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    * Achaemenid Empire *

    Hakhamaneshi,Hakhamaneshian Dynasty

    امپراطوری هخامنشی ، خاندان هخامنشیان

    Dynasty of kings that ruled in ancient Persia (550-331 BC)Achaemenian dynasty : Early Persian dynasty. It derives its name from Achaemenes, who is thought to have lived in the early 7th century BC. From his son Teispes were descended two lines of kings. The older line included Cyrus I, Cambyses I, Cyrus II or Cyrus The Great, and Cambyses II; the junior line began with Dariush I and ended with the death of Dariush III. Its greatest rulers were Cyrus II (559-529 BC), who actually established the Persian empire and from whose reign it is dated; Dariush I, who secured the borders from external threats; and Xerxes I, who completed many of Dariush's public works. At its height, the Achaemenian Empire reached from Macedonia to northern India and from the Caucasus Mountains to the Persian Gulf. The ruins of one of its capitals, Persepolis, survive from its golden age.Kings of the Achaemenid Empire:- Achaemenes of Persia- Ariaramnes of Persia, son of Teispes and co-ruler with Cyrus I- Arsames of Persia, son of Ariaramnes and co-ruler with Cambyses I- Teispes of Anshan, son of Achaemenes- Cyrus I of Anshan, son of Teispes- Cambyses I of Anshan, son of Cyrus I- Cyrus 2. the Great, son of Cambyses I, ruled from c.550-530 BCE (ruler of Anshan c. 559 BCE – conquered Media 550 BCE)- Cambyses 2., son of Cyrus the Great, ruled 529-522 BCE- Smerdis (Bardiya), alleged son of Cyrus the Great, ruled 522 BCE (Possibly an usurper)- Dariush I the Great, brother-in-law of Smerdis and grandson of Arsames, ruled 521-486 BCE- Xerxes I the Great, son of Dariush I, ruled 485-465 BCE- Artaxerxes I Longimanus, son of Xerxes I, ruled 465-424 BCE- Xerxes 2., son of Artaxerxes I, ruled 424 BCE- Sogdianus, half-brother and rival of Xerxes 2., ruled 424-423 BCE- Dariush 2. Nothus, half-brother and rival of Xerxes 2., ruled 423-405 BCE- Artaxerxes 2. Mnemon, son of Darius 2., ruled 404-359 BCE (see also Xenophon)- Artaxerxes I3. Ochus, son of Artaxerxes 2., ruled 358-338 BCE- Artaxerxes 4. Arses, son of Artaxerxes 3., ruled 338-336 BCE- Dariush 3. Codomannus, great-grandson of Darius 2., ruled 336-330 BCE (Wikipedia) - Achaemenid Empire
    Achaemenid Empire
    ←   ←   ←   ← 550–330 BC

    Standard of Cyrus the Great

    Achaemenid territorial expansion and greatest extent.
    Languages Persian Old Aramaic language Akkadian Median Elamite Sumerian
    Religion Zoroastrianism, Babylonian
    Government Feudal Monarchy
     -  559–529 BC Cyrus the Great
     -  336–330 BC Darius III
    Historical era Classical antiquity
     -  Persian Revolt 550 BC
     -  Conquest of Lydia 547 BC
     -  Conquest of Babylon 539 BC
     -  Conquest of Egypt 525 BC
     -  Greco-Persian Wars 499–449 BC
     -  Fall to Macedonia 330 BC
     -  500 BC 8,000,000 km² (3,088,817 sq mi)
     -  500 BC est. 50,000,000 
         Density 6.3 /km²  (16.2 /sq mi)
    Currency Daric, Siglos
    Today part of Countries today
    a. ^ Native language. b. ^ Official language and lingua franca. c. ^ Literary language in Babylonia.

    The Achaemenid Empire (/əˈkiːmənɪd/; Old Persian: Pārsa; New Persian: شاهنشاهی هخامنشی c. 550–330 BC), or First Persian Empire, was an empire based in Western Asia in Iran, founded in the 6th century BC by Cyrus the Great. The dynasty draws its name from king Achaemenes, who ruled Persis between 705 BC and 675 BC. The empire expanded to eventually rule over significant portions of the ancient world, which at around 500 BC stretched from parts of the Balkans (Bulgaria-Pannonia) and Thrace-Macedonia in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east, making it the largest empire the world had yet seen. The Achaemenid Empire would eventually control Egypt as well. It was ruled by a series of monarchs who unified its disparate tribes and nationalities by constructing a complex network of roads.


    In 480 BC, it is estimated that 50 million people lived in the Achaemenid Empire. According to Guinness World Records, the empire at its peak ruled over 44% of the world''s population, the highest such figure for any empire in history. It is noted in Western history as the antagonist of the Greek city states during the Greco-Persian Wars, for emancipation of slaves including the Jewish exiles in Babylon, and for building infrastructure such as a postal system and road systems, and the use of an official language, Aramaic, throughout its territories. The empire had a centralised, bureaucratic administration under a King and a large professional army and civil services, inspiring similar developments in later empires. The delegation of power to local governments eventually weakened the king''s authority, causing resources to be expended in attempts to subdue local rebellions. This accounts for the disunity of the region by the time Alexander the Great invaded Persia in 334 BC.

    This viewpoint however is challenged by some modern scholars who argue that the Achaemenid Empire was not facing any such crisis around the time of Alexander, and that only internal succession struggles within the Achaemenid family ever came close to weakening the empire. Alexander, an avid admirer of Cyrus the Great, would eventually cause the collapse of the empire and its disintegration around 330 BC into what later became the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire, in addition to other minor territories which gained independence at that time. The Persian culture of the central plateau, however, continued to thrive and eventually reclaimed power by the 2nd century BC.

    The historical mark of the Achaemenid Empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural, social, technological and religious influences as well. Many Athenians adopted Achaemenid customs in their daily lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange, some being employed by, or allied to the Persian kings. The impact of Cyrus the Great''s Edict of Restoration is mentioned in Judeo-Christian texts and the empire was instrumental in the spread of Zoroastrianism as far east as China. Even Alexander the Great adopted some of its customs, venerating the Persian kings including Cyrus the Great, and receiving proskynesis as they did, despite Macedonian disapproval. The Persian Empire would also set the tone for the politics, heritage and history of modern Persia (now called Iran).

    • 1 History
      • 1.1 Achaemenid Timeline
      • 1.2 Origin
      • 1.3 Formation and expansion
      • 1.4 Greco-Persian Wars
      • 1.5 The cultural phase
      • 1.6 Fall of the empire
      • 1.7 Descendants in later Iranian dynasties
    • 2 Government
    • 3 Military
      • 3.1 Navy
    • 4 Culture
      • 4.1 Languages
      • 4.2 Customs
      • 4.3 Religion
      • 4.4 Art and architecture
    • 5 Legacy
    • 6 Achaemenid kings and rulers
      • 6.1 Unattested
      • 6.2 Attested
    • 7 Gallery
    • 8 See also
    • 9 Notes
    • 10 References
    • 11 Further reading
    • 12 External links

    History Achaemenid Timeline

    Astronomical year numbering

    Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details Due to the short duration of their reigns, Smerdis (522 BC), Xerxes II and Sogdianus (both in 424 BC) are not shown.Part of a series on theHistory of Iran
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    Origin Main articles: Achaemenes, Teispids and Achaemenid family treeRelief of Cyrus the Great.


    Herodotus, Histories 1.101 & 125


    Despite its success and rapid expansion, the Achaemenid Empire was not the first Iranian empire, as by 6th century BC another group of ancient Iranian peoples had already established the Median Empire. The Medes had originally been the dominant Iranian group in the region, rising to power at the end of the 7th century BC and incorporating the Persians into their empire. The Iranian people had arrived in the region circa 1000 BC and had initially fallen under the domination of the Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC). However, the Medes and Persians (together with the Scythians and Babylonians) played a major role in the defeat of the Assyrians and establishment of the first Persian empire.

    The term Achaemenid is in fact the Latinized version of the Old Persian name Haxāmaniš (a bahuvrihi compound translating to "having a friend''s mind"), meaning in Greek "of the family of the Achaemenis." Despite the derivation of the name, Achaemenes was himself a minor 7th-century ruler of the Anshan (Ansham or Anšān) located in southwestern Iran. It was not until the time of Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II of Persia), a descendant of Achaemenes, that the Achaemenid Empire developed the prestige of an empire and set out to incorporate the existing empires of the ancient east, becoming the vast Persian Empire of ancient legend.

    At some point in 550 BC, Cyrus the Great rose in rebellion against the Median Empire (most likely due to the Medes'' mismanagement of Persis), eventually conquering the Medes and creating the first Persian empire. Cyrus the Great utilized his tactical genius, as well as his understanding of the socio-political conditions governing his territories, to eventually incorporate into the Persian Empire the neighbouring Lydian and Neo-Babylonian empires, also leading the way for his successor, Cambyses II, to venture into Egypt and defeat the Egyptian Kingdom.

    Cyrus the Great''s political acumen was reflected in his management of his newly formed empire, as the Persian Empire became the first to attempt to govern many different ethnic groups on the principle of equal responsibilities and rights for all people, so long as subjects paid their taxes and kept the peace. Additionally, the king agreed not to interfere with the local customs, religions, and trades of its subject states, a unique quality that eventually won Cyrus the support of the Babylonians. This system of management ultimately became an issue for the Persians, as with a larger empire came the need for order and control, leading to expenditure of resources and mobilization of troops to quell local rebellions, and weakening the central power of the king. By the time of Darius III, this disorganization had almost led to a disunited realm.

    The Persians from whom Cyrus hailed were originally nomadic pastoral people in the western Iranian plateau and by 850 BC were calling themselves the Parsa and their constantly shifting territory Parsua, for the most part localized around Persis (Pars). As Persians gained power, they developed the infrastructure to support their growing influence, including creation of a capital named Pasargadae and an opulent city named Persepolis.

    Begun during the rule of Darius the Great (Darius I) and completed some 100 years later, Persepolis was a symbol of the empire serving both as a ceremonial centre and a center of government. It had a special set of gradually progressive stairways named "All Countries" around which carved relief decoration depicted scenes of heroism, hunting, natural themes, and presentation of the gifts to the Achaemenid kings by their subjects during the spring festival, Nowruz. The core structure was composed of a multitude of square rooms or halls, the biggest of which was called Apadana. Tall, decorated columns welcomed visitors and emphasized the height of the structure. Later on, Darius the Great (Darius I) also utilized Susa and Ecbatana as his governmental centres, developing them to a similar metropolitan status.



    Formation and expansionThe tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid EmpireCyrus the Great king of Iran (ancient Persia) liberated the Hebrew captives in Babylon to resettle and rebuild Jerusalem, earning him an honored place in Judaism.Further information: Battle of the Persian Border, Persian Revolt, Battle of Pteria, Battle of Opis and Battle of Pelusium (525 BC)



    His immediate successors were less successful. Cyrus'' son Cambyses II conquered Egypt in 525 BC, but died in July 522 BC during a revolt led by a sacerdotal clan that had lost its power following Cyrus'' conquest of Media. The cause of his death remains uncertain, although it may have been the result of an accident.

    According to Herodotus, Cambyses II had originally ventured into Egypt to take revenge for the pharaoh Amasis''s trickery when he sent a fake Egyptian bride whose family Amasis had murdered, instead of his own daughter, to wed Cambyses II. Additionally negative reports of mistreatment caused by Amasis, given by Phanes of Halicarnassus, a wise counsellor serving Amasis, further enforced Cambyses''s resolve to venture into Egypt. Amasis died before Cambyses II could face him, but his successor Psamtik III was defeated by Cambyses II in the Battle of Pelusium.

    While Cambyses II was in Egypt, the Zoroastrian priests, whom Herodotus called Magi, usurped the throne for one of their own, Gaumata, who then pretended to be Cambyses II''s younger brother Bardiya (Greek: Smerdis or Tanaoxares/Tanyoxarkes), who had been assassinated some three years earlier. Owing to the strict rule of Cambyses II, especially his stance on taxation, and his long absence in Egypt, "the whole people, Perses, Medes and all the other nations," acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years (Herodotus iii. 68). Cambyses II himself would not be able to quell the imposters, as he died on the way back from Egypt.






    Achaemenid Empire around the time of Darius the Great and Xerxes.


    Greco-Persian Wars Main article: Greco-Persian Wars





    The cultural phase
    Achaemenid golden bowl with lion imagery.Ancient bracelet, Achaemenid period, part of Oxus Treasure, 500 BC, Iran



    From 412 Darius II (423–404 BC), at the insistence of the able Tissaphernes, gave support first to Athens, then to Sparta, but in 407 BC, Darius'' son Cyrus the Younger was appointed to replace Tissaphernes and aid was given entirely to Sparta which finally defeated Athens in 404 BC. In the same year, Darius fell ill and died in Babylon. At his deathbed, his Babylonian wife Parysatis pleaded with Darius to have her second eldest son Cyrus (the Younger) crowned, but Darius refused.


    Artaxerxes II (404–358 BC), was the longest reigning of the Achaemenid kings and it was during this 45-year period of relative peace and stability that many of the monuments of the era were constructed. Artaxerxes moved the capital back to Persepolis, which he greatly extended. Also the summer capital at Ecbatana was lavishly extended with gilded columns and roof tiles of silver and copper (Polybius, 27 October 2012). The extraordinary innovation of the Zoroastrian shrine cults can also be dated to his reign, and it was probably during this period that Zoroastrianism was disseminated throughout Asia Minor and the Levant, from Armenia. The construction of temples, though serving a religious purpose, was however not a purely selfless act: as they also served as an important source of income. From the Babylonian kings, the Achaemenids had taken over the concept of a mandatory temple tax, a one-tenth tithe which all inhabitants paid to the temple nearest to their land or other source of income (Dandamaev & Lukonin, 1989:361–362). A share of this income called the quppu ša šarri, "kings chest"—an ingenious institution originally introduced by Nabonidus—was then turned over to the ruler. In retrospect, Artaxerxes is generally regarded as an amiable man who lacked the moral fibre to be a really successful ruler. However, six centuries later Ardeshir I, founder of the second Persian Empire, would consider himself Artaxerxes'' successor, a grand testimony to the importance of Artaxerxes to the Persian psyche.


    According to Plutarch, Artaxerxes'' successor Artaxerxes III (358 – 338 BC) came to the throne by bloody means, ensuring his place upon the throne by the assassination of eight of his half-brothers. In 343 BC Artaxerxes III defeated Nectanebo II, driving him from Egypt, and made Egypt once again a Persian satrapy. In 338 BC Artaxerxes III died under unclear circumstances (natural causes according to cuneiform sources but Diodorus, a Greek historian, reports that Artaxerxes was murdered by Bagoas, his minister), while Philip of Macedon united the Greek states by force and began to plan an invasion into the empire.

    Artaxerxes III was succeeded by Artaxerxes IV Arses, who before he could act was also poisoned by Bagoas. Bagoas is further said to have killed not only all Arses'' children, but many of the other princes of the land. Bagoas then placed Darius III (336–330 BC), a nephew of Artaxerxes IV, on the throne. Darius III, previously Satrap of Armenia, personally forced Bagoas to swallow poison. In 334 BC, when Darius was just succeeding in subduing Egypt again, Alexander and his battle-hardened troops invaded Asia Minor.



    In the ensuing chaos created by Alexander''s invasion of Persia, Cyrus''s tomb was broken into and most of its luxuries were looted. When Alexander reached the tomb, he was horrified by the manner in which it had been treated, and questioned the Magi, putting them on trial. By some accounts, Alexander''s decision to put the Magi on trial was more an attempt to undermine their influence and display his own power than a show of concern for Cyrus''s tomb. Regardless, Alexander the Great ordered Aristobulus to improve the tomb''s condition and restore its interior, showing respect for Cyrus. From there he headed to Ecbatana, where Darius III had sought refuge.

    Darius III was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men murder Darius III and then declared himself Darius'' successor, as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia leaving Darius'' body in the road to delay Alexander, who brought it to Persepolis for an honorable funeral. Bessus would then create a coalition of his forces, in order to create an army to defend against Alexander. Before Bessus could fully unite with his confederates at the eastern part of the empire, Alexander, fearing the danger of Bessus gaining control, found him, put him on trial in a Persian court under his control, and ordered his execution in a "cruel and barbarous manner".

    Having conquered the Persian empire, Alexander was unable to offer a stable alternative. When he died his empire was divided among his generals (the Diadochi), and succeeded by a number of smaller states, the largest of which was the Seleucid Empire, ruled by the generals of Alexander and their descendants. They in turn would be succeeded by the Parthian Empire.

    Part of the cause of the Empire''s decline had been the heavy tax burden put upon the state, which eventually led to economic decline. An estimate of the tribute imposed on the subject nations was up to U.S. $180M per year. This does not include the material goods and supplies that were supplied as taxes. After the high overhead of government - the military, the bureaucracy, whatever the satraps could safely dip into the coffers for themselves - this money went into the royal treasury. At Persepolis, Alexander III found some 180,000 talents, besides the additional treasure the Macedonians were carrying that already had been seized in Damascus by Parmenio. This amounted to U.S. $2.7B. On top of this, Darius III had taken 8,000 talents with him on his flight to the north. Alexander put this static hoard back into the economy, and upon his death some 130,000 talents had been spent on the building of cities, dockyards, temples, and the payment of the troops, besides the ordinary government expenses. Additionally, one of the satraps, Harpalus, had made off to Greece with some 6,000 talents, which Athens used to rebuild its economy after seizing it during the struggles with the Corinthian League. Due to the flood of money from Alexander''s hoard entering Greece, however, a disruption in the economy occurred, in agriculture, banking, rents, the great increase in mercenary soldiers that cash allowed the wealthy, and an increase in piracy.

    Another factor contributing to the decline of the Empire after Xerxes was its failure to ever mold the many subject nations into a whole; the creation of a national identity was never attempted. This lack of cohesion eventually affected the efficiency of the military.

    Descendants in later Iranian dynasties

    Istakhr, one of the vassal kingdoms of the Parthian Empire, would be overthrown by Papak, a priest of the temple there. Papak''s son, Ardašir I, who named himself in remembrance of Artaxerxes II, would revolt against the Parthians, eventually defeating them and establishing the Sassanid Empire or as it is known the second Persian Empire.


    GovernmentThe Behistun Inscription tells the story of Darius the Great''s conquests, with the names of twenty-three satrapys subject to him.Behistun Inscription, column 1 (DB I 1–15)Modern impression of Achaemenid cylinder seal. The use of cylinder seals appears to have been restricted to officials of the royal administration during this period.

    Cyrus the Great founded the empire as a multi-state empire, governed by four capital states; Pasargadae, Babylon, Susa and Ekbatana. The Achaemenids allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A ''satrap'' (governor) was the vassal king, who administered the region, a ''general'' supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a ''state secretary'' kept the official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the satrap as well as the central government. At differing times, there were between 20 and 30 satrapies.

    Cyrus the Great created an organized army including the Immortals unit, consisting of 10,000 highly trained soldiers Cyrus also formed an innovative postal system throughout the empire, based on several relay stations called Chapar Khaneh.

    Darius the Great moved the capital from Pasargadae to Persepolis; he revolutionized the economy by placing it on a silver and gold coinage and introducing a regulated and sustainable tax system that was precisely tailored to each satrapy, based on their supposed productivity and their economic potential. For instance, Babylon was assessed for the highest amount and for a startling mixture of commodities – 1000 silver talents, four months supply of food for the army. India was clearly already fabled for its gold; the province consisting of the sindh and western Punjab regions of ancient northwestern India traded gold dust equal in value to the very large amount of 4680 silver talents for various commodities. Egypt was known for the wealth of its crops; it was to be the granary of the Persian Empire (as later of Rome''s) and was required to provide 120,000 measures of grain in addition to 700 talents of silver. This was exclusively a tax levied on subject peoples. Other accomplishments of Darius'' reign included codification of the data, a universal legal system, and construction of a new capital at Persepolis.

    Under the Achaemenids, the trade was extensive and there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire. Tariffs on trade were one of the empire''s main sources of revenue, along with agriculture and tribute.




    MilitaryMedian (left) and Persian (right) soldiers

    Despite its humble origins in Persis, the empire reached an enormous size under the leadership of Cyrus the Great. Cyrus created a multi-state empire where he allowed regional rulers, called the ''satrap'' to rule as his proxy over a certain designated area of his empire called the satrapy. The basic rule of governance was based upon loyalty and obedience of each satrapy to the central power, or the king, and compliance with tax laws. Due to the ethnocultural diversity of the subject nations under the rule of Persia, its enormous geographic size, and the constant struggle for power by regional competitors, the creation of a professional army was necessary for both maintenance of the peace, and also to enforce the authority of the king in cases of rebellion and foreign threat. Cyrus managed to create a strong land army, using it to advance in his campaigns in Babylonia, Lydia, and Asia Minor, which after his death was used by his son Cambyses II, in Egypt against Psamtik III. Cyrus would die battling a local Iranian insurgency in the empire, before he could have a chance to develop a naval force. That task however would fall to Darius the Great, who would officially give Persians their own royal navy to allow them to engage their enemies on multiple seas of this vast empire, from the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea, to the Persian Gulf, Ionian Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.


    Since its foundation by Cyrus, the Persian empire had been primarily a land empire with a strong army, but void of any actual naval forces. By the 5th century BC, this was to change, as the empire came across Greek, and Egyptian forces, each with their own maritime traditions and capabilities. Darius the Great (Darius I) is to be credited as the first Achaemenid king to invest in a Persian fleet. Even by then no true "imperial navy" had existed either in Greece or Egypt. Persia would become the first empire, under Darius, to inaugurate and deploy the first regular imperial navy. Despite this achievement, the personnel for the imperial navy would not come from Iran, but were often Phoenicians (mostly from Sidon), Egyptians, Cypriots, and Greeks chosen by Darius the Great to operate the empire''s combat vessels.



    The construction material of choice was wood, but some armored Achaemenid ships had metallic blades on the front, often meant to slice enemy ships using the ship''s momentum. Naval ships were also equipped with hooks on the side to grab enemy ships, or to negotiate their position. The ships were propelled by sails or manpower. The ships the Persians created were unique. As far as maritime engagement, the ships were equipped with two mangonels that would launch projectiles such as stones, or flammable substances.

    Xenophon describes his eye-witness account of a massive military bridge created by joining 37 Persian ships across the Tigris river. The Persians utilized each boat''s buoyancy, in order to support a connected bridge above which supply could be transferred. Herodotus also gives many accounts of Persians utilizing ships to build bridges. Darius the Great, in an attempt to subdue the Scythian horsemen north of the Black sea, crossed over at the Bosphorus, using an enormous bridge made by connecting Achaemenid boats, then marched up to the Danube, crossing it by means of a second boat bridge. The bridge over the Bosphorus essentially connected the nearest tip of Asia to Europe, encompasing at least some 1000 meters of open water if not more. Herodotus describes the spectacle, and calls it the "bridge of Darius":



    CultureThe ruins of PersepolisThe ruins of Tachara Palace located in Persepolis


    He further notes that:

    the most disgraceful thing in the world think, is to tell a lie; the next worst, to owe a debt: because, among other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies.





    King Darius then tells us,



    Thou who shalt be king hereafter, protect yourself vigorously from the Lie; the man who shall be a lie-follower, him do thou punish well, if thus thou shall think. May my country be secure!LanguagesThe Persian queen Atossa, Darius the Great''s wife and mother of Xerxes I




    CustomsAn Achaemenid drinking vessel.


    ReligionBas-relief of Farvahar at Persepolis, IranThe image of a lioness used as a pendant, late 6th–4th centuries BC, from Susa – Department of Oriental Antiquities, Louvre.





    Herodotus also observed that "no prayer or offering can be made without a magus present" but this should not be confused with what is today understood by the term magus, that is a magupat (modern Persian: mobed), a Zoroastrian priest. Nor does Herodotus'' description of the term as one of the tribes or castes of the Medes necessarily imply that these magi were Medians. They simply were a hereditary priesthood to be found all over Western Iran and although (originally) not associated with any one specific religion, they were traditionally responsible for all ritual and religious services. Although the unequivocal identification of the magus with Zoroastrianism came later (Sassanid era, 3rd–7th century AD), it is from Herodotus'' magus of the mid-5th century that Zoroastrianism was subject to doctrinal modifications that are today considered to be revocations of the original teachings of the prophet. Also, many of the ritual practices described in the Avesta''s Vendidad (such as exposure of the dead) were already practiced by the magu of Herodotus '' time.

    Art and architecture Main article: Achaemenid architectureWinged sphinx from the palace of Darius the Great at Susa, Louvre.Lion on a decorative panel from Darius I the Great''s palace, Louvre.












    • Achaemenes of Persia
    • Ariaramnes of Persia, son of Teispes and co-ruler with Cyrus I
    • Arsames of Persia, son of Ariaramnes and co-ruler with Cambyses I
    Attested Kings of Anshan King Reign (BC) Consort(s) Comments
    Teispes of Anshan 7th century son of Achaemenes, King of Anshan
    Kings of Persia (529–359 BC); Twenty-seventh dynasty of Egypt (525–399 BC) King Reign (BC) Consort(s) Comments
    Darius I the Great 521–486 Atossa Artystone Parmys Phratagune son-in-law of Cyrus the Great, son of Hystaspes, grandson of Arsames Armies defeated at Battle of Marathon in Greece.
    Xerxes I the Great 485–465 Amestris son of Darius I and Atossa Victorious at Battle of Thermopylae Defeated at Battle of Salamis
    Artaxerxes I Longimanus 465–424 Damaspia Cosmartidene Alogyne Andia son of Xerxes I and Amestris
    Xerxes II 424 son of Artaxerxes I and Damaspia


    Kings of Persia (358–330 BC); Thirty-first dynasty of Egypt (342–332 BC) King Reign (BC) Consort(s) Comments
    Artaxerxes III Ochus 358–338 son of Artaxerxes II and Stateira
    Artaxerxes IV Arses 338–336 son of Artaxerxes III and Atossa
    Darius III 336–330 Stateira I great-grandson of Darius II defeated by Alexander the Great
    • Panorama of Persepolis Ruins

    • Ruins of Throne Hall

    • Persepolis gifts

    • Apadana Hall, Persian and Median soldiers at Persepolis

    • Nowruz Zoroastrian

    • Lateral view of tomb of Cambyses I, Pasargadae, Iran

    See also
    Iran portal
    Ancient Near East portal
    • List of kings of Persia
    • Achaemenid family tree
    • Gaumata (False Smerdis)
  • ^ a b Yarshater (1996, p. 47)
  • ^ a b c http://www.livius.org/maa-mam/maka/maka.html
  • ^ a b c Behistun Inscription
  • ^ http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/opeol-MG-X.html
  • ^ http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/OldPersian/OPers5_End.pdf
  • ^ Aedeen Cremin (2007). Archaeologica: The World''s Most Significant Sites and Cultural Treasures. Global Book Publishing Pty Ltd. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-7112-2822-1. 
  • ^ http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-9000/largest-empire-by-percentage-of-world-population/
  • ^ a b Schmitt Achaemenid dynasty (i. The clan and dynasty)
  • ^ Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri VII, 11
  • ^ Plutarch, Alexander, 45
  • ^ Schlerath p. 36, no. 9.

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