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The word prejudice refers to prejudgment, or forming an opinion before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case. The word is often used to refer to preconceived, usually unfavorable, judgments toward people or a person because of gender, political opinion, social class, age, disability, religion, sexuality, race/ethnicity, language, nationality or other personal characteristics. In this case, it refers to a positive or negative evaluation of another person based on their perceived group membership.[1] Prejudice can also refer to unfounded beliefs[2] and may include "any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence."[3] Gordon Allport defined prejudice as a "feeling, favorable or unfavorable, toward a person or thing, prior to, or not based on, actual experience."[4]

Historical approaches[edit]

The first psychological research conducted on prejudice occurred in the 1920s. This research attempted to prove white supremacy. One article from 1925 reviewing 73 studies on race concluded that the studies seemed “to indicate the mental superiority of the white race”.[5] These studies, along with other research, led many psychologists to view prejudice as a natural response to inferior races.

In the 1930s and 1940s, this perspective began to change due to the increasing concern about anti-Semitism. At the time, theorists viewed prejudice as pathological and thus looked for personality syndromes linked with racism. Theodor Adorno believed prejudice stemmed from an authoritarian personality. Adorno described authoritarians as “rigid thinkers who obeyed authority, saw the world as black and white, and enforced strict adherence to social rules and hierarchies”.[6] Adorno believed people with authoritarian personalities were the most likely to be prejudiced against groups of lower status.


In the 1970s, research began to show that prejudice tends to be based on favoritism towards one’s own groups, rather than negative feelings towards another group. According to Marilyn Brewer, prejudice "may develop not because outgroups are hated, but because positive emotions such as admiration, sympathy, and trust are reserved for the ingroup."[8]


Contemporary theories and empirical findings[edit]

Social psychologist Henri Tajfel and colleagues found that ingroup favoritism can occur even in groups with no prior social meaning. In the minimal group experiments, participants were assigned into groups based on something trivial, such as a coin toss. These participants would then exhibit in-group favouritism, giving preferential treatment to in-group members.[9]

The out-group homogeneity effect is the perception that members of an out-group are more similar (homogenous) than members of the in-group. Social psychologists Quattrone and Jones conducted a study demonstrating this with students from the rival schools Princeton and Rutgers.[10] Students at each school were shown videos of other students from each school choosing a type of music to listen to for an auditory perception study. Then the participants were asked to guess what percentage of the videotaped students’ classmates would choose the same. Participants predicted a much greater similarity between out-group members (the rival school) than between members of their in-group.


The realistic conflict theory states that competition between limited resources leads to increased negative prejudices and discrimination. This can be seen even when the resource is insignificant. In the Robber’s Cave experiment,[12] negative prejudice and hostility was created between two summer camps after sports competitions for small prizes. The hostility was lessened after the two competing camps were forced to cooperate on tasks to achieve a common goal.

Another contemporary theory is Integrated Threat Theory (ITT) developed by Walter G Stephan.[13] It draws from and builds upon several other psychological explanations of prejudice and ingroup/outgroup behaviour, such as Realistic Group Conflict Threat and symbolic racism.[14] It also uses the Social Identity Theory perspective as the basis for its validity, that is, it assumes that individuals operate in a group-based context where group memberships form a part of individual identity. ITT posits that outgroup prejudice and discrimination is caused when individuals perceive an outgroup to be threatening in some way. ITT defines four threats:

  • Realistic threats
  • Symbolic threats
  • Intergroup anxiety
  • Negative stereotypes

Realistic threats are tangible, such as competition for a natural resource or a threat to income. Symbolic threats arise from a perceived difference in cultural values between groups or a perceived imbalance of power—for example, an ingroup perceiving an outgroup’s religion as incompatible with theirs. Intergroup anxiety is a feeling of uneasiness experienced in the presence of an outgroup or outgroup member, which constitutes a threat because interactions with other groups cause negative feelings (e.g., a threat to comfortable interactions). Negative stereotypes are similarly threats, in that individuals anticipate negative behaviour from outgroup members in line with the perceived stereotype, for example, that the outgroup is violent. Often these stereotypes are associated with emotions such as fear and anger. ITT differs from other threat theories by including intergroup anxiety and negative stereotypes as threat types.

Additionally, Social Dominance Theory states that society can be viewed as group-based hierarchies. In competition for scarce resources such as housing or employment, dominant groups create prejudiced "legitimizing myths" to provide moral and intellectual justification for their dominant position over other groups and validate their claim over the limited resources.[15] Legitimizing myths, such as discriminatory hiring practices or biased merit norms, work to maintain these prejudiced hierarchies.

Prejudice can be a central contributing factor to depression.[16] This can occur in someone who is a prejudice victim, being the target of someone's else's prejudice, or when people have prejudice against themselves that causes their own depression.

Controversies and prominent topics[edit]



The term sexism is generally linked to negative sentiments with regard to females that derive from the belief that females are worth less or less capable than males.[17] The discussion of such sentiments, and actual gender differences and stereotypes continue to be controversial topics. Throughout history, women have been thought of as being subordinate to men, often being ignored in areas like the academic arena or belittled altogether. Traditionally, men were thought of as being more capable than women, mentally and physically.[17] In the field of Social Psychology, prejudice studies like the “Who Likes Competent Women” study led the way for gender-based research on prejudice [17] This resulted in two broad themes or focuses in the field: the first being a focus on attitudes toward gender equality, and the second focusing on people’s beliefs about men and women [17] Today studies based on sexism continue in the field of psychology as researchers try to understand how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors influence and are influenced by others.


Nationalism is a sentiment based on common cultural characteristics that binds a population and often produces a policy of national independence or separatism.[18] It suggests a “shared identity” amongst a nation's people that minimizes differences within the group and emphasizes perceived boundaries between the group and non-members.[19] This leads to the assumption that members of the nation have more in common than they actually do, that they are “culturally unified,” even if injustices within the nation based on differences like status and race exist.[19] Nationalism, during times of conflict between one nation and another, is controversial since it may function as a buffer for criticism when it comes to the nation’s own problems since it makes the nation’s own hierarchies and internal conflicts appear to be natural.[19] It may also serve a way of rallying the people of the nation in support of a particular political goal.[19] Nationalism usually involves a push for conformity, obedience, and solidarity amongst the nation’s people and can result, not only in feelings of public responsibility, but also a narrow sense of community due to the exclusion of those who are considered outsiders.[19] Since the identity of nationalists is linked to their allegiance to the state, the presence of strangers who do not share this allegiance may result in hostility.[19]


Classism is defined by the World English Dictionary as, “...a biased or discriminatory attitude on distinctions made between social or economic classes.”[20] The idea of separating people based on class is controversial in itself. Some argue that economic inequality is an unavoidable aspect of society, so there will always be a ruling class.[21] Some also argue that even within the most egalitarian societies in history, some form of ranking based on social status takes place. Therefore, one may believe the existence of social classes is a natural feature of society.[22] Others argue the contrary. According to anthropological evidence, for the majority of the time the human species has been in existence, we have lived in a manner in which the land and resources were not privately owned.[22] Also, when social ranking did occur, it was not antagonistic or hostile like the current class system.[22] This evidence has been used to support the idea that the existence of a social class system is unnecessary. Overall, society has yet to come to a consensus over the necessity of the class system, nor has society been able to deal with the hostility and prejudice that occurs because of the class system.

Sexual discrimination[edit]

One’s sexual orientation is a “predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality”.[23] Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are not immune to prejudice or stereotypes from the majority group. They may experience hatred from others because of their sexual preferences; a term for such intense hatred based upon one’s sexual orientation is homophobia. Due to what social psychologists call the vividness effect, a tendency to notice only certain distinctive characteristics, the majority population tends to draw conclusions like gays flaunt their sexuality.[24] Such images may be easily recalled to mind due to their vividness, making it harder appraise the entire situation.[24] The majority population may not only think that homosexuals flaunt their sexuality or are “too gay,” but may also erroneously believe that homosexuals are easy to identify and label as being gay or lesbian when compared to others who are not homosexual.[25] The idea of heterosexual privilege seems to flourish in society. Research and questionnaires are formulated to fit the majority—heterosexuals. Print.</ref> This discussion of whether heterosexuals are the privileged group and whether homosexuals are a minimized group is controversial. Research shows that discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is a powerful feature of many labor markets. For example, controlling for human capital, studies show that gay men earn 10% - 32% less than heterosexual men in the United States, and that there is significant discrimination in hiring on the basis of sexual orientation in many labor markets.[26]


Racism is defined as the belief that races exist, that physical characteristics determine cultural traits, and that racial characteristics make some groups superior.[27] By separating people into hierarchies based upon their race, it has been argued that unequal treatment among the different groups of people is just and fair due to their genetic differences.[27] Racism can occur amongst any group that can be identified based upon physical features or even characteristics of their culture.[27] Though people may be lumped together and called a specific race, everyone does not fit neatly into such categories, making it hard to define and describe a race accurately.[27]


Religious discrimination[edit]

While various religions teach their members to be tolerant of those who are different and to have compassion, throughout history there have also been instances where religion has been used to promote hate.[28] Researchers have done various studies explore the relationship between religion and prejudice; thus far, they have received mixed results. A study done with US college students found that those who reported religion to be very influential in their lives seem to have a higher rate of prejudice than those who reported not being religious.[29] Other studies found that religion has a positive affect on people as far as prejudice is concerned.[29] This difference in results may be attributed to the differences in religious practices or religious interpretations amongst the individuals. Those who practice “institutionalized religion,” which focuses more on social and political aspects of religious events, are more likely to have an increase in prejudice.[30] Those who practice “interiorized religion,” in which believers devote themselves to their beliefs, are most likely to have a decrease in prejudice.[30]

Linguistic discrimination[edit]




Reducing prejudice[edit]

The contact hypothesis[edit]

The contact hypothesis predicts that prejudice can only be reduced when in-group and out-group members are brought together.[33] In particular, there are six conditions that must be met to reduce prejudice, as were cultivated in Elliot Aronson's Jigsaw Classroom.[33] First, the in- and out- groups must have a degree of mutual interdependence. Second, both groups need to share a common goal. Third, the two groups must have equal status. Fourth, there must be frequent opportunities for informal and interpersonal contact between groups. Fifth, there should be multiple contacts between the in- and the out- groups. Finally, social norms of equality must exist and be present to foster prejudice reduction.

Empirical research[edit]


See also[edit]


  1. ^ Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner. S. L. (2010). Intergroup bias. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (5th ed., Vol. 2). New York: Wiley.
  3. ^ Rosnow, Ralph L. (March 1972). "Poultry and Prejudice". Psychologist Today 5 (10): 53–6. 
  5. ^ Garth, T. Rooster. (1930). "A review of race psychology". Psychological Bulletin 27 (5): 329–56. doi:10.1037/h0075064. 
  6. ^ a b Plous, S. "The Psychology of Prejudice." Understanding Web. 07 Apr. 2011.[verification needed]
  7. ^ Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.[page needed]
  9. ^ Tajfel, H. (1982). Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.[page needed]
  10. ^ Quattrone, George A.; Jones, Edward E. (1980). "The perception of variability within in-groups and out-groups: Implications for the law of small numbers". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38: 141–52. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.1.141. 
  11. ^ Crandall, Christian S.; Eshleman, Amy (2003). "A justification-suppression model of the expression and experience of prejudice". Psychological Bulletin 129 (3): 414–46. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.414. PMID 12784937. 
  13. ^ Stephan, Cookie White; Stephan, Walter C.; Demitrakis, Katherine M.; Yamada, Ann Marie; Clason, Dennis L. (2000). "Women's Attitudes Toward Men: an Integrated Threat Theory Approach". Psychology of Women Quarterly 24: 63–73. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01022.x. 
  14. ^ Riek, Blake M.; Mania, Eric W.; Gaertner, Samuel L. (2006). "Intergroup Threat and Outgroup Attitudes: A Meta-Analytic Review". Personality and Social Psychology Review 10 (4): 336–53. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_4. PMID 17201592. 
  17. ^ a b c d Dovidio, John, Peter Glick, and Laurie Rudman. On the Nature of Prejudice. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 108. Print.
  18. ^ World English Dictionary
  20. ^ World English Dictionary, [1] "Classism"]
  23. ^ World English Dictionary, [2] "Sexual Orientation]
  24. ^ a b Anderson, Kristin. "Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 198. Print.
  25. ^ Anderson, Kristin. "Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 200. Print.
  28. ^ On the Nature of Prejudice. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 413. Print.
  32. ^ Crisp, Richard J.; Meleady, Rose (2012). "Adapting to a Multicultural Future". Science 336 (6083): 853–5. doi:10.1126/science.1219009. PMID 22605761. 
  34. ^ Pettigrew, Thomas F.; Tropp, Linda R. (2008). "How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Meta-analytic tests of three mediators". European Journal of Social Psychology 38 (6): 922–934. doi:10.1002/ejsp.504. 
  35. ^ Good, J. J.; Moss-Racusin, C. A.; Sanchez, D. T. (2012). "When do we confront? Perceptions of costs and benefits predict confronting discrimination on behalf of the self and others". Psychology of Women Quarterly 36: 210–226. doi:10.1177/0361684312440958. 

Further reading[edit]

  • MacRae, C. Neil; Bodenhausen, Galen V. (2001). "Social cognition: Categorical person perception". British Journal of Psychology 92: 239–55. doi:10.1348/000712601162059. 