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O.Venugopalan Maslow's theory of motivation its relevance and

application among non-managerial employees of selected public
and private sector undertakings in Kerala Thesis. Department of
Commerce & Management Studies, University of Calicut, 2007
Chapter 2


An attempt is made in this chapter to bring a theoretical base for


There are many competing theories, which attempt to explain the nature

of motivation. These theories are all, at least, partially true, and all help to explain

the behavior of certain people at certain times. However, the search for a

generalised theory of motivation at work appears a vain quest. Motivation varies

over time and depending up on the circumstances.

It is because of the complexity of motivation and the fact that there is

no single answer to what motivates people to work well, that these different

theories are important for the managers to guide them. They show that there are

many motives, which influence people's behavior and performance. The different
theories provide a framework within which direct attention is incorporated to the

problem of how best to motivate staff to work willingly and effectively. It is

important to emphasize that these various theories are not conclusive. These

different cognitive theories of motivation are usually divided into two contrasting

approaches1 : content theories and process theories.

Content theories attempt to explain those specific things, which actually

motivate the individual at work. These theories are concerned with identifying

people's needs and their relative strength, and the goals they pursue in order to

satis@ these needs. Content theories place emphasis on what motivates.

Process theories attempt to identify the relationship among the dynamic

variables, which make up motivation. These theories are more concerned with

how behavior is initiated, directed and sustained. Process theories place emphasis

on the actual process of motivation.

2.1 Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory

The most well known and pioneering theory of motivation is that of

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs. According to Maslow's hierarchy of

human needs, people are motivated by five basic needs. These needs are arranged

in the order in which a person seeks to gratifL them. These needs are:

1. Physiological needs - (food, clothing, shelter, etc.,)

2. The need for safety and security - (freedom from danger, job security,

health-care etc..,)

3. The need to belong - (Acceptance by the group, friendships, love etc.,)

4. The need for esteem - (Recognition by others, feeling of achievement


5. The need for seIf-actualization - (fulfillment of capacities)

The needs are arranged in order of importance under the assumption

that a lower level need is satisfied before the next higher level need becomes a

motivating factor. People try to satisfy their physiological needs first. When their

basic needs are ensured, they seek security, belongingness, esteem and finally self-

actualization. When one need is satisfied, next higher level need emerges to take

its place. People are always striving to satisfy the new needs that emerge.

Since the need hierarchy theory of Abraham Maslow is being the core

of study, this theory is dealt in detail in chapter I11 separately.

2.2 Alderfer's ERG Theory

2.3 Clayton Alderfer reorganized Maslow's Need hierarchy into three levels of

core needs: (1) Existence needs (2) Relatedness needs and (3) Growth needs -

hence the label ERG Theory 2.

Existence needs includes both physiological and safety needs; it

corresponds to the lower-order needs of Maslow's theory. Relatedness comprises

love and belongingness needs. Growth incorporates both esteem and self-

actualization needs. Relatedness and growth needs together comprise the higher

order needs as set by Maslow.

ERG Theory argues like that of Maslow that satisfied lower order needs

lead to the desire for satisfaction of higher order needs. But Alderfer states that

multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same time. An employee

frustrated in efforts to satis@ growth needs, for example, might be motivated to

satis@ the lower level relatedness needs.

2.3 Henberg's Two-Factor Theory

On the basis of extensive interviews with some 200 engineers and

accountants employed in l l industries in an around Pittsburgh area, U.S.A.,

Frederick Herzberg and his associates developed a Two factor3 model of

motivation. In the interviews they were asked about what kind of things on their

job made them unhappy or dissatisfied and what things made them happy or

satisfied. From the analysis they found that reported good feelings were associated

with job content factors4. Reported bad feelings, on the other hand, were
associated with the peripheral aspects of the job-the job context factors. The

intrinsic job content factors are the job satisfiers or motivators and the extrinsic

job context factors are the dissatisfiers or hygiene factors. Taken together, they

became known as Herzberg's dual factor theory.

2.3.(0 Hygiene Factors

Company policies and administration, supervision, working conditions,

security, status, salary, interpersonal relations are considered as maintenance


under which a job is performed. Maintaining a hygienic work environment will

not improve motivation. He found that the presence of hygiene factors will prevent

dissatisfaction but do not increase satisfaction or motivation and the absence of

which, increase dissatisfaction with the job. Hence he called these factors as

dissatisfiers/maintenance factors.

2.3.(ii) Motivators

Motivators are associated directly to the content of job itself. These

factors include achievement, recognition, advancement, work itself, responsibility,

growth etc. The presence of motivators leads to satisfaction whereas the absence

of which will prevent both satisfaction and motivation5.

According to Herzberg's theory, only challenging jobs that have the

opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and

growth will motivate personnel.

2.3.(iii) Relation to Maslow Theory

Herzberg's theory is closely related to Maslow's need hierarchy. On a

comparison, one can see that the maintenance or hygiene factors are roughly

equivalent to Maslow's lower level needs and the motivators are roughly

equivalent to Maslow's higher level needs.

2.4 Achievement Motivation

David McClelland and his associates (Notably John Atkinson), focused

on needs similar to the higher order (social and esteem) needs identified by

Maslow. McClelland's needs theory, also called Achievement motivation t h e o d

is concerned with how individual needs and environmental factors combine to

form three basic human motives.

2.4.(i) Need for Achievement (n Ach):

People who want to take responsibility for finding solutions to

problems, who seek challenge, who is willing to work hard and who has the

mental vigor to reach the ultimate goal are considered to have a high need for

achievement. Achievement motivated people tend to get more pay raises and are

promoted faster because they are constantly trying to think of better ways of doing

things. They have a desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has

been done before. This drive is the achievement need.

2.4. (ii) Need For Power (n POW):

Need for power is the desire to have impact to be influential, and to

control others. A high need for power means that an individual seeks to influence

or control others. Individuals with this need are concerned with acquiring,

exercising and retaining power or influence over others. They prefer to be placed

into competitive and status oriented situations. They generally tend to seek

positions of leadership. Top level managers, politicians etc., have a high need for

2.4(iii)Need For Affiliation (n Aff):

Need for affiliation is related to the desire for affection and establishing

friendly relationships. People who have a high need for affiliation view the


motivated by the jobs that provide frequent interaction with colleagues. They

derive pleasure from being loved by the group.

Each of the McClelland's three motives evokes a different type of

feeling of satisfaction. Achievement motive tends to evoke a sense of

accomplishment, power motive tends to evoke a sense of authority and affiliation

motive tends to evoke love and affection. The most effective mixture of these

three motives depends on the situation. Different studies7 indicate that most

effective managers have a high need for power, a moderate need for achievement

and a low need for affiliation. Tools like Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) are

used to measure and determine the strength of these needs.

For the purpose of identifying the similarities in these theories, an

attempt has been made for comparing these four theories.

Figure 2.1

Comparison of needs in four theories of motivations


Self-actualisation Need for Power

Growth Motivators
Need for
Esteem or Ego

Belongingness and
Relatedness Need for Affiliation
Safety and Security

Source: Gordon R. Judith et al, Management and Organizational Behavior, Allyn

and Bacon, 1990, p.428.

The underlying concept of motivation is some driving force with in

individuals by which they attempt to achieve some goals in order to satisfy some

need or other. On a comparison of these Need Theories (Figure 2.1) it is seen that

the Existence Needs of Alderfer is roughly equal to Maslow's Physiological and

Safety Needs; The Relatedness Need of Alderfer and the Affiliation Need of

McClelland is more or less equivalent to the Social Needs of Maslow. The

Hygiene factors of Herzberg are nothing but the Physiological, Safety and love
Needs of Maslow. The Esteem and Self-actualization Needs of Maslow comprises

the Growth Needs set by Alderfer, the Need for Achievement, the Need for Power

set by McClelland and the Motivators of Herzberg.

2.5 Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas MC gregor proposeds two distinct views of human beings: one

basically negative, labeled Theory X and the other basically positive, labeled

Theory Y. These labels describe contrasting set of assumptions about human


Theory X assumes that most people prefer to be directed, are not

interested in assuming responsibility and want safety above all. It is the traditional

view of management that suggests that managers are required to coerce, control or

threaten employees in order to motivate them.

2.5.(i) Assumptions about Human Nature under Theory X:

1. Employees inherently dislike work, and whenever possible will attempt to

avoid it.

2. Employees are not ambitious, and they avoid responsibility.

3. Employees must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with

punishment to achieve organizational objectives.

4. Employees lack creative ability in solving organizational problems.

5. Employees seek security and economic rewards.

Theory X is a conventional approach of management, based on

traditional assumptions about human behavior. It is negative, traditional and

autocratic style. Drawing heavily on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Theory X

assumes that lower order needs dominate individuals. But in fact, Management by

direction and control may not be effective for motivating people whose

physiological and safety needs are reasonably satisfied and whose social, esteem

and self actualization needs are becoming predominant.

For having a more realistic and accurate understanding of human nature

and motivation, MC gregor developed an alternative theory of human behavior

called Theory Y. Theory Y is positive, participating and democratic. This theory

assumes that, people are not, by nature, lazy and unreliable. It postulates that

people can be basically self directed and creative at work, if properly motivated.

25.(ii) Assumptions about Human Nature under Theory Y:

l. Employees can view work as natural as play or rest.

2. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organizational needs.

They can exercise self-direction and self control, if they are properly


3. Employees have creative capacity in solving organizational problems.

4. An average employee learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept

but also to seek responsibility.

5. Self control is often indispensable in achieving organizational goals.

Thus Theory Y assumptions present a high degree of faith in the

capacity and potentiality of people. Theory Y assumes that higher order needs

dominate individuals. Unfortunately there is no conclusive evidence to confirm

that either set of assumptions are valid. Both Theory X and Theory Y assumptions

may be appropriate in a particular situation.

2.6 Immaturity - Maturity Theory

Cris ~ r ~ ~ has
r i postulated
s ~ a descriptive and multidimensional

developmental process along which individuals in an organization naturally grow

towards maturity. He has examined various industrial organizations to determine

the effect of management practices on individual behavior and their personal

growth in work environment. Argyris noticed that there are seven basic changes
that take place in the personality of individuals moving from immaturity to

maturity over the years. They are as follows: -

2.6.(i) Immaturity - Maturity Continuum

Passive - Active

Dependence - Independence

Behave in a few ways - Capable of behaving in many ways

Shallow abilities and interests - Developing stronger and deeper

Interests and abilities

Short time perspective Long time perspective

Subordinate Position - Equal or super ordinate position

Lack of self-awareness - Self-control and self-awareness.

People in work organizations will have a tendency to grow from an

infant to a matured state. But many organizations are structured and organized in

such a way that the management practices they follow will keep away the

employees from maturing. Employees are given minimal control over their

environment. They are expected to be passive, dependent and subordinate. If the

organization is too formal that it has definite plans, policies, procedures and

methods, an employee will need to be submissive and passive, which suggest a

Theory X type of organization.

In between a mature personality and a highly structured organization, an

employee has options like escape, fight or adaptN.

When the structure of the organization is too formal, where employee

has no control over their environment, he may escape by quitting the job, being

absent from work or getting promotion to higher levels. One can fight the system

by exerting pressure on the organization by means of informal groups or through

labor unions. Another way is to adapt to situations by developing an attitude of

apathy or indifference. This is the most unhealthy option that an employee chooses

- according to Argyris. He argues that management should provide a good work

climate in which every one has a chance to grow and mature as individuals".

Since employees can move from the state of immature behavior to mature

behavior, he supports Theory Y, propounded by MC gregor, and both (MC gregor

and Argyris) found that broadening individual's responsibility is beneficial to both

workers and the organization.

A change in the organization is essential so that individuals grow and

mature in it. This in turn will motivate employees, which will provide maximum
potential from them, in accomplishing organizational objectives. Thus Argyris

proposes that the existing bureaucratic - pyramidal organization structure (the

organizational counterpart to Theory X assumptions about people) should give

way to humanistic - democratic value system (the organizational counterpart to

Theory Y assumptions about people'2).

2.7 Vroom's Expectancy Theory

One of the most widely accepted explanations of motivation is Victor

room's" expectancy theory. Vroom proposed his expectancy theory in 1960's as

an alternative to the content models.

Vroom explains that motivation is a product of three factors, viz,

Valence (how much one wants a reward), Expectancy (one's estimate of the

probability that effort will result in successful performance) and Instrumentality

(one's estimate that performance will result in receiving the reward).

This motivational relationship is expressed in the form of a formula.

Motivation = V X E X I (Valence X Expectancy X Instrumentality)

Valence is the strength of a person's preference for a particular

outcome. It is the personal value workers place on the rewards they believe they

will receive for performance. When valence is high, motivation is also high.
Expectancy refers to a person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to

performance. Instrumentality is a person's perception of the probability that

certain outcomes are attached to performance. Thus an individual is motivated by

the perceived reward available to him for accomplishing a goal. For example, an

employee who feels that his promotion depends upon his excellent performance,

then there are two outcomes, namely, first level outcome, i.e., excellent

performance and the second level outcome, i.e., his promotion. Here his valence

should be considered. Valence for a reward is unique to each employee. His

valence, (i.e., strength of preference for the particular outcome) may be positive,

neutral or negative. If his desire for promotion is high, his valence will be positive.

If he is indifferent to promotion, valence will be zero and if he dislikes promotion,

then it will be negative. Here the employee would be motivated towards excellent

performance because of his preference to be promoted. The excellent performance,

i.e., the first level outcome is being seen as instrumental in getting his promotion,

i.e., second level outcome.

Thus according to Vroom, motivation is the product of valence,

expectancy and instrumentality. This theory represents a comprehensive, valid and

useful approach to understanding motivation".

2.8 Porter and Lawler Model

A much more complex model of work motivation based on expectancy

theory - probably a refined and extended Vroom's model was developed by L.W.

Porter and E.E awl er'^.

This theory states the relationship between efforts, performance,

rewards and satisfaction. The individual effort of an employee is basically

dependant upon the value of expected reward. Thus in anticipation of the expected

reward, employee effort leads to better performance. But for better performance, a

person must have the necessary abilities and skills. Efforts and performance

cannot be equated. In between them, traits and abilities have a play. The

performance leads to rewards - either intrinsic rewards which is one built in by

oneself for his good performance or extrinsic rewards like pay, promotion etc.

which are given by organization. Satisfaction is invariably connected with

rewards. If the actual rewards are greater than the perceived reward, employee gets

satisfaction and vice versa. This satisfaction will have an influence on the future

personal values.

Although this theory is proved to be quite complex and difficult to

measure, it is more applications oriented model. Despite its complexities, the

efforts - performance - reward - satisfaction system provides a very usefbl tool for

understanding human behaviour in organizations.

2.9 Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory applies the behaviorist learning theories to

motivation. Also called Organizational Behaviour Modification Theory or O.B.

Model developed by B.F Skinner is quite different from the cognitive theories of

motivation. While cognitive theories like Maslow's need hierarchy argues that

internal needs lead to behaviour, reinforcement theory states that external

consequences tend to determine behaviour. It ignores the inner state of needs of

the individual.

Reinforcement theory reveals that human behaviour can be explained in

terms of the previous positive or negative outcomes of that behaviour. This is truly

a behaviouristic approach where one can see that reinforcement conditions

behaviour. The repeating behaviors that people have learned will produce pleasant

outcomes. Those behaviors, which are rewarded, tend to be repeated and those

behaviors, which are either not rewarded or punished, tend to disappear.

Behaviour modification is based on the idea that behaviour depends on

its consequences and therefore, it is possible to control a number of employee

behaviors by manipulating their consequences. Skinner is of the opinion that

people's behaviour can be controlled and shaped by reinforcing desired behaviour

consecutively. When the reinforced behaviour is repeated, the unrewarded

behaviour tends to disappear. If the behaviour is not as precise as desired by a

superior, repeated reinforcements in the desired direction can move the actual

behaviour close to the desired behaviour. Thus reinforcement provides a strong

and powerfbl means of shaping behaviour. It should be applied in conjunction

with the principles of social learning16. Rewards or reinforcements must meet an

employee's specific needs and must be applied equitably. Management personnel

should have a clear idea about the behaviour they want to encourage and

consistent in reinforcing them.

2.10 Adam's Equity Theory

Evolved from social comparison theory, Adam's theory of ~ ~ u i t yis"

considered as one of the popular social exchange theories, gained widespread

attention only in the recent past. Developed by J. Stacy Adams, Equity theory

states that a major input into job performance and satisfaction is the degree of

equity or inequity that people perceive in their work situation.

In simple terms, this theory states that equity occurs when the ratio of a

person's outcome to his inputs equals to the ratio of another person's output to
inputs. Inequity occurs when a person perceives that the ratio of his outcomes to

inputs and the ratio of a relevant other's outcomes to inputs are unequal. Here, the

inputs (ex: education, social status, qualifications, age, organizational positions

etc) and outputs (ex: rewards such as pay, promotion, the intrinsic interest in the

job etc) of a person and other are based up on the person's perceptions. Equity

theory assumes that people assess their performance and attitudes by comparing

both their contribution to work and the benefits they derive from it to the

contributions and benefits of another person. Equity theory further states that a

person is motivated in proportion to the perceived fairness of the rewards received

for a certain amount of effort as compared to others. The theory recognizes that

individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards they

receive for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what

others receive. People make judgments as to the relationship between their inputs

and outcomes and the inputs and outcomes of others.

Equity theory tells that individuals are motivated to reduce any

perceived inequity18. They strive to make the ratios of outcomes to inputs equal.

When inequity exists, the person making the comparison strives to make the ratios

equal by changing either the outcomes or the inputs, thereby return to a condition

of equity.
This process theory of motivation is not free from criticism. It is

difficult to assess the perception of employees. It is quite difficult to choose

another comparable person. Nevertheless, Equity theory continues to offer some

important insights in to employee motivation.

2.11. Motivation is a basic psychological process. It is the willingness to put

forth effort in the pursuit of organizational objectives. Various theories have been

associated with motivation - need theories, expectancy theories, reinforcement

theory, equity theory etc.

Maslow theory states that individuals have a hierarchy of needs-from

the most basic needs to the highest level of self - actualization. Alderfer refined

the Maslow's theory into three need categories: Existence, Relatedness and

Growth. This theory is known as ERG theory. McClelland and his associates

focused on needs similar to the higher order needs set by Maslow. McClelland

identified the three motives: Need for power, Need for achievement and the Need

for Affiliation. Among this the need for power tops the other needs. Herzberg and

his associates viewed motivation under two sets of factors -job context factors and

job content factors in the context of job environment. Herzberg model is useful as

an explanation for job satisfaction.

The management of any business organization should have a proper

understanding on some philosophies of human nature such as MC Gregor's Theory

X and Theory Y, which exemplifies the positive and negative assumptions about

human nature. Argyris' Immaturity - maturity Theory says that people in work

organizations will have a tendency to grow from an infant to a matured state. What

is required is that the organization should be flexible enough to adjust the growth,

which is beneficial both to the workers and the organization.

The expectancy model of Vroom and the extensions and refinements

provided by Porter and Lawler help explain the important cognitive variables and

how they relate to one another in the complex process of work motivation. Added

to this, Porter and Lawler model explains the relationship of various variables in

between efforts and satisfaction. In reinforcement theory, human behaviour is

explained in terms of the previous positive or negative outcomes of that behaviour.

Equity theory assumes that people assess their performance and attitudes by

comparing their contribution to work and the benefits they derive from it to those

of a comparable other.

Abraham H. Maslow is the pioneer who developed the theory of

motivation. All subsequent theories on motivation have been developed based on

his need hierarchy theory. In spite of various limitations argued against it, this

theory still holds good as it work with aspirations of human needs.


l . Mullins J Laurie, Op. Cit., p.254.

2. Alderfer C P, "An Empirical Test of a New Theory of Human Needs",

Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, May 1969, pp. 142 - 175.

3. Herzberg F, Mausner Bernad and Synderman B, The Motivation to Work, John

- Wiley, New York, 1959.

4. Rao V S P and Narayana P S, Organization Theory and Behaviour, Vani

Educational Books, 1986, p.448.

5. Ibid.

6 McClelland D C, Atkinson J W, Clark R A and Lowell E L, The Achievement

W' Motive, Appleton - Century Crofts Inc, New York, 1953.

7. Gordon R Judith, Wayne Mondy R, Sharplin Arthur, Premeaux R Shane,

Management and Organizational Behaviour, Allyn and Bacon, 1990, p.435.

8. MC Gregor Douglas, The Human Side of Enterprise, MC Graw Hill, New York,

1960, pp. 30 - 41.

9. Argyris Cris, Personality and Organization, Harper and Row, New York, 1957.

10. Gordon R Judith et al., Op. Cit., p.426.

11. Hersey Paul and Blanchard ken, Op. Cit., p.62.

12. Ibid., p.59.

13. Vroom V H, Work and motivation, John Wiley, New York, 1964.
14. Rao V S P and Narayana P S, Op.Cit., p.426.

15. Porter L W and Lawler E E, Managerial Attitudes and Performance, Richard D

Irwin Inc, Homewood, 1968.

16. Gordon R Judith et al., Op.Cit., p.444.

17. Adams J S and Rosenbaum W D, "The Relationship of worker Productivity to

Cognitive Dissonance about Wage and Equity", Journal of Applied Psychology,

Vo1.46, 1962, pp. 161 - 164.

18. Gordon R Judith et al., Op. Cit., p.442.