Pectoral Fin
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Pectoral Fin
Ray fins on a teleost fish, Hector's lanternfish





Pelvic fins
(Ventral fins)
Barb gonio 080526 9681 ltn Pv.jpg The paired pelvic or ventral fins are typically located ventrally below and behind the pectoral fins, although in many fish families they may be positioned in front of the pectoral fins (e.g. cods). They are homologous to the hindlimbs of tetrapods. The pelvic fin assists the fish in going up or down through the water, turning sharply, and stopping quickly.
  • Pelvic fins can take many positions along the ventral surface of the fish. The ancestral abdominal position is seen in (for example) the minnows; the thoracic position in sunfish; and the jugular position, when the pelvics are anterior to the pectoral fins, as seen in the burbot.[2]
Dorsal fin Aileron de requin.jpg
Dorsal fin of a shark
Dorsal fin of a chub (Leuciscus cephalus)


Anal/cloacal fin Barb gonio 080526 9660 ltn Af.jpg The anal/cloacal fin is located on the ventral surface behind the anus/cloaca. This fin is used to stabilize the fish while swimming.
Adipose fin Adipose fin 01.jpg
Adipose fin of a trout
The adipose fin is a soft, fleshy fin found on the back behind the dorsal fin and just forward of the caudal fin. It is absent in many fish families, but found in nine of the 31 euteleostean orders (Percopsiformes, Myctophiformes, Aulopiformes, Stomiiformes, Salmoniformes, Osmeriformes, Characiformes, Siluriformes and Argentiniformes).[3] Famous representatives of these orders are salmon, characids and catfish.

The function of the adipose fin is something of a mystery. It is frequently clipped off to mark hatchery-raised fish, though data from 2005 showed that trout with their adipose fin removed have an 8% higher tailbeat frequency.[4][5] Additional information released in 2011 has suggested that the fin may be vital for the detection of, and response to, stimuli such as touch, sound and changes in pressure. Canadian researchers identified a neural network in the fin, indicating that it likely has a sensory function, but are still not sure exactly what the consequences of removing it are.[6][7]

A comparative study in 2013 indicates the adipose fin can develop in two different ways. One is the salmoniform-type way, where the adipose fin develops from the larval-fin fold at the same time and in the same direct manner as the other median fins. The other is the characiform-type way, where the adipose fin develops late after the larval-fin fold has diminished and the other median fins have developed. They claim the existence of the characiform-type of development suggests the adipose fin is not "just a larval fin fold remainder" and is inconsistent with the view that the adipose fin lacks function.[3]

Research published in 2014 indicates that the adipose fin has evolved repeatedly in separate lineages.[8]

Caudal fin
(Tail fin)

Barb gonio 080525 9610 ltn Cf.jpg

(A) - Heterocercal means the vertebrae extend into the upper lobe of the tail, making it longer (as in sharks). It is the opposite of hypocercal.

  • Hypocercal, also known as reversed heterocercal, means that the vertebrae extend into the lower lobe of the tail, making it longer (as in the Anaspida). It is the opposite of heterocercal.[9]




Most modern fishes (teleosts) have a homocercal tail. These appear in a variety of shapes, and can appear:

  • rounded
  • forked, ending in two prongs
  • emarginate, ending with a slight inward curve.
  • lunate or shaped like a crescent moon
Caudal keel



Bony fishes

Skeleton of a ray-finned fish

Bony fishes form a taxonomic group called Osteichthyes. They have skeletons made of bone, and can be contrasted with cartilaginous fishes which have skeletons made of cartilage. Bony fishes are divided into ray-finned and lobe-finned fish. Most fish are ray-finned, an extremely diverse and abundant group consisting of over 30,000 species. It is the largest class of vertebrates in existence today. In the distant past, lobe-finned fish were abundant. Nowadays they are mainly extinct, with only eight living species. Bony fish have fin spines and rays called lepidotrichia. They typically have swim bladders, which allows the fish to create a neutral balance between sinking and floating without having to use its fins. However, swim bladders are absent in many fish, most notably in Lungfishes, which are the only fish to have retained the primitive lung present in the common ancestor of bony fish from which swim bladders evolved. Bony fishes also have an operculum, which helps them breathe without having to use fins to swim.









Lepidotrichia are usually composed of bone, but in early osteichthyans such as Cheirolepis, there was also dentine and enamel[14]. They are segmented and appear as a series of disks stacked one on top of another. They may have been derived from dermal scales[14]. The genetic basis for the formation of the fin rays is thought to be genes coded for the production of certain proteins. It has been suggested that the evolution of the tetrapod limb from lobe-finned fishes is related to the loss of these proteins.[15]

Cartilaginous fishes

Caudal fin of a grey reef shark

Cartilaginous fishes are a class of fishes called Chondrichthyes. They have skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. The class includes sharks, rays and chimaeras. Shark fin skeletons are elongated and supported with soft and unsegmented rays named ceratotrichia, filaments of elastic protein resembling the horny keratin in hair and feathers.[16] Originally the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which do not contain any dermal elements, did not connect. In later forms, each pair of fins became ventrally connected in the middle when scapulocoracoid and puboischiadic bars evolved. In rays, the pectoral fins have connected to the head and are very flexible. One of the primary characteristics present in most sharks is the heterocercal tail, which aids in locomotion.[17] Most sharks have eight fins. Sharks can only drift away from objects directly in front of them because their fins do not allow them to move in the tail-first direction.[18]



Generating thrust


Moving fins can provide thrust
Fish get thrust moving vertical tail fins from side to side
Stingrays get thrust from large pectoral fins
Drawing by Dr Tony Ayling




Controlling motion

Once motion has been established, the motion itself can be controlled with the use of other fins.[21][28]

Specialised fins are used to control motion
Like boats and airplanes, fish need some control over six degrees of freedom, three translational (heaving, swaying and surging) and three rotational (pitching, yawing and rolling)[29][30][31]
Many reef fish have pectoral and pelvic fins optimised for flattened bodies [32]

The bodies of reef fishes are often shaped differently from open water fishes. Open water fishes are usually built for speed, streamlined like torpedoes to minimise friction as they move through the water. Reef fish operate in the relatively confined spaces and complex underwater landscapes of coral reefs. For this manoeuvrability is more important than straight line speed, so coral reef fish have developed bodies which optimize their ability to dart and change direction. They outwit predators by dodging into fissures in the reef or playing hide and seek around coral heads.[32] The pectoral and pelvic fins of many reef fish, such as butterflyfish, damselfish and angelfish, have evolved so they can act as brakes and allow complex manoeuvres.[34] Many reef fish, such as butterflyfish, damselfish and angelfish, have evolved bodies which are deep and laterally compressed like a pancake, and will fit into fissures in rocks. Their pelvic and pectoral fins have evolved differently, so they act together with the flattened body to optimise manoeuvrability.[32] Some fishes, such as puffer fish, filefish and trunkfish, rely on pectoral fins for swimming and hardly use tail fins at all.[34]


This male mosquitofish has a gonopodium, an anal fin which functions as an intromittent organ[35][36]





Other uses

The Indo-Pacific sailfish has a prominent dorsal fin. Like scombroids and other billfish, they streamline themselves by retracting their dorsal fins into a groove in their body when they swim.[41] The huge dorsal fin, or sail, of the sailfish is kept retracted most of the time. Sailfish raise them if they want to herd a school of small fish, and also after periods of high activity, presumably to cool down.[41][42]

Frogfish use their pectoral and pelvic fins to walk along the ocean bottom [43]
Large retractable dorsal fin of the Indo-Pacific sailfish
The thresher shark uses its caudal fin to stun prey



Other uses of fins
In some Asian countries shark fins are a culinary delicacy [49]


Evolution of paired fins

There are two prevailing hypotheses that have been historically debated as models for the evolution of paired fins in fish: the gill arch theory and the lateral fin-fold theory. The former, commonly referred to as the "Gegenbaur hypothesis," was posited in 1870 and proposes that the "paired fins are derived from gill structures".[50] This fell out of popularity in favor of the lateral fin-fold theory, first suggested in 1877, which proposes that paired fins budded from longitudinal, lateral folds along the epidermis just behind the gills.[51] There is weak support for both hypotheses in the fossil record and in embryology.[52] However, recent insights from developmental patterning have prompted reconsideration of both theories in order to better elucidate the origins of paired fins.

Classical theories

Karl Gegenbaur's concept of the "Archipterygium" was introduced in 1876.[53] It was described as a gill ray, or "joined cartilaginous stem," that extended from the gill arch. Additional rays arose from along the arch and from the central gill ray. Gegenbaur suggested a model of transformative homology - that all vertebrate paired fins and limbs were transformations of the Archipterygium. Based on this theory, paired appendages such as pectoral and pelvic fins would have differentiated from the branchial arches and migrated posteriorly. However, there has been limited support for this hypothesis in the fossil record both morphologically and phylogenically.[52] In addition, there was little to no evidence of an anterior-posterior migration of pelvic fins.[54] Such shortcomings of the gill-arch theory led to its early demise in favor of the lateral fin-fold theory proposed by St. George Jackson Mivart, Francis Balfour, and James Kingsley Thacher.

The lateral fin-fold theory hypothesized that paired fins developed from lateral folds along the body wall of the fish.[55] Just as segmentation and budding of the median fin fold gave rise to the median fins, a similar mechanism of fin bud segmentation and elongation from a lateral fin fold was proposed to have given rise to the paired pectoral and pelvic fins. However, there was little evidence of a lateral fold-to-fin transition in the fossil record.[56] In addition, it was later demonstrated phylogenically that pectoral and pelvic fins arise from distinct evolutionary and mechanistic origins.[52]

Evolutionary developmental biology

Recent studies in the ontogeny and evolution of paired appendages have compared finless vertebrates - such as lampreys - with chondricthyes, the most basal living vertebrate with paired fins.[57] In 2006, researchers found that the same genetic programming involved in the segmentation and development of median fins was found in the development of paired appendages in catsharks.[58] Although these findings do not directly support the lateral fin-fold hypothesis, the original concept of a shared median-paired fin evolutionary developmental mechanism remains relevant.

A similar renovation of an old theory may be found in the developmental programming of chondricthyan gill arches and paired appendages. In 2009, researchers at the University of Chicago demonstrated that there are shared molecular patterning mechanisms in the early development of the chondricthyan gill arch and paired fins.[59] Findings such as these have prompted reconsideration of the once-debunked gill-arch theory.[56]

From fins to limbs

Fish are the ancestors of all mammals, reptiles, birds and amphibians.[60] In particular, terrestrial tetrapods (four-legged animals) evolved from fish and made their first forays onto land 400 million years ago.[61] They used paired pectoral and pelvic fins for locomotion. The pectoral fins developed into forelegs (arms in the case of humans) and the pelvic fins developed into hind legs.[62] Much of the genetic machinery that builds a walking limb in a tetrapod is already present in the swimming fin of a fish.[63][64]


- Aristotle, De incessu animalium [65]


In 2011, researchers at Monash University in Australia used primitive but still living lungfish "to trace the evolution of pelvic fin muscles to find out how the load-bearing hind limbs of the tetrapods evolved."[66][67] Further research at the University of Chicago found bottom-walking lungfishes had already evolved characteristics of the walking gaits of terrestrial tetrapods.[68][69]


The first mammals appeared during the Permian period (between 298.9 and 252.17 million years ago). Several groups of these mammals started returning to the sea, including the cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises). Recent DNA analysis suggests that cetaceans evolved from within the even-toed ungulates, and that they share a common ancestor with the hippopotamus.[72][73] About 23 million years ago another group of bearlike land mammals started returning to the sea. These were the seals.[74] What had become walking limbs in cetaceans and seals evolved independently into new forms of swimming fins. The forelimbs became flippers, while the hindlimbs were either lost (cetaceans) or also modified into flipper (pinnipeds). In cetaceans, the tail gained two fins at the end, called a fluke.[75] Fish tails are usually vertical and move from side to side. Cetacean flukes are horizontal and move up and down, because cetacean spines bend the same way as in other mammals.[76][77]



"This sea-going reptile with terrestrial ancestors converged so strongly on fishes that it actually evolved a dorsal fin and tail fin for improved aquatic locomotion. These structures are all the more remarkable because they evolved from nothing -- the ancestral terrestrial reptile had no hump on its back or blade on its tail to serve as a precursor."[78]

The biologist Stephen Jay Gould said the ichthyosaur was his favorite example of convergent evolution.[79]


Robotic fins

In the 1990s, the CIA built a robotic catfish called Charlie, designed to collect underwater intelligence undetected[80]
External video
Charlie the catfish - CIA video
AquaPenguin - Festo, YouTube
AquaRay - Festo, YouTube
AquaJelly - Festo, YouTube
AiraCuda - Festo, YouTube

The use of fins for the propulsion of aquatic animals can be remarkably effective. It has been calculated that some fish can achieve a propulsive efficiency greater than 90%.[21] Fish can accelerate and maneuver much more effectively than boats or submarine, and produce less water disturbance and noise. This has led to biomimetic studies of underwater robots which attempt to emulate the locomotion of aquatic animals.[81] An example is the Robot Tuna built by the Institute of Field Robotics, to analyze and mathematically model thunniform motion.[82] In 2005, the Sea Life London Aquarium displayed three robotic fish created by the computer science department at the University of Essex. The fish were designed to be autonomous, swimming around and avoiding obstacles like real fish. Their creator claimed that he was trying to combine "the speed of tuna, acceleration of a pike, and the navigating skills of an eel."[83][84][85]

The AquaPenguin, developed by Festo of Germany, copies the streamlined shape and propulsion by front flippers of penguins.[86][87] Festo also developed AquaRay,[88]AquaJelly[89] and AiraCuda,[90] respectively emulating the locomotion of manta rays, jellyfish and barracuda.



Diversity of fins

See also



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