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university of new mexico

Javier de la Garza
and Alejandro Arango
Reevaluating Signs of Identity

One is Mexican because he is Mexican not because he is

painting serapes.
Javier de la Garza1

argeting those signs of cultural identity encoded as stereotype

that are propagated through mass media and consumer culture,
artists Alejandro Arango (b. 1950) and Javier de la Garza (b. 1954),
explored with distinct results one direction within the neo-Mexicanist current of Mexican figurative painting of the 1980s. Both Arango and De la
Garza used the Conquest of Mexico as the basis for developing bodies of
work in the mid-1980s. The themes of machismo, mestizaje, and indigenismo
run through this contemporary critique inspired by and poking fun at an essentializing discourse of mexicanidad. Here the artists approach painting
with a skepticism that seeks to separate myth from reality, and to illustrate
the reality of myth, through exaggerated form and strident color. De la
Garza chooses to idealize his subjects; Arango distorts them. Drawing from
the evocative aesthetic of publicity advertising, both artists seduce and intrigue the viewer not in the hyper-realist way of an artist such as their

1. Uno es mexicano porque es mexicano, no porque est pintando sarapes. Recorded interview with Javier de la Garza in Mexico City, July 22, 1998.


86, 2005



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1. Rafael Cauduro, El San Sebastin, 1986,

acrylic, resin epoxy, and oil on canvas,
120 94 cm. Reproduced with permission
from the artist.

contemporary Rafael Cauduro who at that time convincingly replicated

Calvin Klein ads as in El San Sebastin (fig. 1) of 1986 but with an artifice
that smacks of saccharine and a sense of camp that delights. The Galera
omr presented Arangos individual exhibition La conquista (The Conquest)
in November of 1986, and De la Garzas Inocencia perdida (Lost Innocence)
three months later. A close examination of the content of these exhibitions,
and the ideology behind the work, will clearly show that neo-Mexicanist art
does not blindly praise, but at times blatantly parodies glorified nationalism.

The Stage
La conquista and Inocencia perdida are grounded in a national historical
event of mythic proportions the fall of Tenochtitln in 1521 and the conquest of the Mesoamerican peoples by the Spaniards that has been interpreted in visual form over the past five centuries. However, Arango and De
la Garzas paintings are not about defeat, but about intrigue and seduction.
La conquista awkwardly describes the union of Spaniards and indigenous
women, while Inocencia perdida showcases the conquistadors opponents, the
Aztec warriors. These two artists draw from the same general themes that in-

j av i e r d e l a g a r z a a n d a l e j a n d ro a r a n g o


spired the academic history painters of the late-nineteenth century. They

also express a similar penchant for invention and high drama similar to that
found in works such as Leandro Izaguirres El suplicio de Cuauhtmoc
(Torture of Cuauhtmoc) of 1892 and Flix Parras Episodios de la conquista
(Episodes of the Conquest) of 1877. That both Arango and De la Garza have
worked in stage design may partially account for the high element of theatricality apparent in these series. One should not be misled into regarding the
work as a kind of national revivalist art. As Carlos Monsivis points out
in reference to neo-Mexicanist art, There was a time when resorting to the
symbols and colors of the village meant proclaiming national identity; today
these extended and desolemnized proposals are reworking ideas from both
the past and the present.2 In doing the latter, Arango and De la Garza
attain results that are anachronistic, innovative, and satirical.
Twenty-eight works, predominantly large-scale paintings, comprised La
conquista, while Inocencia perdida presented fifteen large-scale paintings.
La batalla, the largest painting included in Arangos exhibition, measured
five feet by ten feet, while De la Garzas paintings averaged nine and one-half
feet by four and a half feet. For these two artists, the Conquest becomes
a stage where deceit is vindicated with retro imagery. Familiar figures that
include Hernn Corts, La Malinche (doa Marina), Cuauhtmoc, conquistadores, and Indian women and warriors parade before us proclaiming
official history to be fiction, invention, and fantasy.

Lost Innocence
Susan Sontag3

Several visual sources from art history, popular art, and the advertising industry inspired the imagery and philosophical stance of Inocencia perdida.
De la Garza explains, I purposefully set out to literally immerse myself in
2. Carlos Monsivis, Perspectives on the Arts of Mexico, Latin American Art (Fall
1990): 27.
3. Susan Sontag, Notes on Camp, Against Interpretation and Other Essays (New York:
Noonday Press, 1961), p. 283.


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patriotic symbols, in the idea of machismo, and the [national] heroes but
not at any moment did I intend to participate in the Mexicanism [current].4
Inocencia perdidas cast of characters appears to have stepped right out of an
Olympic pantheon. Their hyper-sexualization and objectification reaches
even further beyond the kitsch aesthetic propagated by the mid-twentieth
century Mexican chromolithograph calendars of which De la Garzas series
reminds us. The term kitsch refers to art, writing, etc. of a pretentious, but
shallow kind, calculated to have popular appeal.5 These brightly colored,
illustrated calendars, commissioned by corporate sponsors, served as an early
form of modern publicity as they promoted brands and products, as well as
visions of an idealized and utopian Mexico.6 The calendars followed in the
tradition of the romantic costumbrista art of the nineteenth century where
foreign artists traveling through Mexico such as Claudio Linati and Eduardo
Pingret created seemingly ethnographic, and decidedly stereotypical, portraits of the Mexican landscape and its inhabitants. From the 1930s to the
1970s, numerous artists working for calendar factories such as Galas de
Mxico participated in building a Mexicana image of the nation for the
consumer industry, not unlike for example, the work of Norman Rockwell
in the United States. De la Garza openly concedes that these chromolithographs, with a work such as Jess Helgueras Gesto azteca of ca. 1961 (fig. 2) as
a good example, served as a source of inspiration for his painting during the
mid-to-late 1980s.
In an interesting twist of reappropriation, the Volkswagen Company of
Mexico commisioned a calendar for the year 1990 that showcased a different
painting by De la Garza for every month of the year (fig. 3). As a natural
succession to Inocencia perdida, De la Garza turned from the chromolithographs to a complementary source: for many of the works included in the
calendar, and in his second individual exhibition at the Galera omr in the fall
of 1989, he used photographs by Gabriel Figueroa from Mexican Golden era

4. Me propuse, con toda conciencia, sumergirme literalmente en los smbolos patrios, en la

idea del machismo y los hroes, pero en ningn momento intent participar en el mexicanismo. Recorded interview, De la Garza, July 22, 1998.
5. Noah Webster, Websters New Twentieth Century Dictionary (Cleveland: Simon and
Schuster, 1983).
6. See the exhibition catalogue La Patria Porttil: 100 Years of Mexican Chromo Art Calendars
(Mexico City: Asociacin Carso, 1999).



2. Jess Helguera, Gesto azteca, ca. 1961,

chromolithograph, 80 55.2 cm. Col.
Museo Soumaya. Photography: Javier
Hinojosa. Courtesy of, and reproduced with
permission from, Museo Soumaya.

films such as Enemigos (1933), La perla (1945), Un da de vida (1950), and Una
cita de amor (1956) all directed by Emilio Fernndez (with the exception of
Enemigos which was directed by Chano Urueta). Resorting to the use of the
chromolithographs and film still shots as sources (among others) for his
work, exemplifies a Mexican post-modernism that Cuban art historian
Gerardo Mosquera has described as defined by its incorporation of materials taken from art itself as a field external to the artistic act itself, that is, it
incorporates a dead art, an art which we look at in history; it also incorporates anti-art or pseudo-art, that is, art which belongs to other systems like
kitsch and the savage culture of our epoch.7
Confirming Mosqueras statement above, De la Garza explains how he
conceived Inocencia perdida :
I wanted to work on the theme of national heroes, to parody them, so I returned
to my childhood memories. I went to the Zcalo in search of those laminated illustrations that as a child one buys to learn about heroes and the flag; they have

7. Gerardo Mosquera, Bad Taste in Good Form, Social Text (Fall, 1986): 58.


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3. 1990 Calendar with artwork by Javier

de la Garza produced by the Galera omr
for Volkswagen de Mxico. Photography:
Teresa Eckmann.

a picture on the front and a historic description on the back. The funniest thing
is what it says on the back the official story that is ones primary school
education one that is basic, manipulated, and entertaining. I bought everything that I could find and returned to Paris. Cuauhtmoc was my first painting
[in the series].8

One is immediately struck by the monumentality of De la Garzas portrayal

of the young Aztec emperor Cuauhtmoc (fig. 4) who was defeated by
Corts in 1521. If this warrior were depicted full-length he would reach more
than ten feet in height. The scale alone of the work demands that the viewer
see it within the context of the legacy of Mexican Muralism. But absent
from De la Garzas work is any stylistic and formal resemblance to David

8. Quera trabajar sobre el tema de los hroes nacionales para parodiarlos, y regres a mis
recuerdos infantiles. Fui al Zcalo en busca de esas lminas que uno compra de nio para
aprender acerca de los hroes y la bandera; tienen una ilustracin en el frente y una descripcin histrica detrs. Lo ms chistoso es lo que all dice el retrato oficial para la enseanza
escolar en la primaria que es bsico, manipulado y entretenido. Compr todas las laminillas
que encontr y regres a Pars. Cuauhtmoc fue mi primer cuadro. Recorded interview, De la
Garza, July 22, 1998.



4. Javier de la Garza, La captura

de Cuauhtmoc, 1986, acrylic on canvas,
195 130 cm. Courtesy of the Galera omr.
Reproduced with permission from the artist.

Alfaro Siqueiross treatment of the same subject. We do not encounter in De

la Garzas painting the narratives, dynamism and violence, or the overt anticolonial message that we find in murals treating similar subject matter such
as Siqueiross Cuauhtmoc Against the Myth of 1944, or The Torment of
Cuauhtmoc of 1950. De la Garza recycles signs of the national in a contemporary context. The artist states, I was living in Paris when the idea came to
me to rework the concept of indigenism/Mexicanness but [in a way that
was] modern or up to date. They [the Aztec warriors] obviously had to
be well nourished and attractive, with the presence of a tangible eroticism.9
Here Cuauhtmoc more closely resembles a Las Vegas performer than a
typical depiction of the national hero. He stands in profile, erect, centrally
9. Viva en Pars cuando me vino la idea de retomar la idea de indigenismo-mexicanidad,
pero de una manera moderna o actualizada. Ellos [los guerreros aztecas] obviamente tenan
que estar bien alimentados y ser atractivos, con un erotismo tangible. Email correspondence
with De la Garza, August 28, 2002.


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placed, and framed by a panoramic landscape. Scantily draped from his

waist is a patriotic and diminutive covering the tri-color red, white, and
green Mexican national flag. On his head he wears a Roman-like helmet
with protruding feathers added again patriotically tri-colored the
shape of which is reminiscent of either a horses mane or a punk hairdo. His
lips are painted ruby red and his skin is golden brown. We are witnessing the
moment when, as De la Garza explains, the martyr says to Corts, Take
your dagger, open my veins, let me bleed, until I die, etcetera.10 Rather than
a familiar visual interpretation of the moment when the last Aztec emperor
was tortured with fire by Corts and the conquistadors as narrated in history
books and in visual art, De la Garza appears to have captured Cuauhtmoc
in an erotic encounter or in a melodramatic scene right out of a telenovela
(soap opera). The homoeroticism evoked by the sensuous image would,
acording to the artist, turn the head of even the biggest macho.11
De la Garzas Inocencia perdida embodies a camp sensibility. In her brilliant essay defining the parameters of camp Susan Sontag states, the
essence of Camp is its love of the unnatural: of artifice and exaggeration it
is something of a private code, a badge of identity a sensibility that,
among other things, converts the serious into the frivolous12 She goes on
to say, For Camp art is often decorative art, emphasizing texture, sensuous
surface, and style at the expense of content.13 Camp succeeds when it results
in enjoyment for the viewer, when it reeks of self-love, and when it
achieves the expression of a failed seriousness. De la Garzas work evokes a
few additional key aspects of camp that are noted by Sontag in her essay:
camp is playful, extravagant, theatrical, and more ironic than tragic. In camp,
the past is viewed with sentimentality. At the core of camp lies a love of human nature. Camp delights even in its vulgarity.
Soando en la venida (Dreaming of the Coming, fig. 5) presents a robust
Indian king, perhaps the poet Nezahualcyotl who ruled Texcoco during the
fifteenth century, as he envisions the future arrival of the Spaniards. The sky
10. The quote Toma tu pual, breme las venas, djame sangrar, hasta que me muera
etc. [no quiero la vida, si he de verte ajena, que sin tu cario, no vale la pena], lyrics from a
popular song are written in the artists own hand on the back of the canvas.
11. hara volver la cabeza incluso al ms macho! Recorded interview, De la Garza, July
22, 1998.
12. Susan Sontag, Notes on Camp, pp. 275-292.
13. Idem.



5. Javier de la Garza, Soando en la venida,

1987, acrylic on canvas, 195.5 140 cm.
Reproduced with permission from the artist.

transforms into the ocean upon which a ghostly ship approaches. Bare chested, wrapped in a royal blue loincloth with fabric folds that are sumptuously
painted, wearing a crown with a quetzal plume, lit with a golden aura, with
his fists ever so slightly clenched at his sides, the king gazes at the future
both with apprehension and determination. He presents the perfect picture
of male virility. The nopal behind him is a sign of his homeland. The doves
and the roses add a further note of romantic kitsch to the scene. In perfect
post-modern form, the artist has appropriated Anhuac (fig. 6), an image
painted in 1910 by Jorge Enciso that diverged from the European-influenced
artwork of that time. In his own words Enciso described the work as a big
Indian two meters high. It shocked people accustomed to musqueteers and
odalisques.14 Encisos indigenous male represents a renewed nationalism. He
embodies both sacrifice (his outstretched arms evoke the crucifixion) and triumph in his stance. De la Garza plunders the imagery of the past to address
14. Oral communication between Jean Charlot and Jorge Enciso on November 1, 1945.
Cited with permission from John P. Charlot.


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6. Jorge Enciso, Anhuac, 1910. Illustration

from Mexican Art and the Academy of San
Carlos, 1785-1915 (Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1962). Used with permission from the
Jean Charlot Estate LLC.

the exploitation of culture in the present. He explains: I am interested in

the image, the icon, and the message; that is what my work is based in
manipulation, displacement through criticism, the commonplace, and the
distribution of exhausted images.15
De la Garza drew further critical inspiration for Inocencia perdida from a
series of at least twelve photographs produced for the 1986 World Cup soccer
games by celebrated North American portrait photographer Annie Leibovitz
that were widely distributed under the logo Mexico86. De la Garza comments that at the time that he was working on Inocencia perdida, these
images [of Leibovitz] appeared all over the place [as billboards, and as photographs exhibited at the Centro Cultural Arte Contemporneo] and were
even passed as commercials on television (figs. 9, 1o, 12).16 Leibovitz creates a
15. Estoy interesado en la imagen, el icono y el mensaje. En eso se basa mi trabajo; la manipulacin, el desplazamiento en la crtica, el lugar comn y la distribucin de imgenes gastadas. Recorded interview, De la Garza, July 22, 1998.
16. [Efectivamente, lo que mencionas de Leibovitz, esos cuadros fueron hechos al tiempo
que] esas imgenes aparecan por todos lados. Email correspondence with Javier de la Garza,
August 28, 2002. In a conversation with the author on September 4, 2004, Gerardo Suter
mentioned that the Mexico86 series were essentially still-shots of the television commercials.



timeless choreography with a bronzed athlete and a soccer ball posed against
the stunning backdrops of architectural ruins at Tula and Chichn Itz. Her
images strive to affirm that Mexico has carried from the past into the present
the agility, simplicity, and strength of an ancient people and civilization. We
are presented with a paradox: Leibovitz, a prominent artist who is known for
having captured some of the most intimately sensual images of Hollywood
America (John Lennon and Yoko Ono in bed, or a pregnant, nude Demi
Moore, for example) is hired by corporate Mexico to construct an image of
the national that meets foreign, or First World, expectations.
The Mexico86 series shares an affinity with photographs by Argentineborn, Mexican resident Gerardo Suter from the series El archivo fotogrfico
del profesor Retus (The Photographic Archive of Professor Retus) of 1985.
Several of these photographs of pre-Hispanic monuments were exhibited in
17 Artistas de hoy en Mxico.17 In subsequent exhibitions, Suter presented the
series as if they were snapshots taken in the 1930s by a fictional archeologist, Professor Retus (Suter spelled backwards) that were found in a suitcase among the ruins of the September 19, 1985 earthquake. Suters intention
behind a work such as Tolln 14 (fig. 7) was not to glorify the past, but in
fact, to deride the foreigners taste for the exotic. According to the artist, this
intention backfired as ensuing series of ritualized, staged photographs, particularly De esta tierra, del cielo y los infiernos (Of This Earth, Heaven, and
Hell), exquisitely textured images of nudes with masks representing various
pre-Hispanic gods, were read and marketed within the primitivist/exotic discourse. Of further interest is that Suter was invited to submit a proposal to
Televisa for the World Cup Soccer promotional imagery. Although Suter was
not selected for the job, his proposal was similar to what Leibovitz eventually
Does Leibovitz parody and consciously exploit concepts of mexicanidad,
exoticism, the glorification of the sports industry, and the use of culture for
commerce, or does she simply represent and advance such practices? Part of
the effectiveness of the work is the tenuous line that it walks between sobriety and camp. De la Garza states that they [Leibovitzs Mexico86 series] were
useful, among other things, as a platform to talk about idealized and ficti-

17. 17 Artistas de hoy en Mxico (Mexico City: Museo Rufino Tamayo, 1985).
18. Conversation with Gerardo Suter on September 4, 2004, Cuernavaca, Morelos.


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7. Gerardo Suter, Tolln 14,

1984, manipulated gelatin silver print, 15 15 cm. Reproduced with permission from
the artist.

tious images that are inspired by foreign stereotypes of beauty.19 De la

Garza views Leibovitzs series as that of a foreigner imposing false ideals on
the discourse of Mexican identity. In response, he chooses to use the same
elements as Leibovitz as a platform for staging a parody; in other words, he
picks up the ball and runs with it.
La raza de bronce (The Bronze Race, fig. 8) for example, can be compared
with one photograph in particular (fig. 9) from the Mexico86 series. The title
of De la Garzas painting is a direct reference to La raza csmica, the now
classic and highly criticized work (for its undercurrent of white-supremacist
attitudes) by intellectual Jos Vasconcelos that was published in 1925. De la
Garza states with disgust, Vasconcelos concludes his history of Mexico by
saying that the best thing that could have happened is that they [the
Spaniards] conquered us. I said What? [For me] that means that each person can make [history] out to be what they want it to be.20 With La raza de
19. Lo cual me sirvi como plataforma (entre otras cosas) para hablar de la idealizacin-ficcin de las imgenes inspiradas en estereotipos de belleza extranjeros. Email correspondence
with De la Garza, August 28, 2002.
20. Vasconcelos concluye su historia de Mxico diciendo que lo mejor que nos pudo haber



8. Javier de la Garza, La raza de bronce,

acrylic on canvas, 136 95 cm. Courtesy
of the Galera omr. Reproduced with
permission from the artist.

bronce the artist presents a frontal figure the mestizo archetype of the
Bronze Race. The solid mass of muscle is a cross between California governor, actor, and bodybuilder Arnold Schwarzenegger and the Hulk. His body
literally appears cast in bluish-black bronze with a gold and rosa mexicano
(fluorescent pink) patina; the multiple colors serve as a metaphor for his
hbrid nature. Posing his subject against a gold leaf background and enclosing
him in a thick frame of fake leopard skin, De la Garza challenges Vasconcelos,
makes explicit Leibovitzs subtext, and turns her glamour shot into a pin-up,
and good form into bad taste.
Leibovitzs photograph is a classic portrait of the human figure placed in
relation to the land; the contours of the athletes bare, muscular back are
echoed in the contours of the mountains. The work could even be seen as
universalist if but for the logo locating the landscape in the geographical region of Mexico. A relationship between the contemporary athlete and the
pre-Columbian ball player is evoked, but not overtly stated. Here soccer reppasado fue que [los espaoles] nos conquistaran. Yo dije What? Esto significa que cada persona puede hacer historia para convertirla en lo que quiere que sea. Recorded interview, De
la Garza, July 22, 1998.


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9. Annie Leibovitz, Mexico86, 1986. Courtesy

of, and reproduced with permission from,
Contact Press Images, New York. Annie
Leibovitz (Contact Press Images).

10. Annie Leibovitz, Mexico86, 1986. Courtesy of, and reproduced with permission
from, Contact Press Images, New York.
Annie Leibovitz (Contact Press Images).

resents the future of Mexican modernity as the nation draws its strength
from its rich cultural roots. A sense of continuity of the past with the present
is implicit in Leibovitzs photographs (one is surprised that the pri logo is
absent). Conquering the opponents, winning the World Cup, and attaining
freedom from Third World status are imminent. Both De la Garza and
Leibovitz affirm Mexicos enduring strength, solidity, permanence, and invincibility, albeit with either overt or subtle sarcasm. Or do they? De la
Garza explains his intentions:
Nationalism is completely a way of manipulating masses. Why the Indians? Why
this frontal and direct manner of representing them? This comes from publicity
such as the Calvin Klein ads of the United States that are so influential. It comes
from totalitarian art, from propaganda. Upon analyzing this, what I realized is
that I too like to manipulate things in the most direct way. Homoeroticism is so
powerful in Italian work. Virility too is both negated and pursued. Sex is one of
the most effective ways of manipulating, of directing, and of distracting its
propaganda. My work comes from there.21
21. El nacionalismo es totalmente una forma de manipular masas. Por qu los indios? Por
qu esa representacin tan frontal y tan directa? Eso viene de la publicidad, como, por ejemplo, de esas imgenes de Calvin Klein de Estados Unidos que tienen una influencia muy
fuerte. Viene del arte totalitario, de la propaganda. Empiezas a analizar esto y te das cuenta de



De la Garza combines the illusion of a fabricated past with the illusion of a

false present. He is one of those contemporary artists who, to use a phrase of
Carlos Monsivis, takes a stance in opposition to the myth of progress.22
Or more precisely, De la Garza paints as a proponent of what has been called
by Mexican anthropologist Roger Bartra desmodernismo chaos mixed
with continuing aspirations for an unachieved modernity.23 Expressing this
attitude to art critic Anglica Abelleyra during the exhibition of Inocencia
perdida, De la Garza stated:
With my Indians I speak of a country that has been invented, that country that
we have learned about by way of the false history that they taught us in school:
the idealization of something that could have been and was not [I] got caught
up in the indigenous theme and this completely fictitious story that we know of
them; [to acknowledge the discrepancy between false history and contemporary
reality] we need only to look at how they [indigenous peoples] are being utilized
as a tourist image and how they have changed their ways of living faced with the
foreigners presence.24

In retrospect a decade later, De la Garza echoes these sentiments of disenchantment as he states:

que lo que te gusta es manipular tambin de la forma ms directa. El homoerotismo es tan

fuerte en la obra italiana, la virilidad es tambin a la vez negada y perseguida. El sexo es una
de las cosas ms efectivas para manipular, para dirigir, para distraer, es propaganda. Mi trabajo
de ah viene. Idem.
22. Carlos Monsivis, Perspectives on the Arts of Mexico, p. 27.
23. For more on desmodernismo see Roger Bartra, The Cage of Melancholy: Identity and
Metamorphosis in the Mexican Character (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987),
p. 9, no. 19, and Claudio Lomnitz, Deep Mexico Silent Mexico: An Anthropology on Nationalism
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), p. 110.
24. Con mis indgenas hablo de un pas inventado, el pas que hemos aprendido a travs de
la falsa historia que nos ensearon en la escuela: la idealizacin de algo que podra haber sido
y no fue [M]e met a la onda indgena y a esa historia totalmente ficticia que sabemos de
ellos. Nada ms hay que ponernos a ver cmo estn siendo utilizados como imagen turstica y
han cambiado sus costumbres para poder vivir frente al personaje extranjero. Anglica
Abelleyra, Lejos de Mxico comprend la vida indgena: De la Garza, La Jornada (March 2,
1987), p. 37.


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All of us knew the falsity of Salinass discourse. Many of us believed even
though at heart we knew what the whole world knew that it was false. One
day we awoke with the First World. You went out and shopped. Every brand
arrived from every place: Calvin Klein, Armani, etc. Mexicans no longer had to
go to Houston. And then all of a sudden you are confronted with reality. My
work speaks of that of that fiction, that atmosphere.25

De la Garza painted a series of Chac Mool figures in 1992 to protest the commercialization of culture and the widespread employment of the Chac Mool
sculpture(s) as poster boys for the Mexican tourist industry. They are so exploited, he states. What more can one say [today] than Chac Mool equals
Cancn (where the artist in actuality resided temporarily while painting the
series).26 How are we to read Liebovitzs Chac Mool from the Mexico86 (fig.
10) series? By placing a soccer ball on the sculptures belly as a sacrificial offering, does Leibovitz match De la Garzas irreverence and affirm that the Chac
Mool is a clich, an overused sign of Mexican identity? And is Leibovitz then
serving up this trophy as a new sign of identity and a symbol of progress? Is
she literally equating modern day soccer with the pre-Columbian legacy and
cultural patrimony? Or does Leibovitz, like De la Garza in his work Eco in
Mxico (1986) (fig. 11), in which tortillas are transformed into soccer balls,
state the obvious: that soccer, like the Chac Mool figure, has become a contemporary cultural clich within the popular language of Mexican nationalism propagated by the media? Leibovitz at once achieves a balance of ambiguity and directness with this highly provocative image.
The athlete presented in another work from the Mexico86 series (fig. 12)
could qualify for Supermans job description: able to leap over tall buildings
in a single bound. Likely it is to this specific image that art historian Luis
Carlos Emerich refers when stating that in the Mexico86 series Leibovitz

25. Todos sabamos que era falso lo que deca Salinas. Como mucha gente creamos,
aunque en el fondo sabamos lo que todo el mundo saba, que era falso. Un da amanecimos
con el primer mundo. T salas y comprabas. Llegaron todas las firmas de todos lados:
Calvin Klein, Armani. Ya no tenan que salir los mexicanos a Houston a comprar. De repente
te enfrentas con la realidad. Mi obra habla de eso, de esa ficcin, de ese ambiente. Recorded
interview, De la Garza, July 22, 1998.
26. Son tan explotadas. [Por eso pint todos los chacmoles, con esta idea de pintar la imagen] Qu ms se puede decir que Chacmoles=Cancn? Idem.



12. Annie Leibovitz, Mexico86, 1986. Courtesy of, and reproduced with permission
from, Contact Press Images, New York.
Annie Leibovitz (Contact Press Images).
11. Javier de la Garza, Echo en Mxico, 1986,
acrylic on paper, 171 150 cm. Courtesy of
the Galera omr. Reproduced with permission from the artist.

characterized the indigenous culture as choreographed by Busby Berkeley.27

(Incidentally, in her essay Notes on Camp Susan Sontag mentions this famous choreographer of Warner Brothers movie musicals of the 1930s and
1940s as one of the masters of camp).28 Here the athlete propels himself
through space with a gran jet as the Castillo at Chichn Itz towers in the
distance. Ever so subtly, as if Chac Mool had come to life, the butterfly pectoral, a pre-Columbian symbol that is associated with transformation, sacrifice, movement, and the souls of dead warriors, is emblazoned in white light
on the leaping athletes chest.
Like Leibovitz, De la Garza combines understatement with dramatic exaggeration. Another source of inspiration for the Inocencia perdida series are
photographs of blue-eyed bodybuilders posing on the California beaches
27. Luis Carlos Emerich, Figuros y desfiguros de los ochenta: pintura mexicana joven (Mexico
City: Diana, 1989), p. 76. It was this brief comment by Emerich, for which I am grateful, that
led me to research the Leibovitz Mexico86 series. (Leibovitz, que, en los afiches del Mundial de
futbol celebrado en Mxico, caracteriz la cultura indgena como coreografiada por Busby
28. Sontag, Notes on Camp, p. 282.


teresa eckmann

13. Javier de la Garza, Al ataque mis valientes,

1986, acrylic on canvas, 193 140 cm. Courtesy of the Galera omr. Reproduced with
permission from the artist.

that the artist pulled from gay muscle magazines.29 In the flamboyant Al
ataque mis valientes (To the Attack My Valiant Ones, fig. 13) for example, an
Aztec warrior strikes a typical body-builder pose while riding a hobbyhorse
(a toy associated with the Spaniards) and wearing chanclas (plastic sandals)
on his feet. Nopales and maguey plants surround him as signs of the national and he sports an outrageous red, white, and green feather headdress.
Furthermore, here De la Garza has mimicked the pose of the El valiente
(The Valiant) character from the lotera card game. Preparando el ataque
(Preparing the Attack, fig. 14) is a companion piece to Al ataque mis valientes
that incorporates the same jewel tones, idealized landscape, and overt homoeroticism. Here red curtains are drawn back to display a buff, tanned warrior
who, with utter seriousness and excessive strength, grasps a plunger for a
weapon. Slvese el que pueda (Save Yourself If You Can, fig. 15), like La raza
de bronce, confronts the viewer head on. It is a painting about indigenous resistance, as well as isolation and vulnerability. Pinned against the forces of
colonialism and modernity, the lone Indian stands as a metaphor for an
29. Recorded interview, De la Garza, July 22, 1998.



14. Javier de la Garza, Preparando

el ataque, 1986, acrylic on canvas,
193 138 cm. Pictured:
Preparator Ignacio de la O
at the Galera omr. Photography:
Teresa Eckmann.

empty threat. Intentionally undermining the sobriety of the message, De la

Garza frames this martyr in leopard skin and jaguar spots, again making the
subtext of exoticism clear.
The clever and heavy-handed employment of fake zebra, leopard, and
calf skin, as well as black velvet, to frame the paintings exhibited in Inocencia
perdida, succeeds in putting them over the top. The work can easily be labeled as cursi (tacky and vulgar) or what is referred to in Chicano culture as
rascuache. As Toms Ybarra-Frausto explains, To be rascuache is to posit a
bawdy, spunky consciousness, to seek to subvert and turn ruling paradigms
upside down. It is a witty, irreverent, and impertinent posture that recodes
and moves outside established boundaries.30 With Inocencia perdida De la
30. Toms Ybarra-Frausto, Rasquachismo: A Chicano Sensibility in CARA: Chicano Art:
Resistance and Affirmation 1965-1995, Richard Griswold de Castillo, Teresa Mckenna and Yvonne
Yarbro-Bejerano (Los Angeles: Wight Art Gallery, University of California, 1991), p. 155.


teresa eckmann

15. Javier de la Garza, Slvese el que pueda,

1986, acrylic on canvas, 198 150 cm. Courtesy Galera omr. Reproduced with permission from the artist.

Garza proves himself to be a connoisseur of rascuachismo. However, his

rasquache approach is neither specifically from a working class position or
an underdog perspective, nor about them. In questioning and challenging
concepts of identity his own as a Spanish-descended, middle-class, fairskinned, non-heterosexual Mexican, as well as stereotypes propagated
through mass media his response is to invent it [representations of identity] starting from [what is already invented] from the nationalisms in order
to say Its not what it is, but what one wants to believe it to be.31 To underscore the level of hypocrisy and artifice that he sees present in fixed concepts
of mexicanidad, De la Garza bitingly concludes, The middle-class way of
feeling that they are different by rejecting everything that smells like
Indian is very Mexican.32 It is this level of hypocrisy in the construction
of mexicanidad that De la Garzas Inocencia perdida confronts through parody.

31. Inventarse desde los nacionalismos, como para decir, no es lo que es, sino lo que se
quiera creer que es . Email correspondence with De la Garza, August 28, 2002.
32. Muy mexicana tambin es la actitud de esa clase media de sentirse diferente, por rechazar todo lo que huele a indio. Recorded interview, De la Garza, July 22, 1998.



16. Installation by Javier de la Garza for the exhibition Si

Coln supiera, Museo de Monterrey, 1992. Courtesy of
Javier de la Garza. Photography: the artist.

In 1992, for the Quincentennial celebration of the encounter of the two
worlds, an exhibition curated by Olivier Debroise and Rina Epelstein
opened at the Museo de Monterrey. Audiences expecting a heavy dose of
irony from the exhibition, titled Si Coln supiera (If Columbus Only Knew),
were not disappointed. Javier de la Garzas installation Eucarista (Eucharist)
consisted of a room filled waist-high with thousands of metallic red balloons
in the shape of hearts, disposable paper plates painted with images of the
codices covered the walls, and the floor was painted blood red (fig. 16).
The centerpiece of the installation was a six-foot wide cake in the form of a
Chac Mool that had a red-colored filling. It was the artists intention that
each person attending the reception would, in an orderly fashion, eventually
have a slice of cake and take a balloon home with them. What happened
was amazing, De la Garza recounts. The people went crazy the old
ladies, the children, [businessmen], everybody. Crazed, they burst the balloons, threw chunks of cake a true free-for-all. Things got out of control.
I was yelling to contain the crowd. Frightened, I was screaming mexicas! It
was a real orgy.33 Art historian Cuauhtmoc Medina, who was present at the
33. La gente se volvi loca, las viejitas, los nios, todos, enloquecidos, reventaban los glo-


teresa eckmann

opening reception, witnessed the gruesome incident. Recounting a slightly

different version of the finale, he points out that, ironically, what De la
Garza was actually yelling at the hysteric crowd was chichimecas! (barbarians!). Medina laughs, They wanted to build a pyramid, and what they actually got was the massacre of Cholula.34

The Conquest
We [Mexicans] have been very tolerant towards many things
towards American culture and towards European culture
and we have survived. Despite everything, we have an identity.
Alejandro Arango35

Arango affirms that his work is not divorced from the challenging contemporary reality in which he lives. In 1984, he observed that, at that time, art
filled a need for Mexicans to expel our anxieties, frustrations, and insecurities, and that an expressionist style of painting was the most suitable way
of representing the crises of the individual, the country, and the world.36 In
Arangos exhibition La conquista, the Conquest serves both as the pretext for
creating art, and the means, not of elevating the great Mexican historical
myth, but of questioning and undermining it. He explains that a sense of
disillusion similar to De la Garzas motivated his series on the Conquest:
Unconsciously I realize that the history of Mexico is super-invented, manipulated, and has always been part lie and part reality. One cannot help but turn a little, not cynical, but rather, ironic. From the time of childhood they tout
bos, arrancaban pedazos de pastel una verdadera refriega. Las cosas se salieron de control.
Yo trataba de contener a la multitud. Asustado, gritaba: mexicas! Fue una verdadera orga.
Email correspondence with De la Garza, August 8, 2004.
34. Conversation with Cuauhtmoc Medina in Albuquerque, New Mexico, August 11, 2004.
35. Los mexicanos hemos sido muy tolerantes hacia muchas cosas hacia la cultura estadounidense y hacia la cultura europea; sin embargo, hemos sobrevivido. A pesar de todo,
tenemos una identidad. Recorded interview with Alejandro Arango in his studio in Mexico
City, January 15, 1998.
36. Mara Antonieta Barragn, Pinta Alejandro Arango las situaciones cotidianas, con personajes grotescos, y refleja sus conflictos, Unomsuno (July 8, 1984), p. 18.



[Benito] Jurez as a great man, that Cuauhtmoc was the great Mexican hero,
and that the Spaniards were villains. As a child they bombard you with such
things to the point that you parrot that the Spaniards are the bad guys and the
Mexicans are the good guys. That is the way they frame it. Then you grow up
and you realize that all of this is a total lie. You realize that they manipulated
Cuauhtmoc, that they manipulated Corts, and that [they manipulated] all of
it in order to, in my opinion, create a cleaner and more sovereign patria.37

While the fresco mural Corts y la Malinche painted by Jos Clemente Orozco
at the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria in 1926 serves as an obvious reference
point for several paintings in La conquista, Arangos intentions, like De la
Garzas, are to play off, rather than to replicate the nationalist visual vocabulary
of his predecessors. The artist expands on Orozcos non-idealized portrayals of
Hernn Corts and Malinche as they hold the center-stage in La conquista.
Arangos depiction of the primordial couple is a surprising one. They are cartoonesque, limp, amorphous beings that have been haphazardly conjoined as if
they were the unwitting victims of an irresistible magnetic force.
In La mordida de Malinche (Malinches Bite, fig. 17) Corts and Malinche
are entangled to the point of resembling a single, two-headed individual.
Moreover, they even appear to represent the body of the nation as if from far
above the viewer were looking down at the topographical patterns and
shapes of the Mexican coastline where the ocean meets terrain. Green hues
evoking feelings of envy run from Malinches face through Cortss body as
she literally bites him on the upper arm. A mixture of anger, passion, and
lust is expressed in the red blush of Cortss face as the conquistador swoons.
The artist comments, It is an erotic image. One realizes that the Indian
woman has a very special eroticism; she has a spiritual harmony that is inde37. Inconscientemente me doy cuenta de que la historia de Mxico est sper inventada,
manipulada, y siempre ha sido en parte mentira y en parte realidad. Uno no puede evitar volverse un poquito no cnico, sino ms bien irnico. Desde la infancia ellos te ofrecen a
Jurez como un gran hombre; te dicen que Cuauhtmoc fue el gran hroe mexicano y que los
espaoles fueron unos villanos. Cuando eres nio te bombardean con tales cosas hasta el punto de que repites como loro que los espaoles son los malos y los mexicanos los buenos: sta es
la manera en que los encasillan. Cuando creces te das cuenta de que todo esto es una mentira
total. Te das cuenta de que manipularon a Cuauhtmoc, que manipularon a Corts, todo ello
con el fin de, en mi opinin, inventar una patria ms limpia y soberana. Recorded interview,
Alejandro Arango, January 15, 1998.


teresa eckmann

17. Alejandro Arango, La mordida de Malinche, 1986, oil on canvas, 120 120 cm. Courtesy of the Galera omr. Reproduced with
permission from the artist.

18. Alejandro Arango, Malinche en su lecho de

rosas, 1986, oil on canvas, 145 145 cm. Courtesy of, and reproduced with permission from
the artist.

pendent from the European. Here she is biting the Spaniard the European
in every aspect.38 A mordida (bite) in the Spanish language presents a double entendre in that the word is commonly used in reference to a bribe.
While the image engages with humor, La mordida de Malinche nonetheless
appears to participate in the malinchista discourse of portraying Malinche as
a femme fatale, who bewitches Corts with her powers of persuasion.
In another painting, Malinche en su lecho de rosas (Malinche in her Bed of
Roses, fig. 18), however, Malinche is far from depicted as a seductive figure
in any traditional sense; in fact, she appears as a rather unattractive crone.
This work, referred to by the artist as an ofrenda, an offering or petition to
the gods generally for the souls of ones dead ancestors (in this case, an offering to Corts and the Spaniards) provides yet another example of Arangos
departure from conventional iconography. Here we have no sign beyond the
paintings title that places it within the context of the Conquest. Malinche
lies on a bed of flowers, basking in the sun, while a bearded face in profile
38. Es una imagen ertica. Se da cuenta uno de que la mujer indgena tiene un erotismo
muy especial. Una indgena posee una armona espiritual muy independiente del europeo.
Aqu le est dando la mordida al espaol, al europeo en todos los aspectos. Idem.



gazes down at her from above, and two abstracted armored gloves reach out
to her. Today this work hangs in the lobby of a bank in Monterrey where,
as the artist recounts, by chance he encountered it one day, much to his
Arangos subjects appear to be incapacitated or suspended in a state of
folly and awkwardness. For example, in the disturbing image La tentacin de
Corts (The Temptation of Corts, fig. 19) the dreamy conquistador, decked
out in armor, stands in profile, either fantasizing about, or impervious to,
the scene that occurs behind him. The lifeless, nude female figure dangling
in the background evokes the horrific images of human hangings so
poignantly depicted by Mexican artist Francisco Goitia (1882-1960) during
the Mexican Revolution. A snake coils around her midriff while the head of
a masked indigenous figure floats by. In reference to another painting, the
artist states that the snake does not represent evil, but is, along with the
eagle, a sign of the patria, the father/motherland. Nonetheless, the title of
the work directs the viewer to associate the nude female with both Malinche,
and the biblical Eve, who, in plucking the forbidden fruit, caused her own
and Adams expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Summoned here is an element of the malinchista discourse where Malinche becomes a source of
blame for the downfall of the Aztec Empire.40
Arangos interpretation of the relationship between Corts and Malinche
is not, however, one-dimensional. In Corts y la Malinche (fig. 20) the artist
plays with role reversals making Corts out to be the tempter who is a slave
to his sexual desires. Here we find the naked conquistador, his corpulent,
flaccid body painted a shocking pink color, intent on seducing Malinche
whose form is that of an amputated stone idol, perhaps a fertility goddess.
Arango deflates the myth of the patriarch by ridiculing him, while Malinche,
portrayed as a fetish, fares no better. Moreover, that Cortss form, like the
majority of Arangos personages, lacks skeletal support, imbues this nonetheless overbearing figure with a sense of impotency. Arango appears to curtail
Cortss role as father of the mestizo nation. The sleeping Chagallian figure
that floats overhead adds a dream-like quality to the scene; mirroring the
spatial composition of the landscape in the upper register of Jos Clemente
39. Recorded interview with Arango in his studio in Mexico City, October 25, 2001.
40. See for example Sons of La Malinche in Octavio Pazs Labyrinth of Solitude (New
York: Grove, 1985), pp. 65-88.


teresa eckmann

19. Alejandro Arango, La tentacin de Corts,

1986, oil on canvas, 170 140 cm. Reproduced with permission from the artist.

20. Alejandro Arango, Corts y la Malinche,

1986, oil on canvas, 170 140 cm. Courtesy
of the Galera omr. Reproduced with permission from the artist.

Orozcos Corts y la Malinche (1926), the figure stands in as a metaphor for

the volcanoes Iztacchuatl and Popocatpetl. Arangos depiction of Cortss
weakness differs dramatically from Orozcos portrayal of Corts as an invincible, robotic, steel, fighting machine in the northern nave fresco painting of
the Hospicio Cabaas in Guadalajara in the late 1930s.
In Lucha de poderes (Power Struggle, fig. 21) Arango has created a composition of large, voluptuous shapes accented by areas of pattern and rhythm.
Here, once again, the artist uses as a reference point the relationship between
the conquistador and Malinche that was interpreted as one of tension and
ambiguity by Orozco in Corts y la Malinche (1926); Arango echoes the simultaneous attraction and resistance, and the shyness and distrust present
between the two lovers. A nopal cactus, another sign of the patria, grows between them.
La batalla (The Battle, fig. 22) is a peculiar mating dance of averted gazes
and misguided arrows. The scene describes the resulting chaos from the
clashing forces of attraction. The Spaniard came with the idea of pillaging
money or of conquering land. They were given Indian women, a sexual act


21. Alejandro Arango, Lucha de poderes, 1986,

oil on canvas, 150 150 cm. Courtesy of the
Galera omr. Reproduced with permission
from the artist.


22. Alejandro Arango, La batalla, 1986, oil on

canvas, 160 200 cm. Courtesy of, and reproduced with the permision of the Galera omr.

took place, and mestizaje emerged Unawares, they created a race, states
the artist.41 This sense of blunder and ineptitude pervades La conquista.
Post-Pop Pastiche
If the previous generation of visual artists struggled in opposition to muralism, it is illogical to once again fall into wanting at all cost to be Mexican. One shouldnt pigeonhole, or
be commonplace, as in [the act of ] painting a nopal, for the
sole reason of including something that is ours on the canvas. Following international art, without abandoning the
support of ones own culture, is more interesting.
Alejandro Arango42

Arango, like De la Garza, turns to several sources and influences for his work
while maintaining a stylistically unified look overall. This potpourri of
41. El espaol vino con la idea de obtener dinero o conquistar tierras. Sin embargo, cuando
le dieron mujeres indgenas se realiz un acto sexual y emergi el mestizaje Sin darse cuenta, crearon una raza. Recorded interview, Arango, January 15, 1998.
42. Si la generacin pasada de artistas plsticos luch contra el muralismo, no es lgico
volver a caer en querer ser mexicano a ultranza: no se debe uno encajonar y caer en lugares co-


teresa eckmann

23. Alejandro Arango, San Sebastin, 1986, oil

on canvas, 170 140 cm. Courtesy of the
Galera omr. Reproduced with permission
from the artist.

sources includes the pre-Columbian codices, the Mexican fotonovela, comic

books, television, cinema, the work of several international and national artists
of the twentieth century, and art movements such as Post-Impressionism
(i.e., Henri Matisse and Paul Gauguin) and Fauvism. The inclusion among
the paintings of conquistadors and Indian women in La conquista of a seemingly out of place, pierced Saint Sebastian wearing an Aztec mask (fig. 23)
exemplifies the artists eclecticism. Furthermore, Arangos compositions
emerge as he cuts out shapes from paper and assembles them in creating
what he calls a collage of images (fig. 24).43 Arango certainly embraces the
post-modern tendency of pastiche, of combining a variety of elements to
create a whole.
Formal qualities that Arango shares in common with several other
Mexican artists that worked within the so-called neo-Mexicanist tendency
include large scale, representational figuration, deliberate distortion and a
lack of modulation. We find in his work the fragmentation, eroticism, and
munes como pintar un nopal por el solo hecho de incluir algo nuestro en una tela. Es ms interesante seguir el arte internacional sin dejar de apoyarse en la cultura propia. Adriana
Moncada, El artista expone en la galera omr: Pintar madonnas me remite al amor maternal:
Alejandro Arango, Unomsuno (octubre 21, 1990): 23.
43. [Haca yo] un collage de imgenes. Recorded interview, Arango, October 25, 2001.



24. Alejandro Arango in his studio, Mexico City. Photography: Teresa Eckmann, October 25,

aggression common to neo-Mexicanist painting. And like his peers, he has

relied on religious themes (as in his Madonna series of 1990), events and figures from Mexican history, and urban culture, as pretexts or a basis for developing a body of work. Arango nonetheless diverges from the kind of hybrid
visual language produced by artists such as Roco Maldonado and Germn
Venegas where forms that refer to different historical epochs and cultures interact freely on the canvas.
This particular series of Arangos (La conquista) is more akin to De la
Garzas work as evidenced by their shared interest in blending overt Mexican
subject matter with the commercial slickness of a Pop art sensibility to critique what we could call consumer nationalism through parody and a
kitsch aesthetic. As Cuban art historian Gerardo Mosquera explains:
In contrast to Pop Art, which originated in a mass culture manufactured in series
by the specialists of modern industrial society [] and which used the productive features of advertising and consumerism for their plastic potential, postmod-


teresa eckmann
ernism seeks to recycle degraded and obsolete forms that have fallen to low status, proscribed by a good taste dictated by the avant-garde and rationalistic design [] It attempts to be high and popular at one and the same time, like a
double, dissociated personality that permits a simultaneous communication with
cultural elites and the masses.44

Arango and De la Garza have incorporated the lessons of Pop art into their
post-modern works. Arango is visibly attracted to the comics, electric color,
and the graffiti-like rhythmic repetition that motivated his contemporary
Keith Haring in the United States via such predecessors as Andy Warhol and
Roy Lichtenstein. Furthermore, he consistently incorporates an aura-like
outlining of his figures in his paintings that is a common device found in the
work of Cuban, Pop art-influenced artists, particularly Ral Martnez. De la
Garza at times has drawn more directly from Pop art as in Untitled of 1986
(fig. 25) where he presents a large-scale work that displays, not a Campbells
soup can, but an open can of chili peppers and carrots accompanied by a
cup of black coffee served on top of a garish table cloth an unremarkable,
ordinary scene that supposedly could be found in any typical Mexican
kitchen. In contrast to Pop art, De la Garzas work is not about the object,
but about its cultural context. Again, De la Garza satirically selects a stereotypical sign of mexicanidad, the chili pepper (canned by Del Monte food
company no less), as the focal point of this work.
De la Garza has also both painted on canvas, and sculpted the image of
contemporary performance artist Astrid Hadad, an icon of excessive mexicanidad in her own right. Known as the walking museum of popular cultures, Hadad has interpreted on stage, with the most outlandish props and
costumes, every conceivable cultural clich within the spectrum of signs of
Mexican identity.45 De la Garzas Llorar y suspirar (Cry and Sigh) of 1991,
which portrays Hadad as the archetype of the damsel in distress drowning in
an ocean of tears, was featured on the front cover of the art magazine
Polister (fig. 26). De la Garza takes his version of post-modern Pop to the
limits of nostalgia in excess.
Arangos work throughout his career has been eclectic; the Mexicanist
theme of the Conquest is more of an exception to the rule, than a measure of
44. Gerardo Mosquera, Bad Taste in Good Form, 56.
45. See www.worldmusicportal.com/Artists/Mexican/astrid_hadad.htm



25. Javier de la Garza, Sin ttulo, 1986, acrylic

on canvas, 175 150 cm. Reproduced with
permission from the artist.

the artists trajectory. He explains, When I examine the Conquest I dont

have to fill myself with the Conquest. When I was working on La conquista I was studying the Russian Revolution [] and I was listening to
Wagner or Impressionist music. This saves me from not constantly copying
Consistently painting in series, Arangos thematic choices reach beyond
what is considered specifically Mexican to include his interest in the Orient
and in world music as expressed in the bodies of work Los sueos japoneses
( Japanese Dreams), Vietnam, and Algo de jazz (Something of Jazz) created
between the late 1980s to mid-1990s. Furthermore, he places equal importance on an international and a national artistic inheritance. He states, as an
artist my inheritance is [Paul] Gauguin, my inheritance is [Henri] Matisse
and it is [Pablo] Piccasso they have all left a heritage.47 Arango also acknowledges the influence of Mexican artists Mara Izquierdo, Diego Rivera,
and Jos Clemente Orozco in his work. And yet, as Arango points out, his
palette reflects the color that is here in Mexico: the magentas, intense yellows, and cobalt blues.48 He makes no mention of artesana as a source of
46. Cuando examino la conquista, no me tengo que llenar de la conquista [] Cuando estaba trabajando sobre la serie de La conquista estaba estudiando la Revolucin Rusa [] y
estaba oyendo a Wagner, o msica impresionista. Eso me salv de no copiarme constantemente. Recorded interview, Arango, January 15, 1998.
47. Como pintor, mi herencia es Gauguin, mi herencia es Matisse, es Picasso. Todos ellos
han dejado una herencia. Recorded interview, Arango, October 25, 2001.
48. Como l mismo seala, su paleta refleja: el color que est aqu en Mxico: los magentas, los amarillos intensos, y los azules cobalto. Recorded interview, Arango, January 15, 1998.


teresa eckmann

26. Javier de la Garza, Llorar y suspirar (detail), 1991, featured on the cover of Poliester
Magazine, Mexico City, no. 1, Spring 1992.
Photography: Teresa Eckmann.

inspiration, but rather underscores an attraction to Pop art, film, fotonovela

comics, and caricature that are indeed visible in his artwork. Nonetheless,
more traditional media such as masks, lacquers, and the textiles of Guerrero
and Nayarit have been noted as likely influences in the artists work; Arango
agrees with the former observation, but extends that influence into the international realm by pointing to the religious objects of Bali and Singapore as
equally significant to him.49
Like De la Garza, Arango explores gender stereotypes and machismo. He
imbues Moctezuma and Corts, not with bravery and valor, but with apathy.
Additionally, he places the multi-racial aspect of mexicanidad at the foreground
of his work. Unlike De la Garza, he does not parody the seemingly contradictory aspect of mexicanidad expressed in the naco or malinchista aspiration to
whiteness, but rather paints the concept of mestizaje, as seen in the irreverent
and unexpected manner in which he applies color to his figures.50
49. Guillermo Santamarina, Alejandro Arango in Nuevos momentos del arte mexicano. New
Moments in Mexican Art, Patricia Ortiz Monasterio and Jaime Riestra (Madrid: Turner, 1990),
pp. 99-103 and recorded interview, Arango, January 15, 1998.
50. The term naco, allegedly a contraction of Totonaco, which was used up until the mid-



Placing these two artists work and exhibitions side by side provides one
more example of the stylistic diversity encountered within the neo-Mexicanist
current. De la Garza is an excellent draftsman. The sensual contours of his
Aztec warriors are painted with determined precision. He convincingly portrays the human anatomy with the rigorous exactitude of an academytrained artist. On a two-dimensional surface he can give life to a stone sculpture or make a mans body appear to be carved of stone. Arango, on the
other hand, is an expressionist painter whose figures defy idealism. His visual
language, like that of Ruptura artist Jos Luis Cuevas (b. 1934), is one of distortion rather than delineation. Uninterested in chiaroscuro, Arango values
caricature over an academic realism. He achieves a deliberate anti-classicism
in his work. He relies on outline, texture, and pattern as key aspects of his
stylistic vocabulary. De la Garzas figures of flesh and bone emerge from the
scrutinized play of light and shadow, on skin and surface.
Arangos work serves as fertile ground for considering some of the problematics and paradoxes of neo-Mexicanism. Is it simply folklore, or are there
deeper levels of meaning and analysis that can be drawn from this work?
Arangos painting, like what has been called neo-Mexicanist art on the
whole, risks being easily dismissed or categorized as decorative, fashionable,
and commercial. While it may well be considered all of the latter by some
artists and art critics alike, nonetheless, on closer examination we find layers
of irony, satire, perversion, and ambiguity, as argued in this analysis, that allows us to also view Arangos work, and neo-Mexicanist art in general, as

1970s as a slur against Indians who stood for provincial backwardness, in more recent refers to
a kitsch aesthetic of impurity and hybridity that emerges from a failed aspiration to modernity. See Claudio Lomnitz-Adlers discussion of the term naco in Deep Mexico, Silent Mexico,
pp. 111-114. De la Garza states that he turned to the images of blue-eyed, blonde California
body builders depicted in gay magazines as a source for his work specifically to address this
contradiction within the discourse of mexicanidad of upholding foreign models of beauty as
the national standard. Recorded interview, De la Garza, July 22, 1998.


teresa eckmann
The 80s become more conceptual, and more fat, and more
saturated, and contrived, and rich.
Annie Leibovitz51

Arango explains that between the Ruptura era of the 1960s and 1970s, and
his generation of artists of the 1980s, an opening occurred that allowed new
expressions in the visual arts:
We were allowed to make these criticisms which arent strong criticisms. It
wasnt an aggressive, exhausting criticism. It was something very light that had
more of an ironic charge than one of criticism. If I had done that in the 1960s or
1970s, there could have been a backlash from the government, the Instituto
Nacional de Bellas Artes (inba), or from many other institutions.52

He adds that the Ruptura artists such as Cuevas, Vicente Rojo, Alberto
Gironella, and Fernando Garca Ponce were really students of the European
schools of painting, especially Paris. It had been a simple matter of their
transferring Parisian culture to Mexico. When the generation of 1950s-born
artists emerged, we had a need to speak in Spanish, not in French. In the
1980s Mexican art became more agile and flexible. There was a need to remove all of these binds from Paris and the United States, he remarks.53
Nonetheless, as previously stated, Arangos work in terms of the design element, vibrancy, and love of rhythm and pattern, while not as schematic, is
stylistically reminiscent of North American artist Keith Harings work.
Commenting on this apparent paradox Arango reiterates: We painted in
51. Melvyn Bragg, Annie Leibovitz: Celebrity Photographer, video (Chicago: Home Vision
Arts, 1997).
52. Se nos permiti hacer esas crticas, que no son crticas fuertes. No era una crtica agresiva, exhaustiva. Era algo muy ligero, que llevaba una carga irnica ms que una crtica. Si yo lo
hubiera hecho en los aos sesenta o setenta, hubiera habido una retroaccin por parte del gobierno, del Instituto de Bellas Artes, o de muchas otras instituciones. Recorded interview,
Arango, January 15, 1998.
53. Cuando emergi la generacin de los artistas nacidos en los aos cincuenta, tenamos
necesidad de hablar en espaol, no en francs. En los ochenta se volvi ms gil y flexible
el arte en Mxico. Haba la necesidad de quitar todas esas ataduras de Pars y Estados
Unidos. Idem.



Spanish independently of whether we were influenced, or not, by other

countries which is a valid [observation] because we are not isolated. Even
if we dont want to be, we are also Western.54
Arango and De la Garza consider themselves to be predominantly self-taught
artists. De la Garza did enter la Academia de San Carlos in 1976, and Arango
studied at La Esmeralda in 1972. Both artists were marginally associated with
Los grupos in the late 1970s. De la Garza kept company with artists such as
Olivero Hinojosa and Ricardo Rocha of the Grupo Suma, while Arango participated in, and exhibited with Adolfo Patios Peyote y la compaa. They
both traveled outside of Mexico: De la Garza resided in Paris from 1981 to
1986, and Arango lived in Europe in 1975, and in New York in 1978. During
the 1980s they gained the patronage of the Televisa Corporation through
then-Director of the Museo Rufino Tamayo Robert Littman, and they were
among the select group of artists represented by the Galera omr.
In the early 1980s, Arango established a professional relationship with
Alberto Raurell, who preceded Littman for a brief time as the director of the
Museo Rufino Tamayo. Raurell had close ties to New York art dealers Leo
Castelli and Harry Solomon, as well as to William Lieberman, Director of
the Department of Art of the Twentieth Century at New York Citys
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Raurell facilitated Arangos participation in an
exchange program that North American artist Julian Schnabel instigated at
Project Studio One (PS1) in New York City where Arango exhibited alongside photographer Cindy Sherman in 1983.55 When Raurell brought the exhibition Homage to Henri Matisse from the New York Metropolitan Museum
to the Museo Rufino Tamayo in 1983, Arango was simultaneously featured
with an installation in the museums lobby where, in fact, his work initially
caught the attention of Patricia Ortiz Monasterio. When Raurell was mysteriously gunned down in El Sanborncito, a Mexico City caf in the Polanco
district, Televisa magnate Emilio Azcrraga hired Littman, then-Director of
the Grey Art Gallery at New York University to take Raurells place at the
Museo Rufino Tamayo. Littman continued to support Arango by acquiring
his work for the Fundacin Cultural Televisa collection and including it in
54. Pintamos en espaol independientemente de si tenemos influencias o no de otros
pases lo que es vlido, porque no estamos aislados. Y aunque no lo queramos, somos occidentales tambin. Idem.
55. Recorded interview, Arango, October 25, 2001.


teresa eckmann

27. Javier de la Garza. Installation view of 17 Artistas de hoy en Mxico, July 18-September 8,
1985, Museo Rufino Tamayo. Courtesy of, and reproduced with the permission of the
Galera omr.

exhibitions such as Pintura narrativa (1984) and 17 Artistas de hoy en Mxico

(1985) alongside emerging neo-Mexicanist work by De la Garza, Roco
Maldonado, Gerardo Suter, Germn Venegas, and others. Additionally, for
his homes in Hollywood, California and Mexico City, Azcrraga purchased
several of Arangos works from La conquista, Cctel, and Sueos japoneses series through the Galera omr.56
In contrast with their 1986 exhibitions on the Conquest, the work by
Arango and De la Garza included in 17 Artistas de hoy en Mxico lacks any
specifically Mexicanist content. Four large-scale portraits by De la Garza
were exhibited (fig. 27), of which Littman purchased at least one of the
paintings, Autorretrato con sombrero (Self-Portrait with Hat).57 Another
four paintings by Arango included in the exhibition were of a universal expressionist content (fig. 28). For example, Arangos Ver, or, callar (See, Hear,
56. Idem.
57. Letter from Patricia Ortiz Monasterio dated December 2, 1985 sent to Javier de la Garza
in Paris. Available in the artists file folder in the Galera omr archives.



28. Alejandro Arango. Installation view of 17 Artistas de hoy en Mxico, July 18-September
8, 1985, Museo Rufino Tamayo. Courtesy of, and reproduced with permission of the
Galera omr.

Silence, 1985) treated the sightings of Halleys Comet during that year, while
La nia que sac a pasear su ngel (The Girl Who Took Her Angel Out for a
Walk, 1984), a painting acquired the previous year by Raurell for the
Fundacin Cultural Televisa collection, is a psychological work about
the perils of childhood.
While 17 Artistas de hoy en Mxico was likely the first collective exhibition
that brought together artists working within the emerging neo-Mexicanist
current (preceding by nine months the Galera omrs exhibition Races populares del arte actual ), Arangos La conquista was the first individual painting
exhibition at the omr to present a body of work that would later be called
neo-Mexicanist. Subsequently, De la Garzas Inocencia perdida and several
other individual exhibitions of a specifically neo-Mexicanist painting style
by other omr-represented artists were presented at the gallery throughout
the mid-to-late 1980s.


teresa eckmann
A Wounded National Pride

Arango and De la Garzas exhibitions on the theme of the Conquest reached

beyond the strictly personal, to represent the general tone of an era. The disenchantment expressed by these two artists was echoed loudly by the
Mexican public when, at the opening celebrations of the World Cup soccer
tournament on May 31, 1986, an event that was televised around the globe,
President Miguel de la Madrid was greeted by the audience with an unprecedented chorus of boos.58 The artists were certainly not exempt from experiencing the moral and economic crises that the nation struggled with at the
time. In a letter dated December 2, 1985 from Patricia Ortiz Monasterio sent
to De la Garza in Paris, the gallery owner explains to the artist the difficulty
with the devaluation of the peso of maintaining the prices of his paintings in
U.S. dollars. She states that the $1 000 price that they had previously agreed
upon for his paintings, which had been the equivalent of $250 000.00 pesos
at that time, now equaled $540 000 pesos in other words, the value of the
peso had fallen more that fifty percent. She then asked him if he would
agree, for the time being, that his paintings be raised to the price of
$350,000.00 pesos a nonetheless nearly thirty percent cut in price for his
work. Ortiz Monasterio ends her letter with the plea, Consider that Mexico
is a country in crisis, that it is your country, that I believe you are interested
in having a presence here [through your work] and that the people here earn
pesos [not U.S. dollars] and moreover, not so many [pesos].59
Arango posits that neo-Mexicanist art unconsciously grew out of his generation of artists collective need for change during this era of crisis. An interior
revolution took place. It wasnt a declared revolution, but a revolution in that
new values were taking shape and the culture was being scrambled in the political and social arena. Maybe this motivated us to create that kind of work.60
58. See Andrea Dabrowski and Harry Kelly Dead Men Dont Pay Up, in Time ( June 23,
1986), p. 47.
59. Considera que Mxico es un pas en crisis, que es tu pas y creo te interesa tener una
presencia aqu, y que la gente aqu gana pesos, y adems no tantos. Letter from Patricia Ortiz
Monasterio to Javier de la Garza, December 2, 1985.
60. Hubo una revolucin interior. No fue una revolucin declarada, sino una revolucin
de nuevos valores que estaban tomando forma, y la cultura estaba siendo mezclada en la arena
poltica y social. Quizs eso nos motiv a crear ese tipo de obra. Recorded interview, Arango,
January 15, 1998.



By the early 1990s, interestingly, Arango claims that he fell out of favor
with the omr precisely because his work was not folkloric enough for the
gallerys needs. Arango relates that in 1990, when omr toured the United
States with the Parallel Project, he was expected to participate with paintings
of nopales, Indians, and little landscapes.61 De la Garzas experience with
the Parallel Project was equally distressing in that, ironically, his work was
used as advertising for then-President Carlos Salinas de Gortaris contemporaneous public relations project in the U.S.62 

61. [S, por ejemplo cuando yo estuve en Nueva York y present mi trabajo a una galera
(omr/Parallel Project), se esperaba que yo participara] con nopales, indios y paisajitos. Ibid.
62. See the special advertising section of the October 15, 1990 issue of Time Magazine where
De la Garzas painting Enemigos I (substituted with the title Mexican Delights) is used to
promote Mexican tourism and culture in conjunction with a photograph of, and statement
by, President Salinas de Gortari.