
appearance than Lusophone or Francophone African literatures.
Sierra Leone. when the countries then forming British East Africa
(now Kenya. followed by Francophone (French-language) and
Lusophone (Portuguese-language) literatures. Modern Swahili
literature. 1965). by Muslim scholars and clerics. Ghana. including
the anonymous 17th-Century religious works Mazmura Dawit
(The Psalter of David) and Waddasee Maryam (Praises of Mary).
Their holdings eventually grew to include what is now Egypt. did
not flourish until the 20th Century. The short novel Qawdhan iyo
Qoran (Qawdhand and Qoran. and Nigeria in West Africa. The
European languages most commonly used in Africa are English.
1967). Zambia. Literature in Swahili dates back to the 17th
Century. African literature in English is more extensive than
African literatures in other European languages. is about two
lovers who cannot marry because a marriage for the woman had
already been arranged. dates from 1925. who was born in the
mid-19th Century and died in 1921. in prose and in verse.
Botswana. and in the southern part of the continent. praising his
traditional culture. Very different in subject and style is the later
Simu ya kifo (Phone Call to Death. who wrote in prose and verse.
Although literature in Amharic. and Kenya in North and East
Africa. Literature in the English language. and South Africa. much
earlier writings do exist. He criticized the European colonizers and
their native collaborators in such poems as Xuseenow caqligu
kaa ma baxo idam Ilaahaye (O Xuseen. The British began
colonizing Africa in the early 19th Century. consist largely of
celebrations in verse of religious figures.The African Novel ENG
281 Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan. Zimbabwe. Early writings. SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Trace the beginning of ethnic prose
fiction in African literature. French. now the official language of
Ethiopia. by Somali writer Axmed Cartan Xaarge. How popular is
the type today? 172 . known as Anglophone literature. The first
important modern Swahili writer was Tanzanias Shaaban Robert.

The structure of Fagunwas tales and those of his successors

attests to this. The Forest of a Thousand Daemon contains a very
interesting story and adventure of a West African Hunter in a
dreadful forest. and a host of African writers themselves have
concluded. as Ruth Finnegan. a symbolic representation of human
life. such as the city of Mount Langbodo or the Great Forest.
which is the place where Kako lives before he joins the main
hero's. expedition. On the hero's journey through the Forest
Irunmale. who eventually found the secret of lasting happiness
and peace of mind.The African Novel ENG 281 3. Critics and
readers consistently point to the latter his love and mastery of
the language as his distinctive claim to literary genius. classics
in their own right. This world is. and only when strictly applied. as
we shall see later.O. for the sake of brevity. we must note. Ayo
Bamgbose. In speaking about Fagunwas works (although
scripted). that any rigid distinction between the oral and written
African literatures is arbitrary. The first impression we get from
reading The Forest of a Thousand Daemons is that we are faced
with a world which is incomprehensible and unpredictable.
however. Responding early to the need for a literature for the
growing literate population shortly after the language was
orthographed. The Forest of Irunmale is very symbolic. Fagunwa
soon distinguished himself not only as the purveyor of Yoruba
culture but also as the consummate story teller whose gift for
fusing sound with action in his adventure stories pushed the
boundaries of Yoruba language. he encounters various characters
which are themselves symbols of human qualities and troubles
and who incorporate various human patterns of behaviour.O. The
reader is easily swept away by many adventures of the heroic
hunter in this book.2 Ethnic Literature 1: D. The story is
captivating. Fagunwa known throughout Yorubaland as the father
of the Yoruba novel. The "Forest of a Thousand Daemons" is itself
a symbol for entering this world. blazed the trail for creative
writing in Yoruba with five seminal works. African writers.
Fagunwas The Forest of a Thousand Daemon D. to which we shall
refer as the "world of Irunmale" in the following. we must
emphasize at the outset that the distinction usually made
between oral and written literature in African literary criticism
obtains only in a very limited literal sense. and emotion-laden.
pioneer writer. This term. is intended to comprise other places of
this same peculiarity that appear in the novel. Akara-ogun's.
leaving a literary legacy still preeminent today. simply one of
convenience. The characters have strange shapes and behave in
a 173 . Because African writers writing in mother tongue or in
European languages cull materials for their imaginative works
from their African experiences and indigenous surroundings
through a transcreative process.

The number of six is also very important (it is six times that
Ajantala abuses his surroundings. although it is still hard for us to
explain what message we actually get from reading the novel.
however. that of his society. Kako kills his wife in a very cruel and
unintelligible way. he knows how to put to good use various
charms and spells. Thus the hero seems able to classify the
creatures he finds in the Forest of Irunmale. 43). There are very
foreseeable moral laws. and is different from the "world of
Irunmale". no orientation in it would be possible. good brings
good in effect and evil is punished. because of his belief in magic
and witchcraft. The hero must rely on the fact that the "world of
Irunmale" has certain regularities. We often find the moral
behaviour of the beings weird. rules and restrictions of the Forest
of Irunmale. Otherwise. The hero's first orientation scheme is
naturally that of his everyday experience. and reflects the world
view of the Yorubas. he refers to the "usual run of ghommids" (p.
We see that the behaviour of the inhabitants of the Forest of
Irunmale follows rules. the number of three: there are usually
three tasks that the hero and his companions have to perform.
This world view involves certain thought patterns which differ
from ours. the third being the most difficult. he is taken by
surprise. But the hero's way of understanding the world which he
faces in the Forest of Irunmale leaves him at a loss many times
and he has to substantially modify his orientation scheme in order
to come to terms with it. for example. but it nevertheless fits into
a scheme of moral actions. for example. These spells fit into the
causal chain as its regular components. The same holds true for
various physical objects as well as for the charms. and the like.
and it must be redressed by the sacrifice of a bird (p. Indeed. The
hero usually knows the principles guiding the behaviour of the
beings or someone explains them to him. but his deed brings
misfortune to the whole group.). The Hero has a world view that
is richer. The examples are numerous. we find the world of The
Forest of a Thousand Daemons somehow intuitively
comprehensible. This makes future events foreseeable. The most
conspicuous difference is perhaps his belief in magic and
witchcraft. There is a regularity shown in the symbolic usage of
numbers. because on entering it. On a second thought. 75ff. He
has to work out the laws. So does the hero.The African Novel ENG
281 way that we fail to understand. Symbolic numbers are. the
gifts from the king of 174 . although we can feel certain
disorientation in this weird world on his part as well. It is only by
a process of experience and of instruction that he gradually learns
how to behave in the environment of the Forest Irunmale and
how to deal with the weird creatures he encounters there.

And finally. One example is his later fear of Agbako: in the

beginning. as is the number of seven (the seven days in the
house of Iragbeje). Agbako mends the hero's cutlass.e. but the
forest is a metaphor of a different world. 34). The story is about a
badly 175 . He does not know the appropriate rules and he has to
learn them on his way through the Forest of Irunmale.The African
Novel ENG 281 Mount Langbodo to the king of Akara-Ogun's town
are always in six). The hero's initial state is a state of
ignorance.O. 3. i. That he does learn is clear from his later
reactions. and their motivation is mostly understandable from the
human perspective. The narrative is jocular. they respect many
moral laws that humans have.3 Ethnic Literature 2: Ken
Waliboras KiparaNgoto [Clean Shaven] Kenyan writer Ken
Waliboras Swahili short story KiparaNgoto (Clean shaven. When
he meets Agbako later. Another instance of this is the repetition
during the above-mentioned number symbolism. where his cousin
resides. then his arm. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 D. There
are many more instances where it is apparent that the behaviour
of the hero has changed in accordance with his newly-acquired
knowledge of the regularities of the world of Irunmale. he is wiser
and reacts by taking to his heels. Significantly. 66). the house is
no longer needed when the hero has acquired such dexterity in
travelling to the Forest of Irunmale that he can reach and leave it
at will. This hut is the abode of the normal . too. like the knuckles
of a clenched fist) the African American features briefly as a
metaphor of ludicrous character. but it reveals profound issues
about the relations between diasporic and continental Africans.
They have human feelings (pride. sorrow etc. During the fight
with Agbako. the inhabitants of Irunmale behave partly like
humans. his second journey is finished by finding a hut (p. The
return from this world to the normal world of the hero's life
happens often by means of the metaphor of a house: the hero is
mysteriously transported to his room at the end of his first
journey to the Forest of Irunmale (p. of his connections to the
world of humans. The repetition of actions makes future events
foreseeable.). The hero travels to the Forest of Irunmale. during
his last expedition. he boldly faces the monster and nearly
perishes during the fight with him.of the hero's family. Fagunwa
exploited the folktale tradition in the writing of The Forest of a
Thousand Daemons. We find several examples. Defend this

it is assumed that we know African Americans in a wooing mode

more concretely than we know the badly behaved city boy among
us. It could even be holding in high esteem Matata and his
African American ways. associates the urban boy with popular
music icons and he presents his cousin chewing gum
continuously. the narrative indicates the source of the image of
the African American to be popular texts that the narrator has
interacted with popular music. The narrator. Although the
unreliability of the narrator is not well brought out in the story. In
this metaphor. To understand the attitude to African Americans as
displayed in this text. What is intriguing is the way the African
American is brought in as a metaphor to complete the
ludicrousness of the urbanite: Baba aliporejea kutoka kazini jioni.
a rural boy and cousin of Matatas. he found the guest of honor
lodged on the coach reading James Hadley Chase in a loud voice
like a radio. advertisements and novels. or guest to be greatly
respected). where the term would be reserved for a highly
respected person. In calling Matata mgeni mheshimiwa (guest
of honour. Matata (Swahili for Trouble) who is taken to the rural
areas to see whether he can be reformed. the narrator is
engaging in ironically worded sarcasm. there cannot be a mgeni
mheshimiwa. in a private space like the home where the action is
taking place. Unconsciously. it is imperative to remember that in
a metaphor. When dad returned home from work in the evening.
Ungemdhani Mwamerika Mweusi anatongoa. Alas! Strange
English issued from him. the strangeness of Matata can only be
comprehended by putting him in the context of the behaviour of
African Americans. a city habit. Shabash! Kimombo kilimtoka cha
ajabu! (62).The African Novel ENG 281 behaved city boy. but as a
figure of protest against commonsense. The irony is sharper and
more caustic in the original language. alimkuta mgeni
mheshimiwa kajiwetaka kochini. The narrator has quite little
respect for Matata. usually an esteemed leader in public
functions. whose strange habits he finds laughable and. asoma
James Hadley Chase kwa sauti kubwa kama redio. The story
figures him with metaphors and references to foreignness and
artificiality. we can assume that. told by a child. the vehicle (the
concept we compare the subject with) is more familiar and
concrete than the tenor (the subject of discussion). We can only
comprehend his conduct by seeing it through what we know
about African Americans and their habits. You would have thought
him a Black American in a publicspeaking exercise. the story
registers more than it is aware of. The text also shows that texts
by African Americans reach only a small fraction of Africans 176 .
to him.

There is thus need for African Americans to speak the languages

spoken by the majority in Africa and collaborate with local artists
in creating music that African people.The African Novel ENG 281
that the majority would not want to associate with the city
middle class with a warped sense of morality. Although we cannot
say that authentic Africa is limited to the rural areas. are
associated with that bourgeois class that celebrates rootlessness.
that the African American can fully realize his or her potential.
The implication here is that Matatas incomprehensibility is seen
as an African American phenomenon. African writers have a duty
to enrich African languages and cultures. Ngugi wa Thiong'o and
Obi Wali believe that any work that is African must be written in
one of the languages of Africa while Chinua Achebe and Ama Ata
Aidoo are of the opinion that African literature can also be written
in a foreign language. it is in the rural Africa that. Walibora has
added dignity to his ancestral language. This indicates that the
African American language is misunderstood in the continent by
the poor who cannot meaningfully interact with the materials.
there appears to be a subtle admiration of Matatas city way but
the language puts off the narrator from his relative. according to
more recent texts. 177 . from our world to other worlds. Often
times. such as the young narrator. Discuss. In the narrators
metaphor. irrespective of the language chosen by the author to
write her/his piece. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 By using
Swahili in telling a tale that addresses international issues. Ngugi
believes colonialism of the mind undermines ones dignity and
confidence which is the worst outcome of colonization. they
continue to enrich European languages and culture. He remains a
slave to it. 4. adaptation. then. there is a tendency to forget that
the whole of African art is linked with oral literature which has
been the mainstay of both traditional and modern Africa. In fact.
Besides. In talking about African literature. translation or
exploitation of oral material. so long as African writers write in
English. African written literature is a transcription.0
CONCLUSION According to Ngugi Language and literature are
taking us further and further from ourselves to other selves. in
the story would comprehend. we also hear a sense of frustration
at his inability to understand Matatas hybrid language. If an
African writer really wants to 'decolonize his mind' from European
slavery. Ngugi regrets the choice of writers like Soyinka and
Achebe to write in English. African Americans. he has to write in
his own language.
0 SUMMARY Abiola Irele finds it futile to de-emphasize the social
function of literature. in this sense. because without its social
functions. man and his society while Waliboras Kipara-Ngoto
written in Swahili about contemporary experiences of neo-
colonialism reveals African oral arts in contemporary discourse.
the oral arts of the African people. Chidi Amuta and others shift
the emphasis to considering African literature as an institution of
several associated units thus African literature is "the sum total of
all national and ethnic literatures of Africa. One of the hopes in
actualizing this is the translation of literatures written in African
languages. The problem of defining Africa's limits is relegated to
the background. sociological and mythical properties. These
ethnic literatures capture the essence of African culture in its
totality." Ethnic.The African Novel ENG 281 All three authors do
agree that oral sources are at the heart of African cultures. It is
clear that ethnic novels exist in translation in African literatures in
English and for literature to reflect its society. Fagunwas The
Forest of a Thousand Daemons reveals the rich African mythical
make. the powers of nature. Writing in Swahili never stopped
Walibora from expressing his worldview about the influence of the
west over Africans. The two works under study here have
revealed to a great extent. the supernatural beliefs. being
literatures written in the native languages of the African people
which embody African culture. 5. 178 . one still feels that sense
of originality in the way African culture is presented. man and his
environment. oral art. It presents undiluted pictures of African
society and culture in the natural language of the people. it must
be presented in the form that comes naturally to the people's
appreciation of art. There are vast literatures written in African
languages which have been relegated to the point of non-
recognition because of the craze for the acquisition of scholarship
in foreign languages and culture. African literature does not merit
to exist. and the need to establish the affinity of Africans to their
root becomes paramount through reference to social experience
and history. if not richer than the ones written in foreign
languages. Even in the translated version of Fagunwas work by
Soyinka. The two literatures under study here have revealed that
African prose in African languages is rich.


epitomizes the magical realism of African myths. gbj ode nn
igb irnmal (1968). Discus 4. Discus 5. 179 . Nairobi: Jomo
Kenyatta Foundation. (2000).) In Forest of a Thousand
Daemons. Mwenda Wazimu na Hadithi Nyingine [The Mad One
and Other Stories] (ed.) Walibora in his short Story presented a
universal phenomenon in a restricted language.0 TUTOR-MARKED
ASSIGNMENT Answer the following questions: 1. 2.) Most African
novels have elements of African language. (1938). How true is
this assertion? 7. Walibora. translated by Wole Soyinka as The
Forest of a Thousand Daemons: A Hunters Saga.The African
Novel ENG 281 6.) Explain the factors to be considered in tagging
a literature ethnic. D. 61-65. Kipara-Ngoto.) Mwenda Mbatia.)
What advantages have ethnic novels over the ones written in
national languages? 3.

Africas personality.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7. Their works are

made in layers. Their approach is not a common style. After the
first generation African writers who were concerned with the issue
of restoring or recognizing Africas place in the scheme of things.
They attack the society by attacking the individuals. They apply
new techniques of fiction in the conveyance of their message.The
NOVELS/THEMES Unit 1 The New Writers in Africa Unit 2 The
Diaspora Novelists Unit 3 Alternative History Novels: Memoir Unit
4 The Short Fiction Unit 5 Other New Novels UNIT 1 THE NEW
WRITERS IN AFRICA CONTENTS 1.0 Objectives 3.2 Magical
Realism: Ben Okris The Famished Road 3. They write
allegorically. We now moved to the third generation of writers
who were attacking the misuse of government principles and the
abuse of power.0 References/Further Readings 1. By new writers
we mean.0 Main Content 3. those writers whose works introduced
a new phase in contemporary prose fiction. we shall study new
writers in Africa.3 Social Realism: Maik Nwosus Invisible
Chapters 4. The new writers wrote with a different view. we
shifted base to the second generation who were interested in
African independence and the exposition of imperialists trauma.
They write satirically.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit. They suggest
the way forward and they write in unique ways. They attack
injustice.0 Summary 6.0 Introduction 2. They write basically to
create effects. layers of meaning and ideology.1 General
Overview 3.0 Conclusion 5. We shall study the application of
magical realism in new African fiction using Ben Okris The
Famished Road as a case study and understand the use of social
180 . African culture and belief system. They expose evil. They
write with unique styles that convey their message while

2. In the works of the new novelists. the students should be able

to: categorize African writers as new writers and other
generation writers appreciate the novel of new writers in
thematic content differentiate the new writers from other
generations understand the application of magical realism and
social realism in new African prose fiction recognize and cite the
novels with new approach to African fiction. These aspects are x-
rayed beyond the micro setting (families) to the macro society
(countries) as the inhabitants. Helon Habilas Waiting for An
Angel. Ben Okris The Famished Road. awe-inspiring and full of
breath-taking surprises (8).0 MAIN CONTENT with
varieties of life and growth. They create protest voices against
bad governance in different forms but as the realities of
governance become much more biting these writers adjust their
pens to accommodate the excesses. as the continent trudges in
the biting tyrannical trauma of the military and anarchical
leaderships. experience unruly torture in their experiences of
governance. Infinite Riches. Okey Ndibes Arrows of Rain. there
are critical presentations of the oddities in African politics. 3. The
use of the growing character technique enables Adichie to achieve
historical exposition of 181 .The African Novel ENG 281 realism in
new African fiction using Maik Nwosus Invisible Chapters as case
study. Chimamanda Adichies Purple Hibiscus. represented by the
major characters. The need to expose the traumatic situation in
Africa has often occupied the minds of modern day writers in
Africa. Charles Nnolim (2005) explains critically that the new
writers exhibit a literary jungle. Akin Adesokans Roots in the
Sky amongst a host of others represent another critical fiction
examining the African situation in new voices and/or
approaches.1 General Overview Fiction in Africa has taken a new
turn with the production of realities in factional modes.
Astonishing the Gods.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit. The
need to tell the story from the inside could have been one of the
reasons for these significant literary productions. This is not far
from a description of the new writers in Africa.

Attacks and killings result from religion and gender. wife battery.
violence.2 Magical Realism: Ben Okris The Famished Road 182 .
each odd situation or revelation results in hard traumas. Ethics:
Greed. The family gets better and the society gets better.
Religion: 3. Gender: 4. One observes with keenness. dogma
imposition discrimination. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Discus
in details the various thematic strands that distinguish the new
African prose writers from the old writers. brutality harsh
upbringing. 3. culture clash. Drawing from history brings in the
much desired truth. brutality. As shown above. yet to be fully
achieved (21). moral development One sees the effects of each
of these issues examined in these novels and each of the effects
results in a dangerous phenomenon. anarchy. odd religious
dogma constitutes a global war as reflected in these novels. Most
new writers draw from the sociological front. History is not left
out. hatred. We have these four paradigms of focus in the
thematic structure of these novels: 1. conflicts. Politics: 2. The
ethics of human relationship emphasizes the correction of odds
and the actualization of truth. the narrative stance of the dumb
character that exposes several military oddities with the eyes of
an innocent observer. Politics is a necessary human quality but
these writers see the misapplication of politics as the bane of
governance. cultural laws. globalized ethics and further explains.
These novels are embedded with complex webs of odds and each
odd unfolds with painful realism. murder hatred. violence. The
motif of politics in these novels examines governance as
individual problem. It becomes a tool for the perfection of their
craft. Religion should be a guide not a prison wall. the idea of
exposing the odds as a way of affecting the truth. The need to
refine the odd politics. injustice. Murder results from ethical
misappropriation. a globalized ethics is both a reality and a
project. The coups and killings result out of bad governance.The
African Novel ENG 281 the trauma in African society. the odd
cultures. We see in these novel a very trying attempt at creating
what Iroegbu (2005) calls in philosophical terms.

he and his family returned to Nigeria in 1968. as well as a

physical world. only to end up in the house of a police officer
whose dead son tried to communicate with him. The story is
centred on Azaro. which caused his parents to think he was dead.
Azaro made a narrow escape. In the pseudoreality where the
book is set. and was given a Crystal Award by the World
Economic Forum. and he is often described as one of Africa's
greatest writers. although he has shrugged off that tag.The
African Novel ENG 281 Ben Okri is a Nigerian poet and novelist.
which foretold the future and he could see spirits interacting with
the living. He writes about the mundane and the metaphysical.
was awarded the 1991 Booker Prize. He had vivid dreams. so
they kill themselves whenever they reincarnate in the physical
world. Priestesses who saw his true power abducted him. His
inspired many of his works. The Famished Road. Flowers and
Shadows (1980). He is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of
Literature. Azaro grew and learned more about his "gift. the
individual and the collective. and was awarded an OBE (Order of
the British Empire) in 2001. it became clear that Azaro was a
spirit child. the Aga Khan Prize for fiction. The Famished Road is
the amazing story of the journey of a spirit child through the
poverty and suffering of modern day Africa. The spirits called to
him and caused him to leave his body for a time. He later came
back to England. His spirit companions do not like this and haunt
him to return to the land of the dead. He has also won the
Commonwealth Writers Prize for Africa. A spirit child is one who
only wants to be in the spirit world. an abiku or spirit child.
Having spent his early childhood in London. Plot Summary Shortly
after birth. This makes the childhood of Azaro both beautiful and
harrowing. His best known work. Azaro makes such a promise but
on being born he is stopped by the beautiful. embarking on
studies at the University of Essex. drawing the reader into a world
with vivid descriptions. there is a spirit. He has also been
described as a magic realist. He has received honorary doctorates
from the University of Westminster (1997) and the University of
Essex (2002). suffering face of his mother and decides that he
will try life. Since he published his first novel. He woke up in his
own coffin and his parents found they could not afford the
spiritual ceremony to cut his obvious connection with the spirit
world. Spirit children are born into the world of the living but
some promise that as soon as they are born they will die and
thus return to their friends in the land of spirits." He ran out of
his compound (forcing his mother and father to follow) just
before it went up in flames. In almost every scene of this novel
the world familiar to us leaps and 183 . Okri has risen to an
international acclaim.

beggars with misshapen limbs and horrific wounds. the people

are riddled with superstition but in the context of this story every
superstition is a real answer and cure. The boxing sequences of
The Famished road are among some of the most dramatic action
scenes Ive ever read. or in the form of lights and omens. Azaros
mother likewise suffers hopelessly. freaks and wild animals. in
human or animal form. The novel is set in Nigeria and has a very
African feel to it. the people laugh at him but I admired him.
herbalists and witches and wizards all have their places in the
communities. Azaro is haunted by these spirits and some scenes
can be quite distressing. At times it gets too much for her and
she takes it out on Azaro but the love she also feels for her child
and husband is heart warming. the opponents of Black Tyger
dont always come from the land of the living but from the land of
fighting ghosts. The undead come as blind lecherous old men who
want to use the eyes of children. This kindly. Azaro lives with both
abuse and a prevailing love. The strength of the man and the
power he draws from makes gripping reading. overweight lady
begins the story running a poor bar of palm wine and her famous
peppercorn soup. voluptuous character of Madame Koto. Even the
road of the title in this story is an entity with a stomach. A great
boxer. Sometimes Azaro disappears altogether onto a spiritual
level and a world that is both magnificent and terrifying run by
the reader.The African Novel ENG 281 pours with the beauty of a
spiritual presence. always just on the brink of starvation. Spirits.
Progress is represented by the splendid. At the lowest points of
our characters lives we sometimes get a glimpse of love or
happiness that seems like a diamond found in a pile of coal.
Politics play a large part in the story as the party of the rich and
the parties of the poor vie to get the people of the ghettos votes.
We are always in the ghetto with Azaros family. etching out a
miserable living by labouring all day to sell goods. Black Tyger is
an abusive father and husband. even terrifying in places. a being
who will destroy unwary travellers who do not leave proper
sacrifices. When he decides to become a politician we see he is
noble in his thoughts. One of the most intriguing characters of the
book for me was Black Tyger. He is also a powerful and noble man
crying to be heard. Azaros father. Spirits mingle with the living.
Each one works and we as readers see the spirits being affected
by the superstitions of the living. The novel is throughout
harrowing and painful but the overall message is one of progress
and hope. all he wants is to build schools for the beggars.
Without giving too much away she is the first to bring electricity
to the 184 . the almost unbearable suffering of his life taken out
on his wife and child.

and is often accused of witchcraft. She tries to help Azaro and his
family on numerous occasions but seems to try to take Azaro's
blood to remain youthful. 2. He manages to get some of his
photographs published. as one critic on the sleeve of the novel
says: Okri is incapable of writing a boring sentence. 4. It is
brilliantly done. or a spirit child who has never lost ties with the
spirit world. She cares for her family deeply and constantly gives
up food and security for her family and their ideals. the
(famished) road and the forest which are crowded with spirits.
she becomes richer. siding with the political party of the rich. The
richer she gets though the nastier she becomes. Often it is
Azaros visionary world that leads him through all 185 . but
practices his craft at great personal risk. Azaro is the story's
narrator. Azaro's father loves him deeply. always aware of the
spirits trying to bring him back. You will feel suffering reading this
novel. the Photographer is a young artist who brings the village to
the rest of the world and the rest of the world to the village. She
starts out as a well-meaning woman. He suffers greatly for this.
He is an abiku. though at times is convinced he brings bad luck.
eventually becoming a boxer and later a politician. Madame Koto
is proprietress of a local bar. She has a liking for Azaro. and
supernatural elements. and another peculiar world limited to
Azaros vision Madame Kotos palm wine bar. you will feel
hunger and long with the characters to find even the smallest of
successes. However. Jeremiah. magical artifacts to the eyes of
the very poor. She is proud that Azaro is her son and goes to
great lengths to protect him. both stupendous. as the story
progresses. Characters 1.The African Novel ENG 281 ghetto and
the first to own a car. The story follows him as he tries to live his
life. 5. Azaro's mother works very hard selling anything she can
get her hands on for the family. 3. In return you will be rewarded
with some of the most beautiful prose Ive ever read. trying to
get along with everyone else. but is often bitter at having an
abiku and occasionally goes on angry violent tirades. The story
moves between Azaros adventures in the real world with his
struggling parents and dirty politics. Azaro's father is an idealistic
labourer who wants the best for his family and the community.

the mood of our post-colonial society. Plot Summary Maroko is

the great Nigerian novel writing itself "says Prinzi. wrapped in the
warmth of their exciting but lowly world. USA. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 2 Explain the application of magical realism in the
satirical presentation of politics in The Famished Road. has
created. Return to Algadez. He is also a fellow of the Akademie
Schloss Solitude in Stuttgart. now a mere speck in the sands of
time. In his review. principal character in Invisible Chapters.
There are two Marokos in the novel: the old and new. there is an
historical Maroko. His first poetry collection. Maroko was a
bristling settlement of the poor and less privileged. and the
inexorable passing of the old. former president of the ANA
underscored its presentation of "a nuanced picture" that unveils
"the unchanging ways of power as they have not been so
studiously presented since Wole Soyinka's Season of Anomy. not
since Achebe's Anthills of the Savannah. 3. he has received both
the Nigeria Media Merit Award for Arts Reporter of the Year and
the Nigeria Media Merit Award for Journalist of the Year. Beyond
these. Suns of Kush. and with such power. The novel focuses not
so much on the redefinition of the so-called great Nigerian novel.
as it does on the unearthing of a particularly significant past
event. a shantytown on the fringe of the Lagos lagoon.
Nonetheless. Germany. was awarded the ANA Prose Prize in
1999. arts editor of Sunday Vanguard at the time. Odia Ofeimun.
Once upon a time." Obi Nwakanma. In spite of attendant vices
and squalor. won the Association of Nigerian Authors/(ANA)
Cadbury Poetry Prize in 1995. the residents of Maroko 186 .3
Social Realism: Maik Nwosu Invisible Chapters Maik Nwosu was
editor of The Source news magazine in Lagos and now Assistant
Professor of African literature in University of Colorado in
Denver.The African Novel ENG 281 the tribulations of the real
world. Alpha Song. His first novel. As a journalist. which Nwosu
has appropriated as paradigm for his reconstruction of the
Nigerian socio-political experience. and a second novel. Invisible
Chapters. had earlier noted: "No novel." Nwosu has also
published a collection of short stories. Maik Nwosu's novel has
finally declared the arrival of the new generation. a slum. it was
home to thousands of Nigeria's down-trodden who had drifted
there in search of succour from a system that was increasingly
riddled with vast inequalities and life-threatening contradictions.
nor the writing of it (as the author would want to make the
reader believe).

factory-hands. In this novel. The people involved in the tale are

stereotypes drawn from real life. Yet. dispossessed residents are
representative of the wretched and misruled masses of Nigeria.
the masses are pitted in a vicious and continuous struggle for
survival. they discover. a detachment of soldiers had been
assigned with the express task of enforcing the quit order
previously issued the residents by the Governor of Lagos State.
as the dominant feature of the landscape. They were at once the
craftsmen. at the mercy of chance. a wasteland of sorts spotting
a huge incinerator belching toxic fumes. looking down upon
Maroko from the balconies of their enchanting mansions. employs
mythmaking as a tool to plough through to the heart of new
Maroko. the residents of Maroko woke up to find impatient
government bulldozers growling at their doors. The wretched. But
when the masses eventually arrive New Maroko. Invisible
Chapters in part seeks to trace out the psychological trauma
suffered by resilient masses in their quests for a better deal from
the ruling class. they write about themselves. it quickly resorts to
victimization and repression of their (the masses') will. One
morning. our lives. The foregoing analogy applies to Maik
Nwosu's fictive Maroko. Subsequently. it served the needs of the
latter. But no sooner had the bulldozers reduced the shantytown
to rubble than the apportioning of choice parcels of the same land
to the rich began in earnest. The plot unfolds in four segments or
books. intrigues and conspiracies that act to annul Maroko's
existence are similar to the factors which threaten the corporate
existence of the country. The dispossessed were thus left to their
own devices. Inasmuch as their effort is worth the trouble. The
first book concentrates on a significant event in the life of New
Maroko serving as 187 . Their wish was soon granted through a
military fiat. to their consternation. labourers. and the politics of
our land. through its fawning agencies.The African Novel ENG 281
were oblivious of the anguish their existence caused their rich
and influential neighbours living in nearby highbrow Ikoyi. His
Excellency's excuse. appeared hinged on the fact that Maroko was
dangerously sinking below sea level and as a result. Here. could
no longer be regarded as habitable. cooks. Maroko's story is in a
very significant way. hope is temporarily rekindled in the
dispossessed with the promise of resettlement in a better and
healthier environment. The under-currents of lies. while the ruling
class. shallow and controversial as it seemed. our fears. who the
affluent exploited to beep their progress unhindered. these high
and mighty could not help but wish Maroko's instant
disappearance from the face of the earth. the story of Nigeria.
When this fails. ourselves. with tell-tale frowns and wrinkled
nostrils. the government hurriedly sets up a Resettlement Board
to oversee the fulfillment of this promise. In writing about the
The third and middle part of the story begins where the first part
ends and progresses on to the fourth and conclusive segment.
Prinzi's pre-occupation with the theory of opposites (pp5-8) sets
the tone for the progress of events in New Maroko by hinting at
the complementary nature of good and evil. The Rastafarian
record shop owner in New Maroko. Military training. it seems.
while the Resettlement Board also symbolizes ineptitude in high
places. signify a battle for the soul of the masses between art.
Thematically. with or without provocation. an accomplice in the
grand plot to beep masses of people perpetually subjugated. the
faceless patriarch of Crocodile Island and apostle of "authority
stealing". is also a fable that describes a progressive condition of
being. first. open dialogue is constantly discouraged among the
people and dissenting voices are bridled with brutal force. Ka and
Minitimma. The sudden deaths of Ignatius. an all-night vigil on
the eve of Christmas. and also acknowledging the transitory
periods in the life of the settlement. Haile's unusual switch from
playing protest music to the music of 'pure white Christmas'
signifies an invocation of the neo-colonialist spirit at a period
when residents are still reminded of the sad events of their
immediate past. Even. the military is cast in the image of a
monster. second. morality and materialism. Kaabiyesi. The story
is told in a compelling manner. The author's preoccupation with
symbols is evident from on-set of the narrative. Soldiers thrive
both on corrupt practices and outright intimidation of the
defenseless masses they are supposed to protect. symbolically
prefigures the enthronement of a ruling hegemony. The
communion of the long tide and Kaita's bazaar. Thus. affords the
reader a glimpse into the immediate circumstances preceding the
eviction and resultant exodus of people from old Maroko. in
typical flashback tradition. with appropriate symbols and signs
which vary as the plot progresses. Also. The second book. in the
March to old Maroko and. the Prinzi-led Maroko left-wing find
expression in dances and rituals which are symbols depicting
prevailing moods. In as much as freedom becomes an impossible
song under the Military. vests the average soldier with the license
to unleash violence at will. with good enhancing evil and
destruction existing possibly for the sake of reconstruction. which
are both held in commemoration of the destruction and
reconstruction of the settlement to appease "whatever spirits
remain to be appeased".The African Novel ENG 281 link between
the past and the present. which underlines the relationship
between materialism and discord. The story of Elo. Madam Bonus
and Goomsu evoke a mystique that ultimately results. Invisible
Chapters is in more ways than one an indictment of the military
and military governments. Governor Raji Omo-ale's visit to
Maroko in the days before the destruction of the settlement
reveals the penchant of Nigerian military rulers for double-speak
and insincerity in 188 .
irrespective of class. stunned and full of questions. the great
Nigerian novel must be anchored. And as soon as this happens.
Thus. the spiritual responsibility of everyman to the next person.
Maik Nwosu could not have chosen a more auspicious moment
than the present to impress a bold statement upon the
cultural/political landscape of Nigeria. In the resurrection of
Maroko from the ruins of the old to the new. Omo-ale does not
only tell blatant lies and may be false promises. as the clich
goes. It is a recurrent and vicious cycle of gloom in which every
misfortune becomes an opportunity to be amply exploited (even
the name of God is exploited for gain).0 CONCLUSION 189 .
Coming therefore in the nick of time. he goes on to polish the
same through the government-owned media. and art its
substance. Perhaps one of the engaging features of this novel is
the endless discourse it spawns on the future of the Nigerian
novel and its enduring place in literary culture. The "latitude to
be" becomes a fundamental principle upon which all art and.
hence Maroko will forever remain an epochal landmark in the
convoluting history of Nigeria. 4.The African Novel ENG 281 the
discharge of their duties. which is to open readers up to some
hard truths about the conditions of human life on the African side
of the globe. There cannot be a better explanation for Nwosu's
commitment to his tale which aims to unveil African social
realism. as satire on bad governance in Africa. into gloom. issues
are raised and discarded while questions are as bad. in the light
of fresh and incisive manipulations. of course. tribe or creed. Life
its value. Prinzi appears to be absorbed in the task of charting a
course for his art from a seeming void. it is the kernel of all
human activity. In the process of brainstorming with Ashibodi and
Razabi. lies a glimmer of hope. Aside his concern for justice and
fairness regarding Maroko. society loses its essence. those
affected are forced to recoil into their shells. History cannot be
merely obliterated. when this principle upturns or is disregarded.
It is illustrative of the 'insignificance' of life against the backdrop
of constant devious schemes and man's inhumanity to fellow
man. But this is hope soon transformed. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 3 Comment on the juxtaposition of Old and New
Maroko in Invisible Chapters. Invisible Chapters has a mission to

The Azaro. an Abiku child. African writers have used the medium
of creativity to articulate their own point of view on a matter that
they see first and foremost as their concern. educates and
exposes one to certain elements of truth. Thus. military odds and
social injustices. Okri applies this method in reacting to social
vices. Ben Okri applied African magical art in modern forms
beyond what D. Invisible Chapters is an X-ray of the downtrodden
in the merciless hands of the inconsiderate bourgeoisie. especially
in the face of western ideological distortions and the resultant
190 . whose discourses. Their approach exercises tremendous
influence on African writing ever since their emergence.0
SUMMARY The new writers exploit new trends in telling their
tales. They devise various methods of storytelling that are
different from the early writers. The style is unique because it
entertains. the new writers are approaching this sensitive task
with utmost seriousness in ways that transcend mere style and
method. Chinua Achebe once said that The writers duty is to
help (his people) regain (their dignity) by showing them in human
terms what happened to them. 5. The juxtaposition of the Old
and New Maroko helps in several ways to reveal the vast gap
which exists between the rich and the poor in Africa. to restore it
to its pre-colonial wholeness. political turmoil and spiritual
decadence. The neo-colonial mentality of the African elite who
wants to remain at the top while their brothers remain down
below is satirized. The insensitive government policies which work
against the destiny of the poor are also satirized. for writers on
the continent have felt the urge to do battle for African culture. is
used as a symbol of the incessant political odds.The African Novel
ENG 281 Each historical moment in the African experience has
thus produced its own interpreters. The Famished Road exposes
the incessant military coups in Africa and the attempts by the
ruled to restore sanity to their polity.O. especially in more recent
times. what they lost (8). Fagunwa and Amos Tutuola had done.
He applies magical realism in patterns that make his creativity
reveal that human beings and the supernatural beings
intermingle in addressing the human situation. fortunately. Maik
Nwosu explicated the trauma of the downtrodden in order to
reveal the odd social realities that emerge from bad governance
in Africa. have not gone unchallenged by Africans themselves. It
also brings in realism as it pertains to African belief system. Even
the educated poor are not spared since they could not rise
because they lacked the necessary attitudes or connections to
rise from squalor. The coming and going of the child represents
the consistent coups and odds in African governance.

0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS Okri. Explain what makes

the new African prose fiction writers unique. The Famished Road
and Invisible Chapters represent the new writers. 4. to restore
the dignity of the African. echoed in the claim that African
peoples did not hear of culture for the first time from Europeans.
The Famished Road. Nwosu. if not reined in. New Nigerian
Writing: Between Debauchery and the Kitchen ANA Review.
Invisible Chapters. 191 . Lagos: House of Malaika & Tivolicb.
namely. Maik. 2. What is magical realism? Compare its application
in Okris The Famished Road with that in Amos Tutuolas The
Palmwine Drinkard. 6. their focus. (1999). Nnolim. Expatiate on
this issue using Invisible Chapters by Maik Nwosu as reference.
Whether Africans heard of culture for the first time from
Europeans or not is really not the matter at issue. Attractive as
their militant exhortations are. could defeat the very purpose of
its utterance. The task before the new writers is to touch the
untouched using unique vehicles of style. November. Was this
African culture able to stem the tide of European invasion? That is
the kind of relevant question we ought to be asking and that is
the major preoccupation for the new writers.0 TUTOR-MARKED
ASSIGNMENT Answer these questions: 1.The African Novel ENG
281 effects of these distortions on the African image. they also
carry within their works certain elements of ambiguity which.
(2005). 3. ideologies and styles. London: Safari. (1997). Ben.
The first of such elements is the nave arrogance of the
pronouncement. Charles. Social realism entails the x-raying of
social odds resulting from bad governance. How true is this from
your study of the new writers in this unit? 7.

exile and other factors have remained writers expressing African

cultural values in distant lands.2 3.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit.
They are Africans with African blood running in their veins but
they are hardly in Africa and have been opportuned to gain
African cultural and social experiences by interaction and
studies.The African Novel ENG 281 UNIT 2 THE DIASPORA
NOVELISTS CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3. Wole Soyinka. It is also clear to
distinguish between African writers abroad and African writers in
the diaspora.0 Introduction Objectives Main Content General
Overview Helen Oyeyemis The Icarus Girl Diana Evans 26a
Abidemi Sanusis Kemis Journal Conclusion Summary Tutor-
Marked Assignment References/Further Readings 1.0 3. Taban Lo
Liyong. By diaspora novelists. who by virtue of inter-marriage. we
shall study the diaspora novelists from Africa. Sembene Ousmane
amongst others are some African writers who went into exile to
protest against injustices in their home countries.0 5.4 4. We
shall use the novels of Helen Oyeyemi and Diana Evans in
studying the diaspora novels. Peter Abrahams. Ngugi wa
Thiongo.0 7. They write about Africa. 192 . Many African writers
have gone into exile as a result of injustice in their home
countries. The former refers to African writers who live abroad or
moved abroad as a result of certain anomalies in their countries
while the later refer to African writers born abroad as a result of
mixed marriages or because their parents relocated to a foreign
land.3 3. Okot PBitek. Ayi Kwei Armah. They are African writers.0
6. Chinua Achebe. we mean those novelists who are Africans but
have lived abroad or in the diaspora. immigration status. African
culture and African lives because they are Africans and respond to
African values as concerned Africans.1 3. Many of them have
since returned home to contribute to the development of their
countries. African values.

carries certain penalties. the students should be able to:

distinguish between diaspora Africa writers and African writers in
exile appreciate the thematic patterns in diaspora novels
compare the treatment of Africa and African values in diaspora
novels with those of the writers in Africa answer questions
regarding the contribution of African writers in diaspora to the
rich African literature accept African writers in diaspora as pure
African writers. one needs to reconsider the benefits to society of
the literary genres prevalent among African writers. in a way. of
individual volition and particularly of seeing from that
perspective.. for indeed they recognize that. in the face of
decades of fruitless efforts by scholars to determine who is
African and what the criteria should be for determining what
might be classified as African. Chinua Achebe was once
questioned on his thoughts on the African novel and the
novelist.The African Novel ENG 281 2." On the qualifications for
becoming an African novelist. Rather impatiently. But perhaps
more penalties 193 . where the black person becomes once again
a strong.0 MAIN CONTENT 3. as well as benefits.. like being a
Jew. dignified and free person across boundaries. Pan-Africanism
in contemporary history should be about uniting all peoples of
Africa wherever they find themselves. 3. He added that it should
be about "a view of the world and all of the cosmos perceived
from a particular position.. Being an African... he responded that
definitely the African novel had to be about Africa as a
geographical expression and as a metaphysical landscape. works
of literature mirror their epochs. From separate distinctive
currents at national and regional levels. This is why the definition
of African literature continues to torment scholars. of course. one
should work hard towards a certain type of unity in diversity. In
investigating the relationship between Africa and its Diaspora
today. he added: It is partly a matter of passports. One needs to
re-examine the functionality of African literature as an institution
of art today.1 General Overview The part that literature plays as a
unifying institution of art is paramount to our understanding of
how a people can survive the present and win the future.0
OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit.

Even though they write abroad.The African Novel ENG 281 than
benefits. due to extreme pressures of life in modern cities. They
are writers writing about Africa as African by birth partly or
wholly. in time to come. it also takes in those areas of collective
awareness that have been determined by ethnic. historical and
sociological factors. the term diaspora in the sense of this unit of
discourse is not about the African Americans rather about
Africans living abroad writing about Africa and African values from
abroad. for literature to reflect its society.. Some African writers
like Camara Laye and Ferdinand Oyono. and related to certain
aspects that are intrinsic to the literature. However. Doris Lessing
and others. marking off for it a broad area of reference. The term
"African" appears to correspond to a geographical notion but we
know that. They treat African themes but the manner of their
presentation reveals a kind of uniqueness from those written by
African writers living in Africa.. (Joseph Conrad of Heart of
Darkness was a European who did not want to be an African). two
Francophone African novelists. Moreover. Furthermore.And it is
not even a matter of colour. The affinity of Africa and its Diaspora
especially in matters concerning the ability of literature to express
their similarities in social and cultural questions is also
considered. have respectively depicted Africa's past and
traditions. they still reflect the africanness in their works in terms
of ideology and thematic properties. The essential elements of
African literature which should include the obligation to represent
the image of Africa. underestimated and despised in the world
should be criteria.. for their contributions towards the better
understanding of Africa. the problem of definition involves as well
a consideration of aesthetic modes in their intimate correlation to
the cultural and social structures which determine and define the
expressive schemes of African peoples and societies. Within this
area of reference then. all these factors. for we have Nadine
Gordimer.. 194 . society will resort to less time-consuming ways
of reading and communicating by finding new means. and the
need to establish the affinity of Africans and Diasporans becomes
paramount through reference to social experience and history. it
must be presented in the form that comes naturally to the
people's appreciation of art. given that Africa is relatively still
unknown.. in practical terms. as they affect and express
themselves in our literature. They may not have been to Africa or
they may have left Africa at younger ages. and new forms and
then new definitions of changing practical consciousness. The
problem of defining Africa's limits is relegated to the background.

She is a stranger to her mothers family and language. Jesss

alienation springs from everyday realities. She is currently a
student of Social and Political Sciences at Corpus Christi College.
the only child of a Yoruba mother and an English father.2 Helen
Oyeyemis The Icarus Girl Helen Oyeyemi was born in Nigeria in
1984 and moved to London when she was four. The title Icarus
is taken from a Greek mythology and it means protector. solitary
eight-year-old has shut herself into a cupboard because only in
such confined spaces does she feel in control. but a surviving
twin. Oyeyemi explores themes of loneliness. The Icarus Girl was
written while Oyeyemi was studying for her A-levels and she is
also the author of two plays.of being very obviously
different.particularly for a young child . The strongest of these
takes the form of a little girl. marking her out and only serving to
intensify the loneliness she already feels. corrosive loneliness.
Cambridge and is working on her second novel about Cuban
mythology. Through Jesss loss of her twin and her isolation at
school. her precocity and her tantrums set her apart from her
schoolmates. isolated from her classmates and regarded as the
195 . Jessamy Harrison lives in London. She describes herself as
a real mess at school. As the novel opens. Oyeyemi has said that
TillyTilly is from the Bush. The Icarus Girl takes its premise from
the Yoruba belief that twins inhabit three separate worlds: the
Bush. She has been moved up a year in school because of her
academic gifts. Jess is haunted by other identities which threaten
to take over and destroy her own.The African Novel ENG 281
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Clearly distinguish African
American writers from African writers in Diaspora and/or African
writers in exile. It also becomes clear that this novel is as much
metaphysical as it is realistic. 3. Helen Oyeyemi has drawn on her
own experience in exploring this emotional terrain. whom Jess
encounters when she first visits Nigeria. Plot Summary The Icarus
Girl is a story of overwhelming. It emerges that Jess is not an
only child. a world that doesnt have the same structure as our
world. Titiola. a wilderness for the mind (page 298). Junipers
Whitening and Victimese. alienation and the difficulties . and she
appears to be the typical imaginary best friend of an isolated
child. angry. Jess names the girl TillyTilly. this intellectually
precocious. Her rages and screaming fits distance her further
from her classmates. Jesss mixed race. the normal world and the
spirit world. On a deeper level. But TillyTilly is far more powerful
than this.

That summer. even if their appearance is fleeting. If one twin dies

at birth. the surviving twin is thought to have lost half her soul.
must be carved and then tended like a living child. Her father is
sucked dry by depression. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 How
realistic is the treatment of Yoruba belief about twins in The
Icarus Girl? 3. and through the different experiences of their
lives.3 Diana Evans 26a 26a tells the story of the Hunter family.
Each character is totally believable with their gentle warmth and
personality and with the writers use of language and description
form a brilliant image in your mind and a place in your heart. In
the end. But it would be wrong to give the impression that the
focus is entirely on the twins. Otherwise. her teacher disappears
on sick leave. disaster follows in the form of sickness. Oyeyemis
writing is powerful if uneven. One of the impressive aspects of
this novel (and there are many) is the way that Evans gives the
reader such an impression of what it means to be a twin. Twins
bring blessings in Yoruba culture.The African Novel ENG 281
weird girl. We follow them from childhood to adulthood. but may
also bring misfortune. but they are still compelling and real. and
especially the twins Bessi and Georgia. within the traditional
family compound. that wounds can begin to heal. 196 . A sacred
image of the dead twin. not by characters telling us but by
showing us the way the twins think and interact so that we can
see and feel it for ourselves. it is only in Nigeria. in Neasden and
Nigeria. in its turn the ere ibeji protects the family. All of the
incidental characters in the novel also leave a strong imprint on
the mind of the reader. At the age of fifteen she took an overdose
and while recovering took refuge in reading: she still proclaims
herself to be more of a reader than a writer. Helen Oyeyemi
describes Jesss psychic torment and near disintegration. another
family visit to Nigeria set the seal on her recovery although she
doesnt feel wholly Nigerian: Im just British she says. such is
Evans' skill with swift characterization. death and barrenness. The
rest of the Hunter family all have their own character journeys
which are extremely well handled. You might not like each
member of the family all the time. and Jesss one good friend is
almost killed during a sleepover from hell. But at its best this is a
chilling story about the anguish of separation from all that should
be most familiar and dear. This fate overtakes Jessamy Harrisons
family. an ere ibeji.

who enter the book as a vision of "two furry creatures with

petrified eyes. everything's stripped down. "Most people build
armour to protect themselves from other people but when you're
a twin. They are African writers writing about Africa from their
foreign enclaves. the reference to Africa is just to reflect her
Africanness. to leave when you're ready". the two novelists under
study here are African writers in diaspora. Definitely. Even though
we observe the lack of depth in their handling African issues. The
image still fits: the adult Diana has something of the timid
creature about her. and we get our first glimpse of her dark final
destination. For Bessie and Georgia. 'Ham'. even to me. nervous-
looking eyes. They are not African writers writing about non
African situations.The African Novel ENG 281 26a is a tribute to
the world of twins. they have African blood. Even as Africans
engage in anti-African moves in their bids at calling Africa names.
here are two writers of Africa contributing from 197 . Discuss with
reference to 26a. They are not African Americans. You know each
other so intimately and you don't have that armour. While
Oyeyemis story of twins is deeply rooted in Yoruba cultural belief.
we notice a serious appeal to Africa in the novels. staring into the
oncoming headlights"." Diana Evans drew upon the idiosyncrasies
of her own twin-hood to create Bessie and Georgia. It is Georgia.
the journey into adulthood is difficult. "It's a very special. She
explains that when they were young she and her twin sister were
timid." Diana says. They are not writers in exile. soft voice and
inclination to pull her clothes self-protectively around her small.0
CONCLUSION From their brief biographies. They are writing to
contribute to the vast African literature in English. die she realizes
it is possible "to choose the time. When the young Georgia
watches her pet hamster. compact frame. the shade to Bessie's
light. Evans story is hinged on western belief in suicide as a
provocative resort. 4. who will later hang herself in what becomes
an apparently inevitable act. magical relationship and it's
fascinating. sharing an idea of themselves as two furry little
beings. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 There is a deliberate
attempt at blending European belief in suicide with African belief
in twins affinity. they wrote about Africa as a part of their
contribution to African literature and they believe in Africa as the
hope of mankind. Both writers wrote in the UK but cannot be
categorized as British authors because they have African parents.
the world turns out to be a pretty frightening place and for
Georgia especially. with her wide.

3) From your reading of these novels. Okonkwo hanged himself

and his body was rejected by the community even though he
lived as one of the greatest men in Umuofia community. Discus.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer these questions: 1)
Distinguish clearly African writers in diaspora from African
American writers 2) Carefully examine the way Oyeyemi and
Evans treated the issue of twins in their novels. The Icarus Girl
reveals some misrepresentation of African cultural situation as a
result of misinformation. The Icarus Girl. Diana Evans has a
Nigerian father and a British mother. Definitely. Suicide is not
common in Africa. London: Heinemann. So. Oyeyemi. Thus.
Helen. Suicide to the west is a common thing and just tagged as
social malaise. 6. Helen Oyeyemi was born in Nigeria but
relocated to UK at the age of four. (1975). Their novels deserve
attention by African scholars and literary critics. Diana Evans
seems different from Helen Oyeyemi. a true picture of how Helen
may have felt at younger age. It is a taboo.0
REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS Achebe. 26a. 5. The character
of Jess in the novel reveal a child alienated from her culture. the
story of Bessie and Georgia in 26a is significant. Evans. 7.
London: Bloomsbury. Morning Yet On Creation Day. for instance.
Their stories reflect Africa.The African Novel ENG 281 the
developed world about their little knowledge of Africa where they
come from. Chinua. Definitely at that age. She handled the issue
of twins affinity in two ways: the African and the Western. 198 .
she never knew anything about Africa her ancestral home.
(2005). writing about a cultural issue like the Yoruba belief in the
affinity of twins seems surprising. do you think they deserve to be
called African writers? 4) African writers in exile are not African
writers in diaspora. Diana (2005). yet both contribute to African
literature.0 SUMMARY These two writers wrote their novels from
outside Africa with African tales. London: Vintage Books. she
must have written her work based on what her parents told her.
In Things Fall Apart.

0 OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit.The African Novel ENG 281

It is a recall of the past events in the lives of people recorded by
them. 199 .1 General Overview 3. the students should be able to:
understand African memoirs as types of African prose
appreciate memoirs as contributing to African prose in English
assess the fictional qualities in memoirs recognize memoirs as a
distinct type African prose fiction identify memoir elements in
African prose.0 References/Further Readings 1. Autobiography is
a chronicle of events in the lives of great people who have
contributed to the development of their societies.0 Tutor-Marked
Assignment 7.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit.0 Introduction 2.
They also contribute to the teaching of African cultural values. It
may not be purely fiction but they make for interesting reading.
we shall study memoirs as a type of African prose. Memoirs
entertain just like other types of prose but the difference lies
mainly in the less fiction in the story.2 Nnamdi Azikiwe My
Odyssey 3. This is different from biography which is a record of
someone elses life by another person commissioned to do that.
They are didactic and at the same time they entertain.0 Main
Content 3.3 Wole Soyinka You must set Forth at Dawn 4.0
Summary 6.0 Conclusion 5. 2.0 Objectives 3. Many critics believe
that every form of memoir has elements of fiction. We shall use
Nnamdi Azikiwes My Odyssey and Wole Soyinkas You Must Set
forth at Dawn in treating this essential topic. This type is also
termed faction being the blending of truth and untruth in the
presentation of realities.

There are several memoirs written by great men in Nigeria. It

tells others what they never knew about the author or corrects
the ugly news regarding a persons role in a given national
situation. Thus. Memoirs are self expressions of personal living.
They would wish to add certain literary elements in order to make
it interesting. Prominent among these are Ellen Kuzwayos Call Me
Woman (1985). especially the Nigeria-Biafra war.The African
Novel ENG 281 3. Caesarina Kona Makhoeres No Childs Play: in
Prison under Apartheid (1988). 200 . and mytho-historical
information about the Kikuyu. In Nigeria. The consistency and the
large stock of this type of prose actually show that they ought not
to be neglected. many of the actors have written memoirs in
order to state their position or role in the situation. especially
those of South African women imprisoned during the apartheid
period. sociological. Chukwuemeka Odimegwu Ojukwu tells of his
role in Nigeria-Biafra war. although some of these works
constitute an important component of African writing. Many critics
have argued that there are elements of fiction in every memoir.
South Africas Bessie Head explores the making of modern
Botswana and its character in Serowe: Village of the Rain Winds
(1981). They chronicle history thereby giving focus and direction
to issues affecting the African polity. for instance. almost all great
men especially the political and religious men have memoirs
written by them or by those they commission to do so. and Emma
Mashininis Strikes Have Followed Me All My Life (1991). Memoirs
entertain even as they relate to real life situation. Kenyas largest
tribal group. Also noteworthy are autobiographies by women. No
writer of memoirs would want his story to be uninteresting.1
General Overview Discussions of African literature usually exclude
essays and other nonfiction works.0 MAIN CONTENT 3. Cape
Verdean political leader Amlcar Cabral details his political vision
in Return to the Source (1973). Soyinkas Ak: The Years of
Childhood (1981) is the first in a series of his family memoirs.
autobiographies are important aspects of African literature in
English. Olusegun Obasanjo chronicled his role in his memoir
entitled My Command. while some others wrote theirs too. A
discussion of African prose without memoirs is incomplete. in his
book entitled Because I am Involved. Because of the history of
Nigeria. This memoir was written just after his return from exile.
Kenyan President Jomo Kenyattas Facing Mount Kenya (1938)
combines anthropological.


On December 12. He obtained a masters degree in 1933 from a
prestigious Ivy League institution. and in 1954 became Premier of
Nigeria's Eastern Region. Azikiwe was born on November 16.
1904 May 11. and was elected to the position of Chief Minister.2
Nnamdi Azikiwe My Odyssey My Odyssey is the memoir of
Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe (November 16.A.The African Novel ENG
281 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 In every memoir there are
elements of fiction. Pennsylvania in 1930. 1936 entitled "Has the
African a God?" written by I. He returned to Lagos. usually
referred to as Nnamdi Azikiwe. 1904 in Zungeru. he became the
Governor General. publishing multiple newspapers in cities across
the country.T. Washington DC before enrolling in and graduating
from Lincoln University. Azikiwe went to the United States. He
worked as an instructor at Lincoln before returning to Africa My
Odyssey reveals further that after Zik taught at Lincoln. While
there he attended Howard University. My Odyssey is his writing
about his political. a daily newspaper in Accra. he moved to the
Eastern Region. or. Explain the relationship between fiction and
memoir as types of prose. northern Nigeria to Igbo parents. in
1937 and founded the West African Pilot which he used as a
vehicle to foster Nigerian nationalism. in November 1934. as
"Zik". Azikiwe entered into politics. Ghana. Although he was
found guilty of the charges and sentenced to six months in
prison. Nigeria. He became the secretarygeneral of the National
Council in 1946. as they regarded it as the basis of their well
being. In 1952. social and general lives. He also criticized those
Africans who belonged to the 'elite' of colonial society and
favoured retaining the existing order. 1996). holding the position
throughout the Nigerian First Republic. he was acquitted on
appeal. and with the proclamation of a republic 201 . was the
founder of modern Nigerian nationalism and the first President of
Nigeria. In 1951. he became the leader of the Opposition to the
government of Obafemi Awolowo in the Western Region's House
of Assembly. After studying at missionary schools in Nigeria. took
the position of editor for the African Morning Post. and was the
following year elected to the Legislative Council of Nigeria." As a
result of publishing an article on May 15. 1959. After a successful
journalism enterprise. In that position he promoted a pro-African
nationalist agenda. the University of Pennsylvania. informally and
popularly. 3. He founded the Zik Group of Newspapers. co-
founding the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons
(NCNC) alongside Herbert Macaulay in 1944.

1996 at the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital. Tinubu.

Azikiwe became a spokesman for the nascent Igbo republic and
an adviser to its leader Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu. Lagos
upon listening to the sermon of one of Africas most fiery and
sincere activists. my ideas of life changed so much that I tried in
chronicles the life of Nnamdi Azikiwe but it also sets out to teach.
in 1969. while Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was the Prime Minister.
1966. After the war. Highly cosmopolitan. I became a new man.
after a protracted sickness. He left politics involuntarily after the
military coup on December 31. something akin to a tenant
ejecting the landlord. economic determination. Calabar and later
to Wesley Boys High School. Reverend James Kwegyr Aggrey. he
served as Chancellor of Lagos University from 1972 to 1976.
hoping against all hope for the time when it would be possible for
me to be like Aggrey. It was in this hostile and harsh
environment that Zik was born.The African Novel ENG 281 in
1963 he became the first President of Nigeria. making
unsuccessful bids for the presidency in 1979 and again in 1983.
He wrote after that day. He joined the Nigerian People's Party in
1978. Azikiwe and his civilian colleagues were removed from
power in the military coup of January 15. During the Biafran
(19671970) war of secession. a zealous Young Turk. 1983. His
quest took him to Hope Waddell Institute. He died on May 11.
They were hostile to Africans even on their own soil. Though the
Europeans were the visitors. mental emancipation. Zik would
later recount his experience in his epic autobiography. Compare
this memoir with any prose fiction of your choice. My Odyssey.
social regeneration. Lagos. His father was then serving in the
British Army as a minor official. 202 . traversed the earth in
search of knowledge. however. which identifies five concepts for
Africa's movement towards freedom: spiritual balance. entertain
and enlighten. That was at Methodist Church. they became lords
and masters over the native Africans. The writings of Azikiwe
spawned a philosophy of African liberation Zikism. and political
resurgence. in Enugu. The rarity of Ziks odyssey was typified by
his triumph over monumental obstacles including but not limited
to the mere fact that he was a young black man in a white mans
land. the young Zik. Enugu State. he switched to the side of the
Nigerian government. Zik was only a 16-year-old boy when his
perception of life changed. As is usually the hallmark of all great

It reveals that Soyinka has not a quiet. He talks about the

alliance between the Splinter party from Action Group known as
Democratic Party led by the late Aare Ona Kakanfo of Yoruba land
Chief S . His thoughts are that indeed some Nigerians from the
Western Region had undergone training in Nkrumah's Ghana in
paramilitary techniques but he agrees with the general opinion of
the time that Awo knew nothing about this and was wrongfully
jailed. beleaguered homeland. Nigeria. published back in 1981.
and a mesmerizing testament to a ravaged yet hopeful land. but
shares vivid memories and playful anecdotes including his
improbable friendship with a prominent Nigerian businessman
and the time he smuggled a frozen wildcat into America so that
his students could experience a proper Nigerian barbecue. Prof
Soyinka starts the book from where Ake: The Years of Childhood
and Ibadan: The Penkelemes Years ended. However other
members of the Action Group had some knowledge. In the 60s he
describes in detail his opinions of the politics of the time and his
thoughts about the treasonable felony trial of the late sage Chief
Obafemi Awolowo. humane. concentrates more on his activities in
Nigeria than his long periods abroad. He does not mention the
name of the Judge in The case but the Judge was Mr. and on the
interplay between the private writer and the public figure he feels
the urge to become. democracy. You Must Set Forth at Dawn is an
intimate chronicle of his thrilling public life. There is some
reference to Ibadan but this time not through his alter ego Maren
who obviously was Prof Soyinka in Ibadan. This new memoir of
Soyinkas adult life. and by describing the pioneering theatre
works that defied censure and tradition. His story is essentially
the story of Nigeria written from a personal perspective since he
came of age as an adult in the early 50s during the pre
independence era. In the tough. and freedom. More than a major
figure in the world of literature. Wole Soyinka is a courageous
voice for human rights. Justice Sodeinde Sowemimo who later
rose to be the Chief Justice of the federation. Ake. the first
African ever to do so. individual life.The African Novel ENG 281 3.
It is an important chronicle of his turbulent life as an adult in (and
in exile from) his beloved. The Nigerian political activist and
acclaimed writer won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1986. a
meditation on justice and tyranny. but a life lived in the fullness
of an epic.L Akintola and the Northern Peoples 203 . Soyinka not
only recounts his exile and the terrible reign of General Sani
Abacha.3 Wole Soyinka: You must set Forth at Dawn You Must
Set Forth at Dawn is the follow-up book to Wole Soyinka's
acclaimed memoir of his childhood. and lyrical language that has
typified his plays and novels. Soyinka captures the indomitable
spirit of Nigeria itself by bringing to life the friends and family
who bolstered and inspired him.

He talks of his delivering a message to none other than Colonel

later General Olusegun Obasanjo from Victor Banjo in a midnight
trip through Ibadan. Banjo was recalled to Enugu. tried for
treason and executed along with Phillip Alale and Emmanuel
Ifeajuna the University of Ibadan graduate. Nsukka also Professor
Oyenuga an Agriculture expert who also resigned. This has also
been discussed in the book a Break in the Silence which is a
biography of Colonel Victor Banjo written by his sister Prof. the
rest is history. However. 204 . unbeknownst to Awo. The details of
these are in Soyinkas book The Man died. He lets the reader
know the high stakes political intrigues of the time. There have
been varying accounts of the discussion but this is Prof Soyinka's
account. Commonwealth high jump champion of the
Commonwealth games of 1954 who was also one of the 5 Majors
that plotted the coup of January 1966. Notable examples are Dr
(later Prof) Samuel Aluko who was forced to relocate with his
family to University of Nigeria. He also said that Banjo was
phoning a lot of people from Benin after the Mid West invasion
including Him. In the mid 60s he also gives details of his
substitution of the tape for a broadcast by the Premier Chief
Samuel Ladoke Akintola for his own tape. He also talks about
University politics and the intrusion of regional and National
politics which led to the resignation of several lecturers from
University of Ife in the mid 60s. Professor Soyinka was then
arrested by government and jailed in solitary confinement for 22
months. He also recounts his last meeting with the poet
Christopher Okigbo who later perished a day or 2 later at the
warfront. Banjo wanted to get to Lagos from Benin through the
western region but Obasanjo who was then the military
commander of the West in the early days of the civil war refused.
Adetoun Ogunsheye. He gives credit to Mazi Ukonu from the
Eastern Nigeria broadcasting service that set up a broadcasting
station in Awo's house. Obasanjo gave his own account in My
Command. His meeting with Colonel Victor Banjo and Phillip Alale
before the former invaded the Midwest. He also gives in details
the help Okpara gave to Action Group financially and otherwise
when Awo was in jail in Calabar. as a counter weight to the
Western Nigeria government media outlet which was critical in
the highly contested 1964 election. ''Okpara Power''.The African
Novel ENG 281 Congress led by Sir Ahmadu Bello and on the
opposing side the Action Group led by Awo in alliance with NCNC
then led by the Eastern region premier Dr Michael Okpara. He
ends the 60s by discussing the civil war and the coups of that
time. Justice Kayode Esho who later became a Supreme Court
Judge. There was reference to this in Ibadan: the Penkelemes
years but in this book he goes into more details including his trial
and eventual acquittal in the court of the Judge who was none
other than the Honorable Mr. General Gowon and even Awo.

there he was flogged in front of his family and almost shot dead.
He discusses his complex relationship with Obasanjo including
their collaboration in the FESTAC preparations and hosting and
also the search for the Original Ori Olokun which is a sacred mask
to the Yoruba that was excavated by a German explorer but
somehow ended in Britain during colonial times. riots and
eventual ascendancy of General Sanni Abacha as the Head of
State. John Pepper Clark-Bekederemo and himself to save the life
of the condemned General and poet Mamman Jiya Vatsa. This is
an adventure story in itself. He devotes a lot of attention to the
June 12 election and its aftermath. He describes how productive
the meeting was as they discussed a lot of issues but
unbeknownst to both of them something earth shaking would
happen just a couple of hours later. He discusses his relationship
with various military rulers such as General Obasanjo and IBB.
Femi Johnson actually acted in Wole Soyinka's Madmen and
Specialists and later by the dint of his hard work built the only
other skyscraper in Ibadan apart from Cocoa House which he
named Broking House. His heroic and colossal efforts in the pro-
democracy campaign are also outlined. Femi Falana and Olisa
Agbakoba and Bola Tinubu. the civil resistance. Prof Ola Rotimi
was famous worldwide for his epic play The Gods are not to
Blame which is his version of the Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex. He
also mentions the effort of the Nigerian Literary triumvirate of
Chinua Achebe. Ojetunji Aboyade.The African Novel ENG 281 The
book is also an ode to long standing friendship which the author
had with Femi Johnson the insurance magnate and actor and the
economist Prof. He also gives an account of the dramatist Prof Ola
Rotimi's encounter with members of the Armed forces at a check
point after the civil war. This was indeed a forerunner for the
valiant efforts of the recently departed late Apena of Ife Chief
Omotosho Eluyemi's actions as head of the National Museum and
antiquities unit to get more of the looted treasures. He also
obviously had an uneasy relationship with Chief Anthony Enahoro
who moved the motion for Nigeria's independence in 1956 by
criticizing 205 . He gives credit to others such as Beko
Ransomekuti. Gani Fawehinmi. Prof Soyinka through numerous
anecdotes tell of their hunting trips and other significant events in
his life that particularly Femi Johnson played a role. He explains
his exile via Shaki to Cotonou in Republic of Benin and eventual
relocation to the United States. He details his reasons for
establishing the Federal Road Safety Corps and his visit for a
meeting with Babangida a few hours before Orkar struck in his
coup. He however did not in my opinion really like NADECO
(National Democratic Coalition) though he sometimes co-operated
with them. The relationships were indeed touching and lasted
several decades most especially with Femi Johnson.
Discuss the qualities of literary adventure in the memoir. Memoirs
examine the political. While personal ideologies form the basis for
these works. They also emphasize the historical connections that
make it possible to understand Africas dealings with pre-colonial.
Commodore Dan Suleiman. His contributions to the democratic
coalition which was revealed in the book are sterling because you
need at least a whole book to delineate all the activities that went
on. General Alani Akinrinnade. Kudirat Abiola and the Man that
paid the Ultimate prize Bashorun MKO Abiola. This is fully
discussed by Professor Soyinka. colonial and post-colonial history.
Kayode Fayemi etc. Ralph Obioha. Jude Uzonwanne. the artistic
forms of literature and other dynamic orature techniques show
that they are directed to a new audience.The African Novel ENG
281 his civil service approach to issues.0 CONCLUSION A reading
of African memoirs makes African cultural and political situation in
Africa clearer and easier to understand for they bring out the
truth about African milieu. Also people like Bagauda Kaltho. They
are written as a unique genre of African prose with lighter
elements of fiction. economic and social circumstances that
impelled the sensitivity and ideologies of African peoples. Ngugi
believes that memoirs are part and parcel of African prose fiction.
Their paths had indeed crossed several years ago when Chief
Enahoro was the Federal Minister for Information during the Civil
War and Professor Soyinka was then incarcerated without trial. 4.
African literature in English is really incomplete without those
fascinating memoirs. the people rediscover the real essence of
struggle 206 . including Radio Kudirat and the like and the efforts
of Diasporan Nigerians like Bolaji Aluko. SELF ASSESSMENT
EXERCISE 3 You Must Set Forth at Dawn has been described as
an adventure story. Memoirs express the peoples experiences
expressed by one man whose service he has put his pen. Also
Chef Enahoro wrote his own account of the events. Incidentally in
the 60s Anthony Enahoro was involved in a long extradition battle
between Nigeria and Britain for his alleged role in what came to
be known as Awo's treasonable felony trial. In this type of prose.
He also goes for the jugular and in my opinion unfairly attacks
the physical attributes of one of the members that got
suspended. He had his own organization which later got
expanded but had to suspend some members because of peoples
fixation for posts and in the case of a lady whose family he
actually knew and mentions in the book as writing bad cheques
and dishonesty. Many critics have engaged in debate about what
constitutes African literature.

of economic and political activities. memoirs would be removed

from the mainstreams of literary discourse. This argument has
often been discountenanced by other critics. 3) In You Must Set
Forth at Dawn. It must adapt and become spontaneous in its
response to things as they happen in society. groups of
individuals. Both memoirs under study in this unit reveal both
artistic and historical qualities that mark them out as special
aspects of the genre of African prose fiction in English. The truth
remains that every good literature must address the question of
change.The African Novel ENG 281 through the actions and learn
from their great optimism and faith in the capacity of human
beings to remake their world and renew themselves. on the one
hand between man (considered individually and collectively) and
nature. It must write about today for today is tomorrow. entertain
and enlighten. In this vein. Thus. among individuals.0 TUTOR-
MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer the following questions: 1) What
qualities of prose fiction can be found in memoirs? 2) Memoirs
are stories of the life of an individual told with the intention to
teach. Memoirs constitute a part of the song of the people. Assess
the elements of fiction in this memoir? 4) The title of the late Dr.
Therefore. 5. a title taken from a Greek literature written by
Sophocles entitled Odyssey. Nnamdi Azikiwes memoir is My
Odyssey.0 SUMMARY Some critics have advocated that literature
or art in general needs to be freed from politics and history.
Explain the literary components in Ziks memoir. Nnamdi Azikiwes
My Odyssey and Wole Soyinkas You Must Set Forth at Dawn are
works of prose rich with the qualities and functions of a true
African prose fiction in English. the more or less dynamic
expression of the type of relations prevailing within that society.
Prove that memoirs function in the same way as other genres of
literature. with more or less awakened consciousness. Soyinka
through numerous anecdotes tells of their hunting trips and other
significant events in his life that particularly Femi Johnson played
a role. they should be a part of the complete genre of African
prose fiction. social strata or social classes. It must deal with the
vagaries of virtual reality versus the humdrum of societies.
Culture is the result. memoirs chronicle the peoples culture in its
entirety. 207 . on the other hand. 6.

(2006). 208 . Wole. Soyinka. Lagos: Bookcraft.The African Novel

ENG 281 7. (1971). Nnamdi. My Odyssey. You must set Forth at

one of the short stories in Chinua Achebes Girls at War. Because

of the large collection of short fictions by individual authors and in
anthologies in Africa.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit.3 3.
the students should be able to: recognize short fictions as one
of types of African prose fiction differentiate short fiction from
the novel appreciate African short fictions like the African novel
identify the short fiction as an extension of African oral tales
use short fictions to study African literary experiences.4 4. the
short story writer holds the audience spellbound by the very
beauty of the narrative. we shall use select short stories to study
this type of African prose fiction. The short-story has much in
common with African oral tradition which. giving pleasure and
also teaching morals and beliefs of the community. is better
described as "the African classical tradition".2 3. race or nation.0
7. we shall study the short story as a popular variety in the genre
of African prose fiction in English.0 3.0 6. 2. according to Irele.1
3. 209 .0 INTRODUCTION In this unit. Like the storyteller.The
We shall use the story American Lottery by a Cameroonian
named Makuchi. American Lottery Helon Habilas Prison Stories
Chinua Achebe Girls at War Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked
Assignment References/Further Readings 1.0 3.0 5. The short
fiction is the most popular written literature in Africa.0
Introduction Objectives Main Content General Overview John
Makuchi. Love Poem the award wining short story by Nigerias
Helon Habila and finally Vengeful Creditor.0 2. Every novelist
started as a short story writer. The short story writer tells stories
to entertain and educate "ordinary people" in a way they

the contemporary short story writer aims at helping his/her

society to change while retaining the best features of authentic
African cultures. slavish imitation of white people (e. The roots of
the African short story are as old as human society. A large
number of literary authors of great talent have not lost sight of
the short storys potential to enrich human lives and African
societies. the short story claims to be the legitimate heir of the
traditional legends through which griots chronicled community
history. etc. "For Whom Things Did Not Change"). a proof of the
adaptability of living cultures. apartheid.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.
religious and social situations relate to pre-colonial Africa.
colonialism."). On the contrary. tradition and culture. With the
voice of ordinary people. 210 .1 General Overview The short
fiction is short as its name implies. apartheid. after the poem.
borrowed from Western hierarchies. etc. and pre-colonial. The
short fiction shows how economic. indigenous and imported
religions.g. Individual authors have brought out collections which
deal with a variety of issues.The African Novel ENG 281 3. neo-
colonial independence. An increasing number of critics see it as a
new alternative to the African novel whose formal complexity and
intimidating status. Thus the themes dealt with by the short story
are many and include art. religion. She or he has to capture a
moment in time by making a quick statement about a
contemporary situation within a very limited space. and neo-
colonial reality. No Sweetness Here. The short story seems to
belong to the people rather than to the elite. For example. have
never been naturalized in Africa. The Heinemann Educational
Books has published regional collections on contemporary short
stories from all four corners of the continent.g. In that context. It
would be a mistake to believe that its simplicity translates into
limited skills on the part of the writer. is the literary genre which
makes the greatest demand on the writer. some critics argue that
the short story. brutality of the former colonial masters (e. Just as
the common storyteller of old. "Big Man. the arrival of the short
story on the African cultural scene is a mere evolution. is set in
post-independent Africa and deals with the tension generated by
oppression. ironies of life. African classical tradition then finds its
renewal in the short story because in a familiar way this genre
puts in the context of today a number of subjects relevant to
traditional and modern African values. political. colonial. usually
simple in terms of plot and characterization and has wide appeal
to its readers. Aidoo's collection of short stories. human beings
have engaged in story telling before embracing the longer forms
that can be found in both written and oral tradition. urban-life. In
all cultures of the world.

Senegalese. Bartho Smit. they have made use of the versatility of

the genre. Nigerians. ethnicity.and which are not necessarily
those which had the most appeal in Africa when they were
published . Thus. Nadine Gordimer. thanks to the media which
distort the black diaspora. Chinua Achebe and the recent Caines
Prize winner Helon Habila amongst others. Paul. class and
linguistic tensions in the postcolonial Cameroon.represent only
the tip of the iceberg. Egyptians. Interestingly. Ethiopians. In this
collection of short stories. shows the devaluation of the African
American. The narrator laughs at her own community which
seems to figure Pauls success in the US in terms of getting not
just black friends from the continent. Christopher Hope. and of
course a picture with the inscription on the back that says. we will
receive pictures taken with his brothers and sisters:
Cameroonians. the narrators younger brother wins the "Diversity
Immigrant Visa Program lottery that grants a visa to the United
States of America. Sembene Ousmane. a friend a white
woman. The story also studies the silencing of the African
Americans by Africans whose imagination is limited to whiteness.
Not Mine: Short Stories from Cameroon. Pauls sudden
disappearance from the narrative the moment he leaves for
America marks his dehumanization and exile. Her story American
Lottery dramatizes the various levels of marginalization that a
black person suffers in the current era of corporate capitalism.
Ama Ata Aidoo. Kenyans. Cameroonian John Makuchis American
Lottery in Your Madness. A few names among the more
noteworthy are: Bessie Head. Narrator lingers at the description
of the imaginary photograph that the village conjures into
existence and sees itself admiring in the near future: Soon. Other
writers who wrote novels earlier later wrote short stories because
of its appeal to the people and its shortness which makes for easy
reading and quick entertainment. hundreds of short stories by
African authors have been published in local newspapers and the
very few that have made it to the West . but a white girlfriend.
Flora Nwapa. Ben Okri. Eritrean. pictures with some Black
Americans. Kojo Laing. every novelist in Africa started as short
story writer. 3.The African Novel ENG 281 More importantly still.
Makuchi captures the gender.2 John Makuchi: American Lottery.
Black South Africans. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 The short
story has been described as the popular prose genre in Africa.
Explain why this statement is true. her hand around his waist as
they both laugh and show their 211 .

She feels guilty of condemning her brother to the invisibility the

black person is reduced to in America. he is expressing a shared
desire among the post-colonial subjects to relocate to the
Western metropolis. Pauls dream has a sense of novelty because
he does not want to go to the traditional destinations of the
postcolonial: No. Although the people are aware of the
exploitation and denigration that the West has visited upon their
country. the way he smiled at people. The frenzy. When we first
meet the character. And then the years will go by. the story
suggests the artificiality that Paul could be living in. as she holds
firmly onto my little brother. (92) While expressing the deluded
excitement of the villagers. Despite the alienation that awaits
Paul as a Permanent Resident Alien of the United States of
America (9394). our African son. they chanted. almost too
happy. in his perception of America and the world.He needed to
go away to a place where murderous thoughts would not be
invading his everyday dreams. The very bed on which he will lie
will be made of dollars. was going to America. America was the
place to be. they see the metropolis as their home. or believing
that secession was the only option open to a minority . figments
of our imagination. a childs dream. the way he 212 . the narrator
leads us to question the logic behind the visa program: Some
bogus thing about an American immigration lottery that to
thousands of aliens! Who are aliens? Where do aliens come from?
I ask myself. the community is beside itself in celebration of his
supposedly good fortune: America! Their own son. THIRTEEN
YEARS! And bored holes. The irony resides in the way the story
is structured. while the Francophone section desires to go to
France. knows what America does to its black victims: Then his
brother who had left for America when he was barely ten had
come back home for the first time after thirteen years. their
kinsman. And the parties will fade into bitter memories. once a
dreamer of the American Dream. His brother had come back
home a different person. We have already been shown in the
story what America does to the aliens who go there. The writer
focuses on the irony of a community that denies their own homes
to constructs illusions of home in exile. like those left behind on
plantation leaves after the passage of hailstones. the joy. their
own friend. thinking. (76) The narrator regrets having not hidden
the forms that facilitate Pauls alienation. She will look so
beautiful. Imagine. a stranger: the way he walked. a
place where he would stop feeling. their tongues wagged. His
brother had shattered a dream.The African Novel ENG 281 teeth
to the camera. The Anglophone part of Cameroon wants to go
home to England. He will soon be rolling in dollars. Through her
satirical tone.

America has been able to market the positive aspects of its

culture while suppressing the negative elements. Makuchi unveils
a deeper concern about the new American slavery called visa
lottery. He was directionless and despondent. who the second
Caine prize for African writing. Love Poems is a remarkable
work of prison literature. The story is a complete satire on
American neo-colonialism or modern slavery in Africa. who is
incarcerated without trial during the years of General Sani
Abacha's oppressive military rule. that he began reading
literature for the first time . he is able to use pen and paper to
write poems as a means of psychological purgation in his
unfortunate disposition. after the accident. let alone pen and
paper. Lomba is arrested at the scene of a peaceful
demonstration where he is performing his journalistic duty of
recording the events. (80) The narrator has shown the readers
the reason behind the villages celebration of uprootment.3 Helon
Habilas Love Poems Prison Stories Prison Stories contains short
stories about life in a brutal Nigerian state. It won Helon Habila
the Caines Prize . They took all the papers and his pen and put
him in solitary confinement. Did he achieve this satirical intent?
3. So brainwashed is the community that the people no longer
know places by their real names but by names branded on them
from films and soap operas shown on the national TV. Coetzee .
Lomba.Shakespeare. It is the account of a young journalist. the
way he talked to people." It was then. and J.M. 213 . having
returned there after dropping out from college. Through media
products. Habila was living at home at the time. the way he
dressed. when he ate. John Donne. While in prison. the way he
ate. Helon Habila. what he ate." he says. what he wore Who
was this person? Peter had wondered. was 22 when his father
and one of his brothers died in a road accident in Nigeria.and the
dream of becoming a writer took inchoate form.The African Novel
ENG 281 talked. "I used to quarrel so much with my father.the
African Booker. "I had no idea what I would do or what would
become of me. The Prison Superintendent read the poems he
wrote on the papers and fell in love with the poems. He is later
caught as no prisoner is allowed to keep any object. SELF
ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 In a short fiction like American

and so from memory begins adapting great works of poetry.

watched. His girlfriend then demands that Lomba be released if
their relationship is to continue. visits the journalist and asks him
if he would write some love poems which he then claims as his
own. its ritualized brutality. with its violence and warring
prisoners. And then sometimes there are coups. and it was later
reprinted in his collection of stories. though he wants nothing
more than the freedom to write. It is terrifying. and then you
have generals and subordinates. at once brutal and tender.4
Chinua Achebe: "Vengeful Creditor" in Girlss at War Chinua
Achebe's story "Vengeful Creditor" first appeared in 1971 in the
inaugural issue of Okike: A Journal of New Writing. a
prisoner.many of Habila's friends and one of his cousins were
imprisoned for many years without trial. The Prison
Superintendents girlfriend knew that her friend was not the
originator of the love poems. the Prison Superintendent. Nigeria
was like a vast prison. the prison symbolizes the Nigerian and/or
African nations. disappearing into the lower depths of Nigeria's
prison system. And a kind of military system operates inside the
prisons. too. She demands knowing the original writer which he
provided grudgingly. a magazine that Achebe founded. The story
focuses on the gap between the wealthy and the poor in the
tumultuous environment of a 214 . "Under Abacha. while all the
time sending covert messages to his female reader: "Save my
soul. a brutal near-illiterate." Helon says. Soon. when rival groups
attempt to take over the prison. It is all based on physical
strength: the strongest prisoner becomes the president of the
prison.The African Novel ENG 281 One day. At the end of the
story. agile story. it is Abachas death that gives Lomba the hope
for freedom which he had wished all the while in prison. she feels
something deeply about him and requests her boyfriend to ensure
he leaves the prison." Thus. where the prisoners are in cahoots
with the wardens. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 The themes of
political odds and military dictatorship are treated in Love
Poems. It has the authenticity of deep conviction . On meeting
Lomba. It is a remarkably subtle. melancholic and funny. How did
Habila achieve these in so short a story? 3. Girls at War and
Other Stories." The Prison Superintendent explains sheepishly
that he refused including Lombas name among those to be
released by Amnesty International when they came to release
political prisoners because of the love poems he is writing for
him. both real and metaphorical. "You felt continually under
pressure. He gives Lomba cigarette and soap in place of the
poems. Lomba is struggling for inspiration. sending them to his
"educated" girlfriend.

and his 1958 novel Things Fall Apart is considered one of

literature's most important African novels. The short story
exposes much in little spaces. the young servant. L. becomes
increasingly resentful and acts out her frustration on the
Emenikes and their child. entertaining and didactic. interesting.
More so. Innes in her book Chinua Achebe.0 CONCLUSION The
short story is akin to the folktales: short. "Vengeful Creditor" in
particular is noted for its satirical qualities in depicting "women
and their aspirations. a policy the well-to-do resents. For
instance.The African Novel ENG 281 haphazardly modernizing
African country. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 In the Vengeful
Creditor. The overt political issue at stake is the government's
institution of free primary education for children. Since the short
story is short.'' according to C. a well-to-do family resents it
because it means they will have difficulty keeping their servants.
Chinua Achebe delved into exposing the wickedness of the
bourgeoisie. blighted by the society and the circumstances that
surround them. it makes for easy reading and helps those who
can not read for longer hours or days to enjoy the sweetness of
fiction. In order to obtain a nurse for their baby. How did he
achieve this in the story? 4. and Other Stories like his novels. 215
. He has written relatively few short stories in his career. It
enables a prolific storyteller to fashion several tales for the
entertainment of his readers. it enables the readers appreciate a
given view in so short a grasp while relating the issues to real life
situations. Emenikes. we still see and feel the messages in them.
the short story forms the basis for bigger novels. As it becomes
clear that the Emenikes are not going to make good on their
promise. The important role of every work of art is to impact
positively on the consumers and this the short fictions achieve in
so short a time. Every short story is a novel in the making. Helon
Habilas short story Love Poems is now a novel with the title
Waiting for an Angel while Chimamanda Adichies short story
entitled Half of a Yellow Sun has been turned into a novel with
the same title. the Emenikes promise an impoverished girl that
she will eventually be able to go to school her only chance at
obtaining a better life for herself. has received overwhelming
positive reviews from critics. Veronica. but his collection Girls at
War. Even though the stories treated in this unit have no well
developed plots and characterization. Achebe is known primarily
as a novelist. As a popular prose type.

It is worth $15. Chinua & Innes. How true is this statement? 7.

the same prize in Russia. 5) The short story is aimed at the
ordinary people. Makuchi.The African Novel ENG 281 5. Caine
helped set up the Booker Prize in Britain and then. Your Madness.
Habila. L. Like the Booker. Helon. The select short stories treated
in this unit. Lagos: Epik Books. (Eds. 216 . Comment on the
thematic advantages of the short story. The Heinemann Book of
Contemporary African Short Stories. The Caine prize concentrates
on the short story. the Caine aims to inspire a new generation of
writers and readers. reflecting the oral and contemporary
development of African storytelling traditions. 6. The organizers
of this African Booker see the short story as the best genre for
the award because it seems the most popular prose craft in
The short story is a very popular genre in world literature but in
Africa it is a significant aspect of African literature. C. Athens:
Ohio UP.000 [10. it was established by LibDem MEP Emma
Nicholson in memory of her husband. in 1992. (1974). Assess
this statement properly. John.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Answer the following questions: 1) Explain the major differences
between the short fiction and the novel? 2) Every short story is a
novel in the making. 4) In the short stories treated in this unit
the themes span global interests. Michael Caine. Chinua. (2001).)
(1992).500] to the winner. economic and political issues in Africa.
Girls at War. (1999). Achebe. Identify the relationship between
these aspects of literature and orature. American Lottery.
London: Heinemann. Prison Stories. 75-96. 3) The short story is
akin to folktales. the former chairman of Booker Plc who died in
1999. Not Mine: Stories of Cameroon. reveal how the short fiction
is used in the treatment of sensitive social. Ibadan: Heinemann.
It is authentically pan-African: work in translation is actively

whose artistic works idealize Africa. The development of the novel

in Africa was also due to the rise of a class. Laye and others.
Laye. Their approaches sharply contrast to the early writers. most
of them are females.0 3. These writers examine social situations
from the standpoint of class conflict. Achebe. These new writers
see their works as a service to their societies.0 2.0 Introduction
Objectives Main Content General Overview Political Satire:
Chimamanda Adichies Purple Hibiscus Cultural Satire: Rebeka
Njaus The Sacred Seed Niger-Delta Situation: Kaine Agarys
Yellow Yellow Conclusion Summary Tutor-Marked Assignment
References/Further Readings 1. these writers do not idealize it.
culture.4 4. Interestingly.1 3. They write about the events that
chronicle the experiences of the new millennium.0 3. The women
of Africa have found a new voice with the novel genre. were
members of an emerging educated African elite. Soyinka. We
shall select a few of these writers in order to study their message.
The ideological concerns of these African writers reflected the
general mood of African nations.0 5.2 3. Ngugi.The African Novel
mainly those writers who wrote in the new millennium that began
in the year 2000. They use the English language to suit their
purposes.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit we shall study the prose
fiction of select new African writers.0 7. These new African writers
produce artistic works that show that Africa had its own history.
all the authors. 217 . However. such as Achebe. while reshaping
Africa's distorted history.0 6. and their works were directed at
foreign audiences and local audiences who belonged to their own
socio-economic classes. They reveal that African society had its
own contradictions and spiritual crises. and civilization that were
equal if not superior to that of the west.3 3.

you feel the passion and the love for the word. As you read their
novels. they delivered story after story. murder. They believe the
African writers and intellectuals can stop feeding the West stories
of irredeemable despair that turn Africa into a caricature
continent. "tribal" conflicts. so painstakingly about the odds of the
age. The questions that often trail the minds of their readers are:
Why are we so depressed? Is there no joy in our existence? How
machete that hurts our motherland? Regardless. AIDS.0 MAIN
CONTENT 3. 3. torture. religious and political traumas have
become the background noise of their entertainments.1 General
Overview These new writers of the millennium reveal the traumas
of the present age: starvation. because there is a return to the
oral tradition of storytelling by our ancestors and they call this
change. child traffickers and women disfigured by abuse and
genital mutilation amongst other issues. pulsating through 218 .
these writers spend a lot of time painting gory pictures of Africa's
sorry state. oil spillage. Their novels enter the heart by sneak
attack.The African Novel ENG 281 2. The pressures on these
writers of the new millennium are enormous. warlords. these
writers have every reason to be worried about the situation in
Africa. child labourers.0 OBJECTIVES By the end of the unit the
students should be able to: appreciate the new millennium
novelists in Africa assess the message in their works contrast
their novels with the early writers in terms of themes discus the
themes in the new novels discover the newness in their
approaches to the novel identify their contributions to the vast
African Prose fiction. environmental pollution. They believe there
is hope. These writers focus on the continent's corrupt leaders.
They write to correct the horrible images of Africa as one giant
beggarcontinent that will someday be erased when Africa's
intellectuals and writers like these millennium writers direct their
rage inwards. These new writers write for a precocious generation
that went through books with the same intensity with which they
surf the pages of the Internet. Their tales/images reveal
instances of pain and deprivation. cultural odds. Their voices
never stopped singing.

It becomes surprising that a man like Chief Eugene Achike who

fights for the political freedom of his people through his
journalistic ventures could apply what he attacks in his home. A
paradox! He celebrates the relief that comes from coups believing
that a new government means freedom in sight. what we needed
was not soldiers ruling us. the protagonist in Purple Hibiscus. This
whole dream sounded as if Kambili is expecting a renewed
approach to the family affairs first before hoping for a renewed
governance in the country. the way he said it (25). He visits
scenes and places and exchanges gifts and experiences. It
sounded important. 3.2 Political Satire: Chimamanda Adichies
Purple Hibiscus Kambili. His children must comply with the tenets
of Catholicism. Papa told us.The African Novel ENG 281 every
word. what we needed was a renewed democracy. uses the
draconic ruling pattern of her father. Kambili and Jaja never
experienced real love in their home at Enugu. The unnecessary
religious conflicts that make Kambilis father to hate Papa
Nnukwu. to reveal the problems in the entire Nigerian society. He
expresses himself to his cousins. He sees the love of a heathen
219 . Adichie explains that the issue of governance in Africa
would change when the individuals begin to examine within
themselves the correct approaches to life that would enhance the
development of good governance. Kambili sees the contrast
between her father and the military government when she
critically asserts. Uncle Eugene allows religion to becloud his
sense of fellowship with his culture and society. Jaja falls in love
with flowers and other chores. her grand father shows the
highhandedness of some African people who use religion as a
means of creating discord in their families. The new African
millennium writers focus on the true condition of the continent
without reducing the land and her people to ridicule. of course.
Chief Eugene Achike. Discus this proposition. there is a near
obsession for perfection that borders on a disability. He engages
in children and wife battery but criticizes those who batter the
society. It was Aunty Ifeomas home that provided the needed
environment for them to experience love. He expects freedom but
blocks it from his vicinity. the politicians were corrupt. Renewed
Democracy. It looks like denying a phenomenon and embracing it
at the same time. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 These new
novelists are engrossed with revealing the totality of Africas ugly

father. She was never forced to accept this necessity. She falls
in love with Father Amadi. 220 . and I noticed the shadows under
his eyes. She said nobody acknowledged the letters but still it
was important to her that she do something. Father Amadi sees
in Kambili the character of a heroine who talks less but acts more
in her mind. Lets forget if its right or wrong for now. care for
others and accommodate people around her. outspoken and a
dogged fighter. accommodating.The African Novel ENG 281
grandfather who tells them moral folk tales and the love of a
reverend father who provides the needed atmosphere for peace
and joy. outspoken and unbending in the things that touch her
African pride. She is a rare breed of the new generation of
youths. she does not waste her energy in picking never-ending
arguments. I can tell. they didnt think Igbo names were good
enough. Kambili sees the love of a sister who teaches her to cook
meals. to complain about the poor state of Nigerias justice
system. Not even from Father Amadi whose closeness to the
family ought to have given the necessary touch for Amaka to
choose an English name: I told you I am not taking an English
name. honest. Shouldnt we moving ahead? (271-272) Amaka
represents the new hope for the coming generation of African
women. Kambili describes her thus: She walked and talked even
faster and with more purpose than Aunty Ifeoma did (78).
(300). She is creative. father Amadi said. resilient. But there is a
lot going on in her mind. she said And have I asked you why?
Why do I have to? Because it is the way its done. Even when
Amaka left the country with her mother. (173) Amaka is also a
strong voice. Amaka seems to be the most vocal of these
characters: young. Amaka refuses to take an English name for
her confirmation because she sees no need for such colonial
necessity. Kambili tells us that: Amaka used to write to the office
of the head of state. she never stops her protests against those
things she finds unpalatable in the Nigerian society. She seems to
be one of the strongest female voices in our contemporary fiction.
When the missionaries first came. They insisted that people take
English names to be baptized. even the Nigerian Ambassador in

His death and the death of Uncle Eugene bring in a new hope.
commonwealth countries suspended Nigeria and imposed
sanctions. Explain how Adichie achieved this. invariably General
Sani Abacha. Tesa. to kill him even when he was already dead.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Purple Hibiscus is the picture of
Nigeria at the zenith of anarchy. The Big Oga later dies atop a
prostitute. even though his mother had claimed responsibility. a
dawn. is raped by the head of state who has also perpetrated
ethnic war that affects women most. Ade Coker is murdered.
which has deep connections with the state. foaming at the mouth
and jerking- (297). The symbol of the purple hibiscus bringing
a new hope in their home is seen in Kambilis new vision of
tomorrow: I reach out and place my arm around mamas
shoulder and she leans towards me and smiles. Brain drain
increases daily. is revealed as the ending point of Nigerias
military rule. And then they poured acid on his body to melt his
flesh off his bones. The Big Oga. shows the yearning of the family
to get freedom from the brutal and strict father. After this killing.
Ade Coker fights the military regime through the Standard
newspaper. Nwankiti Ogechi (a typology for Ken Saro Wiwa) is
murdered: Soldiers shot Nwankiti Ogechi in a bush in Minna. Ellen
is shown in instances of the narrative which indicate possibilities
of healing after 221 .. Aunty Ifeoma flees the country to the
United States in search of peace and academic freedom. Ellen has
come to Africa as a missionary but her contribution to the Church.
General Sani Abacha. The ingratitude and greed of the church is
underlined in the pastors lecherous attempt which parallels other
acts of violence against women by the patriarchal traditional
society and the state. Jajas acceptance of the crime of murdering
his father. to the polity. Uncle Eugene sees the fight as his needed
role in the correction of military anarchy. The main character in
the story. just like the needed respite the Nigerian nation
experienced with the exit of the dictator. Later. (200-201). 3.The
African Novel ENG 281 Adichie takes a historical stance in the
exposition of the travails of military oddities in the novel.. is paid
back through the pastors attempt to rape her.3 Cultural Satire:
Rebeka Njaus The Scared Seed Kenyan Rebeka Njaus The
Scared Seed (2003) textualizes in various ways the problems
women have suffered under patriarchal political dominance and
inserts the role African Americans have in liberating the still
colonized women of Africa.The new rains will come soon (307).

The skills.The African Novel ENG 281 tribal cleansing. according

to the text. should be repatriated. 3.4 Kaine Agarys Yellow Yellow
Kaine Agary claimed that he was inspired by Saro-Wiwa's book
entitled A Month and a Day in writing the novel. She had made
fabrics and rugs using fibre plants which had grown in her
backyard. who grew up in Port Harcourt. participating in the
reconstruction of Africa. who was born of a Nigerian mother and a
Greek sailor. She admired her talent and skill in training the
young village boys and girls. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
Assess the treatment of patriarchy in modern Kenya as revealed
in Njaus The Sacred Seed. African Americans with direct relations
with Africa are likely to be interacting with the westernized and
power-wielding elite. They will be given honours by the
authorities who want to exploit their western connection for
funding and business. Within a short time they had learned to
sing and create pictures which expressed their feelings. she
recalled. and told stories of joy and sorrow. who left her rustic
existence and the 222 . Yellow-Yellow was the first novel of Kaine
Agary. The honour was to reflect the relevance of the book on
how literatures have been used to illuminate the Niger Delta
question. as the pastor tries to do with Ellen to export gourds to
America. The text seems to argue that the diasporic African has a
duty to deconstruct the formal structure put in place to oppress
the ordinary African by the state and its organs. Zilayefa. had
been a skilful craftswoman. Her moment of self-realization comes
when she abandons the church and joins women in a traditional
shrine that is also threatened by the state: Ellen felt gratified to
have had the opportunity to be around the women who knew how
to use their power calmly. YellowYellow was all about a young
biracial girl. Kaine was in the United States of America for a while
before relocating to Lagos. (174) Underscored here is the need of
direct grassroots negotiation. Rivers State. Ellens mother is a
symbol of skilful diasporic Africans that retained their connections
with Africa and passed on skills to the next generation. Ellen had
learnt the craft and she decided to pass the knowledge to the
women before she left for the USA. The creative potentials learnt
in Africa and taken to America in painful circumstances can be
reinvented to assist the African continent: Her mother. as Ellen
previously did. (174) Rebeka Njau here shows that the
intellectual resources stolen from Africa through slavery can be
restored to the continent through training. She was fascinated by
Tesas music and was moved by her ability to relate to people at
all levels.

The African Novel ENG 281 protective grip of her mother in the
village in search of a better life in the city of Port Harcourt.
Zilayefa joined the fast Port Harcourt life. Zilayefa. The villagers
constituted a pressure group to fight against oppression
especially from the foreigners. They reported the case to the
village head for immediate rescue. coloured by the presence of
expatriates in the oil sector and declining societal values during a
military regime. She was thrust into the bustling city of Port
Harcourt. Through her budding sexuality experiences. and her
friend. Yellow-Yellow portrayed life and culture in the Niger Delta
through the eyes of Zilayefa when she struggled with
development of her identity. Some were crying. At the early
chapters of the book. it was hard to catch fish. The wife would
use the canoe to fish. Zilayefa grew to a higher level of
knowledge and understanding. the main character in the book.
spread out and covered more land and drowned small animals in
its path. It revealed a portrait of beauty and social destruction of
the Nigerian Niger Delta. declaring a suspect sabotage of the
youth in the village. She was confronted by prejudices against her
racial identity. With a recommendation from her pastor. others
were agitating for compensation. Every year. The big boys carved
out decorative paddles that carried the legends of the Ijaws in
every curve. The oil company rejected the accusation. Sisi. who
were operators of the oil companies that laid their oil pipes in the
village. earn a living and help to feed the family. They insisted on
not paying any compensation for all the destruction the burst
pipes had caused. The air was polluted with bad smell from crude
oil and decaying animals. the author reflected the menace of oil
spillage on hectares of farmland that was supposed to be
cultivated for food production. as reported by the author. 223 .
giving a picture and a human face to the hardships of the people.
She struggled with accepting the void left by not knowing her
father and tried to fill that void with the attention of an older
lover. took in and was cared for by an elderly biracial woman.
Lolo. Men and women were covered knee-deep in the crude oil.
Many people lost their main source of sustenance to the spillage
including the author's mother. Women rowed their canoes farther
away to find land for farming. It was contrary to the early days of
the author's mother when every husband was expected to give
his new wife a dugout canoe he had carved out and crafted
himself. The crude oil. unprepared for the pitfalls awaiting a
young girl so unsure of herself and also in desperate need of

stopped schooling at primary six level. who took care of Zilayefa.

linking up good looking young girls with prospective white men.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 The Niger-Delta region in Nigeria
is a focus of attention because of environmental degradation. She
was exposed to all influences that converged on Port Harcourt
before Nigeria's Independence from the British. his former jilted
lover whom she thought was one of those hanging out for young
girls. which made it to gain such befitting recognition at a first
trial. the burden of its incredible wealth and a young woman's
determination to carry it. Zilayefa met Sergio. Yellow-Yellow takes
us on an amazing journey through the Delta region of Nigeria:
our guide is a young woman trying to find herself seeking her
fortune in a big city. She was involved in the supply of toilet
papers and leasing of pick-up trucks. Thus. There have been
different reactions over the quality of artworks compiled in
Yellow-Yellow by its author. At the concluding chapters of the
book. looking for how to attach themselves with the white men.
the author reviewed how young girls. The millennium African
novel becomes an exploration of the personality as it is defined
in the interpretation of its past and present self-awareness. a city
hungry to swallow her soul and spit out her jaded hollow shell.
224 .0 CONCLUSION The millennium African novel is based on
contemporary human experiences in order to remain relevant
because any African writer who tries to avoid the big social and
political issues of contemporary Africa will end up being
irrelevant (Achebe. every realistic work of art has man as its
focal point man and his society. How successful is Agarys
treatment of the issue in Yellow Yellow? 4. were looking up to
white men to rescue them.The African Novel ENG 281 Sisi. This
literary gem is a must read. It is a truly authentic narrative of a
region. She used the exposure to get contracts for construction
and food supply in government hospitals. She was the only
woman who got contracts from oil companies. There were people
on contract. One fundamental character of the contemporary
novel is that it provides a specific manner of narration which
identifies and assumes human names in such a way that suggests
that they are to be regarded as individuals in the contemporary
society. On one of such night cruises. Girls were trooping into
hotel lobbies at Warri and Bonny. who wanted to escape poverty.
She was good with creative ideas for projects she was selling to
the procurement officers of the establishment. 1975:78).

In that situation.0

SUMMARY The new millennium African writers are producing

artistic works that show that Africa had its own history. learn from
their great optimism and faith in the capacity of human beings to
remake their world and renew themselves. Explain how they
achieve this.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Answer these

1) The new millennium novelists reveal every ugly thing that

hinders Africas development. These writers reveal social cohesion
or social consciousness. However. The African Novel ENG 281 The
mark of true realism therefore. African writers of the millennium
have no choice but to join in the people's struggle for survival.
They reveal new interests and experiences in their crafts of
fiction. Identify the issues of cultural malpractice in the novel.

2) Purple Hibiscus touches on the odds of militarism in Africa. The

political life of a nation and its social national dilemma is thus
depicted through an individual experience. which portray the
oppressed as trapped and helpless.

3) A womans trauma against cultural impediments in modern day

Kenya features in Njaus The Sacred Seed. Discuss the thematic
concerns in the novel. and civilization. These writers apply pathos
and emotive power of their works to instigate the oppressors in
their societies and to initiate a political and economic
reorganization of their society in the interest of the oppressed.
25. for these writers use satire and ridicule as "corrective
narrative techniques" to enlighten their society morally. 6. The
artistic forms reflect the ideological content. some critics maintain
that the intentions (of the pathos and bitterness of these novels)
are to whip the emotions of the people into revolutionary action.
the individual himself being shaped by the socio-economic
circumstances in which he finds himself. they will have to confront
the ruling elite whose services are not beneficial to all. is the
depiction of an age as individuals experience and the bourgeois
exploration of the individuals experience reaches its highest form
when this individual is not a fragmentary experience but the
quintessential representation of a particular historical social
experience. 225 . Their novels are constantly interrupted in the
effort to maintain and expand contemporary artistic activities and
institutions in the face of their country's problems and a general
sapping of energy and initiative. arises in the writers' political
misunderstanding. These writers apply the real language of
struggle in the actions and speeches of their people. culture. The
despair that pervades these works.

Njau. Lagos: Farafina. Agary.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Adichie. Nairobi: Books Horizon. (2005). Kaine.The African Novel
ENG 281 4) There are vast social and environmental traumas in
the NigerDelta region of Nigeria. The Sacred Seed. (2005). 5)
There are greater promises that Africas greater novelist would be
women as they dominate the new millennium novelists. How true
is this statement? 7. (2003). Yellow Yellow Lagos. Rebeka.
Carefully discuss how Agary revealed this in Yellow Yellow.
Chimamanda. Purple Hibiscus. 226 .
More From This User