Surface hardening for improving the properties of components

Document Sample
Surface hardening for improving the properties of components Powered By Docstoc
					                                                                                            Special issue

                                                                                        September 2000

Surface hardening for improving the properties of components
Günter Liebmann

For many ferrous products that need a hard or low-wearing surface, hardening only the
surface layer proves an adequate measure. Martensite surface hardening considerably
increases the surface hardness of steels. This paper presents the methods that have been
established and optimized over many years in flame and induction hardening.

1 Introduction
Martensite surface hardening is one of the oldest heat treatment methods for increasing
surface hardness, improving wearing and sliding properties, enhancing fatigue and rolling
strength, and improving the resistance of steels to impact and compressive forces. Martensite
surface hardening is basically austenitization initiated in the surface layer, followed by
quenching in a suitable medium in conditions enabling as much of the austenite as possible to
transform into martensite and, if necessary, bainite. Directly after hardening, the workpiece is
then generally subjected to low temperature tempering that reduces the brittleness of the
hardened microstructure with
minimum losses in hardness.
Depending on the sources used
for generating the heat on the
surface layers, we differentiate
between flame hardening,
induction hardening, laser beam
hardening, electron beam
hardening, and – where
intrinsically generated heat is
utilized – friction and grind
Whereas flame and induction
hardening have been used for
many years now, the laser and
electron beam hardening methods
developed over the last thirty to
thirty-five years can still at best
                                         Figure 1
be described as infant                   Modern microprocessor based technology ensures reproducible
technologies. At the present level       hardening results from the new induction hardening machine at the
of knowledge in the field of laser       Reese hardening plant in Bochum
beam hardening we cannot help
but conclude that the peculiarities of this method stand in the way of its broad introduction
into industrial practices and, in particular, in the services sector. There are recognizable
advantages, and the future will bring areas of application where a simple guided beam is used
to harden areas that are otherwise difficult to access or are too narrow for existing
technologies. One typical example is the partial hardening of cylinder liners for large diesel
units. What we observe here is an abrupt transition between the hardened surface layer and
the hardened core. The effects of this hardness gradient on the engineering properties of laser
hardened surface layers have not yet been investigated to any great degree.
The potential uses of electron beam hardening can be evaluated in the same manner as laser
beam hardening. Yet we must consider in addition the requisite high vacuum technology,
which involves essentially higher costs for the integration in industrial processes.
In the case of grind hardening [1], this has been a topic of discussion over the last few years
as a new surface hardening method that can be integrated in today’s processes. Depending on
the process parameters, effective depths of hardening (martensite surface layer) of up to 2 mm
are possible. The reproducibility of the results obtained so far with this heat treatment is
satisfactory. However, unadapted grinding tools are still limiting at present the effectivity of
this method. So the next few years will not be seeing it as an alternative to induction or flame
The four job hardening plants of the Reese Group have for many years now been enjoying
great success in providing their customers with flame and induction hardening services
(Figure 1). Inhouse development projects have culminated in optimized methods and
solutions tailored to specific components.

2 Induction and flame hardening
This section describes the two methods of induction hardening and flame hardening and the
differences between them.

2.1 General
The fundamental differences between induction hardening and flame hardening lie in the
methods adopted to heat the surface layer to the quenching temperature.
With induction hardening, an alternating magnetic field generated by a current carrying
conductor (the inductor), whose form and dimensions must be adapted to obtain the required
heating effects, heats the surface layer by inducing eddy currents in the outer rim zones of the
workpiece (skin effect). A source
of alternating current supplies the
heating element with the required
power at the required frequency.
Once the eddy currents induced
in the workpiece have reached a
certain intensity, the surface of
the workpiece heats up rapidly.
This generation of heat takes
place directly in the surface layer
of the workpiece. The thickness
of the surface layer through
which the full induced current
flows is defined as the
penetration depth. This calculable
value is a function of the
frequency, conductivity, and the
magnetic properties of the              Figure 2
workpiece’s materials. This             Surface hardening with a burner
dependence on the frequency
gives rise to the established subdivision into medium and high frequency hardening methods.
The medium frequencies range from about 100 Hz to 10 kHz; for frequencies higher than
100 kHz we speak of HF hardening. When currents are induced at a fixed penetration depth,
varying the heating power and the heating time gives rise to a reproducible heating depth
which, depending on the quenching conditions and the hardenability characteristics of the
workpiece’s materials, finally leads to the formation of the required induction hardened layer
with a defined effective depth of hardening (Rht).
In the case of flame hardening, the surface of the workpiece is heated with a suitable burner
supplied with a mixture of fuel gas and technically pure oxygen (Figures 2 and 3). With this
method, heating is generated primarily by radiation: owing to the high transfer rate of 1000 to
6000 W/cm2, heat conduction plays only a subordinate
role. The effective depth of hardening is defined
primarily by the performance of the burner. Other
influencing parameters are the distance between the
burner and the workpiece surface, the feed rate, and the
austenitizing time.
For both methods the effective depth of hardening is
defined under DIN 50 190 as the distance between the
surface of a hardened workpiece and the point at which
the hardness corresponds to an appropriately defined limit
value. In general, this limit value is taken to be the
Vickers hardness (HV1) corresponding to 80% of the
minimum surface hardness. The metallographic processes
leading to the increase in hardness of the surface layer are
the same for both methods. Once the maximum possible              Figure 3
homogeneity of austenite has formed in the surface layer,         Flame hardening of a cable drum
the workpiece is quenched at a supercritical cooling rate
to give rise – as explained above – to the maximum possible proportion of martensite. The
quenching medium is usually water, but a mixture of water and synthetic polymers is finding
application in an increasing number of cases. Here, the polymer concentration varies between
6 and 12% depending on the composition of the steel, but also on the geometry of the
workpiece. Whichever is more convenient for the obtained effective depth of hardening,
either the Vickers or Rockwell C method is used to test the hardened surface.
In the case of induction hardening, the frequency, power, and heating time as well as the
transformation characteristics of the steel can all be combined to achieve effective depths of
hardening from 0.3 to 10 mm, and this value can be as high as 50 mm when the mains
frequency is used. In some special cases, also through hardening is possible. Flame hardening
can reach effective depths of penetration in carbon steels ranging from 2 to 4 mm. In alloy
steels, effective depths of hardening can be as high as 30 mm depending on the alloy content.
A great variety of steels and cast iron classes are suitable for surface hardening. Although
DIN 17 212 and EN 8670 contain a list of the “Flame and Induction Hardening Steels”, they
are far from exhausting the full range of steels suitable for surface hardening. These are all
unalloyed steels for quenching and tempering with carbon contents from 0.35 to 0.70% by
mass; low alloy steels, of which the steels 34CrMo4, 42CrMo4, and 50CrV4 are the classical
representatives; yet also certain cold work steels such as 85Cr7, 85CrMo7, 100Cr6, and
X125CrVMo12 1. Some special engineering cases involve the partial surface hardening of
rust and acid proof steels such as X20Cr13, X35CrMo17, X46Cr13, and X90CrMoV18. But
there are certain restrictions on the use of the free-cutting steels 35S20 and 60S20: the
sulphured inclusions frequently arranged in rows in semi-finished workpieces increase these
steels’ susceptibility to superficial cracking.
Flame and induction hardening of steel castings and cast iron has also enjoyed a successful
introduction. The optimal materials are spheroidal graphite cast iron with tensile strengths
between 600 and 800 N/mm2 (German standards GGG-60 to GGG-80). These materials
guarantee that the combined carbon content required for adequate surface hardening is greater
than 0.5% by mass and that the initial microstructure is predominantly pearlite or, in the case
of GGG-80, a microstructure suitable for quenching and tempering. Also a Brinell hardness
greater than 240 of the initial as-cast condition can be taken as a criterion for adequate
hardenability. In principle, the carbon content can be considered to correspond to the required
surface hardness and the alloy content to the required effective depth of hardening. These
considerations then facilitate the optimal choice of materials, thus minimizing costs without
affecting the quality. For example, only when the effective depth of hardening needed for a
certain fatigue strength cannot be obtained with a carbon steel, will the next higher quality,
i.e. an alloy steel, be chosen. These decisions should involve consultations with the
commissioned heat treatment providers at the earliest possible date. Qualified contact
personnel are available at all times at all Reese hardening plants. The table in the following
provides an initial overview of steels and cast iron classes suitable for surface hardening
together with the obtainable surface hardnesses and effective depths of hardening.
Also the heat treatment given to the workpiece before surface hardening should be
considered. Since both flame and induction hardening are short-time heat treatment methods,
it must be ensured that the initial microstructure can rapidly transform into homogeneous
austenite during the heating stage. The best results (including those conducive to strength) are
obtained with quenching and subsequent tempering. In special cases, above all where steels
with higher carbon contents are involved, normalized steels can also be used. However, steels
with 100% pearlite spheroidization should be avoided wherever possible as candidates for
surface hardening.
Also important before surface hardening is the clean state of the workpiece’s surface. A
general inspection should ensure that it is metallically clean and free of swarf, greases, and
other soiling matter. There are no specific requirements as regards the surface roughness, this
is stipulated solely by subsequent operations. Deep grooves at the edges of hardened zones
may be significant in the context of crack formation. In no event may the surface layer be
either carburized or decarburized, unless of
course the initial product is a carburized
Compared with the elegance of clean and
eco-friendly induction hardening, which
thanks to modern process computer control
can be easily integrated into the industrial
chain for mass produced parts, flame
hardening presents itself more as a robust
method. Nevertheless, its potential range of
variations and the progress achieved in its         Figure 4
development will make it difficult to replace       The induction hardening operations:
                                                    Full surface hardening (left) and progressive hardening (right)
for some time to come.

2.2 Induction hardening
At the Reese hardening plants, only the most suitable process technology [2] is used for
induction surface hardening. The solution required for the specific hardening job must lie
within the limits set by the respective materials engineering, electrical, and thermal
considerations, fulfil all engineering requirements, and adhere to the quality parameters. Only
so can costs be minimized for the hardened product.
In principle, there are two variants finding application in HF and MF hardening. These are
full surface hardening (a stationary method) and progressive hardening. All other designations
that have been coined for the various practical realizations in the heat treatment of particular
workpieces can be assigned to either of these two basic variants. Figure 4 illustrates these two
basic variants in diagrammatic form. “A” marks the inductors and “H2O” the quench nozzles
Full surface hardening is conducted in two stages. The first stage involves the inductively
induced heating of the surface layer to the required quenching temperature. Directly
afterwards, or after a compensation time based on the workpiece’s material, the second stage
quenches the whole heated surface. One particular example is the partial hardening of
                                  In progressive hardening, heating to the quenching
                                  temperature and quenching take place almost simultaneously.
                                  This requires a continuous relative motion between the
                                  workpiece and the quench nozzles fixed rigidly to the
                                  inductor. The area of the workpiece heated by the inductor
                                  then enters the quenching zone, where supercritical cooling
                                  gives rise to the microstructure for the induction hardened
                                  layer. The optimal transformation of the microstructure is
                                  defined by the relative speed between the workpiece and the
                                  inductor-quench unit, i.e. the time for the heated surface of
                                  the workpiece to enter the quenching zone.
                                  When the workpiece rotates during progressive hardening,
                                  then we have combined spin and progressive hardening. This
                                  variant of progressive hardening is used, for example, for the
                                  surface hardening of shafts (Figure 5), axles, pins, connecting
                                  rods, and rollers. Purely progressive hardening is used
                                  primarily for hardening guide ways, machine beds, and guide
                                  Another, special variant of progressive hardening is
                                  circumferential slip hardening. This is used for hardening
                                  slide ways on rings, sprockets, and bushes. Here the
                                  workpiece rotates slowly past the inductor-quench unit. At
Figure 5                          both edges of the hardened zone there is a slip area of
Induction hardening of a shaft    between 10 and 20 mm that exhibits a lower hardness value.
                                  So that this lower hardness value cannot have any detrimental
effect on the product’s proper functioning, this slip zone is placed wherever possible under an
angle of 30–45°. In many cases it is also relief-ground.
Gaining in importance is the induction surface hardening of gear teeth (Figure 6). Here, tooth
profiles are hardened to minimize wearing,
and / or the roots of the teeth hardened to
enhance their load bearing strength. For some
special gear pairs, the tooth profiles of gears
are often hardened together with the roots of
the pinion’s teeth. The effective depth of
hardening is defined as a function of the
gear’s module. The Reese hardening plant in
Bochum can induction-harden gearwheels
and sprockets with modules up to 60,
diameters up to 5500 mm, and masses up to
13 t. What must be considered here is that the
applicability of induction surface hardening
on gearwheels is defined by the loads on the
respective component.
According to the present level of knowledge,
the load bearing capacity of induction
hardened quenched and tempered materials is
only 20% lower than case hardened steels,
whereby in case hardening the additional
qualities of strength and ductility for the
surface and core can be defined                      Figure 6
                                                  Induction hardening of tooth profiles and roots
independently of each other by the selection of materials and the heat treatment method. In
other words, the potential cost benefits of induction hardening are offset by drawbacks
respecting the strength of the hardened components. Consequently, total costs that include
such aspects as lightweight engineering, material procurement, and warehousing must be
recalculated from case to case.
With respect to the internal stresses that induction hardening sets up in the workpiece’s
surface layer, not only the effective depth of hardening, but also the development of hardness
from the surface to the core is of significance. In particular, workpieces designed for cyclic
loading should run through a process control sequence ensuring that a gentle transition is
generated between the surface microstructure and the heat treatable microstructure of the base
metal. As a rule, compression stresses are set up in the induction hardened layer that become
tensile stresses at the edges of the hardened zone. This therefore gives rise to the requirement
that the edges of hardened zones must never be near fillets, notches, or grooves, but that these
areas must be included in the hardened zone.
With partial induction surface hardening, dimensional and shape changes occur to a far less
degree than with volume hardening. However, even here the volume changes brought about
by the microstructural transformations in the induction hardened layer have the same
relevance as with every other martensite hardening. The Reese hardening plants integrate
computer aided solutions to compensate for any dimensional changes that cannot be justified
by the technology. In this case, a practical combination of parameters from production
technology, materials engineering, and heat technology ensures that the thermal expansion of
shafts and threaded spindles, which would be as high as 6 mm during the heat treatment, is
kept to less than 0.2 mm. This new possibility of defining in advance material properties and
dimensional changes and of integrating these as far back as in the green sand mould will
greatly assist the operator in minimizing subsequent metalworking and the associated tool
costs. Depending on the workpiece’s geometry, warpage can be limited to a great degree by
suitable precautions taken on the hardening machine. These precautions include suitable
forced guides for the workpiece and a resilient inductor mount following precisely the
coupled distance between the inductor and the workpiece. The overall result of the heat
treatment is defined to a great extent by the uniformity of the hardened surface layer and its
dimensional fidelity. After careful sampling, the Reese hardening plants employ modern
control technologies ensuring reproducible, uniform hardened surface layers. Exact inductor
adjustments at the respective surfaces of the workpiece ensure a warp free formation of the
hardened surface layer. These adjustments often necessitate considerable investments in the
development and construction of the inductor or the whole inductor-quench unit.
The Reese hardening plants manufacture their own inductors that are then adapted precisely to
each specific job. In the case of repetition parts, an attempt is made to assign inductors and
quench nozzles to a workpiece family. This procedure of course assumes that the dimensions
of the part specified on the drawing are binding. The same also applies to agreed deviations
for the exact positioning of the workpiece during the hardening process, even if the
subsequent effects have not been given tolerances on the drawing. Experience has shown that
direct contact with the customer helps to realize simple and economical solutions by
influencing the design of the hardening zones as early as the development stage.

2.3 Flame hardening
Just as with induction hardening, flame hardening also involves several different operating
methods depending on the type of motion between the burner and the workpiece. Which
operating method is used depends primarily on the shape of the workpiece (Figure 7).
Specific hardening variants are the stationary method, spin method, progressive method, the
circumferential progressive method, and the Vorschub-Schlupfhärten.
With the stationary method, both the burner and the workpiece are stationary for the whole
duration of heating. Afterwards the burner yields its place to quench nozzles, or the workpiece
is submerged in a cooling bath. This method is used primarily for hardening smaller surfaces
and is ideal for series produced parts.
The spin method is used for circular workpieces that rotate for the whole duration of the
hardening process. These workpieces are rollers, cylinders, and bearing surfaces.
With the progressive method, only a narrow linear strip is heated along the workpiece, which
is then quenched. Such workpieces include guide ways, dies, and slide ways on machine beds.
With the circumferential progressive
method, cylindrical parts are first heated by
moving through an annular or segmented
burner arrangement and then immediately
quenched by nozzles arranged at the same
The progressive slip method operates in the
same manner as the analogous unit for
induction heating, but the combination of
inductor and nozzles is replaced with a
stationary burner-quench unit. Again, the
edges of the hardening zone exhibit lower
hardness values which must be taken into
consideration in the design of the parts.
In the specific case of large impellers, the
Bochum hardening plant has developed a
method that has been gaining in practical
importance. This method generates a special
surface layer composite endowing impellers
with the optimal material properties, namely
a surface layer of martensite which has
                                                 Figure 7
undergone an isothermal transformation to        Flame hardening of a hub
produce a base layer of a tough and hard
microstructure from the lower bainite range. This combination of tough and hard properties in
the base layer serves not only to increase the number of stress cycles needed to generate
cracks, but also impedes their propagation. Hence, the useful life of these impellers could be
extended many times over, and the risk of failure minimized.

3 Finishing methods
Since the martensite surface layers generated by induction and flame hardening are relatively
brittle, the hardened surface layer usually undergoes subsequent stress relieving or tempering.
Tempering takes place at a temperature between 120 and 150 °C, as a rule in conventional
electric resistance furnaces. Yet the utilization of residual heat to relieve stresses is also
possible. In an increasing number of cases, short-term induction tempering has been
successfully used on series produced parts. The decision as to which finishing method to use
depends on the part itself. Stress relieving or tempering initiates the transformation of
tetragonal martensite into cubic martensite and, at a quenching temperature greater than
240 °C, the transformation of the remaining austenite. Subzero refrigeration after surface
hardening, followed by low temperature tempering also brings about the transformation of the
remaining austenite without essential losses in hardness. One typical example is the induction
hardening of cold rollers with the progressive method.
To a certain restricted extent, mechanically adjusting parts with induction hardened surfaces
can also be employed as a means to correct warpage. The parts can be adjusted either before
or after stress relieving or tempering. Adjusting methods include beating out, straightening,
and pressing in a flattener or on a dressing bench. Only many years of experience can
adequately foresee the outcome. With the aim of straightening large components, the Reese
hardening plant in Bochum operates the largest precision straightening press in Germany.
With a maximum press force of 8000 kN this computer controlled press can straighten high
strength components with diameters exceeding 300 mm and lengths up to 10 m. The obtained
straightening precision is 0.02 mm.

Obtainable surface hardnesses and effective depths of hardening for surface hardenable steels and
cast iron classes
4 Concluding remarks
The Reese hardening plants, whose quality management is certified in accordance with DIN
EN ISO 9001, gives a high priority to quality assurance. As a result, all surface hardened parts
are subjected to a stringent outgoing goods inspection. Besides the checks on the requisite
surface hardness, these inspections include the determination of the effective depth of
hardening on sample parts in accordance with DIN 50 190, diverse crack detection measures,
and metallographic examinations. Unfortunately, designers still attach too little importance to
surface hardening. Notwithstanding, these inhibitions can easily be overcome in direct
consultation with specialists in the field of heat treatment. The use of modern surface
hardening technology and the corresponding knowhow in this field can offer better and more
economical solutions to your heat treatment problems than, for example, conventional case

[1] Brochhoff, T.; Brinksmann, E.: Prozeßintegrierte Wärmebehandlung durch Schleifhärten.
HTM 54 (1999) 2, pp 117–121
[2] Liebmann, G.: Induktionshärtungsschichten. Verschleißkatalog 1997, Arbeitsblatt 1.3
[3] Company brochures from Elotherm GmbH in Remscheid

The author
Dr.-Ing. G Liebmann was born in 1932 and studied materials engineering as an external
student at the Bergakademie Freiburg. In 1979 he received his doctorate at the same institute.
Until 1991 he worked as a research assistant at the material laboratories of VEB Carl Zeiss
Jena (now Jenoptik GmbH) where he ran the department for heat treatment. At the end of
1991 he assumed the post of head engineer at Härterei Reese Weimar GmbH & Co. KG,
where he has been entrusted with confidential duties since 1992. In 1996 he was elected to the
managing board of AWT.

Shared By: