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    1.    Low inflation
    2.    Sustained economic growth
    3.    Low unemployment
    4.    Balance of payments equilibrium

Gross Domestic Produce refers to the value of all final goods/services produced within a given country during
a given period of time
Gross National Produce refers to the value of all final goods/services produced by domestic factors of
production during a given period of time
                                           GDP = GNP + NFIA

                          Usefulness                                                           Limitations
Economic growth                                                         Inaccuracies – output going unrecorded, figures
 Can measure changes in output as well as the                          understate output
    rate of economic growth                                              Nonmarket activities
    Gives an insight into living standards                                   Volunteer work, housekeeping etc. are not
 Is measured on a year-to-year basis on increases                           recorded in NY figures
    in national output                                                   Underground economy
                                                                             Illegal – drug dealing, prostitution etc.
                                                                             Legal – moonlighting with double jobs etc.
                                                                             Hidden from government records
Comparisons across countries                                            International comparisons
 Measure economic strength of countries                                 Procedures differ from country to country
   Determines countries’ levels of development                           Inaccuracies in data provided
   Determines whether countries are in need of aid                       Conversion to common currency is required (PPP
 Classification of countries                                                is sometimes used)
   Developed/developing etc. based on per capita                         Difference in culture
   income                                                                Differences in population sizes
                                                                         Differences in size of underground economy
                                                                         May be in different phases of the business cycle –
                                                                             e.g. peak vs. trough
Measures contributions from various sectors                             Measuring welfare/SOL
 Determines if income is fairly distributed                             Leisure time
Formulating future policies                                                  As GDP increases, leisure time may have to be
 Can forecast, as well as interpret trends                                  sacrificed – value placed on recreation may not
 Economic planning, policymaking etc.                                       be considered
                                                                         Environmental degradation
                                                                             Pollution not considered as costs to rise in
                                                                             output, finite resources may be delpeted
                                                                         Income inequality
                                                                             Distribution of income, proportion on spending
         Though GDP does not measure economic well-being, it is
                                                                             not reflected
   positively associated with many things people value including a       Higher output/production does not necessarily
    higher material standard of living, better health and longer life        improve consumption – e.g. defence spending
    expectancies, higher literacy rates and educational attainment

Nominal income refers to income at ruling prices, with no account of inflation
Real income refers to income at base year prices and takes into account inflation rates

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In the BOP receipts from abroad are regards are credits (inflows) and entered in the accounts as positive.
Outflows are regarded as debits and taken as negatives. When the credits and debits are taken, they must
sum to zero.
A surplus on the BOP refers to a situation in which international receipts (credits) are greater than
international payments (debits) over a year. Conversely, a deficit on the BOP refers to a situation in which
international receipts are less than international payments.
         Goods Balance
               Imports and exports of physical goods


         Service Balance
               Import and exports of services (e.g., insurance)
         Income Balance
               Wages, interest and profits flowing into and out of the country
                             Inflow and outflow of investments – investments overseas will be seen as outflows,
  Capital Account

                              investments from foreign MNCs (for example) will be seen as an inflow
                         Note that profits from such investments are to be credited into the current account
                              and not here.
                    Overall Balance
                         A positive currency flow indicates BOP surplus – increase in foreign currency available
                              for adding to foreign reserves/paying off foreign debts
                         A negative currency represents a BOP deficit
                    Official Reserves (Net)
                         Shows how monetary authorities due with net currency flows, whether surpluses or

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AD is defined as the total level of demand in an economy
In a four sector economy, it is given by AD = C+I+G+(X-M)

The AD curve is downward sloping due to three effects
     Real wealth effect – When prices go down, purchasing power goes up. Consequently, consumption
        goes up
     Interest rate effect – When price levels go down, demand for money goes down leading to a fall in
        interest rates. This means the cost of borrowing is lowered, increasing demand and subsequently,
        firms’ level of investment.
     International substitution effect – When export prices go down, foreigners buy more. Likewise, when
        import prices are relatively higher, imports are substituted by domestic products.
Shifts of the AD curve may be effected by a change in any of the following
Real Wealth           When real wealth increases, demand increases. AD shifts right.
Interest rates        When interest rates go down, price levels go down. Consumers are more likely to
                      purchase now (as the opportunity cost of investment is lower). AD shifts right
Inflation             If there is an expected change in prices in the future, consumers will tend to purchase
                      now. AD shifts right.
Income abroad         When income from abroad increases, demand for exports increases. AD shifts right.
Exchange rates        As local currency appreciates, there in an increase in imports and a decrease in exports.
                      AD shifts left

AS is the total output of each good/service that firms would like to produce at each possible price level.
                                                    Keynesian range
                                                         Supply is perfectly elastic
                                                         Output is at a level less than full employment
                                                                  o i.e. there is spare capacity
                                                         An increase in output doesn’t reflect any changes
                                                             in the general price level.
                                                    Intermediate range
                                                         Level of output is approaching full employment
                                                         An increase in output is reflected by an increase in
                                                             general price levels
                                                         Law of diminishing marginal returns sets in
                                                    Classical range
                                                         Supply is perfectly inelastic
                                                         Output is at full employment
                                                         And increase in production has merely
                                                             inflationary pressure – an increase in general price
                                                             levels does not reflect any change in output
Shifts of the AS curve may be effected by a change in any of the following
Government policies      Depending on type of policy, may affect either SRAS or LRAS.
Inflation                If prices are expected to rise, produces supply less. SRAS shifts left.
Factor prices            Lower factor prices mean lower costs of production. SRAS shifts right, LRAS may shift
                         right if the decrease in price is permanent
Technology               Lowers costs of production, increases output. Both SRAS and LRAS shift right.
Supply shocks            Supply shocks are temporary increases/decreases in supply. Only SRAS is affected.

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The consumption function is maps the level of aggregate consumption desired at each level of disposable
Assumptions of the consumption function are that
    1. Technology is constant
    2. Potential output is constant (i.e., the PPC does not shift)
    3. There is fixed general price level

                                                        Autonomous consumption (indicated by a) refers to the
                                                        level of consumption that does not vary with income
                                                        Induced consumption (indicated by bY) refers to
                                                        expenditure that varies directly in income (b = MPC)

                                                        Average propensity to consume (APC) refers to the
                                                        proportion of total income spent on consumption.
                                                        It is given by APC = C = a+bY
                                                                             Y     Y
                                                        Marginal propensity to consume (MPC) refers to the
                                                        proportion of extra income spent on consumption.
                                                        It is given by MPC = C

The absolute income hypothesis states that an increase in absolute income translates directly to a change in
absolute consumption.
On the other hand the permanent income hypothesis states that consumption is dependent, to some extent,
on one’s expected income for the rest of one’s life.

Savings refer to the residual of consumption.
The APS is given by APS = Y = 1 - APC
The MPS is given by MPS =   Y   = 1 - MPC

The consumption function may shift due to changes in the following
Wealth                   An increase in wealth shifts the consumption function upwards
Interest rates or        An increase in interest rates shifts the consumption function downwards
availability of credit
Distribution of income   A more equal distribution of income shifts the consumption function upwards
Expectation of future    Expectations on future prices or income may shift the consumption function upwards
prices or income         or downwards.

AE is defined as the total level of spending in an economy.
In a four sector economy, it is given by AE = C+I+G+(X-M)*
  Consumption          Investments          Government expenditure                     Exports                    Imports
  Autonomous          Autonomous in                Autonomous                        Autonomous                   Induced
   and induced             the SR

                                             * Do note that even though it is the same as AD, the axes of the AE graph are different

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Investment (I ) refers to the act of acquiring fixed capital assets and accumulating stocks and inventories. In
essence, it is the process of adding capital goods in an economy.
Autonomous investment refers to investment influenced by firms’ long run profits outlook (under various
influences) and is independent of NY. Investments are autonomous in the short run.
Induced investment refers to investment that varies directly with NY, and is a result of firms responding the
changes in the flow of income.
The marginal efficiency of investment (or rate of return on investments) is a graph plotted on the axes
investments against interest rates. The MEI curve is interest rate inelastic and downward sloping due to the
inverse relationship between investments and interest rates.
Investments may shift as a response to changes in any of the following
Business confidence        A higher business confidence (affected by many things) will increase investments.
Cost and availability of The lower the cost of capital goods, the higher the rate of investments.
capital goods
Rate of change of          As the income increases at an increasing rate, investments will increase as well.
Government policies        Government policies (e.g. pioneer statuses, tax holidays) generally work to increase
Technology                 Changes in technology shifts the MEI rightward

The equilibrium level of income is the level of income    towards which the economy will tend, and, once
reached, will be under no pressure to shift
                                                At Y1
                                                          There is unsold output
                                                          Unplanned investments
                                                          Firms reduce output in the next time period

                                                  At Y2
                                                          There is excess demand
                                                          Firms draw on stucks
                                                          Unplanned disinvestments
                                                          Firms increase output in the next time period


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Full employment is defined as the level at which all
economically active persons employed in the economy, not
taking into account those that are structurally or frictionally
unemployed. (Typically the unemployment rate at full
employment lies between 4-6%)

The deflationary gap refers to the amount of AE that falls
short of the level necessary to reach full employment
The inflationary gap refers to the amount of AE that
exceeds the level necessary to achieve full employment. In
real life, this hardly happens as there is very rarely cases of
overemployment where AE>AEfe

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The multiplier is a numerical coefficient by which a the change in AE is multiplied to show the final change in
                                1         1        Y      1
The multiplier is given by k = MPW = MPS+MPT+MPM = AE = 1-MPI
When there is an rise in injections (say, firms decide to invest more), aggregate expenditure (C+I+G+X-
M) will be higher. Firms will respond to this increased demand by using more labour and other resources
and thus paying out more incomes (Y) to households. Household consumption will rise and so firms will
sell more. Firms will respond by producing more, and thus using more labour and other resources.
Household incomes will rise again. Consumption and hence production will rise again, and so on. There
will thus be a multiplier rise in incomes and employment. This is known as the multiplier effect.
The process, however, does not go on forever. Each time household incomes rise, households save
more, pay more taxes and buy more imports. In other words, withdrawals rise. When withdrawals have
risen to match the increased injections, equilibrium will be restored and NY and employment will stop
rising. (Sloman)
                                                          At Y0, planned AE > planned output
                                                          Unplanned disinvestments of AB
                                                          Firms increase output by BC to match the higher
                                                           AE, Y0B
                                                          NY increases from Y0 to Ya
                                                          Consumption rises, AE rises to YaD
                                                          Unplanned disinvestments of CD
                                                          Firms continue to increase output until planned AE
                                                           = output

The accelerator theory relates investments to a change in NY. It states that firms will choose to invest when
NY is rising at an increasing rate.
The accelerator process
    1. Autonomous AE increases
    2. Multiplier kicks in, NY increases – multiplier effect
    3. If NY increases faster than before, firms respond by increasing investments
    4. The increase in investments increases AE
    5. 2 multiplied increase in NY occurs – multiplier effect
    6. 2 increase in investments occurs – accelerator effect

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 Inflation refers to a situation in the economy where there Is a general and sustained increased in prices, and
is measured in terms of indices such as the CPI.
Inflation may be characterized as moderate (>10%), galloping (double- to triple-digit percentage increases)
or in a state of hyperinflation (up to a million or a trillion percent).
Reflation refers to a period of mild inflation. Disinflation refers to the process of elimination or reducing
inflation while deflation refers to a situation in which there are falling prices. Slumpflation refers to a period
during which there is both inflation and unemployment. Stagflation refers to a period during which there is
inflation with no or negligible growth in GDP/GNP/
Demand-pull inflation (shifting AD) may be caused by
     Increased AD (anything that changes CIGXM)
            o Reduction in exchange rates
            o Reduction in taxes
            o Reduction in i/r
            o Rising consumer confidence
            o Faster economic growth externally
     Changes in money supply
            o Money supply growing faster that output
            o Increased bank borrowing
Cost-push inflation (shifting AS) my be caused by
     Higher costs
            o Wage-push inflation
            o Profits-push inflation - firms passing on costs to consumers by raising prices
            o Supply-side inflation - rise in prices of imported raw materials
            o Higher import/export prices
            o Increase in the level of indirect taxes
            o Structural inflation due to structural rigidities (like labour immobility)
Effects of income redistribution                          Effects on production and investment
 Fixed income earners lose out – Yreal falls             Mainly depends on the extent of inflation
 Demand-pull inflation generally widen profit             Favourable to economic growth – profits rise,
     margins, cost-pus inflation may squeeze profit           costs lag behind
     margins. In general, consumers lose out if            Sends the wrong signals to produces if inflation
     inflation causes Yreal to fall                           is unexpected
 Savers lose out                                          Creates uncertainty
 Debtors gain, creditors lose out. In general,            Increases speculation
     inflation tends encourage borrowing and
     discourage lending.
Effects on balance of payments                            Other effects
Depends on the extent of inflation with respect to         Wage spiral (higher prices  Dd for higher
other countries. Consider the situation in which the         wages  higher wages  higher prices etc.)
domestic market experiences greater inflation that         Stimulus: depends on the level of employment at
foreign markets                                              which the economy is at
 Exports become less competitive in foreign                      o Consider the different effects of cost-
     markets, foreign imports become more                             push and demand-pull inflation
     competitive in domestic markets

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                      Frictional                                             Structural
Arises when people are in between jobs – exists even    Arises due to
when the economy is at full employment.                 1. Changes in the structure of the economy
1. Imperfect labour market operations                   2. Mismatch between skill/location of the labour
        a. e.g. Imperfect information                       force and those required for new jobs
2. Immobility of workers                                         a. Changes in pattern of demand/supply
               Classical (Real-wage)                                 Demand-deficient (Cyclical)
1. Monopoly power causing wages to be above             Involuntary unemployment
    market clearing level                               1. Due to lack of AD for goods
        a. Role of unions                               2. Associated with transitions of the economy
                                                            through the business cycle
        Lost output
        Waste of resources – deskilling of workers over time
        Government finances
             o Lost of tax revenue
                        Direct – Unemployed do not pay income tax
                        Indirect – Unemployed consume less and hence pay less indirect taxes
             o Increased spending on welfare benefits
        Loss of profits
             o Firms lose profits from potential output at full employment
        Social costs

Actual growth refers to the percentage annual increase in national output.
Potential growth refers to the speed at which the economy could grow should no resources be left idle.
Productivity refers to the quantity of goods/services that a worker can produce for each hour of work
    1. Natural resources
            a. Increase in natural inputs
            b. Increase in quantity of labour
            c. Increase in population size of participation
    2. Human capital
            a. Knowledge/skills acquired
            b. Education, training, retraining
    3. Physical capital
            a. Increase in stock of capital goods
            b. Economic growth is fastest when the share of output devoted to capital formation is large
    4. Technological knowledge
            a. Innovation, new production methods
1.   AD – if AD does not expand at the rate of supply   5.   Lack of human capital – education, training and
     increase, unemployment may exist and growth             retraining plays a part in preparing the workforce
     may be slowed                                           for growth.
2.   Low rate of I – may be due to low savings.         6.   Sociocultural factors – religious/social norms
3.   Capital accumulation – a lack of increase in            may impact the economy
     capital would mean that growth has an upper        7.   Political factors – stability is essential for growth
     limit. Technological change would then be          8.   Policy mistakes/external shocks
     necessary for economic growth
4.   Lack of natural resources

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   Unemployment/lost output        Less consumption/savings                      Lower investment/LR growth
Less workers would be hired, Lower income means falling                       Recession may lead to falls in
capital accumulation falls.    expenditure as well as savings.                investment via the accelerator
                               Borrowing may also be greater                  effect. Long term economic
                                                                              growth is compromised

                        Benefits                                                  Costs
Increased levels of consumption                            Present opportunity costs of growth
Higher standards of living                                 To achieve even faster growth, firms have to finance
Provided economic growth > population growth, it           more investments etc. These finances come from
will lead to a higher Y/capita. This leads to a increase   savings, or retaining profits or taxes, and raising
in consumption.                                            these means, in some way or other, a cut in
                                                           consumption. In the SR high growth thus leads to less
Avoiding other macroeconomic problems                      consumption and more.
Without a growth in productive potential, a demand
for higher Y may lead to higher inflation, BOP             Growth my generate extra demand
disequilibrium etc. Growth helps to meet these             “The more people have, the more they want” –
demands and avoid such crises.                             higher consumption many not necessary lead to
                                                           higher utility
Income redistribution is easier
If Ys rise, governments find it easier to redistribute Y   Social effects
to the poor without the rich losing out. Also,             Materialism, less caring society etc. May drive up
government revenues rise (from increases in tax            violence, crime and related social problems
revenue) and such revenues can be used to alleviate
poverty. Without a continual rise in NY, the scope for     Environmental costs
helping the poor is much more limited.                     Society may be more concerned for the environment,
                                                           but also more likely to destroy it. Higher levels of
Society feels it can afford to care more for the           consumption translate to higher levels of pollution
environment                                                and waste.
As people grow richer, they may become less
occupied with private consumption, and more                Non-renewable resources
concerned to live in cleaner environments. Likewise,       Such resources are rapidly depleted, rather than used
the regulation of pollution tends to be stricter in DCs    more efficiently.
than in LDCs.
                                                           Effects on income distribution
Increase in government tax revenue                         While some people may gain from higher SOLs, other
                                                           may lose. If the means to growth are greater
                                                           incentive (such as cuts in progressivity of Y tax), then
                                                           the rich get richer and the poor get poorer – no
                                                           trickle-down is felt.
                                                           Growth may also involve changes in production,
                                                           which also means changes in the skills required.
References: Sloman, RJC Economics notes.                   People may find their skills no longer relevant as a
                                                           result of growth. Unemployment may rise.

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A BOP is in equilibrium if annual trade is in overall balance and the exchange rate remains stable
1.   High MPM – caused by a preference for foreign        5.   Exchange rates – appreciations of domestic
     products leading to trade deficits. In Singapore’s        currency means that imports are cheaper
     case may be due to lack of natural resources         6.   Inflation
2.   Changes in pattern of demand                         7.   Cyclical and monetary changes – and increase in
3.   Changes in pattern of production – production             GDP due to higher AD means that imports
     may shift overseas                                        become cheaper.
4.   Changes in terms of trade – if DDM is price          8.   Institutional changes
     inelastic, a fall in imported goods may mean that    9.   Sociopolitical factors
     BOP improves
                    Persistent Deficit                                     Persistent Surplus
1.   Foreign reserves/exchange rates – foreign 1. Other countries’ deficit – another country’s
     reserves decline, borrowing may be necessary to        deficit may become a problem for the country
     finance deficit, currency may depreciate and           with a surplus in the future
     consequently, external purchasing power 2. Dutch disease – short term capital flows my
     declines. External debts incurred, the servicing of    result in speculation, causing an appreciation in a
     which leads to further outflows of currency            country’s       currency.      Exports     become
2.   Reduction investments – a persistent deficit           uncompetitive
     implies problems in a country. This leads to a loss 3. Inflation – if the surplus is due to an increase in
     of confidence and thus investments                     AD, inflationary pressures may occur if the
3.   Employment – if deficit is due to higher cost of       economy if close to Yfe
     production, a persistent deficit may imply further
     job loss is a present threat

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