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Applied and Proposed Installations with Silent Disco
Headphones for Multi-Elemental Creative Expression
Russell Eric Dobda
Austin Silent Disco, Brain Wave Fitness
Guided Meditation Treks, ToasT
Austin, Texas



Silent discos broadcasting DJs and bands have been
mainstream since the early 21st century [3,5]. Bands such as
The Flaming Lips [9], Kid Koala [22], and our band, ToasT
[34] have implemented headphones in live concerts, using the
term “Headphone Concert” to describe the experience. Our
project, Austin Silent Disco [2] utilized headphones for a 2013
album release at the South by Southwest music conference for
an Australian band. At the event, attendees could only hear the
new album through the headphones, adding mystique. Theater
companies have also utilized headphones in theater productions
[17]. For mobile events like the Decentralized Dance Party [6],
a large battery takes the silent disco to the streets.

Breaking musical and creative expression into elements, layers,
and formulas, we explore how live listeners create unique sonic
experiences from a palette of these elements and their
interactions. Bringing us to present-day creative applications, a
social and historical overview of silent disco is presented. The
advantages of this active listening interface are outlined by the
author’s expressions requiring discrete elements, such as
binaural beats, 3D audio effects, and multiple live music acts in
the same space. Events and prototypes as well as hardware and
software proposals for live multi-listener manipulation of multielemental sound and music are presented. Examples in audio
production, sound healing, music composition, tempo phasing,
and spatial audio illustrate the applications.

Unlike normal speakers, headphones deliver discrete content to
each ear. This allows listeners to experience technologies such
as binaural beats. Binaural beats are a perceptive phenomenon
occurring when sine waves of differing frequencies are
presented to each ear. The difference of these waves is
perceived as a third “beating” frequency when the human brain
combines the two sounds. This “phantom frequency” of
binaural beats has been used for brainwave entrainment, which
is a process to guide a person’s brainwave frequencies to
desired states. Listening to binaural beats through headphones
has been shown to alter a listener’s biofeedback of brainwave
patterns [12,29]. Brainwave entrainment has shown great
potential for human health [19,30]. The author’s Guided
Meditation Treks [15] uses brainwave entrainment. This
musical project incorporates spoken word, sound healing, and
ambient music into productions delivered through wireless
headphones with an intention of self-improvement and spiritual
progression. Brain Wave Fitness [4] incorporates audio/visual
entrainment. Clients interested in getting the most out of the
modern lifestyle are trained to consciously access states of
focus, creativity, relaxation, and sleep. PTSD veterans and
formerly incarcerated benefit from these treatments that involve
headphones, lights, and biofeedback.

wireless headphones, music production, silent disco, headphone
concert, binaural beats, multi-track audio, active music
listening, sound healing, mobile clubbing, smart-phone apps

As musicians and event producers trying to expand the toolset
we use to entertain, our team purchased a large number of
wireless headphones to start a silent disco company. This
allowed us to express group sound healing techniques that
cannot be expressed without headphones such as binaural beats
for brainwave entrainment, not to mention a live drummer at a
4am party with two other EDM DJs simultaneously. It also
allowed our audience to be more active listeners. This paper
presents a personal documentary, historical overview, and a
proposal of future possibilities for this technology.
Generally, sound and music are delivered to a group through a
shared delivery system such as a set of loudspeakers. This
delivery mechanism is limited in many ways. Everyone is at the
mercy of the physical space, the sound engineer, and noise
ordinances. Using headphones and related technology, listeners
can use preferences to better connect to the underlying music
production. The result is a shared experience that can be very
personal and interactive in ways not physically possible without
every listener having their own set of headphones.

Another advantage of headphones is that we can utilize 3D
effects. 3D audio effects can make the listener perceive sound
as if it is in front of their face or behind their head. In a guided
meditation, we can make sounds appear to come from the
throat, third eye, or crown chakra. While not as extensive as
spatial sound, headphone-based 3D sound has been used for 3D
Human Computer Interaction for the blind [25].

2.1 Silent Disco Headphones

2.2 Channel-Switching Headphones

“Silent Disco” is a term used to describe an event where,
instead of having loudspeakers, each listener is issued a pair of
wireless headphones. An early documented prototype of this is
in the 1969 Finnish science fiction film, Ruusujen Aika [20].

Each broadcast channel offered by a silent disco is from an FM
transmitter. Specific carrier frequencies vary throughout the
world based on radio spectrum allocations from government
agencies [11]. Early versions of the headphones were capable
of only one stereo channel. This allows each listener to get a
clear stereo mix for which they could individually control the
volume. Today, silent disco headphones incorporate 3 or more
stereo channels, allowing the listener to have choices and even
“channel surf” in the moment for content.

personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are
not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that
requires prior specific permission and/or a fee.
NIME’13, May 27-30, 2013, KAIST, Daejeon, Korea.
Copyright remains with the author(s).

Austin Silent Disco’s first event was a multi-faceted production
for 300 attendees. The venue had a large outdoor area, a piano
lounge, and our band with full acoustic drums and electric

6 9

instruments in a small auditorium holding only 70 people. A
soundboard feed was transmitted. Two DJs broadcasted on the
other channels from the outdoor patio. Listeners could enjoy
the band from inside the auditorium through the speakers or
with a higher fidelity through headphones. With headphones,
they could also enjoy the choices from the courtyard.

FM Transmitters broadcast signals on 5 separate stations. The
receiver inside of the headphones can toggle between channels
1, 2, and 3. The external receiver can toggle between channels
4 and 5. The external receiver feeds its output to the
headphones with a 3.5mm cable. Discrete volumes on each of
the two receivers (internal and external) allow listeners to
create a custom mix in their headphones by selecting from
channels 1, 2, or 3; combining that signal with either channel 4
or 5; and managing the two independent volume controls.

We explored multiple channels at an event where listeners
watched a movie and heard the movie soundtrack on one of the
channels. DJs mixed the movie feed into their performances on
the other channels, creating live movie soundtrack remixes.
Listeners could choose their level of movie or music focus.

A mix matrix of possible blends is outlined in Table 1.
Conceivably, this can be extended to multiple external receivers
with a split 3.5mm cable, adding another table dimension.

Another application of multi-channel technology is to allow the
listener to select from different prepared mixes of the same
musical work, such as the same song with a different vocalist
on each channel. Multi-lingual applications for sporting events
or academic lectures are apparent. We can create a guided
meditation that allows the listener to select a language for the
spoken words while the background sounds remain the same
and the experience unfolds for everyone simultaneously.

Table 1. Listener Mix Options
Channel Channel
Channel 4
Ch1:Ch4 Ch2:Ch4




Channel 5










The next evolution of multiple channel technology is to give
each listener the ability to blend or mix multiple elements, in
addition to simply switching between them. The listener may
use separate volume controls for each element, or the elements
can be automatically blended and mixed based on criteria such
as the listener’s location or biofeedback. Outlined below are
implementations using different approaches to accomplish this
goal. The hardware implementation is a real prototype; the
software implementation is a software analysis and design
based on prior experience in the software engineering field and
current research into the technology.

3.2 Software Implementation

3.1 Hardware Implementation

Whereas an FM transmission approach allows separate
transmitters, a digital streaming solution would require all
channels to be bundled and delivered on a single live stream to
ensure synchronization for the listener. This is known as
multiplexing. Existing organizations have instituted
multiplexing technology standards for multi-track streaming.
Ogg Opus [37] is a low-latency audio codec to facilitate the
broadcast of multiplexed audio over IP-based networks like the
Internet, 4G, and wireless routers. Bluetooth, mesh networks,
and one-way digital transmissions like those used by digital
television and digital radio may also be viable for broadcast,
hardware permitting. Each broadcasting approach has its pros
and cons as it pertains to distance efficacy, audio latency, sound
fidelity, and programmability.

In this proposed scenario, the listeners provide their own
hardware, such as a smart phone or tablet computer, as well as
their own set of headphones to attach. This alleviates the need
to provide each listener with a set of hardware. It would also
shift the limitations of the system from hardware technology to
software technology, which is generally easier to upgrade. In
this scenario, instead of receiving the signal from FM
transmitters, their device would be connected to a wireless
network to receive the broadcast. Centralized Broadcasting

Austin Silent Disco has implemented a prototype to allow
multiple simultaneous listeners to mix content from two
different elemental sources. Our headphones have an internal
wireless receiver that can select from one of multiple channels
and control the volume for the selection, as well as a 3.5mm
line-in. Plugging in a device such as an mp3 player allows the
sound from the external device to be blended with what is
received by the wireless receiver inside the headphones. The
receiver and volume control also exist as a separate device on
different frequencies with a 3.5mm line-out for external
headphones. By sending the line-out of a external receiver into
the line-in of the headphones and controlling the volume of
each independently, the listener can create a custom live mix
from multiple elements. This is outlined in Figure 1.

Le Placard Headphone Festival [23] offers an example of an
online one-channel streaming silent disco. The event is
broadcast over the Internet worldwide. London-based fyidisco
[13] uses the HTTP Live Streaming protocol to create pop-up
silent discos over a wifi network. Listeners bring their own
smart-phones with ear buds to the event and connect.
To introduce multi-elemental sound manipulation to such an
installation, we can consider technologies developed for home
theater regarding interactive listening scenarios [32]. These
include multiplexed audio objects that can be positioned or
move through the 3-dimensional surround-sound field of a
typical 5.1 home surround-sound system. Similarly, many
sporting events such as the National Football League already
broadcast in Dolby Digital 5.1 and isolate the announcers into
the center channel. This gives home viewers the ability to turn
them down in favor of stadium noise broadcast over the
surround speakers. These are just some existing samples of
multi-elemental sound technology that can be applied.

Figure 1. Multi-Listener Manipulated Multi-Elemental
Sound Installation example with 5-channels.

7 0

elements of the mix for their own comfort and desire. This
helps listeners explore and find which path works best for them
to become immersed in their own personal meditative state. Receiving and Interactive Broadcasting
Software installed on each of the listeners’ smart-phones could
receive the multiplexed data and decode it to separate stations
and/or separate channels within each station. The Web Audio
API [36] allows a web browser host the application, or smartphone operating system APIs can be used to develop custom
apps. On the user interface of the device, the software could
present the listener with a graphical mixer of faders, allowing
them to blend and pan the channels into their final mix. The
number of channels available and the ways in which they can
be manipulated are limited only by the bandwidth and hardware
capabilities of the phone and network. To make the expression
more interactive, all of these mix preferences could be shared
between listeners. Also, listening statistics and feedback can be
sent from the listeners to the broadcasters for later analysis of
the group experience. Finally, the app could allow listeners at
the event to take turns being the DJ. A cloud-based approach
like turntable.fm [35] can be used, or the smart-phone app can
present users with virtual turntables and effects to generate a
live stream from their phone’s onboard music library.

4.1.2 Sound Healing Tables
Extending elemental sound to other physical installations,
practitioners from Transformational Resonance [26] and
Guided Meditation Treks are creating meditative programs that
incorporate four discrete audio tracks. In addition to the
headphones, two low-frequency transducers are installed in a
massage table to physically vibrate the listener. Each is
controlled discretely in a 4-track mix. Active Spatial Sound
Active scenarios like the smart-phone app pull data from the
listeners, making them contributors instead of just spectators. A
musician using a separate microphone during a performance to
communicate with other band members via earpieces is another
illustration of interactive sound. Hyperinstruments and
headphone-based spatial sound [1] are other examples.
When listening to instruments in a room, your mix changes
based on where you are physically located in the room. There
are technology solutions [33] to encode the spatial information
of the music (such as the locations of each instrument in a
panorama), as well as the listener (for example, their head
movements and location). This information can be used to
automatically change the panning of the sound for individual
listeners so that their experience changes based on their
position as well as any movements and/or locations of the
performers. There are existing patents on specific
implementations of headphone-based systems for spatial sound
reproduction [18] that incorporate multiple speakers in each
headphone as well as the design of the human ear to allow the
listener to perceive sound elements as coming from anywhere
in physical space. We can combine all of these technologies to
express a virtual acoustic reality.

Related to this proposal is a concept called “mobile clubbing,”
where individuals at an event each bring their own personal
music device and listen to their own music library.
Computational music analysis can increase the shared
experience of the mobile clubbing situation. Apple has applied
for a patent [24] featuring an app that interacts with users’
iTunes collections, matching attributes such as genre or tempo
so that people are at least listening to similar music. Other
organizations such as the Echo Nest [7] and Gracenote employ
more in-depth systems of computational music analysis to
relate musical works.

4.1 Elemental Sound Installation Examples
The list of possibilities of content to deliver is endless. Here are
specific installations that others and we have implemented or
may wish to implement to explore the concepts. Other Multi-Elemental Sound Applications
There are several ways we can combine sound elements to
create a whole greater than the sum of its parts, as is the case
with binaural beats. By allowing channel switching and
elemental-manipulation, we can better explore these ideas.

4.1.1 Listener-Mixed Audio
The technology could be utilized at a supergroup concert where
some listeners want more keyboards, and some want more
guitar. Bands like the Flaming Lips have explored this by
releasing multiple albums meant to be played at the same time
so that the elements can be adjusted [10]. Nine Inch Nails
offers open-sourced multi-track elements of some of their work
that can be reformulated by listeners to create personal mixes
[28]. Erasure released a single that included a software package
to let fans blend the isolated tracks to create their own remixes
and upload them to the Erasure website [8]. This concept can
also be applied to studio recording sessions, where every
musician requires a different mix to better hear specific
elements of the session as they play. Google’s software
product, Chrome Jam [14], features real-time multi-track music
production and mixing with cloud-based virtual instruments.

African polyrhythms illustrate the idea of breaking sound down
into elements that can be separated within references like time
signature and tempo. The XCHOX project [31] adds another
dimension of reference by mixing two or more elements with
differing beats per minute (BPM) in real-time. Over time, when
the common denominations of the two BPM scenarios line up,
the music snaps in and out of phase. This is known as tempo
phasing. Related to the silent disco application, a spectator can
witness tempo phasing effects by watching dancers tuned into
different BPM on different broadcast stations on the dance
floor. They appear to dance with each other in and out of synch
over time.
For tonality and music theory, Roland Finch in Austin and
others [21,27] have created modal harmony algorithms that
mathematically spell out how various key signatures and modes
can be blended together. By studying adept musicians and
empirically comparing modes and their relationships, these
algorithms can be used to generate elements that can change the
overall feel or mood of a work. In a live implementation, for
example, a listener can choose between a more “happy” version
of a song with major chords and a “sad” version based on
minor chords. The selection can also be made with biofeedback
data from the listener’s response to the music. Using harmony
algorithms, various scenarios can be calculated, formulated, Spoken Word Content
Spoken word guided meditations such as those created by
Guided Meditation Treks [15] have many elements, each of
which may be more or less effective for an individual. For
example, some people are immediately put into a Zen-like state
when listening to binaural beats, whereas others develop high
levels of anxiety. Some people want to hear the guide’s voice
loudly and clearly, and others just want to hear running
waterfalls. Active listening interfaces provide a way for
composers to better express and convey feelings of relaxation
and modes of healing by allowing listeners to customize

7 1

and automatically generated for the listener. Technologies such
as these show how mathematically combining sound elements
can result in unique and unconventional experiences greater
than the sum of their parts. Headphone technology allows
everyone to individually explore these facets, yet within a
shared group setting.

[17] Hereford Times. The Gingerbread House breaks dramatic
boundaries in Hereford.
[18] Hong Cong Tuyen Pham, Ambroise Recht. Headphone for
spatial sound reproduction. Patent US7532734. May 2009.
[19] Huang, Tina L., Christine Charyton. &quot;A comprehensive
review of the psychological effects of brainwave
entrainment.&quot; Altern Ther Health Med 14.5 (2008): 38-50.
[20] Jarva, Risto, et al. Ruusujen Aika (aka A Time Of Roses).
1969. http://youtu.be/LyDjJSdIjjQ?t=1h11m23s
[21] Johanson, Brad, and Riccardo Poli. &quot;GP-music: An
interactive genetic programming system for music
generation with automated fitness raters.&quot; Genetic
Programming 1998: Proceedings of the Third Annual
Conference. 1998.
[22] Kid Koala. Headphone Concert. 2012
[23] Le Placard Headphone Festival http://www.leplacard.org
[24] Louboutin, Sylvain Rene Yves. Coordinated Group
Musical Experience. US Patent Publication US
2011/0245944 A1. Filed 31 March 2010
[25] Lumbreras, Maruricio, and Jaime Sánchez. &quot;Interactive 3D
sound hyperstories for blind children.&quot; Proceedings of the
SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing
systems. ACM, 1999.
[26] Maher, Sean. Transformational Resonance.
[27] Maurer, John a iv. A Brief History of Algorithmic
Composition. Center for Computer Research in Music and
Acoustics (CCRMA) Stanford University, 1999
[28] Nine Inch Nails. Remixes
[29] Oster, Gerald. &quot;Auditory beats in the brain.&quot; Scientific
American 229.4 (1973): 94-102.
[30] Padmanabhan, R., Hildreth, A. J. and Laws, D. (2005), A
prospective, randomised, controlled study examining
binaural beat audio and pre-operative anxiety in patients
undergoing general anaesthesia for day case surgery.
Anaesthesia, 60: 874–877.
[31] Patterson, Joseph Xavior. XCHOX Project.
[32] Silva, Robert. About.com. “Multi-dimensional Audio –
Rethinking Surround Sound.” http://
[33] SOPA Project. Stream of Panoramic Audio.
[34] ToasT http://www.toastband.net Headphone Concert:
[35] http://Turntable.fm – social network simulating a DJ show
[36] W3C. WebAudio API Specification https://dvcs.w3.org/
[37] XIPH.ORG. Ogg Opus standard. Internet Engineering
Taskforce. 2012. http://wiki.xiph.org/OggOpus Sensory Convergence
With the addition of a visual component such as virtual reality
goggles, we can extend these concepts to the sense of sight.
This technology is already being developed for the video
gaming [16] and brainwave entrainment [4] fields. Senses of
touch, smell, and others can be explored as well with hardware.

Wireless headphones are valuable tools in the arsenal of
musical expression, giving the listener more opportunity to be
involved in how they perceive the elements expressed by
composers and performers. Working with a palette of elements
and personal preference or biofeedback, listeners integrate
themselves into the work, allowing them to better connect to it.

Joseph Xavior Patterson, John Mclane Brown, Jamiroqueen,
Andrea Sitter, Cyndi Seven, Michael Luppe, Robin Naples

[1] Algazi, V.R.; Duda, R.O, &quot;Headphone-Based Spatial
Sound,&quot; Signal Processing Magazine, IEEE , vol.28, no.1,
pp.33-42, Jan. 2011
[2] Austin Silent Disco. The author’s silent disco company.
[3] BBC Music: “Live events unfold.” Friday, 26 May, 2000
[4] Brain Wave Fitness. Austin Texas, Portland, Oregon. The
Author works with this team in Austin, Texas.
[5] CNN Technology: “Dancing in Silence All the Rave”
html 01 Sept 2005.
[6] Tom and Gary’s Decentralized Dance Party
[7] The Echo Nest http://echonest.com/
[8] Erasure. Breathe. 3 January 2005.
[9] The Flaming Lips. “Headphone Concert”
[10] The Flaming Lips. Zaireeka. 26 October 1997.
[11] Federal Communications Commission. US Frequency
Allocation Chart (33cm band). http://www.ntia.doc.gov/
European Frequencies 862-870 MHz:
[12] Foster, Dale S. EEG and subjective correlates of alpha
frequency binaural beats stimulation combined with alpha
biofeedback. Diss. Memphis State University, 1990.
[13] fyidisco – http://www.fyidisco.com
[14] Google Chrome Jam. http://www.google.com/chrome/jam
[15] Guided Meditation Treks. The author’s sound healing
music project. http://www.guidedmeditationtreks.com
[16] Hamilton, Ian. Phys.Org. Putting gamers on the spot with
virtual-reality goggles. 6 December 2012.


7 2

Spatial Audio Production: From Theory to
Production: http://www.deutsche-telekomlaboratories.de/~sporssas/publications/talks/AES128_
Dobda, Russell. Binaural Beats Demystification.
Sensory Convergence Proceedings. 27 January 2013.

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