
is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area. Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure and display pressure in an integral unit are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. A manometer is a good example as it uses a column of liquid to both measure and indicate pressure. Likewise the widely used Bourdon gauge
Bourdon gauge
is a mechanical device which both measures and indicates and is probably the best known type of gauge. A vacuum gauge is a pressure gauge used to measure pressures lower than the ambient atmospheric pressure, which is set as the zero point, in negative values (e.g.: -15 psi or -760 mmHg equals total vacuum). Most gauges measure pressure relative to atmospheric pressure as the zero point, so this form of reading is simply referred to as "gauge pressure". However, anything greater than total vacuum is technically a form of pressure. For very accurate readings, especially at very low pressures, a gauge that uses total vacuum as the zero point may be used, giving pressure readings in an absolute scale. Other methods of pressure measurement involve sensors which can transmit the pressure reading to a remote indicator or control system (telemetry).


1 Absolute, gauge and differential pressures — zero reference 2 Units 3 Static and dynamic pressure

3.1 Applications

4 Instruments

4.1 Hydrostatic

4.1.1 Piston 4.1.2 Liquid
column (manometer) 4.1.3 McLeod gauge

4.2 Aneroid

4.2.1 Bourdon Mechanical details

4.2.2 Diaphragm 4.2.3 Bellows 4.2.4 Magnetic coupling

4.3 Spinning rotor gauge

5 Electronic pressure sensors

5.1 Thermal conductivity

5.1.1 Pirani (one wire) 5.1.2 Two-wire

5.2 Ionization gauge

5.2.1 Hot cathode 5.2.2 Cold cathode

6 Dynamic transients 7 Calibration and standards 8 History 9 European (CEN) Standard 10 US ASME
Standards 11 See also 12 References 13 External links

Absolute, gauge and differential pressures — zero reference[edit] Everyday pressure measurements, such as for vehicle tire pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other specific reference. When distinguishing between these zero references, the following terms are used:

Absolute pressure
Absolute pressure
Gauge pressure
is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted. To distinguish a negative pressure, the value may be appended with the word "vacuum" or the gauge may be labeled a "vacuum gauge." These are further divided into two subcategories: high and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure ranges of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums have an overlap. Hence, by combining several different types of gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 10−11 mbar. Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.

The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are added only when clarification is needed. Tire pressure and blood pressure are gauge pressures by convention, while atmospheric pressures, deep vacuum pressures, and altimeter pressures must be absolute. For most working fluids where a fluid exists in a closed system, gauge pressure measurement prevails. Pressure
instruments connected to the system will indicate pressures relative to the current atmospheric pressure. The situation changes when extreme vacuum pressures are measured; absolute pressures are typically used instead. Differential pressures are commonly used in industrial process systems. Differential pressure gauges have two inlet ports, each connected to one of the volumes whose pressure is to be monitored. In effect, such a gauge performs the mathematical operation of subtraction through mechanical means, obviating the need for an operator or control system to watch two separate gauges and determine the difference in readings. Moderate vacuum pressure readings can be ambiguous without the proper context, as they may represent absolute pressure or gauge pressure without a negative sign. Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg gauge is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 30 inHg (typical atmospheric pressure) − 26 inHg = 4 inHg. Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure
is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with altitude and weather. If the absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure changes. For example, when a car drives up a mountain, the (gauge) tire pressure goes up because atmospheric pressure goes down. The absolute pressure in the tire is essentially unchanged. Using atmospheric pressure as reference is usually signified by a g for gauge after the pressure unit, e.g. 70 psig, which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus atmospheric pressure. There are two types of gauge reference pressure: vented gauge (vg) and sealed gauge (sg). A vented gauge pressure transmitter for example allows the outside air pressure to be exposed to the negative side of the pressure sensing diaphragm, via a vented cable or a hole on the side of the device, so that it always measures the pressure referred to ambient barometric pressure. Thus a vented gauge reference pressure sensor should always read zero pressure when the process pressure connection is held open to the air. A sealed gauge reference is very similar except that atmospheric pressure is sealed on the negative side of the diaphragm. This is usually adopted on high pressure ranges such as hydraulics where atmospheric pressure changes will have a negligible effect on the accuracy of the reading, so venting is not necessary. This also allows some manufacturers to provide secondary pressure containment as an extra precaution for pressure equipment safety if the burst pressure of the primary pressure sensing diaphragm is exceeded. There is another way of creating a sealed gauge reference and this is to seal a high vacuum on the reverse side of the sensing diaphragm. Then the output signal is offset so the pressure sensor reads close to zero when measuring atmospheric pressure. A sealed gauge reference pressure transducer will never read exactly zero because atmospheric pressure is always changing and the reference in this case is fixed at 1 bar. To produce an absolute pressure sensor the manufacturer will seal a high vacuum behind the sensing diaphragm. If the process pressure connection of an absolute pressure transmitter is open to the air, it will read the actual barometric pressure. Units[edit]


v t e

Pascal Bar Technical atmosphere Standard atmosphere Torr Pounds per square inch


1 Pa ≡ 1 N/m2 10−5 6995101970000000000♠1.0197×10−5 6994986919999999999♠9.8692×10−6 6997750060000000000♠7.5006×10−3 6996145037700000000♠1.450377×10−4

1 bar 105 ≡ 100 kPa ≡ 106 dyn/cm2

7000101970000000000♠1.0197 6999986920000000000♠0.98692 7002750060000000000♠750.06 7001145037700000000♠14.50377

1 at 7004980665000000000♠9.80665×104 6999980665000000000♠0.980665 ≡ 1 kgf/cm2 6999967841100000000♠0.9678411 7002735559200000000♠735.5592 7001142233400000000♠14.22334

1 atm 7005101325000000000♠1.01325×105 7000101325000000000♠1.01325 7000103319999999999♠1.0332 1 ≡ 7002760000000000000♠760 7001146959500000000♠14.69595

1 Torr 7002133322399999999♠133.3224 6997133322400000000♠1.333224×10−3 6997135955100000000♠1.359551×10−3 ≡ 1/760 ≈ 6997131578900000000♠1.315789×10−3 ≡ 1 Torr ≈ 1 mmHg


1 lbf/in2 7003689480000000000♠6.8948×103 6998689480000000000♠6.8948×10−2 6998703069000000000♠7.03069×10−2 6998680460000000000♠6.8046×10−2 7001517149300000000♠51.71493 ≡ 1 lbf /in2

fluctuations change the value of fluid density, while location can affect gravity. Although no longer preferred, these manometric units are still encountered in many fields. Blood pressure
Blood pressure
is measured in millimetres of mercury (see torr) in most of the world, and lung pressures in centimeters of water are still common, as in settings for CPAP machines. Natural gas pipeline pressures are measured in inches of water, expressed as "inches W.C." Scuba divers often use a manometric rule of thumb: the pressure exerted by ten meters depth of sea water ("10 msw") is approximately equal to one atmosphere. In vacuum systems, the units torr (millimeter of mercury), micron (micrometer of mercury),[2] and inch of mercury (inHg) are most commonly used. Torr and micron usually indicates an absolute pressure, while inHg usually indicates a gauge pressure. Atmospheric pressures are usually stated using hectopascal (hPa), kilopascal (kPa), millibar (mbar) or atmospheres (atm). In American and Canadian engineering, stress is often measured in kip. Note that stress is not a true pressure since it is not scalar. In the cgs system the unit of pressure was the barye (ba), equal to 1 dyn·cm−2. In the mts system, the unit of pressure was the pieze, equal to 1 sthene per square metre. Many other hybrid units are used such as mmHg/cm2 or grams-force/cm2 (sometimes as [[kg/cm2]] without properly identifying the force units). Using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force (or their symbols) as a unit of force is prohibited in SI; the unit of force in SI is the newton (N). Static and dynamic pressure[edit] Static pressure is uniform in all directions, so pressure measurements are independent of direction in an immovable (static) fluid. Flow, however, applies additional pressure on surfaces perpendicular to the flow direction, while having little impact on surfaces parallel to the flow direction. This directional component of pressure in a moving (dynamic) fluid is called dynamic pressure. An instrument facing the flow direction measures the sum of the static and dynamic pressures; this measurement is called the total pressure or stagnation pressure. Since dynamic pressure is referenced to static pressure, it is neither gauge nor absolute; it is a differential pressure. While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe walls, dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed. Dynamic pressure can be measured by taking the differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow. Pitot-static tubes, for example perform this measurement on airplanes to determine airspeed. The presence of the measuring instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create turbulence, so its shape is critical to accuracy and the calibration curves are often non-linear. Applications[edit]

Altimeter Barometer MAP sensor Pitot tube Sphygmomanometer

Instruments[edit] Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure, with different advantages and disadvantages. Pressure
Evangelista Torricelli
in 1643. The U-Tube was invented by Christiaan Huygens in 1661. Hydrostatic[edit] Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force per unit area at the base of a column of fluid. Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured, and can be designed to have a very linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response. Piston[edit] Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a spring (for example tire-pressure gauges of comparatively low accuracy) or a solid weight, in which case it is known as a deadweight tester and may be used for calibration of other gauges. Liquid
column (manometer)[edit]

The difference in fluid height in a liquid column manometer is proportional to the pressure difference.

h =





g ρ

displaystyle h= frac P_ a -P_ o grho

column gauges consist of a column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight (a force applied due to gravity) is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube (a force applied due to fluid pressure). A very simple version is a U-shaped tube half-full of liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest while the reference pressure (which might be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to the other. The difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of fluid of height h and density ρ is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation, P = hgρ. Therefore, the pressure difference between the applied pressure Pa and the reference pressure P0 in a U-tube manometer can be found by solving Pa − P0 = hgρ. In other words, the pressure on either end of the liquid (shown in blue in the figure) must be balanced (since the liquid is static) and so Pa = P0 + hgρ. In most liquid column measurements, the result of the measurement is the height, h, expressed typically in mm, cm, or inches. The h is also known as the pressure head. When expressed as a pressure head, pressure is specified in units of length and the measurement fluid must be specified. When accuracy is critical, the temperature of the measurement fluid must likewise be specified, because liquid density is a function of temperature. So, for example, pressure head might be written "742.2 mmHg" or "4.2 inH2O at 59 °F" for measurements taken with mercury or water as the manometric fluid, respectively. The word "gauge" or "vacuum" may be added to such a measurement to distinguish between a pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure. Both mm of mercury and inches of water are common pressure heads which can be converted to S.I. units of pressure using unit conversion and the above formulas. If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height between the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired except when measuring differential pressure of a fluid (for example across an orifice plate or venturi), in which case the density ρ should be corrected by subtracting the density of the fluid being measured.[3] Although any fluid can be used, mercury is preferred for its high density (13.534 g/cm3) and low vapour pressure. For low pressure differences, light oil or water are commonly used (the latter giving rise to units of measurement such as inches water gauge and millimetres H2O. Liquid-column pressure gauges have a highly linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response because the fluid in the column may react slowly to a pressure change. When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate the vacuum if its vapor pressure is too high. When measuring liquid pressure, a loop filled with gas or a light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent them from mixing but this can be unnecessary, for example when mercury is used as the manometer fluid to measure differential pressure of a fluid such as water. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a few Torr (a few 100 Pa) to a few atmospheres. (Approximately 1,000,000 Pa) A single-limb liquid-column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the U-tube and has a scale beside the narrower column. The column may be inclined to further amplify the liquid movement. Based on the use and structure following type of manometers are used[4]

Simple Manometer Micromanometer Differential manometer Inverted differential manometer

McLeod gauge[edit]

A McLeod gauge, drained of mercury

A McLeod gauge
McLeod gauge
McLeod gauge
reading is dependent on the composition of the gas since the interpretation relies on the sample compressing as an ideal gas. Due to the compression process, the McLeod gauge completely ignores partial pressures from non-ideal vapors that condense, such as pump oils, mercury, and even water if compressed enough.

Useful range: from around 10−4 torr [5] (roughly 10−2 Pa) to vacuums as high as 10−6  Torr (0.1 mPa),


Membrane-type manometer

Eugène Bourdon



Indicator side with card and dial

Mechanical side with Bourdon tube

the left side of the face, used for measuring manifold vacuum, is calibrated in centimetres of mercury on its inner scale and inches of mercury on its outer scale. the right portion of the face is used to measure fuel pump pressure or turbo boost and is calibrated in fractions of 1 kgf/cm2 on its inner scale and pounds per square inch on its outer scale.

Mechanical details[edit]

Mechanical details

Stationary parts:

A: Receiver block. This joins the inlet pipe to the fixed end of the Bourdon tube (1) and secures the chassis plate (B). The two holes receive screws that secure the case. B: Chassis plate. The face card is attached to this. It contains bearing holes for the axles. C: Secondary chassis plate. It supports the outer ends of the axles. D: Posts to join and space the two chassis plates.

Moving Parts:

Stationary end of Bourdon tube. This communicates with the inlet pipe through the receiver block. Moving end of Bourdon tube. This end is sealed. Pivot and pivot pin. Link joining pivot pin to lever (5) with pins to allow joint rotation. Lever. This is an extension of the sector gear (7). Sector gear axle pin. Sector gear. Indicator needle axle. This has a spur gear that engages the sector gear (7) and extends through the face to drive the indicator needle. Due to the short distance between the lever arm link boss and the pivot pin and the difference between the effective radius of the sector gear and that of the spur gear, any motion of the Bourdon tube is greatly amplified. A small motion of the tube results in a large motion of the indicator needle. Hair spring to preload the gear train to eliminate gear lash and hysteresis.


Useful range: above 10−2 Torr [9] (roughly 1 Pa)

For absolute measurements, welded pressure capsules with diaphragms on either side are often used. shape:

Flat corrugated flattened tube capsule


A pile of pressure capsules with corrugated diaphragms in an aneroid barograph


Piezoresistive Strain Gage Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain due to applied pressure. Capacitive Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to applied pressure. Magnetic Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall effect, or by eddy current principle. Piezoelectric Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon the sensing mechanism due to pressure. Optical Uses the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due to applied pressure. Potentiometric Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by applied pressure. Resonant Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or changes in gas density, caused by applied pressure.

Pirani gauge
McLeod gauge
which is much more stable and independent of gas chemistry. Thermionic emission
Thermionic emission

Useful range: 10−10 - 10−3 torr (roughly 10−8 - 10−1 Pa)

Ionization gauge

Bayard-Alpert hot-cathode ionization gauge

A hot-cathode ionization gauge is composed mainly of three electrodes acting together as a triode, wherein the cathode is the filament. The three electrodes are a collector or plate, a filament, and a grid. The collector current is measured in picoamps by an electrometer. The filament voltage to ground is usually at a potential of 30 volts, while the grid voltage at 180–210 volts DC, unless there is an optional electron bombardment feature, by heating the grid, which may have a high potential of approximately 565 volts. The most common ion gauge is the hot-cathode Bayard-Alpert gauge, with a small ion collector inside the grid. A glass envelope with an opening to the vacuum can surround the electrodes, but usually the Nude Gauge is inserted in the vacuum chamber directly, the pins being fed through a ceramic plate in the wall of the chamber. Hot-cathode gauges can be damaged or lose their calibration if they are exposed to atmospheric pressure or even low vacuum while hot. The measurements of a hot-cathode ionization gauge are always logarithmic. Electrons emitted from the filament move several times in back and forth movements around the grid before finally entering the grid. During these movements, some electrons collide with a gaseous molecule to form a pair of an ion and an electron (Electron ionization). The number of these ions is proportional to the gaseous molecule density multiplied by the electron current emitted from the filament, and these ions pour into the collector to form an ion current. Since the gaseous molecule density is proportional to the pressure, the pressure is estimated by measuring the ion current. The low-pressure sensitivity of hot-cathode gauges is limited by the photoelectric effect. Electrons hitting the grid produce x-rays that produce photoelectric noise in the ion collector. This limits the range of older hot-cathode gauges to 10−8 Torr and the Bayard-Alpert to about 10−10 Torr. Additional wires at cathode potential in the line of sight between the ion collector and the grid prevent this effect. In the extraction type the ions are not attracted by a wire, but by an open cone. As the ions cannot decide which part of the cone to hit, they pass through the hole and form an ion beam. This ion beam can be passed on to a:

Faraday cup Microchannel plate detector
Microchannel plate detector
with Faraday cup Quadrupole mass analyzer
Quadrupole mass analyzer
with Faraday cup Quadrupole mass analyzer
Quadrupole mass analyzer
with Microchannel plate detector
Microchannel plate detector
Faraday cup ion lens and acceleration voltage and directed at a target to form a sputter gun. In this case a valve lets gas into the grid-cage.


frequency response of pressure sensors resonance

Calibration and standards[edit]


Indicated Dial Type and Pressure
Digital Indicating Gauges, Diaphragm Seals, Snubbers, and Pressure
(Vacuum) Instruments. These methods are designed to assist in the evaluation of measurement uncertainty based on current technology and engineering knowledge, taking into account published instrumentation specifications and measurement and application techniques. This Supplement provides guidance in the use of methods to establish the pressure-measurement uncertainty. History[edit] Further information: Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology European (CEN) Standard[edit]

EN 472 : Pressure
gauge - Vocabulary. EN 837-1 : Pressure
gauges. Bourdon tube pressure gauges. Dimensions, metrology, requirements and testing. EN 837-2 : Pressure
gauges. Selection and installation recommendations for pressure gauges. EN 837-3 : Pressure


B40.100-2013: Pressure
gauges and Gauge attachments. PTC 19.2-2010 : Performance test code for pressure measurement.

See also[edit]

Deadweight tester Force
gauge Gauge Piezometer Sphygmomanometer Vacuum


^ NIST ^ ^ Methods for the Measurement of Fluid Flow in Pipes, Part 1. Orifice Plates, Nozzles and Venturi Tubes. British Standards Institute. 1964. p. 36.  ^ [Was: "". At 1/2010 that took me to bad link. Types of fluid Manometers] ^ Techniques of high vacuum Archived 2006-05-04 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Beckwith, Thomas G.; Roy D. Marangoni & John H. Lienhard V (1993). "Measurement of Low Pressures". Mechanical Measurements (Fifth ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 591–595. ISBN 0-201-56947-7.  ^ The Engine Indicator Canadian Museum of Making ^ Boyes, Walt (2008). Instrumentation Reference
Book (Fourth ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 1312.  ^ Product brochure from Schoonover, Inc ^ A. Chambers, Basic Vacuum
Technology, pp. 100-102, CRC Press, 1998 ISBN 0585254915. ^ John F. O'Hanlon, A User's Guide to Vacuum
Technology, pp. 92-94, John Wiley & Sons, 2005 ISBN 0471467154. ^ Robert M. Besançon, ed. (1990). " Vacuum

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pressure

has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Manometer.

Home Made Manometer Manometer

v t e


Acoustic, sound, vibration

Geophone Hydrophone Microphone Seismometer

Automotive, transportation

Air–fuel ratio meter Blind spot monitor Crankshaft position sensor Curb feeler Defect detector Engine coolant temperature sensor Hall effect
Hall effect


Breathalyzer Carbon dioxide sensor Carbon monoxide detector Catalytic bead sensor Chemical field-effect transistor Electrochemical gas sensor Electrolyte–insulator–semiconductor sensor Electronic nose Fluorescent chloride sensors Holographic sensor Hydrocarbon dew point analyzer Hydrogen sensor Hydrogen sulfide sensor Infrared
point sensor Ion

Electric, magnetic, radio

Current sensor Electroscope Galvanometer Hall effect
Hall effect
sensor Hall probe Magnetic anomaly detector Magnetometer MEMS magnetic field sensor Metal detector Planar Hall sensor Radio direction finder Test light

Environment, weather, moisture

Actinometer Bedwetting alarm Ceilometer Dew warning Electrochemical gas sensor Fish counter Frequency domain sensor Gas
detector Hook gauge evaporimeter Humistor Hygrometer Leaf sensor Psychrometer Pyranometer Pyrgeometer Rain gauge Rain sensor SNOTEL Snow gauge Soil moisture sensor Stream gauge Tide gauge Weather radar

Flow, fluid velocity

Air flow meter Anemometer Flow sensor Gas
meter Mass flow sensor Water metering

Ionising radiation, subatomic particles

Bubble chamber Cloud chamber Geiger–Müller tube Geiger counter Ionization chamber Neutron detection Particle detector Proportional counter Scintillation counter Semiconductor detector Scintillator Thermoluminescent dosimeter Wire chamber

Navigation instruments

Airspeed indicator Machmeter Altimeter Attitude indicator Depth gauge Fluxgate compass Gyroscope Inertial navigation system Inertial reference unit Magnetic compass MHD sensor Ring laser gyroscope Turn coordinator Variometer Vibrating structure gyroscope Yaw-rate sensor

Position, angle, displacement


Optical, light, imaging

Active pixel sensor Angle–sensitive pixel Back-illuminated sensor Charge-coupled device Contact image sensor Electro-optical sensor Flame detector Infrared Kinetic inductance detector LED as light sensor Light-addressable potentiometric sensor Nichols radiometer Optical fiber Photodetector Photodiode Photoelectric sensor Photoionization detector Photomultiplier Photoresistor Photoswitch Phototransistor Phototube Position sensitive device Scintillometer Shack–Hartmann wavefront sensor Single-photon avalanche diode Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector Transition edge sensor Tristimulus colorimeter Visible-light photon counter Wavefront sensor


Barograph Barometer Boost gauge Bourdon gauge Hot-filament ionization gauge Ionization gauge McLeod gauge Oscillating U-tube Permanent Downhole Gauge Piezometer Pirani gauge Pressure
gauge Pressure
sensor Tactile sensor Time pressure gauge

Force, density, level

Bhangmeter Force
gauge Hydrometer Level sensor Load cell Magnetic level gauge Nuclear density gauge Piezoelectric sensor Strain gauge Torque sensor Viscometer

Thermal, heat, temperature

Bimetallic strip Bolometer Calorimeter Exhaust gas temperature gauge Flame detection Gardon gauge Golay cell Heat flux sensor Infrared
thermometer Microbolometer Microwave radiometer Net radiometer Quartz thermometer Resistance thermometer Silicon bandgap temperature sensor Special
sensor microwave/imager Thermistor Thermocouple Thermometer

Proximity, presence

Alarm sensor Doppler radar Motion detector Occupancy sensor Passive infrared sensor Proximity sensor Reed switch Stud finder Touch switch Triangulation sensor Wired glove


Active pixel sensor Back-illuminated sensor Biochip Biosensor Capacitance probe Carbon paste electrode Catadioptric sensor Digital sensors Displacement receiver Electromechanical film Electro-optical sensor Fabry–Pérot interferometer Fisheries acoustics Image sensor Image sensor
Image sensor
format Inductive sensor Intelligent sensor Lab-on-a-chip Leaf sensor Machine vision Microelectromechanical systems Photoelasticity Quantum sensor Radar

Ground-penetrating radar Synthetic aperture radar

tracker Sensor
array Sensor
fusion Sensor
grid Sensor
node Soft sensor Sonar Staring array Transducer Ultrasonic sensor Video sensor technology Visual sensor network Wheatstone bridge Wireless sensor network