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[ "Academic degree\nDoctoral degrees or doctorates, such as the Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD or DPhil) or Doctor of Education (EdD or DEd) are awarded following a programme of original research that contributes new knowledge within the context of the student's discipline. Doctoral degrees usually take three years full-time. Therefore, in the UK it may only take seven years to progress from undergraduate to doctoral level – in some cases six, since having a Master's is not always a precondition for embarking on a doctoral degree. This contrasts with nine years in the United States, reflecting differences in the educational systems.", "Master of Philosophy\nThe Master of Philosophy is offered by many universities in Australia, and it is often the only option to undertake a master's degree in select schools. In Australia, the Master of Philosophy is a research degree which mirrors a Doctorate of Philosophy (PhD) in breadth of research and structure. The candidates are assessed solely on the basis of a thesis. A standard full-time degree often takes two years to complete. The Australian National University, University of Sydney, Curtin University, Griffith University and Melbourne University are also examples of Australian universities offering Masters of Philosophy.", "Bachelor of Philosophy\nThe University of Western Australia also offers the Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.) course for high-achieving new students. This is a research intensive degree which takes four years instead of the usual three for the other bachelor's degrees. Students studying the course choose disciplines from any of the four bachelor's degrees. Places are very limited with on average only about 30 places offered to students each year. Thus there is a lot of competition for places and the cut-off admission rank is very high.", "Bachelor of Philosophy\nThe B.Phil.'s earliest form is as a University of Oxford graduate degree, first awarded in 1682. Originally, Oxford named its pre-doctoral graduate degrees the Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.) (a two-year degree, partly taught and partly by research) and the Bachelor of Letters (B.Litt.) (a two-year research degree). After complaints, especially from overseas students, that this naming convention often meant that graduate degrees were not being recognised as such, the University renamed them Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) and Master of Letters (M.Litt.). However, the Philosophy Faculty (then a Sub-Faculty) argued that its B.Phil. degree had become so well known and respected in the philosophical world that it would be confusing to change the name. In philosophy, therefore, the degree continues to be called the B.Phil. Those who pass the degree are given the choice of taking a B.Phil. or an M.Phil.; few if any choose the latter. (Note that Oxford also offers a number of other graduate degrees labeled as baccalaureate degrees: the law faculty's BCL; and the music faculty's B.Mus)", "University of Western Australia\nThe university also offers the Bachelor of Philosophy (BPhil) course for high-achieving new students. This is a research intensive degree which takes four years because the honours year is an integral part of the degree (most other degrees last three years with the honours year as a separate degree). Students studying the course choose disciplines from any of the four bachelor's degrees. Places are very limited with on average only about 30 places offered to students each year. Thus there is a lot of competition for places and the cut-off admission rank is very high.", "Master of Philosophy\nIndian universities offer M.Phil degrees mostly in the streams of arts, science and humanities. The duration is typically two years long. Several universities offer enrolment in their integrated M.Phil-Ph.D program and M.Phil degree holders are usually exempted from doctoral coursework requirement." ]

[ "History Curriculum at the Gregorian University\nThe Faculty of History and the Cultural Patrimony of the Church has Three Cycles, and in addition a Master. The First Cycle, for the Baccalaureate, lasts three years (a first level degree); the Second Cycle, for the Licentiate, two years; the Third Cycle is the Doctorate. The Master consists of two semesters and corresponds to one academic year.", "Diploma in the Philosophy of Medicine\nThe curriculum was created by Michael Lockwood in 1978, with assistance from Raanan Gillon. Its structure reflects philosophical developments as applied to medicine. It is the oldest philosophy and ethics of medicine and healthcare course in the UK. Previously, the diploma was earned after a two-year study period on alternating Saturdays, and was predominantly attended by graduates and medical students. After an extensive revision in 1993, the course was shortened to one year and opened up to a wider range of students.", "Philosophy\nPhilosophy (from Greek , \"philosophia\", literally \"love of wisdom\") is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was probably coined by Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE). Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation. Classic philosophical questions include: Is it possible to know anything and to prove it? What is most real? Philosophers also pose more practical and concrete questions such as: Is there a best way to live? Is it better to be just or unjust (if one can get away with it)? Do humans have free will?", "Honours degree\nIn Ireland, undergraduate degrees fall under two levels in the National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ) of the Quality and Qualifications Ireland (QQI). Courses of study at level 7 take three years and are awarded an Ordinary Bachelor Degree (180 ECTS credits) whereas a course of study at level 8 typically takes four years for an award of a Honours Bachelor Degree (180-240 ECTS credits). There is also an equivalent award at level 8 of a Higher Diploma which follows a course of study of one year duration (60 ECTS credits), such Higher Diplomas are designed for holders of either Honours Bachelor Degree or Ordinary Bachelor Degree who wish to study in a different field of learning than their initial award.", "Pharmacy school\nThe Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D) course was introduced in India in 2008 by the PCI. The duration of Pharm.D is 6 years (5 years of study+1 year of internship/residency). It is a post-graduate (PG) qualification and hence Pharm.D graduates can register directly for Ph.D. All candidates being awarded the Pharm.D degree are eligible to use the prefix \"Dr.\" before their name. Pharm.D. (Post Baccalaureate) (Doctor of Pharmacy) is a 3 years (2 years of classroom studies+1 year of internship) program. Admission requirements are B.Pharm from any PCI approved institute.", "University of Science and Technology of Hanoi\nUSTH offers training courses at three levels: Bachelor, Master and Ph.D. USTH is the first University in Asia to follow the Bologna process for Diploma (LMD system 3/5/8), the model is widely used in most of the universities in Europe. The training duration of Bachelor is 3 years, Master is 2 years and Ph.D. is 3 years. All courses are given in English. The quality of training programs has been accredited by the HCERES (The High Council for Evaluation of Research and Higher Education in France) in March 2017.", "Master's degree in Europe\nIn France the Bologna Process has standardised most of the degrees into the three-cycle Bologna model, of which the master's degree is the second cycle. A master's degree takes 2 or 3 years (120 ECTS units) after the Licentiate. Many countries follow the French model (e.g. the Francophone regions in Switzerland, Belgium, Lebanon, Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia). The following are considered master's degrees:", "Faculty of Law, University of Mostar\nAs of 2012/13 academic year, the Faculty of Law adopted the Bologna Process and undertook necessary reforms. Undergraduate study lasts for eight semesters (for academic years), and after finishing it, a student gets a bachelor's degree (\"provostupnik\"). Graduate study lasts for two semesters (one academic year), and after graduation, a student gains the title of a master of law (\"magistar\"). The doctoral study lasts for six semesters (three academic years).", "Faculty of Law, University of Tirana\nUntil the 1970s, the normal duration of studies was four years, but later it was reduced to three years of study, followed by a year of practical training in the courts. In the 1980s, the faculty returned to the four year study system. The most dramatic changes occurred after the fall of communism in Albania in 1991. The arrival of new concepts dealing with democracy, the rule of law and equality before the law, necessitated deep reforms in the academic and educational conception of the law and of the role of the lawyer. Thus, starting from 1991 the curriculum was developed according to Western models, and after 2000 there were efforts to transition the degrees offered by the Faculty to the Bologna process, thus now the \"Faculty of Law\" offers Bachelor of laws, Master of laws and PhD in Law degrees.", "Bachelor of Philosophy\nBachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil., B.Ph., Ph.B. or PhB; Latin ' or ') is the title of an academic degree. The degree usually involves considerable research, either through a thesis or supervised research projects. Despite its name it is, in most universities, a postgraduate degree.", "Doctor of Philosophy\nAnother two to eight years are usually required for the composition of a substantial and original contribution to human knowledge in the form of a written dissertation, which in the social sciences and humanities typically ranges from 50 to 450 pages. In many cases, depending on the discipline, a dissertation consists of a comprehensive literature review, an outline of methodology, and several chapters of scientific, social, historical, philosophical, or literary analysis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, sometimes public, by his or her supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline.", "Fisheries College and Research Institute\nThe Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is a three-year course offered in 4 displines: Aquaculture, Fisheries Resource Management, Aquatic Environment Management , Fisheries Economics and Fish Processing Technology. The Ph.D. programmes are being offered in regular and part-time mode. The candidates possessing basic B.F.Sc. degree are eligible for admission through a common entrance test conducted by the University. The programme has 75 total credits including 2 credits for seminar and 45 credits for research.", "Collège international de philosophie\nThe Collège international de philosophie (Ciph), located in Paris' 5th arrondissement, is a tertiary education institute placed under the trusteeship of the French government department of research and chartered under the French 1901 Law on associations. It was co-founded in 1983 by Jacques Derrida, François Châtelet, Jean-Pierre Faye and Dominique Lecourt in an attempt to re-think the teaching of philosophy in France, and to liberate it from any institutional authority (most of all from the University). Its financing is mainly through public funds. Its chairs or \"directors of program\" are competitively elected for 6 years (non renewable), following an international open call for proposals (every third year). Proposals are free and directors are elected after a collegial, peer-assessment of their value for philosophy. The College recognizes that philosophy is better served by being located at \"intersections\" such as Philosophy/Science, or Philosophy/Law. Proposals must respond to this exigency of \"intersection\" as wished by Jacques Derrida. The College has few registered students, who may receive the \"Diplôme du Collège international de philosophie\", which is not a university degree but may be, in some cases, validated by French or foreign universities. Otherwise, attendance to seminars is open and free.", "Fondation Université Française en Arménie\nThe pedagogic principle of granting two Armenian and French state diplomas (Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees) was adopted from the beginning. The duration of studies is four years in the Bachelor’s degree and two years in the Master’s degree, considering the peculiarities of the transition stage the Armenian universities are in before they entirely adopt the Bologna system.\nFrench University in Armenia Foundation, which has approximately 1,000 students, aims to prepare highly qualified specialists that correspond to the needs of Armenian labor market and Caucasia economic region. The graduates of UFAR apply their knowledge to the advantage of relationships between Armenia, France and Europe, as well as the development of Armenia. They are the leaders and managers of tomorrow. At the end of their studies each year, roughly 70% of graduates find a job in their profession, some of whom pursue their education abroad. In three years’ time this percentage amounts to almost 100.", "Bachelor's degree\nThe old four-, five-, or six-year laurea system was discontinued in the early 2000s as per the Bologna process, with some exceptions such as law school or medical school. The bachelor's degree, called \"Laurea triennale\" (\"three-year degree\") or simply \"Laurea\", takes three years to complete (note that Italian students graduate from high school at age 19) and grants access to graduate degrees (known as \"\"). In order to graduate, students must earn 180 credits (ECTS) and write a thesis for which students have to elaborate on an argument under the supervision of a professor (generally from three to eight ECTS). Graduation marks go from 66 to 110. According to each faculty internal ruling, a \"lode\" may be awarded to candidates with a 110/110 mark for recognition of the excellence of the final project.", "Master of Philosophy\nIn Finland, the regular (first) Master's degree \"filosofian maisteri\" translates to \"Master of Philosophy\". However, the term \"philosophy\" is to be understood to the maximum extent, because this is the name of the basic master's degree in all natural sciences and humanities. It does not imply a specialization in theoretical philosophy or even other than introductory studies. In fact, most of the students majoring in philosophy get a degree with a different name (Master of Sociology or Politics). These degrees are regular master's degrees, not special \"higher\" degrees (cf. Licentiate and Doctor of Philosophy). In the past, \"filosofian maisteri\" signified that the degree was earned through actual studying, in contrast to honorary master's degrees that could be granted by application to Bachelors.", "Master of Arts\nA number of different master's degrees may be earned at Oxford and Cambridge. The most common, the Master of Philosophy (MPhil), is a two-year research degree. The Master of Science (MSc) and the Master of Studies (MSt) degrees each take one year. They often combine some coursework with research. The Master of Letters (MLitt) is a pure research master's degree. More recently, Oxford and Cambridge offer a Masters of Business Administration. Master's degrees are generally offered without classification, though the top five percent may be deemed worthy of Distinction. Both universities also offer a variety of four-year undergraduate integrated master's degrees such as MEng or MMath.", "Candidate of Law\nThe Swedish \"jur.kand\" is obtained after four and a half years at the normal pace. Danish, Icelandic and Finnish degrees take five years. In Norway, the degree is obtained after five and a half years, in addition to a compulsory single term entrance examination in philosophy and ethics, the Examen Philosophicum – a total of 6 years. In Norway it was replaced by the degree Master of Laws in 2003; the final student to graduate as a cand.jur did so in the spring term of 2007. Swedish universities switched to a curriculum leading up to a Master of Law rather than a jur.kand in the fall of 2010.", "Bachelor of Science\nArmenia (four or five years), Albania (four or five years), Afghanistan, Azerbaijan (four or five years), Australia (honours degree), Bangladesh (four or five years), Bahrain, Belarus, Belize, Brazil (four to five years), Brunei (three or four years), Bosnia, Bulgaria, Canada (except Quebec), China, Cyprus, Egypt (four or five years), Ethiopia (engineering, five years), Finland (engineering, practice in industry not included), Georgia, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Ghana (three or four years), Greece (four or five years), Haiti (three or four years), Hong Kong (starting from 2012, three years originally), India (four-year BS, Bsc (hons.) Agriculture, Engineering), Indonesia, Iran (four or five years), Iran, Iraq, Ireland (Honours Degree), Israel, Japan, Jordan (four to five years), Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Lithuania, Libya, Malawi (four or five years), Malta, Republic of Macedonia (three, four or five years), Montenegro (three or four years), Mexico, Myanmar, Nepal (priorly three, now four years), the Netherlands (three years for research universities, four years for universities of applied sciences), New Zealand (honours degree), Nigeria, People's Republic of China, Pakistan (four or five years), the Philippines (four or five years), Tajikistan (four or five years) Puerto Rico, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Scotland (Honours Degree), Serbia (three or four years), Spain (in Spain a 2015 Royal Decree will allow 3-year BSc degrees to coexist with current 4-year ones. It will be in force starting September 2015. However most universities have agreed not to implement the new system until September 2017), South Africa (fourth year is elective — to obtain an Honours degree, which is normally a requirement for selection into a master's degree programme), South Korea, Sri Lanka (three four or five (specialised) years), Taiwan, Thailand, Tunisia (Only Bachelor of Science in Business Administration is available, solely awarded by Tunis Business School), Turkey, Ukraine, United States, Uruguay(four, five, six or seven years),Yemen, Zambia (four or five years).", "International Philosophy Olympiad\nThe Olympiad is non-funded and thus a totally voluntary effort for both the teachers and students. The selection process, which is organized by Kedar Soni, is in two stages:\nThe two best from the stage 2 represent the country, provided they can fund themselves. Then the training program is held for a couple of weeks, to orient students to systematic philosophy and argumentation. It runs for about 12 hours a day and students need to be accommodated at the venue. Those clearing stage 1 are also invited in order to prepare them for next IPO.\nAfter the program, until the IPO, students meet 2-3 times weekly for about 3–4 hours in an online lecture room (video + whiteboard) to discuss essay topics and their arguments.", "Christ University\nThe university offers 46 undergraduate programmes in humanities, social sciences, science, commerce and management, education, Law and engineering. Undergraduate programmes are of three-year duration except in the case of Bachelor of Education (BEd, two years), Bachelor of Hotel Management (BHM, four years), Bachelor of Laws (LLB, five years), Bachelor of Technology (BTech, four years) and an integrated BTech/MTech or MBA (five years). Except for Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA), Bachelor of Commerce (BCom), Bachelor of Arts (BA) and Bachelor of Science (BSc) programmes follow a Triple Major system.The institution entered into a memorandum of understanding with the Centre for Internet and Society, Bangalore, India to make article writing on Wikipedia a core exercise for the continuous internal assessment of its 1600 undergraduate students in Hindi, Kannada, Tamil, Sanskrit and Urdu. The university produced the first of its kind Wikipedia video tutorials in two languages – Hindi and Kannada. The Hindi and Kannada articles may be found at and", "Master of Divinity\nThe MDiv is a significantly more extensive program than most taught (as opposed to research-based) master's degrees. In the United States the degree usually consists on average of 90 semester hours, as opposed to the usual 36 or 48. Ordination in most mainline Protestant denominations and the Roman Catholic Church thus requires seven or eight years of education past high school: the first four in undergraduate studies leading to a bachelor's degree (which may or may not be in a related field) and then three or four years of seminary or divinity school education leading to the MDiv.", "Bachelor's degree\nMost bachelor's degrees are three years full-time, but certain degrees, such as the Bachelor of Laws and the Bachelor of Engineering degrees, require four years of study. A Bachelor with Honours is a program of four years duration (e.g., Bachelor of Arts with Honours). A Bachelor of Medicine degree requires a minimum of six years.", "University of Copenhagen Faculty of Law\nThe Faculty of Law offers 4 different degrees\nThe second degree of the law programme (LLM) takes a minimum of two years to complete. In Danish, the degree, which is awarded after a minimum of five years' of undergraduate and graduate studies, is called the candidatus or candidata juris, commonly shortened to cand.jur. This degree is equivalent to a master's degree. The official length of the programme is 120 ECTS Credits.", "National Institutes of Technology\nThe NITs also offer the Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD) as part of their doctoral education programme. In it, the candidates are given a topic of academic interest by the professor or have to work on a consultancy project given by the industries. The duration of the program is usually unspecified and depends on the specific discipline. PhD candidates have to submit a dissertation as well as provide an oral defence for their thesis. Teaching Assistantships (TA) and Research Assistantships (RA) are often provided. The NITs, along with IITs and IISc, account for nearly 80% of all engineering PhDs in India.", "Master of Philosophy\nIn Norway, the degree of M.Phil is a 'standard' Master's degree (120 ECTS credits) at a level equivalent to an M.A. or M.Sc. However, unlike a standard MA or MSc, which have a thesis worth 30 ECTS, the M.Phil has a research workload of 60 ECTS. Upon completion, the M.Phil graduate usually qualifies for acceptance to a Ph.D program. Nevertheless, the M.Phil is most often taken as a standalone qualification. The M.Phil is not a common degree in Norway; most universities award an M.A. (in humanities or social sciences) or M.Sc. (in technical and scientific subjects) degrees.", "Bachelor's degree\nThe Magister degree, a graduate degree, was awarded after five years of study. In 1899, a second graduate degree, the Diplom, was introduced when the \"Technische Hochschulen\" (TH) received university status. With the introduction of the Universities of Applied Sciences, a shortened version of the latter, referred to as \"Diplom (FH)\" and designed to take three to four years, was phased in between 1969 and 1972.", "Laurea\nThe Dottorato di ricerca (equivalent to a Doctor of Philosophy) is a third cycle degree which can be undertaken only after achieving a Laurea Magistrale. It was introduced in the mid-1980s and consists of three/four years of Ph.D.-level courses and experimental work, including the final defense of an innovative thesis.", "Acadia Divinity College\nApplicants with no or little prior study in their intended field complete a 60 credit hour program (two years, if full-time). Applicants who already possess a graduate theological degree or an honours undergraduate degree in the subject they wish to specialize may be permitted to complete the Master of Arts (Theology) in 30 credit hours (one year, if full-time)", "Master of Philosophy\nIn Pakistan, the degree of MPhil is offered by Public and Private Universities in several different fields of study. This is a two years full-time research based program that completes 18 years of education and leads to PhD. The degree of MPhil is also a requirement to get admission into a Doctoral program in Pakistan.", "Postgraduate education\nFor example, astronomy degrees take five to six years on average, but observational astronomy degrees take six to seven due to limiting factors of weather, while theoretical astronomy degrees take five. Though there is substantial variation among universities, departments, and individuals, humanities and social science doctorates on average take somewhat longer to complete than natural science doctorates. These differences are due to the differing nature of research between the humanities and some social sciences and the natural sciences, and to the differing expectations of the discipline in coursework, languages and length of thesis. However, time required to complete a doctorate also varies according to the candidate's abilities and choice of research. Some students may also choose to remain in a program if they fail to win an academic position, particularly in disciplines with a tight job market; by remaining a student, they can retain access to libraries and university facilities, while also retaining an academic affiliation, which can be essential for conferences and job-searches.", "Philosophy education\nEducation in the subject is usually divided into 4 main stages: pre-school (i.e. pre-primary; e.g. kindergarten) and primary education levels (e.g. elementary school), lower (e.g. middle school) and upper secondary education level (e.g. high school), tertiary (higher) education level (e.g. college, university), and post-tertiary education level. Sometimes the stage referred to as \"post-secondary non-tertiary\" is also included (in a fashion similar to the ISCED levels).\nNot all countries provide study of philosophy at all levels and in many the subject is virtually absent from the entire curriculum.", "Cand.polit.\nAfter the \"Quality Reform\" it has been replaced by a Master of Philosophy degree, shortening the nominal study time from six to five years. The cand.polit. degree was at the time of its abolition in practice a two-year or a two-and-a-half-year extension to the four-year cand.mag. degree or equivalent qualifications.", "Master of Philosophy\nAlthough most American universities do not award the M.Phil., a few award it under certain circumstances. At those institutions (including Yale University, Columbia University, Pardee RAND Graduate School, George Washington University, Rutgers University, The New School for Social Research and the CUNY Graduate Center), the degree is awarded to Ph.D. candidates when they complete their required coursework and qualifying examinations prior to the completion and defense of a doctoral dissertation. This recognizes achievement beyond the Master of Arts and Master of Science degrees conferred after 1–3 years of graduate study and formalizes the more colloquial \"All But Dissertation\" status; as such, defense of a dissertation proposal is sometimes required for conferral.", "Bachelor of Arts\nA student who first achieves a general Bachelor of Arts degree with a sufficiently high overall average may be admitted to a \"postgraduate\" Baccalaureatus cum Honore degree in the same field; it requires a minimum of one year but may also take longer; it typically does not exceed two years. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis (Honours Seminar Thesis) combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research master's degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) program without the requirement to first complete a master's degree. Over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master's degrees.", "Diplom\nThe duration of the \"Diplom\" degree programmes differed depending on subject and university. An official average duration (\"Regelstudienzeit\") was set by law in each German state, usually being four years for a \"Diplom (FH)\" and 4, 4.5 or 5 years for a \"Diplom / Diplom (Univ.)\". In exceptional cases, universities were allowed to set longer average durations for certain subjects (HGRP1995 § 26 (3), NHG2007 § 6 (3), HmbHG2001 §53 (3)). However, due to the curriculum set by most universities in Germany, the 4, 4.5 or 5 years for a \"Diplom / Diplom (Univ.)\" were often exceeded.\nAlthough being a first degree, because of its actual duration, the \"Diplom / Diplom (Univ.)\" was and is in Germany not considered as an equivalent to a bachelor's but rather to a master's degree, as also expressed by the equivalent ECTS credits for the \"Diplom / Diplom (Univ.)\".", "Israeli Air Force Flight Academy\nThese are two phases in which the cadets study the majority of the content needed to get the BA. These two phases, which are commonly referred to as the \"Year of Education\" (שנת ההשכלה), last for about a year. Consecutive academic studies for a BA are done under the auspices of the Ben-Gurion University. The intensive academic year (not equivalent to regular university studies) consists of three semesters, of 13 weeks each. The four graduate courses include: Mathematics and Computer Science; Management of Information Systems; Economics and Management; Politics, Administration and Management. In addition, the cadets study about military topics, aviation topics and take three courses in English.", "Graduate science education in the United States\nDepending on the specific field of study, completion of a PhD program usually takes four to eight years of study after the Bachelor's Degree; those students who begin a PhD program with a master's degree may complete their PhD degree a year or two sooner. As PhD programs typically lack the formal structure of undergraduate education or related professional degree education (JD, MD, DVM, MBA, etc.), there are significant individual differences in the time taken to complete the degree. Many U.S. universities have set a ten-year limit for students in PhD programs, or refuse to consider graduate credit older than ten years as counting towards a PhD degree. Similarly, students may be required to re-take the comprehensive exam if they do not defend their dissertations within five years after submitting it to their self-chosen dissertation advisors. Overall, 57% of students who begin a PhD program in the US will complete their degree within ten years, approximately 30% will drop out or be dismissed, and the remaining 13% of students will continue on past ten years.", "Doctor of Philosophy\nBefore 1984 three research doctorates existed in France: the State doctorate (\"doctorat d'État\", the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (\"doctorat de troisième cycle\", created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the diploma of doctor-engineer (\"diplôme de docteur-ingénieur \"created in 1923), for technical research. After 1984, only one type of doctoral degree remained, called \"doctorate\" (\"Doctorat\"). The latter is equivalent to the Ph.D.", "Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)\nWhile the length of the undergraduate degree course has been shortened to three or four years in all subjects, all three universities still require roughly seven years to pass before the awarding of the MA degree. The shortening of the degree course reflects the fact that much of the teaching of the liberal arts was taken over by grammar schools, and undergraduates now enter universities at an older age, in most cases between 17 and 19. (It may be noted that the school-leaving certificate in France today is known as the baccalaureate.)", "Education in Jordan\nA Doctorate Degree is awarded after three to five years of further study and the submission of an original dissertation. It requires, depending on the subject, 24 credit hours of course work and 24 credit hours of research.", "Doctor of Philosophy\nA doctoral degree (Pol. \"doktor\"), abbreviated to Ph.D. (Pol. \"dr\") is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities in most fields as well as by the Polish Academy of Sciences, regulated by the Polish parliament acts and the government orders, in particular by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland. Commonly, students with a master's degree or equivalent are accepted to a doctoral entrance exam. The title of Ph.D. is awarded to a scientist who 1) completed a minimum of 3 years of Ph.D. studies (Pol. \"studia doktoranckie\"; not required to obtain Ph.D.), 2) finished his/her theoretical and/or laboratory's scientific work, 3) passed all Ph.D. examinations, 4) submitted his/her dissertation, a document presenting the author's research and findings, 5) successfully defended his/her doctoral thesis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, by his/her supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline.", "Professional Doctor of Diplomacy\nProviding a part-time structure of rigorous, concentrated study, ongoing research practice and continual, practical assessment, the course combines distance learning with the advantages of face-to-face study. The Professional Doctor of Diplomacy is designed to fit into a busy schedule whilst ensuring that students have the support and guidance needed to help translate their knowledge and experience into proper academic thinking and writing.\nThe taught element of the programme consists of six face-to-face modules taken over two years when students get to meet, network and share ideas. In the third year, DDipl candidates will then specialise in areas such as cross-border and cyber security, diplomacy of the global economic system, failed states and civil conflicts, human security risks, during the project phase of the course. According to the European higher education standards set by the Bologna Process, it is stated that the normal duration of a doctorate should correspond to 3–4 years of full-time study. A highly experienced practitioner candidate should be able to complete this taught doctorate within that time-frame.", "Licentiate (degree)\nUntil the early 1970s, the degree in Sweden was equivalent to the U.S. Ph.D. requiring four to seven years of study after the Bachelor´s (or Master´s) degree, and a publicly defended thesis. It was gradually substituted with the \"Doctor's exam\" in 1969 and was re-instituted as an intermediate level in research training in the 1980s, now requiring only two years of study after Masters graduation. The licentiate is particularly popular with students already involved in the working life, for the reason that completing a full doctor's dissertation while working would be too difficult. The Licentiate's degree is called a \"filosofie licentiat\" in Swedish and \"filosofian lisensiaatti\" in Finnish (Licentiate of Philosophy), \"teologie licentiat\" and \"teologian lisensiaatti\" (Licentiate of Theology) etc., depending on the faculty. Furthermore, the requisite degree for a physician's licence is \"licentiat/lisensiaatti\"; there is no master's degree. (The degree \"lääketieteen tohtori\", \"medicine doktor\", \"Doctor of Medicine\" is a traditional professor's degree, or a research doctorate, with Licentiate as a prerequisite.)", "Faculty of Classics, University of Cambridge\nAt postgraduate level, the faculty offers two degrees: Master of Philosophy (MPhil) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It also contributes to the teaching of the Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) in Classics offered by the Faculty of Education. The MPhil is a nine-month taught course, which is examined by three essays and a 10,000 word thesis, or two essays, a language-exam/exercise, and the thesis. The PhD is a three-year research course, and it is examined by a doctoral thesis of up to 80,000 words. There is no formal teaching as the degree is completed through independent research. However, doctoral students may attend graduate seminars, undergraduate lectures, and can receive additional training in languages and/or specific disciplines (such as epigraphy or numismatics).", "Doctor of Pharmacy\nIn order to obtain the state diploma of \"Doctor of Pharmacy\", the studies last a minimum of six years, or nine years for students choosing residency (hospital pharmacy or medical biology). It is accessible through another competitive exam, even more selective. It lasts four years and gives another diploma of specialist like in medicine (DES for \"diplôme d'études spécialisées\" ).\nStudents must specialise when entering the 5th year, and choose between dispensing pharmacy, pharmaceutical industry or hospital residency. In any case, a 12-month part-time hospital externship is mandatory during the fifth year, although some flexibility is possible for students choosing industry.", "University of Oslo Faculty of Law\nAlthough students do not receive a formal degree before they have completed the five-year programme, the first four years correspond to an American J.D. degree. In the fifth year, students usually write a thesis corresponding to one semester and take advanced courses of their choice also corresponding to one semester. Alternatively, they may choose to write a longer thesis, corresponding to a full year. Parts of the fifth year, or even the full year, may also be taken abroad. The fifth year leads to the Master of Laws degree.", "Education in Lahore\nMany Master's degree programs only require one and a half years of study. Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) education is also available in selected areas and is usually pursued after earning a Master's degree. Students pursuing PhD degrees must choose a specific field and a university that is doing research work in that field.", "Academic degree\nStudents can work towards a first degree at either ordinary or honours level. A general or ordinary degree (BA/MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (BA/MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years. The ordinary degree need not be in a specific subject, but can involve study across a range of subjects within (and sometimes beyond) the relevant faculty, in which case it may also be called a general degree; if a third year or junior honours subject is included, the ordinary degree in that named discipline is awarded. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc.).Not all Universities in Scotland adhere to this, in some you study in several subjects within a faculty for three years and can then specialise in two areas and attain a joint honours degree in fourth year.", "International Maritime Law Institute\nThe Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) programme is exclusively research-based and involves the writing and defence of a 100,000-word thesis in an area of international maritime law. A prestigious list of world-renowned experts in maritime law acts as supervisors. This is an external degree which must be completed within three to five years and may be undertaken almost entirely from abroad. A Master’s degree and university education in law are considered as pre-requisites.", "Doctor of Philosophy\nThere has recently been an increase in the number of Integrated Ph.D. programs available, such as at the University of Southampton. These courses include a Master of Research (MRes) in the first year, which consists of a taught component as well as laboratory rotation projects. The Ph.D. must then be completed within the next 3 years. As this includes the MRes all deadlines and timeframes are brought forward to encourage completion of both MRes and Ph.D. within 4 years from commencement. These programs are designed to provide students with a greater range of skills than a standard Ph.D., and for the university, they are a means of gaining an extra years' fees from public sources.", "Higher education in Norway\nDoctor Philosophae degrees are awarded after three years of research-oriented education. Most programs also include one year of compulsory teaching as part of the education, making the total length of the program four years.", "Magister degree\nThis master's degree was traditionally taken as a first degree before the Bologna Process. The degree usually lasted about 5–6 years and is structured into Basic, Intermediate, and Advanced progressional components. A new undergraduate magister degree, requiring at least 4 years of studies, was introduced in 1993. Since the introduction of the Bologna Process in 2005, the Magister has been broken into bachelor (formerly Basic/Intermediate) and master (formerly Advanced) components. However, the vast majority of students continue right through to complete the master's degree and, in effect, the duration and extent of the old Magister degree remains much as it was.", "Magister degree\nThis kind of degree entitles one to be considered as PhD candidate. He or she can immediately start working on a dissertation. The person with this kind of degree completed overall 4 + 3 years of education (humanities, science etc.) or 5 + 3 (engineering) years of education after high school. Two years were related to the coursework only. After two years of coursework and research, the thesis was completed in a year or two after the coursework, although it roughly depended on a workload of an average graduate student who is considered to be a faculty member with teaching responsibilities (which can be up to 16 hours per week of a teaching load).", "Saint John Vianney Theological Seminary\nThe Pre-Theology Cycle at St. John Vianney is a two- or three-year cycle of courses which covers three essential components: philosophy, introductory courses in theology, and languages. The seminarian's Diocese may choose between degree and non-degree programs in philosophy to meet the entrance requirements for the four-year Theology Program. The study of philosophy is central to the Pre-Theology Program. The goal of the philosophy curriculum is \"to develop a reflective awareness of the fundamental relationship that exists between the human spirit and truth, that truth which is revealed to us fully in Jesus Christ.\" St. John Vianney offers three undergraduate programs of philosophical study: the Standard Program in Pre-Theology; the Bachelor of Philosophy (B.Phil.) Degree; and the Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) Degree with Philosophy Major.", "University of Santo Tomas Faculties of Ecclesiastical Studies\nBeginning with the academic year 1973–1974, all the institutional courses of philosophy were given in the first two years, making up the first cycle or first biennium leading to the Bachelor in Philosophy degree (PhB). The second cycle or \"second biennium\" would comprise the special courses leading to the Licentiate in Philosophy degree (PhL). The third cycle leads to a doctoral degree (PhD).", "Licentiate (degree)\nAfter the Bologna process, all official university degrees will fall into one of these three categories: \"Grado\" (Bachelor), Master or Doctor. Most \"Grados\" will consist of three or four years (240 ECTS credits), unless it is otherwise ruled by an EU Directive (like Pharmacy, five years, or Medicine, six years). All university students completing these four years will get a \"Grado\" and may then go on with Master's studies (one to two years, 60-120 ECTS credits). Doctorate studies will in most cases require a research-oriented master's degree and may or may not include specific courses.", "Yale School of Management\nThe doctoral program (PhD) at Yale SOM is a full-time, in-residence program intended for students who plan scholarly careers involving research and teaching in management. There are five major tracks for PhD students follow at SOM: Accounting, Finance, Marketing, Operations, and Organizations and Management. The program is structured so that it can be completed in three to five years. The curriculum for the first two years of PhD candidates is composed of 14 courses, which include two core courses, a social science sequence, an empirical methods sequence, a depth requirement, a breadth requirement, and electives. The program is small and admits only a few students each year; there are currently 51 doctoral candidates in the program. All admitted students are given a full stipend for five years if they satisfy the program's requirements.", "Faculty of Arts, Charles University in Prague\nAll study programmes comply with the Bologna system and are structured into the BA, MA and doctoral (Ph.D.) stages. Study programmes may be in single-subject or double-subject form, some are available in either single-subject or double-subject form. The standard length of study is 3–4 years in the BA programme and 2–3 years in the follow-up MA programme. After finishing their MA studies, graduates may apply for a doctoral study programme. The doctoral study programme which offers the award of Ph.D. requires completion of a doctoral programme, Ph.D. finals and dissertation defence.", "Doctor of Philosophy\nThe Ph.D. admission is granted by a graduate school (in French, \"école doctorale\"). A Ph.D. candidate can follow some in-service training offered by the graduate school while continuing his or her research at laboratory. His or her research may be carried out in a laboratory, at a university, or in a company. In the last case, the company hires the candidate and he or she is supervised by both the company's tutor and a labs' professor. The validation of the Ph.D. degree requires generally 3 to 4 years after the master's degree.", "Licentiate of Sacred Theology\nThe programme for a licentiate's degree is equivalent to a total of two years or four semesters of full-time study after receiving a university degree and the Bachelor of Sacred Theology degree [STB] (SapC 72b). The STB, or first cycle, requires five years or ten semesters (SapC 72a). \"In this cycle the special disciplines are taught corresponding to the nature of the diverse specializations being undertaken. Also seminars and practical exercises are conducted for the acquisition of the ability to do scientific research.\" (SapC 72b) The licentiate program develops research skills and treats theological questions in greater depth.", "Medical school in Uganda\nThe degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is awarded following a period of instruction, research and examination (typically three to five years), in select clinical disciplines. A recognized master's degree is required prior to admission into the PhD program.", "Doctor of Philosophy\nU.S. students typically undergo a series of three phases in the course of their work toward the Ph.D. degree. The first phase consists of coursework in the student's field of study and requires one to three years to complete. This often is followed by a preliminary, a comprehensive examination, or a series of cumulative examinations where the emphasis is on breadth rather than depth of knowledge. The student is often later required to pass oral and written examinations in the field of specialization within the discipline, and here, depth is emphasized. Some Ph.D. programs require the candidate to successfully complete requirements in pedagogy (taking courses on higher level teaching and teaching undergraduate courses) or applied science (e.g., clinical practice and predoctoral clinical internship in Ph.D. programs in clinical, counseling, or school psychology).", "Doctorate\nThe doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely c. 1652). The term \"philosophy\" does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, which is \"love of wisdom\". In most of Europe, all fields (history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and natural philosophy/natural sciences) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the \"faculty of philosophy\". The doctorate of philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though the degrees are not always for the study of philosophy. Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the doctorate of philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree, abbreviated as Dr. phil. (similar to Ph.D. in Anglo-American countries). Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in the natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. nat., and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. pol., similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr. med.) and law (Dr. jur.).", "Examen philosophicum\n\"Examen philosophicum\" originally had a duration of two or three semesters, including exams in philosophy, history, mathematics, astronomy, natural sciences, Latin language, Greek language, and—for theology students—Hebraic language. Latin, Greek, and history were dropped in 1845, whilst natural sciences were split into physics and chemistry. Philosophy became the sole field of study in 1875.", "Master of Philosophy\nIn most UK universities, completion of an M.Phil. typically requires two years of full-time or five years or more of part-time study (being five or eight years from initially entering university) and the submission of a thesis comprising a body of original research undertaken by the candidate. It is common for students admitted into a Ph.D. program at a UK university to be initially registered for the degree of M.Phil., and then to transfer (or upgrade) to the Ph.D. upon successful completion of the first (or sometimes the second) year of study: this will often involve the submission of a short report or dissertation by the student, and possibly an oral examination or presentation. In addition, most universities allow examiners to recommend award of an M.Phil. if a Ph.D. candidate's thesis is deemed not to be of the requisite length or standard for a doctorate. However, many students register for an M.Phil. with no intention of upgrading to a Ph.D. Others are not able to do a Ph.D. because their research does not have sufficient scope for a Ph.D. or because they are seeking a shorter program.", "Licentiate of Theology\nThe Licence in Theology was one of two courses (the other being the Bachelor of Arts degree course)\noffered by Durham University at its opening in 1833 and was first awarded in 1834. The course initially had a standard length of two years, reduced to one for graduates of Oxford and Cambridge; this was raised to three years for 1841–1846, but this led to a serious fall in numbers and it returned to two years from 1846. It ran in a variety of different forms, including being offered with honours for a period from 1864, but closed in 1946. From the late 19th century the LTh could be gained at Anglican theological colleges affiliated to Durham without the need for residence at the university. The Common Awards validated by Durham and offered to all Church of England ordinands since 2014, as well as trainee ministers from the Methodist, Baptist and United Reformed churches, include a variety of degree and non-degree qualifications. However, these follow the naming conventions of the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications and do not include a license in theology.", "Bachelor of Arts\nIn the United Kingdom (excluding Scotland) and Ireland, the first degree course normally lasts three years, but nomenclature varies: 19th-century and later universities usually distinguish between arts and sciences subjects by awarding either a B.A. or B.Sc. degree. However, some older or ancient universities, such as Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin traditionally award B.A.s to undergraduates having completed the final examinations, e.g. Part II Tripos (Cambridge), Final Honour Schools (Oxford), Moderatorship (Dublin), in most subjects including the sciences. Some new plate glass universities established in the 1960s, such as York and Lancaster originally followed the practice of Oxford and Cambridge by awarding B.A.s in all subjects, but have since changed to awarding B.Sc. degrees in science subjects. At Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin the degree of M.A. can be claimed, usually 21 terms after matriculation. For many centuries, the bachelor's degree was an intermediate step and was awarded for much of the work carried out in later times at secondary schools. The names of the final secondary school exams in France and Spain (and increasingly in the UK—the International Baccalaureate) come from this: le Baccalauréat and el \"Bachillerato\", respectively.", "Postgraduate education\nThe D.Min degree is a second professional degree, which includes two years of study and one to two years of research and a project in the candidates local area of work. The Ph.D. degree in this area follows other Ph.D. programs with two years of seminars, comprehensive exams (usually not oral), and then if a person passes the exam, a dissertation. An alternative terminal degree after the M.Div. is a Master's of Theology (Th.M). a Th.M is one year of seminary study followed by a shorter thesis (usually around one hundred pages) that does not necessarily have to be a unique contribution to the field (unlike a dissertation). A person who fails the comprehensive exam in this discipline may also be awarded a Th.M.", "Terminal degree\nIn academic fields, the typical terminal degree is that of Doctor of Philosophy, although others also exist. The first phase of the Ph.D. consists of coursework in the student's field of study and requires one to three years to complete. This is often followed by a preliminary or comprehensive examination and/or a series of cumulative examinations, in which the emphasis is on breadth rather than depth of knowledge. Finally, another two to four years is usually required for the composition of a substantial and original contribution to human knowledge embodied in a written dissertation that in the social sciences and humanities is typically 250 to 450 pages in length. Dissertations generally consist of (i) a comprehensive literature review, (ii) an outline of methodology, and (iii) several chapters of scientific, social, historical, philosophical, or literary analysis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, sometimes public, by his or her supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline.A professional degree is a degree that is required, often by law as in the case of medical and other clinical professions, that must be earned first before the holder of the degree can practice in the profession. A speech-language pathologist, for example, must hold a master's degree in communicative disorders: speech-language pathology in order to practice. However, an actor does not need a degree to act, even though there are degrees for acting available. In some fields, especially those linked to a profession (such as medicine,law or teaching), a distinction is to be drawn between a first professional degree, an advanced professional degree, and a terminal academic degree. A first professional degree is generally required by law or custom to practice the profession without limitation. An advanced professional degree provides further training in a specialized area of the profession. A first professional degree is an academic degree designed to prepare the holder for a particular career or profession, fields in which scholarly research and academic activity are not the profession, but rather the practice of the profession. In many cases such as law, medicine and teaching, the first professional degree is also terminal, usually because no further advanced degree is required for practice in that field, even though more advanced academic degrees may exist.", "Graduate school\nFor the next several years the doctoral candidate primarily performs his or her research. Usually this lasts three to eight years, though a few finish more quickly, and some take substantially longer. In total, the typical doctoral degree takes between four and eight years from entering the program to completion, though this time varies depending upon the department, dissertation topic, and many other factors. For example, astronomy degrees take five to six years on average, but observational astronomy degrees take six to seven due to limiting factors of weather, while theoretical astronomy degrees take five.", "Doctor of Philosophy\nIn general, the first two years of study are devoted to completion of coursework and the comprehensive examinations. At this stage, the student is known as a \"Ph.D. student\" or \"doctoral student\". It is usually expected that the student will have completed most of his or her required coursework by the end of this stage. Furthermore, it is usually required that by the end of eighteen to thirty-six months after the first registration, the student will have successfully completed the comprehensive exams.", "Bachelor's degree\nIn Bangladesh, universities and colleges award three- and four-year degrees (three-year degrees courses are called pass courses and four-year degree courses are called honours courses) in science and business (B.Sc., B.B.S., B.B.A., , etc.) and three- and four-year degrees in arts (B.A., B.S.S., etc.). Engineering universities provide four-year degree programs for bachelor's degree courses of study (B.Sc. in Eng and B.Sc.). Medical colleges have five-year degree programmes (MBBS, BDS). In law education there is a two-year LL.B. degree after completing three years in a B.A. program for a total of five years of study. There is also a four-year LL.B. honours degree. The Bachelor of Architecture (B.Arch.) and Bachelor of Pharmacy (B.Pharm.) are professional degrees awarded to students who complete a five-year course of study in the field at some universities. All of these programs begin after achieving the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC—in total 12 years of school education).", "Philosophy education\nIn many other European countries philosophy is part of the high school curriculum, such as for example in Austria, Croatia, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Poland, and mainly Spain. In Germany the subject ethics has been introduced in more and more parts since the 1970s. In Croatia the subject ethics can be taken instead of religious education which mainly focuses on Catholic tradition. Spain is the most clear example of a philosophy education. In Secondary school all the students must take a little introduction to ethics, but it is during the sixth form, known there as 'bachillerato', where it is compulsory to take philosophy and citizenship in the first course, as well as history of philosophy in the second course in order to apply for university or just to get the title. University-level philosophy courses are widespread and are usually thought to have the longest tradition in the subject due to the historical ascription for the invention of philosophy as a separate discipline to the philosophers of Ancient Greece.", "Bachelor's degree\nIn Tunisia, a bachelor's degree is referred to as \"al-ʾijāzah\" in Arabic, or \"la license\" in French; the degree takes three years to complete and is a part of the LMD (\"license\", \"master\", \"doctorat\") reform, students can enroll in a bachelor's degree program in different fields of study after having obtained their \"baccalauréat\" (the national secondary education test). The degree is typically identical to the program of France's universities, as specified in the LMD reform. Most universities in Tunisia offer the 3-year bachelor's degree, except some fields, which are Medicine, Pharmacy, Engineering, Architecture and Bachelor of Science in Business Administration, solely offered by Tunis Business School and lasts 4 years.", "Institut d'études politiques de Lyon\nSciences Po Lyon currently offers a 5-year-long programme, with a three-year-long undergraduate programme and a two-year graduate programme in line with the Bologna Process and delivers its main diploma equivalent to a master's degree. The first two years are aimed at giving students a multidisciplinary background, primarily focusing on social sciences such as economics, public law, contemporary history, philosophy, sociology and public policy. Additionally, students need to study at least two foreign languages, such as English, German, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Italian, or Russian.", "Kellogg School of Management\nKellogg awarded its first Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree in 1927. Since then, more than 950 Kellogg Ph.D. alumni have gone on to positions within academia and business. Seven programs of study are offered: Accounting Information and Management, Finance, Management and Organizations, Management and Organizations and Sociology, Managerial Economics and Strategy, Marketing, and Operations Management. The program is full-time on the Evanston campus. Students typically graduate in five years.", "Doctor of Philosophy\nThe usual duration of a doctoral program largely depends on the subject and area of research; but, often three to five years of full-time research work are required.", "Faculty of History, University of Cambridge\nAt postgraduate level, the faculty offers three types of degrees: Master of Philosophy (MPhil), Master of Studies (MSt), and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). The MPhils are 9 month to one year courses, consisting of taught courses and a research dissertation; there are eight MPhils, one for each of the eight subject groups. The MSt is a two year part-time course, consisting of taught modules and a research dissertation: it is jointly taught by the Faculty Of History and the Institute of Continuing Education. The PhD is a research course, taking 3-4 years full-time and 5-7 years part-time, and resulting in a doctoral thesis of 80,000 words.", "Bachelor of Science\nIn Australia, the BSc is generally a three-four year degree. An honours year or a Master of Science (MSc) is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). \nIn New Zealand, in some cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In other cases, students with strong performance in their second or third year, are invited to extend their degree to an additional year, with a focus on research, granting access to doctoral programs. \nIn South Africa, the BSc is taken over three years, while the postgraduate BSc (Hons) entails an additional year of study. Admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the BSc major; an honours degree is required for MSc level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the MSc.", "Master of Psychology\nAll students entering a professional PsyM program are required to have a recognized bachelor's degree in a related field. The PsyM is a two years long diploma, conferring at its term a 5-years university diploma.", "Academic term\nHigher education consists of bachelor, masters, and PhD levels. Depending upon the stream and subject, bachelors level may be of three to five years' duration. The duration of masters level is generally two years. Some universities offer programs like M Phil and post-graduate diplomas.", "Tampere University of Technology\nAll programs leading to M.Sc. also offer the possibility of continuing research until a doctoral degree. As usual in Finland, the completion of doctoral degree requires a certain amount of courses taught (worth at least 60 ECTS) and a dissertation containing original scientific research, usually published in international peer-reviewed journals. Depending on the prior education of the student, the doctoral degree is either \"tekniikan tohtori\" (Doctor of Science in Technology or Architecture) or \"filosofian tohtori\" (Doctor of Philosophy). As a general rule, the graduate students with a master's degree in Technology or Architecture will be awarded the Doctor of Science degree, while graduate students with a master's degree in other majors will be awarded the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. A \"tekniikan lisensiaatti\" (Licentiate of Technology) is also available. Yearly, some 70 doctors graduate. The mean age of new doctors is 34.", "Doctor of Philosophy\nTypically, Ph.D. programs require applicants to have a bachelor's degree in a relevant field (and, in many cases in the humanities, a master's degree), reasonably high grades, several letters of recommendation, relevant academic coursework, a cogent statement of interest in the field of study, and satisfactory performance on a graduate-level exam specified by the respective program (e.g., GRE, GMAT).", "National Research University – Higher School of Economics\nNormally it takes four years to study for a bachelor's degree and two years to study for a master's degree. About 90% of HSE undergraduates apply for a graduate course. For the first two years all students studying at the same faculty attend a large number of compulsory courses and several elective courses. During this time, the class sizes are relatively small (usually ). This allows a more hands-on approach than that at many other universities. After the second year of studying students choose the field they want to specialize in. At that time there are still all-faculty courses taught to all students but for most of the time students study in separate groups of 20–30, in courses in more specialized fields and conducting their own research on chosen topics.", "University of Greifswald Faculty of Arts\nLike many other universities in Germany, the Faculty of Philosophy (\"Philosophische Fakultät\") of Greifswald University is now offering bachelor's and master's degree courses to cater to the wider interests of students. The undergraduate programmes have course duration of three years; the postgraduate programmes have course duration of two years.", "Frederick S. Pardee RAND Graduate School\nPardee RAND offers the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree in policy analysis. The Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) degree is awarded to students after two years of coursework and partial completion of the Ph.D. requirements. The first doctorate was awarded in 1974. As of August 2018, Pardee RAND has awarded 400 Ph.D. degrees and is the largest policy Ph.D. program in the United States.", "Dottorato di ricerca\nAfter 1999, the \"Laurea\" corresponds to a Bachelor's Degree while the \"Laurea Magistrale\" corresponds to a Master's Degree. Only the \"Laurea Magistrale\" grants access to third cycle programmes (Post-MA degrees, Doctorates or Specializing schools), that last 2 to 5 years (usually completing a PhD takes 3 years). However, it is now established that there is just a unique five-year degree \"Laurea Magistrale a ciclo unico\" (\"Single cycle master's degree\") for programmes such as Law (Facoltà di Giurisprudenza), Arts (Accademia di Belle Arti), Music (Conservatorio di Musica) and a few others, and six-years degree for Medicine and Surgery (Medicina e Chirurgia) and Dentistry (Odontoiatria e Protesi Dentaria). The title for MA/MSc/MFA/MD/MJur/MEd graduate students is \"dottore\" (abbreviation in \"dott.\"/\"dott.ssa\" or \"dr.\", meaning Doctor). This title is not to be confused with the PhD and Post-MA graduates, whose title is \"Dottore di Ricerca\" (\"Research Doctor\" or \"Philosophy Doctor\").", "Doctor of Pharmacy\nIn Jordan, the Pharm.D. program is offered by the University of Jordan and Jordan University of Science and Technology at the undergraduate level. This program is not to be confused with the BSc. in Pharmacy program even though both programs are still offered today. Students complete 5 years of academical work and 1 year of clinical practice to earn the degree. This program is offered at public universities only: at the University of Jordan and Jordan University of Science and Technology. The University of Jordan calls this degree BSc. in Doctor of Pharmacy, which is granted after a successful completion of 216 credit hours. The Jordan University of Science and Technology has a similar credit hour requirement and calls the degree BSc. of Doctor of Pharmacy degree.", "Bachelor's degree\nUniversity admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelor's degree. In cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course. Students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. Nigerian universities offer B.Sc., B.Tech. (usually from Universities of Technology), B.Arch. (six years), and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as B.Eng. Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES (Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme) but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, during the bachelor thesis in the final year. The classifications of degrees: first-class, second-class (upper and lower), third-class (with honours; i.e., B.Sc. (Hons)) and a pass (no honours). First- and second-class graduates are immediately eligible for advanced postgraduate degrees (i.e., M.Sc. and Ph.D.), but other classes may be required for an additional postgraduate diploma before such eligibility.", "University of Auckland Law School\nA Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Law is a thesis-only research degree usually requiring full-time study for three to four years at The University of Auckland. The degree is undertaken under supervision and candidates must complete a sustained course of advanced legal research resulting in the production of a substantial original thesis. The degree is governed by the general University PhD regulations.", "Master of Philosophy\nThe Master of Philosophy (abbr. M.Phil. or MPhil, sometimes Ph.M.; Latin ' or ') is a postgraduate degree. In most cases, it is an advanced research degree with the prerequisites required for a Master of Philosophy degree making it the most advanced research degree before the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D. or D.Phil.). A M.Phil. is in most cases thesis-only and is regarded as a senior or second master's degree, standing between a taught master's and a Ph.D. An M.Phil. may be awarded to graduate students after completing several years of original research, but before the defence of a dissertation, and can serve as a provisional enrollment for a Ph.D.", "PhD-MBA\nA PhD-MBA or MBA-PhD is a dual degree program offered in some cases by schools of science, engineering or social science, jointly with business schools. The program generally lasts four to eight years and results in the candidate earning both a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree and a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree. Students may apply to the joint program before matriculating to either program, or after matriculating to the PhD programme. The programme often attracts entrepreneurs and venture capitalists.", "Philosophy of education\nAt the age of 20, a selection was made. The best students would take an advanced course in mathematics, geometry, astronomy and harmonics. The first course in the scheme of higher education would last for ten years. It would be for those who had a flair for science. At the age of 30 there would be another selection; those who qualified would study dialectics and metaphysics, logic and philosophy for the next five years. After accepting junior positions in the army for 15 years, a man would have completed his theoretical and practical education by the age of 50.", "Sullivan University\nSullivan University still reflects its original philosophy of quickly preparing students for careers by offering a \"stair step\" approach. A student can attain a career diploma in one year, an associate degree in eighteen months, a bachelor's degree after an additional eighteen months, and a master's degree in an additional eighteen months. This way, they can attain employment at an entry level while working toward a degree.", "Bachelor of Philosophy\nToday's Oxford B.Phil. course is a two-year programme of seminars, six essays (of up to 5000 words each) and a research thesis (max. 30,000 words). The B.Phil. is regarded as a very demanding degree, and an academic background in philosophy is a prerequisite for admission.", "Diplom\nIn Greece, a \"higher education diploma\" (δίπλωμα/πτυχίο ανώτατης εκπαίδευσης) is a 4 to 5-year (8-10 semester) (240 ISCED 6 - 300 ECTS ISCED 7) degree, 5-year Diplomas formatted similarly to the German Diplom(Uni), awarded to students of the Greek Engineering Schools and Departments (called Polytechnic in Greece – not to be confused though with the polytechnics of the UK), with the only exception of \"higher education diploma\" (δίπλωμα/πτυχίο ανώτατης εκπαίδευσης) 4-year (8 semester) (240 ISCED 6) newfly founded University of Western Attica.", "Master's degree\nUnder the Bologna Process, countries in the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) are moving to a three cycle (bachelor's - master's - doctorate) system of degrees. Two thirds of EHEA countries have standardised on 120 ECTS credits for their second-cycle (master's) degrees, but 90 ECTS credits is the main form in Cyprus, Ireland and Scotland and 60-75 credits in Montenegro, Serbia and Spain. The combined length of the first and second cycle varies from \"3 + 1\" years (240 \nECTS credits), through \"3 + 2\" or \"4 + 1\" years (300 ECTS credits), to \"4 + 2\" years (360 ECTS credits). As of 2015, 31 EHEA countries have integrated programmes that combine the first and second cycle and lead to a second-cycle qualification (e.g. the UK integrated master's degree), particularly in STEM subjects and subjects allied to medicine. These typically have a duration of 300 – 360 ECTS credits (five to six years), with the integrated master's degrees in England, Wales and Northern Ireland being the shortest at 240 ECTS credits (four years).After acquiring a Bachelor's or Licenciate Degree, students are qualified to continue their academic career through Master's Degree (\"mestrado\", in Portuguese, a.k.a. \"stricto sensu\" post-graduation) or Specialization Degree (\"especialização\", in Portuguese, a.k.a. \"lato sensu\" post-graduation) programs. At the Master's program there are 2–3 years of graduate-level studies. Usually focused on academic research, the Master's Degree requires, on any specific knowledge area, the development of a thesis to be presented and defended before a board of professors after the period of research. Conversely, the Specialization Degree, also comprehends a 1–2 years studies, but does not require a new thesis to be proposed and defended, being usually attended by professionals looking for complementary training on a specific area of their knowledge.", "Doctor of Sacred Theology\nThe degree builds upon the work of the Bachelor of Sacred Theology (STB) and the Licentiate of Sacred Theology (STL). Normally, the STB is earned in three years, provided the candidate has at least two years of undergraduate study of philosophy before entering an STB program (if not, the STB will take five years; \"Sapientia Christiana\" assumes this to be the normal situation). The STL is normally earned in an additional two years, and the STD is earned after the writing, defense and publication of the doctoral dissertation (an additional 2–3 years). At institutions that offer both civil and church doctorates, the requirements of the STD will usually—although not always—be shaped so that those reading for the award can receive a ThD or PhD in the process of meeting the requirements of the STD.", "Bachelor of Science\nA Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree and BSc (Hons) or BS (Hons) for an honours degree. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses (with less vacation time). Bachelor's degrees (without honours) were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century. In Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year (simply known as the First year) making the total course length four years. In Ireland, the former BS. was changed to BSc (Hons) which is awarded after four years. The BSc (Ord) is awarded after three years. Formerly at the University of Oxford, the degree of BSc was a postgraduate degree; this former degree, still actively granted, has since been renamed MSc." ]

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[ "Astronomical year numbering\nCassini gave the following reasons for using a year 0:\nFred Espanak of NASA lists 50 phases of the moon within year 0, showing that it is a full year, not an instant in time. Jean Meeus gives the following explanation:\nAlthough he used the usual French terms \"avant J.-C.\" (before Jesus Christ) and \"après J.-C.\" (after Jesus Christ) to label years elsewhere in his book, the Byzantine historian Venance Grumel used negative years (identified by a minus sign, −) to label BC years and unsigned positive years to label AD years in a table. He did so possibly to save space and put no year 0 between them.", "Year zero\nYear zero does not exist in the anno Domini system usually used to number years in the Gregorian calendar and in its predecessor, the Julian calendar. In this system, the year is followed by . However, there is a year zero in astronomical year numbering (where it coincides with the Julian year ) and in ISO 8601:2004 (where it coincides with the Gregorian year ) as well as in all Buddhist and Hindu calendars.", "Year zero\nISO 8601:2004 (and previously ISO 8601:2000, but not ISO 8601:1988) explicitly uses astronomical year numbering in its date reference systems. Because it also specifies the use of the proleptic Gregorian calendar for all years before 1582, some readers incorrectly assume that a year zero is also included in that proleptic calendar, but it is not used with the BC/AD era. The \"basic\" format for year 0 is the four-digit form 0000, which equals the historical year 1 BC. Several \"expanded\" formats are possible: −0000 and +0000, as well as five- and six-digit versions. Earlier years are also negative four-, five- or six-digit years, which have an absolute value one less than the equivalent BC year, hence -0001 = 2 BC. Because only ISO 646 (7-bit ASCII) characters are allowed by ISO 8601, the minus sign is represented by a hyphen-minus.", "Year zero\nHistorians have never included a year zero. This means that between, for example, and , there are 999 years: 500 years BC, and 499 years AD preceding 500. In common usage \"anno Domini\" 1 is preceded by the year 1 BC, without an intervening year zero. Neither the choice of calendar system (whether Julian or Gregorian) nor the era (\"Anno Domini\" or Common Era) determines whether a year zero will be used. If writers do not use the convention of their group (historians or astronomers), they must explicitly state whether they include a year 0 in their count of years, otherwise their historical dates will be misunderstood." ]

[ "Calling Zero\nSide A", "List of non-standard dates\nJanuary 0 refers to the day before January 1 in an annual ephemeris. It keeps the date in the year for which the ephemeris was published, thus avoiding any reference to the previous year, even though it is the same day as December 31 of the previous year.", "Year zero\nDionysius did not use AD years to date any historical event. This began with the English cleric Bede (c. 672–735), who used AD years in his \"Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum\" (731), popularizing the era. Bede also used a term similar to the English before Christ once, but that practice did not catch on until very much later. Bede did not sequentially number days of the month, weeks of the year, or months of the year. However, he did number many of the days of the week using a counting origin of one in Ecclesiastical Latin. Previous Christian histories used \"anno mundi\" (\"in the year of the world\") beginning on the first day of creation, or \"anno Adami\" (\"in the year of Adam\") beginning at the creation of Adam five days later (the sixth day of creation according to the Genesis creation narrative), used by Africanus, or \"anno Abrahami\" (\"in the year of Abraham\") beginning 3,412 years after Creation according to the Septuagint, used by Eusebius of Caesarea, all of which assigned \"one\" to the year beginning at Creation, or the creation of Adam, or the birth of Abraham, respectively. Bede continued this earlier tradition relative to the AD era.", "0 (disambiguation)\n0 is the integer between −1 and +1, and the numerical digit used to represent that number.", "Year of the Cat\nSide 1", "Regnal year\nApplying this ancient epoch system to modern calculations of time, which include zero, is what led to the debate over when the third millennium began.", "1000\nYear 1000 (M) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. In the proleptic Gregorian calendar, it was a non-leap century year starting on Wednesday (like 1800). It was also the last year of the 10th century as well as the last year of the 1st millennium of the Dionysian era ending on December 31st, but the first year of the 1000s decade.", "Regnal year\nThe oldest dating systems were in regnal years, and considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number. For example, a monarch could have a first year of rule, a second year of rule, a third year of rule, and so on, but not a zeroth year of rule.", "0\nIt was considered that the earliest text to use a decimal place-value system, including a zero, is the \"Lokavibhāga\", a Jain text on cosmology surviving in a medieval Sanskrit translation of the Prakrit original, which is internally dated to AD 458 (Saka era 380). In this text, \"śūnya\" (\"void, empty\") is also used to refer to zero.", "Parity of zero\nAround the year 2000, media outlets noted a pair of unusual milestones: \"1999/11/19\" was the last calendar date composed of all odd digits that would occur for a very long time, and that \"2000/02/02\" was the first all-even date to occur in a very long time. Since these results make use of 0 being even, some readers disagreed with the idea.", "1000s BC (decade)\nThe 1000s BC is a decade which lasted from 1009 BC to 1000 BC.", "Number\nBrahmagupta's Brahmasphuṭasiddhanta is the first book that mentions zero as a number, hence Brahmagupta is usually considered the first to formulate the concept of zero. He gave rules of using zero with negative and positive numbers, such as 'Zero plus a positive number is a positive number, and a negative number plus zero is the negative number'. The Brahmasphutasiddhanta is the earliest known text to treat zero as a number in its own right, rather than as simply a placeholder digit in representing another number as was done by the Babylonians or as a symbol for a lack of quantity as was done by Ptolemy and the Romans.", "Library of Congress Control Number\nIn its most elementary form the number includes a year and a serial number. The year has two digits for 1898 to 2000, and four digits beginning in 2001. The three ambiguous years (1898, 1899, and 1900) are distinguished by the size of the serial number. There are also some peculiarities in numbers beginning with a \"7\" because of an unsuccessful experiment applied between 1969 and 1972.", "Signed zero\nSigned zero is zero with an associated sign. In ordinary arithmetic, the number 0 does not have a sign, so that −0, +0 and 0 are identical. However, in computing, some number representations allow for the existence of two zeros, often denoted by −0 (negative zero) and +0 (positive zero), regarded as equal by the numerical comparison operations but with possible different behaviors in particular operations. This occurs in the \"sign and magnitude\" and \"ones' complement\" signed number representations for integers, and in most floating-point number representations. The number 0 is usually encoded as +0, but can be represented by either +0 or −0.", "1st century BC\nThe 1st century BC, also known as the last century BC, started on the first day of 100 BC and ended on the last day of 1 BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero; however, astronomical year numbering does use a zero, as well as a minus sign, so \"\"2 BC\"\" is equal to \"\"year –1\"\". This is the 100th century in the Holocene calendar; it spans the years 9,901 to 10,000. 1st century AD (Anno Domini) follows.", "0\nA stone tablet found in the ruins of a temple near Sambor on the Mekong, Kratié Province, Cambodia, includes the inscription of \"605\" in Khmer numerals (a set of numeral glyphs for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system). The number is the year of the inscription in the Saka era, corresponding to a date of AD 683.", "Year zero\nIn chapter II of book I of \"Ecclesiastical history\", Bede stated that Julius Caesar invaded Britain \"in the year 693 after the building of Rome, but the sixtieth year before the incarnation of our Lord\", while stating in chapter III, \"in the year of Rome 798, Claudius\" also invaded Britain and \"within a very few days [...] concluded the war in [...] the fortysixth [year] from the incarnation of our Lord\". Although both dates are wrong, they are sufficient to conclude that Bede did not include a year zero between BC and AD: 798 − 693 + 1 (because the years are inclusive) = 106, but 60 + 46 = 106, which leaves no room for a year zero. The modern English term \"before Christ\" (BC) is only a rough equivalent, \"not\" a direct translation, of Bede's Latin phrase \"ante incarnationis dominicae tempus\" (\"before the time of the lord's incarnation\"), which was itself never abbreviated. Bede's singular use of 'BC' continued to be used sporadically throughout the Middle Ages.", "Year Zero (political notion)\nThe term Year Zero ( \"chhnam saun\"), applied to the takeover of Cambodia in April 1975 by the Khmer Rouge, is an analogy to the Year One of the French Revolutionary Calendar. During the French Revolution, after the abolition of the French monarchy (September 20, 1792), the National Convention instituted a new calendar and declared the beginning of the Year I. The Khmer Rouge takeover of Phnom Penh was rapidly followed by a series of drastic revolutionary de-industrialization policies resulting in a death toll that vastly exceeded that of the French Reign of Terror.", "New Year\nMarch 1 was the first day of the numbered year in the Republic of Venice until its destruction in 1797, and in Russia from 988 until 1492 (Anno Mundi 7000 in the Byzantine calendar). September 1 was used in Russia from 1492 (A.M. 7000) until the adoption of the Anno Domini notation in 1700 via a December 1699 decree of Tsar Peter I.", "Zero-based numbering\nThe year zero does not exist in the widely used Gregorian calendar or in its predecessor, the Julian calendar. Under those systems, the year 1 BC is followed by AD 1. However, there is a year zero in astronomical year numbering (where it coincides with the Julian year 1 BC) and in ISO 8601:2004 (where it coincides with the Gregorian year 1 BC) as well as in all Buddhist and Hindu calendars.", "1444\nYear 1444 (MCDXLIV) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. It is one of eight years (CE) to contain each Roman numeral once (1000(M)+(-100(C)+500(D))+(-10(X)+50(L))+(-1(I)+5(V)) = 1444).", "Flanaess\nGygax calculated all events that had taken place before 1 CY as negative numbers, and since there was no 0 CY—the year previous to 1 CY was -1 CY—this forced an extra calculation when attempting to convert Common Year dates prior to 1 CY to the other calendar systems. However, by the start of Gygax's campaign (set as 576 CY), the Common Year Reckoning was used almost universally by most cultures, making conversions to the other calendar systems by dungeon masters largely unnecessary.", "Year 2000 problem\nNormally, a year is a leap year if it is evenly divisible by four. A year divisible by 100, however, is not a leap year in the Gregorian calendar unless it is also divisible by 400. For example, 1600 was a leap year, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not. Some programs may have relied on the oversimplified rule that \"a year divisible by four is a leap year\". This method works fine for the year 2000 (because it is a leap year), and will not become a problem until 2100, when older legacy programs will likely have long since been replaced. Other programs contained incorrect leap year logic, assuming for instance that no year divisible by 100 could be a leap year. An assessment of this \"leap year problem\" including a number of real life code fragments appeared in 1998. For information on why century years are treated differently, see Gregorian calendar.", "List of years in comics\nThis page indexes the individual year in comics pages. Each year is annotated with significant events as reference points.\n2010s - 2000s - 1990s - 1980s - 1970s - 1960s - 1950s - 1940s - 1930s -\nPre-1930s", "Walter Thirring\n0", "Year zero\nThe \"anno Domini\" nomenclature was not widely used in Western Europe until the 9th century, and the to historical year was not uniform throughout Western Europe until 1752. The first extensive use (hundreds of times) of 'BC' occurred in \"Fasciculus Temporum\" by Werner Rolevinck in 1474, alongside years of the world (\"anno mundi\"). The terms \"anno Domini\", \"Dionysian era\", \"Christian era\", \"vulgar era\", and \"common era\" were used interchangeably between the Renaissance and the 19th century, at least in Latin. But \"vulgar era\" was suppressed in English at the beginning of the 20th century after \"vulgar\" acquired the meaning of \"offensively coarse\", replacing its original meaning of \"common\" or \"ordinary\". Consequently, historians regard all these eras as equal.", "0s BC\nThis is a list of events occurring in the 0s BC ordered by year.", "Names for the number 0 in English\nIt is quite common in English to describe decades with a plural of the first year of the decade for example \"the nineties\" which can be written as \"the 90s\". There was a debate on what to call the first decade of the 21st century, as \"00s\" is not usually pronounced as a word. Apart from side stepping the issue and calling the decade the \"two-thousands\" (2000s) there is no agreed wording, although in Britain and some other countries \"noughties\" was also used.", "Henryk Grossman\n\"k\" = 0 for a year \"n\", if:", "List of Major League Baseball franchise postseason droughts\n* Year does not indicate a title won, but rather the team's first year of existence or the first year of the modern World Series (1903).", "Upside down year\nAn upside down year is a year which reads the same when the 'year number' is turned upside down, when the numerals which form the year's number appear the same when rotated 180 degrees (turned upside down).", "500\nYear 500 (D) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Patricius and Hypatius (or, less frequently, year 1253 \"Ab urbe condita\"). The denomination 500 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. The year 500 is considered the beginning of the Middle Ages.", "List of years in philosophy\n1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909\n1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919\n1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929\n1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939\n1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949\n1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959\n1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969\n1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979\n1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989\n1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999\n2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005\n2006 2007 2008 2009\n2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019Please see the page for formatting standards.", "Year Zero: The Silent Death of Cambodia\nThe documentary as a television \"event\" can send ripples far and wide ... \"Year Zero\" not only revealed the horror of the Pol Pot years, it showed how Richard Nixon's and Henry Kissinger's 'secret' bombing of that country had provided a critical catalyst for the rise of the Khmer Rouge. It also exposed how the West, led by the United States and Britain, was imposing an embargo, like a medieval siege, on the most stricken country on earth. This was a reaction to the fact that Cambodia's liberator was Vietnam – a country that had come from the wrong side of the Cold War and that had recently defeated the US. Cambodia's suffering was a wilful revenge. Britain and the US even backed Pol Pot's demand that his man continue to occupy Cambodia's seat at the UN, while Margaret Thatcher stopped children's milk going to the survivors of his nightmare regime. Little of this was reported. Had \"Year Zero\" simply described the monster that Pol Pot was, it would have been quickly forgotten. By reporting the collusion of \"our\" governments, it told a wider truth about how the world was run ... Within two days of \"Year Zero\" going to air, 40 sacks of post arrived at ATV ... in Birmingham – 26,000 first-class letters in the first post alone. The station quickly amassed £1m, almost all of it in small amounts. \"This is for Cambodia,\" wrote a Bristol bus driver, enclosing his week's wage. Entire pensions were sent, along with entire savings. Petitions arrived at Downing Street, one after the other, for weeks. MPs received hundreds of thousands of letters, demanding that British policy change (which it did, eventually). And none of it was asked for. For me, the public response to \"Year Zero\" gave the lie to clichés about \"compassion fatigue\", an excuse that some broadcasters and television executives use to justify the current descent into the cynicism and passivity of Big Brotherland. Above all, I learned that a documentary could reclaim shared historical and political memories, and present their hidden truths. The reward then was a compassionate and an informed public; and it still is.", "Century leap year\nIn the Gregorian calendar, a year ending in \"00\" that is divisible by 400 is a century leap year, with the intercalation of February 29 yielding 366 days instead of 365. Century years (divisible by 100) that are \"not\" divisible by 400 are not leap years but common years of 365 days. For example, the years 1600, 2000, and 2400 are century leap years since those numbers are divisible by 400, while 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300 are common years despite being divisible by 4. Leap years divisible by 400 always start on a Saturday; thus the leap day February 29 in those years always falls on a Tuesday (dominical letter BA).", "List of years in science\n1st century in science", "0\nThe number 0 is neither positive nor negative and is usually displayed as the central number in a number line. It is neither a prime number nor a composite number. It cannot be prime because it has an infinite number of factors, and cannot be composite because it cannot be expressed as a product of prime numbers (0 must always be one of the factors). Zero is, however, even (as well as being a multiple of any other integer, rational, or real number).", "Anders Blixt\nMutant Year Zero", "Year Zero: The Silent Death of Cambodia\nIn a 2007 speech, \"Freedom Next Time: Resisting the Empire\", Pilger described his experience with executives of the American Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). They refused to screen \"Year Zero\", which, according to Pilger, has never been broadcast in the USA.", "Red Eyes\nThe year 2001 became the new first year of the new era, known as 1 GU (first year of the Great Unification's calendar), however in 50 GU (2050 AD) an unknown power is able to hack in the SDI system, forcing the system in SafeMode, making the system unable to process order from the DUPE command centre (except its original mission to intercept any launched ICBMs and missiles). As result of losing its deterrence system, the other countries of the planet launch a full-scale attack against the DUPE forces, beginning the \"20 years war\" (World War III) that ended de facto in 70 GU (2070 AD) with no winner and the death of half the population of the planet, while all main actors of the war eventually dissolved and ceased to exist following the mutual destruction.", "Millennium\nThe \"year 2000\" has also been a popular phrase referring to an often utopian future, or a year when stories in such a future were set, adding to its cultural significance. There was also media and public interest in the Y2K bug. People liked to compared their odometer as a reason to celebrate the new millennium which goes from 1999 to 2000. Thus, the populist argument was that the new millennium should begin when the zeroes \"rolled over\" to 2000, i.e., the day after December 31, 1999. Some people thought that the change of the hundreds digit in the year number, and the zeros rolling over, created a sense that a new century had begun.", "100 BC\nYear 100 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Marius and Flaccus (or, less frequently, year 654 \"Ab urbe condita\"). The denomination 100 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.", "List of years in television\n(No answers until 2020s.)", "Year Zero (Reid novel)\nYear Zero is a 2012 science fiction novel by Robert Reid. It was published by Del Rey Books, with an audiobook version read by John Hodgman.", "0\nSince the eight earliest Long Count dates appear outside the Maya homeland, it is generally believed that the use of zero in the Americas predated the Maya and was possibly the invention of the Olmecs. Many of the earliest Long Count dates were found within the Olmec heartland, although the Olmec civilization ended by the , several centuries before the earliest known Long Count dates.", "Upside down year\nBefore that was 1111, the year 1001 began the second millennium, and before that were 3-digit years, such as 986, 888, 689, 181, 101, etc.", "Anno Lucis\nFor example, a date Anno Domini (A.D.) becomes Anno Lucis (A.L.) 4000. This calendar era, which would designate 4001 BCE as 'year zero', was adopted in the 18th century as a simplification of the \"Anno Mundi\" era dating system used in the Hebrew calendar and borrowing from other ideas of that time regarding the year of creation.", "204\nYear 204 (CCIV) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Cilo and Flavius (or, less frequently, year 957 \"Ab urbe condita\"). The denomination 204 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.", "Gregorian calendar\nFor dates before the year 1, unlike the proleptic Gregorian calendar used in the international standard ISO 8601, the traditional proleptic Gregorian calendar (like the Julian calendar) does not have a year 0 and instead uses the ordinal numbers 1, 2, ... both for years AD and BC. Thus the traditional time line is 2 BC, 1 BC, AD 1, and AD 2. ISO 8601 uses astronomical year numbering which includes a year 0 and negative numbers before it. Thus the ISO 8601 time line is , 0000, 0001, and 0002.", "Vehicle identification number\nThe year 1980 was encoded by some manufacturers, especially General Motors and Chrysler, as \"A\" (since the 17-digit VIN was not mandatory until 1981, and the \"A\" or zero was in the manufacturer's pre-1981 placement in the VIN), yet Ford and AMC still used a zero for 1980. Subsequent years increment through the allowed letters, so that \"Y\" represents the year 2000. 2001 to 2009 are encoded as the digits 1 to 9, and subsequent years are encoded as \"A\", \"B\", \"C\", etc.", "AD 1\nAD 1 (I), 1 AD or 1 CE is the epoch year for the Anno Domini calendar era. It was the first year of the Common Era (CE), of the 1st millennium and of the 1st century. It was a common year starting on Saturday or Sunday, a common year starting on Saturday by the proleptic Julian calendar, and a common year starting on Monday by the proleptic Gregorian calendar. In its time, year 1 was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caesar and Paullus, named after Roman consuls Gaius Caesar and Lucius Aemilius Paullus, and less frequently, as year 754 AUC (\"ab urbe condita\") within the Roman Empire. The denomination \"AD 1\" for this year has been in consistent use since the mid-medieval period when the anno Domini (AD) calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. It was the beginning of the Christian/Common era. The preceding year is 1 BC; there is no year 0 in this numbering scheme. The \"Anno Domini\" dating system was devised in AD 525 by Dionysius Exiguus.", "Astronomical year numbering\nThe prefix AD and the suffixes CE, BC or BCE (Common Era, Before Christ or Before Common Era) are dropped. The year 1 BC/BCE is numbered 0, the year 2 BC is numbered −1, and in general the year \"n\" BC/BCE is numbered \"−(\"n\" − 1)\" (a negative number equal to 1 − \"n\"). The numbers of AD/CE years are not changed and are written with either no sign or a positive sign; thus in general \"n\" AD/CE is simply \"n\" or +\"n\". For normal calculation a number zero is often needed, here most notably when calculating the number of years in a period that spans the epoch; the end years need only be subtracted from each other.", "Year 1900 problem\nThe most common issue raised by the year 1900 problem regards people's ages. Often, a person's birth year was registered with only two digits, on the assumption that either it was not important exactly how old a person is, or that no one lives longer than one hundred years. In several countries, especially in Europe, a national identification number was introduced (often in the 1950s), including two-digit information about the birth year.", "Year Zero (video game)\nYear Zero is an alternate reality game (ARG) by American studio 42 Entertainment based on the Nine Inch Nails concept album of the same name, its expected follow-up, and a possible accompanying film or television project. Although the album was released on April 16, 2007 in Europe, and the following day worldwide, the game had been underway since roughly February 12, 2007 and was expected to continue for approximately eighteen months. The game was created by 42 Entertainment, the same group responsible for the \"Halo 2\" promotional alternative reality game \"I Love Bees\". Trent Reznor, frontman and sole member of the band, has called the game \"a new entertainment form\". In response to criticism regarding the promotion of the album, Reznor stated:", "Number\nThe first known documented use of zero dates to AD 628, and appeared in the \"Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta\", the main work of the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta. He treated 0 as a number and discussed operations involving it, including division. By this time (the 7th century) the concept had clearly reached Cambodia as Khmer numerals, and documentation shows the idea later spreading to China and the Islamic world.", "Time formatting and storage bugs\nIn the case of the year 32,768 problem, years after 32,767 may be interpreted as negative numbers, beginning with −32,768. The year 65,536 problem is more likely to manifest itself by representing the year 65,536 as the year 0.", "50 BC\nYear 50 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Paullus and Marcellus (or, less frequently, year 704 \"Ab urbe condita\"). The denomination 50 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.", "WWV (radio station)\nLike the WWVB time code, only the tens and units digits of the year are transmitted; \nunlike the WWVB time code, there is no direct indication for leap year. \nThus, receivers assuming that year 00 is a leap year (correct for year 2000) will be incorrect in the year 2100.\nOn the other hand, receivers that assume year 00 is not a leap year will be correct for 2001 through 2399.", "200 BC\nYear 200 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Maximus and Cotta (or, less frequently, year 554 \"Ab urbe condita\"). The denomination 200 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.", "Year 2000 problem\nAlthough only two digits are allocated for the birth year in the Bulgarian national identification number, the year 1900 problem and subsequently the Y2K problem were addressed by the use of unused values above 12 in the month range. For all persons born before 1900, the month is stored as the calendar month plus 20, and for all persons born after 1999, the month is stored as the calendar month plus 40.", "Year zero\nIn astronomy, for the year AD 1 and later it is common to assign the same numbers as the Anno Domini notation, which in turn is numerically equivalent to the Common Era notation. But the discontinuity between 1 AD and 1 BC makes it cumbersome to compare ancient and modern dates. So the year before 1 AD is designated 0, the year before 0 is −1, and so on.", "Vehicle identification number\nOne consistent element of the VIS is the 10th digit, which is required worldwide to encode the model year of the vehicle. Besides the three letters that are not allowed in the VIN itself (I, O and Q), the letters U and Z and the digit 0 are not used for the model year code. The year code is the model year for the vehicle.", "Anno Domini\nFor computational reasons, astronomical year numbering and the ISO 8601 standard designate years so that AD 1 = year 1, 1 BC = year 0, 2 BC = year −1, etc. In common usage, ancient dates are expressed in the Julian calendar, but ISO 8601 uses the Gregorian calendar and astronomers may use a variety of time scales depending on the application. Thus dates using the year 0 or negative years may require further investigation before being converted to BC or AD.", "1st century\nThe 1st century was the century that lasted from AD 1 to AD 100 according to the Julian calendar. It is often written as the or to distinguish it from the 1st century BC (or BCE) which preceded it. The 1st century is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period.", "Year zero\nThe letters \"AD\", \"BC\", \"CE, or \"BCE\" are omitted. So 1 BC in historical notation is equivalent to 0 in astronomical notation, 2 BC is equivalent to −1, etc. Sometimes positive years are preceded by the + sign. This year numbering notation was introduced by the astronomer Jacques Cassini in 1740.", "Year\nThe worldwide standard is the Anno Domini era (but the label Common Era is preferred by some). It was historically introduced in the 6th century and intended as counting years from the birth of Jesus.", "0s (disambiguation)\nThe 0s covers the first nine years (\"decade\") of the \"Anno Domini\" era, which began on January 1st, AD 1 and ended on December 31st, AD 9.", "Millennium\nThe ISO 8601, employed in a number of contexts, uses the astronomical calendar, in which year counting starts at 0. Thus, when using this calendar, the millennium starts at x000 and ends at x999. There was a popular debate leading up to the celebrations of the year 2000 as to whether the beginning of that year should be understood (and celebrated) as the beginning of a new millennium. Historically, there has been debate around the turn of previous decades, centuries, and millennia.", "Characters and organizations in Year Zero\nThe Solutions Backwards Initiative is a group of students, professors, and IT specialists who devise a method of, and succeed in, sending information back through time. The information sent back is theorized to be the websites that are connected to \"Year Zero\". However, the data they send back through time gets somewhat corrupted, causing the garbled appearance of all of the sites in the \"Year Zero\" universe.", "Upside down year\nThe next upside down year will be the extremely distant 6009.", "0\nThe rules governing the use of zero appeared for the first time in Brahmagupta's \"Brahmasputha Siddhanta\" (7th century). This work considers not only zero, but also negative numbers and the algebraic rules for the elementary operations of arithmetic with such numbers. In some instances, his rules differ from the modern standard, specifically the definition of the value of zero divided by zero as zero.", "0\nA symbol for zero, a large dot likely to be the precursor of the still-current hollow symbol, is used throughout the Bakhshali manuscript, a practical manual on arithmetic for merchants. In 2017 three samples from the manuscript were shown by radiocarbon dating to come from three different centuries: from 224-383 AD, 680-779 AD, and 885-993 AD, making it the world's oldest recorded use of the zero symbol. It is not known how the birch bark fragments from different centuries that form the manuscript came to be packaged together.", "1464\nYear 1464 (MCDLXIV) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. It is one of eight years (CE) to contain each Roman numeral once (1000(M)+(-100(C)+500(D))+50(L)+10(X)+(-1(I)+5(V)) = 1464).", "JN53DV\nAlthough the time code only includes two digits of year, it is possible to deduce two bits of century using the day of week. There is still a 400-year ambiguity, as the Gregorian calendar repeats weeks every 400 years, but this is sufficient to determine which years ending in 00 are leap years.", "Dionysius Exiguus\nThe epact, since it originally marked the new moon, was zero in all first decennovenal years, making Dionysius the first known medieval Latin writer to use a precursor of the number zero. The Latin word \"nulla\" meaning \"no/none\" was used because no Roman numeral for zero existed. To determine the decennovenal year, the Dionysian year plus one was divided by 19. If the result was zero (to be replaced by 19), it was represented by the Latin word \"nihil\", also meaning \"nothing\". Both \"zeros\" continued to be used by (among others) Bede, by whose extension of Dionysius Exiguus’ Easter table to a great Easter cycle all future Julian calendar dates of Easter Sunday were fixed unambiguously at last. However, in medieval Europe one had to wait as late as the second millennium to see the number zero itself come into use, although it had come into being around the year 600 in India.", "00\n00, a double zero, may refer to:", "Year 1900 problem\nWhen handling the year 2000 problem, measures were sometimes taken to avoid or rectify this: modifying the national identification number, for instance. For example, year is recorded only with two digits in Bulgarian Uniform civil number; however, a solution was ready as early as the inception of the system in 1975: 20 was added to the month number for individual born before 1900 and 40 for those born in or after 2000.", "504\nYear 504 (DIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Nicomachus without colleague (or, less frequently, year 1257 \"Ab urbe condita\"). The denomination 504 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.", "600\nYear 600 (DC) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 600 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.[[Category:600| ]]", "0\nZero was not treated as a number at that time, but as a \"vacant position\". Qín Jiǔsháo's 1247 \"Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections\" is the oldest surviving Chinese mathematical text using a round symbol for zero. Chinese authors had been familiar with the idea of negative numbers by the Han Dynasty , as seen in \"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art\".", "Date and time notation in Serbia\nYears can be written either with four or two digits, and in the latter case, century is usually replaced with an apostrophe (31. 12. ’06.). Leading zero is rarely used, and in those cases which are considered bad practice, only with months (however it is also optional for the days) (6. 05. 2006.). When literal names of the months are used they are not capitalized, and the four-digit format for the year is always used (31. December 2006). Yet another alternative is to use Roman numerals to indicate the month. In this case a dot is omitted (31. XII 2006).", "Proleptic Gregorian calendar\nFor these calendars one can distinguish two systems of numbering years BC. Bede and later historians did not use the Latin zero, \"nulla\", as a year (see 0 (year)), so the year preceding AD 1 is 1 BC. In this system the year 1 BC is a leap year (likewise in the proleptic Julian calendar). Mathematically, it is more convenient to include a year 0 and represent earlier years as negative, for the specific purpose of facilitating the calculation of the number of years between a negative (BC) year and a positive (AD) year. This is the convention used in astronomical year numbering and in the international standard date system, ISO 8601. In these systems, the year 0 is a leap year.", "0\n0 is the integer immediately preceding 1. Zero is an even number because it is divisible by 2 with no remainder. 0 is neither positive nor negative. By most definitions 0 is a natural number, and then the only natural number not to be positive. Zero is a number which quantifies a count or an amount of null size. In most cultures, 0 was identified before the idea of negative things, or quantities less than zero, was accepted.", "Panic in Year Zero!\nAfter a harrowing journey, the Baldwins reach their destination and find shelter in a cave, while they wait for order to be restored. On their portable radio they listen to war news and learn what is left of the United Nations has declared this to be \"Year Zero\". Harry and Rick find that Johnson and his wife are their neighbors, but not for long; they are killed by the thugs.", "Zero: The Biography of a Dangerous Idea\nZero: The Biography of a Dangerous Idea is a book by American author and journalist Charles Seife. The book offers a comprehensive look at number 0 and its controversing role as one of the great paradoxes of human thought and history since its invention by the ancient Babylonians. Even though zero is a fundamental idea for the modern science, initially the notion of a complete absence got a largely negative, sometimes hostile, treatment by the Western world and Greco-Roman philosophy. \"Zero\" won 2001 PEN/Martha Albrand Award for First Nonfiction Book.", "Timeline of Christianity\nThe purpose of this timeline is to give a detailed account of Christianity from the beginning of the current era (AD) to the present. Question marks ('?') on dates indicate approximate dates.\nThe year one is the first year in the \"Christian calendar\" (there is no year zero), which is the calendar presently used (in unison with the Gregorian calendar) almost everywhere in the world. Traditionally, this was held to be the year Jesus was born; however, most modern scholars argue for an earlier or later date, the most agreed upon being between 6 BC and 4 BC.", "Anno Domini\nThis calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with \"AD\" counting years from the start of this epoch, and \"BC\" denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, but was not widely used until after 800.", "Year zero\nAll eras used with Hindu and Buddhist calendars, such as the Saka era or the Kali Yuga, begin with the year 0. All these calendars use elapsed, expired, or complete years, in contrast with most other calendars which use current years. A complete year had not yet elapsed for any date in the initial year of the epoch, thus the number 1 cannot be used. Instead, during the first year the indication of 0 years (elapsed) is given in order to show that the epoch is less than 1 year old. This is similar to the Western method of stating a person's age – people do not reach age one until one year has elapsed since birth (but their age during the year beginning at birth is specified in months or fractional years, not as age zero). However, if ages were specified in years and months, such a person would be said to be, for example, 0 years and 6 months or 0.5 years old. This is analogous to the way time is shown on a 24-hour clock: during the first hour of a day, the time elapsed is 0 hours, \"n\" minutes.", "Indian numerals\nThe addition of zero as a tenth positional digit is documented from the 7th century by Brahmagupta, though the earlier Bakhshali Manuscript, written sometime before the 5th century, also included zero. But it is in Khmer numerals of modern Cambodia where the first extant material evidence of zero as a numerical figure, dating its use back to the seventh century, is found.", "Numbers in Year Zero\nThis is a comprehensive list of the numbers of the Year Zero alternate reality game by Nine Inch Nails and 42 Entertainment. The \"Year Zero\" alternate reality game, and its accompanying concept album of the same name, criticizes the United States government's policies as of 2007, projecting a dystopian vision of its impact on the state of events in 2022. The game has been underway since roughly February 12, 2007 and is expected to continue for approximately eighteen months.", "Sexagenary cycle\nStart from the AD year, take directly the remainder mod 60, and look into column AD:\nFor a BC year: discard the minus sign, take the remainder of the year mod 60 and look into column BC:\nWhen doing these conversions, year 246 BC cannot be treated as -246 AD due to the lack of a year 0 in the Gregorian AD/BC system.", "1466\nYear 1466 (MCDLXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. It is one of eight years (CE) to contain each Roman numeral once (1000(M)+(-100(C)+500(D))+50(L)+10(X)+5(V)+1(I) = 1466).", "2000s (decade)\nIn the English-speaking world, a name for the decade was never universally accepted in the same manner as for decades such as the '80s, the '90s, etc. Orthographically, the decade can be written as the \"2000s\" or the 00s\". Common suggestions for referring to this decade: \"2000s\", \"Two-thousands\", \"Twenty Hundreds\", \"Twenty-ohs\", \"00s\" (pronounced \"Ohs\", \"Oh Ohs\", \"Double Ohs\" or \"Ooze\", \"Zeros\", \"Double Zeros\"), \"the Aughts\", \"the Noughties\", \"the Aughties\", \"the Oughties\". Other suggestions from 45 countries suggest the \"double nothings\", \"zilches\", \"oh-zone\", \"oh-something\". When the \"20–\" is dropped, the individual years within the decade are usually referred to as starting with an \"oh\", such as \"oh-seven\" to refer to the year 2007. During the decade of the 2000s, it was more common to hear years referred to starting with \"two-thousand (and)\" rather than \"twenty-oh\". Starting around the middle of the 2010s, it is becoming more common to refer to the individual years of the decade as \"twenty-oh-seven\" or \"twenty-oh-eight\" than it had been during the 2000s, although the \"two thousand (and)\" pattern is still dominant.", "Astronomical year numbering\nAstronomical year numbering is based on AD/CE year numbering, but follows normal decimal integer numbering more strictly. Thus, it has a year 0; the years before that are designated with negative numbers and the years after that are designated with positive numbers. Astronomers use the Julian calendar for years before 1582, including the year 0, and the Gregorian calendar for years after 1582, as exemplified by Jacques Cassini (1740), Simon Newcomb (1898) and Fred Espenak (2007).", "List of Major League Baseball franchise postseason droughts\n* Year does not indicate a pennant, but rather the team's first year of existence or the first year of the modern World Series (1903).", "Timeline of historical geopolitical changes\nThis article uses the Common Calendar System, which was established as the new Christian Calendar by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582. The Common Calendar uses the designation Common Era (CE or AD for Anno Domini) for years starting 1 January 1 CE, and Before Common Era (BCE or BC for Before Christ) for years before that date. The Common Calendar also follows the ordinal numbers rather than the cardinal numbers, so there was no \"year zero\" in this format; that is, the date 1 January 1 CE immediately followed the date 31 December 1 BCE. For the same reason, while the 2000s began on Saturday, 1 January 2000 CE, the official Third Millennium began on Monday, 1 January 2001 CE.", "400\nYear 400 (CD) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Stilicho and Aurelianus (or, less frequently, year 1153 \"Ab urbe condita\"). The denomination 400 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.", "1005\nYear 1005 (MV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.", "Missing years (Jewish calendar)\nToday, Hebrew dating places the creation of the world near the end of \"Year One\" AM and afterwards the first year of Adam's life as \"Year Two\" AM. However, Seder Olam Rabba shows that the Hebrew dating originally counted the first year of Adam's life as \"Year Zero\" AM. This may mean that the Hebrew dating has shifted in the course of history such that traditional dating of ancient events appears two years earlier than the modern Hebrew dating would be.", "Year 10,000 problem\nThe Long Now Foundation is attempting to foster the custom of writing years with five digits, so that the year 2022 would be written as \"02022\". This would preempt the Year 10,000 problem, but would in turn be susceptible to the \"Year 100,000 problem\"." ]

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[ "MedStar National Rehabilitation Hospital\nFaculty provides care for thousands suffering from mild to traumatic brain injuries. The concussion clinic at Medstar NRH focuses primarily on this form of brain injury and is regarded as one of the best in the country according to U.S. News & World Report. 75 percent of all traumatic brain injuries that occur are concussions. Traumatic brain injuries contribute to a third of all deaths in the United States with over 1.5 million brain injuries occurring each year. During their stay, patients are also educated on precautions they can take to prevent a future incidence.", "Sports-related traumatic brain injury\nRules exist within each sport to help prevent cerebral contusions and traumatic brain injuries. However, individual athletes are the best prevention against their own injuries. In a game, athletes notice when they have the symptoms of a cerebral contusion and should take themselves out of the game. It may be hard for medical personnel or coaches to notice when a player has a traumatic brain injury, so it is in the player’s best interest to be removed from play. In hockey, traumatic brain injuries constitute 10%-15% of all head injuries. With the high percent of injuries being traumatic, extensive design improvements have been made to helmets. These improvements reduce the risk of cerebral contusions by providing more padding around the skull and a chin strap that keeps the helmet snug. In baseball, major improvements to helmets have been made to protect batters from the impact a baseball can have when hitting their head. Helmets, before this major improvement, were designed to withstand a velocity of 70 mph from a pitch or foul ball. Since the company Rawlings’ new design, helmets can withstand a velocity of 100 mph and have further padding around the softer parts on the side of the skull.", "Prevention of concussions\nPrevention of mild traumatic brain injury involves taking general measures to prevent traumatic brain injury, such as wearing seat belts and using airbags in cars. Older people are encouraged to try to prevent falls, for example by keeping floors free of clutter and wearing thin, flat, shoes with hard soles that do not interfere with balance.", "Traumatic brain injury\nSince a major cause of TBI are vehicle accidents, their prevention or the amelioration of their consequences can both reduce the incidence and gravity of TBI. In accidents, damage can be reduced by use of seat belts, child safety seats and motorcycle helmets, and presence of roll bars and airbags. Education programs exist to lower the number of crashes. In addition, changes to public policy and safety laws can be made; these include speed limits, seat belt and helmet laws, and road engineering practices.\nChanges to common practices in sports have also been discussed. An increase in use of helmets could reduce the incidence of TBI. Due to the possibility that repeatedly \"heading\" a ball practicing soccer could cause cumulative brain injury, the idea of introducing protective headgear for players has been proposed. Improved equipment design can enhance safety; softer baseballs reduce head injury risk. Rules against dangerous types of contact, such as \"spear tackling\" in American football, when one player tackles another head first, may also reduce head injury rates.\nFalls can be avoided by installing grab bars in bathrooms and handrails on stairways; removing tripping hazards such as throw rugs; or installing window guards and safety gates at the top and bottom of stairs around young children. Playgrounds with shock-absorbing surfaces such as mulch or sand also prevent head injuries. Child abuse prevention is another tactic; programs exist to prevent shaken baby syndrome by educating about the dangers of shaking children. Gun safety, including keeping guns unloaded and locked, is another preventative measure. Studies on the effect of laws that aim to control access to guns in the United States have been insufficient to determine their effectiveness preventing number of deaths or injuries.\nRecent clinical and laboratory research by neurosurgeon Julian Bailes, M.D., and his colleagues from West Virginia University, has resulted in papers showing that dietary supplementation with omega-3 DHA offers protection against the biochemical brain damage that occurs after a traumatic injury. Rats given DHA prior to induced brain injuries suffered smaller increases in two key markers for brain damage (APP and caspase-3), as compared with rats given no DHA. “The potential for DHA to provide prophylactic benefit to the brain against traumatic injury appears promising and requires further investigation. The essential concept of daily dietary supplementation with DHA, so that those at significant risk may be preloaded to provide protection against the acute effects of TBI, has tremendous public health implications.”", "Traumatic Brain Injury Reauthorization Act of 2013\nThe Traumatic Brain Injury Reauthorization Act of 2013 would amend the Public Health Service Act to reauthorize appropriations for FY2014-FY2018 for: (1) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) projects to reduce the incidence of traumatic brain injury, and (2) traumatic brain injury surveillance systems or registries." ]

[ "Retrospective memory\nTraumatic brain injury happens when the head suffers from a sharp blow, or suddenly accelerates or decelerates. In these cases, the brain gets churned around, and can be damaged by the bony bumps and knobs inside the skull, or by the twisting and tearing of fibres in the brain. If the traumatic brain injury is severe enough, it can lead to an initial coma, which is then followed by a time of post-traumatic amnesia. Post traumatic amnesia typically resolves itself gradually, however it will leave a mild, but permanent deficit in the patient's memory.", "Toxic injury\nAvoiding direct exposure to toxins will reduce the risk of toxic injury.", "Traumatic brain injury\nSurgery can be performed on mass lesions or to eliminate objects that have penetrated the brain. Mass lesions such as contusions or hematomas causing a significant mass effect (shift of intracranial structures) are considered emergencies and are removed surgically. For intracranial hematomas, the collected blood may be removed using suction or forceps or it may be floated off with water. Surgeons look for hemorrhaging blood vessels and seek to control bleeding. In penetrating brain injury, damaged tissue is surgically debrided, and craniotomy may be needed. Craniotomy, in which part of the skull is removed, may be needed to remove pieces of fractured skull or objects embedded in the brain. Decompressive craniectomy (DC) is performed routinely in the very short period following TBI during operations to treat hematomas; part of the skull is removed temporarily (primary DC). DC performed hours or days after TBI in order to control high intracranial pressures (secondary DC) has not been shown to improve outcome in some trials and may be associated with severe side-effects.", "Tracheobronchial injury\nVehicle occupants who wear seat belts have a lower incidence of TBI after a motor vehicle accident. However, if the strap is situated across the front of the neck (instead of the chest), this increases the risk of tracheal injury. Design of medical instruments can be modified to prevent iatrogenic TBI, and medical practitioners can use techniques that reduce the risk of injury with procedures such as tracheotomy.", "Traumatic brain injury\nHormonal disturbances may occur secondary to hypopituitarism, occurring immediately or years after injury in 10 to 15% of TBI patients. Development of diabetes insipidus or an electrolyte abnormality acutely after injury indicate need for endocrinologic work up. Signs and symptoms of hypopituitarism may develop and be screened for in adults with moderate TBI and in mild TBI with imaging abnormalities. Children with moderate to severe head injury may also develop hypopituitarism. Screening should take place 3 to 6 months, and 12 months after injury, but problems may occur more remotely.\nCognitive deficits that can follow TBI include impaired attention; disrupted insight, judgement, and thought; reduced processing speed; distractibility; and deficits in executive functions such as abstract reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and multitasking. Memory loss, the most common cognitive impairment among head-injured people, occurs in 20–79% of people with closed head trauma, depending on severity. People who have suffered TBI may also have difficulty with understanding or producing spoken or written language, or with more subtle aspects of communication such as body language. Post-concussion syndrome, a set of lasting symptoms experienced after mild TBI, can include physical, cognitive, emotional and behavioral problems such as headaches, dizziness, difficulty concentrating, and depression. Multiple TBIs may have a cumulative effect. A young person who receives a second concussion before symptoms from another one have healed may be at risk for developing a very rare but deadly condition called second-impact syndrome, in which the brain swells catastrophically after even a mild blow, with debilitating or deadly results. About one in five career boxers is affected by chronic traumatic brain injury (CTBI), which causes cognitive, behavioral, and physical impairments. Dementia pugilistica, the severe form of CTBI, affects primarily career boxers years after a boxing career. It commonly manifests as dementia, memory problems, and parkinsonism (tremors and lack of coordination).\nTBI may cause emotional, social, or behavioral problems and changes in personality. These may include emotional instability, depression, anxiety, hypomania, mania, apathy, irritability, problems with social judgment, and impaired conversational skills. TBI appears to predispose survivors to psychiatric disorders including obsessive compulsive disorder, substance abuse, dysthymia, clinical depression, bipolar disorder, and anxiety disorders. In patients who have depression after TBI, suicidal ideation is not uncommon; the suicide rate among these persons is increased 2- to 3-fold. Social and behavioral symptoms that can follow TBI include disinhibition, inability to control anger, impulsiveness, lack of initiative, inappropriate sexual activity, asociality and social withdrawal, and changes in personality.\nTBI also has a substantial impact on the functioning of family systems Caregiving family members and TBI survivors often significantly alter their familial roles and responsibilities following injury, creating significant change and strain on a family system. Typical challenges identified by families recovering from TBI include: frustration and impatience with one another, loss of former lives and relationships, difficulty setting reasonable goals, inability to effectively solve problems as a family, increased level of stress and household tension, changes in emotional dynamics, and overwhelming desire to return to pre-injury status. In addition, families may exhibit less effective functioning in areas including coping, problem solving and communication. Psychoeducation and counseling models have been demonstrated to be effective in minimizing family disruption", "Neuroproteomics\nTraumatic brain injury is defined as a “direct physical impact or trauma to\nthe head followed by a dynamic series of injury and repair events”. Recently, neuroproteomics have been applied to studying the disability that over 5.4 million Americans live with. In addition to physically injuring the brain tissue, traumatic brain injury induces the release of glutamate that interacts with ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs). These glutamate receptors acidify the surrounding intracranial fluid, causing further injury on the molecular level to nearby neurons. The death of the surrounding neurons is induced through normal apoptosis mechanisms, and it is this cycle that is being studied with neuroproteomics. Three different cysteine protease derivatives are involved in the apoptotic pathway induced by the acidic environment triggered by glutamate. These cysteine proteases include calpain, caspase, and cathepsin. These three proteins are examples of detectable signs of traumatic brain injury that are much more specific than temperature, oxygen level, or intracranial pressure.\nProteomics thus also offers a tracking mechanism by which researchers can monitor the progression of traumatic brain injury, or a chronic disease such as Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s. Especially in Parkinson’s, in which neurotransmitters play a large role, recent proteomic research has involved the study of synaptotagmin. Synaptotagmin is involved in the calcium-induced budding of vesicle containing neurotransmitters from the presynaptic membrane. By studying the intracellular mechanisms involved in neural apoptosis after traumatic brain injury, researchers can create a map that genetic changes can follow later on.", "Posterior cruciate ligament injury\nKnee injuries are very common among athletes as well as regular active people and can always be prevented. Ligament tears account for more than forty percent of knee injuries and the posterior cruciate ligament is considered one of the less common injuries. Although it is less common, there are still important measures that can be taken in order to prevent this type of knee injury. Maintaining proper exercise and sport technique is crucial for injury prevention, which include not exceeding the body or not going over the proper range of motion of the knee, properly warming up and cooling down", "Traumatic Brain Injury Reauthorization Act of 2013\nThe National Association of State Head Injury Administrators (NASHIA) supported the bill, calling the programs supported by the bill \"critical in helping states to address\" the unique needs of individuals with traumatic brain injuries. NASHIA supported the bill for allowing states their own flexibility to address needs in their own states and applauded the CDC's work in public education, trying to prevent bad falls by the elderly, and trying to stop sports related traumatic brain injuries.", "Neural stem cell\nTraumatic brain injury (TBI) can deform the brain tissue, leading to necrosis primary damage which can then cascade and activate secondary damage such as excitotoxicity, inflammation, ischemia, and the breakdown of the blood-brain-barrier. Damage can escalate and eventually lead to apoptosis or cell death. Current treatments focus on preventing further damage by stabilizing bleeding, decreasing intracranial pressure and inflammation, and inhibiting pro-apoptoic cascades. In order to repair TBI damage, an upcoming therapeutic option involves the use of NSCs derived from the embryonic peri-ventricular region. Stem cells can be cultured in a favorable 3-dimensional, low cytotoxic environment, a hydrogel, that will increase NSC survival when injected into TBI patients. The intracerebrally injected, primed NSCs were seen to migrate to damaged tissue and differentiate into oligodendrocytes or neuronal cells that secreted neuroprotective factors.", "Post-traumatic seizure\nSeizures are usually an indication of a more severe TBI. Seizures that occur shortly after a person suffers a brain injury may further damage the already vulnerable brain. They may reduce the amount of oxygen available to the brain, cause excitatory neurotransmitters to be released in excess, increase the brain's metabolic need, and raise the pressure within the intracranial space, further contributing to damage. Thus, people who suffer severe head trauma are given anticonvulsant medications as a precaution against seizures.", "Traumatic brain injury\nThe incidence of TBI varies by age, gender, region and other factors. Findings of incidence and prevalence in epidemiological studies vary based on such factors as which grades of severity are included, whether deaths are included, whether the study is restricted to hospitalized people, and the study's location. The annual incidence of mild TBI is difficult to determine but may be 100–600 people per 100,000.", "Traumatic brain injury\nImprovement of neurological function usually occurs for two or more years after the trauma. For many years it was believed that recovery was fastest during the first six months, but there is no evidence to support this. It may be related to services commonly being withdrawn after this period, rather than any physiological limitation to further progress. Children recover better in the immediate time frame and improve for longer periods.\nComplications are distinct medical problems that may arise as a result of the TBI. The results of traumatic brain injury vary widely in type and duration; they include physical, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral complications. TBI can cause prolonged or permanent effects on consciousness, such as coma, brain death, persistent vegetative state (in which patients are unable to achieve a state of alertness to interact with their surroundings), and minimally conscious state (in which patients show minimal signs of being aware of self or environment). Lying still for long periods can cause complications including pressure sores, pneumonia or other infections, progressive multiple organ failure, and deep venous thrombosis, which can cause pulmonary embolism. Infections that can follow skull fractures and penetrating injuries include meningitis and abscesses. Complications involving the blood vessels include vasospasm, in which vessels constrict and restrict blood flow, the formation of aneurysms, in which the side of a vessel weakens and balloons out, and stroke.", "Sleeping disorders following traumatic brain injury\nAnimals studies showed that sleep deprivation prior to a brain injury might have healthy effects. Five days of complete sleep deprivation in rats before the traumatic brain injury, acted as protection against ischemic injury and a habitual deceased in total amount of sleep time before TBI reduced the severity.", "Empathy\nIt has also been found that empathy can be disrupted due to trauma in the brain such as a stroke. In most cases empathy is usually impaired if a lesion or stroke occurs on the right side of the brain. In addition to this it has been found that damage to the frontal lobe, which is primarily responsible for emotional regulation, can impact profoundly on a person's capacity to experience empathy toward another individual. People who have suffered from an acquired brain injury also show lower levels of empathy according to previous studies. In fact, more than 50% of people who suffer from a traumatic brain injury self-report a deficit in their empathic capacity. Again, linking this back to the early developmental stages of emotion, if emotional growth has been stunted at an early age due to various factors, empathy will struggle to infest itself in that individuals mind-set as a natural feeling, as they themselves will struggle to come to terms with their own thoughts and emotions. This is again suggestive of the fact that understanding one's own emotions is key in being able to identify with another individual’s emotional state.", "Pediatric acquired brain injury\nPediatric acquired brain injury (PABI) is the number one cause of death and disability for children and young adults in the United States.\" and effects most children ages (6-10) and adolescent ages (11-17) around the world. The injury can be traumatic or non-traumatic in nature, and most patients never return to normal after suffering from the injury.There are many different symptoms such as amnesia, anhedonia, and apraxia. Currently there isn’t a cure for the injury. PABI effects the family of the patient also, because the families of the patient will need to adapt to the new changes they will experience in their child. It is recommended that the families decide to gain as much information as they can about the injury and what to expect by going to different program events and meetings.", "Neural tissue engineering\nOne method to treat CNS injury involves culturing stem cells \"in vitro\" and implanting the non-directed stem cells into the brain injury site. Implanting stem cells directly into the injury site prevents glial scar formation and promotes neurogenesis originating from the patient, but also runs the risk of tumor development, inflammation, and migration of the stem cells out of the injury location. Tumorigenesis can occur due to the uncontrolled nature of the stem cell differentiation, inflammation can occur due to rejection of the implanted cells by the host cells, and the highly migratory nature of stem cells results in the cells moving away from the injury site, thus not having the desired effect on the injury site. Other concerns of neural tissue engineering include establishing safe sources of stem cells and getting reproducible results from treatment to treatment.", "Traumatic brain injury\nNeuroimaging is helpful but not flawless in detecting raised ICP. A more accurate way to measure ICP is to place a catheter into a ventricle of the brain, which has the added benefit of allowing cerebrospinal fluid to drain, releasing pressure in the skull. Treatment of raised ICP may be as simple as tilting the person's bed and straightening the head to promote blood flow through the veins of the neck. Sedatives, analgesics and paralytic agents are often used. Hypertonic saline can improve ICP by reducing the amount of cerebral water (swelling), though it is used with caution to avoid electrolyte imbalances or heart failure. Mannitol, an osmotic diuretic, appears to be equally effective at reducing ICP. Some concerns; however, have been raised regarding some of the studies performed. Diuretics, drugs that increase urine output to reduce excessive fluid in the system, may be used to treat high intracranial pressures, but may cause hypovolemia (insufficient blood volume). Hyperventilation (larger and/or faster breaths) reduces carbon dioxide levels and causes blood vessels to constrict; this decreases blood flow to the brain and reduces ICP, but it potentially causes ischemia and is, therefore, used only in the short term. Giving corticosteroids is associated with an increased risk of death, and so their routine use is not recommended.", "Concussion\nMost cases of traumatic brain injury are concussions. A World Health Organization (WHO) study estimated that between 70 and 90% of head injuries that receive treatment are mild. However, due to underreporting and to the widely varying definitions of concussion and MTBI, it is difficult to estimate how common the condition is. Estimates of the incidence of concussion may be artificially low, for example, due to underreporting. At least 25% of MTBI sufferers fail to get assessed by a medical professional. The WHO group reviewed studies on the epidemiology of MTBI and found a hospital treatment rate of 1–3 per 1000 people, but since not all concussions are treated in hospitals, they estimated that the rate per year in the general population is over 6 per 1000 people.", "Facial trauma\nAs many as 50–70% of people who survive traffic accidents have facial trauma. In most developed countries, violence from other people has replaced vehicle collisions as the main cause of maxillofacial trauma; however in many developing countries traffic accidents remain the major cause. Increased use of seat belts and airbags has been credited with a reduction in the incidence of maxillofacial trauma, but fractures of the mandible (the jawbone) are not decreased by these protective measures. The risk of maxillofacial trauma is decreased by a factor of two with use of motorcycle helmets. A decline in facial bone fractures due to vehicle accidents is thought to be due to seat belt and drunk driving laws, strictly enforced speed limits and use of airbags. In vehicle accidents, drivers and front seat passengers are at highest risk for facial trauma.\nFacial fractures are distributed in a fairly normal curve by age, with a peak incidence occurring between ages 20 and 40, and children under 12 suffering only 5–10% of all facial fractures. Most facial trauma in children involves lacerations and soft tissue injuries. There are several reasons for the lower incidence of facial fractures in children: the face is smaller in relation to the rest of the head, children are less often in some situations associated with facial fractures such as occupational and motor vehicle hazards, there is a lower proportion of cortical bone to cancellous bone in children's faces, poorly developed sinuses make the bones stronger, and fat pads provide protection for the facial bones.\nHead and brain injuries are commonly associated with facial trauma, particularly that of the upper face; brain injury occurs in 15–48% of people with maxillofacial trauma. Coexisting injuries can affect treatment of facial trauma; for example they may be emergent and need to be treated before facial injuries. People with trauma above the level of the collar bones are considered to be at high risk for cervical spine injuries (spinal injuries in the neck) and special precautions must be taken to avoid movement of the spine, which could worsen a spinal injury.", "Sports-related traumatic brain injury\nThe effects of a cerebral contusion depend on the cause of the injury and what part of the brain was most affected. Outcomes vary from minor injuries that require short recovery times to severe injuries that can lead to death. Short-term effects of cerebral contusions can range from a mild headache to feeling lightheaded for a few days. Most short-term effects match that of a mild head injury while long-term effects can be much more serious. Most long-term injuries require surgery, rehabilitation, and close monitoring. In small cases, cerebral contusions can lead to death (about 15 per 100,000 people). If a cerebral contusion leads to a coma, recovery can be very long and rehabilitation extensive. If the coma is long, the probability of dying or permanent neurological damage is very possible.", "Dental trauma\nPrevention in general is relatively difficult as it's nearly impossible to stop accidents from happening, especially in children who are quite active. Regular use of a gum shield during sports and other high-risk activities (such as military training) is the most effective prevention for dental trauma. They are mainly being fitted on the upper teeth as it has higher risk of dental trauma compared to the lower teeth. Gum shields ideally have to be comfortable for users, retentive, odourless, tasteless and the materials should not be causing any harm to the body. However, studies in various high-risk populations for dental injuries have repeatedly reported low compliance of individuals for the regular using of mouthguard during activities. Moreover, even with regular use, effectiveness of prevention of dental injuries is not complete, and injuries can still occur even when mouthguards are used as users are not always aware of the best makes or size, which inevitably result in a poor fit.", "Chronic traumatic encephalopathy\nInvestigators have demonstrated that immobilizing the head during a blast exposure prevented the learning and memory deficits associated with CTE that occurred when the head was not immobilized. This research represents the first case series of postmortem brains from U.S. military personnel who were exposed to a blast and/or a concussive injury.", "Trauma trigger\nThe mental health effects of trigger warnings have not been well studied. In cautioning university faculty against the widespread use of trigger warnings, Richard McNally, a Professor of Psychology at Harvard University, noted that \"Trigger warnings are designed to help survivors avoid reminders of their trauma, thereby preventing emotional discomfort. Yet avoidance reinforces PTSD. Conversely, systematic exposure to triggers and the memories they provoke is the most effective means of overcoming the disorder.\" Similarly, Metin Basoglu, a psychiatrist specializing in trauma research, said that \"instead of encouraging a culture of avoidance, [the media] should be encouraging exposure. Most trauma victims avoid situations that remind them of the experience. Avoidance means helplessness and helplessness means depression. That's not good.\"", "Back injury\nDiagnosis of a back injury begins with a physical examination and thorough medical history by health-care personnel. Some injuries, such as sprains and strains or herniated discs, can be diagnosed in this manner. To confirm these diagnoses, or to rule out other injuries or pathology, imaging of the injured region can be ordered. X-rays are often used to visualize pathology of bones and can be ordered when a vertebral fracture is suspected. CT scans produce higher resolution images when compared to x-rays and can be used to view more subtle fractures which may otherwise go undetected on x-ray. MRI is commonly referred to as the gold standard for visualizing soft tissue and can be used to assist with diagnosing many back injuries, including herniated discs and neurological disorders, bleeding, and edema.\nSuggestions for preventing various back injuries primarily address the causes of those injuries. The risk for back sprains and strains may be reduced with lifestyle choices, including smoking cessation, limiting alcohol, maintaining a healthy weight, and keeping bones and muscles strong with adequate exercise and a healthy diet. The risk for disc herniations can be reduced by using proper techniques when lifting heavy loads, smoking cessation, and weight loss to reduce the load placed on the spine. Vertebral fractures may be difficult to prevent since common causes are related to accidents or age-related degeneration associated with osteoporosis. Treating osteoporosis with pharmacotherapy, enrolling in a fall prevention program, strengthening muscles and bones with a weight-bearing exercise program, and adopting a nutritional program that promotes bone health are all options to reduce the risk of vertebral fractures associated with osteoporosis.", "Traumatic brain injury\nTBI is present in 85% of traumatically injured children, either alone or with other injuries. The greatest number of TBIs occur in people aged 15–24. Because TBI is more common in young people, its costs to society are high due to the loss of productive years to death and disability. The age groups most at risk for TBI are children ages five to nine and adults over age 80, and the highest rates of death and hospitalization due to TBI are in people over age 65. The incidence of fall-related TBI in First-World countries is increasing as the population ages; thus the median age of people with head injuries has increased.\nRegardless of age, TBI rates are higher in males. Men suffer twice as many TBIs as women do and have a fourfold risk of fatal head injury, and males account for two thirds of childhood and adolescent head trauma. However, when matched for severity of injury, women appear to fare more poorly than men.\nSocioeconomic status also appears to affect TBI rates; people with lower levels of education and employment and lower socioeconomic status are at greater risk.", "Acquired brain injury\nAcquired brain injury (ABI) is brain damage caused by events after birth, rather than as part of a genetic or congenital disorder such as fetal alcohol syndrome, perinatal illness or perinatal hypoxia. ABI can result in cognitive, physical, emotional, or behavioural impairments that lead to permanent or temporary changes in functioning. These impairments result from either traumatic brain injury (e.g. physical trauma due to accidents, assaults, neurosurgery, head injury etc.) or nontraumatic injury derived from either an internal or external source (e.g. stroke, brain tumours, infection, poisoning, hypoxia, ischemia, encephalopathy or substance abuse). ABI does not include damage to the brain resulting from neurodegenerative disorders.", "Traumatic brain injury\nA large percentage of the people killed by brain trauma do not die right away but rather days to weeks after the event; rather than improving after being hospitalized, some 40% of TBI patients deteriorate. Primary brain injury (the damage that occurs at the moment of trauma when tissues and blood vessels are stretched, compressed, and torn) is not adequate to explain this deterioration; rather, it is caused by secondary injury, a complex set of cellular processes and biochemical cascades that occur in the minutes to days following the trauma. These secondary processes can dramatically worsen the damage caused by primary injury and account for the greatest number of TBI deaths occurring in hospitals.", "Post-traumatic epilepsy\nSurgery was the standard treatment for PTE until the years following World War II, when the condition received more attention as soldiers who had survived head trauma developed it. The increased need for drugs to treat PTE led to trials with antiepileptics; these early trials suggested that the drugs could prevent epileptogenesis (the development of epilepsy). It was still thought that antiepileptic drugs could prevent epileptogeneis in the 1970s; in 1973, 60% of physicians surveyed used them to prevent PTE. However, the clinical trials which had supported a protective effect of antiepileptics were uncontrolled; in later, controlled trials the drugs failed to demonstrate an antiepileptogenic effect. Studies did show that antiepileptics prevented seizures occurring within a week after injury, and in 1995 the task force of the Brain Trauma Foundation published a recommendation suggesting their use to protect against seizures early after trauma. However, recommendations were published against the prophylactic use of antiepileptic drugs more than a week after injury by the Brain Injury Special Interest group of the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation in 1998 and by the American Association of Neurological Surgeons in 2000.", "Brain damage\nA common category with the greatest number of injuries is traumatic brain injury (TBI) following physical trauma or head injury from an outside source, and the term acquired brain injury (ABI) is used in appropriate circles to differentiate brain injuries occurring after birth from injury, from a genetic disorder, or from a congenital disorder. Primary and secondary brain injuries identify the processes involved, while focal and diffuse brain injury describe the severity and localization.", "Concussions in rugby union\nA concussion, which is known as a subset of traumatic brain injury (TBI), is when a force comes in contact with the head, neck or face, or fast movement of the head, causing a functional injury to the brain. Depending on where the location of impact, depends on the severity of the injury. It is short-lived impairment of neurological function, the brains ability to process information, which can be resolved in seven to ten days. Not all concussion involves the loss of consciousness, with it occurring in less than 10% of concussions. Second-impact syndrome is when a player has obtained a second concussion when you either return to field the same day, or return to play before a complete recovery from a previous concussion. This is a result from brain swelling, from vascular congestion and increased intracranial pressure, this can be fatal to a player as it is a very difficult medical injury to control. The brain is surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid, which protects it from light trauma. More severe impacts, or the forces associated with rapid acceleration, may not be absorbed by this cushion. Concussion may be caused by impact forces, in which the head strikes or is struck by something, or impulsive forces, in which the head moves without itself being subject to blunt trauma (for example, when the chest hits something and the head snaps forward). Chronic traumatic encephalopathy, or \"CTE\", is an example of the cumulative damage that can occur as the result of multiple concussions or less severe blows to the head. The condition was previously referred to as \"dementia pugilistica\", or \"punch drunk\" syndrome, as it was first noted in boxers. The disease can lead to cognitive and physical handicaps such as parkinsonism, speech and memory problems, slowed mental processing, tremor, depression, and inappropriate behavior. It shares features with Alzheimer's disease.", "Jennie Ponsford\nProfessor Jennie Ponsford has spent the last 30 years working the field of traumatic brain injury. She currently co-ordinates one of the world’s largest longitudinal outcome studies, which is tracking more than 2000 patients over 30 years following a traumatic brain injury. The Longitudinal Head Injury Outcome Project, has been running since 1995. The goal of the study is to document the long term problems of people with TBI, identify factors that influence outcome, particularly the influence of age, genetic, cultural and behavioural factors. This study represents one of the largest TBI databases with long term follow up data from both patients and families. Jennie has published widely in the field of TBI, writing over 17 book chapters addressing the consequences and management of TBI related disorders. In 2012 she was lead author on the book 'Traumatic Brain Injury Rehabilitation for everyday adaptive living' She has published over 100 scholarly articles on the topic.", "Median nerve palsy\nOne way to prevent this injury from occurring is to be informed and educated about the risks involved in hurting your wrist and hand. If patients do suffer from median nerve palsy, occupational therapy or wearing a splint can help reduce the pain and further damage. Wearing a dynamic splint, which pulls the thumb into opposition, will help prevent an excess in deformity. This splint can also assist in function and help the fingers flex towards the thumb. Stretching and the use of C-splints can also assist in prevention of further damage and deformity. These two methods can help in the degree of movement the thumb can have. While it is impossible to prevent trauma to your arms and wrist, patients can reduce the amount of compression by maintaining proper form during repetitive activities. Furthermore, strengthening and increasing flexibility reduces the risk of nerve compression.", "Traumatic brain injury\nThe most common causes of TBI in the U.S. include violence, transportation accidents, construction, and sports. Motor bikes are major causes, increasing in significance in developing countries as other causes reduce. The estimates that between 1.6 and 3.8 million traumatic brain injuries each year are a result of sports and recreation activities in the US. In children aged two to four, falls are the most common cause of TBI, while in older children traffic accidents compete with falls for this position. TBI is the third most common injury to result from child abuse. Abuse causes 19% of cases of pediatric brain trauma, and the death rate is higher among these cases. Although men are twice as likely to have a TBI. Domestic violence is another cause of TBI, as are work-related and industrial accidents. Firearms and blast injuries from explosions are other causes of TBI, which is the leading cause of death and disability in war zones. According to Representative Bill Pascrell (Democrat, NJ), TBI is \"the signature injury of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.\" There is a promising technology called activation database-guided EEG biofeedback, which has been documented to return a TBI's auditory memory ability to above the control group's performance", "Traumatic brain injury\nMovement disorders that may develop after TBI include tremor, ataxia (uncoordinated muscle movements), myoclonus (shock-like contractions of muscles), and loss of movement range and control (in particular with a loss of movement repertoire). The risk of post-traumatic seizures increases with severity of trauma (image at right) and is particularly elevated with certain types of brain trauma such as cerebral contusions or hematomas. People with early seizures, those occurring within a week of injury, have an increased risk of post-traumatic epilepsy (recurrent seizures occurring more than a week after the initial trauma). People may lose or experience altered vision, hearing, or smell.", "Memory disorder\nTraumatic brain injury often occurs from damage to the brain caused by an outside force, and may lead to cases of amnesia depending on the severity of the injury. Head injury can give rise to either transient or persisting amnesia. Occasionally, post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) may exist without any retrograde amnesia (RA), but this is often more common in cases of penetrating lesions. Damage to the frontal or anterior temporal regions have been described to be associated with disproportionate RA. Studies have illustrated that during PTA, head injury patients showed accelerated forgetting of learned information. On the other hand, after PTA, forgetting rates were normal.", "Spinal cord injury\nVehicle-related SCI is prevented with measures including societal and individual efforts to reduce driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol, distracted driving, and drowsy driving. Other efforts include increasing road safety (such as marking hazards and adding lighting) and vehicle safety, both to prevent accidents (such as routine maintenance and antilock brakes) and to mitigate the damage of crashes (such as head restraints, air bags, seat belts, and child safety seats). Falls can be prevented by making changes to the environment, such as nonslip materials and grab bars in bathtubs and showers, railings for stairs, child and safety gates for windows. Gun-related injuries can be prevented with conflict resolution training, gun safety education campaigns, and changes to the technology of guns (such as trigger locks) to improve their safety. Sports injuries can be prevented with changes to sports rules and equipment to increase safety, and education campaigns to reduce risky practices such as diving into water of unknown depth or head-first tackling in association football.", "Complications of traumatic brain injury\nThe risk of post-traumatic seizures increases with severity of trauma (image at right) and is particularly elevated with certain types of brain trauma such as cerebral contusions or hematomas. As many as 50% of people with penetrating head injuries will develop seizures. People with early seizures, those occurring within a week of injury, have an increased risk of post-traumatic epilepsy (recurrent seizures occurring more than a week after the initial trauma) though seizures can appear a decade or more after the initial injury and the common seizure type may also change over time. Generally, medical professionals use anticonvulsant medications to treat seizures in TBI patients within the first week of injury only and after that only if the seizures persist.", "Post-traumatic epilepsy\nThe more severe the brain trauma is, the more likely a person is to suffer late PTE. Evidence suggests that mild head injuries do not confer an increased risk of developing PTE, while more severe types do. In simple mild TBI, the risk for PTE is about 1.5 times that of the uninjured population. By some estimates, as many as half of sufferers of severe brain trauma experience PTE; other estimates place the risk at 5% for all TBI patients and 15–20% for severe TBI. One study found that the 30-year risk of developing PTE was 2.1% for mild TBI, 4.2% for moderate, and 16.7% for severe injuries, as shown in the chart at right.", "Traumatic brain injury\nIn the US, the case fatality rate is estimated to be 21% by 30 days after TBI. A study on Iraq War soldiers found that severe TBI carries a mortality of 30–50%. Deaths have declined due to improved treatments and systems for managing trauma in societies wealthy enough to provide modern emergency and neurosurgical services. The fraction of those who die after being hospitalized with TBI fell from almost half in the 1970s to about a quarter at the beginning of the 21st century. This decline in mortality has led to a concomitant increase in the number of people living with disabilities that result from TBI.", "Human brain\nBrain damage or injury to the brain can manifest in many ways. Traumatic brain injury, for example received in contact sport, after a fall, or a traffic or work accident, can be associated with both immediate and longer-term problems. Immediate problems may include bleeding within the brain, this may compress the brain tissue or damage its blood supply. Bruising to the brain may occur. Bruising may cause widespread damage to the nerve tracts that can lead to a condition of diffuse axonal injury. A fractured skull, injury to a particular area, deafness, and concussion are also possible immediate developments. In addition to the site of injury, the opposite side of the brain may be affected, termed a contrecoup injury. Longer-term issues that may develop include posttraumatic stress disorder, and hydrocephalus. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy can develop following multiple head injuries.", "Traumatic brain injury\nSystems also exist to classify TBI by its pathological features. Lesions can be extra-axial, (occurring within the skull but outside of the brain) or intra-axial (occurring within the brain tissue). Damage from TBI can be focal or diffuse, confined to specific areas or distributed in a more general manner, respectively. However, it is common for both types of injury to exist in a given case.\nDiffuse injury manifests with little apparent damage in neuroimaging studies, but lesions can be seen with microscopy techniques post-mortem, and in the early 2000s, researchers discovered that diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), a way of processing MRI images that shows white matter tracts, was an effective tool for displaying the extent of diffuse axonal injury. Types of injuries considered diffuse include edema (swelling) and diffuse axonal injury, which is widespread damage to axons including white matter tracts and projections to the cortex. Types of injuries considered diffuse include concussion and diffuse axonal injury, widespread damage to axons in areas including white matter and the cerebral hemispheres.\nFocal injuries often produce symptoms related to the functions of the damaged area. Research shows that the most common areas to have focal lesions in non-penetrating traumatic brain injury are the orbitofrontal cortex (the lower surface of the frontal lobes) and the anterior temporal lobes, areas that are involved in social behavior, emotion regulation, olfaction, and decision-making, hence the common social/emotional and judgment deficits following moderate-severe TBI. Symptoms such as hemiparesis or aphasia can also occur when less commonly affected areas such as motor or language areas are, respectively, damaged.\nOne type of focal injury, cerebral laceration, occurs when the tissue is cut or torn. Such tearing is common in orbitofrontal cortex in particular, because of bony protrusions on the interior skull ridge above the eyes. In a similar injury, cerebral contusion (bruising of brain tissue), blood is mixed among tissue. In contrast, intracranial hemorrhage involves bleeding that is not mixed with tissue.\nHematomas, also focal lesions, are collections of blood in or around the brain that can result from hemorrhage. Intracerebral hemorrhage, with bleeding in the brain tissue itself, is an intra-axial lesion. Extra-axial lesions include epidural hematoma, subdural hematoma, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and intraventricular hemorrhage. Epidural hematoma involves bleeding into the area between the skull and the dura mater, the outermost of the three membranes surrounding the brain. In subdural hematoma, bleeding occurs between the dura and the arachnoid mater. Subarachnoid hemorrhage involves bleeding into the space between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater. Intraventricular hemorrhage occurs when there is bleeding in the ventricles.", "Blunt trauma\nMost patients with more severe traumatic brain injury have of a combination of intracranial injuries, which can include diffuse axonal injury, cerebral contusions, as well as intracranial bleeding, including subarachnoid hemorrhage, subdural hematoma, epidural hematoma, and intraparenchymal hemorrhage. The recovery of brain function following a traumatic accident is highly variable and depends upon the specific intracranial injuries that occur, however there is significant correlation between the severity of the initial insult as well as the level of neurologic function during the initial assessment and the level of lasting neurologic deficits. Initial treatment may be targeted at reducing the intracranial pressure if there is concern for swelling or bleeding within this skull, which may require surgery such as a hemicraniectomy in which part of the skull is removed.", "Blast injury\nTraumatic amputations quickly result in death, unless there are available skilled medical personnel or others with adequate training nearby who are able to quickly respond, with the ability for rapid ground or air medical evacuation to an appropriate facility in time, and with tourniquets (for compression of bleeding sites) and other needed equipment (standard, or improvised; sterile, or not) also available, to treat the injuries. Because of this, injuries of this type are generally rare, though not unheard of, in survivors. Whether survivable or not, they are often accompanied by significant other injuries. The rate of eye injury may depend on the type of blast. Psychiatric injury, some of which may be caused by neurological damage incurred during the blast, is the most common quaternary injury, and post-traumatic stress disorder may affect people who are otherwise completely uninjured.", "Concussions in sport\nConcussions, a type of traumatic brain injury, are a frequent concern for those playing sports, from children and teenagers to professional athletes. Repeated concussions are a known cause of various neurological disorders, most notably chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), which in professional athletes has led to premature retirement, erratic behavior and even suicide. Because concussions cannot be seen on X-rays or CT scans, attempts to prevent concussions have been difficult.", "Sports-related traumatic brain injury\nPreemptive measures include using safety equipment to reduce your risk of a head injury. Equipment examples are hard hats, bicycle or motorcycle helmets, and seat belts. To reduce the risk of hematomas, factors to avoid are taking anticoagulant medication (blood thinners, such as aspirin), long-term abuse of alcohol, repeated falls, and reoccurring head injury.", "Personal injury\nAdditional damages for mental injury without a physical injury are less clearly covered, as the insurance policy typically states that it covers only bodily injury. For example, in general liability as of 2001 a minority of courts included emotional distress within the definition bodily injury. Where a mental injury arises from a physical injury—as with a traumatic brain injury caused by a car accident—auto insurance policies normally cover the injury.", "Traumatic brain injury modeling\nTraumatic brain injury modeling attempts to replicate certain aspects of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in order better understand what is physically happening to the brain. A variety of models can be used for this process with different models able to replicate certain aspects of TBI while also producing their own limitations.", "Traumatic brain injury\nPharmacological treatment can help to manage psychiatric or behavioral problems. Medication is also used to control post-traumatic epilepsy; however the preventive use of anti-epileptics is not recommended. In those cases where the person is bedridden due to a reduction of consciousness, has to remain in a wheelchair because of mobility problems, or has any other problem heavily impacting self-caring capacities, caregiving and nursing are critical.\nThe most effective research documented intervention approach is the activation database guided EEG biofeedback approach, which has shown significant improvements in memory abilities of the TBI subject that are far superior than traditional approaches (strategies, computers, medication intervention). Gains of 2.61 standard deviations have been documented. The TBI's auditory memory ability was superior to the control group after the treatment.", "Dementia\nVarious types of brain injury may cause irreversible cognitive impairment that remains stable over time. Traumatic brain injury may cause generalized damage to the white matter of the brain (diffuse axonal injury), or more localized damage (as also may neurosurgery). A temporary reduction in the brain's supply of blood or oxygen may lead to hypoxic-ischemic injury. Strokes (ischemic stroke, or intracerebral, subarachnoid, subdural or extradural hemorrhage) or infections (meningitis or encephalitis) affecting the brain, prolonged epileptic seizures, and acute hydrocephalus may also have long-term effects on cognition. Excessive alcohol use may cause alcohol dementia, Wernicke's encephalopathy, or Korsakoff's psychosis.", "Traumatic brain injury\nTraumatic brain injury may cause a range of serious coincidental complications that include cardiac arrhythmias and neurogenic pulmonary edema. These conditions must be adequately treated and stabilised as part of the core care.", "Racehorse injuries\nInjuries, unlike accidents, do not happen by chance. The science of injury prevention has demonstrated that injuries and the events leading up to injuries are not random. Like disease, they follow a distinct pattern. Studying these patterns has made it possible to learn to predict and prevent injuries from occurring. Injuries, whether unintentional or intentional, can be considered any physical damage or harm caused to the body resulting in impairment or destruction of health. Injuries lead to death, disability, and financial loss. In 1990, apprentice jockey Benny Narvaez was paralyzed from the chest down after his horse threw him while jumping over another horse who had broken down directly in front of him during a race at Tampa Bay Downs. A jury found that Tampa Bay Downs was responsible for Narvaez's injury because the track veterinarian failed to perform an adequate pre-race examination on the horse that broke down.", "Traumatic brain injury\nDiagnosis is suspected based on lesion circumstances and clinical evidence, most prominently a neurological examination, for example checking whether the pupils constrict normally in response to light and assigning a Glasgow Coma Score. Neuroimaging helps in determining the diagnosis and prognosis and in deciding what treatments to give.\nThe preferred radiologic test in the emergency setting is computed tomography (CT): it is quick, accurate, and widely available. Follow-up CT scans may be performed later to determine whether the injury has progressed.\nMagnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can show more detail than CT, and can add information about expected outcome in the long term. It is more useful than CT for detecting injury characteristics such as diffuse axonal injury in the longer term. However, MRI is not used in the emergency setting for reasons including its relative inefficacy in detecting bleeds and fractures, its lengthy acquisition of images, the inaccessibility of the patient in the machine, and its incompatibility with metal items used in emergency care. A variant of MRI since 2012 is High definition fiber tracking (HDFT).\nOther techniques may be used to confirm a particular diagnosis. X-rays are still used for head trauma, but evidence suggests they are not useful; head injuries are either so mild that they do not need imaging or severe enough to merit the more accurate CT. Angiography may be used to detect blood vessel pathology when risk factors such as penetrating head trauma are involved. Functional imaging can measure cerebral blood flow or metabolism, inferring neuronal activity in specific regions and potentially helping to predict outcome. Electroencephalography and transcranial doppler may also be used. The most sensitive physical measure to date is the quantitative EEG, which has documented an 80% to 100% ability in discriminating between normal and traumatic brain-injured subjects.\nNeuropsychological assessment can be performed to evaluate the long-term cognitive sequelae and to aid in the planning of the rehabilitation. Instruments range from short measures of general mental functioning to complete batteries formed of different domain-specific tests.", "Concussions in high school sports\nA traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a blow, jolt or penetration to the head that disrupts the function of the brain. Most TBIs are caused by falls, jumps, motor vehicle traffic crashes, being struck by a person or a blunt object, and assault. Student athletes may be put at risk in school sports, creating concern about concussions and brain injury. A concussion can be caused by\nThe result of a concussion is neurological impairment that may resolve spontaneously, but may also have long-term consequences.", "Childhood trauma\nThe effects of childhood trauma can be mitigated through care and treatment. Early intervention has significant impact. Trauma-informed treatment modalities treat the whole person, recognizing the impact of trauma on physical, psychological, and social health.", "Axotomy\nA traumatic brain injury is defined as a blunt non-missile penetrating or missile injury to the head. It has been shown that the extent of the damage incurred after a head trauma correlates more directly with the amount of deformation incurred by the brain than the amount of stress per area applied to the head. There are two modes of axotomy that can occur as a result of a TBI. Primary axotomy occurs immediately and is characterized as complete mechanical transaction of axons. More often, secondary axotomy occurs, evolving over time and ultimately leading to disconnection. While this type of injury is often irreversible, the axons do occasionally recover. Researchers are currently working towards utilizing this potential for recovery to develop therapies for patients suffering from traumatic brain injuries. These therapies rely on the scientific understanding of the axotomy response. Two mechanisms that aid in the reinnervation process are acute inflammation and the activation of molecules in the extracellular matrix surrounding the synapse. Immediate acute inflammation leads to the removal of the severed axons by activating the local glia. The inflammation response also recruits growth factors that aid in the repopulation of postsynaptic sites. The negative effects of this inflammation may be difficult to detect immediately post injury. Inflammation of the head is often slow to onset after injury, and can lead to a fatal rise in cerebral pressure. A recently discovered and understood cytokine is currently being used to try to treat the axotomy before the rise in pressure occurs. This cytokine, called osteopontin, may be able to aid in axon regeneration by exposing its integrin receptor binding sites. Osteopontin secretion may be able to regulate synaptogenesis and target the necessary neuroglia required for the repair of the axons. A study done by Julie L. Chan proves the functionality of osteopontin in initiating the immune response necessary for synaptic repair and reorganization after injury (axotomy). Though the study effectively proved the functionality of osteopontin in diminishing the intense inflammatory response following a traumatic brain injury, it did not provide evidence of the long-term effects of implanting this as a treatment option. Altering the inflammatory response may unintentional halt the beneficial aspects of inflammation and have devastating effects on the brain’s ability to heal itself.", "Tetris effect\nAnother 2009 Oxford study suggests that playing \"Tetris\"-like video games may help prevent the development of traumatic memories. If the video game treatment is played soon after the traumatic event, the preoccupation with \"Tetris\" shapes is enough to prevent the mental recitation of traumatic images, thereby decreasing the accuracy, intensity, and frequency of traumatic reminders. \"We suggest it specifically interferes with the way sensory memories are laid down in the period after trauma and thus reduces the number of flashbacks that are experienced afterwards,\" summarizes Dr. Emily Holmes, who led the study.", "Traumatic memories\nResearch has shown several cognitive behavioural therapies to be effective methods of reducing the emotional distress and negative thought patterns associated with traumatic memories in both those suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder and depression.\nOne such therapy is trauma-focused therapy. This therapy involves bringing the most disturbing elements of a traumatic memory to mind and using therapist-guided cognitive restructuring to change the way the memories are thought about. The change in evaluation usually involves highlighting that the feelings of certain death, extreme danger, hopelessness and helplessness within a traumatic memory do not apply to the person now, as they survived the event. The therapy also focuses on extending the memory so it is recalled beyond the most traumatic parts. Extending them to a point where the person felt safe again, so they remember the event in a more complete way with less focus on the negative aspects. As an example, a traumatic memory of wartime combat might be extended to after a battle, to when the person was no longer in immediate danger. In processing the memory in these ways it becomes less likely to intrude into their thoughts as an unwanted flashback.\nThe memory also becomes less vivid, less distressing and seems more distant to the person's present life.", "Facial trauma\nFacial trauma, also called maxillofacial trauma, is any physical trauma to the face. Facial trauma can involve soft tissue injuries such as burns, lacerations and bruises, or fractures of the facial bones such as nasal fractures and fractures of the jaw, as well as trauma such as eye injuries. Symptoms are specific to the type of injury; for example, fractures may involve pain, swelling, loss of function, or changes in the shape of facial structures.\nFacial injuries have the potential to cause disfigurement and loss of function; for example, blindness or difficulty moving the jaw can result. Although it is seldom life-threatening, facial trauma can also be deadly, because it can cause severe bleeding or interference with the airway; thus a primary concern in treatment is ensuring that the airway is open and not threatened so that the patient can breathe. Depending on the type of facial injury, treatment may include bandaging and suturing of open wounds, administration of ice, antibiotics and pain killers, moving bones back into place, and surgery. When fractures are suspected, radiography is used for diagnosis. Treatment may also be necessary for other injuries such as traumatic brain injury, which commonly accompany severe facial trauma.\nIn developed countries, the leading cause of facial trauma used to be motor vehicle accidents, but this mechanism has been replaced by interpersonal violence; however auto accidents still predominate as the cause in developing countries and are still a major cause elsewhere. Thus prevention efforts include awareness campaigns to educate the public about safety measures such as seat belts and motorcycle helmets, and laws to prevent drunk and unsafe driving. Other causes of facial trauma include falls, industrial accidents, and sports injuries.", "False memory syndrome\nMemories of traumatic experiences hide deep in the brain, causing psychiatric problems. The memory of early childhood abuse can be forgotten and remembered with more or less accuracy. \"It's difficult for therapists to help these patients,\" Dr. Jelena Radulovic, the Dunbar Professor in Bipolar Disease at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine said, \"because the patients themselves can't remember their traumatic experiences that are the root cause of their symptoms.\" A special mechanism of the brain has been discovered to store stress related memories. If the brain registers an overwhelming trauma, then it can essentially block that memory in a process called dissociation or detachment from reality. \"The brain will attempt to protect itself\". The same way the body can wall-off an abscess or foreign substance to protect the rest of the body, the brain can dissociate from an experience. In the midst of trauma, the brain may wander off and work to avoid the memory.", "Alcohol-related brain damage\nEducation on the prevention of alcoholism is the best supported method of avoiding alcohol-related brain damage. By providing information that studies have found on risk factors and the mechanisms of damage, the efforts to find an effective treatment may increase. This may also reduce mortality by influencing doctors to pay closer attention to the warning signs.", "Cognitive rehabilitation therapy\nIt may also be recommended for traumatic brain injury, the primary population for which it was developed in the university medical and rehabilitation communities, such as that suffered by U.S. Representative Gabrielle Giffords, according to Dr. Gregory J. O'Shanick of the Brain Injury Association of America. Her new doctor has confirmed that it will be part of her rehabilitation.\nCognitive rehabilitation may be part of a comprehensive community services program and integrated into residential services, such as supported living, supported employment, family support, professional education, home health (as personal assistance), recreation, or education programs in the community.", "Complications of traumatic brain injury\nPatients with moderate to severe TBI have more problems with cognitive deficits than do those with mild TBI, but several mild TBIs may have an additive effect. About one in five career boxers is affected by chronic traumatic brain injury (CTBI), which causes cognitive, behavioral, and physical impairments. Dementia pugilistica, also called chronic traumatic encephalopathy, is the severe form of CTBI. Caused by repetitive blows to the head over a long period, the condition primarily affects career boxers and has recently been linked to other contact sports including American football and ice hockey as well as military service(see Ann McKee). It commonly manifests as dementia, or declining mental ability, memory problems, and parkinsonism (tremors and lack of coordination). Symptoms begin anywhere between 6 and 40 years after the start of a boxing career, with an average onset of about 16 years.", "Immortality\nPhysical trauma would remain as a threat to perpetual physical life, as an otherwise immortal person would still be subject to unforeseen accidents or catastrophes. The speed and quality of paramedic response remains a determining factor in surviving severe trauma. A body that could automatically repair itself from severe trauma, such as speculated uses for nanotechnology, would mitigate this factor.\nBeing the seat of consciousness, the brain cannot be risked to trauma if a continuous physical life is to be maintained. This aversion to trauma risk to the brain would naturally result in significant behavioral changes that would render physical immortality undesirable for some people.", "Glutamate carboxypeptidase II\nSevere head injury (SHI) and traumatic brain injury (TBI) are widespread and have a tremendous impact. “They are the leading cause of death in children and young adults (<25 years) and account for a quarter of all deaths in the five to 15 years age group”. Following initial impact, glutamate levels rise and cause excitotoxic damage in a process that has been well characterized. With its ability to reduce glutamate levels, NAAG inhibition has shown promise in preventing neurological damage associated with SHI and TBI.", "Closed-head injury\nClosed-head injury is a type of traumatic brain injury in which the skull and dura mater remain intact. Closed-head injuries are the leading cause of death in children under 4 years old and the most common cause of physical disability and cognitive impairment in young people. Overall, closed-head injuries and other forms of mild traumatic brain injury account for about 75% of the estimated 1.7 million brain injuries that occur annually in the United States. Brain injuries such as closed-head injuries may result in lifelong physical, cognitive, or psychological impairment and, thus, are of utmost concern with regards to public health.", "Chronic traumatic encephalopathy\nA putative biomarker for CTE is the presence in serum of autoantibodies against the brain. The autoantibodies were detected in football players who experienced a large number of head hits but no concussions, suggesting that even sub-concussive episodes may be damaging to the brain. The autoantibodies may enter the brain by means of a disrupted blood-brain barrier, and attack neuronal cells which are normally protected from an immune onslaught. Given the large numbers of neurons present in the brain (86 billion), and considering the poor penetration of antibodies across a normal blood-brain barrier, there is an extended period of time between the initial events (head hits) and the development of any signs or symptoms. Nevertheless, autoimmune changes in blood of players may consist the earliest measurable event predicting CTE.", "Post-traumatic seizure\nThe most important factor in whether a person will develop early and late seizures is the extent of the damage to the brain. More severe brain injury also confers a risk for developing PTS for a longer time after the event. One study found that the probability that seizures will occur within 5 years of injury is in 0.5% of mild traumatic brain injuries (defined as no skull fracture and less than 30 minutes of post-traumatic amnesia, abbreviated PTA, or loss of consciousness, abbreviated LOC); 1.2% of moderate injuries (skull fracture or PTA or LOC lasting between 30 minutes and 24 hours); and 10.0% of severe injuries (cerebral contusion, intracranial hematoma, or LOC or PTA for over 24 hours). Another study found that the risk of seizures 5 years after TBI is 1.5% in mild (defined as PTA or LOC for less than 30 minutes), 2.9% in moderate (LOC lasting between 30 minutes and 1 day), and 17.2% in severe TBI (cerebral contusion, subdural hematoma, or LOC for over a day; image at right).", "Central nervous system disease\nAny type of traumatic brain injury (TBI) or injury done to the spinal cord can result in a wide spectrum of disabilities in a person. Depending on the section of the brain or spinal cord that suffers the trauma, the outcome may be anticipated.", "Primary and secondary brain injury\nThus efforts to reduce disability and death from TBI are thought to be best aimed at secondary injury, because the primary injury is thought to be irreversible.", "Madigan Army Medical Center\nThe Madigan Traumatic Brain Injury Program consists of an interdisciplinary team who work to prevent, identify and mitigate the effects of head and brain trauma and the presence of two or more associated chronic diseases or conditions in a patient. The center utilizes Army Medicine’s Performance Triad (sleep, activity and nutrition) to optimize brain health and alignment with the Defense and Veterans Brain Injury Center guidelines of clinical care.", "Traumatic brain injury\nNo medication is approved to halt the progression of the initial injury to secondary injury. The variety of pathological events presents opportunities to find treatments that interfere with the damage processes. Neuroprotection methods to decrease secondary injury, have been the subject of interest follows TBI. However, trials to test agents that could halt these cellular mechanisms have met largely with failure. For example, interest existed in cooling the injured brain; however, a 2014 Cochrane review did not find enough evidence to see if it was useful or not. Maintaining a normal temperature in the immediate period after a TBI appeared useful. One review found a lower than normal temperature was useful in adults but not children. While two other reviews found it did not appears to be useful.", "Primary and secondary brain injury\nPrimary and secondary brain injury are ways to classify the injury processes that occur in brain injury. In traumatic brain injury (TBI), primary brain injury occurs during the initial insult, and results from displacement of the physical structures of the brain. Secondary brain injury occurs gradually and may involve an array of cellular processes. Secondary injury, which is not caused by mechanical damage, can result from the primary injury or be independent of it. The fact that people sometimes deteriorate after brain injury was originally taken to mean that secondary injury was occurring. It is not well understood how much of a contribution primary and secondary injuries respectively have to the clinical manifestations of TBI.", "Childhood acquired brain injury\nThe dissonance between the self-image pre injury and the new one post injury can be experienced as a real trauma, as the child tries to come to terms with the new ‘me’, the ‘death’ of the old one and the limitations possibly imposed by the effects of the injury.", "Time-based prospective memory\nCrawford et al. (2006) constructed a virtual shopping precinct from photographs, sounds and video segments linked together. Their aim was to assess deficits in participants prospective remembering following chronic traumatic brain injuries, under conditions of high and low distractions. Participants are matched with a control group and their goal is complete a list of 10 errands with the help of a checklist. There are 3 targets that appear at certain times throughout their task that make up the prospective component. The group with traumatic brain injuries performed poorly compared to the control group, suggesting how extremely important certain brain areas are in time-based prospective memory.", "Head injury\nA head injury is any injury that results in trauma to the skull or brain. The terms \"traumatic brain injury\" and \"head injury\" are often used interchangeably in the medical literature. Because head injuries cover such a broad scope of injuries, there are many causes—including accidents, falls, physical assault, or traffic accidents—that can cause head injuries.", "Closed-head injury\nMany closed-head injuries can be prevented by proper use of safety equipment during dangerous activities. Common safety features that can reduce the likelihood of experiencing a brain injury include helmets, hard hats, car seats, and safety belts. Another safety precaution that can decrease a person's risk for brain injury is \"not\" to drink and drive or allow oneself to be driven by a person who has been drinking or who is otherwise impaired.", "Complications of traumatic brain injury\nMost patients with severe TBI who recover consciousness suffer from cognitive disabilities, including the loss of many higher-level mental skills. Cognitive deficits that can follow TBI include impaired attention; disrupted insight, judgement, and thought; reduced processing speed; distractibility; and deficits in executive functions such as abstract reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and multitasking. Memory loss, the most common cognitive impairment among head-injured people, occurs in 20–79% of people with closed head trauma, depending on severity. Post-traumatic amnesia (PTA), a confusional state with impaired memory, is characterized by loss of specific memories or the partial inability to form or store new ones.", "Trauma risk management\nTrauma risk management (TRiM) is a method of secondary PTSD (and other traumatic stress related mental health disorders) prevention. The TRiM process enables non-healthcare staff to monitor and manage colleagues. TRiM training provides TRiM Practitioners with a background understanding of psychological trauma and its effects.", "Major trauma\nBy identifying risk factors present within a community and creating solutions to decrease the incidence of injury, trauma referral systems may help to enhance the overall health of a population. Injury prevention strategies are commonly used to prevent injuries in children, who are a high risk population. Injury prevention strategies generally involve educating the general public about specific risk factors and developing strategies to avoid or reduce injuries. Legislation intended to prevent injury typically involves seatbelts, child car-seats, helmets, alcohol control, and increased enforcement of the legislation. Other controllable factors, such as the use of drugs including alcohol or cocaine, increases the risk of trauma by increasing the likelihood of traffic collisions, violence, and abuse occurring. Prescription drugs such as benzodiazepines may increase the risk of trauma in elderly people.", "Second-impact syndrome\nMeasures that prevent head injuries in general also prevent SIS. Thus athletes are advised to use protective gear such as helmets, though helmets do not entirely prevent the syndrome.", "Traumatic brain injury\nTBI is a leading cause of death and disability around the globe and presents a major worldwide social, economic, and health problem. It is the number one cause of coma, it plays the leading role in disability due to trauma, and is the leading cause of brain damage in children and young adults. In Europe it is responsible for more years of disability than any other cause. It also plays a significant role in half of trauma deaths.", "Primary and secondary brain injury\nIn TBI, primary injuries result immediately from the initial trauma. Primary injury occurs at the moment of trauma and includes contusion, damage to blood vessels, and axonal shearing, in which the axons of neurons are stretched and torn. The blood brain barrier and meninges may be damaged in the primary injury, and neurons may die. Cells are killed in a nonspecific manner in primary injury. Tissues have a deformation threshold: if they are deformed past this threshold they are injured. Different regions in the brain may be more sensitive to mechanical loading due to differences in their properties that result from differences in their makeup; for example, myelinated tissues may have different properties than other tissues. Thus some tissues may experience more force and be more injured in the primary injury. The primary injury leads to the secondary injury.", "Traumatic brain injury\nBiological, clinical, and demographic factors contribute to the likelihood that an injury will be fatal. In addition, outcome depends heavily on the cause of head injury. In the US, patients with fall-related TBIs have an 89% survival rate, while only 9% of patients with firearm-related TBIs survive. In the US, firearms are the most common cause of fatal TBI, followed by vehicle accidents and then falls. Of deaths from firearms, 75% are considered to be suicides.\nThe incidence of TBI is increasing globally, due largely to an increase in motor vehicle use in low- and middle-income countries. In developing countries, automobile use has increased faster than safety infrastructure could be introduced. In contrast, vehicle safety laws have decreased rates of TBI in high-income countries, which have seen decreases in traffic-related TBI since the 1970s. Each year in the United States, about two million people suffer a TBI, approximately 675,000 injuries are seen in the emergency department, and about 500,000 patients are hospitalized. The yearly incidence of TBI is estimated at 180–250 per 100,000 people in the US, 281 per 100,000 in France, 361 per 100,000 in South Africa, 322 per 100,000 in Australia, and 430 per 100,000 in England. In the European Union the yearly aggregate incidence of TBI hospitalizations and fatalities is estimated at 235 per 100,000.", "Sports-related traumatic brain injury\nA sports-related traumatic brain injury is a serious accident which may lead to significant morbidity or mortality. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) in sports are usually a result of physical contact with another person or stationary object, these sports may include boxing, football, field/ice hockey, lacrosse, martial arts, rugby, soccer, wrestling, auto racing, cycling, equestrian, roller blading, skateboarding, skiing, or snowboarding.", "Post-traumatic seizure\nNeuroimaging is used to guide treatment. Often, MRI is performed in any patient with PTS, but the less sensitive but more easily accessed CT scan may also be used.\nShortly after TBI, people are given anticonvulsant medication, because seizures that occur early after trauma can increase brain damage through hypoxia, excessive release of excitatory neurotransmitters, increased metabolic demands, and increased pressure within the intracranial space. Medications used to prevent seizures include valproate, phenytoin, and phenobarbital. It is recommended that treatment with anti-seizure medication be initiated as soon as possible after TBI. Prevention of early seizures differs from that of late seizures, because the aim of the former is to prevent damage caused by the seizures, whereas the aim of the latter is to prevent epileptogenesis. Strong evidence from clinical trials suggests that antiepileptic drugs given within a day of injury prevent seizures within the first week of injury, but not after. For example, a 2003 review of medical literature found phenytoin to be preventative of early, but probably not late PTS. In children, anticonvulsants may be ineffective for both early and late seizures. For unknown reasons, prophylactic use of antiepileptic drugs over a long period is associated with an increased risk for seizures. For these reasons, antiepileptic drugs are widely recommended for a short time after head trauma to prevent immediate and early, but not late, seizures. No treatment is widely accepted to prevent the development of epilepsy. However, medications may be given to repress more seizures if late seizures do occur.", "Veteran\nDue to medical advances, warfare in the 21st century tends to yield more survivors with severe injuries which soldiers in previous wars would have died from. This means that, though fewer service members die, more return from war with injuries more serious, and in turn more emotionally devastating, than ever before. Among these injuries is the increasingly common traumatic brain injury, or TBI, the effects of which can range from a mild concussion to amnesia and serious neurological damage.", "Traumatic brain injury\nSecondary injury events include damage to the blood–brain barrier, release of factors that cause inflammation, free radical overload, excessive release of the neurotransmitter glutamate (excitotoxicity), influx of calcium and sodium ions into neurons, and dysfunction of mitochondria. Injured axons in the brain's white matter may separate from their cell bodies as a result of secondary injury, potentially killing those neurons. Other factors in secondary injury are changes in the blood flow to the brain; ischemia (insufficient blood flow); cerebral hypoxia (insufficient oxygen in the brain); cerebral edema (swelling of the brain); and raised intracranial pressure (the pressure within the skull). Intracranial pressure may rise due to swelling or a mass effect from a lesion, such as a hemorrhage. As a result, cerebral perfusion pressure (the pressure of blood flow in the brain) is reduced; ischemia results. When the pressure within the skull rises too high, it can cause brain death or herniation, in which parts of the brain are squeezed by structures in the skull. A particularly weak part of the skull that is vulnerable to damage causing extradural haematoma is the pterion, deep in which lies the middle meningeal artery, which is easily damaged in fractures of the pterion. Since the pterion is so weak, this type of injury can easily occur and can be secondary due to trauma to other parts of the skull where the impact forces spreads to the pterion.", "Traumatic brain injury\nDamage may occur directly under the site of impact, or it may occur on the side opposite the impact (coup and contrecoup injury, respectively). When a moving object impacts the stationary head, coup injuries are typical, while contrecoup injuries are usually produced when the moving head strikes a stationary object.", "Traumatic brain injury\nThe type, direction, intensity, and duration of forces all contribute to the characteristics and severity TBI. Forces that may contribute to TBI include angular, rotational, shear, and translational forces.\nEven in the absence of an impact, significant acceleration or deceleration of the head can cause TBI; however in most cases a combination of impact and acceleration is probably to blame. Forces involving the head striking or being struck by something, termed \"contact\" or \"impact loading\", are the cause of most focal injuries, and movement of the brain within the skull, termed \"noncontact\" or \"inertial loading\", usually causes diffuse injuries. The violent shaking of an infant that causes shaken baby syndrome commonly manifests as diffuse injury. In impact loading, the force sends shock waves through the skull and brain, resulting in tissue damage. Shock waves caused by penetrating injuries can also destroy tissue along the path of a projectile, compounding the damage caused by the missile itself.", "Altered state of consciousness\nThe first condition, traumatic experience, is defined as a lesion caused by an external force (Trauma. (n.d.) In Merriam-Webster Dictionary online, 2013). Examples include impact to the brain caused by blunt force (i.e., a car accident). The reason a traumatic experience causes altered states of consciousness is that it changes how the brain works. The external impact diverts the blood flow from the front of the brain to other areas. The front of the brain is known as the prefrontal cortex responsible for analytical thought (Kunsman, 2012). When the damage becomes uncontrollable, the patient experiences changes in behavior and impaired self-awareness. This is exactly when an ASC is experienced (Spikman et al. 2013).", "Traumatic brain injury\nIn the 1970s, awareness of TBI as a public health problem grew, and a great deal of progress has been made since then in brain trauma research, such as the discovery of primary and secondary brain injury. The 1990s saw the development and dissemination of standardized guidelines for treatment of TBI, with protocols for a range of issues such as drugs and management of intracranial pressure. Research since the early 1990s has improved TBI survival; that decade was known as the \"Decade of the Brain\" for advances made in brain research.", "Sports-related traumatic brain injury\nIn football, medical trainers are well versed to diagnose symptoms pertaining to a traumatic brain injury. They are not, however, able to determine what type of injury it is or the extent the injury stems. Football trainers can medically clear or not clear players based on brain injury symptoms. If a trainer feels that certain symptoms exist that are similar to that of cerebral contusions, they will take the player out of the game and rush them to the hospital. Upon admission into the hospital, a CT scan will be ordered. A CT scan is the quickest method to diagnose cerebral contusions because it can be performed immediately and have fairly exact findings. The best method, as suggested by medical doctors, is an MRI because they present more sensitive and accurate findings. MRI’s, however, must be scheduled and cannot be completed immediately following the injury. MRI’s also take a long time to perform where the injury a player sustained may get worse within that time frame.", "Traumatic brain injury modeling\nWhile modeling itself only gives estimations, research based on these estimations could give rise to amazing technology. For example, a human head and combat helmet were modeled under blast waves, and the results showed that the helmet did very little to stop blast-induced damage. With this information, a new type of combat helmet could be created that minimizes the damage that blast waves can cause. This technology could then also be applied to general armor, or even clothing (blast waves damage internal organs as well). This kind of advancement is only the beginning of TBI reduction. Methods such as genetic manipulation may also become available in the future that could increase the stress and strain thresholds for neurons, or perhaps methods for healing the brain altogether will be created based on the modeling done in the present.", "Traumatic brain injury modeling\nThere are an estimated 1.7 million cases of TBI per year, not taking into account the lasting affects that TBI may cause. TBI is also reported to be a contributing factor in about 30% of all injury related death. Given how prevalent TBI is, preventing or minimizing its effects would benefit many people worldwide.", "Traumatic brain injury\nPerhaps the first reported case of personality change after brain injury is that of Phineas Gage, who survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven through his head, destroying one or both of his frontal lobes; numerous cases of personality change after brain injury have been reported since.\nThe 20th century saw the advancement of technologies that improved treatment and diagnosis such as the development of imaging tools including CT and MRI, and, in the 21st century, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). The introduction of intracranial pressure monitoring in the 1950s has been credited with beginning the \"modern era\" of head injury. Until the 20th century, the mortality rate of TBI was high and rehabilitation was uncommon; improvements in care made during World War I reduced the death rate and made rehabilitation possible. Facilities dedicated to TBI rehabilitation were probably first established during World War I. Explosives used in World War I caused many blast injuries; the large number of TBIs that resulted allowed researchers to learn about localization of brain functions. Blast-related injuries are now common problems in returning veterans from Iraq & Afghanistan; research shows that the symptoms of such TBIs are largely the same as those of TBIs involving a physical blow to the head.", "Post-traumatic epilepsy\nIt is not known how to predict who will develop epilepsy after TBI and who will not. However, the likelihood that a person will develop PTE is influenced by the severity and type of injury; for example penetrating injuries and those that involve bleeding within the brain confer a higher risk. The onset of PTE can occur within a short time of the physical trauma that causes it, or months or years after. People with head trauma may remain at a higher risk for seizures than the general population even decades after the injury. PTE may be caused by several biochemical processes that occur in the brain after trauma, including overexcitation of brain cells and damage to brain tissues by free radicals.", "Traumatic brain injury\nTraumatic brain injury is defined as damage to the brain resulting from external mechanical force, such as rapid acceleration or deceleration, impact, blast waves, or penetration by a projectile. Brain function is temporarily or permanently impaired and structural damage may or may not be detectable with current technology.\nTBI is one of two subsets of acquired brain injury (brain damage that occur after birth); the other subset is non-traumatic brain injury, which does not involve external mechanical force (examples include stroke and infection). All traumatic brain injuries are head injuries, but the latter term may also refer to injury to other parts of the head. However, the terms \"head injury\" and \"brain injury\" are often used interchangeably. Similarly, brain injuries fall under the classification of central nervous system injuries and neurotrauma. In neuropsychology research literature, in general the term \"traumatic brain injury\" is used to refer to non-penetrating traumatic brain injuries.", "Targeted temperature management\nAnimal studies have shown the benefit of targeted temperature management in traumatic central nervous system (CNS) injuries. Clinical trials have shown mixed results with regards to the optimal temperature and delay of cooling. Achieving therapeutic temperatures of is thought to prevent secondary neurological injuries after severe CNS trauma. A systematic review of randomised controlled trials in traumatic brain injury (TBI) suggests there is no evidence that hypothermia is beneficial.", "Childhood acquired brain injury\nIt is evident that damage to specific areas of the brain can result in whole areas of knowledge, skills and abilities being lost, sometimes irrevocably. However, it is also often the case that although some cognitive abilities can be left intact, (including the ability to retrieve, process and manipulate information) and much prior learning can remain, a child can be prevented from developing academically and socially because of other, more functional, deficits.", "Traumatic memories\nNeuroscience has shown that memories are vulnerable to disruption for several hours after they form. Holmes and colleagues proposed that because of this visuospatial distractors like Tetris, if administered within six hours of a traumatic event could help prevent symptoms of flashbacks. Also there is some evidence that memories can become vulnerable to disruption even at longer periods of time in a process known as reconsolidation." ]

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[ "Christianity in Korea\nHangul, a phonemic Korean alphabet invented around 1446 by scholars in the court of Sejong the Great, was little used for several centuries because of the perceived cultural superiority of Classical Chinese (a position similar to that of Latin in Europe). However, the Catholic Church became the first Korean religious organization to officially adopt Hangul as its primary script. Bishop Siméon-François Berneux mandated that all Catholic children be taught to read it. Christian literature printed for use in Korea, including that used by the network of schools established by Christian missionaries, mostly used the Korean language and the easily learned Hangul script. This combination of factors resulted in a rise in the overall literacy rate, and enabled Christian teachings to spread beyond the elite, who mostly used Chinese. As early as the 1780s, portions of the Gospels were published in Hangul; doctrinal books such as the \"Jugyo Yoji\" (주교요지) appeared in the 1790s and a Catholic hymnal was printed around 1800.", "Statue of King Sejong (Gwanghwamun)\nThe statue of King Sejong was dedicated on 9 October 2009, in a ceremony attended by attended by President Lee Myung-bak and other Korean government official, on a Hangul Day in celebration of the 563rd anniversary of the invention of the Korean alphabet by King Sejong, two months after the Gwanghwamun Plaza opening. The golden statue is 6.2 meters high (another source gives the statue height as 9.5 meters and yet another, 6.7 meters) and weights 20 tons. The king has one hand raised and another placed on a book. Sides of the statue display all of the hangul alphabet characters. In front of the statue there are small models of a celestial globe, a rain gauge, and a sundial, the invention of which is also traditionally attributed to King Sejong in Korea. While King Sejong is best remembered for his invention of hangul, he is also considered to have been involved in promotion of agriculture, literature, science and technology, as well as Confucian philosophy, in Korea.", "Korea\nHangul Day (also spelled as Hangeul Day) is a day that celebrates the creation of the Hunminjeongeum (Hangul, Korean alphabet), which was inscribed to the UNESCO Memory of the World Register in 1997. Hangul was created by Sejong the Great in 1443 and proclaimed in 1446. Before the creation of Hangul, people in Korea (known as Joseon at the time) primarily wrote using Classical Chinese alongside native phonetic writing systems that predate Hangul by hundreds of years, including idu, hyangchal, gugyeol, and gakpil. However, due to the fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages, and the large number of characters needed to be learned, there was much difficulty in learning how to write using Chinese characters for the lower classes, who often didn't have the privilege of education. To assuage this problem, King Sejong created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people. Hangul Day was founded in 1926 during the Japanese occupation by members of the Korean Language Society, whose goal was to preserve the Korean language during a time of rapid forced Japanization. Today, both South Korea and North Korea celebrate Hangul Day as a national holiday.Sources", "Sejong the Great\nBefore the creation of Hangul, people in Korea (known as Joseon at the time) primarily wrote using Classical Chinese alongside phonetic writing systems based on Chinese script that predated Hangul by hundreds of years, including idu, hyangchal, gugyeol, and gakpil. However, due to the fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages, and the large number of characters that needed to be learned, there was much difficulty in learning how to write using Chinese characters for the lower classes, who often lacked the privilege of education. To assuage this problem, King Sejong created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people. His intention was to establish a cultural identity for Korea through its unique script.", "Hangul Day\nBefore the creation of Hangul, people in Korea (known as Joseon at the time) primarily wrote using Classical Chinese alongside native phonetic writing systems that predate Hangul by hundreds of years, including idu, hyangchal, gugyeol, and gakpil. However, due to the fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages, and the large number of characters needed to be learned, there was much difficulty in learning how to write using Chinese characters for the lower classes, who often didn't have the privilege of education. To assuage this problem, King Sejong created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people.", "Origin of Hangul\nLedyard holds that the Koreans adopted five core consonant letters from ’Phags-pa, namely ㄱ \"g\" , ㄷ \"d\" , ㅂ \"b\" , ㅈ \"j\" , and ㄹ \"l\" . These were the consonants basic to Chinese phonology, rather than the graphically simplest letters (ㄱ \"g\" , ㄴ \"n\" , ㅁ \"m\" , and ㅅ \"s\" ) taken as the starting point by the \"Haerye.\" A sixth letter, the null initial ㅇ, was invented by Sejong. The rest of the consonants were developed through featural derivation from these six, essentially as described in the \"Haerye\"; a resemblance to speech organs was an additional motivating factor in selecting the shapes of both the basic letters and their derivatives.", "Hangul supremacy\nHangul supremacy is the belief, most widespread in Korea, that the Hangul alphabet developed by King Sejong the Great's Hall of Worthies in 1443 is the simplest, most logical, most beautiful and most scientific of the world's writing systems. In its extreme form, the belief holds that Hangul is in fact best suited for the expression of sounds in all languages." ]

[ "Korean literature\nIn the mid-Joseon period, parable-like stories were published. By the end of the Joseon period, many writers had started to deviate from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese literature, and literature about common people such as merchants, thieves, or gisaeng were commonplace.Oral literature includes all texts that were orally transmitted from generation to generation until the invention of Hangul (han'gul)--ballads, legends, mask plays, puppet-show texts, and p'ansori (\"story singing\") texts.\nIn spite of the highly developed literary activity from early in Korean history, song lyrics were not recorded until the invention of Hangul (han'gul). These orally transmitted texts are categorized as ballads and are classified according to singer (male or female), subject matter (prayer, labour, leisure), and regional singing style (capital area, western, and southern). The songs of many living performers, some of whom have been designated as \"intangible national treasures\" by the South Korean government, are still being recorded.\nLegends include all those folk stories handed down orally and not recorded in any of the written records. These legends were for long the principal form of literary entertainment enjoyed by the common people. They deal with personified animals, elaborate tricks, the participation of the gods in human affairs, and the origin of the universe.\nThe mask plays are found in Hahoe, Chinju, T'ongyong, Kimhae, and Tongnae in North and South Kyongsang provinces; Yangju in Kyonggi Province; Pongsan in Hwanghae Province; and Pukch'ong in south Hamgyong Province. The most representative plays are the sandae kuk genre of Yangju, the pyolsin kut of Hahoe, and the okwangdae nori (five-actor play) of Chinju. Although the origin of these plays is uncertain, they are generally presumed to have developed from primitive communal ceremonies. Gradually, the ceremonial aspect of the plays disappeared, and their dramatic and comic possibilities were exploited. The dialogue was somewhat flexible, the actors being free to improvise and satirize as the occasion demanded. The plays were not performed on a stage, and there were no precise limits as to the space or time in which the performances took place. The audience also traditionally responded vocally to the play as well as passively watching it. The organization of the mask plays—through repetition and variety—achieves a remarkable effect of dramatic unity. (see also dramatic literature)\nOnly two puppet-show texts are extant, Kkoktukaksi nori (also called Pak Ch'omjikuk; \"Old Pak's Play\") and Mansok chung nori. Both titles are derived from names of characters in the plays. No theory has been formulated as to the origin and development of these plays. The plots of the puppet plays, like those of the mask plays, are full of satiric social criticism. The characters—Pak Ch'omji, governor of P'yongam, Kkoktukaksi, Buddhist monk, and Hong Tongji—dance and sing, enacting familiar tales that expose the malfeasance of the ruling classes. (see also puppetry)\nThe final type of folk literature is found in the texts of p'ansori of the Yi dynasty. These texts were first recorded in the 19th century as verse, but the written forms were later expanded into p'ansori fiction, widely read among the common people. This transformation from poetry to narrative fiction was easily accomplished, since p'ansori were always narrative. Originally the entire p'ansori performance repertoire consisted of 12 madang (\"titles\"). Although all 12 remain as narrative fiction, only five of them are sung today. The texts evolved gradually from the legends, which provided their sources and were altered and expanded as they were passed from one performer to another.", "ㅋ\nㅋ is one of the Korean hangul. The Unicode for ㅋ is U+314B.", "Hangul\nLetters in the Korean alphabet are called \"jamo\" (자모). There are 19 consonants and 21 vowels used in the modern alphabet. They are firstly named in Hunmongjahoe, a hanja textbook written by Choe Sejin.", "Korean Language Society\nHangul Day was founded in 1926 during the Japanese occupation by members of the Korean Language Society, whose goal was to preserve the Korean language during a time of rapid forced Japanization.", "Choe Nam-seon\nChoe published Korea's first successful modern magazine \"Sonyeon\" (Youth), through which he sought to bring modern knowledge about the world to Korea's youth. He coined the term \"hangul\" for the Korean alphabet and promoted it as a literary medium through his magazines. The author of the first “new-style” poem, “\"Hae egeso Sonyeon ege\"” (\"The Ocean to the Youth\", 1908), he is widely credited with pioneering modern Korean poetry. Choe sought to create a new style of literary Korean that would be more accessible to ordinary people. But at the same time, he was proud of classical Korean literature and he founded the Association of Korea's Glorious Literature in 1910 that sought to encourage ordinary people to read the classics of Korean literature that until then had been mostly read by the elites. Through the work of the Chinese nationalist writer Liang Qichao, Choe learned of the Western theories of Social Darwinism and the idea that history was nothing more than an endless struggle between various people to dominate each other with only the fittest surviving. Choe believed that this competition would only end with Korea ruling the world. In a 1906 essay, he wrote: \"How long will it take us to accomplish the goal of flying our sacred national flag above the world and having people of the five continents kneeling down before it? Exert yourselves, our youth!\". Choe's magazine \"Sonyeon\" was intended to popularize Western ideas about science and technology though a more readable Korean that would modernize the Korean nation for Social Darwinist competition for world domination.", "Sunil Ganguly\nSunil Ganguly (; 1 January 1938 – 12 June 1999) was an Indian instrumentalist from the city of Kolkata (Calcutta) who played the Hawaiian electric guitar. He created many albums from HMV, Concorde Records, Sagarika, during his long career (1957 - 1999) with his instrumental renditions of Indian Hindi film songs, Classical based songs, Ghazals of prominent composers like Mehdi Hassan, Ghulam Ali, Jagjit Singh, Bade Ghulam Ali, Bengali film songs and modern songs, Nazrulgeeti, Rabindrasangeet (Songs of Tagore) and popularised the Hawaiian guitar in India, with his unique style that touched the hearts of listeners. His renditions often had subtle twists and turns that made it even more melodious than the original song. At his peak, there used to be two LPs released during the yearly Puja celebration by HMV, one containing songs by Lata Mangeshkar, and the other having instrumentals by Sunil Ganguly. The instrumental film hits he recorded were hits with the youth, in Bengal as well as all over India. . Sunil Ganguly was a very busy artist in his heyday, and did many public performances all over India, including Kolkata, Mumbai, Delhi, Lucknow, Patna, Guwahati, Agartala etc. He did one-man whole night shows in Mumbai, played in reputed College fests like the IITs, Regional Engineering Colleges. He had a big group of musicians accompanying him on his performances, and recreating the songs, and some of the best musicians of the era, like Sri Y S Mulki, Sri Dilip Roy, Sri Samir Khasnabis, Sri Swapan Sen, Sri Manohari Singh accompanied him on his recordings and performances. A sample of the kind of atmosphere he created with his renditions can be found here. He was a regular performer at Doordarshan programs (TV) in Kolkata and Mumbai, AIR (All India Radio), Radio Ceylon (Sri Lanka). His radio programs (like Saaz aur Awaz on Radio Ceylon) were popular and were listened to by many all over India and abroad, and this program continues to this date, over the internet. He inspired an entire young generation to listen and play Indian music on the Hawaiian guitar. He had many number of successful students, who are continuing his style of playing songs and in turn are coaching students in India and abroad.", "Hang (instrument)\nAs of December 2013 PANArt announced that the Hang would no longer be made, as the PANArt tuners were completely concentrated on a new different instrument, the Gubal. In the following years PANArt developed a number of other instruments called \"Hang Gudu\", \"Hang Urgu\", \"Hang Bal\" and \"Hang Gede\" as well as a number of string instruments and created a collective improvised music form played with these \"Pang instruments\".", "Chinese family of scripts\nThe Hangul alphabet introduced in the 15th century was much simpler, and specifically designed for the sounds of Korean.\nThe alphabet makes systematic use of modifiers corresponding to features of Korean sounds.\nAlthough Hangul is unrelated to Chinese characters, its letters are written in syllabic blocks that can be interspersed with Hanja. \nSuch a Korean mixed script became the usual way of writing the language, with roots of Chinese origin denoted by Hanja and all other elements rendered in Hangul. Hanja is still used (but not very commonly like the Japanese) and is required in both North and South Korea.", "Origin of Hangul\nThe Korean alphabet is the native script of Korea, created in the mid fifteenth century by King Sejong, as both a complement and an alternative to the logographic Sino-Korean \"hanja\". Initially denounced by the educated class as \"eonmun\" (vernacular writing), it only became the primary Korean script following independence from Japan in the mid-20th century.", "Kim Tu-bong\nAfter graduating from Bosungkobo (Bosung College) in 1908, Kim Tu-bong worked closely with a Linguistic professor from Bosungkobo named Ju Sigyeong who was at that time beginning his work in the study of Hangul for which his name would later be known for as he would dedicate his life to bring it about (the Korean script made by King Sae Jeong during the 15th century). He also worked as a teacher. In 1916 he spent a majority of his time working on compiling MalMooe, the first Korean dictionary.", "UNESCO King Sejong Literacy Prize\nIt is funded by the Government of the Republic of Korea which first offered the Prize in 1989, honouring the outstanding contribution made to literacy by Sejong the Great who created the Korean alphabet Hangul. The Prize specialises from other UNESCO Literacy Prizes that \"it gives special consideration to the development and use of mother-tongue literacy education and training.\"", "Movable type\nA potential solution to the linguistic and cultural bottleneck that held back movable type in Korea for 200 years appeared in the early 15th century—a generation before Gutenberg would begin working on his own movable-type invention in Europe—when Sejong the Great devised a simplified alphabet of 24 characters (hangul) for use by the common people, which could have made the typecasting and compositing process more feasible. But Korea's cultural elite, \"appalled at the idea of losing hanja, the badge of their elitism\", stifled the adoption of the new alphabet.", "Hancom\nHancom (KOSDAQ: HAANSOFT) is an office suite software developer in Korea. Established in 1990, the company created Hangul, a native word processing program for the Korean language.", "Hangul\nThe Korean neutral vowel was \"i\". The \"yin\" vowels were \"eu, u, eo\"; the dots are in the \"yin\" directions of 'down' and 'left'. The \"yang\" vowels were \"ə, o, a,\" with the dots in the \"yang\" directions of 'up' and 'right'. The \"Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye\" states that the shapes of the non-dotted letters were chosen to represent the concepts of \"yin\", \"yang\", and mediation: Earth, Heaven, and Human. (The letter \"ə\" is now obsolete except in the Jeju language.)", "Hangul\nThe Korean alphabet was originally called Hunminjeong'eum (), after the document that introduced the script to the Korean people in 1446.", "King Sejong Institute\nHangul, the Korean alphabet, is the written form of the official Korean language and has been used by Koreans since its creation in 1446 by Sejong the Great of the Joseon Dynasty. Most Korean language learning institutions outside Korea targeted second or third generation descendants of Korean immigrants, while Korean-language learners in South Korea were mostly foreign students, migrant workers, or spouses of Koreans.", "Hanja\nHanja were the sole means of writing Korean until King Sejong the Great promoted the invention of Hangul in the 15th century. Even after the invention of Hangul, however, most Korean scholars continued to write in \"hanmun\".", "Hanja\nAlthough a phonetic Korean alphabet, now known as Chosŏn'gŭl or Hangul, had been created by Sejong the Great, it did not come into widespread official use until the late 19th and early 20th century. Thus, until that time it was necessary to be fluent in reading and writing Hanja in order to be literate in Korean, as the vast majority of Korean literature and most other Korean documents were written in Literary Chinese, using Hanja as its primary script. Today, a good working knowledge of Chinese characters is still important for anyone who wishes to study older texts (up to about the 1990s), or anyone who wishes to read scholarly texts in the humanities. Learning a certain number of Hanja is very helpful for understanding the etymology of Sino-Korean words, and for enlarging one's Korean vocabulary. Today, Hanja are not used to write native Korean words, which are always rendered in Hangul, and even words of Chinese origin—\"Hanja-eo\" ()—are written with the Hangul alphabet most of the time, with the corresponding Chinese character often written next to it in order to prevent confusion with other characters or words with the same phonetics.", "Hangul\nIt is the official writing system of North Korea and South Korea. It is a co-official writing system in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and Changbai Korean Autonomous County in Jilin Province, China. It is sometimes used to write the Cia-Cia language spoken near the town of Bau-Bau, Indonesia.", "Gari Ledyard\nAlthough several of the basic concepts of hangul came from Indic phonology through the Phagspa script, such as the relationships among the homorganic consonants and, of course, the alphabetic principle itself, Chinese phonology also played a major role. Besides the grouping of letters into syllables, along the lines of Chinese characters, it was Chinese phonology, not Indic, that determined which five consonants were basic, and therefore to be retained from Phagspa. These were the tenuis (non-voiced, non-aspirated) plosives, \"g\" for ㄱ , \"d\" for ㄷ , and \"b\" for ㅂ , which were basic to Chinese theory, but which were voiced in the Indic languages and not considered basic; as well as the sibilant \"s\" for ㅈ and the liquid \"l\" for ㄹ . (Korean ㅈ was pronounced in the 15th century.)", "Hangul\nModern styles that are more suited for printed media were developed in the 20th century. In 1993, new names for both Myeongjo () and Gothic styles were introduced when Ministry of Culture initiated an effort to standardize typographic terms, and the names \"Batang\" (, meaning \"background\") and \"Dotum\" (, meaning \"stand out\") replaced Myeongjo and Gothic respectively. These names are also used in Microsoft Windows.", "Korean literature\nSijo and gasa are closely linked to the development of hangul in the early Joseon period. As hangul was created, \"akjang\" was developed as a way to note musical scores using the Korean script. King Sejong himself is credited with a compilation of Buddhist songs.", "Korean literature\nModern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped increase working class literacy rates. Hangul reached its peak of popularity in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major renaissance. Sinsoseol, for instance, are novels written in hangul.", "Hangul\nThe \"Hunmin Jeong-eum\" states that King Sejong adapted the (\"gojeon\", \"\"Gǔ\" Seal Script\") in creating the Korean alphabet. The has never been identified. The primary meaning of \"gǔ\" is \"old\" (\"Old Seal Script\"), frustrating philologists because the Korean alphabet bears no functional similarity to Chinese \"zhuànzì\" seal scripts. However, Ledyard believes \"gǔ\" may be a pun on \"Měnggǔ\" \"Mongol\", and that is an abbreviation of \"Mongol Seal Script\", that is, the formal variant of the 'Phags-pa alphabet written to look like the Chinese seal script. There were 'Phags-pa manuscripts in the Korean palace library, including some in the seal-script form, and several of Sejong's ministers knew the script well.", "History of Korea\nIn 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910) after a coup d'état that overthrew the Goryeo dynasty in 1388. King Sejong the Great (1418–1450) implemented numerous administrative, social, scientific, and economic reforms, established royal authority in the early years of the dynasty, and is attributed with creating Hangul, the Korean alphabet.", "Sejong Science High School\nIn November 3, 2005, the project about establishing new science high school in Seoul was approved by Ministry of Education and Science Technology. The name of the school, Sejong Science High School, is named after Sejong the Great, the king who created the Korean alphabet; Hangul. In March 24, 2009, the school officially signed in the friendship exchange with DDG-991 Aegis Combat System, generally called \"Sejong the Great Combat System\".", "Hangul (word processor)\nThe software's name is derived from the Korean word Hangul (, \"hangeul\") for the alphabet used to write Korean.", "Origin of Hangul\nAlthough the \"Hunmin jeong-eum haerye\" (hereafter \"Haerye)\" explains the design of the consonantal letters in terms of articulatory phonetics, it also states that Sejong adapted them from the enigmatic 古篆字 \"\"Gǔ\" Seal Script\". The identity of this script has long been puzzling. The primary meaning of the character 古 \"gǔ\" is \"old\", so 古篆字 \"gǔ zhuānzì\" has traditionally been interpreted as \"Old Seal Script\", frustrating philologists, because the Korean alphabet bears no functional similarity to Chinese 篆字 \"zhuānzì\" seal scripts. However, Gari Ledyard, Sejong Professor of Korean History Emeritus at Columbia University, notes that the character 古 \"gǔ\" also functions as a phonetic component of 蒙古 \"Měnggǔ\" \"Mongol\". Indeed, records from Sejong's day played with this ambiguity, joking that \"no one is older (more 古 \"gǔ)\" than the 蒙古 \"Měng-gǔ\"\". Ledyard deduces from palace records that 古篆字 \"gǔ zhuānzì\" was a veiled reference to the 蒙古篆字 \"měnggǔ zhuānzì\" \"Mongol Seal Script\", that is, a formal variant of the Mongol ’Phags-pa alphabet of the Mongolian-origin Chinese Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) that had been modified to look like the Chinese seal script, and which had been an official script of the empire. There were ’Phags-pa manuscripts in the Korean palace library from the Yuan Dynasty government, including some in the seal-script form, and several of Sejong's ministers knew the script well. If this was the case, Sejong's evasion on the Mongol connection can be understood in light of the political situation in the contemporary (ethnically Chinese) Ming Dynasty. The topic of the recent Mongol domination of China, which had ended just 75 years earlier, was politically sensitive, and both the Chinese and Korean literati regarded the Mongols as barbarians with nothing to contribute to a civilized society.", "Choe Manri\nChoe Manri (?-1445, sometimes spelled Choi Malli) was an associate professor in the Hall of Worthies (집현전 부제학, 集賢殿副提學) who spoke against the creation of \"hangul\" (then called \"eonmun\") together with other Confucian scholars in 1444. He made the following submission that year to King Sejong against \"hangul\":", "Hwang Byungki\nHwang Byungki (31 May 1936, Seoul – 31 January 2018) was the foremost South Korean player of the gayageum, a 12-string zither with silk strings. He was also a composer and an authority on \"sanjo\", a form of traditional Korean instrumental music.", "Origin of Hangul\nSimilarly, the coronal consonants (舌音 \"tongue sounds\") are said to show the (front of the) tongue bent up to touch the palate, the bilabial consonants (脣音 \"lip sounds\") represent the lips touching or parting, the sibilants (齒音 \"incisor sounds\") represent the teeth (in sibilants the airstream is directed against the teeth), and the guttural consonants (喉音 \"throat sounds\"), including the null initial used when a syllable begins with a vowel, represent an open mouth and throat. The labiodental consonants (輕脣音 \"light lip sounds\") are derived from the bilabial series. In all cases but the labials, the plain (清 \"clear\") stops have a vertical top stroke, the non-stops lack that stroke, and the aspirate stops have an additional stroke. There were a few additional irregular consonants, such as the coronal lateral/flap ㄹ , which the \"Haerye\" only explains as an altered outline of the tongue, and the velar nasal ㆁ . The irregularity of the labials has no explanation in the \"Haerye,\" but may be a remnant of the graphic origin of the basic letter shapes in the imperial ’Phags-pa alphabet of Yuan Dynasty China.", "ㅝ\nㅝ is one of the Korean hangul. The Unicode for ㅝ is U+315D.", "Homer Hulbert\nHulbert contributed to the advancement of Hangul with his research and study into the orthography and grammar of Hangul with Ju Si-gyeong. and he made the first han-geul (Korean) textbook '사민필지(Sa min pil ji)'.", "Hangul (word processor)\nThe Talos team of Cisco has reported vulnerabilities in Hangul, which have been exploited by malware dubbed NavRAT.", "Square peg in a round hole\nSejong the Great of Korea commented, in 1443, that using Chinese characters for Korean was “like trying to fit a square handle into a round hole”. He subsequently developed the Hangul phonetic alphabet.", "Hang (instrument)\nThe Hang (; plural form: Hanghang) is a musical instrument in the idiophone class created by Felix Rohner and Sabina Schärer in Bern, Switzerland. The name of their company is PANArt Hangbau AG. The Hang is sometimes referred to as a \"hang drum\", but the inventors consider this a misnomer and strongly discourage its use.\nThe instrument is constructed from two half-shells of deep drawn, nitrided steel sheet glued together at the rim leaving the inside hollow and creating the shape of a convex lens. The top (\"Ding\") side has a center 'note' hammered into it and seven or eight 'tone fields' hammered around the center. The bottom (\"Gu\") is a plain surface that has a rolled hole in the center with a tuned note that can be created when the rim is struck.", "History of Korea\nDuring the 15th and 16th centuries, Joseon enjoyed many benevolent rulers who promoted education and science. Most notable among them was Sejong the Great (r. 1418–50), who personally created and promulgated Hangul, the Korean alphabet. This golden age saw great cultural and scientific advancements, including in printing, meteorological observation, astronomy, calendar science, ceramics, military technology, geography, cartography, medicine, and agricultural technology, some of which were unrivaled elsewhere.", "Hangul\nSuch an idea of writing Korean with Hangul jamo without being assembled into syllabic characters is of a historical interest only as it foregoes the most distinctive feature of the Hangul writing system, that is, the standard convention of 모아쓰기 (\"mo-a-sseu-gi\" 'assembled writing').", "Origin of Hangul\nVarious fanciful speculations about the creation of Hangul were put to rest by the discovery in 1940 of the 1446 \"Hunmin jeong-eum haerye\" \"Explanation of the \"Hunmin Jeong-eum\" with Examples\". This document explains the design of the consonant letters according to articulatory phonetics and the vowel letters according to Confucian principles such as the \"yin\" and \"yang\" of vowel harmony (see below).", "Hangul\nㅇ is silent syllable-initially and is used as a placeholder when the syllable starts with a vowel. ㄸ, ㅃ, and ㅉ are never used syllable-finally.", "Hangul\nThe Korean alphabet was designed so that people with little education could learn to read and write. A popular saying about the alphabet is, \"A wise man can acquaint himself with them before the morning is over; even a stupid man can learn them in the space of ten days.\"\nThe project was completed in late December 1443 or January 1444, and described in 1446 in a document titled \"Hunminjeong'eum\" (\"The Proper Sounds for the Education of the People\"), after which the alphabet itself was originally named. The publication date of the \"Hunminjeongeum\", October 9, became Hangul Day in South Korea. Its North Korean equivalent, Chosŏn'gŭl Day, is on January 15.", "Origin of Hangul\nIf Ledyard is correct, the graphic base of Hangul forms part of the great family of alphabets that spread from the Phoenician alphabet, through Aramaic, Brāhmī, and Tibetan. However, this is only one component of its derivation; Hangul did not derive from ’Phags-pa in the gradual and unconscious way that Tibetan derived from Brāhmī. Ledyard wrote in his doctoral thesis:", "Hangul\nAnother document published in 1446 and titled \"Hunminjeong'eum Haerye\" (\"\"Hunminjeong'eum\" Explanation and Examples\") was discovered in 1940. This document explains that the design of the consonant letters is based on articulatory phonetics and the design of the vowel letters are based on the principles of \"yin\" and \"yang\" and vowel harmony.", "Hangul Day\nIn 1931, the celebration of the day was switched to October 29 of the Gregorian Calendar, the calendar which is in contemporary use. Three years later, the date was moved to October 28, to coordinate the date with that of the Julian Calendar, which had been in use during the 15th century, when King Sejong had made his proclamation.", "List of Hangul jamo\n\"Hanyang Private Use\" is mapping system which is used in Hangul (word processor), version Wordian to 2007. This system maps old Hangul to the Private Use Area in Unicode. Since Hangul 2010, Hanyang PUA code was deprecated and replaced with Unicode Syllable-Initial-Peak-Final Encoding Approach system.", "ㅞ\nㅞ is one of the Korean hangul. The Unicode for ㅞ is U+315E.", "Hall of Worthies\nBesides the invention of Hangul and published works such as Samgang Haengshildo, the Hall of Worthies was involved in publication of numerous scholarly and scientific writings, which contributed to reputation of Sejong's reign as the golden age of Korean culture.", "Origin of Hangul\nOf these seven vowel sounds, three could not be iotized (preceded by a \"y-\" sound). These three were written with a single stroke: ㅡ \"ɨ,\" ㆍ \"ʌ,\" ㅣ \"i.\" (The letter ㆍ \"ʌ\" is now obsolete except in Jeju dialect.) The \"Hunmin Jeong-eum\" states that the shapes of the strokes were chosen to represent the Confucian 三才 \"sāncái\" \"three realms\" of 天 heaven, a \"yang\" concept, represented with a dot for the sun, ; 地 earth, a \"yin\" concept, represented with a flat line, ; and 人 man, represented with an upright line, , who mediates between the two. The other four vowels, which could be iotized, were written as a dot next to a line: yin ㅓ \"ə\" and yang ㅏ \"a\" (which alternate under vowel harmony), yin ㅜ \"u\" and yang ㅗ \"o\" (which also alternate). Iotation was then indicated by doubling this dot: ㅕ \"yə,\" ㅑ \"ya,\" ㅠ \"yu,\" ㅛ \"yo.\"\nThere was presumably a third parameter in designing the vowel letters, not mentioned in the \"Haerye,\" namely choosing horizontal ㅡ \"ɨ\" as the graphic base of \"closed\" (rounded) ㅜ \"u\" and ㅗ \"o,\" and vertical ㅣ \"i\" as the base of \"open\" (unrounded) ㅓ \"ə\" and ㅏ \"a.\" The horizontal letters ㅡㅜㅗ \"ɨ u o\" represented back vowels in the fifteenth century, as they do today, whereas the fifteenth-century sound values of ㅣㅓㅏ \"i ə a\" are uncertain. Some linguists reconstruct them as , respectively (and reconstruct obsolete ㆍ \"ʌ\" as ); others as (with ㆍ \"ʌ\" as ). In the latter case, the vertical letters would have represented front vowels, the dot the sole central vowel, and the vowel harmony, described as \"shallow\" vs \"deep\", would have been one of vowel height, with the \"yang\" vowels lower than their \"yin\" counterparts.", "Yeomillak\nYeominrak, which means \"Enjoyment with the People\", was created based on Korean court music that the king shared to his people to be enjoyed together. This song was created during his 29th year of reign (1447) and actually had lyrics from the Yongbi eocheonga, but only the melodic component is existent today. It is usually played on Hangul Day in South Korea to celebrate the promulgation of Hangul by King Sejong, and also in religious services for the Ancestral Shrine of the Royal family, honoring the Royal Court, and for the Civil and Military authorities.", "Hangul\nThe explanation of the letter \"ng\" also differs from the traditional account. Many Chinese words began with \"ng\", but by King Sejong's day, initial \"ng\" was either silent or pronounced in China, and was silent when these words were borrowed into Korean. Also, the expected shape of \"ng\" (the short vertical line left by removing the top stroke of ) would have looked almost identical to the vowel . Sejong's solution solved both problems: The vertical stroke left from was added to the null symbol to create (a circle with a vertical line on top), iconically capturing both the pronunciation in the middle or end of a word, and the usual silence at the beginning. (The graphic distinction between null and \"ng\" was eventually lost.)", "Origin of Hangul\nIn order to maintain the Chinese convention of initial and final, Sejong and his ministers needed a null symbol to refer to the lack of a consonant with an initial vowel. He chose the circle, ㅇ, with the subsequent derivation of the glottal stop ㆆ \"’\" , by adding a vertical top stroke by analogy with the other stops, and the aspirate ㅎ \"h\" , parallel the account in the \"Haerye.\" (Perhaps the reason he created a new letter rather than adopting one from ’Phags-pa was that it was awkward to write these Chinese initials in ’Phags-pa, where ㅇ and ㆆ were both written as digraphs beginning with \"y,\" ꡭꡝ and ꡗꡖ.) However, Ledyard's explanation of the letter ㆁ \"ng\" differs from the \"Haerye\" account; he sees it as a fusion of velar ㄱ \"g\" and null ㅇ, reflecting its variable pronunciation. The Korean alphabet was designed not just to write Korean, but to accurately represent Chinese. Many Chinese words historically began with , but by Sejong's day this had been lost in many regions of China, and was silent when these words were borrowed into Korean, so that only remained at the middle and end of Korean words. The expected shape of a velar nasal, the short vertical stroke (⃓) that would be left by removing the top stroke of ㄱ \"g\", had the additional problem that it would have looked almost identical to the vowel ㅣ \"i\" . Sejong's solution solved both problems: The vertical stroke left from ㄱ \"g\" was added to the null symbol ㅇ to create ㆁ \"ng\", iconically capturing both regional pronunciations as well as being easily legible. Eventually the graphic distinction between the two silent initials ㅇ and ㆁ was lost, as they never contrasted in Korean words.", "Choe Sejin\nChoe Sejin is mostly known for his 1527 work, \"Hunmong Jahoe\" (훈몽자회). It is a textbook for children to learn the Chinese characters, and is known to be very practical in its teachings. During the Joseon Era, literacy in Chinese was an essential skill for advancement in society. Chinese was the dominant language of literature at this time, and children were taught Chinese from an early age to prepare for the future. Although hangul, the Korean orthography, existed by this time, it was not widely used in the country. Choe wanted to promote the usage of hangul through his work \"Hunmong Jahoe\". As a textbook for children to learn Chinese, \"Hunmong Jahoe\" incorporated hangul in the textbook to promote both the learning of Chinese characters, as well as hangul. The Chinese characters were annotated in hangul, and in order for one to understand and learn the Chinese characters, one must have a full grasp of hangul first to comprehend the annotations. Choe wanted people to use hangul more extensively, and he thought that this would encourage people to take some time to fully learn hangul, before starting to learn Chinese. He wrote that \"it would take [only a single day] to learn Hangul\", commenting on the simplicity of hangul, and afterwards, one would be able to learn Chinese on their own without an instructor if one knew hangul and utilized his textbook.", "Hangul orthography\n한글맞춤법 (Hangeul matchumbeop) refers to the overall rules of writing the Korean language with Hangul. The current orthography was issued and established by Korean Ministry of Culture in 1998. The first of it is Hunminjungeum(훈민정음). In everyday conversation, 한글 맞춤법 is referred to as 맞춤법.", "Origin of Hangul\nThe five adopted letters were graphically simplified, retaining the outline of the ’Phags-pa letters but with a reduced number of strokes that recalled the shapes of the speech organs involved, as explained in the \"Haerye.\" For example, the box inside ’Phags-pa ꡂ \"g\" is not found in the Korean ㄱ \"g\" ; only the outer stroke remains. In addition to being iconic for the shape of the \"root\" of the tongue, this more easily allowed for consonant clusters and left room for an added stroke to derive the aspirated consonant ㅋ \"k\" . But in contrast to the \"Haerye\" account, the non-stops \"ng\" , ㄴ \"n\" , ㅁ \"m\" , and ㅅ \"s\" were derived by \"removing\" the top stroke or strokes of the basic letters. (No letter was derived from ㄹ \"l\" .) This clears up a few points that had been problematic in the \"Haerye.\" For example, while it is straightforward to derive ㅁ \"m\" from ㅂ \"b\" by removing the top of ㅂ \"b\" in Ledyard's account, it is not clear how one would derive ㅂ \"b\" by adding something to ㅁ \"m\", since ㅂ \"b\" is not analogous to the other stops: If ㅂ \"b\" were derived as in the \"Haerye\" account, it would be expected to have a horizontal top stroke similar to those of ㄱ \"g\" , ㄷ \"d\" , and ㅈ \"j\" .", "Joseon\nDuring the rule of Sejong, Korea saw advances in natural science, agriculture, literature, traditional Chinese medicine, and engineering. Because of such success, Sejong was given the title \"Sejong the Great\". The most remembered contribution of King Sejong is the creation of Hangul, the Korean alphabet, in 1443; everyday use of Hanja in writing eventually was surpassed by Hangul in the later half of the 20th century.", "ㅑ\nㅑ(yah) is one of the Korean hangul. The Unicode for ㅑ is U+3151.", "Holger Hesse\nDr. Holger Hesse was a German engineer. Together with his partner, Danish anesthetist Henning Ruben, he invented the world's first non-electric, self-inflating resuscitator, the Ambu bag, in 1956.", "Origin of Hangul\nExcept for the obsolete palatal stops, all 36 initials in the Chinese inventory had Korean equivalents:", "Hangul (disambiguation)\nHangul, Chosŏn'gŭl or (Hunmin) Jeong-eum is the native alphabet of the Korean language.", "Hunminjeongeum\nHunminjeongeum (lit. \"The Correct/Proper Sounds for the Instruction of the People\") is a document describing an entirely new and native script for the Korean language. The script was initially named after the publication, but later came to be known as hangul. It was created so that the common people illiterate in hanja could accurately and easily read and write the Korean language. It was announced in Volume 102 of the \"Annals of King Sejong\", and its formal supposed publication date, October 9, 1446, is now Hangul Day in South Korea. The Annals place its invention to the 25th year of Sejong's reign, corresponding to 1443–1444.", "ㅇ\nㅇ(iwng) is one of the Korean hangul. The Unicode for ㅇ is U+3147.", "Hang (instrument)\nThere are only two people who built Hanghang, the inventors Felix Rohner and Sabina Schärer. They have a small workshop in Bern where every Hang has been created.", "Memoirs of Lady Hyegyeong\nBy the time Lady Hyegyong had begun writing in the late 1700s, the invention of hangul had already become the voice of female narratives, which began to appear and allowed female narratives to become more and more plentiful. Haboush determines this increase to be correlated with the decrease of yangban women's inheritance rights. As family structures began to change, women turned to the pen “to bear public witness to history” and express for themselves how customs and family structures were changing at the time. Similarly, by writing her own autobiographical memoirs, Lady Hyegyong was able to express for herself insights into life at the Joseon Court during an extraordinary time.", "Hangul\nToday, South Koreans call the Korean alphabet \"hangeul\" (), a name coined by Korean linguist Ju Si-gyeong in 1912. The name combines the ancient Korean word \"han\" (), meaning \"great\", and \"geul\" (), meaning \"script\". The word \"han\" is used to refer to Korea in general, so the name also means \"Korean script\". It has been romanized in multiple ways:", "Sungkyunkwan\nThe primary written language of Sungkyunkwan was hanja. Although hangul was invented in 1443, it did not become the primary language of study because the literary elite believed that the difficult hanja was more sophisticated. Hangul was invented to solve the widespread illiteracy of the common people at the time, but it was considered a threat by many in the upper class to their status as literary scholars, leading them to resist its implementation. As a result, hanja remained the written language used at Sungkyunkwan requiring anyone who wished to rise to the top levels of the government to be capable of reading and writing the characters.", "Chinese family of scripts\nAlphabetic: Hangul", "Origin of Hangul\nAnother letter composed of two elements to represent two regional pronunciations, now obsolete, was ㅱ, which transcribed the Chinese initial 微. This represented either \"m\" or \"w\" in various Chinese dialects, and was composed of ㅁ plus ㅇ. In ’Phags-pa, a loop under a letter, ꡧ, represented after vowels, and Ledyard proposes this rather than the null symbol was the source of the loop at the bottom, so that the two components of ㅱ reflected its two pronunciations just as the two components of ㆁ \"ng\" did. The reason for suspecting that this derives from ’Phags-pa ꡧ \"w\" is that the entire labio-dental series of both ’Phags-pa and the Korean alphabet6, used to transcribe the Chinese initials 微非敷 \"w, v, f,\" have such composite forms, though in the case of ’Phags-pa these are all based on the letter ꡜ \"h\" (ꡤ \"etc.\"), while in Hangul, which does not have an \"h\" among its basic consonants, they are based on the labial series ㅁ \"m,\" ㅂ \"b,\" ㅍ \"p.\"", "Hangul\nJu Si-gyeong, the linguist who had coined the term Hangul to replace \"Eonmun\" or \"Vulgar Script\" in 1912, established the Korean Language Research Society (later renamed the Hangul Society), which further reformed orthography with \"Standardized System of Hangul\" in 1933. The principal change was to make the Korean alphabet as morphophonemically practical given the existing letters. A system for transliterating foreign orthographies was published in 1940.", "Ge Wang\nGe Wang (born November 2, 1977) is a Chinese American musician, computer scientist, designer, author, and professor, known for inventing the ChucK audio programming language \nand for being the co-founder, chief technology officer (CTO), and chief creative officer (CCO) of Smule, a company making iPhone and iPad music apps. He also helped create the Princeton Laptop Orchestra and later founded its Stanford counterpart Stanford Laptop Orchestra, as well as the Stanford Mobile Phone Orchestra. \nWang is the designer of the Ocarina \nand Magic Piano iPhone apps. Wang is currently an Associate Professor at Stanford University’s Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA). Wang is the author of \"Artful Design: Technology in Search of the Sublime (A MusiComic Manifesto)\", a book on design and technology, art and life, created entirely in the format of a photo-realistic comic book, published by Stanford University Press in 2018.", "Hangul\nUntil the early 20th century, the Korean elite preferred to write using Chinese characters called Hanja. They referred to Hanja as \"jinseo\" (진서) or \"true letters\". Some accounts say the elite referred to the Korean alphabet derisively as \"'amkeul\" () meaning \"women's script\", and \"'ahaetgeul\" () meaning \"children's script\", though there is no written evidence of this.", "History of the Joseon dynasty\nDuring the rule of Sejong, Korea saw technological advances in natural science, agriculture, literature, and traditional medicine. Because of his success, Sejong received the title \"King Sejong the Great of Joseon\". His most remembered contribution is the creation of Hangul, the Korean alphabet, in 1443. Before that, Korean literati had used the Hanja writing system—traditional Chinese characters with Korean pronunciation and meaning—and a written language known as Hanmun, which was basically Classical Chinese, for official court documents. Everyday written use of Hanja and Hanmun ended gradually in the latter half of the 20th century.", "Burling Hull\nHull claimed to be — and is generally credited as — the inventor of the Svengali deck of cards, which he patented in 1909. He claimed to have invented more than 500 magical effects and he was a prolific writer, with 52 published books to his name, including \"Sealed Mysteries and Sleights\", \"The Encyclopedia of Stage Illusions\", \"Sealed Mysteries\", and \"How to Answer Questions for Crystal Gazing and Mind Reading Acts\". He wrote on a wide variety of magical subjects, including card tricks, mentalism, escapes, razor blade swallowing, sightless vision, billiard ball manipulation, silk magic, second sight acts, publicity, and showmanship.", "Hangul Day\nIn 2009, in celebration of the 563rd anniversary of the invention of the Korean alphabet by King Sejong, the 6.2-meter high, 20-ton bronze statue of King Sejong the Great of Joseon at Gwanghwamun Plaza in Seoul, was unveiled to the public.", "ㅙ\nㅙ is one of the Korean hangul. The Unicode for ㅙ is U+3159.", "History of Sino-Korean relations\nThe Chinese character system, known as Hanja in Korean, was introduced into Korea through the spread of Buddhism during the Tang Dynasty. Hanja was used as the sole means of writing Korean until Sejong the Great promoted the invention of Hangul during the 15th century.", "Korea\nThe Korean alphabet hangul was also invented during this time by King Sejong the Great.", "Fanu\nFanu is the alias of music DJ, producer, and label founder Janne Hatula (born October 8, 1980). Based in Helsinki, Finland, Hatula composes drum and bass and electronic music. He began producing music at the age of twelve as a hobby before issuing his first recording in 2003. Also makes hip hop as FatGyver. He has collaborated with producer and composer Bill Laswell and vocalist Gigi.", "Sejong the Great\nKing Sejong the Great profoundly affected Korean history with his personal creation and introduction of hangul, the native phonetic writing system for the Korean language.", "Korea\nModern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped spread literacy from the aristocracy to the common people. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major growth in Korean literature. \"Sinsoseol\", for instance, are novels written in hangul.", "Hangul\nThe Hangul Society, founded by Ju Si-gyeong, announced a proposal for a new, strongly morphophonemic orthography in 1933, which became the prototype of the contemporary orthographies in both North and South Korea. After Korea was divided, the North and South revised orthographies separately. The guiding text for orthography of the Korean alphabet is called \"Hangeul Matchumbeop\", whose last South Korean revision was published in 1988 by the Ministry of Education.", "ㅗ\nㅗ is one of the Korean hangul. The Unicode for ㅗ is U+3151.", "Hangul\nIn 1527, Choe Sejin reorganized the alphabet in Hunmongjahoe:", "Korean mixed script\nIn 1446, King Sejong the Great (朝鮮 世宗大王, 조선 세종대왕) introduced \"hunminjeong-eum\" (訓民正音, 훈민정음), 'correct pronunciation for teaching the people' in a proclamation, published with extensive description of the new alphabet. Sejong begins the document (in literary Chinese), 'Because our language is different from the Chinese language, our poor people cannot express themselves in Chinese writing. In my pity for them I create twenty-eight letters, which all can learn easily and use in their daily lives.' This script is now known as \"hangul\" in South Korea and \"choseongul\" in North Korea, with the proclamation celebrated as national holidays on the 9th of October in the south and the 15th of January in the north, respectively.\nThe new script spread rapidly among the segments of society that were traditionally denied access to education, such as women (except those in the higher classes), farmers, fishermen, rural merchants and children. Despite later attempts to ban the Korean alphabet, as commoners wrote disparaging this about rulers they disliked, and the fear that the upper classes would lose the privileges of being literate in Chinese led to attempts to ban the alphabet, but \"hangul\" survived. The twenty-eight letters, arranged into syllable blocks, actually facilitated the study of \"hanja\" as they were used in teaching guides to indicate the native word and the Sino-Korean pronunciation, and the upper class, despite their disdain, would often have to study the \"gugyeol\" system of knowing a Chinese character's meaning, Sino-Korean pronunciation and its native Korean equivalent, and \"hangul\" thus became an important tool in teaching \"hanja\". Nevertheless, its use as an exclusive writing system was mocked by the upper classess as \"jinseo\" (真書, 진서) or 'real script.'", "Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu\nA copy of \"Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu\" was brought to Europe by Isaac Titsingh (1745-1812). In Paris, the text represented the first appearance of Korean han'gŭl in Europe. After Titsingh's death, the printed original and Titsingh's translation were purchased by Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat (1788-1832) at the Collège de France. After Rémusat's death, Julius Klaproth (1783-1835) at the \"Institut Royal\" in Paris published his version of Titsingh's work. In 1832, the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland supported the posthumous abridged publication of Titsingh's French translation.", "Hangul\nThe alphabet consists of 14 consonants and 10 vowels. Its letters are grouped into syllabic blocks, vertically and horizontally. For example, the Korean word for \"honeybee\" (\"kkulbeol\") is written , not . As it combines the features of alphabetic and syllabic writing systems, it has been described as an \"alphabetic syllabary\" by some linguists. As in traditional Chinese writing, Korean texts were traditionally written top to bottom, right to left, and are occasionally still written this way for stylistic purposes. Today, it is typically written from left to right with spaces between words and western-style punctuation.", "Origin of Hangul\nThe seven basic vowel letters were not adopted from an existing script. They were straight lines, dots, and lines with dots that appear to have been designed by Sejong or his ministers to represent the phonological principles of Korean. At least two parameters were used in their design, vowel harmony and iotation.", "Gari Ledyard\nThe \"Hunmin Jeong-eum\" credits the 古篆字 \"\"Gu\" Seal Script\" as being the source King Sejong or his ministers used to create hangul. This has traditionally been interpreted as the \"Old\" Seal Script, and has confused philologists because hangul bears no functional similarity to the Chinese seal scripts. However, 古 \"gǔ\" had more than one meaning: besides meaning \"old\", it could be used to refer to the Mongols (蒙古 \"Měng-gǔ\"). Records from Sejong's day played with this ambiguity, joking that \"no one is more \"gu\" than the \"Meng-gu\"\". That is, \"Gu Seal Script\" may have been a veiled reference to the Mongol Seal Script, or Phagspa alphabet. (\"Seal script\" is a style of writing, used for name seals and official stamps. Phagspa had a seal script variant modeled after the appearance of the Chinese seal script of its day. In this guise it was called the 蒙古篆字 Mongol Seal Script, with only the initial character distinguishing it from the 古篆字 credited by the \"Hunmin Jeong-eum\" as the source of hangul.) There were many Phagspa manuscripts in the Korean palace library, and several of Sejong's ministers knew the script well.", "Hunminjeongeum Society\nThe Hunminjeongeum Society, sometimes called the \"Hunminjeongeum Research Institute\" in English-language newspaper accounts, is a private organization in Seoul dedicated to the propagation of Hangul to all the unwritten languages of the world. (\"Hunminjeongeum\" was the original name of hangul.) The society was founded by Lee Ki-nam, a retired real-estate agent, in 2007, after she had failed to bring hangul to the Tungusic Oroqen of Heilongjiang, China; the Chepang of Nepal; and the Lahu of Chiang Mai, Thailand; she attributed these failures to a reliance on Korean Christian missionaries in those countries, whose primary focus was not linguistics or literacy.", "Culture of South Korea\nPrior to the 20th century, Korean literature was influenced by Classical Chinese literature. Chinese calligraphy was also extensively used by Koreans for over one thousand years in Korean literature. Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped spread literacy from the dominant classes to the common people, including women. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major growth in Korean literature. \"Sinsoseol\", for instance, are novels written in hangul.", "McCune–Reischauer\nThe system was created in 1937 by George M. McCune and Edwin O. Reischauer. With a few exceptions, it attempts not to transliterate Korean hangul but to represent the phonetic pronunciation. , McCune–Reischauer was widely used outside Korea.", "Origin of Hangul\nAlthough several of the basic concepts of the Korean alphabet were inherited from Indic phonology through the ’Phags-pa script, such as the relationships among the homorganic consonants and, of course, the alphabetic principle itself, Chinese phonology played a major role. Besides the grouping of letters into syllables, in functional imitation of Chinese characters, according to Ledyard it was Chinese phonology, not Indic, that determined which five consonants were basic, and were therefore to be retained from ’Phags-pa. These included the plain stop letters, ꡂ \"g\" for ㄱ \"g\" , ꡊ \"d\" for ㄷ \"d\" , and ꡎ \"b\" for ㅂ \"b\" , which were basic to Chinese theory, but which represented voiced consonants in the Indic languages and were not basic in the Indic tradition. The other two letters were the plain sibilant ꡛ \"s\" for ㅈ \"j\" (ㅈ was pronounced in the fifteenth century, as it still is in North Korea) and the liquid ꡙ \"l\" for ㄹ \"l\" .", "Source Han Sans\nThe Korean hangul characters, Japanese and Korean ideographs were designed by Sandoll Communication by Kang Ju-yeon directed by Chang Soo-young. CJK ideographs ranges 17627-51760 were designed by Changzhou SinoType.", "Sin Sukju\nShin was an accomplished polyglot, and was particularly well educated in the Chinese language. He served as a personal linguistic expert to King Sejong, and was intimately involved in the creation and application of the Korean alphabet known in modern times as Hangul. Sin used the newly created hangul system to create an accurate transcription of spoken Mandarin Chinese in 15th century Ming dynasty China.\nThese transcriptions haven proven accurate and reliable, and his transcriptions are now \"an invaluable source of information on the pronunciations of Ming-era [Mandarin].\"", "ㅘ\nㅘ is one of the Korean hangul. The Unicode for ㅘ is U+3158.", "Hangul (word processor)\nHangul was intended in 2009 to gain support for reading and writing of Office Open XML and OpenDocument files.", "Hall of Worthies\nThe Hall participated in various scholarly endeavors, of which the best-known may be the compilation of the \"Hunminjeongeum\", in which the hangul writing system was first formulated. In the Hunminjeongeum, King Sejong wrote a preface which explained the origin and purpose of the newly created alphabet, Hangul. He then instructed his scholars of the Jiphyeonjeon (Hall of Worthies) to write detailed explanations of each of its letters along with examples of each of them. The purpose of the Hunminjeongeum was to provide instructions on how to use the new alphabet. The definitive edition of the Hunminjeongeum is known as the Haerye Edition of Hunminjeongeum (Haerye refers to the explanations and examples of the Hall of Worthies scholars, which were previously missing in other known editions)", "History of Korean\nThe creation of the \"Hunminjeongeum\" (\"Proper Sounds for the Instruction of the People\"), the original name for Hangul, was begun in 1443, and promulgated in September or October 1446 by Sejong the Great, the fourth Joseon king.", "Hangul (word processor)\nHangul has many versions, the latest of which is Hangul NEO for Windows, Hangul 2008 Linux for Linux, and Hangul 2014 for Mac.", "History of printing in East Asia\nA potential solution to the linguistic and cultural bottleneck that held back movable type in Korea for two hundred years appeared in the early 15th century—a generation before Gutenberg would begin working on his own movable type invention in Europe—when King Sejong devised a simplified alphabet of 24 characters called Hangul for use by the common people, which could have made the typecasting and compositing process more feasible.", "Hangul (word processor)\nHaansoft was on the verge of bankruptcy after the release of its 2002 version, due to the widespread use of illegal copies. A campaign to support the development of Korean software and promote the purchase of legal copies of Hangul allowed Haansoft to recover." ]

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[ "Grasshopper\nGrasshoppers eat large quantities of foliage both as adults and during their development, and can be serious pests of arid land and prairies. Pasture, grain, forage, vegetable and other crops can be affected. Grasshoppers often bask in the sun, and thrive in warm sunny conditions, so drought stimulates an increase in grasshopper populations. A single season of drought is not normally sufficient to stimulate a major population increase, but several successive dry seasons can do so, especially if the intervening winters are mild so that large numbers of nymphs survive. Although sunny weather stimulates growth, there needs to be an adequate food supply for the increasing grasshopper population. This means that although precipitation is needed to stimulate plant growth, prolonged periods of cloudy weather will slow nymphal development." ]

[ "Sugar glider\nSugar gliders are seasonally adaptive omnivores with a wide variety of foods in their diet, and mainly forage in the lower layers of the forest canopy. Sugar gliders may obtain up to half their daily water intake through drinking rainwater, with the remainder obtained through water held in its food. In summer they are primarily insectivorous, and in the winter when insects (and other arthropods) are scarce, they are mostly exudativorous (feeding on acacia gum, eucalyptus sap, manna, honeydew or lerp). Sugar gliders have an enlarged caecum to assist in digestion of complex carbohydrates obtained from gum and sap.\nTo obtain sap or gum from plants, sugar gliders will strip the bark off trees or open bore holes with their teeth to access stored liquid. Little time is spent foraging for insects, as it is an energetically expensive process, and sugar gliders will wait until insects fly into their habitat, or stop to feed on flowers.\nGliders consume approximately 11 g of dry food matter per day. This equates to roughly 8% and 9.5% of body weight for males and females, respectively.", "A Bug's Life\nIn \"The Ant and the Grasshopper\", a grasshopper squanders the spring and summer months on singing while the ants put food away for the winter; when winter comes, the hungry grasshopper begs the ants for food, but the ants turn him away. Andrew Stanton and Joe Ranft hit on the notion that the grasshopper could just take the food. After Stanton had completed a draft of the script, he came to doubt one of the story's main pillars – that the Circus Bugs that had come to the colony to cheat the ants would instead stay and fight. He thought the Circus Bugs were unlikable characters as liars and that it was unrealistic for them to undergo a complete personality change. Also, no particularly good reason existed for Circus Bugs to stay with the ant colony during the second act. Although the film was already far along, Stanton concluded that the story needed a different approach.", "Brown thrasher\nThis bird is omnivorous, which has a diet that includes insects, berries, nuts and seeds, as well as earthworms, snails, and sometimes lizards and frogs. Across seasons and its breeding range, it was found 63% of stomach contents were made of animal matter, the remaining 37% being plant material. During the breeding season, the diet consists primarily of beetles, grasshoppers, and other arthropods, and fruits, nuts and seeds. More than 80% of the diet of brown thrasher from Illinois is made of animal matter, about 50% being beetles. In Iowa, about 20% of the summer diet was found to consist of grasshoppers. By the late summer, it begins to shift towards more of a herbivore diet, focusing on fruits, nuts, seeds, and grains, 60% of the food in Illinois being fruits and seeds. By winter, the customary diet of the brown thrasher is fruit and acorns. Wintering birds in Texas were found to eat 58% plant material (mainly sugar berry and poison ivy) and 42% animal material in October; by March, in the dry period when food supply is generally lower, 80% of the food became animal and only 20% plants. Vertebrates are only eaten occasionally and are often comprised by small reptiles and amphibians, such as lizards, small or young snakes, tree frogs and salamanders.", "Grasshopper (comics)\nGrasshopper is a fictional superhero in the Marvel Comics universe who first appeared in the pages of the \"GLA: Misassembled\" miniseries of 2005. The character was created by Dan Slott and Paul Pelletier. He was a member of the Great Lakes Avengers for 5.8 seconds.", "Tetrix ceperoi\nTetrix ceperoi, Cepero's groundhopper, is a member of the Tetrigidae family and is very similar to common grasshoppers. Grasshopper is defined as a \"plant eating insect with long hind legs that are used for jumping and for producing a chirping sound\". However, unlike the common grasshopper, the wings of \"T. ceperoi\" extend beyond its pronotum (the upper surface of the first segment of the thorax). The front wings have evolved throughout history to be stumps, and the back wings are very well developed. Thanks to the front wings only, \"T. ceperoi\" is capable of flying. Furthermore, \"T. ceperoi\" sports wide shoulders while covering its narrow abdomen beneath the pronotum. \"T. ceperoi\" are classified as Orthoptera, which describes crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts. Furthermore, these Orthoptera have incomplete metamorphosis, which also affects sexual dimorphism later. \"T. ceperoi\" reach an average length of about . \"T. ceperoi\" is a multi-coloured ground dweller with the ability to blend into its surroundings. The ability of \"T. ceperoi\" to be different colours makes it able to evolve colour schemes better adapted to specific habitats. This cryptic nature of their outer layer provides protection from predators as it is able to blend into its surroundings. \"T. ceperoi\" is diurnal, which means it is solely active in the daytime. However, although it is diurnal, it continues to hibernate during a late nymphal instar or later on in life as adults.", "Upland sandpiper\nUpland sandpipers forage in fields, picking up food by sight. They are frequently sighted on fence posts and even telephone poles. When an \"uppy\" alights, it holds its wings up for a few seconds. They are constantly scanning the horizon for intruders. The upland sandpiper's diet includes grasshoppers, crickets, weevils, beetles, moths, ants, flies, bugs, centipedes, millipedes, spiders, snails and earthworms. It also eats some grains and seeds.", "Carnivore\nCarnivores are sometimes characterized by their type of prey. For example, animals that eat mainly insects and similar invertebrates are called insectivores, while those that eat mainly fish are called piscivores. The first tetrapods, or land-dwelling vertebrates, were piscivorous amphibians known as labyrinthodonts. They gave rise to insectivorous vertebrates and, later, to predators of other tetrapods.", "Grasshopper\nGrasshoppers exemplify a range of anti-predator adaptations, enabling them to avoid detection, to escape if detected, and in some cases to avoid being eaten if captured. Grasshoppers are often camouflaged to avoid detection by predators that hunt by sight; some species can change their coloration to suit their surroundings.", "The Ant and the Grasshopper\nJohn Updike's 1987 short story \"Brother Grasshopper\" deals with a pair of brothers-in-law whose lives parallel the fable of the ant and the grasshopper. One, Fred Barrow, lives a conservative, restrained existence; the other, Carlyle Lothrop, spends his money profligately, especially on joint vacations for the two men's families, even as he becomes financially insolvent. However, at the end comes an unexpected inversion of the characters' archetypal roles. When Carlyle dies, Fred, now divorced and lonely, realizes that he has been left with a rich store of memories which would not have existed without his friend's largesse.", "Differential grasshopper\nAn adult female lays up to 6 egg masses in soft soil, each of which can contain 40–200 eggs. The eggs begin embryonic development the summer they are laid, then enter diapause for the winter, to hatch over period of about two weeks in early summer of the next year. There is one generation per year. The nymphs take about 32 days from hatching to reach adulthood. Their development is well synchronized, and most nymphs transform to winged adults during a period of just a few days.\nDifferential grasshoppers are polyphagous, eating both grasses and forbs, but experiments have shown that they grow faster if fed forbs. The most favored food plants tend to be giant ragweed (\"Ambrosia trifida\"), common sunflower (\"Helianthus annuus\"), and prickly lettuce (\"Lactuca serriola\"). Adults can detect a chemical change in wilted lettuce and sunflowers and will tend to avoid these plants.", "Groundhog\nBoth their diet and habit of burrowing make them serious nuisance animals around farms and gardens. They will eat many commonly grown vegetables, and their burrows can destroy farm ponds and undermine foundations. Consequently, there is a thriving business exterminating them. Their preferred habitat of grassy areas near woods also makes them abundant along roads and highways where they often become the victims of passing cars.", "Atlantic mudskipper\n\"Periophthalmus barbarus\" is an omnivore. In the wild, mudskippers prefer to eat worms, crickets, flies, meal worms, beetles, small fish, and small crustaceans (sesarmid crabs). Mudskippers kept as pets can eat frozen fare such as bloodworm or artemia and flake. It cannot eat dried food, however, because its stomach would swell up. It is recommended to feed it frozen food for a healthy diet.", "Mandible (arthropod mouthpart)\nInsect mandibles are as diverse in form as their food. For instance, grasshoppers and many other plant-eating insects have sharp-edged mandibles that move side to side. Most butterflies and moths lack mandibles as they mainly feed on nectar from flowers.", "Grasshopper\nGrasshoppers may be confused with crickets, but they differ in many aspects; these include the number of segments in their antennae and the structure of the ovipositor, as well as the location of the tympanal organ and the methods by which sound is produced. Ensiferans have antennae that can be much longer than the body and have at least 20–24 segments, while caeliferans have fewer segments in their shorter, stouter antennae.", "Long-tailed skipper\nThe caterpillar of this skipper is a common pest of crops, especially beans, in the southern United States. For this reason, it is sometimes called the bean leafroller in that area. The caterpillars are also known to attack ornamental plants in the legume family such as wisteria and butterfly peas. The caterpillars feed on leaves and then roll the leaves around themselves, lining the cavity with silk, to pupate. The adults feed on nectar from flowers. Natural enemies of this species include wasp and fly parasitoids, and the Florida predatory stink bug, (\"Euthyrhynchus floridanus\"). In the fall, a nuclear polyhedrosis virus killed up to 50% of the larvae.", "Animal husbandry\nAnimals used as livestock are predominantly herbivorous, the main exception being the pig which is an omnivore. The herbivores can be divided into \"concentrate selectors\" which selectively feed on seeds, fruits and highly nutritious young foliage, \"grazers\" which mainly feed on grass, and \"intermediate feeders\" which choose their diet from the whole range of available plant material. Cattle, sheep, goats, deer and antelopes are ruminants; they digest food in two steps, chewing and swallowing in the normal way, and then regurgitating the semidigested cud to chew it again and thus extract the maximum possible food value.\nThe dietary needs of these animals is mostly met by eating grass. Grasses grow from the base of the leaf-blade, enabling it to thrive even when heavily grazed or cut.", "Common leopard gecko\nCommon leopard geckos typically feed on crickets, roaches, mealworms/superworms, and other insects. In captivity, most leopard geckos will prefer hunting food themselves. The majority of captive common leopard geckos refuse to eat dead prey. They should not be offered dead prey either, as when dried the nutritional value significantly decreases. Crickets are the most common food source to give them in captivity, as they can hunt them in their enclosure the way they would in their natural environment, though mealworms, waxworms, and dubia roaches (and, less frequently, other roach species) are also common. When food is scarce, they can rely on their ability to store excess fat in their tails. Sufficient calcium and vitamin D3 is also very important for their diet. How they obtain it in the wild is still unknown, although they likely receive this from their varied prey of moths, spiders, ants, and other insects. In captivity, it is near impossible to completely duplicate the diet they will have in the wild, so the most nutritious insects known are offered, usually dusted with a fine calcium powder with added vitamin D3 and always gut loaded by feeding. Their prey should also be dusted with a reptile multi-vitamin about every fourth feeding. Common leopard geckos will eat until they're full and live insects that are left uneaten in their tank can become troublesome for the gecko, particularly crickets which will nibble at the lizard's tail. Their keen sense of smell and sight allows them to search for food in the wild, so they will stalk their prey somewhat like an actual leopard will, moving their tail, and then striking when they are satisfied.", "Grasshopper\nGrasshoppers are typically ground-dwelling insects with powerful hind legs which allow them to escape from threats by leaping vigorously. As hemimetabolous insects, they do not undergo complete metamorphosis; they hatch from an egg into a nymph or \"hopper\" which undergoes five moults, becoming more similar to the adult insect at each developmental stage. At high population densities and under certain environmental conditions, some grasshopper species can change color and behavior and form swarms. Under these circumstances, they are known as locusts.", "Parrot\nThe diet of parrots consists of seeds, fruit, nectar, pollen, buds, and sometimes arthropods and other animal prey. The most important of these for most true parrots and cockatoos are seeds; the large and powerful bill has evolved to open and consume tough seeds. All true parrots, except the Pesquet's parrot, employ the same method to obtain the seed from the husk; the seed is held between the mandibles and the lower mandible crushes the husk, whereupon the seed is rotated in the bill and the remaining husk is removed. They may use their foot sometimes to hold large seeds in place. Parrots are granivores rather than seed dispersers, and in many cases where they are seen consuming fruit, they are only eating the fruit to get at the seed. As seeds often have poisons that protect them, parrots carefully remove seed coats and other chemically defended fruit parts prior to ingestion. Many species in the Americas, Africa, and Papua New Guinea consume clay, which releases minerals and absorbs toxic compounds from the gut.\nLories, lorikeets, hanging parrots, and swift parrot are primarily nectar and pollen consumers, and have tongues with brush tips to collect it, as well as some specialised gut adaptations. Many other species also consume nectar when it becomes available.", "Alpaca\nAlpacas chew their food which ends up being mixed with their cud and saliva and then they swallow it. Alpacas usually eat 1.5% of its body weight for normal growth. They mainly need pasture grass, hay, or silage but some may also need supplemental energy and protein foods and they will also normally try to chew on almost anything (e.g. empty bottle). Most alpaca ranchers rotate their feeding grounds so the grass can regrow and fecal parasites may die before reusing the area. Pasture grass is a great source of protein. When seasons change, the grass loses or gains more protein. For example, in the spring, the pasture grass has about 20% protein while in the summer, it only has 6%. They need more energy supplements in the winter to produce body heat and warmth. They get their fiber from hay or from long stems which provides them with vitamin E. Green grass contains vitamin A and E.", "Gopher tortoise\nGopher tortoises are herbivore scavengers. Their diets contains over 300 species of plants. They consume a very wide range of plants, but mainly eat broad-leaved grass, regular grass, wiregrass, and terrestrial legumes. They also eat mushrooms, and fruits such as gopher apple, pawpaw, blackberries, and saw palmetto berries. In addition, gopher tortoises eat flowers from the genera \"Cnidoscolus\" (nettles), \"Tillandsia\" (Spanish and ball moss), \"Richardia\", and \"Dyschoriste\". Juvenile tortoises tend to eat more legumes, which are higher in protein, and fewer grasses and tough, fibrous plants than mature tortoises. Gopher tortoises have been known to scavenge carrion and eat excrement. As gopher tortoises usually get water from the food they eat, they usually only drink standing water in times of extreme drought.", "Field vole\nThe field vole is a herbivore and feeds on grasses, herbs, root tubers, moss and other vegetation and gnaws bark during the winter (it does not hibernate). It occasionally eats invertebrates such as insect larvae. Among the plants it favours are the grasses \"Agrostis\" spp. and \"Festuca rubra\", the yarrow (\"Achillea millefolium\"), clover (\"Trifolium\" spp.), dandelion (\"Taraxacum officinale\") and buttercups (\"Ranunculus\" spp.). The voles choose species with high digestibility where possible and avoid some common plants amongst which they live such as the tufted hairgrass (\"Deschampsia cespitosa\") and rosebay willowherb (\"Chamerion angustifolium\"). The animals have low energy reserves and these are only able to sustain them for five to fourteen hours. Because of the low availability of food in the winter, drier habitats are unable to sustain populations of much over two hundred animals per hectare. The number of voles expands rapidly with the arrival of spring and the better availability of food supplies.", "Grasshopper chess\nGrasshopper chess is a chess variant, in which the pawns are allowed to promote to a fairy piece, the \"grasshopper\". The grasshopper (shown as an inverted queen) must hop over other pieces in order to move or capture.", "Garter snake\nGarter snakes, like all snakes, are carnivorous. Their diet consists of almost any creature they are capable of overpowering: slugs, earthworms (nightcrawlers, as red wigglers are toxic to garter snakes), leeches, lizards, amphibians (including frog eggs), minnows, and rodents. When living near water, they will eat other aquatic animals. The ribbon snake (\"Thamnophis sauritus\") in particular favors frogs (including tadpoles), readily eating them despite their strong chemical defenses. Food is swallowed whole. Garter snakes often adapt to eating whatever they can find, and whenever, because food can be scarce or abundant. Although they feed mostly on live animals, they will sometimes eat eggs.\nGarter snakes were long thought to be nonvenomous, but discoveries in the early 2000s revealed they do, in fact, produce a neurotoxic venom. Despite this, garter snakes cannot kill humans with the small amounts of comparatively mild venom they produce, and they also lack an effective means of delivering it. They do have enlarged teeth in the back of their mouths, but their gums are significantly larger, and the secretions of their Duvernoy's gland are only mildly toxic.", "White-rumped sandpiper\nTheir diet consists primarily of small invertebrates including: molluscs, crustaceans, annelids and both adult and larval insects. They are mainly reported to eat aquatic invertebrates. Although it was previously thought they only consumed invertebrates, it has been shown that seeds also make up a portion of the white-rumped sandpiper diet. This discovery lead to the idea that they might be opportunistic feeders depending on time, season and habitat. Stones and algae have also been found in their stomachs but these are most likely ingested by accident. The stones are of the same general shape and size as the seeds so it could be a case of mistaken identity. Algae could also be accidentally ingested through aquatic feeding.", "Greensboro Grasshoppers\nHall of Fame alumni", "The Grasshopper and the Ants (film)\nAutumn passes and winter arrives. The grasshopper trudges through the snow, cold and hungry. He finds one withered leaf, but it blows away before he can eat it. Meanwhile, the ants are feasting on their stored food. The grasshopper knocks on their door and collapses. The ants carry him inside and warm and feed him. The queen ant approaches him. He begs to be allowed to stay. She tells him that only those who work may stay, and tells him to take his fiddle. Thinking that he is being dismissed, he starts to leave, but the queen tells him to play the fiddle. While the ants dance, he happily plays and sings \"I owe the world a living!\"", "Spiderhunter\nThe spiderhunters are omnivorous. As their name suggests they will eat spiders, and are capable of extracting spiders from the centre of their webs, a tricky task. They also consume a wide range of other small arthropod prey including crickets, caterpillars, butterflies, ants and other insects. In addition to animal prey they also consume nectar from flowers. Their tubular tongue is pushed against the top of the upper mandible of the bill, then pulled in and out, creating a pressure difference which allows the nectar to be sucked into the mouth. Spiderhunters may be important pollinators of some species of plants, and species pollinated by spiderhunters have long tubular flowers. They may also participate in nectar robbing, which consists of inserting the bill into the side of the flower to extract nectar without being dabbed with pollen. Little is known about their territorial behaviour, but there have been reports of some species defending territories. The spiderhunters are less gregarious than other sunbirds, and are usually seen alone or as part of a pair.", "Assumption Chapel\nLarge black clouds made up of thousands of grasshoppers moved from field to field, from county to county. One historian reported that \"grasshoppers, sixty to eighty per square yard, could devour one ton of hay per day each forty acres they covered.\" The grasshoppers ate everything and anything: crops, fruit trees, wooden fork handles and even items of clothing. In her book \"On the Banks of Plum Creek\", Laura Ingalls Wilder records her eyewitness accounts of the plight of these plagues. She relates how they could not even keep grasshoppers out of the milk pail while milking. She tells how some of the men headed to the eastern side of the state to find work with the harvest as those farms had not been infected with the grasshoppers.", "Grasshopper\nSome grasshopper species, like the Chinese rice grasshopper, are a pest in rice paddies. Ploughing exposes the eggs on the surface of the field, to be destroyed by sunshine or eaten by natural enemies. Some eggs may be buried too deeply in the soil for hatching to take place.", "Grasshopper\nGrasshoppers are sometimes used as symbols. During the Greek Archaic Era, the grasshopper was the symbol of the \"polis\" of Athens, possibly because they were among the most common insects on the dry plains of Attica. Native Athenians for a while wore golden grasshopper brooches to symbolise that they were of pure Athenian lineage with no foreign ancestors. Another symbolic use of the grasshopper is Sir Thomas Gresham's gilded grasshopper in Lombard Street, London, dating from 1563; the building was for a while the headquarters of the Guardian Royal Exchange, but the company declined to use the symbol for fear of confusion with the locust.", "Planthopper\nA planthopper is any insect in the infraorder Fulgoromorpha: in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha and exceeding 12,500 described species worldwide. The name comes from their remarkable resemblance to leaves and other plants of their environment and from the fact that they often \"hop\" for quick transportation in a similar way to that of grasshoppers. However, planthoppers generally walk very slowly so as not to attract attention. Distributed worldwide, all members of this group are plant-feeders, though surprisingly few are considered pests. The infraorder contains only a single superfamily, Fulgoroidea. Fulgoroids are most reliably distinguished from the other Auchenorrhyncha by two features; the bifurcate (\"Y\"-shaped) anal vein in the forewing, and the thickened, three-segmented antennae, with a generally round or egg-shaped second segment (pedicel) that bears a fine filamentous arista.", "Grasshopper\nGrasshoppers have had a long relationship with humans. Swarms of locusts can have devastating effects and cause famine, and even in smaller numbers, the insects can be serious pests. They are used as food in countries such as Mexico and Indonesia. They feature in art, symbolism and literature.", "Hoopoe\nThe diet of the hoopoe is mostly composed of insects, although small reptiles, frogs and plant matter such as seeds and berries are sometimes taken as well. It is a solitary forager which typically feeds on the ground. More rarely they will feed in the air, where their strong and rounded wings make them fast and manoeuverable, in pursuit of numerous swarming insects. More commonly their foraging style is to stride over relatively open ground and periodically pause to probe the ground with the full length of their bill. Insect larvae, pupae and mole crickets are detected by the bill and either extracted or dug out with the strong feet. Hoopoes will also feed on insects on the surface, probe into piles of leaves, and even use the bill to lever large stones and flake off bark. Common diet items include crickets, locusts, beetles, earwigs, cicadas, ant lions, bugs and ants. These can range from in length, with a preferred prey size of around . Larger prey items are beaten against the ground or a preferred stone to kill them and remove indigestible body parts such as wings and legs.", "Grass carp\nGrass carp grow large and are strong fighters on a rod and reel, but because of their vegetarian habits and their wariness, they can be difficult to catch. Chumming with corn adds to success. They will eat canned corn, cherry tomatoes, and, despite their primarily herbivorous habits, will also sometimes eat other animals. Chumming with white bread, and a piece of bread pinched on a hook and floated on the surface works well, especially for pond grass carp. The IGFA World record for a grass carp caught on line and hook is 39.75 kg, (87.6 lb) caught in Bulgaria in 2009.", "Grasshopper sparrow\nThe nest is a well-concealed open cup on the ground under vegetation. They forage on the ground in vegetation, mainly eating insects, especially grasshoppers, and seeds.", "Acrididea\nAcrididea including the Acridomorpha is an infraorder of insects that best describe the grasshoppers (thus also locusts) or grasshopper-like families. It contains a large majority of species in the suborder Caelifera and the taxon Acridomorpha may also be used, which excludes the Tetrigoidea (ground-hoppers). Both names are derived from older texts, such as Imms, which placed the \"short-horned grasshoppers\" and locusts at the family level (Acrididae). The study of grasshopper species is called acridology.", "Indian rhinoceros\nIndian rhinoceros are grazers. Their diets consist almost entirely of grasses, but they also eat leaves, branches of shrubs and trees, fruits, and submerged and floating aquatic plants. \nThey feed in the mornings and evenings. They use their semi-prehensile lips to grasp grass stems, bend the stem down, bite off the top, and then eat the grass. They tackle very tall grasses or saplings by walking over the plant, with legs on both sides and using the weight of their bodies to push the end of the plant down to the level of the mouth. Mothers also use this technique to make food edible for their calves. They drink for a minute or two at a time, often imbibing water filled with rhinoceros urine.", "Grasshopper (disambiguation)\nA grasshopper is a common type of herbivorous insect.", "Tetrigidae\nTetrigidae is an ancient family in the order Orthoptera , which also includes similar families such as crickets, grasshoppers, and their allies. Species within the Tetrigidae are variously called groundhoppers, pygmy grasshoppers, pygmy devils or (mostly historical) \"grouse locusts\".", "Spotted ground squirrel\nThe spotted ground squirrel is a herbivore and feeds on seeds and green plant parts. It is generally not to be considered a carnivore. Green grass shoots are consumed in the spring and eventually the flowers and seeds of green plants that arise in the summer. The spotted ground squirrel can also display Insectivore like habits within its diet in the late summer by feeding on mainly Grasshopper larvae.", "Atractomorpha (grasshopper)\nNot much is written about the biology of \"Atractomorpha\", but they are herbivores typical of the Orthoptera, so it is understandable that some species seem to be minor pests in gardens and that some, such as \"Atractomorpha psittacina\" and \"Atractomorpha bedeli\", are significant pests in rice.", "Paper wasp\nMost wasps are beneficial in their natural habitat, and are critically important in natural biocontrol. Paper wasps feed on nectar and other insects, including caterpillars, flies, and beetle larvae. Because they are a known pollinator and feed on known garden pests, paper wasps are often considered to be beneficial by gardeners.", "Grass snake\nGrass snakes prey mainly on amphibians, especially the common toad and the common frog, although they may also occasionally eat ants and larvae. Captive snakes have been observed taking earthworms offered by hand, but dead prey items are never taken. The snake will search actively for prey, often on the edges of water, using sight and sense of smell (using Jacobson's organ). They consume prey live without using constriction.", "Leafhopper\nA leafhopper is the common name for any species from the family Cicadellidae. These minute insects, colloquially known as hoppers, are plant feeders that suck plant sap from grass, shrubs, or trees. Their hind legs are modified for jumping, and are covered with hairs that facilitate the spreading of a secretion over their bodies that acts as a water repellent and carrier of pheromones. They undergo a partial metamorphosis, and have various host associations, varying from very generalized to very specific. Some species have a cosmopolitan distribution, or occur throughout the temperate and tropical regions. Some are pests or vectors of plant viruses and phytoplasmas. The family is distributed all over the world, and constitutes the second-largest hemipteran family, with at least 20,000 described species.", "European mantis\n\"M. religiosa\" is a carnivorous ambush predator that actively scans its environment and feeds on most insects that are not too large to be captured by rapid extension of its raptorial legs. Only living and moving prey is captured and consumed immediately using their powerful mandibles. Grasshoppers seem to be rather popular, probably because of their type of movement (flying or leaping) but crickets and cockroaches are also frequently preyed upon. The attack or consumption of Mollusca, Aranea, Myriapoda or Oligochaeta is also not unheard of. Caught prey gets trapped between the spikes on femur and tibia and is now immobilized. The mantis then starts eating the still living and preferably moving prey. Some years ago, the general opinion was that they killed their prey with a bite in the neck before consuming it, but current observations can’t support this: the animals just start eating the body parts which are closest to their mouths.", "Grazing\nRabbits are herbivores that feed by grazing on grass, forbs, and leafy weeds. They graze heavily and rapidly for about the first half-hour of a grazing period (usually in the late afternoon), followed by about half an hour of more selective feeding. If the environment is relatively non-threatening, the rabbit remains outdoors for many hours, grazing at intervals. Their diet contains large amounts of cellulose, which is hard to digest. Rabbits solve this problem by using a form of hindgut fermentation. They pass two distinct types of feces: hard droppings and soft black viscous pellets, the latter of which are known as caecotrophs and are immediately eaten (\"coprophagy\"). Rabbits reingest their own droppings (rather than chewing the cud as do cows and many other grazer) to digest their food further and extract sufficient nutrients.", "List of Lepidoptera that feed on grasses\nPoaceae, or Gramineae, grasses are very important food plants for the caterpillars of a number of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), including:", "Pronghorn\nPronghorns prefer open, expansive terrain at elevations varying between , with the densest populations in areas receiving around of rainfall per year. They eat a wide variety of plant foods, often including plants unpalatable or toxic to domestic livestock (sheep and cattle), though they also compete with them for food. In one study, forbs comprised 62% of their diet, shrubs 23%, and grasses 15%, while in another, cacti comprised 40%, grass 22%, forbs 20%, and shrubs 18%. Pronghorns also chew and eat (ruminate) cud, which is their own partially digested food. Healthy pronghorn populations tend to stay within of water. An ongoing study by the Lava Lake Institute for Science and Conservation and the Wildlife Conservation Society shows an overland migration route that covers more than . The migrating pronghorn start travel from the foothills of the Pioneer Mountains through Craters of the Moon National Monument to the Continental Divide. Dr. Scott Bergen of Wildlife Conservation Society says, \"This study shows that pronghorn are the true marathoners of the American West. With these new findings, we can confirm that Idaho supports a major overland mammal migration - an increasingly rare phenomenon in the U.S. and worldwide.\"", "House sparrow\nAnimals form another important part of the house sparrow's diet, chiefly insects, of which beetles, caterpillars, dipteran flies, and aphids are especially important. Various noninsect arthropods are eaten, as are molluscs and crustaceans where available, earthworms, and even vertebrates such as lizards and frogs. Young house sparrows are fed mostly on insects until about 15 days after hatching. They are also given small quantities of seeds, spiders, and grit. In most places, grasshoppers and crickets are the most abundant foods of nestlings. True bugs, ants, sawflies, and beetles are also important, but house sparrows take advantage of whatever foods are abundant to feed their young. House sparrows have been observed stealing prey from other birds, including American robins.", "Grasshopper\nGrasshoppers have the typical insect body plan of head, thorax and abdomen. The head is held vertically at an angle to the body, with the mouth at the bottom. The head bears a large pair of compound eyes which give all-round vision, three simple eyes which can detect light and dark, and a pair of thread-like antennae that are sensitive to touch and smell. The downward-directed mouthparts are modified for chewing and there are two sensory palps in front of the jaws.", "Grasshopper\nLocusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae. Swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding. Increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs causes an increase in levels of serotonin. This causes the grasshopper to change colour, feed more and breed faster. The transformation of a solitary individual into a swarming one is induced by several contacts per minute over a short period.", "Scrub hare\nThe scrub hare is an herbivore and eats mostly green grasses. During times of drought when green grass is less prevalent, they will indulge in leaves, stems, and rhizomes of grass. When even those are hard to come by they will eat shrub bark to survive.", "Rufous grasshopper\nGrasshoppers in general, including this species, are herbivorous and subsist mainly on grasses. Scientists have gained knowledge of the diet of \"G. rufus\" through the use of feces as a source of DNA. It has been documented to eat plants of the genus \"Bromus\", the species \"Holcus lanatus\", and the subfamily Pooideae, all within the family Poaceae. Poaceae is a family of flowering monocots whose members are referred to as true grasses. Pooideae includes lawn grasses and cereals such as wheat and barley. \"Bromus\" is composed of grasses called brome grasses or cheat grasses. \"Holcus lanatus\", more commonly known as Yorkshire fog or velvet grass, is a species of perennial pasture grass noted for its hairy texture. The rufous grasshopper has also been known to sparingly eat other plants such as rushes.", "Grasshopper\nGrasshoppers have a typical insect nervous system, and have an extensive set of external sense organs. On the side of the head are a pair of large compound eyes which give a broad field of vision and can detect movement, shape, colour and distance. There are also three simple eyes (ocelli) on the forehead which can detect light intensity, a pair of antennae containing olfactory (smell) and touch receptors, and mouthparts containing gustatory (taste) receptors. At the front end of the abdomen there is a pair of tympanal organs for sound reception. There are numerous fine hairs (setae) covering the whole body that act as mechanoreceptors (touch and wind sensors), and these are most dense on the antennae, the palps (part of the mouth), and on the cerci at the tip of the abdomen. There are special receptors (campaniform sensillae) embedded in the cuticle of the legs that sense pressure and cuticle distortion. There are internal \"chordotonal\" sense organs specialized to detect position and movement about the joints of the exoskeleton. The receptors convey information to the central nervous system through sensory neurons, and most of these have their cell bodies located in the periphery near the receptor site itself.", "Pedro Reyes (artist)\nEntomofagia (Spanish for entomophagy–the practice of eating insects) is a series of culinary experiments. The first happened in 2013 at Casa do Vidro in São Paulo, where a small snack cart offered visitors a Brazilian street food specialty: giant ants. The project focuses on the enormous ecological advantages of shifting protein consumption to insects. As an alternative to the ubiquitous fast-food staple, the beef hamburger, Reyes created the Grasswhopper, a burger with a patty made of crickets, a common snack in southern Mexico.", "Glassy-winged sharpshooter\nThe glassy-winged sharpshooter feeds on a wide variety of plants. Scientists estimate the host plants for this sharpshooter include over 70 different plant species. Among the hosts are grapes, citrus trees, almonds, stone fruit, and oleanders. Because of the large number of hosts, glassy-winged sharpshooter populations are able to flourish in both agricultural and urban areas. They feed on a plant by inserting their needle-like mouth parts into the plant's xylem. While feeding, sharpshooters squirt small droplets of waste from the anus (filtered xylem fluid, basically water with trace solutes, especially carbohydrates), often called \"leafhopper rain.\" These droplets are messy and, when the water evaporates, leave a residue that gives plants and fruit a whitewashed appearance.", "Hemiptera\nHemipterans can dramatically cut the mass of affected plants, especially in major outbreaks. They sometimes also change the mix of plants by predation on seeds or feeding on roots of certain species. Some sap-suckers move from one host to another at different times of year. Many aphids spend the winter as eggs on a woody host plant and the summer as parthogenetically reproducing females on a herbaceous plant.\nPhloem sap, which has a higher concentration of sugars and nitrogen, is under positive pressure unlike the more dilute xylem sap. Most of the Sternorrhyncha and a number of Auchenorrhynchan groups feed on phloem. Phloem feeding is common in the Fulgoromorpha, most Cicadellidae and in the Heteroptera. The Typhlocybine Cicadellids specialize in feeding on non-vascular mesophyll tissue of leaves, which is more nutritious than the leaf epidermis. Most Heteroptera also feed on mesophyll tissue where they are more likely to encounter defensive secondary plant metabolites which often leads to the evolution of host specificity. Obligate xylem feeding is a special habit that is found in the Auchenorrhyncha among Cicadoidea, Cercopoidea and in Cicadelline Cicadellids. Some phloem feeders may take to xylem sap facultatively, especially when facing dehydration. Xylem feeders tend to be polyphagous; to overcome the negative pressure of xylem requires a special cibarial pump. Phloem feeding hemiptera typically have symbiotic micro-organisms in their gut that help to convert amino acids. Phloem feeders produce honeydew from their anus. A variety of organisms that feed on honeydew form symbiotic associations with phloem-feeders. Phloem sap is a sugary liquid low in amino acids, so insects have to process large quantities to meet their nutritional requirements. Xylem sap is even lower in amino acids and contains monosaccharides rather than sucrose, as well as organic acids and minerals. No digestion is required (except for the hydrolysis of sucrose) and 90% of the nutrients in the xylem sap can be utilised. Some phloem sap feeders selectively mix phloem and xylem sap to control the osmotic potential of the liquid consumed. A striking adaptation to a very dilute diet is found in many hemipterans: a filter chamber, a part of the gut looped back on itself as a countercurrent exchanger, which permits nutrients to be separated from excess water. The residue, mostly water with sugars and amino acids, is quickly excreted as sticky \"honey dew\", notably from aphids but also from other Auchenorrhycha and Sternorrhyncha.", "Graphocephala coccinea\nLeafhoppers feed on plant sap with the aid of specialized mouthparts.", "Western diamondback rattlesnake\nHermann (1950) reported \"C. atrox\" also feeds on lubber grasshoppers (\"Brachystola magna\"). Klauber (1972) once found a single specimen in which the stomach contents included grasshoppers, beetles, and ants. However, mammal hairs and an iguanid lizard were also found in the same stomach, which made it more likely that the insects had first been eaten by the mammal or the lizard before they had been eaten by the snake.", "Cape mountain zebra\nThe Cape mountain zebra is a graminivore, meaning that its diet consists mainly of grasses. It is a highly selective feeder, showing a preference for greener leafy plants, particularly the South African red grass and the weeping lovegrass. Low growing, very course, small stalky grasses, as well as dying leaf material are usually avoided. \nIt has been seen that the Cape subspecies is a climax grazer, meaning it feeds at quite a high level off the ground. This means that increasing the abundance of low level grazers such as springbok will reduce grass height to a level lower than the zebra’s biting height, which could have detrimental consequences to the population.", "Beet leafhopper\nBeet leafhoppers are polyphagous generalists which means that they are able to feed on various different types of host (biology) plants. The fact that these insects migrate during the spring and summer time to cultivated fields also means that they show a lot of variation in their host plant choices by season: feeding on desert weeds in the winter and feeding on cultivated fields in the summer. They also show incredible variation in food choices between populations in different states, and these choices may change depending on host plant diversity, availability, defenses, etc. In one study on host plant preferences of beet leafhoppers from California and New Mexico, researchers found that beet leafhoppers from California preferred to feed on sugar beet plants while those from New Mexico preferred to feed on kochia, Russian thistle and redwood pigweed plants. The study also found differences in short term and long term feeding preferences where both kinds of leaf hoppers initially settled on beet plants (when observed over a period of 2 days) and later moved to their preferred choices (when observed over 20 days). Despite these differences, both species chose beet plants for laying eggs.", "Leafhopper\nLeafhoppers have piercing-sucking mouthparts, enabling them to feed on plant sap. A leafhoppers' diet commonly consists of sap from a wide and diverse range of plants, but some are more host-specific. Leafhoppers mainly are herbivores, but some are known to eat smaller insects, such as aphids, on occasion. A few species are known to be mud-puddling, but as it seems, females rarely engage in such behavior. Many species are also known to opportunistically pierce the human skin and draw blood but the function of such behaviour is unclear.", "Treehopper\nTreehoppers pierce plant stems with their beaks and feed upon sap. The young can frequently be found on herbaceous shrubs and grasses, while the adults more often frequent hardwood tree species. Excess sap becomes concentrated as honeydew, which often attracts ants. Some species have a well-developed ant mutualism, and these species are normally gregarious as well, which attracts more ants. The ants provide protection from predators. Treehoppers mimic thorns to prevent predators from spotting them.", "Grasshopper (comics)\nIt is revealed that Grasshopper is in fact Doug Taggert, an employee of Roxxon Oil who pines after fellow Roxxon researcher Cindy Shelton, who in turn only has eyes for the \"ever-gregarious Grasshopper\" (thus setting up a classic comic-book style love triangle). Later, it is clarified that Grasshopper is \"part-time Roxxon security\" who does \"some super heroing on the side.\" Though it is never so stated, the implication is that Roxxon designed and built the gear which is the source of Grasshopper's powers. Soon, Grasshopper meets up with the GLA as they both try to stop a robbery being committed by Batroc's Brigade. During the battle, Grasshopper agrees to join up with the GLA and then, almost immediately, is killed by a sai thrown by the supervillain Zaran after it passed through teammate Doorman. As team sidekick Monkey Joe comments off-panel, \"Five point eight seconds. A new record for shortest membership on ANY team.\"", "Birmingham Grasshoppers\nBirmingham Grasshoppers were an American soccer team that played in Birmingham, Alabama from 1992-1996 as a member of the United States Interregional Soccer League. When the USISL split into two leagues in 1995, the Grasshoppers joined the Premier League. Preston Goldfarb (soccer coach at Birmingham-Southern College) was instrumental in originating the team and while at the helm, the Birmingham Grasshoppers won a division title, participated in the USISL \"Sizzlin Nine\" National Tournament, and hosted two regional playoffs. The Grasshoppers team was designed to give his players an opportunity to compete at a high level during the off-season, but travel schedules and time away from Birmingham-Southern led Goldfarb to discontinue the Grasshoppers after four seasons. The Hoppers were a free scoring team with English striker John Kennedy hitting the back of the net 38 times in 47 games.", "Grasshopper\nLike other insects, grasshoppers have an open circulatory system and their body cavities are filled with haemolymph. A heart-like structure in the upper part of the abdomen pumps the fluid to the head from where it percolates past the tissues and organs on its way back to the abdomen. This system circulates nutrients throughout the body and carries metabolic wastes to be excreted into the gut. Other functions of the haemolymph include wound healing, heat transfer and the provision of hydrostatic pressure, but the circulatory system is not involved in gaseous exchange. Respiration is performed using tracheae, air-filled tubes, which open at the surfaces of the thorax and abdomen through pairs of valved spiracles. Larger insects may need to actively ventilate their bodies by opening some spiracles while others remain closed, using abdominal muscles to expand and contract the body and pump air through the system.", "Brown planthopper\nThe brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) is a planthopper species that feeds on rice plants (\"Oryza sativa\" L.). These insects are among the most important pests of rice, which is the major staple crop for about half the world's population. They damage rice directly through feeding and also by transmitting two viruses, rice ragged stunt virus and rice grassy stunt virus. Up to 60% yield loss is common in susceptible rice cultivars attacked by the insect.\nThe BPH are distributed in: Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, North and South Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam.\nTheir host plant other than rice is \"Leersia hexandra\".", "Grasshopper\nMost grasshoppers are polyphagous, eating vegetation from multiple plant sources, but some are omnivorous and also eat animal tissue and animal faeces. In general their preference is for grasses, including many cereals grown as crops. The digestive system is typical of insects, with Malpighian tubules discharging into the midgut. Carbohydrates are digested mainly in the crop, while proteins are digested in the ceca of the midgut. Saliva is abundant but largely free of enzymes, helping to move food and Malpighian secretions along the gut. Some grasshoppers possess cellulase, which by softening plant cell walls makes plant cell contents accessible to other digestive enzymes.", "Senegalese grasshopper\nThis grasshopper is essentially graminivore. It consumes a fairly wide variety of grasses, but in the Sahel, it has a preference for cram-cram (\"Cenchrus biflorus\"). It generally attacks cereals, especially millet and maize. Adults like to eat the soft unripe grains. Grasses with a high silica content are avoided.", "Insects in medicine\nGrasshopper is both commonly eaten as a delicacy and an excellent source of protein \"and\" is consumed for medicinal purposes. These insects are typically collected, dried in the sun, and then ground into a powder. The powder can then be turned into a paste when mixed with water and ash and applied to the forehead to alleviate the pain of violent headaches. Additionally, the headaches themselves can be prevented by a \"healer\" inserting the paste under the skin at the nape of the afflicted person's neck.", "Entomophagy\nTraditionally several ethnic groups in Indonesia are known to consume insects—especially grasshoppers, crickets, termites, the larvae of the sago palm weevil, and bee. In Java and Kalimantan, grasshoppers and crickets are usually lightly battered and deep fried in palm oil as crispy \"kripik\" or \"rempeyek\" snack. In Banyuwangi, East Java, there is a specialty \"botok\" called \"botok tawon\" (honeybee botok), which is beehives that contains bee larvae, being seasoned in spices and shredded coconut, wrapped inside banana leaf package and steamed. Dayak tribes of Kalimantan, also Moluccans and Papuan tribes in Eastern Indonesia, are known to consumes \"ulat sagu\" (lit. sagoo caterpillar) or larvae of sago palm weevil. This protein-rich larvae is considered as a delicacy in Papua, eaten both roasted or raw.", "Grouse\nThese birds feed mainly on vegetation—buds, catkins, leaves, and twigs—which typically accounts for over 95% of adults' food by weight. Thus, their diets vary greatly with the seasons. Hatchlings eat mostly insects and other invertebrates, gradually reducing their proportion of animal food to adult levels. Several of the forest-living species are notable for eating large quantities of conifer needles, which most other vertebrates refuse. To digest vegetable food, grouse have big crops and gizzards, eat grit to break up food, and have long intestines with well-developed caeca in which symbiotic bacteria digest cellulose.", "Grasshopper\nGrasshoppers belong to the suborder Caelifera. Although, \"grasshopper\" is sometimes used as a common name for the suborder in general, some sources restrict it to the more \"advanced\" groups. They may be placed in the infraorder Acrididea and have been referred-to as \"short-horned grasshoppers\" in older texts to distinguish them from the also-obsolete term \"long-horned grasshoppers\" (now bush-crickets or katydids) with their much longer antennae. The phylogeny of the Caelifera, based on mitochondrial ribosomal RNA of thirty-two taxa in six out of seven superfamilies, is shown as a cladogram. The Ensifera (crickets, \"etc.\") Caelifera and all the superfamilies of grasshoppers except Pamphagoidea appear to be monophyletic.", "Chipmunk\nChipmunks have an omnivorous diet primarily consisting of seeds, nuts and other fruits, and buds. They also commonly eat grass, shoots, and many other forms of plant matter, as well as fungi, insects and other arthropods, small frogs, worms, and bird eggs. Around humans, chipmunks can eat cultivated grains and vegetables, and other plants from farms and gardens, so they are sometimes considered pests. Chipmunks mostly forage on the ground, but they climb trees to obtain nuts such as hazelnuts and acorns. At the beginning of autumn, many species of chipmunk begin to stockpile nonperishable foods for winter. They mostly cache their foods in a larder in their burrows and remain in their nests until spring, unlike some other species which make many small caches of food. Cheek pouches allow chipmunks to carry food items to their burrows for either storage or consumption.", "Grasshopper (comics)\nThe Grasshopper is the name of multiple humorous fictional superheroes appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, all created by Dan Slott. No Grasshopper to date has survived past the issue in which they first appeared. The Grasshoppers are a simultaneous homage to and satire of stereotypical superheroes and Marvel's tendency towards animal-themed characters. They are also a lampoon of the tendency of superhero team books to introduce new, hastily developed characters only to dramatically kill them off within a few issues. The complicated romantic troubles of the first Grasshopper recall many characters with similar subplots (Spider-Man, for instance), as does the unlikely family background of the second.", "Grasshopper\nThe newly emerged female grasshopper has a preoviposition period of a week or two while she increases in weight and her eggs mature. After mating, the female of most species digs a hole with her ovipositor and lays a batch of eggs in a pod in the ground near food plants, generally in the summer. After laying the eggs, she covers the hole with soil and litter. Some, like the semi-aquatic \"Cornops aquaticum\", deposit the pod directly into plant tissue. The eggs in the pod are glued together with a froth in some species. After a few weeks of development, the eggs of most species in temperate climates go into diapause, and pass the winter in this state. Diapause is broken by a sufficiently low ground temperature, with development resuming as soon as the ground warms above a certain threshold temperature. The embryos in a pod generally all hatch out within a few minutes of each other. They soon shed their membranes and their exoskeletons harden. These first instar nymphs can then jump away from predators.\nGrasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis: they repeatedly moult, each instar becoming larger and more like an adult, with the wing-buds increasing in size at each stage. The number of instars varies between species but is often six. After the final moult, the wings are inflated and become fully functional. The migratory grasshopper, \"Melanoplus sanguinipes\", spends about 25 to 30 days as a nymph, depending on sex and temperature, and lives for about 51 days as an adult.", "Groundhog\nVery often the dens of groundhogs provide homes for other animals including skunks, red foxes, and cottontail rabbits. The fox and skunk feed upon field mice, grasshoppers, beetles and other creatures that destroy farm crops. In aiding these animals, the groundhog indirectly helps the farmer. In addition to providing homes for itself and other animals, the groundhog aids in soil improvement by bringing subsoil to the surface. The groundhog is also a valuable game animal and is considered a difficult sport when hunted in a fair manner. In some parts of Appalachia, they are eaten.", "Grasshopper\nSome species are genuinely aposematic, having both bright warning coloration and sufficient toxicity to dissuade predators. \"Dictyophorus productus\" (Pyrgomorphidae) is a \"heavy, bloated, sluggish insect\" that makes no attempt to hide; it has a bright red abdomen. A \"Cercopithecus\" monkey that ate other grasshoppers refused to eat the species. Another species, the rainbow or painted grasshopper of Arizona, \"Dactylotum bicolor\" (Acridoidea), has been shown by experiment with a natural predator, the little striped whiptail lizard, to be aposematic.", "African migratory locust\nThe African migratory locust primarily feeds on grasses, including economically important crops, such as maize, millet, sorghum and wheat.\nThe African migratory locust exists in its solitary form in many parts of Africa and its development is then similar to that of other grasshopper species. When the eggs hatch in extremely close proximity to each other, the first instar hoppers become attracted to each other and begin to form bands that move in synchrony. The band moves as a cohesive unit, pausing as the hoppers feed and bask in the sun, and merges with other bands. Bands have been known to travel for before they fledge into adults. The mutual attraction between the individual hoppers continues into adulthood and the insects continue to act as a cohesive group, a swarm.", "Calotropin\nMonarch butterflies are one of many insects that feed on milkweed plants. These butterflies feed on the North American milkweed (\"Asclepias)\" plants. These milkweeds are related to the Indian and North African milkweeds (\"Calotropis\"), which are consumed by the North African grasshopper \"Poekilocerus bufonis\". These insects have adapted to the toxicity of the milkweed, are capable of safely sequestering cardenolides from the milkweed in glands or tissues during their early stages of development. The insects primarily retain calotropin and calactin (a configurational isomer), even though other cardenolides exist in the plant latex and leaves. These poisons, while not harmful to the insect, make it unpalatable to birds and mammals, and therefore serve as a defense mechanism. Monarch butterflies also store several volatile pyrazines, which give off an odor, which is a warning signal to predators to avoid the insect. \"P. bufonis\" is capable of utilizing calotropin in its defensive spray.", "Geophaps\n\"Geophaps\" species are ground feeding granivores, with studies finding that seeds make up their diet almost entirely, with a small number of insects found in the crops of \"Geophaps smithii\"\".\" While the Spinifex pigeon is found in arid tussock/spinifex grasslands, the spinifex grass seeds have not been found to make up a large portion of their diet.", "Grasshopper\nIn evolutionary terms, the split between the Caelifera and the Ensifera is no more recent than the Permo-Triassic boundary; the earliest insects that are certainly Caeliferans are in the extinct families Locustopseidae and Locustavidae from the early Triassic, roughly 250 million years ago. The group diversified during the Triassic and have remained important plant-eaters from that time to now. The first modern families such as the Eumastacidae, Tetrigidae and Tridactylidae appeared in the Cretaceous, though some insects that might belong to the last two of these groups are found in the early Jurassic. Morphological classification is difficult because many taxa have converged towards a common habitat type; recent taxonomists have concentrated on the internal genitalia, especially those of the male. This information is not available from fossil specimens, and the palaentological taxonomy is founded principally on the venation of the hindwings.", "Grazing\nCapybara (\"Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris\") are herbivores that graze mainly on grasses and aquatic plants, as well as fruit and tree bark. As with other grazers, they can be very selective and feed on the leaves of one species, disregarding other species surrounding it. They eat a greater variety of plants during the dry season, as fewer plants are available. While they eat grass during the wet season, they have to switch to more abundant reeds during the dry season. The capybara's jaw hinge is not perpendicular and therefore they chew food by grinding back-and-forth rather than side-to-side. Capybara are coprophagous, as a source of bacterial gut flora, to help digest the cellulose in the grass that forms their normal diet, and to extract the maximum protein and vitamins from their food. They may also regurgitate food to masticate again, similar to cud-chewing by a cow. As with other rodents, the front teeth of capybara grow continually to compensate for the constant wear from eating grasses; their cheek teeth also grow continuously.", "Blue dasher\nThese dragonflies, like others of their infraorder, are carnivorous, and are capable of eating hundreds of insects every day, including mosquito and mayfly larvae. The adult dragonfly will eat nearly any flying insect, such as a moth or fly. Nymphs have a diet that includes other aquatic larvae, small fish, and tadpoles. These dragonflies are known to be voracious predators, consuming up to 10% of their body weight each day in food.", "Orthogeomys\nOn the whole, pocket Gophers tend to have a higher daily caloric intake than most rodent species. This is due to the added energy expenditures necessary to move around underground, and is a contributing factor to how destructive these animals can be towards crops that are cultivated by humans. Orthogeomys are herbivores, who feed on corn, grass roots, cassava, rice, and sugar cane.", "Striped skunk\nWhile primarily an insectivore, the striped skunk is adaptable enough to incorporate other animals and even vegetable matter into its diet. The most frequently consumed insects include grasshoppers, beetles, crickets, and caterpillars. In the winter and spring months, the striped skunk will supplement its diet with vertebrates such as white-footed mice, voles, eggs and the chicks of ground nesting birds. Striped skunks inhabiting California's coastal areas will feed on crabs and beached fish. While not adapted for chasing fleet-footed prey, at least one specimen was observed pursuing gray cottontails into their burrows. When in season, the skunk will also consume vegetable matter, such as apples, blueberries, black cherries, ground cherries, corn and nightshade.", "Orthoptera\nWith new research showing promise in locating alternative biofuel sources in the gut of insects, grasshoppers are one species of interest. The insect's ability to break down cellulose and lignin without producing greenhouse gases has aroused scientific interest.", "Red hartebeest\nRed hartebeests are grass feeders, which is evidenced by their long snouts, which give the advantage of an improved cropping ability to acquire and masticate grasses more efficiently. During the rainy season in southern Africa, the grass species \"Andropogon\" is in abundance and is the main source of dietary consumption. As grazers, their diets fluctuate seasonally, as they consume higher-quality, green primary production in wet seasons, and lower-quality sheath material in the dry seasons. Hartebeests are considered less water-dependent than most alcelaphines, only needing to drink water when melons and tubers are inaccessible.", "Grasshopper\nGrasshoppers can best be prevented from becoming pests by manipulating their environment. Shade provided by trees will discourage them and they may be prevented from moving onto developing crops by removing coarse vegetation from fallow land and field margins and discouraging thick growth beside ditches and on roadside verges. With increasing numbers of grasshoppers, predator numbers may increase, but this seldom happens rapidly enough to have much effect on populations. Biological control is being investigated, and spores of the protozoan parasite \"Nosema locustae\" can be used mixed with bait to control grasshoppers, being more effective with immature insects. On a small scale, neem products can be effective as a feeding deterrent and as a disruptor of nymphal development. Insecticides can be used, but adult grasshoppers are difficult to kill, and as they move into fields from surrounding rank growth, crops may soon become reinfested.", "Golden-fronted woodpecker\nThe diet of the golden-fronted woodpecker consists of both insects and vegetable matter. Grasshoppers make up more than half of the animal matter and other insects include beetles and ants. Vegetable matter consumed consists of corn, acorns, wild fruits, and berries.", "Orthoptera\nTaxonomists classify members of the Caelifera and Ensifera into infraorders and superfamilies as follows:Several species of Orthoptera are considered pests of crops and rangelands or seeking warmth in homes by humans. The two species of Orthoptera that cause the most damage are grasshoppers and locusts. Locust are historically known for wiping out fields of crops in a day. Locust have the ability to eat up to their own body weight in a single day. Individuals gather in large groups called swarms, these swarms can range up to 80 million individuals that stretch 460 square miles. Grasshoppers can cause major agricultural damage but not to the documented extent as locust historically have. These insects mainly feed on weeds and grasses, however, during times of drought and high population density they will feed on crops. They are known pest in soybean fields and will likely feed on these crops once preferred food sources have become scarce.", "Superb fairywren\nSuperb fairywrens are predominantly insectivorous. They eat a wide range of small creatures (mostly insects such as ants, grasshoppers, shield bugs, flies, weevils and various larvae) as well as small quantities of seeds, flowers, and fruit. Their foraging, termed 'hop-searching', occurs on the ground or in shrubs that are less than two metres high. Because this foraging practice renders them vulnerable to predators, birds tend to stick fairly close to cover and forage in groups. During winter, when food may be scarce, ants are an important 'last resort' food, constituting a much higher proportion of the diet. Nestlings, in contrast to adult birds, are fed a diet of larger items such as caterpillars and grasshoppers.", "Browsing (herbivory)\nBrowsing is a type of herbivory in which a herbivore (or, more narrowly defined, a folivore) feeds on leaves, soft shoots, or fruits of high-growing, generally woody plants such as shrubs. This is contrasted with grazing, usually associated with animals feeding on grass or other low vegetation. Alternatively, grazers are animals eating mainly grass, and browsers are animals eating mainly non-grasses, which include both woody and herbaceous dicots. In either case, an example of this dichotomy are goats (which are browsers) and sheep (which are grazers); these two closely related ruminants utilize dissimilar food sources.\nThe plant material eaten is known as \"browse\" and is naturally taken straight from the plant, though owners of livestock such as goats and deer may cut twigs or branches for feeding to their stock. In temperate regions, owners take browse before leaf fall, then dry and store it as a winter feed supplement. In time of drought, herdsmen may cut branches from beyond the reach of their stock, as forage at ground level. In the tropical regions, where population pressure leads owners to resort to this more often, there is a danger of permanent depletion of the supply. Animals in captivity may be fed browse as a replacement for their wild food sources; in the case of pandas, the browse may consist of bunches of banana leaves, bamboo shoots, slender pine, spruce, fir and willow branches, straw and native grasses.", "Melanoplus bispinosus\nThese grasshoppers are mixed feeders, so their diet consists mainly of grasses and forbs, which are readily available in their habitat.", "Grasshopper Island\nCornelius Button (Julian Orchard)\nAn eccentric grasshopper expert who has lived on Grasshopper Island for many years. He is presumably the island's tenant (as Dr Hopper tries to have him removed). He spends all his time obsessively studying the grasshoppers and trying to avoid being ordered around by Lupus. Many years ago, he discovered a rare grasshopper, which was named the Button's Blue in his honour, and now yearns to find another one. Button has a sister called Amelia who is the headmistress of a girls' school and sometimes visits him, though he dreads these occasions, and will do anything he can to prevent them.", "Shrike\nShrikes are known for their habit of catching insects and small vertebrates and impaling their bodies on thorns, the spikes on barbed-wire fences, or any available sharp point. This helps them to tear the flesh into smaller, more conveniently sized fragments, and serves as a cache so that the shrike can return to the uneaten portions at a later time. This same behaviour of impaling insects serves as an adaptation to eating the toxic lubber grasshopper, \"Romalea microptera\". The bird waits for 1–2 days for the toxins within the grasshopper to degrade, then they can eat it.", "Ape\nApart from humans and gorillas, apes eat a predominantly frugivorous diet, mostly fruit, but supplemented with a variety of other foods. Gorillas are predominately folivorous, eating mostly stalks, shoots, roots and leaves with some fruit and other foods. Non-human apes usually eat a small amount of raw animal foods such as insects or eggs. In the case of humans, migration and the invention of hunting tools and cooking has led to an even wider variety of foods and diets, with many human diets including large amounts of cooked tubers (roots) or legumes. Other food production and processing methods including animal husbandry and industrial refining and processing have further changed human diets. Humans and other apes occasionally eat other primates. Some of these primates are now close to extinction with habitat loss being the underlying cause.", "Grasshopper\nA large grasshopper, such as a locust, can jump about a metre (twenty body lengths) without using its wings; the acceleration peaks at about 20 g. Grasshoppers jump by extending their large back legs and pushing against the substrate (the ground, a twig, a blade of grass or whatever else they are standing on); the reaction force propels them into the air. They jump for several reasons; to escape from a predator, to launch themselves into flight, or simply to move from place to place. For the escape jump in particular there is strong selective pressure to maximize take-off velocity, since this determines the range. This means that the legs must thrust against the ground with both high force and a high velocity of movement. A fundamental property of muscle is that it cannot contract with high force and high velocity at the same time. Grasshoppers overcome this by using a catapult mechanism to amplify the mechanical power produced by their muscles.", "Grasshopper mouse\nIt is a carnivorous rodent, dining on insects (such as grasshoppers), worms, spiders, centipedes, scorpions, snakes, and even other mice. It also stalks its prey in the manner of a cat, sneaking up quietly, and defends its territory by \"howling\" like a small wolf. The grasshopper mouse is known to be immune to various venoms released by its prey (scorpions, snakes, etc.)." ]

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[ "Guitar Hero\nIn 2015, Activision announced the first new title to the series in 5 years, \"Guitar Hero Live\", released in October 2015. The title is considered a reboot of the series, with development being performed by FreeStyleGames, who had developed the \"DJ Hero\" games previously. As of December 1, 2018, Activision disabled the GHTV servers for Guitar Hero Live, reducing playable content from approximately 500 songs to 42 on disc tracks.", "Guitar Hero\nIn April 2015, Activision announced a new entry in the series, titled \"Guitar Hero Live\". The title was developed by Activision's internal studio FreeStyleGames, who previously had worked on the \"DJ Hero\" spinoff titles. FreeStyleGames were given free rein to reboot the \"Guitar Hero\" series for next-generation consoles. One of their first innovations was to drop the standard five-button guitar controller, ultimately designing a six-button guitar controller, with two rows of three buttons each, allowing them to mimic actual guitar fingering. \"Guitar Hero Live\" was released with both a career and an online mode. The career mode used full-motion video taken from the perspective of a lead guitarist underneath the note highway, to create an immersive experience to the player. The online mode, called \"GHTV\", discarded the previous downloadable content approach and used a music video channel approach to stream playable songs to players, adding new songs to the catalog on a weekly basis. The game was released in October 2015.", "List of songs in Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock\n\"\" is the sixth main game in the \"Guitar Hero\" series, released by Activision to the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii consoles in September 2010. The game was developed by Activision's subsidiary studios RedOctane, Neversoft, and Vicarious Visions; the latter provided support for additional features in the Wii version of the game. Following a decline in sales of music games in 2009, partially due to the large number of music games released that year, Activision scaled back their efforts in the \"Guitar Hero\" series. \"Warriors of Rock\" represents the final game developed by RedOctane and Neversoft. Both studios' respective \"Guitar Hero\" divisions were closed once the game was complete, with key personnel brought into Activision directly for future games. It was initially announced that Vicarious Visions would take over future game development of the \"Guitar Hero\" series, however due to declining music game sales, all further development of the \"Guitar Hero\" series was cancelled, until 2015 when \"Guitar Hero Live\" was released.", "List of songs in Guitar Hero Live\n\"Guitar Hero Live\" is a 2015 music video game that's developed by FreeStyleGames and published by Activision. It is the first title in the \"Guitar Hero\" series since it went on hiatus after 2011, and the first game in the series available for 8th generation video game consoles (PlayStation 4, Wii U, and Xbox One). The game was released worldwide on 20 October 2015 for these systems as well as the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and iOS devices including the Apple TV.", "Guitar Hero\nFollowing a five-year hiatus, as described below, Activision announced \"Guitar Hero Live\" for release in late 2015 on most seventh-generation and eighth-generation consoles. \"Live\" was developed to rebuild the game from the ground up, and while the gameplay remains similar to the earlier titles, focusing primarily on the lead guitar, it uses a 3-button guitar controller with each button having \"up\" and \"down\" positions, making for more complex tabulators. The game using live footage of a rock concert, taken from the perspective of the lead guitarist, as to provide a more immersive experience." ]

[ "Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\nThe game also supports downloadable tracks for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions; several free and for-cost downloadable songs and song packs are available on both the Xbox Live Marketplace and the PlayStation Store. In July 2008, Activision announced that it would release downloadable content for the Wii in the first quarter of 2008, but eventually was unable to do so because of limitations with the Wii's internal memory storage, an issue that was overcome in the sequel, \"Guitar Hero World Tour\". When rock band Metallica released their album \"Death Magnetic\" on September 12, 2008, it was also made available as a downloadable song pack for \"Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\", \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" and the 2009 spin-off \"Guitar Hero Metallica\". In addition, the compact disc soundtrack for the game offers a code used to redeem three exclusive playable tracks on the Xbox Live Marketplace.", "Guitar Hero Smash Hits\nGuitar Hero Smash Hits (titled Guitar Hero Greatest Hits in Europe and Australia) is a music rhythm game and the fourth expansion game to the \"Guitar Hero\" series. The game features 48 songs originally featured in five previous games in the series—\"Guitar Hero\", \"Guitar Hero II\", \"\", \"\" and \"\"—redesigning the songs to be based on master recordings and to include support for full band play first introduced to the series in \"Guitar Hero World Tour\". The game was developed by Beenox, published by Activision and distributed by RedOctane for release on the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii, and Xbox 360 systems and was released around the world in the second half of June 2009.", "Guitar Hero Live\nThough FreeStyleGames experimented with other options including a controller-less game, camera and motion detection, and social-based games, but recognized quickly that the guitar controller was a key part of the series' success. The developers recognized they wanted to have a guitar controller that players would not be embarrassed to have in their living rooms and spent time getting the look of the controller accurate to a real guitar. The design of the game's guitar controller was overhauled, using rapid prototyping to test potential guitar designs. The final design of the controller for \"Live\" utilizes a new design with six buttons arranged into two rows of three frets, designated by black and white-colored notes in-game, instead of using the traditional row of five colored frets used by previous \"Guitar Hero\" games. Jackson explained that the new layout was meant to make the game easier for new players, as the three-button layout avoids the need to use one's pinkie finger, a difficulty they recognized new players had on the traditional five-button controller. The layout was also designed to provide a new challenge to experienced players, including more realistic simulations of chords. The choice to use only three buttons also came from statistical analysis of past games, where about 80% of the players would never play harder than the Medium difficulty level which typically only required the use of three fingers with the previous five-button controllers. The initial controller iterations, presented both in-studio and to Activision, were met with skepticism but they found that players quickly adapted to the new scheme as an improvement over the older controllers. The \"note highways\" for the songs were created by both programmers and musicians using MIDI software as to map to each of the six controller buttons and the open strum bar. Note highways were developed first for the Expert difficulty level, essentially recreating the guitar part of the song note for note, while highways for lower difficulty levels were then constructed by removing notes while assuring the core rhythm of the song remained.\nThe game itself is presented in a more realistic and immersive style; the rendered stages and characters of previous games are replaced by full motion video, shot from the first-person perspective of the lead guitarist, simulating real-world concert settings. The video footage is dynamic, and can transition between versions featuring positive or negative reactions by the crowd and band members based upon the player's performance. The first-person footage utilizes session musicians as actors playing the remaining members of the band, and is filmed using a Bolt robotic camera system, programmed to simulate the motions of a guitarist on stage. The Bolt ran along a track, and was able to move and turn quickly, mimicking the speed of a musician's movements. Prior to filming with the Bolt, an actor outfitted with motion and position detectors acted out the song with the other band actors; these movements were recorded and then used to direct the Bolt as it replaced the actor in subsequent takes. To avoid injury to the other actors from the motions of the camera, the routines were all choreographed based on the camera's motions and used as cues for the other actors. To enable smoother transitions between positive and negative versions of the band footage, multiple takes were performed for each song using the same camera motions. Groups of 200 to 400 actors were filmed using a green screen to construct crowds; using varying takes and other editing techniques, the groups of actors could be made to cover much larger areas. To simulate larger crowds, these shots were superimposed on a combination of live footage from actual rock concerts and 3D models constructed by FreeStyleGames. The effects studio Framestore helped with editing and assembling the digital live-action footage. Positional audio effects are also used as part of the footage, varying the volume of certain instruments depending on how close the player is to them on-screen in the footage.", "Guitar Hero Live\nPlayers can purchase a \"Party Pass\" that allows full access to all of \"GHTV\"s on-demand songs and paid features for 24 hours, a mode that FreeStyleGames envisioned to be used when players are hosting large parties or similar events. As first held on the weekend of 6 November 2015, Activision may hold promotional periods that similarly offer full access.", "Uriah Heep Live\nUriah Heep Live is a double live album by British rock group Uriah Heep, released in April 1973 in the US by Mercury Records, and in May 1973 in the UK by Bronze Records. It was the band's first live album. The album was recorded by the Pye Mobile Unit, with Alan Perkins as engineer.", "Carlos Santana\nSantana is featured as a playable character in the music video game Guitar Hero 5. A live recording of his song \"No One to Depend On\" is included in game, which was released on September 1, 2009. More recently, in 2011, three Santana songs were offered as downloadable content (DLC) for guitar learning software Rocksmith: \"Oye Como Va\", \"Smooth\", and \"Black Magic Woman/Gypsy Queen\". In the same year, Santana received the Billboard Latin Music Lifetime Achievement Award.", "Guitar Hero Mobile series\n\"Guitar Hero III Mobile\" was well received upon its release. IGN considered it to be a \"successful adaptation\" of the \"Guitar Hero\" games to the cellphone keypad. They commented that while it may be tricky to download the songs for the game, requiring the user to be persistent during the download, the sound quality was excellent and the simplification down to three buttons from five makes the game \"accessible to anybody with even a passing curiosity.\" CNET praised the quality of the sound and animations, as well as the ease of play. \"Cell Play\" referred to the game as \"the true mobile port of rock,\" and praised the level of difficulty accomplished with the three button setup. They considered the shortened song length a negligible downside compared to the overall package. 1UPs review criticized the compact layout that led to hand cramps, and that the limited space on the mobile version only allowed two songs to be stored at a time. 1UP also lamented the shorted versions of the songs given the outstanding audio quality achieved on the mobile platform; their review summarized their experience as \"As a literal interpretation of the Guitar Hero formula, there was apparently no room to alter the game to emphasize the strengths of the mobile platform.\" \"Guitar Hero III Mobile\" won two awards at the Qualcomm 2008 BREW Developers Conference for \"Best Game\" and \"People's Choice Award\". The game has been downloaded by users 2.5 million times, with both Verizon and Hands-On Mobile claiming that over 250,000 songs are played a day on the platform.", "Are You Gonna Go My Way\n\"Are You Gonna Go My Way\" was released as the lead single. The song peaked at number one on the Australian Singles Chart, and also peaked at number one on the US Mainstream Rock chart, becoming his first number one single in both countries, while it peaked at number 2 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks. It was only released for airplay in the US and therefore did not chart on the Hot 100, but was a worldwide hit, peaking at number 4 in both the United Kingdom and France. The song is not only considered to be one of Kravitz's greatest hits as an artist, but also as one of the biggest anthems of the 1990s. Appears in the video games \"\" (in a GT Remix) and \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" as well as \"Guitar Hero Live\".", "Guitar Hero: On Tour series\n\"Guitar Hero On Tour: Modern Hits\" was announced on March 5, 2009, and released on June 9, 2009. Reflecting its title, \"Modern Hits\" incorporates songs published within the last five years of its release, and the developers had to balance what songs were included in order to make a setlist with a wide appeal. The engine of the game has no major changes, but Vicarious Visions stated that it has continued to work on strum detection on the DS touchpad to meet a wide range of playstyles. The interface, however, has been revised over the previous two \"On Tour\" titles to feature a more modernized look (particularly in-game on the touch screen side). The game includes a new single player career progression using \"Fan Requests\" to create a new non-linear progression through the songs in the games. These were added to help move away from gameplay that was \"just going, playing a venue, and then moving on to the next one\" and instead to \"open the world up\". The developers also noted that the Fan Requests helped to tap into the way that players had previously played games in the series, setting their own personal goals for certain songs. Audio designer Jason Willey created the game's theme song (titled \"S.U.P.R.A.H.U.M.A.N.\") through his two-man band, Protoshredanoid, to capture the Modern Hits theme of the game, and after demonstrating a sampling of the song to the rest of the team, were asked to create the whole song. The theme song was released as a free download for \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" the week before the game's release.", "Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\nActivision called \"Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\" its \"largest product launch ever\", selling more than 1.4 million copies, and making over $100 million in its first week of release in North America; another 1.9 million copies were sold in the following month. Subsequently, the company was concerned that they were unable to meet the game's demand for the 2007 holiday season. As of July 15, 2008, the game has sold more than eight million copies. During the first seven months of 2008, the game sold 3.037 million units in the United States, 412,000 in the United Kingdom, and 26,000 in Japan, for a total of 3.475 million units, according to the NPD Group, GfK Chart-Track, and Enterbrain. More than two million copies of the game were sold for the Wii platform, making it the best-selling third-party title for the platform. Game sales during the first 12 months after the game's release were over $750 million. At the 2009 Consumer Electronics Show, Activision CEO Mike Griffith stated that \"Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\" is the first retail video game to exceed one billion dollars in sales. According to accumulated data from NPD Group in January 2010, \"Guitar Hero III\" is the second best-selling video game in the United States since 1995, following \"Wii Play\". In March 2011, the title had become the top selling game with $830.9 million in lifetime sales.", "Guitar Hero World Tour\nThe fourth major entry to the \"Guitar Hero\" series, at the time named \"Guitar Hero IV\", was officially announced upon the merger of Activision and Vivendi Games in December 2007. \"We couldn't have done it without Red Octane's support.\" says the Guitar Hero Team. The game's new name, \"Guitar Hero World Tour\", was officially announced by Activision in May 2008.", "Guitar Hero II\nOn April 13, 2007, Activision revealed that the issue was not a problem with the hardware, and that the guitars were \"not\" defective. The cause of the problem was anti-cheat protection software, and Activision released a patch on Xbox Live on April 14, 2007 to remedy it. However, this patch may have caused some unintended side effects. Starting on April 16, 2007, numerous users began reporting lockups and failures of their system after downloading and installing this patch. RedOctane stated, \"We're aware of the problem and we're looking into it.\"", "Guitar Hero II\nThe Xbox 360 version was released on April 3, 2007 in North America and Australia, and then on April 6, 2007 in Europe (only as a bundle containing the game and a wired Gibson X-Plorer guitar controller). It was released as a stand-alone game for the Xbox 360 in the UK on January 25, 2008. The arrangement of the songs were also altered, and the graphics were slightly improved.", "Guitar Hero Live\nThe task of developing the new game was given to FreeStyleGames around 2012. FreeStyleGames had developed both \"DJ Hero\" and \"DJ Hero 2\", and while both games were critically praised, the latter was released on the downward trend of the music game genre. FreeStyleGames had suffered some layoffs as a result of the hiatus of the \"Guitar Hero\" series, though remained an Activision studio and financially viable due to their work for the Wii U \"Sing Party\". As the development of \"Sing Party\" wrapped up, the studio created an internal research and development department to begin brainstorming what their next game would, with input from Activision. Hirshberg had encouraged the team to reconsider \"Guitar Hero\", noting the fan dedication to the series, but noted that the game needed innovation to be successful. Activision gave the team freedom to develop the game without relying on the previous titles in the series. The core gameplay of \"Guitar Hero Live\" was rebuilt from scratch; developer Jamie Jackson explained that the goal of the game was to bring \"big innovation\" to the franchise rather than continue with the same format used by previous games. He explained to his staff to only \"think of \"[Guitar Hero]\" as a name. Think of it as a music game with a guitar peripheral, but pretend that nothing else has ever been done.\" The team brainstormed on what had made the \"Guitar Hero\" series fun, and recounted the earlier titles of the series which were designed to enable the player to envision themselves as a superstar guitarist, subsequent design choices were made around recreating that experience. The team also cited fellow Activison franchise \"Call of Duty\" as an influence towards the goal of providing an immersive, first-person experience.", "Guitar Hero World Tour\nWhile the game continues to feature the use of a guitar-shaped controller to simulate the playing of rock music, \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" is the first game in the \"Guitar Hero\" series to feature drum and microphone controllers for percussion and vocal parts, similar in manner to the competing \"Rock Band\" series of games. The game allows users to create new songs through the \"Music Studio\" mode, which can then be uploaded and shared through a service known as \"GHTunes\".", "Absolutely Live (Toto album)\nAbsolutely Live is a live album released by the band Toto in 1993, with new vocalists Jenney Douglas-McRae, John James, and Donna McDaniel. Initially released in 1993, the album has been subsequently re-released in 1999 on Sony International.", "List of songs in Guitar Hero Live\nBetween August 2017 and April 2018, only one song was added to GHTV and on June 3, 2018, Activision confirmed that the servers will be shut down December 1, 2018.", "Guitar Hero (video game)\nThe game and its sequels have created interest in young adults and children in learning how to play a real guitar, and has been considered as a \"cultural phenomenon\" that has created a significant cultural impact. At the end of 2009, several journalists, including \"Wired\", G4TV, CNN, the \"San Jose Mercury News\", the \"Toronto Star\", \"Inc.\", \"The Guardian\", and \"Advertising Age\", considered \"Guitar Hero\" to be one of the most influential products of the first decade of the 21st century, attributing it as the spark leading to the growth of the rhythm game market, for boosting music sales for both new and old artists, for introducing more social gaming concepts to the video game market, and, in conjunction with the Wii, for improving interactivity with gaming consoles.", "Guitar Hero Live\nActivision shuttered the \"GHTV\" mode on December 1, 2018, reducing the available Guitar Hero songs from almost 500, to 42.", "Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\nGuitar Hero III: Legends of Rock is a music rhythm game, the third main installment in the \"Guitar Hero\" series, and the fourth title overall. The game was published by Activision and distributed by RedOctane. It is the first game in the series to be developed by Neversoft after Activision's acquisition of RedOctane and MTV Games' purchase of Harmonix, the previous development studio for the series. The game was released worldwide for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii and Xbox 360 in October 2007, with Budcat Creations assisting Neversoft on developing the PlayStation 2 port and Vicarious Visions solely developing on the Wii port respectively. Aspyr Media published the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X versions of the game, releasing them later in 2007.", "Guitar Hero World Tour\nAccording to the \"Game Informer\" preview, the addition of drum functionality came from work initially done towards the \"Drum Hero\" title. This work was later folded into the \"Guitar Hero\" series after Neversoft was chosen as developer of the series. Neversoft's Allen Flores stated that with the addition of the existing drum gameplay, the development of \"World Tour\" took under a year, starting development immediately after the release of \"Guitar Hero III\". The drum instrument controller was designed to be more realistic, with input from Chad Smith (of Red Hot Chili Peppers), Stewart Copeland (of The Police) and Travis Barker (of Blink-182), all of whom requested the elevated cymbal pads. The ability to open-strum the guitar was a feature that was planned for \"Guitar Hero III\" but was removed before release, finding that it was too difficult on the guitar tracks. However, they built this feature in from the start of \"World Tour\" development for the bass guitar tracks.", "Zombie Live\nZombie Live is the first live album from heavy metal artist Rob Zombie. The CD was recorded over several nights during the band's \"Educated Horses\" tour and was said to include a 36-page super-deluxe book of never-before-seen live pictures and a DVD of live footage and animated videos. After the release of the album no artbook or DVD were included with the release of the album. Blabbermouth.net reported that the DVD companion would be available in spring 2008, but this still has yet to surface. A different concert film, \"The Zombie Horror Picture Show\", was released in 2014.", "List of songs in Guitar Hero Live\nTwo hundred songs were initially available on GHTV on the game's release on 20 October 2015.", "Aerosmith\nOn November 1, 2007, the band entered the studio to work on the final studio album of their current contract with Sony. At the time, it was believed that the album would include both re-recorded tracks left off previous albums as well as brand new material. In an interview, guitarist Joe Perry revealed that in addition to creating a new album, the band was working closely with the makers of the \"Guitar Hero\" series to develop \"\", a video game dedicated to the band's music. The game was released on June 29, 2008 and contains many of their most popular songs. Steven Tyler announced on VH1 Classic Radio on September 4, 2008 that Aerosmith intends to enter the studio at the end of September 2008 to complete the band's 15th studio album. Tyler also confirmed that the band plans to begin a new U.S. tour in June 2009, in support of the as-yet-untitled album. This tour was supposed to be preceded by a concert in Venezuela on February 1, 2009. However, on January 15, 2009, Tyler said the band would be unable to play the gig because of a second knee injury of guitarist Joe Perry. In mid-February 2009, it was announced that the album would be produced by the famed Brendan O'Brien and that the album would likely be recorded live, like their earlier records. Although the band had hoped to finish the album before the tour started in June 2009, Perry said that the group \"realized there wasn't any chance of getting [the album] finished before we hit the road for the summer.\" The tour featured ZZ Top as the opening act for most of the tour. The Aerosmith/ZZ Top Tour, presented by \"Guitar Hero: Aerosmith\", was officially announced and the first dates released on April 8, 2009.", "Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock\nSales of \"Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock\" were weaker than those of \"Guitar Hero 5\", with combined sales of the game and \"DJ Hero 2\" through the end of 2010 being 63% lower than the sales of \"Guitar Hero 5\", \"DJ Hero\" and \"Band Hero\" through the end of 2009. Initial shipments of \"Warriors of Rock\" were also bundled with a copy of Soundgarden's compilation album \"Telephantasm\"; based on its distribution with copies of the game, \"Telephantasm\" became the first album to receive a Platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America based on distribution alongside a video game. As a result of the underwhelming sales, also credited to the oversaturation of the music game market, the \"Guitar Hero\" franchise was ultimately shuttered until the 2015 unveiling of a reboot, \"Guitar Hero Live\".", "Guitar Hero: Aerosmith\nA departure from other games in the franchise, \"Guitar Hero: Aerosmith\" follows the career of Aerosmith, by playing significant songs in their catalog in a 'rough chronological fashion'. The gameplay follows the band through various periods in its history, spanning from its first show at Mendon Nipmuc Regional High School in 1970 to the 2001 Super Bowl XXXV halftime show, to their induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on March 19, 2001. The player starts as Joe Perry, and will eventually be able to unlock Brad Whitford and Tom Hamilton. The game does not focus on the internal strife and stress within the band; Guitarist Joe Perry stated that the game would focus on the positive aspects of Aerosmith's history. Perry has stated that \"Having a game built around Aerosmith has been a huge honor and really a great experience for us. We've put a lot of ideas into the game so that fans can have fun interacting with our music, getting inside our body of work and learning about the band's history.\"", "Live: Right Here, Right Now\nLive: Right Here, Right Now. is the first live album by American hard rock band Van Halen, released in 1993. It is the band's only live album featuring Sammy Hagar, and the only live album by Van Halen until the release of \"Tokyo Dome Live in Concert\" in 2015.", "List of songs in Guitar Hero: Aerosmith\n\"\" is a music video game developed by Neversoft and published by Activision. It is the second expansion title to the \"Guitar Hero\" series of video games, and was released in June 2008 for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, and Wii game consoles. It is the first title in the series to focus primarily on the works of one specific band, Aerosmith. The majority of the game's set list are works by Aerosmith, but there are also works by artists that have acted as inspirations or touring partners for the band such as Run-D.M.C., The Kinks, and Joan Jett. In addition to 25 Aerosmith songs, there are four songs from lead guitarist Joe Perry's solo album. The game contains a total of 41 songs.", "Guitar Hero Live\n\"Guitar Hero Live\" was released to generally positive reception, with critics praising the new controller design for providing trickier and more realistic gameplay in comparison to previous \"Guitar Hero\" games, as well as the wider variety of content available via the \"GHTV\" mode. The main \"Live\" portion of the game received mixed reviews, with critics panning its weak soundtrack, lack of multiplayer, and describing the live action footage as being self-aware, exaggerated, and \"campy\". The \"GHTV\" mode also received mixed reception for its reliance on microtransactions, and the inability to permanently purchase songs to own.", "Guitar Hero Live\nTen different bands represent the songs in the \"Guitar Hero Live\" mode, playing in two different music festivals. Members of these fictional bands were selected through auditions prior to filming, making sure that they could recreate the actual performance of a song, as well as mixing and matching members of ensemble groups to get the right look and feel. Bands were filmed in a warehouse in Oxford, England. To help with creating appropriate stage presence for the fictional bands and their fans, FreeStyleGames created material that each band would have had in the band's career, such as album covers and clothing, using various musical genres to help inspire their designs.", "Guitar Hero\nPrior to the release of \"Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\", Activision worked with the iTunes Store to provide more than 1300 tracks of \"Guitar Hero\"-related music across more than 20 compilations, including most of the tracks from the games in the series, called \"\"Guitar Hero Essentials\"\". These compilations, such as \"\"Killer Guitar Solos\"\" and \"\"Guitar Anthems of the '80s\"\", include songs related to but not contained within the \"Guitar Hero\" series. Dusty Welch of RedOctane stated, \"Where there’s music, there’s \"Guitar Hero\", and with iTunes, we are able to provide fans with a central location for downloading their favorite rock anthems.\" Following the merger of Activision and Blizzard, the new company announced plans to create an alternative to iTunes based on the \"Guitar Hero\" brand that would allow for downloading songs and their associated note tracks for the \"Guitar Hero\" games.", "Guitar Hero\nMany of the \"Guitar Hero\" games developed for the recent generation of consoles (Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii) support downloadable content, allowing players to purchase new songs to play in the respective titles. Songs each cost approximately $2 through the various online stores for the console's platform. Prior to \"Guitar Hero 5\", downloadable content for earlier games will not work in other games in the series, save for songs from Metallica's \"Death Magnetic\", which were available for \"Guitar Hero III\", \"World Tour\", and \"Metallica\". Existing \"World Tour\" downloadable content for \"World Tour\" will be forward-compatible with \"Guitar Hero 5\", \"Band Hero\" and \"Guitar Hero Warriors of Rock\", and for a small fee, some songs from both \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" and \"Guitar Hero Smash Hits\" can be exported to both \"Guitar Hero 5\" and \"Band Hero\", limited by music licensing. Activision has also stated that they are considering a monthly subscription service to deliver downloadable content to user for future games. \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" introduced a music creation mode that will allow players to create and share songs (excluding vocals) via the \"GHTunes\" service, which was also used in all other \"Guitar Hero\" games and \"Band Hero\" since its inclusion. The creation tools were improved with \"Guitar Hero 5\" and \"Band Hero\" to allow longer songs and other means of generating songs in real-time.", "Pro Tools\nRicky Martin's \"Livin' la Vida Loca\" (1999) was the first No. 1 single to be recorded, edited, and mixed fully within the Pro Tools environment, by Charles Dye and Desmond Child. In 2009, Pro Tools was used for creating the audio for the video games \"DJ Hero\" and \"Guitar Hero\", using the modeling plug-in Eleven for the guitar sounds.", "Guitar Hero\nThe \"Guitar Hero\" series has made a significant cultural impact, becoming a \"cultural phenomenon\". The series has helped to rekindle music education in children, influenced changes in both the video game and music industry, has found use in health and treatment of recovering patients, and has become part of the popular culture vernacular. Several journalists, including 1UP.com, \"Wired\", G4TV, the \"San Jose Mercury News\", \"Inc.\", \"The Guardian\", and \"Advertising Age\", considered \"Guitar Hero\" to be one of the most influential products of the first decade of the 21st century, attributing it as the spark leading to the growth of the rhythm game market, for boosting music sales for both new and old artists, for introducing more social gaming concepts to the video game market, and, in conjunction with the Wii, for improving interactivity with gaming consoles.", "Guitar Hero Live\nThe soundtrack for the \"GH Live\" portion was also considered weak. McElroy found most of the songs were from 2000 or later, forgoing classic rock songs, and considered the soundtrack to be the \"biggest disappointment\" of \"GH Live\". Buttersworth stated that many of the on-disc selections are pop songs that \"just aren't cut out for Guitar Hero gameplay\", as they feature the same repeating guitar riff over and over. Griffin was more favorable of the on-disc set list, finding that the tracks represented \"the music landscape as it is rather than as it was\". Carter also appreciated the soundtrack, calling it a \"good spread\" of songs that can appeal to everyone.", "Guitar Hero World Tour\nAll of the 86 songs in the game are master recordings, a first for the series. Project director Brian Bright claims that they have \"a pretty even split between the '80s, '90s, and classic rock\" with a \"good amount of emerging bands\". Some of the songs from the disc are exportable to both \"Guitar Hero 5\" and \"Band Hero\" for a small fee, with music licensing rights limiting which songs can be exported.", "Live (Tig Notaro album)\nLive [liv, verb] is the second live [līv, adj.] album by comedian Tig Notaro. It is a deeply personal set performed just four days after Tig was diagnosed with stage two breast cancer. The album was first released by Louis C.K. on his website in 2012 by download only. It was the first release that C.K. had on his website that was not one of his own works. The album is no longer on his site, but it has a link to iTunes. The audio of the album was originally recorded at Notaro's regular monthly stand-up show \"Tig Has Friends\" at Largo for an episode of the radio show \"This American Life\". Notaro did not want to put out the album at first, but C.K. convinced her to release it.", "Guitar Hero\nGibson Guitar Corporation, whose guitar likenesses have appeared in the \"Guitar Hero\" series from the first game to \"Guitar Hero Aerosmith\", informed Activision on January 7, 2008, that it believed the games infringe its . Gibson claimed that this covers technology that simulates a concert performance via pre-recorded audio and a musical instrument. In response, Activision filed a suit seeking a declaration that it was not in violation of the Gibson patent; Activision also asserted that Gibson had given an implied license by waiting to assert the patent and that the patent was invalid. On March 17, 2008, Gibson sued six retailers (GameStop, Amazon.com, Wal-Mart, Target, Toys \"R\" Us and Kmart) for selling \"Guitar Hero\" products. Subsequently, on March 21, 2008, Gibson also filed a lawsuit against EA, MTV, and Harmonix over their game \"Rock Band\" also for violation of its patent, to which a Harmonix spokesperson stated that Gibson's claims are \"completely without merit\". Activision lawyer Mary Tuck stated in their legal filings that they believe that Gibson initiated the lawsuit due to the fact that \"Activision was not [interested] in renewing the License and Marketing Support Agreement\" with Gibson Guitars.\nIn February 2009, the United States District Court for the Central District of California ruled against Gibson in their case against Activision, stating that the controllers are not musical instruments but \"toys that represent other items\", and that Gibson's patent only covers instruments that send out analog signals. Activision and Gibson settled the suit following this ruling.", "Live It Up (David Johansen album)\nLive It Up, released in 1982, was the first live album released by David Johansen as a solo artist. Johansen did release a limited and promotional live album, \"The David Johansen Group Live\" in 1978, but the album was not officially released until 1993. Additionally, by the time \"Live It Up\" was released, various bootlegs of Johansen's first band, the New York Dolls, were being heavily traded (an official live album would eventually be released in 1984). The impact of the New York Dolls, as both an influential band and as a live act, was becoming a legend in the late-1970s and early-1980s when Johansen was trying to start his solo career. However, his three previous solo albums were not selling as well as expected, therefore, Johansen turned to touring and selling his stage show.", "Guitar Hero\nThe double release of \"Guitar Hero 5\" and \"Band Hero\" in 2009 were the last of the series' games to be released on PlayStation 2. It was expected that the 2010 entry for \"Guitar Hero\", \"Warriors of Rock\", would be the final entry developed by Neversoft, based on claims that Neversoft would be letting go of its \"Guitar Hero\" division, with Vicarious Visions likely poised to take over future development. Further industry rumors pointed at the closure of RedOctane Studios and Underground Development (the development studio for \"Guitar Hero: Van Halen\") as further results from the scaling-back; Activision moved the controller hardware development within their own division to continue to support the series, with RedOctane founders Kai and Charles Huang remaining with Activision. A week prior to these announcements, the \"Guitar Hero\" division CEO at Activision, Dan Rosensweig, left the company, leading to some speculation on whether Rosensweig's departure influenced these changes. Activision and RedOctane had trademarked the titles \"\"Guitar Villain\"\", \"\"Drum Villain\"\", \"\"Keyboard Hero\"\" and \"\"Sing Hero\"\". RedOctane originally trademarked the titles \"\"Drum Hero\"\" and \"\"Band Hero\"\", but the work performed towards the \"Drum Hero\" title was eventually folded into the gameplay for \"Guitar Hero World Tour\", and \"Band Hero\" became its own game. Later, as of October 2009, Activision reapplied for a \"Drum Hero\" trademark. Pi Studios, which had previously helped to port \"Rock Band\" to the Wii, had started work on the karaoke title \"Sing Hero\" before Activision cancelled its development. \"Dance Hero\" would be in development before being cancelled. Several ideas for the game later made it into \"Shake It Up\".", "Greatest Hits Live (The Who album)\nGreatest Hits Live is a compilation of live songs recorded by the Who throughout their history. The album was released exclusively on the iTunes Store on 19 January 2010. This collection was released as a compact disc on 23 March 2010.", "Guitar Hero Mobile series\nGuitar Hero Mobile is a series of rhythm video games in the \"Guitar Hero\" series, adapting the normal console-based gameplay which uses a guitar-shaped controller to match notes of popular rock music songs to work with the face buttons on advanced mobile phones, including BlackBerry devices and those supporting the Windows Mobile platform. The first three games in the series—\"Guitar Hero III Mobile\", \"Guitar Hero Backstage Pass\", and \"Guitar Hero World Tour Mobile\"—were developed by MachineWorks Northwest LLC and published by Hands-On Mobile, while a mobile version of \"Guitar Hero 5\" was developed by Glu Mobile. The series has proven to be popular; the \"Guitar Hero III Mobile\" game has been downloaded more than 2 million times, and over 250,000 songs are played each day across the series.", "Buckethead\nIn 2006 the cross-console video game \"Guitar Hero II\" was launched, featuring Buckethead's song \"Jordan\" as an unlockable bonus track. Although the song has been performed live in the past, the video game version is the only known studio recording of the song. When playing it live, Buckethead would almost always simply perform the verse and chorus of \"Jordan\" before transitioning into the next song. However, the \"Guitar Hero II\" version contains a special solo created specifically for the game.", "Guitar Hero\n\"Guitar Hero Smash Hits\" (titled \"Guitar Hero: Greatest Hits\" in Europe and Australia) was released in June 2009. It features full-band versions of 48 songs from earlier \"Guitar Hero\" games that only used the guitar controller. Unlike the previous versions, each of the songs is based on a master recording that includes some live tracks. The game follows a similar model as \"Guitar Hero: Metallica\", and was developed by Neversoft and Beenox Studios for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, PlayStation 2, and Wii.", "List of songs in Guitar Hero 5\n\"Guitar Hero 5\" is the fifth main title in the \"Guitar Hero\" series of rhythm games, released worldwide in September 2009 for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 2 and 3 and Wii consoles. In the game, players use special instrument controllers to simulate the playing of lead and bass guitar, drums, and vocals for rock and other songs. Players are awarded points by performing specific actions on the controllers to match notes that scroll on screen that correspond with the appropriate instrument. Successfully hitting notes increases the player's scoring and performance meter, while missing too many notes will lower the performance meter and may cause the song to end prematurely. Songs can be played either by oneself, competitively with other players in several game modes, or cooperative with up to three other players in their own virtual band. Although traditionally a four-player band can have one player on each instrument, \"Guitar Hero 5\" allows any four-player combination of these instruments to be used, such as a band composed of four drummers. \"Guitar Hero 5\" is considered by its developers to be an expansion of the series into more \"social play\", featuring modes such as Party Play, which allows players to drop in and out and change difficulty in the middle of a song without worrying about failing or losing points.\n\"Guitar Hero 5\" is distributed with 85 songs on-disc, many being from artists that have yet to have their music featured in a rhythm video game, and more than half having been published in the last decade. The setlist was considered the weakest part of the game; although it was praised for its diversity, critics believed that the widely varying genres represented would mean that players would not enjoy every song in the game. \"Guitar Hero 5\" is the first game in the series to reuse content from previous \"Guitar Hero\" games. Most of the existing downloadable content for \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" can be reused in \"Guitar Hero 5\" without additional cost, while for a small fee, players can import a selection of songs from \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" and \"Guitar Hero Smash Hits\" into \"Guitar Hero 5\". Such content is incorporated into the main game modes. Critics praised the ability to reuse content from older games, but felt that more songs should have been transferable when the game was launched. Activision no longer provides new downloadable content for Guitar Hero 5 since the release of \"\" in September 2010.", "Guitar Hero 5\nThe Wii version of the game, developed by Vicarious Visions, is \"full feature parity\" with the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions, including support for up to eight players online, each possibly on their own console. \"Guitar Hero 5\" is the first Wii game to support high capacity SD cards, allowing up to about 800 songs to be stored on a 32 GB card. While existing Wii \"Guitar Hero\" games allow players to purchase downloadable content one song at a time, \"Guitar Hero 5\" includes the ability to download complete albums and song packs. Players are also able to manage the content of their Wii memory cards through the game's interface. The game does not require players to enter game-specific Friends Codes, but instead uses the global Wii address book to locate friends. The \"Mii Freestyle\" mode, introduced in \"World Tour\", is also present, and with changes to address some of the issues with less-skilled players trying to play well together. A \"Guitar Hero Nintendo Ecosystem\" is introduced in \"Guitar Hero 5\", letting the Wii version communicate with the Nintendo DS, including a stage manager/video editor DS controller feature in conjunction with the Mii Freestyle mode, and a new game mode called \"Roadie Battle\". In Roadie Battle, four players play as two teams; each team has one player performing on an instrument through the Wii, while the other player uses a DS to connect to the Wii and act as the roadie. During play, the roadie players attempt to sabotage the other team by completing mini-games on the DS that affect the other team's music performance in a manner similar to \"Guitar Hero III\"'s Battle Mode. These can only be cleared by the other DS player performing another mini-game.", "Aerosmith\nIn the fields of technology and video games, Aerosmith has achieved several feats. In 1994, Aerosmith released the song \"Head First\" on the CompuServe online service, which is considered to be the first full-length commercial product available online. In 2008, Aerosmith became the first artist to have an entire \"Guitar Hero\" video game based around them with \"\". \"Guitar Hero: Aerosmith\" is considered to be the best-selling band-centric video game across both the \"Guitar Hero\" and \"Rock Band\" platforms.", "List of songs in Guitar Hero World Tour\nThe game disc contains 86 songs, all of which are master recordings—a first for the \"Guitar Hero\" series. In the single player and multiplayer band (Career Mode) modes, songs are distributed into various \"gigs\" that contain between 3 and 6 songs each; gigs may also contain a boss battle (for the single player guitar career) and encores that are revealed once all the other songs in the gig are completed. These gigs are arranged approximately based on the difficulty of the songs in that gig for the selected instrument or band, with more difficult songs appearing in later gigs. The player or band must complete easier gigs before the more difficult gigs are available. Once a player or band has access to a song via any instrument or band Career mode, that song can be played in Quickplay mode or any of the other competitive modes in the game. The set list has been described as containing well-known songs by \"an impressive collection of artists\" such as Van Halen, Jimi Hendrix, Joe Satriani, and Tool, as well as a considerable number of tracks from European bands.", "Guitar Hero\nThe popularity of the series increased dramatically with the release of \"Guitar Hero II\" for the PlayStation 2 in 2006. Featuring improved multiplayer gameplay, an improved note-recognizing system, and 64 songs, it became the fifth best-selling video game of 2006. The PlayStation 2 version of the game was offered both separately and in a bundle with a cherry red Gibson SG guitar controller. \"Guitar Hero II\" was later released for the Xbox 360 in April 2007 with an exclusive Gibson Explorer guitar controller and an additional 10 songs, among other features. About 3 million units of \"Guitar Hero II\" have sold on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360.", "Guitar Hero\nThe Guitar Hero series (sometimes referred to as the Hero series) is a series of music rhythm games first published in 2005 by RedOctane and Harmonix, and distributed by Activision, in which players use a guitar-shaped game controller to simulate playing lead, bass guitar, and rhythm guitar across numerous rock music songs. Players match notes that scroll on-screen to colored fret buttons on the controller, strumming the controller in time to the music in order to score points, and keep the virtual audience excited. The games attempt to mimic many features of playing a real guitar, including the use of fast-fingering hammer-ons and pull-offs and the use of the whammy bar to alter the pitch of notes. Most games support single player modes, typically a Career mode to play through all the songs in the game, and both competitive and cooperative multiplayer modes. With the introduction of \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" in 2008, the game includes support for a four-player band including vocals and drums. The series initially used mostly cover versions of songs created by WaveGroup Sound, but most recent titles feature soundtracks that are fully master recordings, and in some cases, special re-recordings, of the songs. Later titles in the series feature support for downloadable content in the form of new songs.", "Guitar Hero\nIn the first two games and the 2007 expansion \"\", the majority of the songs on the main career mode set lists are covers of the original song; for example, a song may be presented as \"\"Free Bird as made famous by Lynyrd Skynyrd\"\". \"Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\" introduces a much larger range of original recordings, and \"World Tour\" featured a setlist that contained all master recordings. The covers throughout the games are mostly recreated by WaveGroup Sound who has worked before to create songs for \"Beatmania\", \"Dance Dance Revolution\", and \"Karaoke Revolution\", making small changes to the guitar portions to make them more adaptable for gameplay. Almost all of the unlockable bonus songs are songs performed by the original artist for the game (the only exception is the song \"She Bangs the Drums\" by The Stone Roses, which is featured in \"Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\").", "Live! (Guitar Wolf album)\nLive!! is the first live album by the Japanese garage punk band Guitar Wolf. It was released in Japan in June 2000. The album is assembled from four different performances, including a show on October 31, 1999 at CBGBs. It also includes a MiniCD featuring a remix of \"Jet Virus.\"", "Plays Live\nPlays Live is the first live and fifth album overall released by the English rock musician Peter Gabriel. This album was originally released as a double album and longplay cassette in 1983, with sixteen songs. It was re-released in 1985, as a single CD version called \"Plays Live (Highlights)\" with only twelve songs, some of which are edited from their full-length versions, so that the album could fit on a single CD. It was eventually re-released in its entirety as a double CD set in 1987. In 2002, a remastered version of the \"Highlights\" version was re-released.", "Guitar Hero Live\n\"Guitar Hero Live\" was considered to be a game that can be expanded upon in the future through content patches, as opposed to released new titles each year which had previously led to the music genre decline in 2009. Though FreeStyleGames added vocals prior to the game's launch, there are no present plans to include other instruments such as bass guitar or drums in the title, with Jackson stating that the game is \"all about guitars\".", "Doro Live\nDoro Live was the first official live album by German hard rock singer Doro Pesch, recorded during the \"Angels Never Die\" tour in Germany and released by Vertigo in 1993. The VHS Doro Live '93 was released at the same time only in Europe. It was filmed during two concerts in Germany on 6 and 7 October 1993 and contains two more songs: \"The Fortuneteller\" and \"East Meets West\".", "Live at Leeds\nLive at Leeds is the first live album by the English rock band The Who. It was recorded at the University Refectory, University of Leeds on 14 February 1970, and is the only live album that was released while the group were still actively recording and performing with their best known line-up of Roger Daltrey, Pete Townshend, John Entwistle and Keith Moon. Initially released in the United States on 16 May, by Decca and MCA and the United Kingdom on 23 May, by Track and Polydor, the album has been reissued on several occasions and in several different formats. Since its release, \"Live at Leeds\" has been cited by several music critics as the best live rock recording of all time.", "Guitar Hero\nAnother potential \"Guitar Hero\" project was discovered by the archival site Unseen64 for a game titled \"Hero World\", a massively multiplayer online game that would link the \"Guitar Hero\" and \"DJ Hero\" games. The game had been developed by FreeStyleGames, sometime after the release of \"DJ Hero 2\", with the main development duties passed to Virtual Fairground, using their platform The Ride, an Adobe Flash-based platform that would let the game be played in a web browser. The game was cancelled in 2011 along with other pending \"Guitar Hero\" projects.", "Guitar Hero: Aerosmith\nOn February 15, 2008, Activision announced that one of their two new \"Guitar Hero\" installments would be \"Guitar Hero: Aerosmith\", and would be released in June 2008. \"Guitar Hero: Aerosmith\" was developed by Neversoft for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions, the Wii version of the game was being developed by Vicarious Visions, and the PlayStation 2 version was developed by Budcat Creations.\nThe idea for \"Guitar Hero: Aerosmith\" came about during the development of \"Guitar Hero III\". Originally, a cover version of \"Same Old Song and Dance\" was present in the game, but Neversoft president Joel Jewett noted that the quality of the recording was poor. After getting in contact with Joe Perry, Perry was able to provide the original masters for the song, and, according to Neversoft developer Alan Flores, \"that sort of established the relationship.\" This also came at a time where Activision was attempting to expand the \"Guitar Hero\" franchise, and fans expressed a strong interest in playing a game focused solely on Aerosmith's works, according to RedOctane's Dusty Welch. Another producer for the game, Aaron Habibipour, stated that Aerosmith was one of the five \"holy grail\" musical groups as polled by Activision. \"Newsweek\" reported that Aerosmith's license allows for exclusive use of their songs within the \"Guitar Hero\" series for a limited amount of time, preventing their use within other rhythm games such as \"Rock Band\". This is not the first time Aerosmith has appeared in a video game. The band was previously featured in both \"Quest for Fame\" and \"Revolution X\".", "Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\nActivision's original announcement of \"Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\" indicated a planned release in their 2008 fiscal year, ending on March 31, 2008.; RedOctane later clarified a release in the last quarter of 2007, and further revealed that all versions of the game would feature wireless controllers as well as online multiplayer and downloadable content. The game was officially announced by Activision and RedOctane on May 23, 2007 for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii and Xbox 360. Budcat Creations ported the game to the PlayStation 2, and Vicarious Visions ported it to the Wii. In September 2007, Aspyr Media announced they would be publishing \"Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\" for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X ports. Demos of \"Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\" appeared in \"Tony Hawk's Proving Ground\" for the Xbox 360 in the Xbox Live Marketplace, and from the Internet as an ISO image. The demo features five songs (\"Lay Down\", \"Rock You Like a Hurricane\", \"Even Flow\", \"Hit Me with Your Best Shot\", and \"The Metal\") played within the Desert Rock Tour venue. As shipped, the game did not offer offline Co-Op Quickplay mode, a feature that was included in \"Guitar Hero II\". This mode was added to the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions via a patch.", "Vitamins and Crash Helmets Tour – Greatest Hits Live\nVitamins & Crash Helmets Tour - Greatest Hits Live is the first live album by heavy metal band Dangerous Toys. It was released in 1999.All songs by Dangerous Toys.", "Guitar Superstar\nGuitar Superstar is a yearly competition hosted by the Guitar Player magazine in which 10 finalists compete for the title of Guitar Superstar or Guitar Hero for the year. The competition started in 2005 as the Guitar Hero Competition but was changed in 2008 to the current title, probably to avoid confusion with the \"Guitar Hero\" video game series.", "Guitar Hero (video game)\n\"Guitar Hero\" received critical acclaim upon release. It received a score of 91.96% on GameRankings and 91/100 on Metacritic. IGN praised the \"fantastic soundtrack\" and \"great peripheral\", further commenting that mini-Gibson SG controller \"is what makes Guitar Hero, rather than what breaks it\". GameSpot echoed these sentiments, stating \"Guitar Hero\" had a \"great guitar controller\" and \"killer soundtrack\" and was possibly the \"best rhythm game ever made\". Many reviews praised the game's gradual learning curve and difficulty approach through the song tier progression and the difficulty setting for each song. \"Play\" said the game \"gives bedroom air guitarists a chance to live out their rock 'n' roll fantasies\". GameSpys review commented on the length of the songs, in that \"once you hit the three minute mark or so, things start to feel 'too long'\". Eurogamer said, \"the lack of international star quality about the roster of songs and the absence of the original artists is perhaps the only thing that may detract from the package from an importer's perspective\" and \"it would have been truly amazing with a better track list\".", "Guitar Hero: Metallica\nA demo version of the game was released on Xbox Live on March 20, 2009, with four playable songs: Metallica's \"Sad but True\" and \"Seek & Destroy\", Alice in Chains' \"No Excuses\" and Queen's \"Stone Cold Crazy\". All four instruments are playable. There is no Expert+ for the drums in the demo. Metallica made an appearance at the 2009 SXSW Music Festival held a week before the game's release for a \"not-so-secret\" performance, with demonstration stations set up to allow attendees to play the game. The game was the primary sponsor for Aric Almirola's Number 8 car in the 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series Goody's Fast Relief 500 run during the weekend of the game's release. Two television commercials, in the same style as those for \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" that parody the scene from \"Risky Business\" where Tom Cruise dances in his underwear during Bob Seger's song \"Old Time Rock and Roll\", were prepared for the game and were directed by Brett Ratner. The ads, which first aired during the 2009 NCAA Basketball Tournament, features NCAA coaches Bob Knight, Mike Krzyzewski, Roy Williams, and Rick Pitino along with the current members of Metallica.", "Guitar Hero: Aerosmith\nGuitar Hero: Aerosmith is a music rhythm game developed by Neversoft, published by Activision and distributed by RedOctane. It was released on the PlayStation 3, Wii and Xbox 360 consoles, with Budcat Creations solely developing the PlayStation 2 port, Vicarious Visions solely developing the Wii port, and Aspyr Media solely publishing the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X ports. The game was released on June 26, 2008 in Europe, on June 29, 2008 in North America, August 6, 2008 in Australia and October 9, 2008 in Japan. \"Guitar Hero: Aerosmith\" sold as both a bundle with a specially designed guitar controller as well as a game-only package.", "Guitar Hero\n\"Guitar Hero III Mobile\" was released for mobile phones in 2007 and 2008, and was developed by MachineWorks Northwest LLC. The base version of the game includes 15 songs from both \"Guitar Hero II\" and \"Guitar Hero III\", and has released a three-song add-on pack every month since January 2008. The title has been downloaded by users one million times, with both Verizon and Hands-On Mobile claiming that over 250,000 songs are played a day on the platform.\nThe two companies produced two other mobile-based \"Guitar Hero\" games; \"Guitar Hero III: Backstage Pass\", released in July 2008, adds role-playing elements to manage the band's success in addition to the core rhythm game, while the mobile version of \"Guitar Hero World Tour\", released in December 2008, expands each included track for play on both lead guitar and drums, mimicking the expansion of the console series to the full band.", "Lived a Lie\nOn 2 September 2013, the band announced and premiered the first single to be off the new record, titled 'Lived a Lie'. The album was also revealed to be titled \"Cavalier Youth\". The album would contain 12 tracks, including an interlude track. The music video to 'Lived a Lie' was made available to the world on the band's Vevo channel and UK fans can download the new track on iTunes shortly after. The song is featured in football video game \"FIFA 14\" and the 2015 video game \"Guitar Hero Live\".", "Live (Usher album)\nLive is a live album by American singer Usher. It was recorded on October 15 and 16, 1998 in the singer's hometown of Chattanooga, Tennessee, and released by LaFace Records on March 23, 1999. Both audio-only and video longform versions were released; it was distributed to break up the gap between Usher's second and third studio albums, \"My Way\" (1997) and \"8701\" (2001).", "Guitar Hero Live\nGuitar Hero Live is a music video game developed by FreeStyleGames and published by Activision. It was released for PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Wii U, Xbox 360, and Xbox One in October 2015 and to iOS devices including Apple TV in November 2015. As with previous games in the series, the goal is to use a special guitar controller to match fret patterns displayed on a scrolling note pattern on screen in time with the music.", "Guitar Hero: On Tour series\n\"Guitar Hero: On Tour\" was officially announced on September 7, 2007, at the Austin GDC '07, and released on June 22, 2008. During a conference call on May 8, 2008, Activision revealed that the game would be sold as an individual game (along with the \"Guitar Grip\") as well as bundled with the DS hardware itself. In North America, Nintendo released a bundle which included \"Guitar Hero: On Tour\" and a limited edition Silver/Black Nintendo DS Lite branded with the \"Guitar Hero\" logo. This bundle was available with the release of \"Guitar Hero: On Tour\" in the United Kingdom. This is the first third-party DS game to be included in such a bundle. When pre-ordered in certain stores, the consumer received either a special Guitar Hero: On Tour set of headphones, Nintendo DS Lite \"wrap\" pack (two stickers for use on the console) or an exclusive guitar pick stylus. The headphones and stylus feature the Guitar Hero: On Tour logo. On June 14, Toys \"R\" Us stores across the US hosted a \"First to Play\" event, where players tried out the game more than a week before its release. Also at the event, anyone who attended received a free Guitar Hero sticker, a temporary tattoo, and a special dog tag.", "Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s\nGuitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s (titled Guitar Hero: Rocks the 80s in Europe) is a music rhythm game and the third installment in the popular \"Guitar Hero\" series. It was released in July 2007 in North America and Europe, and in August 2007 in Australia.", "Guitar Hero World Tour\nGuitar Hero World Tour (initially referred to as Guitar Hero IV or Guitar Hero IV: World Tour) is a music rhythm game developed by Neversoft, published by Activision and distributed by RedOctane. It is the fourth main entry in the \"Guitar Hero\" series, the sixth on home consoles and the seventh overall. The game was launched in North America in October 2008 for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii, and Xbox 360 consoles, and a month later for Europe and Australia. A version of \"World Tour\" for Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh was later released.", "Lust for Life (Iggy Pop song)\nThe live version of \"Lust for Life\" from the 1996 UK single appears as a playable song in the video game \"Guitar Hero 5\". In addition, the original version appeared in \"Guitar Hero Live\", as well as being made available as DLC for \"Rock Band 4\".", "Love You Live\nLove You Live is a double live album by The Rolling Stones, released in 1977. It is drawn from Tour of the Americas shows in the US in the summer of 1975, Tour of Europe shows in 1976 and performances from the El Mocambo nightclub concert venue in Toronto in 1977. It is the band's third official full-length live release and is dedicated to the memory of audio engineer Keith Harwood, who died in a drug-induced car accident shortly before the album's release.", "Guitar Hero\nActivision and Konami, who had previously worked together to make sure that the \"Guitar Hero\" series meets with Konami's patents on music games, developed an arcade console version of the game, titled \"Guitar Hero Arcade\", distributed to arcades in early 2009. The game is completely based on the \"Guitar Hero III\" gameplay, but reducing some of the features such as the use of the Whammy bar, Star Power Button (Star Power may only be activated by lifting the Guitar) and Practice Modes, but keeping the ability to download new songs for the cabinet from the Internet. The arcade game has come under some scrutiny by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP), who believe the use of the game in arcades is equivalent to \"public performances\" and seek additional fees to be paid by operators of the game.", "Live! (Status Quo album)\nLive! is the first live album by British rock band Status Quo. The double album is an amalgam of performances at Glasgow's Apollo Theatre between 27 and 29 October 1976, recorded using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio.", "Cultural impact of the Guitar Hero series\nThe series has created a market for products outside of the video games. McFarlane Toys has developed a series of six-inch-tall figurines based on the characters from the game. Brett Ratner, director for \"Rush Hour\" and \"\", has stated that he wishes to bring a movie based on \"Guitar Hero\" to theaters. However, Activision, the publisher of the series, did not approve the idea of a film adaptation.\nThe popularity of the \"Guitar Hero\" series has led to the development of several commercial and independent clones. Besides Harmonix' \"Rock Band\" series, Konami released \"Rock Revolution\" in 2008 which features drums and guitar (the game does not include vocals) similar to \"Guitar Hero World Tour\". \"PopStar Guitar\" for the PlayStation 2 and Wii systems, developed by XS Games, features gameplay similar to the \"Guitar Hero\" series, but features pop music, as opposed to rock and metal. Digital Praise released a Christian rock-themed guitar-based game called \"Guitar Praise\" also in 2008. \"Guitar Rising\", to be published for personal computers by Game Tank by 2009, is based on using a real guitar in order to perfect one's skills. \"\" is a game promoted by \"Rolling Stone\" for the Wii that uses two Wii remotes as virtual drumsticks. \"Frets on Fire\" is an open-source clone of \"Guitar Hero\" for personal computers that features freely available independent songs and allows users to create their own note tracks. Other games based on Guitar Hero include \"Battle of the Bands\" and \"Ultimate Band\". \"Guitar Hero\" has also influenced other games outside of the music game genre. Tim Schafer credits Harmonix and the first \"Guitar Hero\" game to help establish his pitching of his heavy metal-inspired game, \"Brütal Legend\", due to the increase in popularity of metal music from the success of \"Guitar Hero\". Guitar controllers have been repurposed as controls for an independently developed platform game, \"Fret Nice\". \"Rock of the Dead\" for the Wii is based on combining the aspects of \"The Typing of the Dead\" with using a \"Guitar Hero\" guitar controller to fend off zombies. A PlayStation Home themed space based on \"Guitar Hero\", called \"Guitar Hero: Backstage\", was released on March 26, 2009 in North Americas version, and includes a \"Simon says\"-like minigame called \"Guitar Hero-Master of Rock\", themed objects, and videos for the user.", "Another Way to Die\nThe single was released as a limited edition 7\" single of 6,000 copies in the U.S. on September 30, 2008 by White's label Third Man Records, and in the United Kingdom on October 20, 2008 by XL Recordings. It was also released as a downloadable song for the video game \"Guitar Hero World Tour\" on November 7, 2008. An instrumental version of the song was also used in a Coca-Cola commercial, as Coca-Cola Zero was used to promote the film; however, White subsequently announced that he had not approved of the song being licensed for this use. Roughly the first two minutes of the song were first played on September 13, 2008 on the radio show \"Siglo 21\" on Radio 3 in Spain. The song premiered on British radio on September 18, 2008 on BBC Radio 1's \"The Jo Whiley Show\". \"Newsbeat\" described the reaction from listeners who e-mailed their opinions as mixed. On October 3, 2008 the music video premiered on Channel 4.", "Guitar Hero\nThe series currently has ten major releases (seven \"Guitar Hero\" games, two \"DJ Hero\" games and \"Band Hero\") and five expansions on gaming consoles. There are spin-offs for Windows and Macintosh systems, mobile phones, the Nintendo DS (the \"\" series), and an arcade game. The \"Guitar Hero\" franchise was a primary brand during the emergence of the popularity of rhythm games as a cultural phenomenon in North America. Such games have been utilized as a learning and development tool for medical purposes. The first game in the series was considered by several journalists to be one of the most influential video games of the first decade of the 21st century. The series has sold more than 25 million units worldwide, earning US$2 billion at retail, claimed by Activision to be the 3rd largest game franchise after the \"Mario\" and \"Madden NFL\" franchises; the third main title of the series, \"Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock\" is also claimed by Activision to be the first single video game title to exceed $1 billion in sales.", "Guitar Hero Live\nAdditional songs are provided through \"GHTV\". Two hundred songs were playable on \"GHTV\" at launch, and the developers plan on adding new songs to \"GHTV\" on a regular basis. There is no backward compatibility with songs or controllers from previous editions of the franchise; FreeStyleGames' developer Jamie Jackson justified the decision, explaining that \"Guitar Hero Live\" was a \"completely new game\" that existing content would not work with due to the change in core gameplay. There is not any traditional downloadable content for the game in the form of additional songs, instead using the streaming nature of \"GHTV\" to provide new songs. FreeStyleGames does not expect to make \"GHTV\" content available for offline play.", "Ubisoft Leamington\nThe first game the company developed under Activision's ownership was \"DJ Hero\" (2009), a spin-off of the \"Guitar Hero\" series, in which players used a turntable-based controller to mimic the actions of a disc jockey across numerous songs. The title was considered successful, and they completed \"DJ Hero 2\" the following year, though around that time, the rhythm game genre was suffering from a glut of releases and was in decline, and Activision had decided to end further production of any \"Guitar Hero\" title. The company had to lay off some employees during this time, but still were financially viable with success of \"Sing Party\" (2012). As \"Sing Party\"s development was wrapping up, Activision approached FreeStyleGames to have them consider how to reboot the \"Guitar Hero\" franchise. FreeStyleGames developed a new guitar controller atypical of ones that has been created to that point, and crafted a different approach towards presenting the game to players through a first-person perspective full-motion video. This work culminated in \"Guitar Hero Live\" (2015), the first new \"Guitar Hero\" title for the eighth generation of video game consoles.", "Guitar Hero Live\nThe game serves as a reboot of the \"Guitar Hero\" franchise, being the first new entry in the series since \"\" in 2010 and the seventh main installment (sixteenth overall). Activision wanted to bring back \"Guitar Hero\" for the next generation of video game consoles but wanted the new game to be innovative. FreeStyleGames was given a free rein to revitalize the series by Activision, which led to the development of a new guitar controller featuring a 6 button, 3-fret layout in contrast to the 5 button controller of previous games. FreeStyleGames also wanted to bring a more immersive experience to the player, and developed the main career mode \"GH Live\" to have the note pattern displayed atop full motion video taken from the perspective of a lead guitarist during a concert, with the crowd and other band members dynamically reacting to the player's performance. FreeStyleGames also wanted to forgo the traditional downloadable content model to provide new songs for the game, and created the \"GHTV\" mode which encompasses curated playlists in the style of music television channels that are streamed around the clock, allowing them to easily acquire and add new songs. Within \"GHTV\", songs are presented with the note track overlaid atop their music video or from live concert footage. \"GHTV\" allows players to pick up and play currently-streamed songs at any time or use money and in-game credits to play any song within the library, forgoing traditional downloadable content. The game was shipped with forty-two songs on disc and 200 songs within the \"GHTV\" library; New content has been added to \"GHTV\" on a weekly basis, provided through premium shows that earn players unique rewards.", "Guitar Hero Live\nRhythm games like \"Guitar Hero\" and \"Rock Band\" had been widely popular between 2005 and 2008, but due to oversaturation of the market and the onset of the recession in 2009, the rhythm genre suffered major setbacks, and the genre's popularity had quickly waned. Sales of the previous installment \"\" were below estimates and lower than previous games in the series. Weak sales of \"Warriors of Rock\", in part, led to Activision cancelling a planned 2011 sequel, and shuttering the \"Guitar Hero\" franchise.", "Guitar Hero World Tour\nThe primary single-player game mode is Career mode, which can be played on the lead guitar, bass guitar, drums, or vocals. Career mode has been slightly altered from previous \"Guitar Hero\" games. After creating a band, selecting or creating an avatar, and then selecting an instrument, the player is then presented with one of several gigs containing two to five songs each. Most gigs end with an encore song that is not revealed until the other songs are completed. Two of the lead guitar gigs feature \"boss challenges\" with Zakk Wylde and Ted Nugent; these boss challenges, featuring original songs by Wylde and Nugent, are different from \"\"s boss battle, removing the focus on attack power-ups and instead featuring a call-and-response mechanic similar to the existing Face-Off mode. The gigs are arranged by difficulty based on the selected instrument. The player is awarded in-game money for each song completed, and completing each gig can also award additional money for meeting certain criteria, such as never letting the Rock Meter drop below a certain level or playing the first several notes of a song perfectly. Completing a gig can also unlock one or more gigs with more difficult songs to complete. Additional awards, such as customization items, are also awarded for completing gigs. The player's accumulated earnings across any of the single player Career Modes are tracked and used to rank the player's overall performance level.\nBand Career mode is similar to the solo Career mode, with the game songs presented as several gigs to be completed. A band must have at least two players to proceed. The second player may be either a local player or one over the network. Players may be at different levels of progression in the game, but still gain benefits for successfully completing songs when playing together. The in-game interface features vocals along the top of the screen, and three tracks underneath, for bass, drums, and guitar; only tracks for active players are shown. Full four-player bands can compete with other bands online in a Battle of the Bands mode.", "David Live\nDavid Live is David Bowie's first official live album, originally released by RCA Records in 1974. The album was recorded in July of that year, on the initial leg of Bowie's Diamond Dogs Tour, at the Tower Theater in Upper Darby, PA, a suburb of Philadelphia. The second leg, a more soul-oriented affair following recording sessions in Philadelphia for the bulk of \"Young Americans\", would be renamed 'Philly Dogs', as reflected on a different live release, \"Cracked Actor\".", "Guitar Hero: On Tour series\n\"Guitar Hero On Tour: Decades\" was announced on July 15, 2008, at the 2008 E3 conference, and released on November 16, 2008. Executive Producer David Nathanielsz stated that the short time between releases was to help give DS players the same depth of content as available to the console players of \"Guitar Hero\". Additionally, Vicarious Visions incorporated the ability to share songs between different versions of the game through the wi-fi capabilities of the DS in order to expand the number of potential songs to more than 50.", "Guitar Hero II\n\"Guitar Hero II\" was originally announced for the PlayStation 2 on April 17, 2006. A demo version of the PlayStation 2 version of \"Guitar Hero II\" was released with issue #110 of \"Official PlayStation Magazine\" on October 5, 2006. Features of the demo included four playable songs on four difficulty levels for single player and co-op modes. Demo releases do not feature the ability to flip the notes for left-handed players. Demo versions feature the songs \"Shout at the Devil\", \"You Really Got Me\", \"Strutter\" and \"YYZ\". The retail game was released for the PlayStation 2 on November 7, 2006 in North America, November 15, 2006 in Australia, and November 24, 2006 in Europe. It was released as both a stand-alone game, and as a bundle containing the game with a cherry Gibson SG guitar controller.", "Cultural impact of the Guitar Hero series\nThe name \"Guitar Hero\" is often juxtapositioned with other instruments or other tools for humorous effects. There are T-shirts available from at least one vendor, parodying the \"Guitar Hero\" logo with a number of different instruments, from violin to bagpipes. Marketing for \"The Simpsons Game\" included mock posters for \"Sitar Hero\", depicting \"The Simpsons\" character Apu with a controller with 21 buttons and a small list of songs parodying real-world songs, such as \"Pour Some Curry on Me\" (a parody of Def Leppard's \"Pour Some Sugar on Me\") and \"Shankar Groove Thing\" (a parody of Peaches & Herb's \"Shake Your Groove Thing\"), a parody Harmonix praised. GameSpot released an April Fools' article in 2006 announcing \"Cowbell Hero\" as a successor to the first game, referencing the \"More cowbell\" skit from \"Saturday Night Live\". Also, a \"Cowbell Hero\" T-shirt appears among Chuck's collection of shirts in an episode of the NBC series, \"Chuck\". One Penny Arcade comic strip envisioned a game entitled \"Photoshop Hero\", which has become a design for one of their T-shirts. A 2008 FoxTrot Sunday comic showed the characters Jason and Marcus playing a video game called \"Chamber Music Hero.\" The satirical newspaper The Onion published an article entitled \"Activision Reports Sluggish Sales For Sousaphone Hero.\" In the 15th episode of the first season of the Adult Swim cartoon \"Metalocalypse\", a young girl played a song for Dethklok member Toki Wartooth with a \"Guitar Hero\" controller. Later, in the 3rd episode of the second season, one Dethklok fan is seen with a \"Guitar Hero\" controller in his room whilst illegally downloading Dethklok MP3s.", "Live (Champion album)\nLive is a live recording by Champion et ses G-Strings (live moniker for DJ Champion and his guitarists), released in 2007 on Saboteur Records. The package contains two discs, one in CD format and one in NTSC DVD format with no region coding. The album features a live performance featuring tracks from Champion's 2004 debut album, \"Chill'em All\".", "Guitar Hero: Van Halen\nA demo of the game was released to Xbox Live on December 9, 2009, featuring two Van Halen songs, \"Eruption\" and \"Panama\", along with Weezer's \"Dope Nose\" and Killswitch Engage's \"The End of Heartache\".", "Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s\n\"Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s\" was initially announced by EGM in January 2007 as \"Guitar Hero: 1980s Edition\". Orange Lounge Radio claimed that the game would be released in June 2007, based on an Activision announcement, though no other source has cited this announcement. Activision officially revealed the first details of the game May 11, 2007, in addition to changing the game's title to \"Guitar Hero: Rocks the 80s\". Only a few weeks later, the game name was revised again as \"Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s\", as official artwork for the game was first released. Nevertheless, the word 'Encore' has been dropped from the title of the European releases.", "DJ Hero\nDJ Hero is a music video game, developed by FreeStyleGames and published by Activision as a rhythm game spin-off of the \"Guitar Hero\" franchise. It was released on October 27, 2009 in North America and on October 29, 2009 in Europe. The game is based on turntablism, the act of creating a new musical work from one or more previously recorded songs using record players and sound effect generators, and features 94 remixes of two different songs from a selection of over 100 different songs across numerous genres.", "List of songs in Guitar Hero Live\nA player can access a Premium Show either through playing specific songs already in the \"GHTV\" catalog or through microtransactions. Completing Premium Shows can earn the player in-game rewards such as a decorative item for their player card or on-screen fretboard. The week after their introduction, these songs are added to the on-demand playlist, and after another week enter into the \"GHTV\"s rotation of songs. At the release of \"Guitar Hero Live\", Activision announced plans to add 70 new songs to \"GHTV\" before the end of 2015.", "Guitar Hero\n\"Guitar Hero\" was created from a partnership between RedOctane, then their own company that produced specialized video game controllers, and Harmonix, a music video game development company who had previously produced \"Frequency\", \"Amplitude\" and \"Karaoke Revolution\". RedOctane was seeking to bring in a \"Guitar Freaks\"-like game, highly popular in Japan at the time, into Western markets, and approached Harmonix about helping them to develop a music game involving a guitar controller. Both companies agreed to it, and went on to produce \"Guitar Hero\" in 2005. The title was highly successful, leading to the development of its successful sequel \"Guitar Hero II\" in 2006. While the original controllers for the first \"Guitar Hero\" game were designed by Ryan Lesser, Rob Kay, Greg LoPiccolo and Alex Rigopulous of Harmonix and built by the Honeybee Corporation of China, subsequent iterations and future controllers were developed inhouse at RedOctane, with development led primarily by Jack McCauley.", "Guitar Hero II\nGuitar Hero II is a music rhythm game developed by Harmonix, published by Activision and distributed by RedOctane. It is the second installment in the \"Guitar Hero\" series and is the sequel to \"Guitar Hero\". It was first released for the PlayStation 2 in November 2006, and then for the Xbox 360 in April 2007, with additional content not originally in the PlayStation 2 version.", "Guitar Hero II\nRedOctane stated that the Xbox 360 version of \"Guitar Hero II\" \"planned to feature more downloadable content than any other 360 title\" utilizing the Xbox Live Marketplace, including many of the songs from the original \"Guitar Hero\" a week after the release of the game. Four such packs have been released since April 11, 2007. Additionally, two packs featuring new content to the \"Guitar Hero\" series have also been released, including songs from My Chemical Romance, Protest the Hero, Trivium, and Atreyu. There have also been individual track downloads featuring songs from bands Los Rodríguez, Pleymo, and Soilwork.", "Live (James Taylor album)\nLive is the first live album by singer-songwriter James Taylor, released on August 10, 1993, on Columbia. The double album presents selections from 14 shows during a November 1992 tour. \"Live\" peaked at number 20 on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart, and has sold more than one million copies, being certified 2x platinum by the RIAA.", "Guitar Hero\nThe original \"Guitar Hero\" was released on the PlayStation 2 in November 2005. \"Guitar Hero\" is notable because it comes packaged with a controller peripheral modeled after a black Gibson SG guitar. Rather than a typical gamepad, this guitar controller is the primary input for the game. Playing the game with the guitar controller simulates playing an actual guitar, except it uses five colored \"fret buttons\" and a \"strum bar\" instead of frets and strings. The development of \"Guitar Hero\" was inspired by Konami's \"Guitar Freaks\" video game, which at the time, had not seen much exposure in the North American market; RedOctane, already selling guitar-shaped controllers for imported copies of GuitarFreaks, approached Harmonix about creating a game to use an entirely new Guitar controller. The concept was to have the gameplay of \"Amplitude\" with the visuals of \"Karaoke Revolution\", both of which had been developed by Harmonix. The game was met with critical acclaim and received numerous awards for its innovative guitar peripheral and its soundtrack, which comprised 47 playable rock songs (most of which were cover versions of popular songs from artists and bands from the 1960s through modern rock). \"Guitar Hero\" has sold nearly 1.5 million copies to date.", "Harmonix\nAt this time, RedOctane, a peripheral manufacturing company who had enjoyed Harmonix' previous games, approached Harmonix about developing the software for a game that would be based on a guitar-shaped controller, inspired by the \"GuitarFreaks\" which was popular in Japan. This relationship led to the creation of \"Guitar Hero\", published by RedOctane in 2005. The game features similar gameplay elements to \"FreQuency\" and \"Amplitude\". \"Guitar Hero\" uses a guitar-shaped controller designed uniquely for the game. Specifically, the \"Guitar Hero\" controller was designed with five color-coded \"fret\" buttons and a \"strum bar\". \"Guitar Hero\" became largely successful, both critically and commercially, resulting in the well-received 2006 sequel \"Guitar Hero II\", also developed by Harmonix.", "List of songs in Guitar Hero II\nThe Xbox 360 version of the game allows for the use of downloadable content available through Xbox Live Marketplace. These are typically released as packs of three, or as single song. These packs include songs from the original \"Guitar Hero\" for the PlayStation 2. Additional packs consist of songs that have not been featured in \"Guitar Hero\" before, and are masters, even though some are indicated as covers in the game. As of March 31, 2014, these songs are no longer available in the Xbox Live Marketplace.", "Guitar Hero Live\nOn 14 April 2015, Hirshberg and Jackson invited Pete Wentz of Fall Out Boy and Gerard Way of My Chemical Romance to promote the game. Wentz performed his band's song \"My Songs Know What You Did in the Dark\" in the Guitar Hero Live mode, while Way and Jackson dueled each other on My Chemical Romance's song \"Na Na Na\". A commercial for the game was revealed in October 2015, starring Lenny Kravitz and James Franco. In conjunction with Activision, The CW ran special promotional ads for \"Guitar Hero Live\", featuring the actors David Ramsey and Candice Patton playing the game in the week prior to the game's release. Activision arranged to have rapper Macklemore play \"Guitar Hero Live\" with FreeStyleGames' Jamie Jackson during the halftime show of the Seattle Seahawks home game on the Sunday prior to the release of the game." ]

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[ "List of Clannad episodes\nThe \"Clannad\" animated television series is based on the visual novel \"Clannad\" by the Japanese visual novel brand Key. The episodes, produced by the animation studio Kyoto Animation, are directed by Tatsuya Ishihara, written by Fumihiko Shimo, and features character design by Kazumi Ikeda who based the designs on Itaru Hinoue's original concept. The story follows the main character Tomoya Okazaki, a discontent high school student whose life changes when he meets a girl one year older than he is, named Nagisa Furukawa.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nThe first consumer console port of the game was released for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) on February 23, 2006 by Interchannel. The PS2 version was re-released as a \"Best\" version on July 30, 2009. The PS2 version was bundled in a \"Key 3-Part Work Premium Box\" package together with the PS2 versions of \"Kanon\" and \"Air\" released on July 30, 2009. An Xbox 360 version was released on August 28, 2008 also by Prototype. A PlayStation 3 (PS3) version was released by Prototype on April 21, 2011. A downloadable version of the PS3 release via the PlayStation Store was released by Prototype on February 14, 2013." ]

[ "Themes (Clannad album)\nThemes is a compilation album released in 1992 (US: 1995) by the Irish music group Clannad.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nOn March 15, 2007, the Japanese television station BS-i announced a \"Clannad\" anime series via a short 30-second teaser trailer that was featured at the end of the final episode of the second \"Kanon\" anime series. \"Clannad\" is produced by Kyoto Animation, directed by Tatsuya Ishihara, and written by Fumihiko Shimo, who also worked on other adaptations of Key's visual novels \"Air\" and \"Kanon\". The anime aired between October 4, 2007 and March 27, 2008, containing 23 aired episodes out of a planned 24; the broadcast time was first announced on August 11, 2007 at the TBS festival \"Anime Festa\", which is also when the first episode was showcased. The anime series was released in a set of eight DVD compilations released between December 19, 2007 and July 16, 2008 by Pony Canyon, with each compilation containing three episodes. Of the 24 episodes, 23 were aired on television with the first 22 being regular episodes, followed by an additional extra episode. The last episode was released as an original video animation (OVA) on the eighth DVD on July 16, 2008 and is set in an alternate universe from the anime series where Tomoya and Tomoyo are dating, which is based on Tomoyo's scenario in the game. The OVA episode was previewed on May 31, 2008 for an audience of four-hundred people picked via a mail-in postcard campaign. A Blu-ray Disc (BD) box set of \"Clannad\" was released on April 30, 2010.", "Tomoyo After: It's a Wonderful Life\nAfter releasing \"Clannad\", Jun Maeda decided to make a game based on Tomoyo's scenario from \"Clannad\". Maeda handled the game's planning and scenario, and Leo Kashida, a new member of the team, accompanied him. As opposed to Itaru Hinoue who was the character designer and art director for \"Clannad\", Fumio was the art director for \"Tomoyo After\", while Hinoue helped Fumio with the character design. As such, characters who appeared in \"Clannad\" such as Tomoya and Tomoyo look similar but visibly different from when in \"Clannad\". Maeda also composed the music for the game along with Key's signature composers Shinji Orito and Magome Togoshi.", "List of Clannad episodes\nThe license holding company Sentai Filmworks licensed the \"Clannad After Story\" anime series, and Section23 Films localized and distributed the television series and the OVA starting with the first half season box set consisting of 12 episodes with English subtitles, Japanese audio, and no English language track, released on October 20, 2009. The second half season box set containing the remaining episodes was released on December 8, 2009. Sentai Filmworks re-released \"Clannad After Story\" with an English dub in April 2011.", "C.L.Y.D.E.\nC.L.Y.D.E. is a Canadian-French animated television series, made by MoonScoop Group (as France Animation), produced by CINAR Animation and created by CINAR's co founder and former president Ronald A. Weinberg and veteran Canadian-French film producer Jean Cazes. It centres around a super-computer from another planet, C.L.Y.D.E. (Computer Linked Yield Driven Entity), which is put on trial for developing a virus called a \"sense of humour\". He is punished by being launched into space, where he enters Earth's atmosphere and crash-lands. His central core is found, intact, by two kids, Matt and Sam. They install C.L.Y.D.E. into an old jukebox, which makes him able to speak to them, and handle objects through telekinesis. Many of Matt, Sam, and C.L.Y.D.E.'s adventures concern secret agents trying to find C.L.Y.D.E., or defeating computer viruses, hackers, or invading aliens.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nTheron Martin of Anime News Network gave the first season a 'B+' rating, criticizing its extensive use of moe elements, but considered it appealing entertainment for a \"fan base who revels in this kind of thing.\" His review for the second season \"After Story\" was much more positive, giving it an 'A-' rating. He praised the second half of the season as \"the best-written quarter of \"Clannad\",\" stating that it \"effectively builds up and delivers its emotional appeal, reinforces the series' central theme (i.e. the importance of family), and peaks visually,\" and concluding that \"only the most cynical of souls will avoid shedding at least a few tears at certain points.\" On the DVD Talk website, the reviewer Todd Douglass Jr. gave \"Clannad After Story\" a \"Highly Recommended\" rating, stating that \"the range of emotions \"Clannad\" takes you through is quite daunting. It's charming, cute, hilarious, mysterious, and tragic all at the same time. Few shows are as memorable, and few are this good for this long.\" He concludes that the storytelling is \"heartfelt\" and \"memorable in so many ways,\" and that \"few shows rise to the levels this one does.\"", "Clannad (visual novel)\nThe first half of the story takes place primarily at Hikarizaka Private High School, a fictional school located in Japan. Outside of the school, frequented locations include the bakery run by Nagisa's parents, and the dormitory where Youhei Sunohara lives. Throughout the story, glimpses into an Illusionary World are shown. This world is devoid of all life except for a young girl, though she later makes a body out of junk pieces through which the player can interact with her. The remaining half of the story takes place in the same city, after the conclusion of the first half. While the town's name was never directly mentioned, one can infer that the town's name is Hikarizaka based on the many companies and establishments that share this name.", "Clannad\nAfter \"Magical Ring\", Clannad were commissioned to score the 26-episode drama series \"Robin of Sherwood\", aired from 1984 to 1986. They once again began to stretch themselves, creating music for a range of characters and events. For the first time in the career, the album was recorded in its entirety in English. The soundtrack was released in 1984 as \"Legend\" and won the band a BAFTA award for Best Original Television Music, the first Irish band to win it. In 2003, Clannad revealed that there were other pieces recorded for the third series of \"Robin of Sherwood\" that were not included on \"Legend\", yet the master recordings have yet to be found.\nIn 1985, Clannad released \"Macalla\" (Irish for \"Echo\") which was recorded in Switzerland, England, and Ireland. It contained all original material except one traditional song and yielded the group a hit single \"In a Lifetime\", a duet with U2 singer Bono which begins with Máire being heard teaching Gaelic to Bono during the introduction. The album features numerous backing musicians who have continued to tour with them, including ex-King Crimson saxophonist Mel Collins, Moving Hearts' guitarist Anthony Drennan, and drummer Paul Moran. Also on board was producer Steve Nye, who oversaw the pop-flavoured \"Closer to Your Heart\" and the ballad \"Almost Seems (Too Late to Turn)\" and became hit singles, the latter serving as the Children in Need charity single in 1985.", "Larry David\nLawrence Gene David (born July 2, 1947) is an American comedian, writer, actor, director, and television producer. He and Jerry Seinfeld created the television series \"Seinfeld\", of which David was the head writer and executive producer from 1989 to 1997. David has subsequently gained further recognition for the HBO series \"Curb Your Enthusiasm,\" which he also created, in which he stars as a semi-fictionalized version of himself.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nThere have also been four sets of manga anthologies produced by different companies and drawn by a multitude of different artists. The first volume of the earliest anthology series, released by Ohzora under the title \"Clannad\", was released in June 2004 under their Twin Heart Comics imprint. Volumes for this series continued to be released until April 2005 with the fifth volume. The second anthology was released in a single volume by Jive on January 25, 2005 titled \"Clannad Comic Anthology: Another Symphony\". The third anthology series was released in two volumes by Ichijinsha on June 25, 2004 and July 24, 2004 under their \"DNA Media Comics\"; a third special volume was released much later on December 25, 2007. The first volume of the last anthology series, a collection of four-panel comic strips released by Enterbrain under the title \"Magi-Cu 4-koma Clannad\", was released on February 25, 2008 under their MC Comics imprint; the tenth volume in the series was released on August 26, 2009. Each of the anthology series are written and drawn by an average of 20 people per volume.", "Terminator (franchise)\nThe Terminator series is an American science-fiction franchise created by James Cameron and Gale Anne Hurd. The franchise encompasses a series of films, comics, novels, and additional media concerning battles between Skynet's synthetic intelligent machine network, and John Connor's Resistance forces and the rest of the human race. Skynet's most well-known products in its genocidal goals are the various terminator models, such as the T-800 (Model 101), who was portrayed by Arnold Schwarzenegger from the original \"Terminator\" film in 1984, and similar units he also portrayed in the later films. By 2010, the franchise has generated $3 billion in revenue.", "Enya\nIn the 1970s several members of Enya's family formed Clannad, a Celtic band with Nicky Ryan as their manager, sound engineer and producer and his future wife Roma Ryan assisting with the tour management and administrative duties. In 1980, after her year at college, Enya decided not to study music at university and instead accepted Ryan's invitation to join the group with the aim of expanding their sound by incorporating keyboards and another backup vocalist. She toured across Europe and played an uncredited role on their sixth album, \"Crann Úll\" (1980), with a line-up of siblings Máire, Pól and Ciarán Brennan and twin uncles, Noel and Pádraig Duggan. Enya became an official and credited member by the time of their next album \"Fuaim\" (1981), which features a front cover photograph of her with the band. Nicky maintains it was never his intention to make Enya a permanent member, and realised she was \"fiercely independent ... intent on playing her own music. She was just not sure of how to go about it\". This sparked discussions between the two on the idea of using Enya's voice to form a \"choir of one\", a concept based on the \"wall of sound\" technique by Phil Spector that interested them both.", "The Angel and the Soldier Boy\nThe Angel and the Soldier Boy is the 13th album by Irish folk group Clannad, released in 1989. It is the soundtrack to the animated movie of the same name and contains both the music to the movie and the narration of the story by Tom Conti. The animation is based on the award-winning children's picture book by Peter Collington.", "Clannad\nBy the time Clannad entered Windmill Lane Studios in Dublin to record \"Fuaim\" (Irish for \"Sound\"), Enya had become a full-time member. The album displays the group's further experimentation with electronic instruments, and Enya is featured on lead vocals on \"An tÚll\" and \"Buaireadh an Phósta\". Neil Buckley plays the clarinet and saxophone plus Noel Bridgeman on percussion and Pat Farrell on electric guitar. \"Fuaim\" was released by Tara Music in 1982. After a further European tour, their managers Nicky Ryan and Roma Ryan left the group. Nicky had brought Enya into the group to expand their sound, yet the group soon settled into their \"boring\" musical formula once more and called a meeting during the tour. After a group vote, the Ryans split. Enya followed suit, feeling increasingly restricted in a band setting and pursued a solo career with the Ryans as collaborators, causing a rift between the two groups for a short time.", "List of Clarence episodes\n\"Clarence\" is an American animated television series created by Skyler Page for Cartoon Network. Page, a former Cartoon Network storyboard artist for the series \"Adventure Time\" and storyboard revisionist for \"Secret Mountain Fort Awesome\", developed the series at Cartoon Network Studios in 2012 as part of their animated short development initiative. The series revolves around a young boy named Clarence, who is optimistic about everything. The network initially commissioned twelve 15-minute episodes, and aired the pilot following the 2014 \"Hall of Game Awards\" show on February 17, 2014.", "List of Clannad episodes\nAside from the theme music used for the episodes, the rest of the soundtrack for both anime series is sampled from several albums released for the \"Clannad\" visual novel including the \"Clannad Original Soundtrack\", \"Mabinogi\", \"-Memento-\", \"Sorarado\", and \"Sorarado Append\". The cover art for \"Sorarado Append\" is also visible as the last shot in the ending video animation of the first season. This includes four insert songs used within the first season's episodes which include: and \"Ana\" used in episode nine, used in episode 18, and used in episode 22 which is also the main ending theme from the visual novel.", "Clangers\nThe series was made by Smallfilms, the company set up by Oliver Postgate (who was the show's writer, animator and narrator) and Peter Firmin (who was its modelmaker and illustrator). Firmin designed the characters, and his wife knitted and \"dressed\" them. The music, often part of the story, was provided by Vernon Elliott.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nTomoya meets Nagisa Furukawa, the main heroine of \"Clannad\", at the onset of the story. Nagisa is a shy girl who has an illness which causes her to rely on those around her for support. She has developed the strange habit of muttering the names of favorite foods that she plans to eat as a way to motivate herself, such as anpan. Kyou Fujibayashi, another of \"Clannad\" heroines, is a loud, aggressive girl well known as a good cook among her friends and family. When angry she does not hesitate to throw a dictionary at people that she often carries around for such purposes. Despite this attitude, she also has a more subdued side, especially towards her younger fraternal twin sister Ryou Fujibayashi.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nA maxi single by Eufonius was released in July 2007 for the \"Clannad\" film called \"Mag Mell (frequency⇒e Ver.)\". The single contained a remix version of the game's opening theme, and instrumental track of that remix, and an original track. An image album titled \"Yakusoku\" was released in August 2007 featuring a song sung by Lia, an instrumental version of that song, and two background music tracks used in the film. The film's original soundtrack was released in November 2007. The albums released for the film were produced by Frontier Works. A single was released in October 2007 for the first anime series called \"Mag Mell / Dango Daikazoku\" which contained the anime's opening and ending themes in original, short, and instrumental versions plus a remix version of , a track featured in \"Sorarado\" sung by Riya. A single for the second season anime series was released in November 2008 called \"Toki o Kizamu Uta / Torch\", and contains the anime's opening and ending themes sung by Lia. A remix album containing piano arrangement versions of the second anime series' opening and ending themes was released in December 2008 called \"\"Toki o Kizamu Uta / Torch\" Piano Arrange Disc\". The anime series' two singles and one album are released on Key Sounds Label.", "Mike Maden\nMaden is a Tom Clancy fan from reading \"The Hunt for Red October\" back in graduate school. He elaborated that \"Tom Clancy’s genius was to bring current technology into stories in a powerful and entertaining way, but he also created some of the most compelling characters in the genre—a genre he essentially invented. No one can ever replace him or even imitate him.\" On February 20, 2017, The Real Book Spy announced that Grant Blackwood, as well as Mark Greaney, is leaving the Tom Clancy franchise. Blackwood was replaced by Maden for the Jack Ryan Jr. novels slated for release in the summer. Speaking of Maden's inclusion into the franchise, longtime Tom Clancy editor Tom Colgan, who is also Maden's editor, stated: “I had read and loved Mike Maden’s Troy Pearce series, so he was the first person I thought of for the Jack Jr. books and I have to say that it’s been a blast working with him on \"Tom Clancy Point of Contact\".\"", "Music of Clannad\nis a single for the \"Clannad\" anime series by Kyoto Animation which was released on October 26, 2007 in Japan by Key Sounds Label bearing the catalog number \"KSLA-0036\". The single contains the opening and ending themes from the anime version in full length, TV length, and off-vocal versions, along with a bonus remix track of the song \"Shōjo no Gensō\" from the earlier \"Sorarado\" image album released in 2003. The opening theme \"Mag Mell (cuckool mix 2007)\" is performed by Eufonius and sung by Riya, who also sings \"Shōjo no Gensō\". The ending theme \"Dango Daikazoku\" is sung by Chata. The single is composed, arranged, and produced by Jun Maeda, Magome Togoshi, Hajime Kikuchi, Takumaru, and ZTS.", "Clannad\nClannad was formed in 1970 by siblings Ciarán Brennan, Pól, and Máire Brennan and their twin uncles Noel and Pádraig Duggan. The five grew up in Dore, an area of Gweedore, a remote parish in County Donegal in the northwest corner of Ireland. It is a Gaeltacht region where Irish is the main language. Raised as a Roman Catholic family of musicians, the Brennans' mother, Máire \"Baba\" Brennan (née Duggan), was a music teacher while their father, Leo Brennan, was a member of the Slieve Foy Band, an Irish showband. Later in their careers the two bought and ran Leo's Tavern, a pub in nearby Meenaleck where the Duggan and Brennan children would perform covers of songs by the Beatles, the Beach Boys, and Joni Mitchell.", "Music of Clannad\nThe core of the discography is the two original soundtrack albums. The visual novel's soundtrack, which was also used for both anime series, was produced by Key Sounds Label and released in 2004. The music on the soundtrack was composed and arranged by Jun Maeda, Shinji Orito and Magome Togoshi. A soundtrack for the animated film was released in 2007 by Frontier Works. The music on the film soundtrack was mainly composed and arranged by Yoshichika Inomata. Two studio image song albums were released for the visual novel in 2003 and 2004. Three remix albums were released for the visual novel in 2004 and 2005, and a remix album was released for the second anime series in 2008. Four singles were released in 2007 and 2008, two for the film, and one each for both anime series.", "Clannad\nIn 1970, Clannad signed a recording contract with Polydor Records after they came first in the annual Letterkenny Folk Festival. However, the label initially refused to release their music as they had little faith in their proposed album with songs sung in English and Irish. Their debut album, \"Clannad\", was recorded at Eamonn Andrews Studios and is formed of arranged Irish songs, including a cover of \"Morning Dew\" by Bonnie Dobson, and original material. Following the album's release in 1973, Clannad took part in the heat stages of the 1973 Eurovision Song Contest for Ireland with \"An Pháirc\" from \"Clannad\" as their entry. The band released \"Clannad 2\" as their second studio album on Gael Linn Records in 1974. To produce the album the band hired Dónal Lunny, founder of the Irish bands Planxty and The Bothy Band. Like their first release, \"Clannad 2\" features a mixture of English and Irish songs, this time with Lunny and Bothy Band members on additional instruments.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nThe opening theme for the first season is Mag Mell' (cuckool mix 2007)\" by Eufonius, a remix of the song Mag Mell' (cockool mix)\", featured on the third disc of the game's original soundtrack, which is itself a remix of the game's opening theme . The first season's ending theme is by Chata. It carries the same tune as , the ending theme from the After Story arc of the game. The second season's opening theme is which uses the same tune as the background music track from the game's soundtrack. The ending theme is \"Torch\", and both the opening and ending themes are sung by Lia. The rest of the soundtrack for both anime series is sampled from several albums released for the \"Clannad\" visual novel including the \"Clannad Original Soundtrack\", \"Mabinogi\", \"-Memento-\", \"Sorarado\", and \"Sorarado Append\". The cover art for \"Sorarado Append\" is also visible as the last shot in the ending video animation of the first season.", "Crackdown (series)\nCrackdown is a series of sandbox-style action adventure video games created by David Jones and published by Microsoft Studios. The series takes place in a futuristic dystopian city controlled and enforced by a secret organization called the Agency. The games center on the Agency's super soldiers known as Agents as they fight threats ranging from various criminal syndicates, a terrorist group known as the Cell, and zombie-like monsters called Freaks.", "Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 TV series)\nStar Wars: The Clone Wars is an American 3D CGI animated television series created by George Lucas and produced by Lucasfilm Animation, Lucasfilm and CGCG Inc. The series began with released on August 15, 2008, and debuted on Cartoon Network on October 3, 2008. It is set in the fictional \"Star Wars\" galaxy during the three years between the prequel films \"\" and \"\", the same time period as the previous 2D 2003 TV series \"\". Each episode has a running time of 22 minutes to fill a half-hour time slot. Dave Filoni is the supervising director of the series. Genndy Tartakovsky, director of the first \"Clone Wars\" series, was not involved with the production, but character designer Kilian Plunkett referred to the character designs from the 2D series when designing the characters for the 3D series. There is also an online comic depicting story snippets between episodes.", "Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill\nWith Clannad", "Crusades (comics)\nThe Crusades is an American comic book series published by the Vertigo imprint of DC Comics. It was created by writer Steven T. Seagle and artist Kelley Jones.", "The Shield\nThe Shield is an American crime drama television series starring Michael Chiklis that premiered on March 12, 2002, on FX in the United States, and concluded on November 25, 2008, after seven seasons. Known for its portrayal of corrupt police officers, it was originally advertised as \"Rampart\" in reference to the true life Rampart Division police scandal, on which the show's Strike Team was loosely based. The series was created by Shawn Ryan and The Barn Productions for Fox Television Studios and Sony Pictures Television.", "Clique (TV series)\nClique is a British thriller television series created by Jess Brittain, starring Synnøve Karlsen and Rachel Hurd-Wood. It was released as part of BBC Three's online-only schedule and later aired on BBC One. Series 1 premiered on 5 March 2017 and concluded on 9 April 2017. A second six-part series was ordered in January 2018. It premiered in November 2018.", "Clannad\nThe five original members of Clannad appeared on stage together at the Celtic Connections Festival in Glasgow on 19 January 2007. The concert was greeted by 2,000 fans who travelled from places such as the US and Brazil to see the legendary group perform some of the most loved songs in their history. While at the Meteor Ireland Music Awards that were held in Dublin on 1 February 2007 Clannad were presented with the coveted Lifetime Achievement Award.\nIn March 2008, Clannad began their first UK tour in over 12 years, starting at The Sage in Gateshead. The tour culminated in a dozen dates, including concerts in Ireland and Thailand.", "Atlantic Realm\nAtlantic Realm is the eleventh album by Irish folk group Clannad, released in 1989. It is the soundtrack to the BBC television series \"The Natural World: Atlantic Realm\", a documentary about the Atlantic Ocean.", "Theme from Harry's Game\n\"Theme from \"Harry's Game\"\" is a song performed by the Irish group Clannad, which was written and composed by Pól Brennan and Ciarán Brennan. Released as a single in October 1982, the song served as the main track from their album \"Magical Ring.\" However, the song was initially written and composed for the Yorkshire Television production \"Harry's Game,\" which depicted The Troubles in Northern Ireland. The song reached #5 in the United Kingdom Singles Chart in November 1982. It was also a huge success in Ireland, the band's home country, where it reached #2.", "Crowded (TV series)\nCrowded is an American sitcom that aired on NBC from March 15 to May 22, 2016. The series was created by Suzanne Martin, executive produced by Martin, Sean Hayes and Todd Milliner, through their Hazy Mills Productions, and produced in association with Universal Television. Like their other series \"Hot in Cleveland\", this multi-camera sitcom is recorded in front of a live studio audience. The series was greenlit to order by NBC on May 7, 2015. The show debuted as a mid-season entry in the 2015–16 television season, with a 13-episode order.\nOn May 13, 2016, NBC cancelled the series after only a single season and only 13 episodes.", "Drew Goddard\nAndrew Brion Hogan Goddard (born February 26, 1975) is an American film and television screenwriter, director, and producer. He began his career as a writer on acclaimed television series, such as \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\", \"Alias\", and \"Lost\". He also created the Netflix superhero series \"Daredevil\".", "The Celts (TV series)\nThe series was directed by David Richardson, written and presented by Frank Delaney, produced by the British Broadcasting Corporation, and broadcast on BBC Two. The series was released on DVD in Europe and North America in 2004. Delaney also wrote a six-chapter companion book, extended with four tales from Irish mythology.\nThe series introduced the music of Irish singer Enya to a wider audience. Enya, formerly a member of the Celtic music group Clannad, was commissioned by David Richardson to compose the score for the series.", "List of Clannad episodes\nThe \"Clannad\" anime series has 24 episodes, 23 of which were originally broadcast between October 2007 and March 2008. The last episode was released as an original video animation (OVA) on the eighth DVD in July 2008. The anime series was released in a set of eight DVD compilations in Japan released between December 2007 and July 2008 by Pony Canyon, with each compilation containing three episodes. The license holding company Sentai Filmworks licensed the \"Clannad\" anime series, and Section23 Films localized and distributed the television series and the OVA starting with the first half season box set consisting of 12 episodes with English subtitles, Japanese audio, and no English language track, which was released in March 2009. The second half season box set containing the remaining episodes was released in May 2009. Sentai Filmworks and Section23 Films released the entire first season, including the OVA, in a complete collection set featuring an English dub on June 15, 2010.", "Clannad\nLeo Brennan died on 22 June 2016 (age 90) at his home at Upper Dore, Gweedore in West Donegal, Ireland.", "Creeped Out\nCreeped Out is a British-Canadian anthology television series which began on CBBC on 31 October 2017 (Halloween) in the United Kingdom and in Canada on the Family Channel. The show was created by Bede Blake and Robert Butler and is a co-production between CBBC Productions and DHX Media. Each episode has an individual story, and are linked together by 'The Curious', a mysterious story collector who appears at the beginning and end of each episode. According to the creators Bede Blake and Robert Butler, inspiration was drawn from Steven Spielberg and \"Amazing Stories\" in particular. Creator of the science-fiction series \"Continuum\" and \"Ghost Wars\", Simon Barry, serves as executive creative consultant. On 9 August 2018, it was announced that \"Creeped Out\" had been commissioned for a second series by CBBC and Family Channel. The second series is expected to release in October. \"Creeped Out\" will also be available to stream on Netflix in October.", "Clannad\nClannad released their third album \"Dúlamán\" in 1976. The album is named after the Irish folk song \"Dúlamán\" which became a fan favourite at Clannad concerts. \"Dúlamán\" was recorded at Rockfield Studios in Wales and is their first album produced by Nicky Ryan. They supported \"Dúlamán\" with their first tour of Europe which they completed in 1976, during which a standing ovation they received after an extended rendition of \"Níl Sé'n Lá\" convinced them to continue with Clannad full-time. Dates from their 1978 tour of Switzerland was released in the following year as \"Clannad in Concert\". Also in 1979, Clannad underwent a 36-date tour of North America, the most extensive by an Irish band at the time.", "Douglas Schwartz\nDouglas Schwartz is an American television screenwriter and series creator who, along with Michael Berk, worked as a writer on the television series Manimal, and multiple made for television movies. He is most famous for creating co-producing, and writing The Wizard (TV series), as well as creating and writing the earlier scripts of \"Baywatch\", a series which exceeded a global audience of 1 billion people. He also developed \"Sheena\", based on the comic book of the same name.", "John Cassaday\nJohn Cassaday (; born 1971) is an American comic book artist, writer, and television director, best known for his work on \"Planetary\", \"Astonishing X-Men\", \"Captain America\" and \"Star Wars\". He has received multiple Eagle and Eisner Awards and nominations for his work.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nTomoya meets a genius girl named Kotomi Ichinose, one day in the school library. She is ranked in the top 10 throughout the whole country in standardized exam results of every subject—she always goes to library to read extra materials, especially books in foreign languages. Kotomi is a quiet girl with poor social skills and it is quite difficult to communicate with her; Kotomi can even completely ignore someone when reading, even if they make loud disturbances around her. \"Clannad\" fourth heroine is a second-year student named Tomoyo Sakagami who transfers into Tomoya's school. Tomoyo is known to be a strong fighter, preferring to use kicking over punching, and is athletic. Although Tomoya is older than her, Tomoyo does not show him respect as a senior student. Tomoyo appears in Key's fifth game, \"\", as the main heroine.", "Clannad\nIn 1982, the now five-piece Clannad signed to RCA Records. They then accepted an invitation to record a song for \"Harry's Game\", a three-part television drama depicting The Troubles in Northern Ireland. Ciarán, Pól, and Máire got together and wrote \"Theme from Harry's Game\". The song became a commercial success upon its release as a single in October 1982, peaking at number 2 in Ireland and number 5 in the UK. It remains the only UK hit single to be sung entirely in Irish. From 1983 to 1987, rock band U2 used the song at the end of every concert. Following their newfound success with \"Theme from Harry's Game\", Clannad included the song on their seventh studio album, \"Magical Ring\", released in 1983. The single and album marked the start of their international career, and \"Magical Ring\" became their first to be certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI).", "Mark Greaney (novelist)\nMark Greaney (born 1967) is an American novelist, best known as Tom Clancy's collaborator on his final three books, and for continuing the Jack Ryan character and the Tom Clancy universe following Clancy's death from 2013 to 2016. He is also well known for the Gray Man series of novels.", "Moments in a Lifetime\nMoments in a Lifetime is a biographical/autiobiographical book about the Irish band Clannad, written by Barbara Bennett with band member Noel Duggan. The book was published to coincide with Clannad's 2008 tour of Britain and Ireland. The book contains exclusive photographs and accounts of touring and recording as a band.", "Banished (TV series)\nBanished was a British drama television serial created by Jimmy McGovern. The seven-part serial first aired on 5 March 2015 on BBC Two and was inspired by events in the eighteenth century when Britain established a penal colony in Australia.", "Moya Brennan\nIt was during this time in 1970 that Brennan joined her two brothers Pól and Ciarán and their mother's twin brothers Noel and Pádraig Ó Dúgáin and eventually formed Clannad. They were identified and introduced to television by Tony MacMahon. After enjoying a decade of being among the world's foremost Irish musical groups, Clannad graduated to chart success in 1982 with the album \"Magical Ring\". Brennan was at the forefront of the group's success and her voice suddenly became synonymous with Celtic music and Irish music at the time. Brennan recorded 17 albums with Clannad and has won a Grammy, a BAFTA and an Ivor Novello award with the quintet. Her sister Eithne Ní Bhraonáin, who spent a while with Clannad, continues to pursue a very successful solo career under the name Enya.", "Hunted (2012 TV series)\nSamantha (Melissa George) is an espionage operative for \"Byzantium\", a private intelligence agency. She survives an attempt on her life, which she strongly suspects was orchestrated by members of the company she works for. After recovering and returning to active duty, she goes back to work undercover as a nanny, not knowing who tried to kill her or whom to trust. It becomes evident that the attempt on her life is tied into a horrific event from her childhood.The series was created by Frank Spotnitz (best known as executive producer and head writer for \"The X-Files\"), who will write the majority of the episodes of series 1. Spotnitz is executive producing with Kudos’ Stephen Garrett (executive producer of \"\", \"Spooks/MI5\"), Jane Featherstone (producer behind \"Spooks/MI5\", \"The Hour\", \"Life on Mars\"), Alison Jackson (\"Ashes to Ashes\", \"Eternal Law\"), and BBC's Christopher Aird (\"Spooks\", \"The Inspector Lynley Mysteries\").", "Clannad (visual novel)\nThe first manga illustrated by Juri Misaki titled \"Clannad Official Comic\" was serialized in Jive's manga magazine \"Comic Rush\" between the May 2005 and April 2009 issues. Jive published eight \"tankōbon\" volumes between November 7, 2005 and March 7, 2009. The second manga, titled \"Official Another Story Clannad: Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de\" and illustrated by Rino Fujii, was serialized between June 21, 2007 and August 21, 2008 in Flex Comix's \"Comi Digi +\" magazine, and contained 11 chapters. The story for the second manga was adapted from the \"Clannad\" short story collection of the same name. The first volume for \"Official Another Story Clannad\" was released by Broccoli on February 21, 2008 in a limited and regular edition, each with their own cover. The limited edition comes bundled with a small black notebook with the school emblem of Tomoya's school on the cover. In order to commemorate the sale, an autograph session with the manga's illustrator signing copies was held on March 2, 2008 at Gamers in Nagoya, Japan. The second and final volume, again in limited and regular editions, was released on December 20, 2008.", "Nicky Ryan\nRyan was introduced to the family Celtic band Clannad by their manager Fachtna O'Kelly. In 1975, he became the sound engineer for the family band Clannad and from 1976, their new manager along with his wife Roma Ryan after O'Kelly left to manage The Boomtown Rats. In 1980, Ryan persuaded Enya, the younger sister of siblings Máire, Pól and Ciarán Brennan, to join the band with them and twin uncles, Noel and Pádraig Duggan. During her two-year stint in the group, Ryan and Enya often discussed his idea of recording many vocal tracks and layering them to create a sound effect inspired by the wall of sound technique developed by Phil Spector.", "Professor Chronotis\nProfessor Urban Chronotis is a fictional character created by Douglas Adams. He was originally created for the 1979 \"Doctor Who\" serial \"Shada\", starring Tom Baker and Lalla Ward. However, the filming of the serial was never completed due to a strike. Adams then re-used the character and many of the themes from \"Shada\" in his novel \"Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency\", first published in 1987. In both versions, Chronotis is a clandestine time-traveller, whose time machine (or TARDIS, as they are termed in \"Doctor Who\") is disguised as his college rooms.", "Clannad discography\nClannad achieved a breakthrough in their career in 1983 with the song \"Theme from Harry's Game\" which peaked at number five in the United Kingdom charts and won an Ivor Novello award. Clannad won a BAFTA for their 1984 \"Legend\", the soundtrack for the \"Robin of Sherwood\" series. In 1998, Clannad were awarded a Grammy award for their latest studio album, \"Landmarks\".", "Clannad (visual novel)\n\"Clannad\" has made several transitions to other media. There have been four manga adaptations published by ASCII Media Works, Flex Comix, Fujimi Shobo and Jive. Comic anthologies, light novels and art books have also been published, as have audio dramas and several albums of music. An animated film by Toei Animation was released in September 2007, followed by two anime series including two original video animation (OVA) episodes by Kyoto Animation produced between 2007 and 2009. Both anime series and their accompanying OVAs are licensed by Sentai Filmworks and were released in North America in 2009. The animated adaptations have received high sales figures in Japan as well as critical acclaim abroad.", "Clannad: Live in Concert\nLive in Concert is a live album by the Irish folk group Clannad which was released in 2005. It features new versions of material from across the band's catalogue as far back as their 1973 debut album. Songs originally released in their simplest acoustic form are now performed here with brand new full band arrangements. \"In A Lifetime\" features a duet with former Riverdance singer Brian Kennedy. An 11-minute medley of music from the \"Robin of Sherwood\" TV series features previously unreleased music. The album was compiled from concerts recorded during their 1996 European tour.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nFor the anime television adaptation, the first season of \"Clannad\" received reviews ranging from positive to mixed, while the second season \"Clannad After Story\" received wide critical acclaim. The THEM Anime Reviews website gave the entire series a score of 4 out of 5 stars, with reviewer Tim Jones describing the first season as \"the most fleshed-out and real Key animated adaption to date,\" and reviewer Stig Høgset stating that the second season \"After Story\" \"will play up the tragedies and the drama considerably, quite possibly tearing out your heart in the process. This is where time truly starts to fly by, lending the show some real weight in the emotional departments.\"", "Music of Clannad\nThe is the soundtrack to the \"Clannad\" film released by Frontier Works on November 21, 2007 bearing the catalog number \"FCCM-0198\". The album spans one disc with twenty-seven tracks featuring music composed by Yoshichika Inomata. Four songs are performed by Eufonius and sung by Riya, \"Mag Mell (frequency⇒e Ver.)\", \"Marmelo (fildychrom)\", \"Marmelo (fildychrom La la la Ver.)\", and \"Chiisana Tenohira (Eufonius Ver.)\"; the last song on the soundtrack, \"Yakusoku\", is sung by Lia.", "Clannad (visual novel)\n\"Clannad\" story revolves around Tomoya Okazaki, a third year high school student who dislikes his life. Tomoya's mother (Atsuko) died when Tomoya was young, leaving his father (Naoyuki) to raise him. After the accident, Tomoya's father turned to alcohol and gambling, and had frequent fights with his son. One day, Naoyuki, while arguing with his son, slammed Tomoya against the window, dislocating Tomoya's shoulder. This injury prevents Tomoya from playing on the basketball team, and causes him to distance himself from others. Ever since then, his father has treated Tomoya nicely, but distantly, as if Tomoya and he were strangers rather than a family. This hurts Tomoya more than his previous relationship with his father, and the awkwardness of returning home leads Tomoya constantly to stay out all night. Thus his delinquent life begins. Tomoya's good friend Youhei Sunohara, who was thrown out of the soccer club over a dispute with his seniors, is also a delinquent and often hangs out in his dorm room with Tomoya doing nothing much.", "James Macdonald (director)\nJames Macdonald is a British theatre and film director who is best known for his work with contemporary writers such as Caryl Churchill. He was associate and deputy director of The Royal Court from 1992-2006. There he staged the premiere of Sarah Kane's \"Blasted\" (1995), her highly controversial debut which sparked a Newsnight debate on BBC Television. He also directed the premiere of Kane's \"Cleansed\" (1998) and \"4.48 Psychosis\" which opened after her suicide.", "Clannad (film)\nThe film was first announced to be in production at the Tokyo Anime Fair on March 23, 2006 for a planned 2007 release. The original character design was conceived by Itaru Hinoue, the art director from Key who worked on the visual novel. This design was later used as a template for Megumi Kadonosono who provided the character art for the film adaptation. Kadonosono previously worked on two other animated films released in early 2007: \"Fashionable Witches Love and Berry: Magic of Happiness\" as the chief animation director, and the \"Kiddy Grade\" film, also providing the character design. The screenplay was written by Makoto Nakamura who had worked on the first \"Kanon\" anime television series in 2002, and the \"Air\" film in 2005, two other anime adapted from visual novels originally made by Key. Finally, the film was directed by Osamu Dezaki, who has been involved with animation direction since the first \"Astro Boy\" anime in 1963, and went on to direct the \"Air\" film.", "Clannad\nClannad have won numerous awards throughout their career, including a Grammy Award, a BAFTA, an Ivor Novello Award, and a Billboard Music Award. They have recorded in six different languages, and scored eight UK top-10 albums. They are widely regarded as a band that have brought Irish music and the Irish language to a worldwide audience, often experiencing more popularity abroad than in their native Ireland.", "Crossed (comics)\nThe first series was originally optioned for an independently-funded film, with Ennis writing the screenplay. It was going to be financed by Trigger Street Productions and produced by Michael De Luca, Jason Netter, and Kevin Spacey. In the end of 2012, however, Ennis announced that he and Avatar Press had recovered the rights to the franchise. They made plans to launch a series of webisodes in an attempt to generate interest for a feature film. In March 2013 \"Crossed: Dead Or Alive\", an upcoming series of live action webisodes, written and directed by Ennis was announced. \"DOA\" will be accompanied by an Ennis-penned tie-in web comic that will expand and further develop the concepts of the film series and its characters. A goal was set to film all the episodes for \"Crossed: Dead or Alive\" season 1 in early 2014.", "Fuaim\nFuaim (Irish for \"sound\") is the sixth album by Irish folk group Clannad. It was released in 1982. It was produced by Nicky Ryan and was the last Clannad album to feature younger sister Eithne Ní Bhraonáin, later known as Enya. It is also the only Clannad album to credit her; while she performed keyboard and backing vocals on the previous album \"Crann Úll\", she was not credited for this. She departed, along with Nicky Ryan, shortly thereafter to begin a solo career.", "Tom Clancy\nThomas Leo Clancy Jr. (April 12, 1947 – October 1, 2013) was an American novelist best known for his technically detailed espionage and military-science storylines set during and after the Cold War. Seventeen of his novels were bestsellers, and more than 100 million copies of his books are in print. His name was also used on movie scripts written by ghostwriters, nonfiction books on military subjects, and video games. He was a part-owner of the Baltimore Orioles and vice-chairman of their community activities and public affairs committees.", "Jack Ryan (TV series)\nTom Clancy's Jack Ryan, or simply Jack Ryan, is an American action political thriller web television series, based on characters from the fictional \"Ryanverse\" created by Tom Clancy, that premiered on August 31, 2018 on Amazon Video. The series was created by Carlton Cuse and Graham Roland. Cuse serves as an executive producer alongside John Krasinski, Michael Bay and Mace Neufeld, among others. Krasinski also stars in the series as the titular character, making him the fifth actor to portray the character after Alec Baldwin, Harrison Ford, Ben Affleck and Chris Pine from the film series. In April 2018, it was announced that Amazon had renewed the series for a second season.", "Teen Titans (season 1)\nThe first season of the animated television series Teen Titans, based on the DC comics series created by Bob Haney and Bruno Premiani, originally aired on Cartoon Network in the United States. Developed by television writer David Slack, the series was produced by DC Entertainment and Warner Bros. Animation. It stars Scott Menville, Hynden Walch, Khary Payton, Tara Strong, and Greg Cipes as the voices of the main characters.", "Music of Clannad\nis a maxi single arranged by the J-pop band Eufonius first released in Japan on July 14, 2007 by Frontier Works. The music CD was only available to those who have already pre-ordered film tickets. The CD contains three tracks, two theme songs sung by Riya for the \"Clannad\" film, and an instrumental version of track one.", "Charmed (2018 TV series)\nCharmed is an American fantasy drama television series developed by Jennie Snyder Urman, Jessica O'Toole, and Amy Rardin. It is a reboot of The WB series of the same name, created by Constance M. Burge, which originally aired from 1998 to 2006. \"Charmed\" was ordered to pilot in January 2018 by The CW and received a series order in May 2018. The series, which premiered in the United States on October 14, 2018, follows the lives of three sisters—Macy (Madeleine Mantock), Mel (Melonie Diaz) and Maggie (Sarah Jeffery)—who, after the death of their mother, discover they are The Charmed Ones, the most powerful witches, and together they possess the \"Power of Three\". Each sister has a supernatural ability, which they use to help protect innocent lives from supernatural demons. On November 8, 2018, The CW ordered a 22-episode full season.", "Charmed\nConstance M. Burge was hired to create the series as she was under contract with 20th Century Fox and Spelling Television after conceiving the drama series \"Savannah\" (1996–97). When the theme of witchcraft was first pitched to her, she was aware of stereotypes of witches (flying brooms, black cats, and warts). After researching Wicca, she changed her perspective and aimed at telling a story of good witches who looked and acted like ordinary people. With this, her initial concept was a series set in Boston, Massachusetts about three friends and roommates who were all witches. However, executive producer E. Duke Vincent lacked confidence, asking \"Why would anybody want to watch a show about three witches?\" He proposed that the series should focus on family values and developed the series-long mantra of it being about \"three sisters who happen to be witches, not three witches who happen to be sisters.\" Spelling warmed to Burge's ideas and, after the concept was re-crafted to be a series about three sisters (now living in San Francisco) descended from a line of witches, it was pitched to The WB's President of Entertainment, Susanne Daniels, who liked it, allowing the series to begin development.", "A Magical Gathering: The Clannad Anthology\nA Magical Gathering: The Clannad Anthology is a greatest hits compilation album by Clannad, released by Rhino Records in 2002. With performances in English and Gaelic, Rhino’s two-disc release is the first-ever career-spanning collection from the group. With 34 tracks released between 1973 and 1998, it includes signature songs like \"Theme from Harry's Game\" and \"In a Lifetime\".", "Clannad\nIn 1991, Clannad released a duet Paul Young titled \"Both Sides Now\". The track had been put together for the Blake Edwards film \"Switch\", featuring Ellen Barkin. In the storyline, a nasty male chauvinist, is reincarnated as an attractive female. The use of the Joni Mitchell song was therefore suitable and proved a hit for the group. Released in 1993, \"Banba\" became Clannad's 13th studio album and received rave reviews and the band's first Grammy nomination. The album jogged comfortably to the number one spot in the World Music Chart. \"Banba\" is a romantic mythical name for Ireland. In the track \"I Will Find You,\" written especially for the film \"The Last of the Mohicans\", Máire sings in English, Mohican and Cherokee. Once again all the songs were written and produced by Ciarán Brennan, except \"Sunset Dreams\", written by Noel Duggan. Moya Brennan described the album as \"\"a fusion of various styles of music, growing out of a traditional Gaelic root.\"\" \"Banba\" has been described as one of Clannad's most visual albums, and has sold over 1 million copies to date.\nThe album \"Lore\" (1996) gave some thought to the Native American Indians. On \"Trail of Tears\", when Noel Duggan imagines how it felt to be exiled from one's ancestral land, he was also thinking about these people and their connection with the Irish. It opens with \"Croí Cróga\" ('braveheart' in English) which was written as a theme tune for the Mel Gibson film \"Braveheart\" which, for unknown reasons, never made it onto the soundtrack. \"Lore\" features American drummer Vinnie Colaiuta and Mel Collins. It contained a strong jazz element, with songs such as \"Seanchas\" blending contemporary sounds with traditional Irish music and the Irish language. Clannad toured Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand in 1996 to promote the \"Lore\" album, but due to apparent disagreements with Atlantic Records, plans to tour the USA were scrapped. In 1996, they received a lifetime achievement award from the Irish recording industry (the IRMA).", "List of Ratchet &amp; Clank characters\nClank (voiced by David Kaye) is a small robot who is initially created in a Blargian war-robot factory. After escaping, he is found by Ratchet and becomes his partner in stopping the Blarg and many other threats to the universe.", "Clannad\nClannad () are an Irish family band formed in 1970 in Gweedore, County Donegal. Their music has been described as folk, folk rock, traditional Irish, Celtic and new-age, often incorporating elements of smooth jazz and Gregorian chant.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nTwo \"Clannad\" anthology character novels were written by several authors and published by Jive in September and December 2004. The first volume of a short story anthology compilation series written by Hiro Akizuki and Mutsuki Misaki titled was released in November 2008 published by Harvest; the third volume was released in October 2009. Three volumes of a short story compilation series by several authors titled \"Clannad SSS\" were published by Harvest between June and August 2009. Harvest published a novel titled \"Clannad Mystery File\" in August 2010 and another novel titled \"Clannad: Magic Hour\" in December 2010.", "Klondike (miniseries)\nKlondike is a three-part mini-series by the Discovery Channel that was broadcast on January 20–22, 2014. It was the network's first-ever scripted miniseries and was directed by Simon Cellan Jones and executive produced by Ridley Scott. \"Klondike\" stars Richard Madden and Augustus Prew as two adventurers who travel to Yukon, Canada, in the late 1890s during the Klondike Gold Rush.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nA magazine-sized 39-page book called \"pre-Clannad\" was published by SoftBank Creative on April 15, 2004. The book contained images from the visual novel, and short explanations of the characters, along with production sketches and concept drawings. A 160-page visual fan book was published by Enterbrain on October 12, 2004 which contained detailed story explanations, computer graphics, sheet music for the opening and ending themes, and interviews from the creators. Near the end of the book contains original illustrations of \"Clannad\" characters from various artists, three additional chapters of the \"Official Another Story\", and production sketches.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nThe last heroine in \"Clannad\" is a first-year student named Fuko Ibuki who is eccentric and childish, before she met Tomoya, was generally seen alone by herself making wood carvings of starfish with a small knife to give to others as presents. Fuko is extremely enthralled by starfish, or things that are star-shaped, and will often go into short euphoric bouts where her awareness of her surroundings is completely overtaken.", "Chrono Crusade\nChrono Crusade, originally known in Japan as , due to a typo, is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Daisuke Moriyama. It was originally published by Kadokawa Shoten in \"Comic Dragon\", then a special issue of the \"Dragon Magazine\". A 24-episode anime television series based on the manga ran from 2003 to 2004 on Fuji TV. The animation work was done by Gonzo. The series was released in North America by ADV Manga and ADV Films, titled \"Chrono Crusade\".", "ClanDestine\nThe ClanDestine (also known simply as ClanDestine) is an appellation used to refer to the Destines, a fictional secret family of long-lived superhuman beings appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. They were created in 1994 by British writer/artist Alan Davis, and appear in various comic book series published by Marvel Comics. They first appeared in \"Marvel Comics Presents\" #158 (July 1994) before going on to appear in their own self-titled monthly series, \"The ClanDestine\", which lasted twelves issues before it was cancelled. The characters subsequently appeared in a number of miniseries and one-shots, all written and drawn by Davis.", "Clannad 2\nClannad 2 is the second studio album by Irish folk group Clannad, released in 1974 on Gael Linn Records.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nIn the second part of the story, which starts immediately after the end of the first part but extends into the next seven years, Tomoya and Nagisa start living together, and eventually get married. Tomoya has to endure several hardships that the family has been suffering from, especially Nagisa's illness. Just after Nagisa gives birth to their daughter Ushio, she dies, which causes Tomoya to become severely depressed. He is barely able to function, let alone look after an infant. As a result, Nagisa's parents, Akio and Sanae, take care of their granddaughter. Five years later, Tomoya meets with Shino Okazaki, his paternal grandmother. Shino tells Tomoya of his father's traumatic past, which is eerily similar to Tomoya's current situation. Afterwards, Tomoya resolves to raise Ushio and acknowledges Naoyuki as his father. Shortly after Tomoya overcomes his depression, Ushio is stricken with the same disease that Nagisa had. Tomoya, Sanae and Akio struggle to save her—Tomoya even quits his job—but all of their efforts turn out to be in vain. In the coming winter, wanting to do anything for his daughter, Tomoya takes her on a trip, but she dies shortly after.", "Music of Clannad\n\"Clannad\" is a visual novel developed by Key and published by VisualArt's in 2004. The story follows Tomoya Okazaki, a discontented high school student whose life changes when he meets a girl one year older than him named Nagisa Furukawa. It was adapted by Toei Animation into an animated film in 2007 directed by Osamu Dezaki with music direction by Yoshichika Inomata. Kyoto Animation also adapted it into two anime television series consisting of 49 episodes broadcast between 2007 and 2009, including two original video animation episodes released in 2008 and 2009, directed by Tatsuya Ishihara with music direction by Shinji Orito. The discography of \"Clannad\" and its anime adaptations consists of two studio albums, four singles, two soundtracks, and four remix albums.", "Jan Strnad\nJan Steven Strnad (sometimes credited as J. Knight) is an American writer of comic books, horror, and science fiction. He is known for his many collaborations with artist Richard Corben, as well as his work in the \"Star Wars\" expanded universe, the majority of which has been published by Dark Horse Comics. He has also written for DC Comics, Marvel Comics, Eclipse Comics, and Fantagraphics Books.", "Clannad\n\"Sirius\" was released by RCA in 1988 and was recorded in Los Angeles with rock producers Greg Ladanyi and Russ Kunkel, the drummer for James Taylor's band. The album included a duet with Bruce Hornsby and guest appearances by Steve Perry and J.D. Souther. The title track was Pól's encouraging call to the environmental movement, and to the Greenpeace ship of the same name. \"Something to Believe In\" features Hornsby on vocals and keyboards. Completed with the help of some of the biggest names on the Californian rock scene, \"Sirius\" was another different creation, just like their previous 3 albums. Received with critical apprehension, \"Sirius\" was initially, stoutly defended by the band as a change, but since then members have expressed their disappointment with the album. In 1989, Clannad embarked on their first worldwide tour.", "Brain Powerd\n\"Brain Powerd\" was produced by Sunrise and directed and written by Yoshiyuki Tomino, the creator of the long-running Gundam franchise. \"Brain Powerd\" is often compared to the Gainax's popular \"Neon Genesis Evangelion\", a 1995 anime series with similar themes to \"Brain Powerd\". Tomino claimed that the plans and overall storyline for \"Brain Powerd\" were made even prior to the airing of \"Evangelion\". He stated that he \"never meant [\"Brain Powerd\"] to be an antithesis to \"Evangelion\"\" despite the inevitable comparisons they would receive when his own series debuted in 1998. After deciding not to make any changes to \"Brain Powerd\", he \"resigned\" himself to the fact that the public would label his anime an attempt to best \"Evangelion\". Tomino was enthusiastic about his first attempt at the \"organic\" mecha subgenre in place of the purely metallic robots he had worked with for so many years in his career. He wanted to write an interesting story for \"Brain Powerd\" in order to allow those who watched it to do so without \"having a nervous breakdown\" and to show fans \"that there were often other things out there better than anime\". Tomino has wished that more animators would see themselves as entertainers, though he admitted that he felt that \"Brain Powerd\" was not very entertaining and thus a failure in this regard.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nThere are two separate sets of drama CDs based on the \"Clannad\" series. The first set, produced by Frontier Works, contains five CDs each focusing on a different heroine in \"Clannad\" story ranging from Nagisa, to Kotomi, Fuko, Kyou, and Tomoyo. The first volume was released in Japan on April 25, 2007 as a limited edition with an extra track added. The second through fifth volumes followed in one month increments between May 25, 2007 and August 24, 2007. The second set, produced by Prototype, contains four CDs; the first was released on July 25, 2007. Volumes two through four were released in one month intervals after that, with the last being released on October 24, 2007. Each CD is based on the stories from the \"Official Another Story Clannad: Hikari Mimamoru Sakamichi de\" collection. The artist GotoP, who provided the illustrations for the short stories, also illustrates the drama CD covers. The drama CDs, with text and visuals, are available as downloadable content via Xbox Live and the PlayStation Store when playing the Xbox 360 and PS3 versions of \"Clannad\", respectively.", "Crossed (comics)\nCrossed is a comic book written by Garth Ennis and drawn by Jacen Burrows for the first ten issues, and published by Avatar Press. Following volumes \"Crossed: Family Values\", \"Crossed 3D\", and \"Crossed: Psychopath\" were written by David Lapham. A new series, \"Crossed: Badlands\" is written and drawn by rotating creative teams. The franchise has also spawned two webcomics: \"Crossed: Wish You Were Here\", which ran from 2012–2014, and \"Crossed: Dead or Alive\", which began syndication in November 2014.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nA 3D virtual world called \"Ai Sp@ce\" was developed by the video game developer Headlock where users can interact with bishōjo game heroines from \"Clannad\", \"Shuffle!\", and \"Da Capo II\". Released in October 2008, the world recreates each game franchise on its own virtual island which are linked with a central Akihabara Island where users can interact, bridging the gap between the separate franchises. Users are able to create a customizable avatar to represent themselves in the game, along with choosing one game heroine to live with, which is referred to as a character doll, or chara-doll for short. The user and chara-doll reside together on one of the three in-game \"islands\" depending on which franchise the heroine is from, which includes a house with furniture and clothes that can be purchased. The chara-dolls can also be customizable in that they can develop a unique personality for each user.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nGamania Entertainment hosted a collaboration event with \"Clannad\" and their two massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) \"Hiten Online\" and \"Holy Beast Online\". Between March 26 and June 26, 2008, the two games offered costumes characters could wear which looked like the winter school uniforms from \"Clannad\", along with offering Kyou's pet boar Botan for players to adopt. Players of either game who had a character over level 20 could enter a lottery where 500 people were chosen to win \"Clannad\"-related goods which included virtual and real-world items such as file folders, \"netcash\" cards, sports towels, tapestries, and various items used during gameplay.", "List of Clannad episodes\nOf the 24 episodes planned for release by Kyoto Animation, 23 were aired on television with the first 22 being regular episodes, followed by an additional extra episode. The last episode was released as an original video animation on the eighth DVD on July 16, 2008 and is set in an alternate universe from the anime series in which Tomoya and Tomoyo are dating. The OVA episode was previewed on May 31, 2008 for an audience of four-hundred people picked via a mail-in postcard campaign. The broadcast time was first announced on August 11, 2007 at the TBS festival \"Anime Festa\", which is also when the first episode was showcased. The episodes aired between October 4, 2007 and March 27, 2008 on the TBS Japanese television network in 4:3 aspect ratio. The anime also aired in 16:9 aspect ratio between October 26, 2007 and April 4, 2008 on the BS-i Japanese television network. The anime series was released in a set of eight DVD compilations in Japan released between December 19, 2007 and July 16, 2008 by Pony Canyon, with each compilation containing three episodes. A Blu-ray Disc box set of \"Clannad\" was released on April 30, 2010 in Japan.", "Clangers\nIn October 2013, the BBC's CBeebies channel announced that a new series would be produced for broadcasting in their 2015 schedules, with Michael Palin narrating in place of the late Oliver Postgate. The American pre-school channel Sprout added the series to their 2015 schedule, with William Shatner narrating.", "Clannad (film)\nKouko Ibuki, the teacher who had been the adviser for the drama club before it disbanded, gets involved by telling Nagisa that if she can gather more members then she will talk to the school about reforming the club. Tomoya and Youhei try again by this time making copies of hundreds of posters and putting them all around the school, but no one joins the club. In the end, Nagisa gets Tomoya and Youhei to sign up, and she reassures them that she will not ask them to act on stage. The drama club is reformed, and with a month left until the school festival. Nagisa decides to do a soliloquy based on a dream she has had ever since she was a child; meanwhile, Tomoya and Youhei will work backstage with the music and lights respectively. Nagisa gets to writing the script, and invites Tomoya and Youhei over to her house for dinner, though only Tomoya comes, due to Youhei taking up a part-time job at an electrical company with Yusuke Yoshino; a former musician revealed to be Kouko's fiancé. At Nagisa's house, which turns out to double as a bakery, Tomoya meets her energetic parents Akio and Sanae. Tomoya is challenged to a baseball match with Akio to see if Tomoya's a man worthy for Nagisa, but cannot throw the ball due to an injured shoulder he received from his father in a bad fight, and even gets to stay overnight after being heavily persuaded by Akio.", "Clear and Present Danger\nIn a 2018 interview with \"Entertainment Weekly\", \"Tom Clancy’s Jack Ryan\" creators Carlton Cuse and Graham Roland revealed that they originally opted to adapt \"Clear and Present Danger\" for television. Roland then explained: “About a month into it, we realized the reason the Clancy books worked so well was because they were relevant for the time that they were written. So we had to take the spirit of what he did and create our own original story.”", "David Michaels (author)\n\"David Michaels\" is a pseudonym for the authors of novels in the \"Splinter Cell\", \"EndWar\", \"H.A.W.X\", and \"Ghost Recon\" series, all of which were created by Ubisoft and developed under Ubisoft's Tom Clancy license. The novel series began as video games for various console systems as well as the PC. As of February 2011, \"Michaels\" has released six \"Splinter Cell\" novels, two \"EndWar\" novels, two \"Ghost Recon\" novels, and one \"H.A.W.X\" novel.", "Music of Clannad\nis an image song single for the \"Clannad\" film by Lia originally released at Comiket 72 on August 17, 2007, produced by Frontier Works. The music CD was only available to those who bought film tickets early for the \"Clannad\" film. The single contains four tracks, with only the first song \"Yakusoku\" sung by Lia while tracks two and three are background music from the \"Clannad Film Soundtrack\", and the final track is an instrumental version of \"Promise\".", "List of Case Closed volumes\nCase Closed, known as Meitantei Conan (名探偵コナン, lit. Great Detective Conan, officially translated as Detective Conan) in Japan, is written by Gosho Aoyama and serialized in Shogakukan's Weekly Shōnen Sunday. The series began its serialization on January 19, 1994. Since Case Closed's premiere, over 1000 chapters have been released in Japan, making it the 21st longest running manga series. Several adaptations based on Case Closed have been made, including an anime series and animated films. A database consisting of all the cases from the manga was launched in 2007. Viz Media announced its licensing of the series on June 1, 2004, and following Funimation Entertainment's English localization, released the series under the name Case Closed with renamed characters. The series follows high school detective Jimmy Kudo who was transformed into a child after being forced to ingest an experimental poison.", "Nádúr\nNádúr (Irish for \"nature\") is the most recent studio album by Irish folk group Clannad, and was released digitally worldwide on 20 September 2013 and physically within the following week or two, depending on the country. It was the first new studio album since \"Landmarks\" in 1998, and the first to feature all five original members of Clannad since the compilation album \"Past Present\" in 1989.\nIt is also the last to feature Pádraig Duggan who died on August 9th 2016.", "Clannad (film)\nTomoya Okazaki is a male third-year high school student who does not feel at home anymore. He used to play basketball, his distant father works the night shift, and his mother died in an accident when he was a child. He simply goes to school in Hikarizara for no reason and does not have any interest in school activities. One day, Tomoya meets a third-year girl from his school early in the year named Nagisa Furukawa. Nagisa is repeating her last year due to illness most of the previous year, and she does not know what to do. Tomoya suggests she finds something new to do at school, and she comes up with restarting the Drama Club. By the time the sakura trees are done blooming, Nagisa has already started hand-making posters advertising the drama club's reformation, with an old group mascot called \"The Big Dango Family\". Tomoya and his good friend Youhei Sunohara, who used to play soccer, help Nagisa with putting them up around the school, but the student council president, Tomoyo Sakagami, and Kyou Fujibayashi, quickly go around using red paint to deface the posters and write 'invalid' on them because of school policy. This angers Youhei greatly and he beats up one of the student council members despite Tomoyo and Kyou's warning; Tomoya also takes a stand for Nagisa.", "Clannad (visual novel)\nThe \"Clannad\" visual novel has four pieces of theme music: one opening theme, two ending themes, and an insert song. The opening theme is by Eufonius. The two ending themes are and sung by Riya of Eufonius; the latter is used as the ending theme in the After Story arc. The insert song \"Ana\" is sung by Lia. Six of the characters have background music leitmotifs—the five heroines, and Yukine Miyazawa. Nagisa's theme is the self-titled ; Kyou's theme is ; Kotomi's theme is \"Étude Pour les Petites Supercordes\"; Tomoyo's theme is ; Fuko's theme is ; lastly, Yukine's theme is ." ]

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[ "Battle of Suoi Chau Pha\nThe Battle of Suoi Chau Pha (6 August 1967) was fought during the Vietnam War between Australian troops and the Viet Cong. The battle took place during Operation Ballarat, an Australian search and destroy operation in the eastern Hat Dich area, north-west of Nui Dat in Phuoc Tuy province. Following a covert insertion the day before which had caught a number of Viet Cong sentries by surprise, A Company, 7th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (7 RAR) had patrolled forward unaware of the presence of a large Viet Cong main force unit nearby. Clashing with a reinforced company from the Viet Cong 3rd Battalion, 274th Regiment, a classic encounter battle ensued between two forces of roughly equal size. Fought at close quarters in dense jungle amid a heavy monsoon rain, both sides suffered heavy casualties as neither was able to gain an advantage. Finally, after a battle lasting several hours, the Australian artillery proved decisive and the Viet Cong were forced to withdraw, dragging many of their dead from the battlefield after having suffered crippling losses." ]

[ "Sui dynasty\nBoth Emperors Yang and Wen sent military expeditions into Vietnam as Annam in northern Vietnam had been incorporated into the Chinese empire over 600 years earlier during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). However the Kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam became a major counterpart to Chinese invasions to its north. According to Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais, these invasions became known as the Linyi-Champa Campaign (602–605).", "Battle of Suoi Tre\nThe Battle of Suoi Tre (Vietnamese: \"suối Tre\") occurred during the early morning of 21 March 1967 during Operation Junction City, a search and destroy mission by American military forces in Tay Ninh Province of South Vietnam, to the west of the capital Saigon. After being challenged heavily to begin with, the Americans gained the upper hand and completed a convincing victory over the Viet Cong (VC). They claimed to have found 647 bodies and captured seven prisoners, while recovering 65 crew-served and 94 individual weapons. The Americans losses were 36 dead and 190 wounded, a fatality ratio of more than twenty to one in their favour.", "Burmese–Siamese War (1547–49)\nThe Burmese–Siamese War (1547–49) (; or สงครามพระเจ้าตะเบ็งชเวตี้, lit. \"Tabinshwehti's war\") was the first war fought between the Toungoo Dynasty of Burma and the Ayutthaya Kingdom of Siam, and the first of the Burmese–Siamese wars that would continue until the middle of the 19th century. The war is notable for the introduction of early modern warfare to the region. It is also notable in Thai history for the death in battle of Siamese Queen Suriyothai on her war elephant; the conflict is often referred to in Thailand as the War that Led to the Loss of Queen Suriyothai ().", "Pha Mueang\nIn \"Inscription II\" it is described that at some point, probably around 1238–1240, Pha Mueang marched his army united with Bang Klang Hao towards Sukhothai. In the ensuing battle at the gates of the city, Bang Klang Hao fought against Khom Samat Klon Lamphong, both from the back of their war elephants: \"The bold Klon Lamphong was completely defeated\".", "Battle of Samakh\nThe Battle of Samakh was fought on 25 September 1918, during the Battle of Sharon which together with the Battle of Nablus formed the set piece Battle of Megiddo fought from 19 to 25 September 1918, in the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War. During the cavalry phase of the Battle of Sharon the Desert Mounted Corps commanded by the Australian Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel, captured the Esdraelon Plain (also known as the Jezreel Valley and the Plain of Armageddon) behind the front line in the Judean Hills on 20 September, when the 3rd Light Horse Brigade captured Jenin. The 4th Light Horse Brigade, Australian Mounted Division was deployed guarding supply columns, and prisoners, before being ordered to attack and capture Samakh on the shore of the Sea of Gallilee. Here the Ottoman and German garrison had been ordered by the commander of the Yildirim Army Group to fight to the last man.", "Shaolin Kung Fu\nLike most dynastic changes, the end of the Sui Dynasty was a time of upheaval and contention for the throne. The oldest evidence of Shaolin participation in combat is a stele from 728 that attests to two occasions: a defense of the monastery from bandits around 610 and their role in the defeat of Wang Shichong at the Battle of Hulao in 621. Wang Shichong declared himself Emperor. He controlled the territory of Zheng and the ancient capital of Luoyang. Overlooking Luoyang on Mount Huanyuan was the Cypress Valley Estate, which had served as the site of a fort during the Jin and a commandery during the Southern Qi. Sui Emperor Wen had bestowed the estate on a nearby monastery called Shaolin for its monks to farm but Wang Shichong, realizing its strategic value, seized the estate and there placed troops and a signal tower, as well as establishing a prefecture called Yuanzhou. Furthermore, he had assembled an army at Luoyang to march on the Shaolin Temple itself.", "Siege of Apia\nThe Siege of Apia, or the Battle of Apia, occurred during the Second Samoan Civil War in March 1899 at Apia. Samoan forces loyal to Prince Tanu were besieged by a larger force of Samoan rebels loyal to Mata'afa Iosefo. Supporting Prince Tanu were landing parties from four British and American warships. Over the course of several days of fighting, the Samoan rebels were defeated.", "Battle of Koppam\nThe Battle of Koppam was a battle fought between the Medieval Chola kings Rajadhiraja Chola and Rajendra Chola II with the Chalukya king Someshvara I in 1054, or in 1052 according to Sen. Though the Cholas were successful in the battle, the king and supreme commander, Rajadhiraja I lost his life in the battlefield and was succeeded to the throne by his younger brother, Rajendra Chola II.", "Rama I\nSoon King Bodawpaya of Burma started to pursue his ambitious campaigns to expand his dominions over Siam. The Burmese-Siamese War (1785–1786), also known in Siam as the \"Nine Armies War\" because the Burmese came in nine armies, broke out. The Burmese soldiers poured into Lanna and Northern Siam. Siamese forces, commanded by Kawila, Prince of Lampang, put up a brave fight and delayed the Burmese advance, all the while waiting for reinforcements from Bangkok. When Phitsanulok was captured, Anurak Devesh the \"Rear Palace\", and Rama I himself led Siamese forces to the north. The Siamese relieved Lampang from the Burmese siege.", "Battle of Nghĩa Lộ (1951)\nThe Battle of Nghĩa Lộ (Vietnamese: Nghĩa Lộ), also called Ly Thuong Kiet Campaign by Việt Minh, was fought between the French army and the Việt Minh during the First Indochina War. Both general Giap and de Lattre waited eagerly for the battle due to the postponement that occurred when Giap's attack along the Day River were driven back in June 1951. Since Giap was the one controlling the tempo of this war for months, it took a huge turn during the pause after his defeat causing his military situation to be come unstable. On 3 October, the Việt Minh 312th Division launched an attack on French forces in the town of Nghĩa Lộ and its vicinity which was led by the general Giap. This attack on Nghĩa Lộ occurred 95 miles west of Hanoi and only 65 miles past that of the western de Lattre Line. This village was the upmost importance to de Lattre because it served as the capital of the T'ai natives which had very strong ties with the French. The first attacked was carried out by two regiments of the 312th Division to the surrounding posts that acted as the main defense of the town in order to maintain military control. Since de Lattre was not present at the time, General Salan took the reigns of the situation and quickly reinforced the surrounding posts with paratroopers carried by parachutes to fortify defenses. This quick strategy by General Salan was looked upon the saving grace of this battle since it repelled a secondary attack by two regiments of the 312th Division that same night. Additional reinforcements occurred during the 4th of October along with air support which led to General Giap to call off his attack which they then fled across the Red River. A year later on 17 October, the Việt Minh launched another attack on Nghĩa Lộ and succeeded in driving out the remaining French from the area.", "Battle of Suoi Chau Pha\nOn the basis of documents captured by the Australians during the battle the Viet Cong were identified as being from C12 Company, 3rd Battalion, 274th Regiment, probably assisted by the battalion Reconnaissance Platoon and a number of local force guides. It was assessed that at least a second company had helped in the recovery of many of the Viet Cong dead. Later, during operations the following day, a recently occupied battalion-sized camp was subsequently located about from the site of the battle, and it was considered likely that the Viet Cong company had fought the vigorous action in order the delay the Australians and enable the withdrawal of the remainder of the battalion from their base camp. Meanwhile, elements of the Chau Duc District Company were also believed to be located in the area.", "Battle of Dushi Ford\nThe Battle of Dushi Ford was a battle fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Yuan Shao between February 3 and March 2, 200 in the late Eastern Han dynasty. In the battle, Yuan Shao launched an attack on Cao Cao's position on the southern bank of the Yellow River, taking advantage of Cao's temporary absence. In response, Cao Cao's general Yu Jin raided Yuan Shao's encampments in the vicinity of present-day Henan, ultimately discouraging Yuan from making a determined attack.", "Burmese–Siamese War (1785–86)\nIn early 1785, King Bodawpaya of Konbaung dynasty sent an expedition force to take Jung Ceylon (Phuket) to prevent foreign arms shipments to Siam but the invasion force was driven back. In October 1785, Bodawpaya pursued an ambitious campaign to expand his dominions into the lands of the former Ayutthaya Kingdom. He launched a four-pronged invasion towards Chiang Mai, Tak, Kanchanaburi, and Jung Ceylon. The combined strength was about 50,000 men. The invasion forces had faced tough heavy resistance from the Siamese forces and finally the war become a total disaster of the Burmese armies. The defeat that the invasion turned out to be the last full-scale invasion of Siam by Burma.", "Battle of Hilli\nThe Battle of Hilli or the Battle of Bogura was a major battle fought in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War. It is generally regarded as the most pitched battle that took place in East Pakistan, now Bangladesh. The battle of Hilli took place between 23 November 1971 and 11 December 1971, although the final surrender took place on 18 December 1971.", "Franco-Thai War\nWith the situation on land rapidly deteriorating for the French, Admiral Decoux ordered all available French naval forces into action in the Gulf of Thailand. In the early morning of 17 January, a French naval squadron caught a Thai naval detachment by surprise at anchor off Ko Chang island. The subsequent Battle of Ko Chang was a tactical victory for the French and resulted in the sinking of two Thai torpedo boats and the disabling of a coastal defence ship, with the French suffering only minor casualties. Fearing the war would turn in France's favour, the Japanese intervened, proposing an armistice be signed.", "Sui (state)\nThe \"Zuo Zhuan\" records that in 706 BCE King Wu of Chu invaded the State of Sui on the grounds that the state's minister Ji Liang (季梁) had halted the king's army. Not long afterwards, the Sui military commander received Chu Prime Minister Dou Bobi (鬬伯比) who concluded that given the opportunity Sui would conspire against Chu. Two years later in the summer of 704 BCE following Sui's non-appearance at a meeting of the vassal states called at Shenlu (沈鹿), King Wu of Chu personally led his army in an attack on Sui. Thereafter Sui was defeated at the Battle of Suqi (速杞之战). The state's leader fled whilst Chu minister Dou Dan (鬬丹) captured the Marquess of Sui's chariot along with the chariot division military commander. However, at that time Chu did not have sufficient power to annex Sui and peace followed in the same year.", "Battle of Dak To\nThe Battle of Đắk Tô, also known as the Battle of Đắk Tô - Tân Cảnh () in Vietnam, was a series of major engagements of the Vietnam War that took place between 3 and 23 November 1967, in Kon Tum Province, in the Central Highlands of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). The action at Đắk Tô was one of a series of People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) offensive initiatives that began during the second half of the year. PAVN attacks at Lộc Ninh (in Bình Long Province), Song Be (in Phước Long Province), and at Con Thien and Khe Sanh, (in Quảng Trị Province), were other actions which, combined with Đắk Tô, became known as \"the border battles.\" The post hoc purported objective of the PAVN forces was to distract American and South Vietnamese forces away from cities towards the borders in preparation for the Tet Offensive.", "Battle of Binh Ba\nThe Battle of Binh Ba (6–8 June 1969), also known as Operation Hammer, was a battle during the Vietnam War. The action occurred when Australian Army troops from the 5th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (5 RAR) fought a combined communist force of North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong, including a company from the 33 NVA Regiment and elements of the Viet Cong D440 Provincial Mobile Battalion, in the village of Binh Ba, north of Nui Dat in Phuoc Tuy Province. The battle was unusual in Australian combat experience in Vietnam as it involved fierce close-quarter house-to-house fighting, although the majority of enemy killed was through heavy artillery and air-bombardment. In response to communist attempts to capture Binh Ba the Australians assaulted the village with infantry, armour and helicopter gunships, routing the Viet Cong and largely destroying the village itself. Such battles were not the norm in Phuoc Tuy, however, and the heavy losses suffered by the communists forced them to temporarily leave the province. Although the Australians did encounter communist Main Force units in the years to come, the battle marked the end of such large-scale clashes, and ranks as one of the major Australian victories of the war.", "Battle of Boju\nThe Battle of Boju () was the decisive battle of the war fought in 506 BC between Wu and Chu, two major kingdoms during the Spring and Autumn period of ancient China. The Wu forces were led by King Helü, his brother Fugai, and Chu exile Wu Zixu. According to Sima Qian's \"Shiji\", Sun Tzu, the author of \"The Art of War\", was a main commander of the Wu army, but he was not mentioned in the \"Zuo Zhuan\" and other earlier historical texts. The Chu forces were led by \"Lingyin\" (prime minister) Nang Wa (also known as Zichang) and \"Sima\" (chief military commander) Shen Yin Shu. The Wu were victorious, and captured and destroyed the Chu capital Ying.", "Battle of Tamsui\nThe battle of Tamsui was part of the Keelung Campaign (August 1884–April 1885). Following the outbreak of the Sino-French War on 23 August 1884, the French decided to put pressure on China by landing an expeditionary corps in northern Formosa to seize Keelung and Tamsui. On 1 October Lieutenant-Colonel Bertaux-Levillain landed at Keelung with a force of 1,800 marine infantry, forcing the Chinese to withdraw to strong defensive positions which had been prepared in the surrounding hills. Meanwhile, a second French force under the command of Rear Admiral Sébastien Lespès prepared to attack Tamsui.", "Assessment of the Battle of Long Tan\nThe Battle of Long Tan took place on 18 August 1966 in Phuoc Tuy Province, South Vietnam during the Vietnam War between Viet Cong and North Vietnamese units from the Viet Cong 275th Regiment, possibly reinforced by at least one North Vietnamese battalion, and D445 Provincial Mobile Battalion, and Australian forces from D Company, 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (6 RAR). Although the Australians were heavily outnumbered and almost overwhelmed by the Viet Cong the battle ended in a decisive victory for them, establishing their dominance over the province. This perspective however sharply contrasts with competing interpretations in which the D445 Battalion had garnered strong political support in Phuoc Tay. Furthermor,e the local D445 Battallion was redeployed northwards against the newly deployed 11th Armored Cavalry Taskforce a month later and so the true significance of the battle is called into question. However, in the years since it was fought the intentions of the Viet Cong, in particular in mortaring the Australian base at Nui Dat on the night on 16/17 August, have been much debated. This has included the possibility that the Viet Cong had intended to attack and overwhelm Nui Dat, with the initial plan to mortar the base to draw a response force into an ambush after which the base would be attacked and captured, but that they had been prevented from doing so after clashing with D Company, 6 RAR. A second possibility was that they may have had the more limited aim of drawing D Company into an ambush to destroy it and secure a small victory over an isolated force. Finally, it was possible no ambush was planned at all, and that the Viet Cong had been moving on Nui Dat in regimental strength when they unexpectedly ran into D Company, resulting in an encounter battle. Later interviews conducted by an Australian veteran of the battle Terry Burstall, with commanders of the 275th Battalion and D445 Battalion including the battle commander and later Deputy Defense Minister Nguyen Thoi Bung indicate that mortaring was intended to draw out the 6 RAR out of their base, in which an ambush was to occur followed by a retreat before artillery and air support can be utilised, typical of the grab-by-the-belt tactic.\nThe Battle of Long Tan (18 August 1966) took place in a rubber plantation near Long Tan, in Phuoc Tuy Province, South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. The action was fought between Australian forces and Viet Cong and North Vietnamese units after 108 men from D Company, 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (6 RAR) clashed with a force of 1,500 to 2,500 from the Viet Cong 275th Regiment, possibly reinforced by at least one North Vietnamese battalion, and D445 Provincial Mobile Battalion. The 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF) had arrived between April and June 1966, constructing a base at Nui Dat. After two months it had moved beyond the initial requirements of establishing itself and securing its immediate approaches, beginning operations to open the province. Meanwhile, in response to the threat posed by 1 ATF the 275th Regiment was ordered to move against Nui Dat. For several weeks Australian signals intelligence (SIGINT) had tracked a radio transmitter moving westwards to a position just north of Long Tan; however, extensive patrolling failed to find the unit. At 02:43 on the night of 16/17 August, Viet Cong mortars, recoilless rifles (RCLs) and artillery heavily bombarded Nui Dat from a position to the east, before being engaged by counter-battery fire. The following morning B Company, 6 RAR departed Nui Dat to locate the firing points and the direction of the Viet Cong withdrawal. A number of weapon pits were subsequently found, as were the positions of the mortars and RCLs.", "Nanda Bayin\nOn , an invasion army of 24,000 tried again. After seven weeks, the army fought its way to Suphanburi, a town just to the west of Ayutthaya. Here Burmese chronicle and Siamese chronicle narratives give different accounts. Burmese chronicles say that a battle took place on , in which Mingyi Swa and Naresuan fought on their war elephants. In the battle, Mingyi Swa was felled by a gunshot, after which the Burmese army retreated. According to Siamese chronicles, the battle took place on 18 January 1593. Like in the Burmese chronicles, the battle started out between the two forces but the Siamese chronicles say that midway through the battle, the two sides agreed to decide the outcome by having a duel between Mingyi Swa and Naresuan on their elephants, and that Mingyi Swa was cut down by Naresuan.", "Battle of Sufiyan\nThe Battle of Sufiyan took place on 6 November 1605, during the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1603–1618. The Safavids, under King (\"Shah\") Abbas I (1588–1629), beat a numerically superior, fully-fledged Ottoman army. It was one of King Abbas I's greatest military victories. According to Colin Imber: \"For the Ottomans the battle of Sufiyan was a greater disaster than anything they had experienced in Hungary, where the war which had begun in 1593 had revealed Ottoman military deficiencies in the face of new European weapons and tactics.\"", "Souvanna Banlang\nIn 1478, Đại Việt forces invaded Lan Xang, destroying the army organized by Chakkaphat Phaen Phaeo and led by Souvanna Banlang’s older brother Prince Kone Keo. The Lan Xang forces which included 200,000 men and 2,000 elephants were routed with the majority of Lao commanders being killed, including Prince Kone Keo who drowned while fleeing the Battle of the Plain of Jars. The Đại Việt took the Lan Xang capital of Muang Sua. King Chakkaphat Phen Phaeo with the royal family fled south toward Muang Dan Sai and Muang Nan, a dependency of Lan Na.", "Operation Phou Phiang III\nOperation Phou Phiang III (18 January – March 1973) was the final offensive of the Laotian Civil War by the Royal Lao Army's \"L'Armée Clandestine\". Central Intelligence Agency-sponsored Hmong guerrillas and Thai mercenaries formed three attacking task forces in an attempt to clear the People's Army of Vietnam from positions near the Royalist guerrillas' headquarters on the Plain of Jars. All three columns failed to move the Vietnamese invaders before the ceasefire of 21 February 1973 ended the war.", "Battle of Cửa Việt\nBattle of Cửa Việt was a battle in the Vietnam War, occurring between 25–31 January 1973 at the Cửa Việt naval base and its vicinity, in northeast Quảng Trị Province. The battle involved a combined task force of South Vietnamese Marine and armored units that tried to gain a foothold at the Cua Viet Port just as the ceasefire was about to take effect on January 28 in accordance with the Paris Peace Accords. The South Vietnamese forces were finally forced to retreat by a North Vietnamese counterattack with considerable losses on both sides.", "Battle of Hòa Bình\nThe Battle of Hòa Bình was fought during the First Indochina War. It occurred from 10 November 1951 to 25 February 1952, when French Union forces attempted to lure the Việt Minh out into the open and to force it to fight on French terms.", "Battle of Mong Cai\nThe Battle of Mong Cai was fought during the Sino-Vietnamese War between 16 February and 10 March 1979 over the city of Móng Cái and other districts of Quảng Ninh Province that bordered the People's Republic of China. The battle broke out as Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) units launched diversionary attacks in support of the Chinese invasion in the major fronts of Lạng Sơn, Cao Bằng and Lào Cai. However, the Chinese failed to attract any Vietnamese reinforcements into the battle.", "Battle of Ky Hoa\nAfter early French victories at Tourane and Saigon, the Cochinchina campaign reached a point of equilibrium with the French and their Spanish allies besieged in Saigon, which had been captured by a Franco-Spanish expedition under the command of Admiral Charles Rigault de Genouilly on 17 February 1859. The arrival of massive reinforcements from the French expeditionary corps in China in 1860 allowed the French to break the Siege of Saigon and regain the initiative.", "Battle of Suoi Chau Pha\nFire Support Base Giraffe was subsequently established with the new M2A2 Howitzers of 106th Field Battery and mortars from Mortar Platoon, 7 RAR providing indirect fire support, while elements of the Australian Reinforcement Holding Unit provided protection. Further support was provide by M109 self-propelled medium guns from the US 2/35th Artillery Regiment, while American and heavy artillery were also available if required. Meanwhile, elements of 1st Field Squadron, Royal Australian Engineers had been tasked with clearing Route 2 of vegetation and rubber north of Nui Dat and D Company, 2 RAR was attached for the operation, providing security for the engineers and additional protection to the fire support base in conjunction with a troop of M113 armoured personnel carriers from A Squadron, 3rd Cavalry Regiment which would support the infantry during the day.", "Battle of Tonlé Sap\nBattle of Tonlé Sap (French: \"Bataille de Tonlé Sap\") is a short war of Panduranga and Khmer Empire in 1177.\nThe 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. Under Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–1150) the Khmer kingdom united internally and the largest temple of Angkor was built in a period of 37 years: Angkor Wat, dedicated to the god Vishnu. In the east, his campaigns against Champa, and Annam, were unsuccessful, though he did sack Vijaya in 1145 and depose Jaya Indravarman III. The Khmers occupied Vijaya until 1149, when they were driven out by Jaya Harivarman I. Suryavarman II sent a mission to the Chola dynasty of south India and presented a precious stone to the Chola Emperor Kulothunga Chola I in 1114.", "Pongsiri Por Ruamrudee\nIn addition, he made history by fought with old rival which he had been defeated before, Pairojnoi \"Iron Blood\" Sor Siamchai in the main event of the title \"Suek Onesongchai\" by the famous promoter, Songchai Rattanasuban at Lumpinee Stadium on July 25, 1989 among tens of thousands of visitors and the promoters earned a staggering 3.2 million baht from the gate. Which is considered the most in the history of Mauy Thai at that time, the results of match. He is the winner with the points after end the fifth round. Besides this fight that was named Lumpinee Stadium the best fight in 20 years.", "Trần Quang Khải\nIn 1279, the Yuan Dynasty had the decisive victory over the Song Dynasty in Battle of Yamen which marked the end of the Song Dynasty and the total control of Kublai Khan over China. As a result, Kublai Khan began to pursue his attempt to take over the southern countries like Đại Việt or Champa. In December 1284, the second Yuan invasion of Đại Việt began under the command of Kublai Khan's prince Toghan. Đại Việt was attacked from two directions, Toghan himself conducted the infantry invasion from the northern border while Yuan's navy under general Sogetu advanced from the southern border through Champa's territory. It was Trần Quang Khải who conducted the Đại Việt army carrying the mission of stopping Toa Đô's troops before he could meet Toghan's troops as Yuan's plan. In the beginning, Trần Quang Khải had to retreat under pressure from Sogetu's navy and the defection of the governor of Nghe An, the southern border province. However, the Trần Dynasty began to change the situation after the victory of the Đại Việt army commanded by Trần Nhật Duật, Prince Chiêu Thành, Trần Quốc Toản and Nguyễn Khoái over Sogetu's troops in Battle of Hàm Tử. On the tenth day of the fifth lunar month (June 14) 1285, Trần Quang Khải fought the decisive battle in Chương Dương where Yuan's navy was almost destroyed and therefore the balance in battlefield shifted definitively in favor of the Trần Dynasty. Ten days after Sogetu was killed and Trần's Emperor Nhân Tông and Retired Emperor Thánh Tông returned to capital Thăng Long on the sixth day of the sixth lunar month (July 19), 1285.", "Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa\nBattle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa (; ), also known as Victory of Kỷ Dậu (), was fought between the Tây Sơn dynasty of Vietnam and the Qing dynasty of China in (a place near Thanh Trì) and Đống Đa in northern Vietnam from 1788 to 1789. It is considered one of the greatest victories in Vietnamese military history.", "Operation Sinsay\nOperation Sinsay (11 February – c. 31 March 1972) was a Royal Lao Government offensive of the Laotian Civil War. The planned offensive was pre-empted by prior moves by the opposing People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN); they struck on 6 March 1972. Although the Communist attack reached Laongam, 21 kilometers from Pakxe and the Thai border, and the defending Royalist battalions there were reassigned to fight in Operation Strength on the Plain of Jars, monarchist guerrillas were able to interdict Communist supply lines and force a Vietnamese retreat by the end of March 1972.", "Samut Prakan Province\nThe province was created during the Ayutthaya period, with its administrative centre at Prapadaeng. It was the sea port of Siam, and was secured with forts, town moats, and town walls. King Rama II started the building of the new centre at Samut Prakan in 1819, after his predecessor King Taksin had abandoned the town fortifications. Altogether six forts were built on both sides of the Chao Phraya River, and on an island in the river the pagoda, Phra Samut Chedi, was erected. These were involved in the Paknam incident of 13 July 1893, which ended the Franco-Siamese War with a French naval blockade of Bangkok. Of the original six forts only two still exist today, Phi Sua Samut and Phra Chulachomklao.", "Yuan Phai\nYuan Phai (, also known as Lilit Yuan Phai, , see below for details), \"Defeat of the Yuan,\" is a historical epic poem in the Thai language about rivalry between Siam and Lanna culminating in a battle that took place in 1474/5 AD at the place now called Si Satchanalai. The Yuan are the people of Lanna or Yonok, then an independent kingdom in the upper reaches of the Chao Phraya River basin with a capital at Chiang Mai. The poem was written to celebrate King Boromma Trailokanat of Ayutthaya (r. 1448-1488), the victor. The poem was probably written soon after the battle. It counts among only a handful of works of Thai literature from the Early Ayutthaya era that have survived, and may be still in its original form, without later revisions. The main body of the poem consists of 1,180 lines in a variant of the \"khlong\" () meter. The poem is considered important as a source of historical information, as an example of poetic form and style, and as a repository of early Ayutthayan Thai language. A definitive edition was published by the Royal Institute of Thailand in 2001.", "Nguyễn Phúc Chu\nTogether they defeated a Nguyễn military force in 1695. The new Champ king, Po Saktiray Da Patih (younger brother of Po Sot), made a treaty with Nguyễn Phúc Chu. The result was the Cham rulers in Panduranga were recognised as \"Trấn Vương\" (local lords) for the next 135 years, though they had no authority over Vietnamese living in the area. In 1714, Nguyễn Phúc Chu sent an army into Cambodia to support Keo Fa who claimed the throne against Prea Srey Thomea (see also the article on the Dark ages of Cambodia). The army of Siam also got involved in the war, the Siamese sided with the Prea Srey Thomea against the Vietnamese (this was during the time of the Ayutthaya Kings of Siam). The Vietnamese won several battles against the Siamese (including the battle of Banteay Meas) but shifting fortunes led to the war ending with negotiations rather than military defeat on either side.", "Battle of Lao Cai\nOn 24 February, the PLA decided to supplement their reserves, the 149th Division, to the fight against the VPA 316th Division. Chinese efforts now concentrating on cutting off the retreat of the VPA 316th Division, as the PLA 447th Regiment skirted around Mount Phan Xi Pang through the Hoang Lien Son Pass and maneuvered toward the direction of Bình Lư, which was 44 km west of Sapa. In meantime, the rest of the 149th Division pushed toward Sapa along two roads parallel to Highway 10. Despite showing excellent combat performance, the VPA 316th Division was finally forced to retreat due to the lack of manpower. At 14:45 on 1 March, Sapa fell to the PLA. On the eastern wing of the offensive, Khoc Tiam succumbed to a night assault raging from 20:00 on 2 March to 14:45 on 3 March. At 19:00 on 3 March, all roads that connected Phong Thổ with Bình Lư and Pa Tần had been under Chinese control. On 4 March, Chinese forces eventually captured the town, thus successfully blocking the supply route to the VPA 316th Division from Lai Châu; the blocking position was at least 40 km from the Sino-Vietnamese border, becoming the deepest Chinese penetration in the war. The 316th Division finally ceased fighting on 5 March. On the same day, the Chinese government announced the withdrawal of troops from Vietnam.", "Ban Pha Tang\nDuring the Vietnam War, the Pathet Lao regularly bombarded the town, and it was eventually abandoned for a period. The Battle of Ban Pha Vang took place here in April 1962. In 1973, Ban Pha Tang was occupied with troops of Li Wen-huan's Third Army. Seabee-BPP have reportedly involved with the construction of new BPP camps at Ban Pha Tang, Ban Paeng Chan and Ban Voen.", "Battle of Gang Toi\nThe Battle of Gang Toi (8 November 1965) was fought during the Vietnam War between Australian troops and the Viet Cong. The battle was one of the first engagements between the two forces during the war and occurred when A Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (1 RAR) struck a Viet Cong bunker system defended by Company 238 in the Gang Toi Hills, in northern Bien Hoa Province. It occurred during a major joint US-Australian operation codenamed Operation Hump, involving the US 173rd Airborne Brigade, to which 1 RAR was attached. During the latter part of the operation an Australian rifle company clashed with an entrenched company-sized Viet Cong force in well-prepared defensive positions. Meanwhile, an American paratroop battalion was also heavily engaged in fighting on the other side of the Song Dong Nai.", "Battle of Prachuap Khiri Khan\nThe Battle of Prachuap Khri Khan was an early engagement of the Japanese invasion of Thailand in the Southeast Asian theatre of World War II. It was fought on 8–9 December 1941 at the airfield of Prachuap Khiri Khan, on the coast of the Gulf of Thailand along the Kra Isthmus. The Japanese meant to use Thailand as a base to strike at British possessions in Burma and Malaya and attacked Thailand without warning.", "Battle of Cao Bang (1979)\nThe Battle of Cao Bằng was fought between the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) and the Vietnam People's Army (VPA) over the city of Cao Bằng and its vicinity, from the beginning of the Sino-Vietnamese War on 17 February, to 6 March 1979. After the capture of Cao Bằng on 25 February, Chinese forces still had to struggle for days to gain control over other areas in the province against badly outnumbered Vietnamese defenders. Contrary to the Chinese intention to battle against and defeat some major regular units of the VPA, the PLA found themselves encountering mostly small units of Vietnamese border guards and militia, which had clearly outperformed their enemy.", "Battle of Boma\nThe Battle of Boma or Battle of Baima was the first of a series of battles that led to the decisive Battle of Guandu between the warlords Yuan Shao and Cao Cao in northern China in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Although Cao Cao won the battle and Yuan Shao lost an elite general Yan Liang, Cao eventually abandoned his position in Boma to entrench at the strategically important Guandu.", "Khun Chang Khun Phaen\nPrince Damrong believed that the \"Khun Chang Khun Phaen\" story was based on true events which took place around 1500 in the reign of King Ramathibodi II. His evidence was a memoir believed to have been taken down from Thai prisoners in Burma after the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767 (\"Khamhaikan chao krung kao\", The testimony of the inhabitants of the old capital). The memoir mentions the name of Khun Phaen in an account of a military campaign against Chiang Mai. However, this memoir is just as much a text of oral history as \"Khun Chang Khun Phaen\" itself, and could well have developed from the folktale, rather than vice versa. The campaign against Chiang Mai in the latter part of \"Khun Chang Khun Phaen\" seems to be modeled on events which appear in the Ayutthaya and Lan Xang chronicles for the 1560s.", "Battle of Suoi Chau Pha\nMounted on a large scale under American command and involving nearly 15,000 troops, Paddington failed to result in significant contact, in spite of the employment of well co-ordinated search techniques and blocking forces. A large number of Viet Cong camps, bunkers and storage areas were however uncovered and destroyed, resulting in significant disruption to the communist logistic system. Under the overall command of Major General George G. O'Connor, commander US 9th Infantry Division, allied forces for Operation Paddington included the US 1st Brigade, 9th Infantry Division, the 2nd Battalion, US 47th Infantry Regiment (Mechanised), the US 11th Armoured Cavalry Regiment, Task Force B Marine Corps (RVN) and the 1st Australian Task Force, as well as various supporting arms including two artillery batteries and more than a thousand armoured vehicles and helicopters. Viet Cong casualties included 92 killed, including 31 by 1 ATF for the loss of one Australian killed and another wounded. Nonetheless, the results were disappointing for the Australians, and the Viet Cong continued to elude them.", "Muzaffar Shah of Malacca\nIn 1456, during the reign of King Boromo Trilokanat, Siam made plans to attack Malacca by sea. When the Malacca government learned about this plan, it prepared its naval and decided to attack the Siamese in Batu Pahat. The forces were led by Tun Perak and assisted by Tun Hamzah, a warrior called Datuk Bongkok. A fierce battle took place between the two sides, and this became the first military battle of Malacca. However, Malacca had the advantage in terms of skills and knowledge. They successfully drove the Siamese forces to Singapore and forced them back. Malacca's victory in this war has injected new vigor in the strategy to expand its influence in the Malay Archipelago. The victory over Siam also led to political stability and strengthened the reputation of Malacca in Southeast Asia.", "Battle of Suoi Tre\nThe landing area was an elliptical clearing close to Suoi Tre, near the center of War Zone C and 90 km northwest of Saigon. Only 3 km away, during Operation Attleboro a few months earlier, the Americans had defeated the VC at the Battle of Ap Cha Do. The 272nd Regiment of the 9th Division had been involved in that battle, and had recovered since then.", "Elephants in ancient China\nChinese armies also faced off against war elephants in Southeast Asia, such as during the Linyi-Champa Campaign (602–605) and Ming–Mong Mao War from 1366 – 1388. In 605, Champa used elephants against the invading army of the Sui dynasty. The Sui army dug pits and lured the elephants into them and shot them with crossbows. The elephants turned back and trampled their own army. During the Mong Mao campaign, the elephants were routed by an assortment of gunpowder projectiles.", "Phou Khao Kham\nPhou Khao Kham (Gold Mountain), (5 August – 25 September 1971) was a Royal Lao Government military offensive operation of the Laotian Civil War designed to clear Communist forces off Routes 13 and 7 north of the administrative capital of Vientiane. Its end objective was the capture of the forward fighter base at Muang Soui on the Plain of Jars. Although it succeeded in taking the air base, it failed to remove a concentration of Communist troops at the Sala Phou Khoun intersection of Routes 7 and 13.", "Thailand in World War II\nOn October 1940, the Franco–Thai War broke out, the war was a sporadic battle between Thai and French forces along Thailand's eastern frontier and culminated in an invasion of Laos and Cambodia in January 1941. The Royal Thai Armed Forces were successful in occupying the disputed territories in French Indochina, with the French scoring their only notable victory at sea at the Battle of Ko Chang.", "Battle of Dien Bien Phu on Sea\nBattle of Dien Bien Phu on the Sea (Vietnamese language: Trận Điện Biên Phủ trên biển) is an informal term for a hypothetical battle that could have taken place between Vietnam and China in the South China Sea if the war between the two countries happened. This term came into being in the context of the escalating conflict over the South China Sea during the second decade of the 21st century, between Vietnam and China, on the one hand, and on issues of sovereignty over the South China Sea. In terms of its name, it provides a subjective view of Vietnam based on the name of a historic victory with the ironic implication that a strategic battle of naval, and Vietnamese navy will be defeated Chinese navy.Currently, a formal war between Vietnam and China has not yet taken place in the South China Sea, the battle can be considered a strategic decision so it has not happened yet. The historian Dương Trung Quốc first mentioned this in an interview with the media on 14 May 2014:", "Burmese–Siamese War (1809–1812)\nOn 17 October 1809, Burma raided Takua Thung and Takua Pa which offered no resistance and landed at Junk Ceylon. On the night of 18 November 1809, the Siamese garrison of the Thalang repelled a Burmese assault on the citadel, at the same time 6,000 troops in 80 war ships were attempting to relieve the besieged. The Siamese reinforcements engaged the Burmese outside the island but were completely destroyed after sparks stuck the gunpowder storage of a Siamese ship setting off a powerful explosion. The Burmese managed to regroup and after receiving reinforcements captured the city on 13 January 1810.\nIn the aftermath of Thalang's fall, Burma sent envoys to the Sultanate of Kedah demanding that it resumes sending tributes to Ava, while also assuring the East India Company of its peaceful intentions towards it. Sultan Tajjudin had however already dispatched a fleet in support of Siam, the combined Siamese-Kedahan forces retook the island in March 1810, pushing the invaders into Pak Chan.", "Battle of A Sau\nThe Battle of A Shau (Vietnamese: trận A Sầu) was waged in early 1966 during the Vietnam War between the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the forces of the United States and South Vietnam. The battle began on March 9 and lasted until March 10 with the fall of the U.S. Army's Special Forces camp of the same name. The battle was a strategic victory for the PAVN in that they were able to take control of the A Shau Valley and use it as a base area for the rest of the war.", "Battle of Suoi Chau Pha\nA Company's forward observer, Lieutenant Neville Clark, a Citizens Military Force (CMF) officer, had moved to the forward platoon and proceeded to calmly direct artillery from the guns at Fire Support Base Giraffe on to the Viet Cong. Meanwhile, the Viet Cong attempted to use \"hugging tactics\" to remain in close contact under the artillery barrage, while utilising rockets, grenades, machine-guns and small arms to inflict casualties on the Australians. Finally, with the communists massing for an all-out attack Clark adjusted the artillery to within of his own position, disregarding his own safety in order to break up the attack. Firing from over away, the Australian 105 mm howitzers were nearly at their maximum range, yet they proved to be highly accurate and the rounds caused heavy casualties among the assaulting troops as they stood up to charge the Australian positions, while a few Australians were also slightly wounded after one of the rounds struck a tree. In total, the 106th Field Battery and the supporting American battery of the US 2/35th Artillery Battalion fired 1,026 rounds in support of A Company during the fighting, while American 8-inch and 175 mm heavy artillery fired another 156 rounds. A number of airstrikes had also supported the Australians.", "Battle of Long Tan\nThe Battle of Long Tan (18 August 1966) took place in a rubber plantation near Long Tân, in Phước Tuy Province, South Vietnam, during the Vietnam War. The action was fought between Viet Cong (VC) and People's Army of Vietnam units and elements of the 1st Australian Task Force (1 ATF) shortly after its lodgement in Phước Tuy. 1 ATF began arriving between April and June 1966, constructing a base at Nui Dat which was located astride a major communist transit and resupply route and was close to a VC base area. After two months it had moved beyond the initial requirements of establishing itself and securing its immediate approaches, beginning operations to open the province. Meanwhile, in response to the threat posed by 1 ATF, a force of between 1,500 and 2,500 men from the VC 275th Regiment, possibly reinforced by at least one PAVN battalion and the D445 Provincial Mobile Battalion, was ordered to move against Nui Dat.", "Military history of Myanmar\nIn December 1592, another invasion force of 24,000 tried again. The armies penetrated to Suphan Buri near Ayutthaya where they were met by Siamese forces led by Naresuan. On 8 February 1593, the two sides fought a battle in which Mingyi Swa was slain. The Burmese chronicles say Swa was killed by a Siamese mortar round while the Siamese sources he was killed by Naresuan in a duel on their war elephants. The Burmese forces retreated. It was the last of Pegu's Siamese campaigns. The main reason for Nanda's failure was that unlike his father who raised armies of 60,000 and 70,000, Nanda could never muster a force larger than 25,000 at any one time. Worse yet, he had frittered away Pegu's manpower. About 50,000 of the total of 93,000 men that marched in the five Siamese campaigns had perished.", "Battle of Fei (233 BCE)\nThe Battle of Fei (肥之戰) was a military conflict between the Qin and Zhao states of China in 233 BCE during the Warring States period. The campaign was part of Qin's campaigns to unify China under its rule. It resulted in a decisive victory for the Zhao forces, led by General Li Mu, against the Qin invaders.", "Battle of Ohaeawai\nThe Battle of Ohaeawai was fought between British forces and local Māori during the Flagstaff War in July 1845 at Ohaeawai in the North Island of New Zealand. Te Ruki Kawiti, a prominent rangatira (chief) was the leader of the Māori forces. The battle was notable in that it established that the fortified pā could withstand bombardment from cannon fire and that frontal assaults by soldiers would result in serious troop losses.", "Battle of Suoi Chau Pha\nThe incident alerted the remainder of the Australians and the company prepared for action. Considering it unlikely that the dead men had been alone, O'Donnell assessed that the remainder of a Viet Cong squad was located somewhere further along the track and he subsequently requested artillery fire to block any escape, while 2 Platoon was ordered to sweep forward. Under the command of Second Lieutenant Graham Ross, 2 Platoon commenced its advance before coming under automatic fire along the track by a Viet Cong squad which then went to ground after the Australians returned fire. Attempting to take the initiative, Ross began to manoeuvre for a quick attack, moving two sections to the high ground on the right flank, while the third section provided fire support. Meanwhile, the Viet Cong force, which turned out to be larger than first thought by the Australians, also attempted a flanking manoeuvre, moving one squad into a defensive position while two squads moved to their left flank. Deploying to the high ground at about the same time the two assault groups came face to face and a fierce fire-fight followed at close range, with both sides throwing grenades in an attempt to gain the initiative. Two Australians were killed and several more were wounded in the initial clashes.", "Battle of Sidi Bou Zid\nThe Battle of Sidi Bou Zid /Operation Spring Breeze) took place during the Tunisia Campaign from 14–17 February 1943, in World War II. The battle was fought around Sidi Bou Zid, where a large number of American units were mauled by German and Italian forces. It resulted in the Axis recapturing the strategically important town of Sbeitla in central Tunisia. The success at Sidi Bou Zid was reversed by April counter-attacks by British and American forces. The battle was planned by the Germans to be a two-part offensive-defensive operation against US positions in western Tunisia.", "Battle of Cao Bằng (1949)\nThe Battle of Cao Bằng was an ongoing campaign in northern Indochina during the First Indochina War, between the French Far East Expeditionary Corps and the Việt Minh, which began in October 1947 and culminated on September 3, 1949. Since the start of the conflict, Việt Minh troops had ambushed French convoys along the Vietnam–China border from the Gulf of Tonkin on a 147-mile route to a French garrison at Cao Bằng, known as Route Colonial 4, or RC4. Repeated ambushes led to repeated French operations of increasing strength to reopen the road, including a costly mission by the Foreign Legion in February 1948. On July 25, 1948, the Cao Bằng encampment was itself attacked and held out for three days with two companies defending against two battalions of Việt Minh. A further 28 ambushes took place in 1948.", "Battle of Suoi Chau Pha\nAustralian casualties had been heavy with five killed, one died of wounds and 20 wounded. Meanwhile, the extent of Viet Cong casualties were difficult to assess, as most had been removed from the battlefield by the communists as they had during previous battles. A sweep of the area by the Australians subsequently resulted in the recovery of a further five dead Viet Cong, however drag marks and extensive blood trails indicated that they had suffered heavily, with perhaps another 33 killed or wounded in the contact. A further 200 casualties were estimated to have occurred from artillery and mortar fire, as well as a number of airstrikes. Terry Burstall, in his controversial book \"Vietnam – The Australian Dilemma\", lists these casualties as \"possibles\" only, questioning the efficacy of the Australian reporting. However Burstall's agenda and research methodology have been widely criticised, and official records make it clear that five bodies were indeed counted, while a further five bodies were observed but not recovered. Among the dead were one officer, believed to have been the platoon commander, and two non-commissioned officers. Also recovered were a light machine-gun, a 40 mm recoilless rifle and three AK-47 assault rifles, while other weapons, a quantity of rice and a battalion-sized bunker system were subsequently also captured.", "Battle of Bubat\nThe Battle of Bubat also known as Pasunda Bubat is the battle between the Sundanese royal family and Majapahit army that took place in Bubat square on the northern part of Trowulan (Majapahit capital city) in 1279 Saka or 1357 CE. The uneven battle and the demonstration of courage through fighting an impossible battle and facing a certain death is in some ways similar to the Battle of Thermopylae.", "Battle of Sio\nThe Battle of Sio, fought between December 1943 and March 1944, was the break-out and pursuit phase of General Douglas MacArthur's Huon Peninsula campaign, part of the New Guinea campaign of World War II.", "Battle of Suoi Chau Pha\nDespite the optimistic Australian assessments of Viet Cong capability, rather than having left Phuoc Tuy the communists were more likely reinforcing and consolidating in preparation for future operations, avoiding battle with the Australians in order to preserve their strength. Regardless, D445 Battalion had suffered heavy casualties and posed a diminished threat, while the headquarters of the Viet Cong 5th Division was located near the northern border, west of the May Tao mountains, with its fighting formations widely dispersed. The Viet Cong 275th Regiment was reported to have moved north to War Zone D for retraining and refitting, and the Viet Cong 274th Regiment had moved from its scattered locations in the north-west Hat Dich to replace it in the north-east of the province, and was now operating in unfamiliar terrain. Meanwhile, casualties, illness and poor local recruitment meant they were now largely reliant on reinforcements from North Vietnam. Unsure of the next move, the Viet Cong 5th Division adopted a cautious posture, with only the 1st Battalion, 275th Regiment remaining in the May Tao mountains while the 274th Regiment dispersed east of Route 2 for the remainder of the month.", "Military history of the Sui–Tang dynasties\nIn 605, Sui forces under Liu Fang invaded Champa. The Champan army fielded elephants against the Sui army. Liu Fang had his soldiers dig pits and cover them with grass. When the elephants blundered into them while chasing a feigned flight, the Sui forces turned around and shot the elephants with crossbows. The elephants stampeded into the Champans and routed their own army. Liu Fang went on to sack the Champan capital but died from disease on the way back.", "Battle of Prek Klok II\nThe Battle of Prek Klok II occurred on March 10, 1967, during Operation Junction City when American military forces were conducting a search and destroy operation against the Viet Cong (VC) forces in Tay Ninh Province west of the capital of South Vietnam, Saigon. During the course of the operation they had already had a significant engagement in the Battle of Prek Klok I. During the night, Artillery Fire Support Patrol Base II at Prek Klok was attacked by two communist battalions, resulting in a short battle. This was the second major battle of Operation Junction City. The VC started by mortaring the base and launching anti-tank fire at the M113 armored personnel carriers (APCs) surrounding the base. Attacks came from the north and east, followed by an infantry charge out of wooded areas from the southwest. With the help of air strikes from nearby planes, as well as artillery and ample supplies flown in by helicopter, the Americans easily repelled the communist attack. The Americans killed 197 VC but lost only three of their men.", "Battle of Cầu Giấy (Paper Bridge)\nThe Battle of Cầu Giấy or Paper Bridge, fought on 19 May 1883, was one of the numerous clashes during the Tonkin Campaign (1883–86) between the French and the Black Flags. A small French force under the command of \"capitaine de vaisseau\" Henri Rivière attacked a strong Black Flag defensive position near the village of Cầu Giấy a few miles to the west of Hanoi, known to the French as Paper Bridge (Pont de Papier). After initial successes, the French were eventually enveloped on both wings, and were only with difficulty able to regroup and fall back to Hanoi. Rivière and several other senior officers were killed in the action.", "Battle of Kepaniwai\nThe Battle of Kepaniwai (\"Battle of the Dammed Waters of ʻĪao\" or Kaʻuwaʻupali, \"Battle of the Clawed Cliffs\") was fought in 1790 between Hawaiʻi Island and Maui. The forces of Hawaiʻi were led by Kamehameha I, while the forces of Maui were led by Kalanikūpule. It is known as one of the most bitter battles fought in Hawaiian history.", "Bodindecha\nChao Phraya Bodindecha (, personal name Sing Sinhaseni, 1777–1849) was one of the most prominent political and military figures of the early Bangkok Rattanakosin Kingdom. Bodindecha was both a top military general () and Chief Minister in charge of civilian affairs as the \"Akkhra Maha Senabodi\" () of the \"Samuha Nayok\" ) during the reign of King Rama III. He was known for putting down the Laotian Rebellion (1826–1828} (ปราบกบฎ) of Lord Anouvong of Vientiane (เจ้าอนุวงศ์ เวียงจันทน์) and for campaigns during the Siamese-Vietnamese Wars of 1831–1834 and 1841–1845.", "New Year's Day Battle of 1968\nIn late 1967, Pope Paul VI had declared 1 January 1968 a day of peace and persuaded the South Vietnamese and the Americans to observe a truce. In a released statement, the Viet Cong (VC) also agreed to observe a 36-hour ceasefire. The 25th Infantry Division had been patrolling the Vietnamese-Cambodian border in Operation Yellowstone to interdict PAVN/VC coming down the Ho Chi Minh trail. The 25th Infantry Division had set up a two-battalion perimeter, the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the 22nd Infantry Regiment, with artillery from the Cambodian border in Tay Ninh Province outside a village called Soui Cut. The fire support position, named Fire Support Base Burt (), was located near the junction of Highways 244 and 246, close to Black Virgin Mountain. Troops had that day recently set up a landing zone (LZ) for supply helicopters. Once the helicopter pad had been constructed, supplies could be flown in, and on 1 January the 25th Infantry Division's Christmas mail had arrived. Soldiers spent the day opening packages from their families. The battle was known as the Battle of Fire Support Base Burt, or the Battle of Soui Cut.", "Battle of Sishui Pass\nThe Battle of Sishui Pass is a fictional battle described in the 14th-century historical novel \"Romance of the Three Kingdoms\". The battle was fought between the forces of Dong Zhuo and a coalition of regional warlords and officials (known as the Guandong Coalition) as part of the Campaign against Dong Zhuo in 190 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period.", "Battle of Weihaiwei\nThe Battle of Weihaiwei (Japanese: was a battle of the First Sino-Japanese War. It took place between 20 January and 12 February 1895 in Weihai, Shandong Province, China between the forces of the Japan and Qing China. In early January 1895, the Japanese landed forces in eastern Shandong positioning forces behind the Chinese naval base at Weihaiwei. Through a well coordinated offensive of both naval and land forces, the Japanese destroyed the forts and sank much of the Chinese fleet. With the Shandong and Liaoning peninsulas under Japanese control, the option for a pincer attack against the Chinese capital, Beijing, was now a possibility. This strategic threat forced the Chinese to sue for peace and led to the war's end in April 1895.", "Battle of Núi Bop\nThe Battle of Nui Bop (3–4 January 1885) was a French victory during the Sino-French War. The battle was fought to clear Chinese forces away from the French forward base at Chu, and was an essential preliminary to the Lạng Sơn Campaign in February 1885.", "7th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment\nOver the course of those 12 months, 7 RAR took part in 26 battalion-level operations, as well as numerous small unit actions. Initially, 7 RAR undertook security operations around Nui Dat as well as carrying out a few search and destroy taskings at a local level, however, their first major operation saw them take up a blocking position near Xuyen Moc in support of US and South Vietnamese forces who advanced through the May Tao mountains in an effort to locate the Viet Cong 275th Regiment and drive them towards 7 RAR's position. Ultimately, however, this operation failed as the VC unit was not located. In August 1967 the battalion was tasked to undertake an independent search and destroy operation to the north-west of Nui Dat, in the Hat Dich area. This operation, codenamed Operation Ballarat, led to the Battle of Suoi Chau Pha when 'A' Company, under Major Ewart O'Donnell fought an encounter battle with a reinforced Viet Cong company from the 3rd Battalion, 274th Regiment. Five Australians were killed during the fighting, while another died of wounds later, and 19 others were wounded. It is believed that the Viet Cong suffered over 200 casualties in the battle, largely from supporting artillery and mortars.\nThroughout August and September 7 RAR took part in resettlement operations around Xa Bang. Later in September, the battalion lost a large number of its national servicemen who, having completed their two-year obligation, were rotated back to Australia for discharge. The following month they took part in an Australian, US and South Vietnamese operation called \"Santa Fe\" which was launched in the May Tao Secret Zone in an attempt to find the Viet Cong's 5th Division. After this they undertook search and destroy operations around Nui Dat, however contact with the Viet Cong during this time was limited. In December 1967, 1 ATF was expanded to a brigade-group with the arrival of a third infantry battalion, 3 RAR, and a quantity of Centurion tanks. Between 24 January and 1 March 1968, 7 RAR deployed to Bien Hoa–Long Khanh border along with 2 RAR and subsequently took part in Operation Coburg during the Tet Offensive.", "Battle of Phủ Hoài\nThe Battle of Phu Hoai (15 August 1883) was an indecisive engagement between the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps and Liu Yongfu's Black Flag Army during the early months of the Tonkin campaign (1883–1886). The battle took place during the period of increasing tension between France and China that eventually culminated in the Sino-French War (August 1884–April 1885).", "Battle of Xiaoyao Ford\nThe Battle of Xiaoyao Ford, also known as the Battle of Leisure Ford, Battle of Hefei, and Hefei Campaign, was fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Sun Quan between 214 and 215 in the late Eastern Han dynasty. The two contending sides were fighting for control over a strategic fortress at Hefei, which was defended by Cao Cao's general Zhang Liao. Towards the end of the campaign, Zhang Liao made use of force concentration and launched a sneak counteroffensive on Sun Quan at Leisure Ford, where Sun only had 1,000 soldiers with him at the time. Amidst the chaos, Sun Quan barely escaped capture with the aid of his general Ling Tong. This action raised Zhang Liao to primacy among Cao Cao's generals.", "Yasothon\nChao Phraya Bodindecha () (1777–1849), (personal name Singh or Sing, family Singhaseni () was a chancellor () and army general () during the reign of Rama III (1824-1851). He led the army from Bangkok that put down the 1826–1828 Laotian Rebellion () of Chao Anouvong of Vientiane (). General Sing then brought his army to Yasothon to rest. The campsite is now Wat Tung Sawang Chaiyaphum ( \"field of bright victory\",) featuring a nine-spire chedi. The chedi is open to the public; its north-east corner contains the golden image of a captive, and along the south wall is a Buddha footprint.", "Self-Strengthening Movement\nThe Huai Army was able to match up against the French forces in combat on Taiwan. When the French attempted to seize Taiwan's Keelung forts, and attack near Tamsui, they were beaten back by the Huai soldiers. The French were also beaten back at the Battle of Bang Bo and Battle of Phu Lam Tao, causing sufficient embarrassment to the French government that it ended the Prime Minister's career, and the Chamber of Deputies was only three votes short of a withdrawal from Vietnam.", "First Indochina War\nFrom October 1940 to May 1941, during the Franco-Thai War, the Vichy French in Indochina defended their colony in a border conflict in which the forces of Thailand invaded while the Japanese sat on the sidelines. Thai military successes were limited to the Cambodian border area, and in January 1941 Vichy France's modern naval forces soundly defeated the inferior Thai naval forces in the Battle of Ko Chang. The war ended in May, with the French agreeing to minor territorial revisions which restored formerly Thai areas to Thailand.", "Battle of Ky Hoa\nThe Battle of Kỳ Hòa (Trận Đại đồn Chí Hòa) on 24 and 25 February 1861 was an important French victory in the Cochinchina campaign (1858–62). This campaign, fought between the French and the Spanish on the one side and the Vietnamese on the other, began as a limited punitive expedition and ended as a French war of conquest. The war concluded with the establishment of the French colony of Cochinchina, a development that inaugurated nearly a century of French colonial dominance in Vietnam.", "Burmese–Siamese War (1759–60)\nBy capturing Ratchaburi, the Burmese had now fought their way out of the narrow isthmus, and made it to the mainland Siam. It was late March 1760 (early Tagu 1121 ME). As the invasion army approached Ayutthaya, the Siamese forces, which already suffered heavy losses in men, guns and ammunition, made another stand at Suphanburi, immediately to west of the capital. The defenses consisted of over 33,000 men (including 3000 cavalry), and their mission was to stop the Burmese from crossing the river that separates Ayutthaya from Suphanburi. The Burmese launched a three pronged attack (led by Hsinbyushin in the center flanked by generals Minkhaung Nawrahta and Minhla Thiri) on heavily fortified Siamese positions. The Burmese took heavy losses but ultimately prevailed, taking five senior Siamese commanders and their war elephants.", "Battle of Sri Purambiyam\nBattle of Thirupurambiyam was fought between the Pandya king Varagunavarman II and a confederacy of the Pallavas, Western Ganga Dynasty and the Medieval Cholas in about 879 CE near modern-day Kumbakonam. The pandyas lost the battle with Varaguna II going into retirement. The battle is considered to be a turning point in the history of South India for it precipitated the fall of the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms and triggered the re-emergence of the Chola power in history after centuries of obscurity during Kalabhra rule.", "Battle of Nui Le\nThe Battle of Nui Le (21 September 1971) was the last major battle fought by Australian and New Zealand forces in South Vietnam. The battle was fought in the former Phuoc Tuy Province between elements of the 33rd Regiment of the North Vietnamese Army and 'B' and 'D' Companies of the 4RAR/NZ (ANZAC) Battalion (4 RAR/NZ) and during Operation Ivanhoe. Nui Le, a hamlet of Quang Thanh commune in Chau Duc District, is today in Ba Ria-Vung Tau Province.", "Myanmar–Thailand relations\nAs his armies were destroyed, Bodawpaya retreated, only to renew attacks the next year (1786). Bodawpaya, this time, didn’t divide his troops but instead formed into single army. Bodawpaya passed through the Chedi Sam Ong and settled in Ta Din Dang. The Front Palace marched the Siamese forces to face Bodawpaya. The fighting was very short and Bodawpaya was quickly defeated. This short war was called “Ta Din Dang campaign”.", "Battle of Binh Gia\nThe Battle of Binh Gia (), which was part of a larger communist campaign, was conducted by the People's Liberation Armed Forces of South Vietnam and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) from December 28, 1964, to January 1, 1965, during the Vietnam War in Bình Giã. The battle took place in Phước Tuy Province (now part of Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu Province), South Vietnam.", "Military history of Thailand\nThe British victories over Burma in 1826 set the stage for a century in which the military history of Thailand was to be dominated by the threat of European colonialism. Initially, however, Siamese concern remained focused on its traditional rivals of Burma and Vietnam. Siam intervened in support of Britain against Burma in 1826, but her lackluster performance inspired Chao Anouvong's surprise attack on Korat. Lady Mo's resistance established her as a cultural heroine, and General Bodindecha's victory two years later established him as a major figure in Thai military history. His successful campaign in the Siamese–Vietnamese War (1841–1845) reaffirmed Siamese power over Cambodia. In 1849, weakening Burmese power encouraged revolt amongst the Burmese controlled Shan states of Kengtung and Chiang Hung. Chiang Hung repeatedly sought Siamese support, and ultimately Siam responded with the initial dispatch of forces in 1852. Both armies found difficulties campaigning in the northern mountainous highlands, and it took until 1855 before the Siamese finally reached Kengtung, though with great difficulty and the exhaustion of Siamese resources ultimately resulted in their retreat. These wars continued to be fought in the traditional mode, with war elephants deployed in the field carrying light artillery during the period, often being a decisive factor in battle. Meanwhile, the visible military weaknesses of China in the First and Second Opium Wars with Britain and later France between the 1830s and 1860s encouraged Siam to reject Chinese suzerainty in the 1850s. Siam, however, was under military and trade pressure itself from the European powers, and as King Rama III reportedly said on his deathbed in 1851: \"We will have no more wars with Burma and Vietnam. We will have them only with the West.\"", "Battle of Ban Houei Sane\nThe Battle of Ban Houei Sane was a battle of the Vietnam War that began on the night of 23 January 1968, when the 24th Regiment of the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) 304th Division overran the small Royal Lao Army outpost at Ban Houei Sane. The fighting at Ban Houei Sane was one in a series of battles fought between North Vietnamese and Allied forces during the Tet Offensive. The small outpost, defended by the 700 man Bataillon Volontaire (BV-33), was attacked and overwhelmed by the vastly superior PAVN and their PT-76 light tanks. The failure of BV-33 to defend their outpost at Ban Houei Sane would have negative consequences only a few weeks later, when the PAVN would strike again at Lang Vei.", "Sima Xin\nIn 205 BC, during the Chu–Han Contention, Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at the Battle of Pengcheng. Sima Xin and Dong Yi defected to Xiang Yu's side. The following year, Liu Bang attacked Xiang Yu at the Battle of Chenggao. Liu Bang lured Cao Jiu (曹咎), the defending general, to pursue and attack him. The Chu army fell into an ambush at the Si River and was defeated by Liu Bang's forces. Cao Jiu, Dong Yi and Sima Xin committed suicide.", "Rama I\nAs his armies were destroyed, Bodawpaya retreated. The next year, he attacked again, this time constituting his troops as a single army. With this force Bodawpaya passed through the Chedi Sam Ong pass and settled in Tha Din Daeng. The Front Palace marched the Siamese forces to face Bodawpaya. The fighting was very short and Bodawpaya was quickly defeated. This short war was called the Tha Din Daeng campaign.", "Quan (state)\nDuring the reign of King Huan of Zhou, in 704 BC King Wu of Chu attacked the State of Sui at the Battle of Suqi near modern-day Suizhou (速杞之战). This was only one part of the Kings military campaign and he subsequently invaded Quan, overthrowing its 22nd generation leader with the surname \"Zi\", Duke Gui of Quan (权归公). Thereafter King Wu established a county within Quan’s former borders and installed his minister Dou Min (斗缗) as magistrate.", "Military history of Australia during the Vietnam War\nAustralian combat forces were further reduced during 1971. The Battle of Long Khánh on 6–7 June 1971 took place during one of the last major joint US-Australian operations, and resulted in three Australians killed and six wounded during heavy fighting in which an RAAF UH-1H Iroqouis was shot down. On 18 August 1971, Australia and New Zealand decided to withdraw their troops from Vietnam, with the Australian prime minister, William McMahon, announcing that 1 ATF would cease operations in October, commencing a phased withdrawal. The Battle of Nui Le on 21 September proved to be the last major battle fought by Australian forces in the war, and resulted in five Australians killed and 30 wounded. Finally, on 16 October Australian forces handed over control of the base at Nui Dat to South Vietnamese forces, while the main body from 4 RAR—the last Australian infantry battalion in South Vietnam—sailed for Australia on board HMAS \"Sydney\" on 9 December 1971. Meanwhile, D Company, 4 RAR with an assault pioneer and mortar section and a detachment of APCs remained in Vũng Tàu to protect the task force headquarters and 1 ALSG until the final withdrawal of stores and equipment could be completed, finally returning to Australia on 12 March 1972.", "Battle of Suoi Chau Pha\nO'Donnell attempted to probe the Viet Cong flank, and after locating it on the high ground he committed 1 Platoon—under Second Lieutenant Rod Smith—to conduct a right flanking attack. Beginning at 11:30 the Australian assault soon ran into another Viet Cong platoon conducting a similar manoeuvre, and they became involved in an intense battle at close quarters with each side blocking the manoeuvre of the other. A heavy monsoon rain began, drenching the men as they faced each other at a range of just , with seven Viet Cong machine-guns facing six Australian machine-guns at the height of the battle as the two Viet Cong platoons clashed with two Australian platoons. The Australians suffered heavily, losing two section commanders killed and a dozen men wounded in the first few minutes. The fighting continued for another two hours as both forces traded shots, with neither the Australians nor the Viet Cong able to achieve a decisive advantage.", "1966 in the Vietnam War\nThe Battle of Suoi Bong Trang was fought on the night of 23–24 February 1966 between US and Australian troops, and the Viet Cong and PAVN. The battle occurred during \"Operation Rolling Stone\", a major American security operation to protect engineers building a tactically important road in the vicinity of Tan Binh, in central Binh Duong Province, northwest of Bien Hoa airbase.", "Burmese–Siamese War (1809–1812)\nIn June 1809, Burmese king Bodawpaya received information concerning the serious illness of the Siamese king Rama I, plans were then made regarding the invasion of the tin rich Siamese Junk Ceylon province. In October 1809, Bodawpaya's chamberlain assembled a force of 30,000 soldiers, 60 war ships and 200 swivel guns in Dawei. The troops were then divided into two columns, the first seized Ranong and Na Toei, moving further into Chumphon where it was defeated an pushed back. The second column embarked on ships and after capturing Takua Pa continued its journey along the coast to Junk Ceylon the countryside of which was seized, with the \"Mueang\" Thalang citadel under siege. On 7 August 1809, the Burmese launched their assault on the citadel, storming it six days later, plundering the city and slaughtering the inhabitants. Boats were then loaded with plundered goods and sent to Dawei, part of the fleet was hit by a tempest, enabling a small group of Siamese soldiers to recapture many war boats as well as the Burmese general Chik-ke. The governor of Thalang was replaced for his failure to adequately defend the island and preparation were started in anticipation of new raids.", "Battle of Dien Bien Phu\nThe Battle of Dien Bien Phu ( ; , ) was the climactic confrontation of the First Indochina War between the French Union's French Far East Expeditionary Corps and Viet Minh communist-nationalist revolutionaries. It was, from the French view before the event, a set piece battle to draw out the Vietnamese and destroy them with superior firepower. The battle occurred between March and May 1954 and culminated in a comprehensive French defeat that influenced negotiations underway at Geneva among several nations over the future of Indochina.", "Saen Phonlaphai\nAccording to the record, King Naresuan, riding his royal war elephant Chao Phraya Chaiyanuphap (), sought out Prince Minchit Sra whilst fighting ferociously through ranks of enemy soldiers. When their elephants met, both leaders fought hand-to-hand, standing on the heads of their elephants and lurching at each other with sword and lance. It is said that the duel was so ferocious that soldiers of both armies stopped fighting in order to stare at the spectacle. Finally, Naresuan's sword cut through his opponent's body from shoulder to hip, and Siam had won the day. Without a leader, the Burmese stopped fighting and retreated to Pegu. King Naresuan became a hero, and the date of the battle (January 18) is celebrated each year as a national holiday, the Royal Thai Armed Forces Day.", "History of Thailand\nThe defeat of France in Battle of France was the catalyst for Thai leadership to begin an attack on French colonies in Indochina. This began with smaller conflicts in 1940 and resulted in the Franco-Thai War in 1941. It had to accept a heavy defeat in the sea Battle of Ko Chang, but it dominated on land and in the air. The Empire of Japan, already the dominant power in the Southeast Asian region, took over the role of the mediator. The negotiations ended the Franco-Thai War with Thai territorial gains in the French colonies Laos and Cambodia. In celebration of the victory, Phibun called himself \"Than phu nam\" () (\"the leader\") so as to run a personality cult around himself.", "Siege of Plei Me\nThe Siege of Plei Me (Vietnamese: \"Bao vây Plei Me\") (19–25 October 1965) was the beginning phase of the first major confrontation between soldiers of the communist North Vietnamese Army (PAVN) and the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War. The lifting of the siege by South Vietnamese forces and American air power was followed by the pursuit of the retreating North Vietnamese from 28 October until 12 November, setting the stage for the Battle of Ia Drang. \nPlei Me was an isolated U.S. Army Special Forces and Civilian Irregular Defense Group (CIDG) camp in the Central Highlands of South Vietnam defended mostly by Montagnard tribesmen." ]

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[ "Cho Nam-chul\nCho Namchul (November 30, 1923 - July 2, 2006, alternately Cho Namcheol) was a professional Go player (Baduk in Korean). He died of natural causes in Seoul at the age of 83." ]

[ "Kim Hyung-chil\nKim Hyung-chil (Hangul: 김형칠, Hanja: 金亨七) (1 July 1959 - 7 December 2006 in Doha) was a South Korean horse rider. He was a silver medalist in the three-day team event at the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, and was the oldest member of South Korea's equestrian team. Kim participated in the Seoul 1988 and Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics and also featured in the World Championships in equestrianism.", "Namkoong Won\nNamkoong Won (born August 1, 1934) is a South Korean actor. Namkoong was born Hong Gyeong-il in 1934. He was a popular actor of the 1960s along with Shin Seong-il, Shin Young-kyun and Choi Moo-ryong. Director Shin Sang-ok appraised his appearance that \"The only Korean actor who has an international sense can compete Western actors.\" On the other hand, the flawless image limited his acting career.", "Lam Pou-chuen\nLam died at the age of 63 on 2 January 2015 in Hong Kong. He was reported to have been found unconscious at home and later confirmed dead at Nethersole Hospital. He was known to be suffering from diabetes. His last work was the 3D feature film \"Stand by Me Doraemon\", which had yet to be released in Hong Kong at the time of his death.", "Ba Cho\nBa Cho (, ; 24 April 1893 – 19 July 1947) was a Burmese newspaper publisher and politician who served as the Minister of Information in Myanmar's pre-independence government. Ba Cho and six other cabinet ministers (including Prime Minister Aung San) were assassinated on 19 July 1947 in Yangon. July 19 is commemorated each year as the Martyrs' Day in Myanmar.", "Budokan karate\nChew's ambition was to be able to travel to different countries and conduct karate classes when he reached the age of 80. However, he fell ill from a paralytic attack on 4 February 1995 and died, in Malaysia, on 18 July 1997 at the age of 76 years.", "Hsinbyushin\nThen, Hsinbyushin died on 10 June 1776 at age 39. Maha Thiha Thura decided to call off the invasion, and rushed back to Ava to ensure that his son-in-law Singu could ascend to the throne without incident. Ne Myo Thihapate also withdrew from Chiang Mai back to safer Chiang Saen. The Burmese loss of southern Lan Na (Chiang Mai) later proved to be the end of their 200-year rule. (They would lose the rest of Lan Na (Chaing Saen) in 1785–1786 after King Bodawpaya's disastrous invasion of Siam.)\nhttp://www.royalark.net/Burma/konbaun4.htm", "Cho Nam-chul\nHe is known as the founder of Korean modern Go. Namchul is also the uncle of the top Japanese Go title holder Cho Chikun.", "Ayub Bachchu\nBachchu was admitted to the CCU of a hospital in Dhaka in November 2012 for the accretion of water in his lungs. He recovered after receiving treatment. On 18 October 2018, he died of cardiac failure at his residence in Maghbazar at the age of 56. He was declared dead at the Square Hospital, Dhaka. He was laid to rest in his hometown Chittagong alongside his mother at the Choitonno Goli graveyard.\nBachchu performed live with Richard & Le Gang (France); Remo Fernandez, Nandon Bugchi, and Bikram Gosh of India; and Azam Khan, Feelings (now Nogor Baul), Miles (band), Warfaze. He appeared as a judge on IIM Joka 'Rock Fest' (India), Benson and Hedges Star Search 1 and 2, and DRockstar 1. He has worked as a music director for Azam Khan, Niloy Das, Khalid Hasan Milu, Shaikh Ishtiaque, Nasim Ali Khan, Tapan Chowdhury (singer), Hasan Abidur Reza Jewel, Alam Ara Minu, Rupom, Jholo, and many others. Bachchu was one of the panel judges of Bangladeshi Idol. He led LRB at the South Asian Bands Festival 2013. He wrote songs for Grameenphone. He provided the tune and music arrangement for the song \"Dol Laagé Dol, Praané Laagé Dol/ Paayé Laagé Chhando Praané Laagé Football\"\" for the local television channels on the occasion of the 2014 FIFA World Cup.", "Victory Altar\nBecause of his criticism of Jesus Christ and his own messianic claims, Cho encountered the hostility of Korean Christian churches, which promoted media campaigns against the Victory Altar and accused its founder of various wrongdoings. In 1994, Cho was arrested and spent in jail seven of the last ten years of his life. He was accused both of fraud and of having instigated the murder of six ex-members turned militant opponents of the Victory Altar. Cho was convicted for fraud, found not guilty in a first case about the murders in 1996, then found guilty in a second trial in 2004, and sentenced to death, but again found not guilty on appeal. South Korea has three degrees of judgement: the prosecutor appealed the decision favorable to Cho before the Supreme Court, but Cho died just before the trial, on June 19, 2004. The prosecution of Cho and above all his death, since many followers believed him to be physically immortal, were serious blows for the movement, which started a phase of decline, although by 2017 it still maintained 40 Victory Altars in Korea with some 100,000 followers.\nAccording to the Victory Altar, all the great sacred scriptures of humanity, including the Bible, the classics of Buddhism, and the ancient prophetic books of Korea announce the “original promise” of God, i.e. that humans may achieve physical immortality. This is the only real immortality, and the notion that a soul separated from the body will live eternally in Heaven is a false interpretation of the holy scriptures. It was also part of the message of Jesus Christ, thus evidencing that he was a false prophet, and in fact was “the only son of Satan.” Additional evidence that Jesus Christ was not a divine incarnation comes, according to the Victory Altar, from the fact that he was the son of a Roman soldier named Pantera, who might have raped his mother Mary, and that he married Mary Magdalene, widely regarded as a fallen woman. The sources for these accusations are the Roman anti-Christian philosopher Celsus and the book The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail, which also influenced the phenomenally successful 2003 novel The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown.\nJesus Christ is not part of the succession of divine incarnations and prophets proposed by the Victory Altar. This starts with Adam and Eve, who were divine and immortal and formed the original Trinity with God. Not being omnipotent, however, God could not prevent Satan from capturing Adam and Eve and depriving them of their immortality. 6,000 years, and a succession of divine prophets, were needed before God could overcome Satan and offer again physical immortality to humans. A first set of prophets includes Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Dan. The latter was the legitimate successor of Jacob (as proved, the Victory Altar maintains, by the Biblical Book of Genesis, 49:16) and eventually his tribe, the Danites, migrated to Korea, whose mythical first king was called Dangun, or King Dan. Korea hosted the second set of prophets, including the founder of the Olive Tree, Park Tae-Seon, the woman who initiated Cho, Hong Eup-Bi, and Cho himself, as well as the founders of two other Korean new religions, Choe Je-u of Donghak and Gang Il-Sun of Jeungsanism.", "Downchild Blues Band\nNotwithstanding their strained relationship, Donnie Walsh assessed his brother's ability as follows: \"He was a fabulous singer; he could sing the blues better than anybody I've ever heard. He had the timing, the phrasing, a fabulous voice… he was just great.\" Hock Walsh died on December 31, 1999, at the age of 51, of an apparent heart attack. Performing on his own and with his own bands since 1990, he had been scheduled to perform a New Year's Eve concert with blues singer Rita Chiarelli. His last recordings were three tracks on \"4 Blues\", the 1998 debut album of Toronto's Big Daddy G Review.", "Gungsong Gungtsen\nSome accounts say that when Gungsong Gungtsen reached the age of thirteen (twelve by Western reckoning), his father, Songtsen Gampo, retired and he then ruled the country for five years (which could have been the period when Songtsen Gampo was working on the constitution). Gungsong Gungtsen also married 'A-zha Mang-mo-rje when he was thirteen and they had a son, Mangsong Mangtsen (r. 650-676 CE). Gungsong Gungtsen is said to have only ruled for five years when he died at eighteen. His father, Songtsen Gampo, took the throne again. He is said to have been buried at Donkhorda, the site of the royal tombs, to the left of the tomb of his grandfather Namri Songtsen (gNam-ri Srong-btsan). The dates for these events are very unclear.", "Choe Jong-gil\nChoe Jong-gil, sometimes romanized as Tsche Chong-kil (April 28, 1931 Gongju - October 19, 1973 Seoul) was a professor at the Law College of Seoul National University. For years, the government denied any involvement in his death, but in 2002 the Presidential Truth Commission announced the results of its investigation: during interrogation by the KCIA he fell, or was thrown, from a seventh story window; he is also believed to have been tortured. In 2006 the government was ordered to pay 184 million won in damages; an intelligence agent who had accused him of spying for North Korea was ordered to pay an additional 20 million.", "Zhabdrung Rinpoche\nIn 1962, Jigme Ngawang Namgyal (known as Zhabdrung Rinpoche to his followers) fled Bhutan for India where he spent the remainder of his life. Up until 2002, Bhutanese pilgrims were able to journey to Kalimpong, just south of Bhutan, to visit him. On April 5, 2003, the Zhabdrung died. Some of his followers claim he was poisoned, while the Bhutanese national newspaper, \"Kuensel\", took pains to explain he died after an extended bout with cancer.", "Jigme Namgyal (Bhutan)\n\"Desi\" Jigme Namgyal of Bhutan (Dzongkha: འཇིགས་མེད་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་; , 1825–1881) is a forefather of the Wangchuck Dynasty. He served as 48th Druk Desi (Deb Raja, the secular executive) of Bhutan (1870–1873), and held the hereditary post of 10th Penlop of Trongsa. He was called the Black Ruler.", "Nicky Virachkul\nSuffering from cancer, Virachkul returned home to Thailand, where he died in 1999 at the age of 50 in United States of America.", "Lee Soo-chul\nLee was found dead on October 18, 2011, in an apparent suicide. He was 45.", "Phạm Ngũ Lão\nIn November 1320, Phạm Ngũ Lão died in Thăng Long at the age of 66. The Emperor Trần Minh Tông mourned his death by not appearing in court for 5 days, a special dedication for an official who did not come from Trần clan.", "Mao Bangchu\nMao Bangchu or Mow Pang Tzu (; also transcribed as Mow Pang Tsu, Mow Pong Tsu, or Mow Pang Chu; March 5, 1904 June 22, 1987) was a high-ranking military officer in the Chinese Chiang Kai-shek government. He was the main figure in an embezzlement scandal that pitched him against the Taiwan government in the early fifties. The charges and countercharges of fraud and misappropriation of millions of dollars, ensuing legal battles, and John-le-Carré-like plots involving private detectives, Mexican prisons, night-club dancers, US Congressmen, suspicious deaths, and the US Supreme Court, were covered in over 2,000 articles published in the US, China, Australia, India, and many other countries around the world.", "Chow Chung\nChow Chong (, born 16 September 1931) is a Hong Kong film and television actor, and a member of the South China Film Industry Workers Union (33rd Federation). He was chair for three consecutive years, resigning in 2005.", "Namchö Mingyur Dorje\nNamchö Mingyur Dorje (, 1645–1667) was an important tertön or \"treasure revealer\" in Tibetan Buddhism. His extraordinary \"pure vision\" revelations, which mostly occurred around the age of 16, are known as the Namchö ( \"Sky Dharma\" terma. He first transmitted these to his teacher Karma Chakmé (, 1613-1678), the illustrious Buddhist scholar of the Kagyu school, who wrote them down. The collection of his revelations fill thirteen Tibetan volumes and are the basis of one of the main practice traditions of the Palyul lineage, a major branch of the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism. He was considered to be a reincarnation of Palgyi Senge of Shubu, one of the ministers the 8th-century Tibetan King Trisong Detsen sent to invite Padmasambhava to Tibet. He recognized Kunzang Sherab as the Lineage Holder of the Namchö terma.\nLoden Chegse, one of Padmasambhava's eight emanations, had a vision which helped him learn to read and write. At age 7, his Dakini visions helped focus on reliance upon the lama. At age 10, after a vision and with a Dharma Protector's help, he met his root lama Karma Chagme. Karma Chakmé recognized him as manifestation of Padmasambhava, Senge Dradok. Mingyur Dorje revealed the Namchö treasures at age thirteen, which were written down with Karma Chakmé's help while they stayed in retreat together for three years.", "Đỗ Mười\nTo many outsiders, Đỗ Mười was a bland leader, but within the party his stature is such that he is still referred to as the \"Godfather of Vietnamese politics\" by party officials. In the Western world there has been little writing on him, or his contributions. An explanation is that the study of political leadership has become out of fashion within political science. Vietnamese sources obscured his involvement in the reform process and his party activities. According to Sophie Quinn-Judge, Đỗ Mười's leadership \"was marked by a reassertion of the Communist Party's primacy and its heroic past. It was in 1991 that 'Ho Chi Minh Thought'—ideas extracted from Ho's writings—became one of the country's guiding ideologies, along with Marxism–Leninism. Biographies of early communists such as Nguyen Son and Nguyen Binh, who had been too Maoist for the 1970s, were printed in historical journals, with attestations of popular affection.\" He turned 100 on February 2, 2017. On April 12, 2018, Đỗ Mười was admitted to the Central Military Hospital 108 in Hanoi. He died on October 1, 2018 at the age of 101, just 10 days after Trần Đại Quang died from a virus. From 27 July 2016, when former Netherlands Prime Minister Piet de Jong died, until his own death Đỗ Mười was the world's oldest living former head of state.", "Choi Byung-chul\nChoi Byung-Chul (Hangul: 최병철, Hanja: 崔秉哲; ; born October 24, 1981) is a South Korean foil fencer.\nChoi made his first major international appearance by winning gold in the individual foil and bronze in the team foil at the 2001 Junior World Fencing Championships. In 2007, he won the bronze medal in the foil team event at the World Fencing Championships in Saint Petersburg, Russia.", "Cho Young-jeung\nSouth Korea", "Cho Chikun\n2003 was the year of the Samsung Cup. It was his first big title in three years. Cho was known for not doing well in international tournaments, so when he progressed to the quarter-finals of the 8th Samsung Cup, many were surprised. The only time before the Samsung Cup in which he won an international cup was back in 1991 when he won the Fujitsu Cup because his opponent, Qian Yuping, fell ill. The quarter-final was a historical game for Cho, as it was the first time he beat Cho Hunhyun since 1981. The final four were left now. Other than Cho, the other players who were Hu Yaoyu, Xie He, and Park Young-Hoon. All were under the age of 21, while Cho was 47 at the time. In the semi-final, in which pairings were selected by lot, he played Hu Yaoyu. He was lucky, winning by only half a point. Park had beaten Xie He, so Cho and Park met in the final. Park won the first game by 4 and a half points, but Cho came back and took the next two games. The last game was clearly worse for Cho until Park slipped up on move 180 and Cho was able to cut off a lot of stones. This led to Park resigning. Cho won his first international title in 12 years, and only his second of all time.", "Lee Ho-cheol\nLee Ho-cheol was born on 15 March 1932 in Wonsan, Hamgyeongnam-do, North Korea and lived through the tragedy of the ideological conflict in Korea. His father refused to cooperate with Northern communists and his family had their property confiscated and were chased out of their hometown. During the war, Lee Ho-cheol was drafted into the North Korean army and sent to the front in the South. He eventually rejoined his family in his native town, but ultimately decided to move to South Korea by himself. A prolific writer as well as an activist, he participated in the democracy movement against the dictatorial regime of President Park Chung-hee and spent most of the 1970s in the prison. In the 1980s, after the army general Chun Doo-hwan gained power through a coup d'état, Lee Ho-cheol continued to battle against military dictatorship despite government persecution, and became actively involved in organizations such as the Association of Writers for Literature of Freedom and Practice (Jayu silcheon munin hyeobuihoe). He died on 18 September 2016 from a brain tumor at the age of 84.", "Yi Chong-jun\nYi Chong-jun (This is the preferred Romanization per LTI Korea) was a prominent South Korean novelist. Throughout his four decade-long career, Lee wrote more than 100 short stories and 13 novels. He died from lung cancer at the age of 68 on July 31, 2008.", "Cha Hyung-won\nCha was born on 5 September 1890 in Gangneung, Korea. His father, Cha In-sil (), lived in 132 dong Gangneung Seongnamdong. When he was 17 years old, he saw the last gwanno-Masque playing at the Gangneung Danoje festival in 1907 before it disappeared in the latter era of the Choson Dynasty. As the gwanno-Masque playing was performed by gwanno, a man slave in government employ, Cha denied that he was gwanno. After the Gwanno-Masque playing was designated as the Important Intangible Cultural Properties of Korea on 16 January 1967, it was reconstructed by researchers. Cha was one of the masters who participated in organizing all of the information about Gwanno-Masque playing from the appearance of masque to performance. He died in on 2 July 1972.", "Cho Chikun\nCho broke through to shodan after beating Michihiko Azuma in May 1968. He became one of the youngest professionals ever in modern go history, at 11 years and 8 months. In the same year, he was promoted to 2 dan and was looking very promising. Within a mere two years, he climbed to 4 dan after winning almost every Oteai game possible. He reached 5 dan in 1971, at just 15 years of age.", "Claudio Rocchi\nBorn in Milan, at young age Rocchi was a bassist in the group Stormy Six, with whom he recorded their first album in 1968, \"Le idee di oggi per la musica di domani\". In 1970, he started a solo career, publishing the album \"Viaggio\". In 1971, he released the album \"Volo Magico numero 1\", with which he became a constant presence in all the meetings and the rock festivals of the time. The album was referred as \"one of the definitive albums of the Italian psychedelic music, perhaps the only true classic of the genre ever produced in our country\". He retired in the early 1980s, as a result of personal choices, and then came back in the 1990s. His last album was \"In Alto\", published in 2011. He was also a radio host, best known for the musical program \"Per voi giovani\". Rocchi even founded the first free radio of Nepal \"The Himalayan Broadcasting Company\", of which he was director for three years. He died on 18 June 2013, at the age of 62, of an incurable degenerative disease.", "Choy Li Fut\nFew authenticated facts are known about Jeong Yim (張炎), but his legacy and influence on the development of Choy Li Fut can still be felt today. Jeong Yim's actual birth and death dates are not confirmed, but it is rumored that he lived between 33 and 69 years of age. Like all great martial artists, the myths, stories, and legends which surround them are often mistaken and confused as facts. Jeong Yim's 張炎 successor Chan Ngau-Sing 陳吽盛, stated that the author Nim Fut San Yen created a popular fictional story (Wǔxiá) written during the period to increase the awareness of Choy Li Fut and revolutionary activities. This story was called, \"\"Fut San Hung Sing Kwoon\"\". Chan Ngau-Sing 陳吽盛 knew the author, pen name \"Nim Fut San Yen\", personally. Such stories have no basis in historical fact. Popular Wǔxiá novels, like Wan Nian Qing and the mythology of anti-Qing organizations such as the Heaven and Earth Society, were spreading wildly through China since the early 19th century.", "Choe Chung-heon\nChoe lived peacefully for the remaining seven years of his life, and even got to see his grandson Hang, son of U. Choe did regret some of the decisions he made earlier in life, and also realized that he had fallen into the power-craze that he had sworn not to fall into. Choe survived several attempts on his life. He suffered a stroke, and lived for one more year before he died at the age of 71, on 29 October 1219. It is recorded that his funeral was like that of a king's.", "Cho Yong-pil\nCho Yong-pil (; born March 21, 1950) is a South Korean pop singer who is considered one of the most influential figures in Korean popular music. He debuted as a member of the rock band Atkins in 1968 and made his solo debut with the hit single \"Come Back to Busan Port\" in 1976. Cho has released 19 solo albums and has remained consistently popular during his 50-year career.", "Nam Il\nOn 7 March 1976, it was announced that he had died when his car was crushed by a truck. Many suspected that this was not an accident, and some blamed Kim Jong Il, who by that time was not powerful enough to simply order Nam be killed. Others said that it was done by Kim Il Sung. Nam Il’s son, who lived in the Soviet Union, visited North Korea and attempted to investigate, but Pang Hak Se told him to go home and stop interfering in affairs which did not concern him.", "Cho Chikun\nCho Chikun \"25th Honinbo\" \"Honorary Meijin\" (; born June 20, 1956 in Busan, South Korea) is a professional Go player and a nephew of Cho Namchul. His total title tally of 73 titles is the most in the history of the Japanese Nihon Ki-in. Cho is the first player to hold the top three titles—Kisei, Meijin, and Honinbo—simultaneously which he did for 3 years in a row. Cho is the first in history to win all of the \"Top 7\" titles in Japan (Kisei, Meijin, Honinbo, Judan, Tengen, Oza, and Gosei) which he achieved by winning the Oza in 1994. Cho U in 2011 and Iyama Yuta in 2013 would duplicate this feat, both by winning the Kisei. He is also one of the 'Six Supers' Japanese players that were most celebrated in the late twentieth century, along with Rin Kaiho, Otake Hideo, Takemiya Masaki, Kato Masao and his classmate and arch-rival Kobayashi Koichi.Cho was born into a very rich family of six children. His grandfather was a bank director. During the Korean War, the money the family had owned was burnt and they became impoverished. His father then sought the advice of a fortune teller. Originally called Pung-yeon, Cho's name was changed to Chihun, as the fortune teller told him to change his son's name to Chihun or else his mother would die, also saying that following the change, Chihun's younger brother would die but Chihun would become famous. Both predictions proved accurate.", "Cho Nam-suk\nCho Nam-suk (born August 13, 1981) is a male South Korean judoka.", "Chao Ratchabut (Wongtawan Na Chiang Mai)\nBefore his death, he lived at Khum Wongtawan. Chao Ratchabut (Wongtawan Na Chiang Mai) died at the Nakhon Chiang Mai Hospital on May 25, 1972. He was 86 years and 18 days old. A royal cremation ceremony was held afterwards.", "Cool Pokhrel\nAfter his death he had left all of his audience in a shock and he died at Patan hospital. Doctor confirmed he died because of the drug overdose. When this news of Cool Pokhrel was public, he left many Nepalese fans in tears.He is still remembered to this day by his audience.His last song project was Suun Ko Bala which is now performed by Avinash Ghising.After 15 years of his death a pop artist remixed his song \"Yespali Dashin\" which made a lot of fan angry at Jhilkey Badal or Badal Parasi but it started Jhilkey Badal's career.", "Cho Nam-chul\nCho was born in a farming village in Buan, North Jeolla Province. In 1934, Japanese professional Kitani Minoru visited Korea and played with ten-year-old Cho, who deeply impressed the great master. He went to Japan in 1937 to study go as Kitani's first \"insei\", or live-in student. In 1943, he returned to Korea and played a key role in the founding of the Hanguk Kiwon. It wasn't until 1983, that he would be awarded 9 dan, but for most of the 1950s and 1960s, he won the vast majority of national tournaments.", "Ngawang Namgyal (Rinpungpa)\nIn spite of his varying political fortunes, Ngawang Namgyal was reputed to be a prominent albeit haughty warrior and scholar. He engaged in the so-called five lesser sciences and sixty-four arts (literary skills, astronomy, performing arts, etc.). He introduced the custom of wearing cloths and ornaments of the ancient Tibetan kings (the \"rinchen gyencha\" custom) during larger ceremonies at Rinpung. The renowned large silk painting of Ngak Drupma was made during his time. According to the \"Zhigling namthar\" of Sogdogpa, Ngawang Namgyal died in 1544. The Karmapa arranged for funds for his funerary rites. Other information suggests that Ngawang Namgyal was engaged in warfare in 1547 and still alive in 1551. In 1554, when the Karmapa hierarch Mikyö Dorje stayed in Tsari, he was requested to say dedicatory prayers for the deceased Rinpungpa lord Rinchen Wanggyal, otherwise unknown; it has been suggested that this alludes to Ngawang Namgyal. He had three sons of whom Dondup Tseten Dorje and Ngawang Jigme Drakpa succeeded him in turn. After them the power of the Rinpungpa came to an end.", "Naungdawgyi\nNaungdawgyi died in November 1763. He was only 29. According to historian Helen James, he died of scrofula, the same illness that inflicted his father and would also take his brother Hsinbyushin. Finally free of rebellions, the king had spent his last few months on works of merit building two pagodas on the Mahananda Lake near Shwebo. He was succeeded by his brother Hsinbyushin. He had five sons and two daughters.", "Choy Li Fut\nWhen the Tai Ping Tian Guo (太平天國) government fell in 1864, Chan Heung 陳享 left China for a few years, some speculate South East Asian locations such as Hong Kong, Malaysia, or Singapore. At age fifty-nine, he became the martial arts teacher for the Chan Family Association overseas. In 1867, Chan Heung 陳享 returned home to King Mui, where he was able to see his own kung fu system gain tremendous popularity throughout Southern China. On the lunar calendar 8th moon 20, in 1875, at the age of sixty-nine, Chan Heung 陳享 died. He was buried in the village of King Mui.", "Nam Suk Lee\nNam Suk Lee (June 28, 1925 – August 29, 2000) born in the city of Yeo Joo, is credited with co-founding the traditional Korean martial art of Chang Moo Kwan in the mid-1940s, and then promoting and expanding it globally. Chang Moo Kwan was one of the five original Kwans which became Tae Kwon Do in the mid 1950s. In his later life Nam Suk Lee was to make the seaside community of San Pedro, California his home, where he reestablished his traditional roots in Chang Moo Kwan. He was 75 and still actively teaching Chang Moo Kwan through the San Pedro YMCA. Nam Suk Lee died in the neighboring Southern California community of Torrance on August 29, 2000, due to a stroke.", "Ugyen Wangchuck\nIn 1926, aged 64, King Ugyen died in Phodrang Thinley Rabten. The Crown Prince Jigme Wangchuck was then about 23.Before his death he call upon his sons and said not to fight aganist eachother rather should help when in need and with this final word the king of monarch died.", "Cho Gyeong-chul\nCho Gyeong-chul (, April 4, 1929 – March 6, 2010) was a South Korean astronomer.\nHe was born in Sonchon, Pyongannam-do. He finished his middle and high school courses at Pyongyang and was then admitted to Yonhui University. During the Korean War he served in the South Korean army, and in 1952 he was a professor at the South Korean military academy. In 1954 he graduated in physics from Yonhui University.", "Cho Geun-hyun\nCho Geun-hyun is a South Korean art director and film director. Cho is an award-winning art director before he switched to directing. His directorial debut, the hit drama thriller \"26 Years\" (2012) with over 2.9 millions admissions, was voted Best Korean Film by Twitter users held by KOFIC in December 2012. He was internationally recognized for his second feature \"Late Spring\" (2014), which won a total of six awards, including Best Foreign Feature at the 23rd Arizona International Film Festival, Best Film at the 14th Milan International Film Festival Awards and Best Asian Narrative Film at the 13th Asian Film Festival of Dallas in 2014.", "Choe Ik-gyu\nChoe Ik-gyu was allowed to return as the vice director of the Propaganda and Agitation Department in 1988. He assumed full control of the theater and operatic fields. That year, he was involved in making \"The Life of Chunhyang\", an acclaimed folk opera. Choe guided performers \"as if he were a stage director\". Beginning with the early 1990s, Choe – credited under his pseudonym Choe Sang-geun – produced \"The Nation and Destiny\". Choe produced, directed and wrote scenarios throughout the production of the 50-part film series, which Kim Jong-il considered the last work made under his personal guidance. Choe briefly fell out of public life in 1993 when he was dismissed from his Propaganda and Agitation Department post again. Even during this period, Kim Jong-il allowed him to travel to Germany to treat his health problems, which reflects the amount of trust Kim had in Choe. All in all, Choe has been dismissed four times from the Propaganda and Agitation Department.", "Thutob Namgyal\nThutob Namgyal (Sikkimese: ; Wylie: \"mthu-stobs rnam-rgyal\") (1860 – 11 February 1914) was the ruling chogyal (monarch) of Sikkim between 1874 and 1914. Thutob ascended to the throne succeeding his half-brother Sidkeong Namgyal who died issueless. Differences between the Nepalese settlers and the indigenous population during his reign led to the direct intervention of the British, who were the de facto rulers of the Himalayan nation. The British ruled in favour of the Nepalese much to the discontent of the chogyal, who then retreated to the Chumbi Valley and allied himself with the Tibetans.", "Kayamkulam Kochunni\nHowever, Kochunni's death is disputed. Another record cites he was imprisoned at Central Prison, Poojappura in his 70s. Some researchers states that it was after the success of the 1966 film that the present account of his death (that he died in September 1859, aged 41) was popularized and dominated while the other account diminished, the movie used the former since it was more suitable for the film's commercial success. As per the other record, he escaped and lived another 36 years. He died at the age of 77 from Tuberculosis at the cow barn of Thoppil \"tharavadu\" (family of Thoppil Bhasi) in Vallikunnam. He was staying there undercover as a steward and farm-hand of the family. A woman from the house took care of him during his final days, who was the only one aware of his true identity.", "Chow Chih\nChow Chih (14 February 1890 – 8 March 1953) was a general for Dr. Sun Yat-sen and a four-star general for Chiang Kai-shek during the Chinese Civil War and second Sino-Japanese War. He is also known as Chou Chih or Zhou Zhi in Mandarin.\nChow Chih was a military strategist who led 100 battles in Canton (now Guangdong province) and was introduced by Chiang Kai-shek at a 1942 anti-Japan planning conference as a soldier with great achievements in all the military arts.", "Cho Chikun\nHis grandfather taught him Go when he was young. Seeing great talent in Cho, his father sent him to Japan in 1962. His rise to becoming one of the greatest Go players began when he joined Minoru Kitani's Go school. He was accompanied by his uncle Cho Namchul and his brother Cho Shoen on his way to the Haneda airport in Japan in August 1962. He was only six years old at the time. At the airport he met Minoru Kitani and his wife, another pupil Kobayashi Chizu, and the master's daughter, Reiko Kitani (who as an adult married Cho's future rival Koichi Kobayashi). The day after arriving in Japan Cho beat Rin Kaiho in a five stone handicap game at a party held at the Kitani School to celebrate the total dan ranks of Kitani students reaching a sum of 100. A large crowd watched intensely, as if it were a professional game.", "Cho Gab-je\nCho Gab-je (; born, October 24, 1945) is a conservative South Korean journalist and entrepreneur. He was born in Saitama Prefecture, Japan in 1945 and raised in Busan, South Korea. Jo served as the chief editor and president of Monthly Chosun. He authored several books including \"\"Spit on my grave\"\", a biography of the former president, Park Chung-hee which was originally published in Monthly Chosun.", "Cho Chi-hun\nCho was born on December 3, 1920 in Yeongyang, Gyeongsangbuk-do, during the period of Japanese rule. His birthname was Cho Dong-tak. He graduated from Hyehwa College in 1941 with a degree in Liberal Arts. He taught at Odaesan Buddhist College and in 1946, after Korean Liberation, founded the Association of Young Writers (Cheongnyeon munhakga hyeophoe). Cho also served as president of the Society of Korean Poets(Hanguk Siin hyeophoe) and from 1947 served as a professor at Korea University. Cho was also the first head of the Korea University National Culture Research Institute. He died on May 17, 1968.", "Kim Hyung-chil\nHe died on December 7, 2006 when he fell from his horse during the 2006 Asian Games Equestrian competition. The incident occurred on jump No. 8 during the cross country stage of the three-day event, Asian Games organizing committee spokesman Ahmed Abdulla Al Khulaifi said. After steady rain, the track condition was far from ideal and although the first 10 competitors finished the race without incident, tragedy struck for Kim, the 11th competitor of the race.", "Cho Hun-hyun\nCho Hunhyun (;born 10 March 1953) is a South Korean 9-dan professional Go player. Considered one of the greatest players of all-time, Cho reached professional level in Korea in 1962. Since then, Cho has amassed 150 professional titles, more than any player in the world. He thrice held all of the open tournaments in Korea in 1980, 1982 and 1986. Cho has also won 11 international titles, third most in the world behind Lee Chang-ho (21) and Lee Sedol (15). He reached 1,000 career wins in 1995.", "Choi Cheol-han\nChoi Cheol-han (born 12 March 1985) is a South Korean professional Go player. He is the fourth youngest (12 years 2 months) to become a professional Go player in South Korean history behind Cho Hun-hyun (9 years 7 months), Lee Chang-ho (11 years 1 months) and Cho Hye-yeon (11 years 10 months). His nickname is \"The Viper\".", "Cho Ki-chon\nCho died on 31 July 1951 in his office in Pyongyang during an American bombing raid in the war.", "Trần Dụ Tông\nWhile being modest and diligent under the regency of Minh Tông, the independent reign of Emperor Dụ Tông saw extravagant spending on the building of several luxurious palaces and other pleasurely indulgences. Dụ Tông introduced theatre, which was considered at the time to be a shameful pleasure, in the royal court. Hierarchy and order were completely discarded by the Emperor, and he had the princes and princesses of the royal family do trivial tasks such as folding paper fans in the market. During official audiences, when Dụ Tông felt happy, he would step off the throne to dance with his ministers. One time, the Emperor was so drunk that he fell into a pool of water and caught a disease that was only cured after a long period of treatment. The Emperor died on 25 May of the Lunar calendar, 1369, at the age of 33 following a reign of twenty-eight years. He did not have any posthumous name and was buried in Phụ Tomb.", "Prince Nakcheon\nYeongjo was look for a spouse to Nakcheon's but Some noble was flat refusals. Yeongjo was upset and make an example of punished one reject noble Kim Chi-man. In April 1737, He was married to Lady Seo of Dalseong, daughter of Seo Jong-su. There were no childdren. Seo Jong-su was a distant relations of collateral relative of Seo Jong-je, father-in-law of King Yeongjo and father of Queen-consert Jeongseong. But in September, he was suddenly seized with an illness, and on 28 September 1737 he died from disease Anguk-dong in Hanseong, aged 17.", "Kim Kyu-chul\nKim Kyu-chul (born April 6, 1960) is a South Korean actor. Kim spent more than a decade as a stage actor before he made his onscreen breakthrough in 1993 with Im Kwon-taek's \"Seopyeonje\", considered one of the classics of Korean cinema. Kim became most active in television, starring in dramas such as \"When I Miss You\" (1993) and \"Resurrection\" (2005).", "Tashi Namgyal Academy\nSir Tashi Namgyal (Sikkimese: བཀྲ་ཤིས་རྣམ་རྒྱལ་; Wylie:\" Bkra-shis Rnam-rgyal\") (October 26, 1893 – December 2, 1963) was the ruling Chogyal (King) of Sikkim from 1914 to 1963. He was the son of Thutob Namgyal.", "Choi Yong-sool\nIt is generally accepted that Choi was born in the year 1904, although some sources place his birth in 1899. Confusion about his age stem from a combination of being orphaned, delays in registering newborns with the government (common in impoverished Korea) and the way in which age is reckoned in Korea. His mother died when he was 2 years old, and his father died sometime after that, leaving Choi in the care of his aunt. According to Choi he was abducted from his home village of Yong Dong in Chungcheongbuk-do in 1912 by a Japanese sweet merchant named Morimoto who had lost his own sons and wished to adopt Choi. Choi resisted and proved so troublesome to the candymaker that he was abandoned in the streets of Moji, Japan. Choi made his way to Osaka as a beggar and, after having been picked up by police, was placed in a Buddhist temple which cared for orphans in Kyoto. The abbot of the temple was a monk named Wantanabe Kintaro.", "Kam Fong Chun\nKam Fong Chun died on October 18, 2002, at the age of 84.", "9th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu\nHe was born as Jampal Namdol Chökyi Gyaltsen on the tenth day of the eleventh month of Water Monkey year (6 January 1933) near the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa, Tibet. Six months after his birth, his parents separated and his mother left him in the care of his uncle who was a bodyguard of the thirteenth Dalai Lama. The thirteenth Dalai Lama died in December 1933, and Reting Rinpoche became Regent of Tibet until a new Dalai Lama was discovered and crowned. Because of the inability of the Mongolian lamas to proclaim the discovery of the ninth Khutughtu, Reting Rinpoche in 1936, recognised Jampal Namdol Chökyi Gyaltsen, then age four, as the reincarnation of the eighth Jetsun Dhamba Khutughtu, after the boy passed three sets of tests. Due to the complex political situation, his existence was kept a secret. At the age of seven, he entered the Drepung Monastery, but because his identity was kept secret, he could not enter the Khalkha Mitsen, but had to follow the life of a common monk. At age 25, he renounced his monastic vows and became a householder, took a wife and had two children. When the Dalai Lama escaped from Tibet in 1959, Jampal Namdol did also, fearing that his identity would be revealed and he would be killed or used by the Communists for propaganda.", "Songtsen Gampo\nSome accounts say that when Gungsong Gungtsen reached the age of thirteen (twelve by Western reckoning), his father, Songtsen Gampo, retired, and he ruled for five years (which could have been the period when Songtsen Gampo was working on the new constitution). Gungsong Gungtsen is also said to have married 'A-zha Mang-mo-rje when he was thirteen, and they had a son, Mangsong Mangtsen (r. 650-676 CE). Gungsong Gungtsen is said to have only ruled for five years when he died at eighteen. His father, Songtsen Gampo, took the throne again. Gungsong Gungtsen is said to have been buried at Donkhorda, the site of the royal tombs, to the left of the tomb of his grandfather Namri Songtsen (gNam-ri Srong-btsan). The dates for these events are very unclear.\nAccording to Tibetan tradition, Songtsen Gampo was enthroned while still a minor as the thirty-third king of the Yarlung Dynasty after his father was poisoned circa 618. He is said to have been born in an unspecified Ox year and was 13 years old (12 by Western reckoning) when he took the throne. This accords with the tradition that the Yarlung kings took the throne when they were 13, and supposedly old enough to ride a horse and rule the kingdom. If these traditions are correct, he was probably born in the Ox year 605 CE. The \"Old Book of Tang\" notes that he \"was still a minor when he succeeded to the throne.\"", "Cho Ki-chon\nWhile still at the Pedagogical Institute, Cho released a novel describing the anti-Japanese armed struggle. It is similar in content to his later work \"Mt. Paektu\". The novel might have acted as a prototype for it. In addition to poetry and poetic criticism, Cho was interested in drama. Cho contributed to the creation of a drama called \"Hong Beom-do\", about the revolutionary Hong Beom-do, by Tae Jang-chun and other Koreans living in the Soviet Union. \"Mt. Paektu\" retains elements from this work, too. He published his first poem the age of 17 in a Korean newspaper, \"Sŏnbong\", in Russia. Between 1930 and 1933 he wrote poems such as \"The Morning of the Construction\", \"To the Advanced Workers\", \"The Military Field Study\" and \"Paris Commune\". While still in the Soviet Union, he also wrote poems \"To Rangers\" and \"Outdoor Practice\".", "Choe Chang-ik\nChoe was murdered by the secret state police in 1960 at the age of 63 or 64, while imprisoned in Pyongyang.", "House of Wangchuck\nAfter the Duar War with Britain (1864–65) as well as substantial territorial losses (Cooch Behar 1835; Assam Duars 1841), armed conflict turned inward. In 1870, amid the continuing civil wars, the 10th Penlop of Trongsa, Jigme Namgyal ascended to the office of 48th Druk Desi. In 1879, he appointed his 17-year-old son Ugyen Wangchuck as the 23th Penlop of Paro. Jigme Namgyal reigned through his death 1881, punctuated by periods of retirement during which he retained effective control of the country.", "Nabhachara Chamrassri\nPrincess Nabhachara Chamrassri died in her childhood on 31 August 1889, at the age of only 5.", "Takayama Chogyū\nAs sea air was thought to be helpful for lung ailments, Chogyū moved from Tokyo to the seaside resort towns of Atami, Shimizu, Oiso, and finally to Kamakura in an effort to cure his disease. With the likelihood of recovery increasingly remote, he turned his attention the teachings of the 13th-century Buddhist leader Nichiren. He continued to write, but on religious philosophy, especially Nichirenism. However, his condition worsened and he died on 24 December 1902 at a hospital in nearby Chigasaki. He lived in a house within the precincts of Kamakura's Hase-dera during the last year of his life, and his funeral rites were at the temple.", "Chote Praepan\nChote Praepan (, , 15 May 1907 – 5 April 5 1956), known by his pen name Jacob () was a Thai writer. His most famous work is \"Phu Chana Sip Thit\" (The Man Who Gained Victory in Ten Directions). He died of tuberculosis in 1956. In 2018 Google ran a Google Doodle in his honor.", "Choe Ik-gyu\nChoe became the head of the Korea Film Studio in 1956 at age 22. By the time Kim Jong-il took over the country's film industry in 1968, Choe was the most experienced filmmaker of North Korea. Kim and Choe became close associates – Kim producing and Choe directing – a number of important North Korean films. \"Sea of Blood\" (1968) and \"The Flower Girl\" (1972) were \"Immortal Classics\" that, in addition to being popular successes, profoundly shaped the industry. By the end of the 1960s, Choe supervised film making in all of North Korea as the Propaganda and Agitation Department film section head. In 1972, his responsibilities covered other forms of North Korean propaganda as well after he was made the vice director of the Department.", "Choe Chiwon\nAccording to the 12th century history work \"Samguk Sagi\", when Choe was twelve years of age, in 869, his father sent him to study in Tang, seeing him off with the admonition that if he did not pass the Chinese imperial examination within ten years he would cease to be his son. Within the decade Choe did indeed pass the highest of China's civil service exams, the coveted \"jinshi\" (進士) degree, and was duly appointed to a prefectural office in the south. Choe went on to serve in China for nearly a decade, even becoming intimate with Emperor Xizong of Tang (r. 873-888). Choe also won merits for his service under the Tang general Gao Pian in his struggle against the Huang Chao rebellion, a failed uprising which nonetheless ushered in the final years of the crippled Chinese dynasty. With the rebellion put down and peace at least temporarily restored Choe's thoughts turned towards home. One surviving poem, written earlier while Choe was heading to his first official post in China (\"ten years of dust\" being his ten years spent in preparing for the exam), gave vent to his emotions regarding the native land and family he had not seen in a decade:\nThe \"Samguk Sagi\" again tells us that Choe - the consummate Confucian - was thinking of his ageing parents when he requested permission from the Tang emperor to return to Silla. This he was duly granted and he returned home in 885. He was then 28.", "Nikhil Banerjee\nNikhil Banerjee was in failing health through the 80s, having survived three heart attacks. On 27 January 1986, on the birthday of his younger daughter, at the relatively young age of 54, Nikhil Banerjee died of a fourth heart attack. At the time of his death, he was a faculty member at the Ali Akbar College of Music in Calcutta. He was posthumously awarded the Padma Bhushan title by the government of India in the same year as his death.", "Lee Chi-chun\nLee won five Golden Bell Awards over the course of his career. He was diagnosed with dementia in 2013, and as a result, his daughter Lee Fang-yi accepted his final Golden Bell awarded for special contributions, in his stead. At the 2015 ceremony, she stated, \"My father has dedicated himself to radio and it has been his life. Even though he has forgotten much, for him the most important thing is that his listeners still remember him.\" Before Lee died at home in Kaohsiung, aged 74 on 22 April 2017, he had already been hospitalized four times that year due to complications of pneumonia.", "Cho Ki-chon\nHis resting place is at the Patriotic Martyrs' Cemetery, in Pyongyang. Today, Cho is regarded as the founding father of North Korean socialist realist poetry, or indeed poetry in general, or even North Korean literature as a whole. In the mid-1950s many Soviet Koreans, including Cho's close friends, were discredited in purges. According to Gabroussenko, Cho's untimely death in 1951 may have spared him his reputation from that loss of official recognition. With the exception of a period in the 1970s when Cho's name was barely mentioned in official publications, his legacy has benefited from continued popularity in North Korea.", "Kim Il-sung\nOn 8 July 1994, Kim Il-sung collapsed from a sudden heart attack at the age of 82. After the heart attack, Kim Jong-il ordered the team of doctors who were constantly at his father's side to leave, and arranged for the country's best doctors to be flown in from Pyongyang. After several hours, the doctors from Pyongyang arrived, but despite their efforts to save him, Kim Il-sung died. After the traditional Confucian Mourning period, his death was declared thirty hours later.", "Choi Jin-cheul\nChoi made 65 appearances for the South Korea national football team. He usually played as centre-back and made a very strong team with Hong Myung-Bo and Kim Tae-Young during the 2002 FIFA World Cup. As the oldest player of the Korean Nation Team for World Cup 2006, Choi has been an influential and strongly reliable defender throughout his World Cup career (2002, 2006). Before the World Cup, he had already announced his retirement from the national team after the tournament.", "Wangchuk Namgyal\n\"Chogyal\" Wangchuk Tenzing Namgyal (Sikkimese: ; Wylie: \"dbang-phyug bstan-'dzin rnam-rgyal\") (born 1 April 1953) is the second son of Palden Thondup Namgyal, the last sovereign king of Sikkim. Educated at Harrow, he is also the present heir of the Namgyal dynasty and claimant to the Sikkim throne.", "Chow Chih\nChow retired from the military in 1946, three years before the Communist takeover of China and became a store owner in Nanking (Nanjing). He became an adviser to the government in Canton (Guangdong) for several months in 1949 before returning to his hometown of Kaiping with his third wife Guo Yi Choy and their three young children. Near the end of 1952, the Kaiping People's Court declared Chow a counter-revolutionary. After being held in a Kaiping bell tower for several weeks, Chow was killed by gunshot on March 8, 1953.", "Đinh Bộ Lĩnh\nĐinh Bộ Lĩnh was born in 924 in Hoa Lư (south of the Red River Delta, in what is today Ninh Bình Province). Growing up in a local village during the disintegration of the Chinese Tang Dynasty that had dominated Vietnam for centuries, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh became a local military leader at a very young age. From this turbulent era, the first independent Vietnamese polity emerged when the warlord Ngô Quyền defeated the Southern Han's forces in the First Battle of the Bạch Đằng River in 938. However, the Ngô Dynasty was weak and unable to effectively unify Vietnam. Faced with the domestic anarchy produced by the competition of twelve independent feudal warlords for control of the country, as well as the external threat represented by Southern Han, which regarded itself as the heir to the ancient kingdom of Nan Yue that had encompassed not only southern China but also the Bac Bo region of northern Vietnam, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh sought a strategy to politically unify the Vietnamese. Upon the death of the last Ngô king in 965, he seized power and founded a new kingdom the capital of which was in his home district of Hoa Lư. To establish his legitimacy in relation to the previous dynasty, he married a woman of the Ngô family.", "Yoo Young-chul\nYoo Young-chul (born April 18, 1970) is a South Korean serial killer and self-confessed cannibal. Although he admitted to murdering 21 people, mostly prostitutes and wealthy old men, the Seoul Central District Court convicted him of 20 murders (one case was dismissed on a technicality). Yoo burned three and mutilated at least 11 of his victims, admitting he ate the livers of some of them. He committed his crimes between September 2003 and July 2004, when he was arrested. Yoo explained his motives in front of a TV camera saying \"Women shouldn't be sluts, and the rich should know what they've done.\"", "Ngô Xương Ngập\nNgô Quyền died in 944. Quyền named Dương Tam Kha as regent to support Ngô Xương Ngập on his deathbed. But after Quyền's death, Dương Tam Kha forced Ngập to abdicate and installed himself as king. Ngập fled to Trà Hưong village, Nam Sách, and was hidden by Phạm Lệnh Công. Dương Tam Kha sent Đỗ Cảnh Thạc and Dương Cát Lợi to arrest him, which made Phạm Lệnh Công afraid, and hid him in a cave.", "Lý Thần Tông\nIn 1136 Lý Thần Tông contracted a severe disease that his physicians could not cure, so a monk named Nguyễn Minh Không stepped up and helped the emperor survive his disease and recover. There was a legend said that Nguyễn Minh Không learned the disease's antidote of disease from his master Từ Đạo Hạnh before he died. Nevertheless, Lý Thần Tông survived for only two years, he died on the 26th day of the ninth month of 1138 at the age of 23 and was succeeded by Lý Anh Tông.", "Emperor Chong of Han\nEmperor Chong died in 145. He was just two years old.", "Cho Ki-chon\nCho Ki-chon was born to poor Korean peasants in the village of Ael'tugeu in the Vladivostok District of the Russian Far East on 6 November 1913. The Pacific region of the Soviet Union, where he lived, was a center for Korean independence activists. He particularly drew literary inspiration from , a fellow Korean writer living in the Soviet Union who – in believing in national emancipation by upholding socialist principles – had already written about anti-Japanese guerillas. Thus he acquired a nationalistic and class conscious worldview in his literature.", "Ugyen Wangchuck\nHe was apprenticed at the court of Druk Desi Jigme Namgyal (his father) in the art of leadership and warfare at a very young age. Because he grew up in an embattled period, Ugyen Wangchuck was trained as a skilled combatant. At the age of 17, he headed his troops in the battle against the 20th Paro Penlop Tshewang Norbu. When Ugyen Wangchuck was barely 21, his father Desi Jigme Namgyel died, leaving him to strike his own role as a leader in the country. In 1885, following the death of his father, when he was 23 years old, he led 2400 troops in a series of battles that culminated in Changlimethang.", "Demchugdongrub\nAfter Namjil Wangchuk died in 1908, the six-year-old Demchugdongrub, with the approval of the Qing, inherited one of his father's titles – the Duoluo Duling Junwang. In his youth Demchugdongrub studied the Mongolian, Chinese, and Manchu languages. After the fall of the Qing, Yuan Shikai promoted Demchugdongrub to the title of Jasagh Heshuo Duling Jinong ( \"Zhāsàkè Héshuò Dùléng Qīnwáng\") in 1912.", "Cho Hae-il\nCho made his literary debut with \"The Man Who Dies Every Day\", which won first prize in the \"JoongAng Ilbo\" spring literary contest in 1970. Over the next few years Cho was quite prolific, publishing at least twelve short stories and the novella America between his first work and 1974. In 1976 Cho published \"The Winter Woman\", which went on to achieve massive success and made Cho a popular writer, though he believes his fame to be undeserved. From 1974 to 1986, Cho wrote steadily, both short stories and newspaper serials.", "Raymond &quot;Shrimp Boy&quot; Chow\nIn 1990 and 1991, the Wah Ching and Wo Hop To were struggling for power in San Francisco. Wah Ching member Danny Phat Vong was killed in April 1990 outside the Cats nightclub on Geary, and in retaliation, the Wah Ching killed Wo Hop To member Michael Bit Chen Wu outside The Purple Onion, a nightclub in North Beach, in May 1990. Wah Ching leader Danny Wong called for a cease-fire at the Harbor Village, and was toasted by Chong. The toast for peace was later repeated at Chow's wedding, who called Chong \"Uncle to us all.\" Despite the apparent cease-fire, the violence culminated in the assassination of Wong in April 1991. According to court records, Chow was in charge of day-to-day operations and new member recruitment, leading them through a series of 36 loyalty oaths, promising death if any was broken.", "Sidkeong Tulku Namgyal\nWhen Alexandra David-Néel was invited to the royal monastery of Sikkim, she met Sidkeong Tulku Namgyal, at that time Maharaj Kumar (crown prince). She became Sidkeong's \"confidante and spiritual sister\", \nFollowing an attack of jaundice, Sidkeong Tulku Namgyal died of heart failure on 5 December 1914, aged 35, in most suspicious circumstances. He was succeeded by his younger brother, Tashi Namgyal.", "Namkhai Norbu\nIn his early years Namkhai Norbu studied at the Derge Gonchen monastery. At the age of nine he entered a Sakya College where he studied Buddhist philosophy for many years with Khyenrab Chökyi Odzer. He also received numerous tantric and Dzogchen transmissions and teachings from many masters, including his paternal uncle Togden Ugyen Tendzin (who achieved the rainbow body), maternal uncle Khyentse Rinpoche Chökyi Wangchug, Drubwang Rinpoche Kunga Palden, Negyab Rinpoche, Drugse Gyurmed Dorje, Dzongsar Khyentse Chökyi Lodrö and Bo Gongkar Rinpoche. In 1951, he also received Chöd teachings from Ayu Khandro Dorje Paldrön (1838–1953), a woman who spent over fifty years in dark retreat and was a disciple of Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo.", "Kingdom of Bumthang\nAfter the Duar War with Britain (1864–65) as well as substantial territorial losses (Cooch Behar 1835; Assam Duars 1841), armed conflict turned inward. In 1870, amid the continuing civil wars, the 10th Trongsa Penlop Jigme Namgyal ascended to the office of Druk Desi. In 1879, he appointed his 17-year-old son Ugyen Wangchuck as Penlop of Paro. Jigme Namgyal reigned through his death 1881, punctuated by periods of retirement during which he retained effective control of the country.", "Cho Chikun\nHis career skyrocketed when Kido magazine named him the Number One Young Player. His power and composure shone through his strong endgame. He barely lost out in the final of the 22nd Nihon Ki-In Championship to Eio Sakata after making a critical mistake that led to his resignation. This loss fueled him to take the 12th Asahi Pro Best Ten undefeated, which made him look incredibly powerful, as all the opponents were 9-dan. The victory made him the youngest title holder ever in Japan. He lost in the second round of the 30th Honinbo preliminary to Toshihiro Shimamura 9-dan. Even though he had a second chance to take the match against Masao Kato—due to a triple ko—he still lost. He was on a roll in the 1st Tengen league, until he was defeated by Shuzo Ohira. He didn't get far in the rest of the tournaments that year. His spirits were high after he was promoted to 7 dan in late October, only to be crushed a month later when his teacher, Kitani, died. His record was a formidable 39 wins and 16 losses for the year.", "Phạm Văn Đồng\nAs he became older, his vision deteriorated, and he was blind for the last 10 years of his life. After several months of illness, he died in Hanoi on 29 April 2000, at the age of 94. His death was announced by the Vietnamese Communist Party and the Vietnamese government a week later on 2 May. Commemoration and funeral services were held on 6 May 2000, in Hanoi.", "Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck\nThe Crown Prince, popularly known to the people of Bhutan as 'Dasho Khesar', accompanied his father in his many tours throughout the Kingdom to meet and speak to the people. He also officially represented Bhutan on several international events. \nOn 8 May 2002, he represented Bhutan at the 27th UN General Assembly and made his first speech to the United Nations where he addressed issues related to the welfare of millions of children around the globe to world leaders.\nHe attended Thai King Bhumibol Adulyadej's 60th Anniversary Celebrations on 12–13 June 2006 in Bangkok along with royals from 25 countries.\nThe youngest of the visiting royals, the 26-year-old prince caused a sensation, giving rise to a legion of female fans in Thailand. The Thai press dubbed him \"Prince Charming,\" publishing his photograph and running stories about him as well as Bhutan for several weeks after the event.", "Liu Chengyou\nIn late 947, Li Chengxùn died. Liu Zhiyuan, in sadness, fell ill. By spring 948, he was on the edge of death. He summoned the chancellor Su Fengji, the chief of staff (\"Shumishi\") Yang Bin, the imperial guard commander Shi Hongzhao, and the deputy chief of staff Guo Wei, and stated to them, \"My remaining breaths are getting short, and I cannot speak much. Chengyou is young and weak, so what happens after my death has to be entrusted to you.\" He also told them to guard against the retired general Du Chongwei. After he died shortly after, the four did not immediately announce his death, but instead issued an edict in his name putting Du to death. They also issued another edict in his name, creating Liu Chengyou the Prince of Zhou and giving him the title of chancellor (同中書門下平章事, \"Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi\"). Shortly after, they announced the emperor's passing, and Liu Chengyou took the throne, at age 17. He honored his mother Empress Li as empress dowager.", "Jamyang Namgyal\nJamyang Namgyal was born to and was the eldest son of Tsewang Namgyal (year of birth not known) who was the King of Ladakh from 1575 to 1595 AD. Jamyang Namgyal took the reign of the Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh in 1595 AD and continued to be in power until his death in 1616 AD. Jamyang Namgyal was married to \"Gyal Khatun\", the daughter of Ali Sher Khan Anchan who attacked Ladakh and imprisoned Namgyal.", "Chow Chung-cheng\nChow Chung-cheng (; July 20, 1908 in Yanping, Fujian – August 31, 1996 in Bonn, Germany) was a Chinese artist known for her finger painting and autobiographical books.", "Cho Gyeong-chul\nLater in life, he developed heart disease, and was hospitalized in Severance Hospital with high fever on March 2, 2010. He later suffered a heart attack and lost consciousness. He died on March 6, 2010.", "Ngor lineage\nIn 1430, when he was forty-eight years old, Ngorchen founded the main Ngor monastery of Evam Choden near Sakya. Ngor Monastery was named Ngor Ewam Chodan because while it was under construction, Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo dreamt that the collection of all Dharma arises from the letters E and WAM. Ngorchen achieved a very high level of realization and died in the fire malle mouse year, when he was seventy-four." ]

[ 103.5 ]

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[ "Mobile Fighter G Gundam\n\"Mobile Fighter G Gundam\" was produced by Sunrise in association with advertising agencies Sotsu and Dentsu, and toy company Bandai. The series was created to commemorate the 15th anniversary of the \"Gundam\" franchise, created by Yoshiyuki Tomino in 1979. \"G Gundam\" was directed by Yasuhiro Imagawa, known for his work on the \"Giant Robo\" and \"Getter Robo Armageddon\" original video animations (OVAs). \"G Gundam\" was chiefly written and supervised by Fuyunori Gobu, a veteran screenwriter for various Sunrise properties such as \"Shippū! Iron Leaguer\" and \"The King of Braves GaoGaiGar\". Many of the principal production crew members for \"G Gundam\" were carried over the previous season's \"Mobile Suit Victory Gundam\", including character designer Hiroshi Ōsaka and mechanical designers Kunio Okawara and Hajime Katoki. Manga artist Kazuhiko Shimamoto collaborated on the show's character designs. Kimitoshi Yamane acted as a back-up mechanical designer and has since worked on Sunrise's acclaimed series \"Cowboy Bebop\" and \"The Vision of Escaflowne\". Hirotoshi Sano, previously credited for \"Tekkaman Blade\", was responsible for directing the mechanical animation in \"G Gundam\", but also produced much of show's promotional artwork seen on home media covers. The musical score for \"G Gundam\" was composed by Kohei Tanaka. The opening theme song \"Flying in the Sky\" performed by Hitofumi Ushima and the closing theme by Etsuko Sai are played for the first 25 episodes of the series. The opening theme \"Trust You Forever\" by Ushima and the closing theme by Takehide Inoue are played for the remaining episodes.", "List of Mobile Suit Victory Gundam episodes\n\"Mobile Suit Victory Gundam\" is a 1993 Japanese science fiction anime television series created and directed by Yoshiyuki Tomino and produced by Bandai Visual, Sotsu Agency, Sunrise, and TV Asahi with music production by Starchild Records and Apollon. Spanning 51 episodes, \"Mobile Suit Victory Gundam\" is the final television series following the Universal Century timeline in the Gundam franchise. The series premiered in Japan on TV Asahi on April 2, 1993 and concluded on March 25, 1994.", "Mobile Suit Gundam 0080: War in the Pocket\n\"Mobile Suit Gundam 0080: War in the Pocket\" was produced by animation studio Sunrise in association with toy company Bandai. Kenji Uchida was the former representative and Minoru Takanashi was the latter's producer. The series was created to commemorate the ten-year anniversary of the \"Gundam\" franchise, created by Yoshiyuki Tomino in 1979. \"War in the Pocket\" was directed by Fumihiko Takayama, known for his work on \"Orguss 02\" and \"\", marking the first time anyone other than Tomino directed a \"Gundam\" show. The screenplay was written by Hiroyuki Yamaga, with scenario by , while the character designer for this series was Haruhiko Mikimoto.", "Yoshiyuki Tomino\nIn 1979, Tomino directed and wrote \"Mobile Suit Gundam\", which was highly influential in transforming the Super Robot mecha genre into the Real Robot genre. Mark Simmons discusses the impact of \"Gundam\" in his book, \"Gundam Official Guide\":\nIn an interview published in \"Animerica\" magazine, Tomino discusses what he was trying to accomplish with \"Mobile Suit Gundam\":\nAlthough the last quarter of the show's original script was canceled and it had to be completed in 43 episodes, its popularity grew after three compilation movies were released in 1981 and 1982. \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" was followed by numerous sequels, spin-offs and merchandising franchises, becoming one of the longest-running and most influential, popular anime series in history, being chosen as No. 1 on TV Asahi's \"Top 100 Anime\" listing in 2005." ]

[ "Superior Defender Gundam Force\n, is a 2004 Japanese anime television series produced by Sunrise. The series was released to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Gundam media franchise, and was the first Gundam series to be entirely animated in cel-shaded 3D computer graphics (3DCG), and the first full-3DCG series to be broadcast on Japanese television. The show was directed by Yūichi Abe.", "Mobile Suit Gundam Thunderbolt\nA 4-episode original net animation adaptation, produced by Sunrise, was confirmed on 28 October 2015. It was directed and written by Kō Matsuo, with character designs from Hirotoshi Takaya and mechanical designs from Morifumi Naka, Seiichi Nakatani and Hajime Katoki. It premiered on 25 December 2015 with the last episode officially aired on 8 April 2016 via pay to watch service in Japan, with early access from the Gundam Fan Club app service on 11 December 2015. The first episode was streamed outside Japan for a limited time from 25 December 2015 to 7 January 2016. A 4-episode second season was announced by Bandai Visual on 18 November 2016 and premiered on 24 March 2017. Sunrise announced in the 2017 Anime Expo that the second season will receive an English Dub.", "Clover (toy company)\nInstead it was Bandai who capitalized on the show by selling model-kits that became extremely popular. Gundam had started the Real Robot trend which changed the focus to \"realistic\" robots instead of the \"super robots\" which Clover were used to making. They tried to adapt to the new market by sponsoring shows such as \"Xabungle\", \"Dunbine\", and \"Srungle\" (the first 2 being directed by Gundam creator Yoshiyuki Tomino) but folded in 1983.", "Plamo-Kyoshiro\nPlamo-Kyoshiro was written by Hisashi Yasui and illustrated by Koichi Yamato. In 1981 Kodansha had released the first issue of its magazine Comic Bom Bom. At that moment, the publisher was planning to launch a manga adaptation of the \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" movies, but the publisher was unable to get Sunrise's permission at the time. As an alternative plan, the publisher contacted Hisashi Yasui to create a new series, thus creating Plamo-Kyoshiro. Furthermore, the Plamo-Kyoshiro manga was created as a tool to publicize the Gundam plastic models that Bandai was launching at the time.", "List of Mobile Suit Gundam Unicorn episodes\nIn the June 2009 issue of the Japanese monthly manga magazine \"Gundam Ace\", it was announced that an anime adaptation of \"Gundam Unicorn\" was green-lit for late 2009 and later moved to spring 2010. It is directed by Kazuhiro Furuhashi and features screenplays written by Yasuyuki Muto. Hajime Katoki, who was the mechanical designer for the novel, works on the anime alongside veteran designers Junya Ishigaki and Mika Akitaka, and newcomer Nobuhiko Genba. Yoshikazu Yasuhiko's character designs were adapted for the series by Kumiko Takahashi, and the music is composed by Hiroyuki Sawano. It was planned to be six 50-minute episodes with a worldwide release. However, on May 13, 2012, Bandai announced that the storyline will wrap up with a seventh episode. The series premiered on PlayStation Network Japan for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable systems on February 20, 2010. The Blu-ray Disc edition was released simultaneously worldwide on March 12, 2010, featuring both Japanese and English audio and subtitles in five languages (Japanese, English, French, Spanish and Chinese). Bandai Entertainment released the first four episodes of \"Unicorn\" on DVD before shutting down in 2012. Sunrise released the OVA series on DVD in North America in four volumes with distribution from Right Stuf Inc. beginning in August 2013. The OVA ran from February 20, 2010 to June 6, 2014.", "Mobile Suit Crossbone Gundam\nTobia decides to be with the Vanguard, who reveal to him that the Jupiter Empire has spent several years building up its military strength to destroy the Earth Federation, with whom it has a partnership. Now armed with this information, Tobia is trained in mobile suit piloting by Kinkedo and to discover his own Newtype abilities. He flies into action as pilot of the XM-X3 Crossbone Gundam X-3 mobile suit.\"Crossbone Gundam\" has had four sequels, all written and illustrated by Yuichi Hasegawa:The characters and mecha of \"Crossbone Gundam\" often appear in the \"SD Gundam G Generation\" video game series. The series also appears in \"2nd Super Robot Wars Alpha\", part of the long-running \"Super Robot Wars\" franchise; it is the first non-animated series to be given plot significance in a \"Super Robot Wars\" game. In 2010, \"Crossbone Gundam\" appeared in \"\", Super \"Robot Wars\"' action counterpart.", "Omega Force\nDynasty Warriors: Gundam, originally released in Japan as , is a series which based on the \"Gundam\" anime series. Games were developed by Omega Force and published by Bandai Namco Games.", "List of Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans episodes\n, also referred to as , is a 2015 Japanese mecha drama Anime series and the fourteenth incarnation to Sunrise's long-running Gundam franchise. It is directed by Tatsuyuki Nagai and written by Mari Okada, a team which previously collaborated on \"Toradora!\" and \"\". It aired in Japan on MBS and other JNN stations on October 4, 2015, making this the first Gundam series to return to a Sunday late afternoon time slot since \"Mobile Suit Gundam AGE\". On American television, the series began airing on Adult Swim's Toonami block on June 4, 2016, making it the first Gundam series to air in the US since \"Mobile Suit Gundam 00\".", "Mobile Suit Gundam 00\nAccording to Hiroomi Iketani, one of the Gundam 00 producers, planning for Gundam 00 started in 2005, under the tentative name \"Next\". Iketani approached Seiji Mizushima, who previously had worked in the first \"Fullmetal Alchemist\" anime series, for the first time at the end of 2005 to be director. Mizushima was initially reluctant about accepting the job due to his lack of knowledge regarding the Gundam series.", "Yoshiyuki Tomino\nTomino, began his career in 1963 with Osamu Tezuka's company, Mushi Productions, scripting the storyboards and screenplay of the first Japanese anime television series, \"Tetsuwan Atomu\" (also known as \"Astro Boy\"). He later became one of the most important members of the anime studio Sunrise, going on to direct numerous anime through the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Tomino is perhaps best known for his transformation of the \"Super Robot\" mecha anime genre into the \"Real Robot\" genre with 1979's \"Mobile Suit Gundam\", the first in the \"Gundam\" franchise. He has also won numerous awards, including the \"Best Director\" award at the recent 2006 Tokyo International Anime Fair (for the 2005 film \"\"). Two anime series directed by Tomino (\"Mobile Suit Gundam\" in 1979–\n80 and \"Space Runaway Ideon\" in 1980) won the Animage Anime Grand Prix award.", "Mobile Fighter G Gundam\nThe \"Mobile Fighter G Gundam\" television series originally aired in Japan the terrestrial channel TV Asahi from April 22, 1994 to March 31, 1995 for a total of 49 episodes. The show would not reach North American audiences until many years later. \"Mobile Suit Gundam Wing\", a series that succeeded \"G Gundam\" on Japanese television in 1995, was first localized in North America by Bandai Entertainment in early 2000. \"Gundam Wing\" was a moderate success in the United States while being broadcast on the popular afternoon Toonami block of Cartoon Network. In late 2001, Bandai acquired the rights to distribute an English-dubbed version of \"G Gundam\" with voice casting recorded by Ocean Productions in their Blue Water studio in Calgary, Alberta. The English-language version of \"G Gundam\" premiered as a free screening at the Sony Metreon Action Theatre in San Francisco on March 30, 2002. \"G Gundam\" began airing on Toonami on August 5, 2002. Due to the channel's censorship policies, some edits were made for the broadcast. This mainly involved altering the names of several mobile fighters, such as changing God Gundam and Devil Gundam to Burning Gundam and Dark Gundam respectively. The show was also aired on the channel's \"Midnight Run\" and as part of its Saturday programming in November 2002. Cartoon Network officially dropped \"G Gundam\" from its afternoon schedule the following June. The series has since been re-broadcast on the Japanese cable network Family Gekijo and the satellite channel Animax.", "Cultural impact of Gundam\nThe Gundam franchise covers nine universes that comprise a dozen TV series, over twenty animated movies, and dozens of novels and manga. Bandai is the fourth largest toy manufacturer in the world and \"Gundam\" merchandise makes up 20% of its sales. In 2004, Gundam sales resulted in profits of , growing to annual profit by 2007, and annual revenue per year by 2014. The franchise had sales of 11.9million home video units by February 2006.", "List of Mobile Suit Gundam characters\nwas voiced by Banjo Ginga in the original Japanese version. In the English dubbed series and movie adaptations the character was voiced by Hiro Kanagawa and Doug Stone respectively. One of the heads of the Principality of Zeon, Gihren is the oldest son of Degwin Sodo Zabi, the ruler of Zeon and the instigator of the war with Earth. With the death of Degwin's favorite son Garma Zabi in battle, Degwin withdraws from day-to-day duties as Zeon's leader which effectively made Gihren the leader of Zeon. This was most evident in the speech Gihren gave at Garma's state funeral. This speech was notable for possibly being the debut of the trademark salute \"Sieg Zeon!\" American Rock musician Andrew W.K. dubbed a famous speech of this character in his cover album \"Gundam Rock\" released during the 30th anniversary of the Gundam franchise.", "Mobile Suit Gundam\nDespite being released in 1979, the original \"Gundam\" series is still remembered and recognized within the anime fan community. The series revolutionized mecha anime, introducing the new Real Robot genre, and over the years became synonymous with the entire genre for many. As a result, for example, parodies of mecha genre commonly feature homages to \"Mobile Suit Gundam\", thanks to its immediate recognizability.", "Cultural impact of Gundam\nThe giant robot anime franchise \"Gundam\" is a popular culture icon in Japan. The \"Gundam\" franchise had grossed over in retail sales by 2000. Its owner Bandai Namco was earning up to per year from products based on the Gundam characters by 2007, rising to per year by 2014. As of June 2018, \"Gundam\" is the 15th highest-grossing media franchise of all time, estimated to have generated more than in total revenue.", "List of Mobile Suit Gundam SEED episodes\nThe \"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED\" anime series is animated by the Japanese anime studio Sunrise and directed by Mitsuo Fukuda. It aired from October 5, 2002 to September 27, 2003, with fifty episodes on TBS. As with other series from the Gundam franchise, \"Gundam SEED\" takes place in a parallel timeline, in this case the Cosmic Era, the first to do so. In this era, mankind has developed into two subspecies: Naturals, who reside on Earth and Coordinators, genetically-enhanced humans capable of withstanding the rigors of space who inhabit orbital colonies. The story revolves around a young Coordinator Kira Yamato who becomes involved in the war between the two races after a neutral space colony is invaded by the Coordinators.", "Mobile Suit Gundam\nHoping to capitalize on the success of \"Gundam Wing\" from the previous year, Bandai Entertainment released a heavily edited and English-dubbed version of \"Mobile Suit Gundam\", premiering on Cartoon Network's Toonami weekday afternoon after-school action programming block across the United States on Monday, July 23, 2001. The series did not do as well as \"Wing\" but the ratings were high enough for the whole series to be aired and to spawn an enormous toy line. Due to the September 11th attacks, Cartoon Network, like many other American TV stations, began pulling, and editing, war-themed content and violent programming, resulting in the cancellation of the series. However, the series finale was shown as part of Toonami's \"New Year's Eve-il\" special on December 31, 2001 and the unaired episodes were aired in reruns during 2002.", "Dynasty Warriors: Gundam\nDynasty Warriors: Gundam, originally released in Japan as , is a video game based on the \"Gundam\" anime series. It was developed by Omega Force and published by Bandai Namco Games. Its gameplay is derived from Koei's \"Dynasty Warriors\" and \"Samurai Warriors\" series. The \"Official Mode\" of the game is based primarily on the Universal Century timeline, with mecha from \"Mobile Suit Gundam\", \"Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam\", and \"Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ\" appearing in the game, as well as a few units from Mobile Suit Variations \"\" and \"\" appearing as non-playable ally and enemy units. The \"Original Mode\" of the game also features mecha from the non-UC series \"Mobile Fighter G Gundam\", \"Mobile Suit Gundam Wing\" and \"Turn A Gundam\". A newly designed non-SD Musha Gundam designed by Hajime Katoki is also included.", "Kidō Senshi Gundam: Senjō no Kizuna\nKidō Senshi Gundam: Senjō no Kizuna (機動戦士ガンダム 戦場の絆, lit. Mobile Suit Gundam: Bonds of the Battlefield), is a Japanese arcade game set in the original Gundam universe (Mobile Suit Gundam). The game was created by Bandai Namco and Banpresto and was released late 2006. Play involves stepping into a P.O.D. (Panoramic Optical Display) and doing battle with other players across Japan.", "Mobile Suit Gundam: The Origin\nAn anime adaptation of the manga, focusing on the stories of Casval Rem Deikun (more famously known as Char Aznable) and his sister Artesia (aka Sayla Mass), produced by Sunrise was released between 2015 and 2018 in six parts. Yasuhiko was the chief director of the adaptation, with Sunrise veteran Takashi Imanishi as director, and Katsuyuki Sumisawa as the scriptwriter.", "Liquid Comics\nVirgin Comics LLC\" and Virgin Animation Private Limited\" are collaborative companies formed by Virgin Group entrepreneur Sir Richard Branson, author Deepak Chopra, filmmaker Shekhar Kapur and Gotham Entertainment Group (South Asia's largest comics publisher) in 2006. The companies spun out of the previously announced partnership between Chopra, Kapur, and Gotham Entertainment (but not Branson). \"Gotham Studios Asia\" was announced in late 2004, planning its first release in 2005, which failed to occur. \"Variety\" reported in January 2006 that Gotham Entertainment head Sharad Devarajan and Chopra's son Gotham were the key movers, and approached Branson as a potential partner. With Branson on board, Gotham Studios Asia became \"Virgin Comics and Animation\", with Devarajan taking the role of CEO, with Gotham Chopra as chief creative officer, with Indian advertising executive Suresh Seetharaman running Virgin Animation from India. The companies are based in Bangalore with the comics arm having its headquarters in New York. Variety reported that Devarajan and Chopra planned to spend 2006 \"staffing the Indian operation with approximately 150 people, most of them artists\".", "Gundam (fictional robot)\nPrimary Mobile Suit featured in the 1989 OVA \"\", designed by Yutaka Izubuchi. The first direct variant of the RX-78 to be animated, it helped pave the way for the appearance of other variants, such as those from \"\", as pivotal elements of the plot. In \"War in the Pocket\", the Alex was developed to replace the RX-78-2 and optimized for the increased reaction time of Newtypes, though its test pilot Christina MacKenzie was not a Newtype herself. With its panoramic cockpit, the Alex serves as a retconned technological link between the original series and \"Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam\".", "SD Gundam\nThe series first started on Carddas trading cards with the story set in the \"Saddarc World\" (Carddas spelt backwards). Soon after it expanded to Gashapons, plastic models, manga and games. The Gundams in the Knight Gundam series are portrayed as living beings just like in the Musha Gundam series. But later on in the series giant robots known as \"Kihei\"(機兵) were introduced thus creating a weird picture of a Gundam piloting a Gundam. Also different from Musha Gundam, Knight Gundam has important human characters like Knight Amuro and Princess Frau throughout the whole series.In the past most of the SD Gundam games are turn-based strategy video games and brawling-type games with shooting. However, the recent SD Gundam games started appearing in other genres.", "David X. Cohen\nCohen co-developed \"Futurama\", along with \"The Simpsons\" creator Matt Groening. Cohen served as head writer, executive producer, and voice director of the series. He was also the voice director of the \"Futurama\" video game. After spending a few years researching science fiction, Groening got together with Cohen in 1997 and developed \"Futurama\", an animated series about life in the year 3000. By the time they pitched the series to Fox in April 1998, Groening and Cohen had composed many characters and storylines; Groening claimed they had \"gone overboard\" in their discussions. Groening described trying to get the show on the air as \"by far the worst experience of [his] grown-up life\". The show premiered on March 28, 1999.", "Mobile Suit Gundam F91\nYoshikazu Yasuhiko and Kunio Okawara returned to work on the movie with Tomino to recreate the core team from the original \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" series. Yasuhiko hadn't done anything aside from character designs after \"Mobile Suit Gundam\", but he participated on the condition that he would get to help create the story like he did in the original. In the end, however, he did not participate in the story's development, and instead arranged parts of the animation and designed and colored some elements, such as the normal suits (the space suits used in the film). Okawara returned from his design role in \"Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ\" to design every mobile suit that appeared in the movie. The mobile suits he designed were ones that came from conversations with Tomino, much like how it was when they worked on the original series, but they found themselves disagreeing on how radically to change the design elements and theme. Okawara originally took care to keep the number of lines in his designs to a minimum, as the difficulty of animating them for a feature-length film would increase, but Sunrise requested that he use as many lines as he could.", "Mobile Fighter G Gundam\nImagawa credits himself for conceiving a majority of the various Gundams participating in the finals of the Neo Hong Kong arc. The director worked closely with mecha artists to create these \"one-shot\" opponents and found many of the comical and eccentric designs very charming, especially the windmill-shaped Hurricane Gundam of Neo Holland. The designs for Neo Singapore's Ashura Gundam and Neo Malaysia's Skull Gundam were included in the show as winners of contests held by the Kodansha publications \"Comic BonBon\" and \"TV Magazine\"; Imagawa expressed regret that these Gundams were used as enemy characters, since they were designed by young fans of the anime.", "Ginga Hyōryū Vifam\nThe series was conceived by \"Gundam\" creator Yoshiyuki Tomino and directed by Takeyuki Kanda. It included mechanical designs by artists Kunio Okawara (who previously designed mecha for the \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" anime series) and Mamoru Nagano, as well as character designs by the late Toyoo Ashida (famous for his work in \"Magical Princess Minky Momo\").", "Gundam Sentinel\nIn March 2003, Hajime Katoki redesigned and released the S and EX-S Gundam in an oversized Plan 303E Deep Striker package under his Gundam Fix Figuration line of high-quality action figures. He later collaborated with Bandai to produce figures for the Robot Damashii KA Signature collection, starting with the Gundam Mark V in 2013. The line has since progressed to include a version of the Mark V in Earth Federation colors, and the MSA-007 Nero as a trainer model, Task Force Alpha unit, and the EWAC version.", "Gundam (fictional robot)\nIn the \"Super Robot Wars\" series of tactical role-playing games, the \"Gundam\" franchise is the chief representative of the \"Real Robot\" genre and one of the three mainstays of the series (the other two being Mazinger and Getter Robo), and the original Gundam itself is referred to in the series as the in order to distinguish it from its many successors.", "White Base\nThe \"White Base\" is designed with a 3 plane view method by Kunio Okawara, however, it is not specially designed for the anime series Gundam, it was actually a salvaged design from the anime \"Invincible Steel Man Daitarn 3\". The idea of having a space carrier from the director Yoshiyuki Tomino is partly inspired by the earlier science fiction anime \"Space Battleship Yamato\", in which he claimed to be a fan of. It was intended to be in a more realistic black colour, but was changed to white by the order of Sunrise, similar to the colour change of the main mecha Gundam was changed from a grayish white to white, red, blue and yellow. Director Tomino showed great disgust in the colour change, also noticing the unrealistic non-aerodynamic design of it after the show was on air, said in an interview that such design would never appeared in the real world, since it would be a sitting duck from fighter aircraft. Tomino still held a grudge 10 years after the show aired and stated in an interview in \"Newtype\" 1989 April issue that the imaginary enemies of Gundam are Sunrise, sponsors and television stations. This ship also appeared in the Kodansha Pocket Encyclopedia series, listed as spacecraft carrier(UchuuKubou, 宇宙空母). The \"Zukai Uchusen The space ship\" listed it the 6th fictional spaceship(and 3rd in anime) after the Imperial Star Destroyer, Millennium Falcon, Enterprise, Macross and Spaceship Yamato, and the ship that made the Pegasus Class of ships famous.", "Mobile Fighter G Gundam\nDuring the North American DVD production interviews for \"Mobile Fighter G Gundam\", Imagawa was asked to address the message \"See you again Gundam Fight 14\" shown at the last cut of the final episode. He answered that it was simply word play and had no intention of affirming a sequel to the anime. Granted its large number of manga side-stories, Imagawa surmised that it would be \"impossible\" to create an animated sequel or OVA series to \"G Gundam\" and disclosed he would not direct it if there were. He said, \"I believe \"G Gundam\" is a series that started as a program for kids and eventually worked out because I stayed vividly aware of that until the very last moment, overcoming a lot of obstacles and bad situations (in terms of directing).\"", "Cultural impact of Gundam\nThe popularity of Gundam resulted in its first specialty magazine, \"Gundam Magazine\", which ran from December 1990 to June 1991. In 2006, the magazine was reprinted in a six volume box set. In 2001, \"Gundam Ace\" magazine began publication, moved from a quarterly to a bi-monthly to monthly serialization in 2003. The magazine boasted a circulation of 161,417 copies between October 2008 and September 2009, and 133,584 copies between October 2010 and September 2011 according to the Japan Magazine Publishing Association.", "Mobile Suit Gundam\nDespite initial low ratings that caused the series' cancellation, the popularity of \"Gundam\" saw a boost from the introduction of Bandai's Gunpla models in 1980 and from reruns and the theatrical release of the anime, leading to the creation of a prolific and lucrative media and toy franchise. The series is famous for revolutionizing the giant robot genre due to the handling of mobile suits as weapons of war as well as the portrayal of their pilots as ordinary soldiers, as opposed to the previous style of portraying hero pilots and their giant super hero robots.", "Gundam Reconguista in G\nThe reaction to the series was mixed. Toshio Okada, a co-founder and former president of Gainax, has voiced concerns regarding the show's comprehensibility. He stated that \"Ordinary people watch this and don't know what's happening,\" and \"It's fine to make it for today's kids, but who does he think kids today are? Who does he think the kids that watch \"Yo-kai Watch\" are?\" Lauren Orsini of Anime News Network criticized it in her review of the Gundam series as a whole. Stating \"The storytelling is so confusing, it may take the entire series for you to figure out what's going on.\" She recommended against watching it entirely. Meanwhile, Japanese social critic and editor-in-chief of the \"PLANETS\" magazine, Uno Tsunehiro, gave it a highly positive critical response, stating that \"[It is] in my humble opinion, this disorientation is somewhat intended... What we see here may be an intense message that goes against the times.\" He went on to state that it reflects the dilemmas that humanity faced in the 20th century, and how technology and digital age culture has made us lose our ability to perceive and understand these detached realities. Likewise, writer Gen Urobuchi wrote a highly positive critical response to it, stating \"If there are infinite possibilities in writing, is it possible to write a story about the potential danger of stories? A story that renounces stories? Yes it is. Reconguista of G did it\", and \"When I saw the end credits I was just moved, and exclaimed \" they did it!\". I had been worried about the limits of storytelling, and was just thankful for this slap from a veteran creator to me. Reconguista of G made me genki.\"", "Mobile Fighter G Gundam\nLike other early mecha anime, the \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" franchise was backed by sponsors whose main interest was having television programs advertise plastic models and toys. \"Gundam\" fiction set itself apart from others in the same genre with its dramatic plot devices, morally complex characters, and depictions of the horrors of war. These aspects, combined with its \"Real Robot\" mecha approach, made \"Gundam\" immensely popular for several years. After the broadcast of \"Victory Gundam\" beginning in 1993, Imagawa, a young protégé of Tomino, was selected as the director of the next installment in the franchise, titled \"Polcarino Gundam\". However, as \"Gundam\" popularity dwindled and sales began to drop by this time, the sponsors forced the creators to reboot the brand with the newly titled \"Mobile Fighter G Gundam\". Conceived as a less realistic \"Super Robot\" series, \"G Gundam\" abandoned its military roots and was aimed at younger viewers to increase toy sales. Alterations including a lack of a warfare-centered plot, Gundams stereotypically based on nationality, and Earth as a ring were originally seen as blasphemous to Imagawa and much of Sunrise's staff. Notwithstanding, Imagawa became more supportive of the changes after seeing some impressive, complex designs in \"G Gundam\"s sponsor-created toys. He eventually settled into his position, taking advice from his mentor. \"If you continue to make a copy of a copy of a copy,\" he stated, \"eventually the image degrades to nothing.\" Imagawa thought it was important for creators and sponsors to buy into each others ideas for the benefit of a product's success. The director also commented that in order to sell a product like \"G Gundam\" to an audience resistant of such ambitious changes, creators must instill their own personalities to overcome hardships and make the work unique. By the end of production, Imagawa considered it meaningless to compare \"G Gundam\" to other parts of the franchise and disregarded the concept of a \"conventional\" \"Gundam\" series. \"This is MY \"Gundam\",\" he proclaimed, \"And I've made a \"Gundam\" that I can be proud of.\"", "Brain Powerd\n\"Brain Powerd\" was produced by Sunrise and directed and written by Yoshiyuki Tomino, the creator of the long-running Gundam franchise. \"Brain Powerd\" is often compared to the Gainax's popular \"Neon Genesis Evangelion\", a 1995 anime series with similar themes to \"Brain Powerd\". Tomino claimed that the plans and overall storyline for \"Brain Powerd\" were made even prior to the airing of \"Evangelion\". He stated that he \"never meant [\"Brain Powerd\"] to be an antithesis to \"Evangelion\"\" despite the inevitable comparisons they would receive when his own series debuted in 1998. After deciding not to make any changes to \"Brain Powerd\", he \"resigned\" himself to the fact that the public would label his anime an attempt to best \"Evangelion\". Tomino was enthusiastic about his first attempt at the \"organic\" mecha subgenre in place of the purely metallic robots he had worked with for so many years in his career. He wanted to write an interesting story for \"Brain Powerd\" in order to allow those who watched it to do so without \"having a nervous breakdown\" and to show fans \"that there were often other things out there better than anime\". Tomino has wished that more animators would see themselves as entertainers, though he admitted that he felt that \"Brain Powerd\" was not very entertaining and thus a failure in this regard.", "Respect Gundam\nRespect Gundam (リスペクト ガンダム) is a mini compilation of Gundam-related work created by Hiroyuki Tamakoshi, Kenki Fujioka, Tohru Fujisawa, Hiro Mashima, Minoru Sugiyama. It was published on the Gundam Magazine bundled with the November 2006 issue of Comic Bom Bom.", "Mobile Suit Gundam Wing\n\"Gundam Wing\" was not the first series in the \"Gundam\" franchise to be dubbed and distributed in the U.S. (the compilation movie version of the original \"Mobile Suit Gundam\", as well as the OVAs \"\" and \"\", preceded it by about two years), but it is well known as the first \"Gundam\" series to be aired on American television. This dub was produced by Bandai Entertainment and the voice work was done by Ocean Productions. The series aired on Cartoon Network's weekday afternoon after-school programming block Toonami; premiering on March 6, 2000. In the first extended promo leading up to the series' premiere, voice actor Peter Cullen narrated the back story, evoking memories of \"Voltron's\" opening credits. The promo was said to be so riveting that Bandai decided to use it as the official promo for the series.", "History of anime\nAlongside its super robot counterpart, the real robot genre was also declining during the 1990s. Though several \"Gundam\" shows were produced during this decade, very few of them were successful. The only \"Gundam\" shows in the 1990s which managed an average television rating over 4% in Japan were \"Mobile Fighter G Gundam\" (1994) and \"New Mobile Report Gundam Wing\" (1995). It wasn't until \"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED\" in 2002 that the real robot genre regained its popularity.", "Gundam Reconguista in G\n, also referred to as , is a 2014 Japanese science fiction anime television series and the thirteenth installment in Sunrise's long-running \"Gundam\" franchise. Created for the Gundam 35th Anniversary celebration, it is the first Gundam TV series to be written and directed by Yoshiyuki Tomino since \"Turn A Gundam\" in 1999 and features character designs by Kenichi Yoshida of \"Overman King Gainer\" & \"Eureka Seven\" fame. Airing in the MBS/TBS networks' Animeism block starting in October 2014, it is the first traditional Gundam TV series to be initially released as a late night anime.", "Mobile Suit Gundam: Gundam vs. Gundam\nUnlike the previous series that are set up in the same general universe (Universal Century or Cosmic Era), the background of this game is set up in the real gaming world in 2030, which the Gundam vs. Series produced many spin-offs for each series at that time. The Devil Gundam has somehow invaded into the game systems and merge the different worlds into one. In order to restore the order of the game nature, various heroes from different Gundam Series are joined together to fight against the Devil Gundam.", "Turn A Gundam\nThe titular WD-M01 Turn A Gundam is notable because it is the first Gundam mecha designed entirely by a foreigner, the famous American visual futurist and conceptual artist Syd Mead, whose designs have been used in many sci-fi films in the U.S. The first design of the new Gundam created by Mead was rejected at first by Yoshiyuki Tomino due to its extremely exotic appearance, since Tomino decided that he wanted a figure closer to previous Gundam designs. Because of its quality and impressive appearance, the old design was not discarded at all by Tomino, instead renamed and used by him as the antagonist Mobile Suit design \"Sumo\".", "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny\nThe series was licensed by Bandai Entertainment for the North American market. The English adaptation was produced by Bandai Entertainment in association with The Ocean Group and the English-language dub was recorded at Ocean Studios. The series was released on twelve DVDs in North America in uncut bilingual format between March 14, 2006, and January 8, 2008. The Final Plus episode was announced to have been licensed in July 2007, with a single DVD released on April 15, 2008. Two \"Anime Legends\" DVD boxes volumes from the series were later released on January 13, 2009, and May 19, 2009. \"Gundam SEED Destiny\" began its Canadian broadcast on YTV's Bionix programming block on March 9, 2007, at 9:30 p.m. YTV did not air the special recap episode, \"Edited\". On January 11, 2008, \"Gundam SEED Destiny\" was moved to the 10:30 p.m. Bionix timeslot starting with episode 40, switching timeslots with \"Bleach\". On March 28, 2008, it ended its first run. In 2007, the series was available on demand from May through June with Comcast Cable in the United States. In July 2007, only episodes 1 to 22 have been aired and was thought to be discontinued on Comcast Cable; however, in September 2007, it has been made available again, this time with the English-dubbed version. Comcast Cable aired the 50th English episode at the end of February 2008. Due to the closure of Bandai Entertainment, the series has been out-of-print. On October 11, 2014, at their 2014 New York Comic-Con panel, Sunrise announced they will be releasing all of the Gundam franchise, including \"Gundam SEED Destiny\" in North America though distribution from Right Stuf Inc., beginning in Spring 2015. Sunrise will release the HD remaster of SEED in North America and will feature a brand new English dub produced by NYAV Post.", "Toshihiko Sahashi\nHis works include the original soundtracks for \"Zipang\", \"Ghost Sweeper Mikami\", \"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED\", \"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny\", \"Gunslinger Girl\", \"Black Blood Brothers\", \"Seijuu Sentai Gingaman\", \"Kamen Rider Kuuga\", \"Kamen Rider Agito\", \"Kamen Rider Hibiki\", \"Kamen Rider Den-O\", \"Full Metal Panic!\", \"Hunter × Hunter\", \"Simoun\", \"Reborn!\" and composed all three Saint Seiya anime series. Together with the London Symphony Orchestra, two symphonic albums have been released, each arranging his compositions from \"Gundam SEED\" and \"Gundam SEED Destiny\". For the \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" franchise's 30th anniversary, he again collaborated with the London Symphony Orchestra for another symphonic music album.", "Kunihiro Abe\nHe died on 15 August 2018 at the age of 50 of undisclosed cause. Abe's daughter shared one of the late Gundam animator's illustrations, and noted that \"she knew her father loved to draw and could not live as anything other than an animator\".", "Gotham (TV series)\nGotham is an American crime drama television series developed by Bruno Heller and based on characters published by DC Comics and appearing in the Batman franchise, primarily those of James Gordon and Bruce Wayne. Danny Cannon directed the pilot, and he is an executive producer along with Heller. The series stars Ben McKenzie as the young James Gordon. It premiered on Fox on September 22, 2014. In May 2018, Fox renewed the series for a fifth and final season of 12 episodes, which premiered on January 3, 2019.", "Cultural impact of Gundam\nThe concept of Isuzu VX-2 is inspired by RX-178 Gundam Mk-II as concept design arts released in the Jan/Feb 1998, as seen in issue no. 71 of the magazine \"Axis\" published in Japan. According to Gundam-san 4 koma comic, the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution appearance is influenced by the RX-78-2 Gundam. Nissan Chief Creative Officer Shiro Nakamura said that the angular lines and high-tech vents of the GT-R (R35) were inspired by the Japanese anime series Gundam. Mitsubishi has cooperated with Bandai to create a simulator for concept cars, the test-type of this simulator will be decorated like the Gundam cockpit and become a simulation theatre in the Toyota theme park, Mega Web, located in Tokyo.", "Mobile Suit Gundam 00\nLicensing for a North American release of \"Mobile Suit Gundam 00\" was announced by Bandai Entertainment at New York Comic Con 2008 on April 18, 2008. \"Mobile Suit Gundam 00\" is the first Gundam series to air on national television in the United States since \"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED\" and began airing twice weekly on November 24, 2008 on SCI FI (now known as SyFy). The first season concluded its first run on Sci-Fi on February 9, 2009. The second season also aired on the same network and time slot on June 29, 2009 and concluded its run on September 21, 2009. Due to the closure of Bandai Entertainment, the series and movie have been out of print. On October 11, 2014 at their 2014 New York Comic-Con panel, Sunrise announced they will be releasing all of the Gundam franchise, including \"Gundam 00\" in North America though distribution from Right Stuf Inc., beginning in Spring 2015. This will also include the previously unreleased \"Mobile Suit Gundam 00 Special Edition\".", "Mobile Suit Gundam\n\"Gundam\" was not popular when it first aired, and in fact came close to being cancelled. The series was originally set to run for 52 episodes but was cut down to 39 by the show's sponsors, which included Clover (the original toymakers for the series). However, the staff was able to negotiate a one-month extension to end the series with 43 episodes. When Bandai bought the copyrights to build plastic models for the show's mecha, which was a relatively new market compared to the old Chogokin series Clover was making, things changed completely. With the introduction of their line of Gundam models, the popularity of the show began to soar. The models sold very well, the show began to do very well in reruns and its theatrical compilation was a huge success. Audiences were expecting another Super Robot TV show, and instead found \"Gundam\", the first work of anime in an entirely new genre: the Real Robot genre. The Anime ranked #2 on \"Wizard's Anime\" Magazine on their \"Top 50 Anime released in North America\", and is regarded as changing the concept of Japanese robot anime and the turning point of history in Japan.", "Gundam War Collectible Card Game\nGundam War is a collectible card game based on the Gundam anime series. It was first released in Japan in February 1999, and later a Traditional Chinese version and an English version was released in early 2005. The English version of the game was discontinued after three sets. The Japanese version of the game still continues to be released, with over 45 sets to date.", "Turn A Gundam\n\"Turn A Gundam\" is the last entry of the Gundam franchise (not counting the compilations and future video game cut scenes) to be mostly hand painted on cels. \"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED\", released in 2002, was the first series to switch entirely to digital ink and paint.", "List of Mobile Suit Gundam 00 chapters\nTwo TV broadcast-based manga series exist to date. One is serialized in Kerokero Ace and drawn by Kouzoh Ohmori. Minor changes are present compared to the anime, such as the use of more visually comedic facial expressions. First volume was released on March 26, 2008 by Kadokawa Comics.\nThe other manga adaptation series of the same name is also based on the television series, and is drawn by Oto Taguchi. The two manga series essentially follow the same story as the anime's main plot, but vary in the sequence of events that unfold (for example, certain battles and events in the anime were skipped over in the Kouzoh Ohmori manga) and are drawn under different artistic styles. With the past New York Comic Convention, Bandai Entertainment has confirmed that they have acquired the rights to Kouzuh Ohmori's manga adaptation.", "Mitsuo Fukuda\nAnime directed by Fukuda that have won the \"Animage\" Anime Grand Prix award have been \"Future GPX Cyber Formula\" in 1991, \"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED\" in 2002, and \"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny\" in 2004 and 2005.", "Mobile Suit Gundam Wing\n\"Gundam Wing\" was a greater success in North America, however, and is credited with single-handedly popularizing the \"Gundam\" franchise among Western audiences. Just over a week after its premiere on Cartoon Network on March 6, 2000, the series was the top rated program in all age groups. During the summer of 2000, it remained as the first or second top-rated show among kids and teens during its twelve airings per week on the Toonami block. \"Gundam Wing\" was ranked the 73rd best animated series by IGN, calling the series \"so good that even those opposed to anime have to give the show its due credit\".", "Gundam\n\"Gundam\" has spawned over 80 video games for arcade, computer and console platforms, some with characters not found in other \"Gundam\" media. Some of the games, in turn inspired spinoff novels and manga. Most \"Gundam\" video games, except \"\", were released only in Japan.", "Gundam\n\"Mobile Suit Gundam\" was developed by animator Yoshiyuki Tomino and a changing group of Sunrise creators with the collective pseudonym of Hajime Yatate. The series was originally entitled \"Freedom Fighter Gunboy\" (or \"Gunboy\") for the robot's gun, with boys the primary target demographic. Early production had a number of references to freedom: the White Base was originally \"Freedom's Fortress\", the Core Fighter was the \"Freedom Wing\" and the Gunperry was the \"Freedom Cruiser\". The Yatate team combined the English word \"gun\" with the last syllable of the word \"freedom\" to form the portmanteau \"Gundom\". Tomino changed it to \"Gundam\", suggesting a unit wielding a gun powerful enough to hold back enemies like a hydroelectric dam holding back water. In keeping with the concept, Gundam are depicted as prototypes or limited-production, with higher capabilities than mass-produced units.", "SD Gundam\nSD Gundam originated from a contributed illustration of a junior student from Nagoya by the name of Koji Yokoi to the \"Model News\" magazine that Bandai was issuing in the 1980s. The illustration is of a Gundam but with an unusual proportion where the overall height of the Gundam is equal to twice that of its head. This illustration interested the chief editor and led to Koji Yokoi serializing SD Gundam in 4 frame comics in \"Model News\".", "Mobile Suit Gundam\nTomino met mechanical designer Kunio Okawara when he first worked in two television series from Sunrise. Tomino liked Okawara's work and asked him to collaborate with him in his upcoming project. Originally, the anime would be called \"Gunboy\" but it was renamed \"Mobile Suit Gundam\". The \"White Base\", the mothership of the protagonist crew members, is designed with a 3 plane view method by Kunio Okawara, however, it is not specially designed for the anime series Gundam, it was actually a salvaged design from the anime \"Invincible Steel Man Daitarn 3\". The idea of having a space carrier from Tomino is partly inspired by the earlier science fiction anime \"Space Battleship Yamato\", in which he claimed to be a fan of. It was intended to be in a more realistic black color, but was changed to white by the order of Sunrise, similar to the color change of the main mecha Gundam was changed from a grayish white to white, red, blue and yellow. Director Tomino showed great disgust in the color change, also noticing the unrealistic non-aerodynamic design of it after the show was on air, said in an interview that such design would never appear in the real world, since it would be a sitting duck from fighter aircraft. Tomino still held a grudge 10 years after the show aired and stated in an interview in \"Newtype\" 1989 April issue that the imaginary enemies of Gundam are Sunrise, sponsors and television stations.", "List of Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans characters\n\"Gundam\" is the name for 72 unique mobile suit frames produced and developed alongside the Alaya-Vijnana System by Gjallarhorn during the late stages of the Calamity War 300 years ago, considered instrumental in ending the war. A Gundam-Frame unit is equipped with two Ahab Reactors, which generate Ahab Particles, giving the mobile suit unparalleled power, but it is difficult to keep the reactors in synchronous operation; hence the rarity of these machines. A Gundam's high power and maneuverability can also pose a problem by creating a heavy burden for the pilot. However, this is mitigated by the implementation of Inertial Control from the use of the Ahab Reactors and the cockpit is positioned in front of the reactors to take advantage of this. Only 26 of the 72 Gundam-Frame suits are confirmed to exist in operational form in the present day. All Gundam Frames were named after the 72 Demons of Ars Goetia.The Valkyrja Frame, produced during the late stages of the Calamity War, is an advanced but not very well known mobile suit frame, as it was first produced at the same time as, and was completely overshadowed by, the much more prolific Gundam Frame. Despite its obscurity, its performance and track record were impressive enough for Gjallarhorn to use the Valkyrja Frame as the source of inspiration for the mass-produced Graze Frame. It is speculated that because of the frame's relative obscurity, less than ten units were ever produced.", "Dynasty Warriors: Gundam 3\nDynasty Warriors: Gundam 3, known in Japan as , is a tactical action video game based on the \"Gundam\" anime series, and the sequel to 2008's \"\". It was developed by Omega Force and published by Bandai Namco. The game was revealed in the September issue of Famitsu and was released on December 16, 2010 in Japan, June 28, 2011 in North America, in Europe on July 1, 2011 and it was released in Australia on July 12, 2011.", "Yoshiyuki Tomino\nAfter working on the CGI short \"Ring of Gundam\" for Gundam's 30th anniversary in 2009, Tomino returned to the franchise again for its 35th anniversary in 2014 in a new work in which he wrote and directed, \"Gundam Reconguista in G\".", "Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans\n, also known as Gundam IBO and and Tetsu oru (鉄オル), is a 2015 Japanese mecha anime series and the fourteenth installment in Sunrise's long-running \"Gundam\" franchise. It is directed by Tatsuyuki Nagai and written by Mari Okada, a team which previously collaborated on \"Toradora!\" and \"\". It aired in Japan on MBS and other JNN stations from October 4, 2015 to March 27, 2016, making this the first Gundam series to return to a Sunday late afternoon time slot since \"Mobile Suit Gundam AGE\". A second season premiered on October 2, 2016. The series follows the exploits of a group of juvenile soldiers who establish their own security company after rebelling against the adults who betrayed them on a futuristic, terraformed Mars.", "Mobile Suit Gundam: The Origin\nSunrise announced in June 2011 that an anime adaptation of \"Gundam The Origin\" was in production. In March 2014, it was announced it will be a four-episode OVA series with event screenings at Japanese theaters, in celebration of the 35th anniversary of Gundam, and centering on the stories of Casval Deikun and his sister Artesia. The first episode, titled , premiered in limited Japanese theaters on February 28, 2015. Sunrise produced an English dub recorded at NYAV Post for the first time since Bandai retired their Gundam license. Another two-episode OVA series, \"Mobile Suit Gundam The Origin: Loum Arc\", was released in 2017 and 2018.", "Cultural impact of Gundam\nGundam Front Tokyo is a dedicated museum to Gundam. Among its major attractions is the Gundam Statue of the RG 1/1 RX-78-2 Gundam Ver. GFT. It features a display collection of over 1000 Gunpla models and the biggest exhibition of Gunpla in the world. In 2012, \"Robots Gone Bad\" covered the museum and stated that it houses 90% of the kits ever made. In 2012, a large topiary Gundam made of ten thousand begonias, zinnias, and star daisies was on display to promote the green movement.", "Gundam Reconguista in G\n\"Gundam Reconguista in G\" is Yoshiyuki Tomino's first major original animated work since \"The Wings of Rean\" in 2004, though he had directed a CGI short for \"Gundam's\" 30th anniversary in 2009 called \"Ring of Gundam\". The character designs of the series are by Kenichi Yoshida, who had his first character designs credit in Tomino's \"Overman King Gainer\". The mechanical designs are by Akira Yasuda, who previously worked with Tomino as character designer in \"Turn A Gundam\" and mecha designer in \"Overman King Gainer\", Kimitoshi Yamane, who also worked with Tomino in \"Overman King Gainer\", and Ippei Gyōbu, an advertising illustrator who was working on his first mechanical designs. Yuugo Kanno is the composer of the music.", "Gundam: Battle Assault (series)\nGundam: The Battle Master, later known as Battle Assault, is a series of fighting games released for the PlayStation, PlayStation 2 and Game Boy Advance. The series features mobile suits from several eras of the Gundam metaverse and some non-traditional fighting game elements. Every entry was developed by Bandai in co-operation with Japanese developer Natsume, who also made the 1996 \"\".", "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED\nBandai Entertainment licensed the animation of \"Gundam SEED\" on February 15, 2004, and it began airing in the United States and Canada in 2004 and 2005 respectively. The English adaptation was produced in association with The Ocean Group and the English-language dub was recorded at Ocean Studios in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The series was released on ten DVDs in bilingual format between August 10, 2004, and May 10, 2005. The epilogue was not released on the North American DVD release because it was not licensed to Bandai Entertainment by Sunrise; however, it was released on the final European DVD release. Beez Entertainment also published the series in ten DVDs from June 13, 2005 to March 6, 2006. A two part box set called the \"Anime Legends Edition\" was released on January 8, 2008, and March 4, 2008, with each set containing five DVDs.", "Mobile Suit Gundam AGE (video game)\nDevelopment of the game began when Akihiro Hino and Level-5 were first hired by Sunrise to develop a Gundam video game. Interested with working for the Gundam franchise, Hino wrote a plot summary for an anime which Bandai eventually saw and decided to create an anime based on it. During the anime's airing, the game was announced and was released on August 30, 2012 in Japan.", "Galaxy Fräulein Yuna\n\"Galaxy Fräulein Yuna\" originated in 1992 when Red Company, in association with Hudson Soft asked Mika Akitaka to create a video game for the PC Engine Super-CD console. Mika Akitaka was an established artist and mechanical designer, having worked on several Mobile Suit Gundam anime titles, including Zeta Gundam, , and . Hudson Soft released \"Galaxy Fräulein Yuna\" in Japan in 1992, with Mika Akitaka as character designer and writer.", "Kunihiro Abe\nAbe was known for his mechanical animation, in particular his animation for various projects in Sunrise's Gundam franchise, including Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory, Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: The Afterglow of Zeon, Mobile Suit Gundam Wing, Mobile Suit Gundam Wing: Operation Meteor, Mobile Suit Gundam Seed, Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam: A New Translation, Mobile Suit Gundam Seed C.E.73: Stargazer, Mobile Suit Gundam 00, Mobile Suit Gundam UC, Gundam Build Fighters, Gundam: Reconguista in G, Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans, and Mobile Suit Gundam Thunderbolt. He was also a notable animator in various AIC projects, such as Bubblegum Crisis, Dangaioh, Vampire Princess Miyu, Dragon Century, Megazone 23 Part III, Sol Bianca, Record of Lodoss War: Chronicles of the Heroic Knight, Armitage III, El Hazard - The Magnificent World, and Blue Gender, among numerous other credits.", "Yoshiyuki Tomino\nIn 1993, Tomino directed his next Gundam series, \"Victory Gundam\", which (like \"F91\" before) attempted to relaunch the Gundam saga with a completely new cast.", "Gundam Ace\nGundam Ace started as a quarterly publication from vol.1 to 3, moved to a bi-monthly publication from vol.4, and on April 25, 2003 (with vol.10) it became a monthly publication. The producer is Shinichirou Inoue of Kadokawa Shoten who also produces Newtype and Shonen Ace. The chief editor is Hideaki Kobayashi.", "Gundam Universal Century technology\nAlthough fictional technologies seems to carry no real-life significance, these technologies are referred to in almost all of the series of Universal Century. They became a normal reference of the serial story and attracted publishers to publish books on them. These technological settings have also since influenced a lot of anime and manga to have their own technological background to a certain degree. Although it could be viewed as following the \"Star Wars\" trend, nothing similar has started before the 1981 publishing of Gundam Century. Bandai (with its branch Sunrise) noticed the tradition and has hired writers to write articles for other Gundam series too. In the Cosmic Era time line, one of the authors of Gundam Century articles (while still a high school student at that time), Shigeru Morita, who had become a regular employee of Bandai, was assigned to write these kinds of technological articles, possibly a method used by the company to attract Universal Century techno fans to watch the new series. The series' technology is now serving as the inspiration for academic research in different fields, which could include moon settlements and mega-particle cannon.", "Mobile Suit Gundam 00\nIt is directed by Seiji Mizushima and written by Yōsuke Kuroda, and features character designs by Yun Kōga. The 25-episode season was officially announced by Sunrise during a 15-second trailer on June 2, 2007. The series aired on the Mainichi Broadcasting System and Tokyo Broadcasting System from October 5, 2007 to March 29, 2008. The second season began on October 5, 2008 and concluded on March 29, 2009. A movie sequel, titled \"\", premiered in Japan on September 18, 2010 and was released on DVD and Blu-ray on December 25, 2010, in Japan. \"Mobile Suit Gundam 00\" is the first Gundam television series to be animated in widescreen and in high-definition.", "List of Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny episodes\n\"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny\" is the anime sequel to \"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED\" produced by Sunrise and directed by Mitsuo Fukuda. The series spanned 50 episodes, aired in Japan from October 9, 2004 to October 1, 2005 on the Japan News Network television stations Tokyo Broadcasting System and Mainichi Broadcasting System. Set two years after the original \"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED\", the plot follows the new character Shinn Asuka, a soldier from ZAFT, composed of humans born genetically enhanced labelled as Coordinators. As ZAFT is about to enter into another war against the regular human race, the Naturals, the series focuses on Shinn's as well as various returning characters' involvement in the war.", "Gundam Mk-II\nThe Mk. II appeared years before the official North American release of \"Z Gundam\" on the talk show \"Late Night with Conan O'Brien\" in a commercial bumper. Featured on an episode originally aired on September 30, 1998, the \"Conan Mk. II\" was formed from a Mk. II model kit altered with O'Brien's face, and a cartoon-like head on the shield, as typical of \"Late Night\" bumpers of the period. \"Zeta Gundam\" was not officially released in the North American market by Bandai until 2004. \"Late Night\" graphical designer Pierre Bernard is a self-stated anime enthusiast, though if he specifically created the \"Conan Mk. II\" bumper has not been confirmed by any official source.", "Turn A Gundam\n\"Turn A Gundam\" was directed by Yoshiyuki Tomino, who is the main creator of the \"Gundam\" franchise, and who had written and directed many previous \"Gundam\" works. Tomino created the series as a means of \"affirmatively accepting all of the \"Gundam\" series\", which is reflected in the series title's use of the Turned A, a mathematical symbol representing universal quantification.", "Gundam Build Fighters Try\nThe series is directed by Shinya Watada and written by Yousuke Kuroda, who wrote the first series. Character designs were done by both Kenichi Ohnuki and Suzuhito Yasuda. The series was officially unveiled by Bandai on May 15, 2014, and began airing on TV Tokyo in Japan while streaming on YouTube in limited areas internationally on October 8, 2014. A novel spinoff is currently running in Hobby Japan starting in December 2014.", "Gundam Sentinel\nOnce the fan community built up the anticipation of \"Gundam Sentinel\", Bandai decided to go ahead with the serialization of Sentinel, beginning with the September issue of Model Graphix. While Model Graphix would hold the rights to the story, characters, and mobile units, Bandai would have the sole copyright of releasing its models. Wanting to hold onto their partnership, Bandai displayed all five of the sample model kits for the \"Gundam Sentinel\" line with full descriptions at the 1988 Japan Hobby Show. The Model Graphix team regarded that year's event as a \"Victory\", compared to the previous show in 1987, where only a lone Superior Gundam was displayed without any descriptions.", "Mobile Suit Victory Gundam\n, is a 1993 Japanese science fiction anime television series. It consists of 51 episodes, and was directed by Gundam creator Yoshiyuki Tomino. The series was first broadcast on TV Asahi (and its ANN stations). It is the fourth installment in the \"Gundam\" franchise and the final full series to be set in the Universal Century calendar.", "Turn A Gundam\n\"Turn A Gundam\" has been cited by Director Tomino and other sources as a show that would unify the stories from the various \"Gundam\" series into one. Throughout the show, mobile suits resembling those from the eras depicted in previous \"Gundam\" shows and indicated to be preserved by nano machines for thousands of years, including as those of the Universal Century, are excavated by the show's various factions. In Episode 42, this plotline comes to a culmination as the history of the Correct Century timeline is shown in a collection of clips known as the , which is revealed to be events that took place in different \"Gundam\" series prior to \"Turn A Gundam\", thus making those events part of the Correct Century timeline's history.", "Cultural impact of Gundam\nThe RX-78 Gundam was recognized as a culturally significant subject by the nation of Japan on 23 October 2000, with the inclusion of the suit and the main pilot on two stamps in the 20th Century Stamp Series. On 25 March 2011, a set of 10 stamps called \"Gunpla Frame Stamp Collection 30th Anniversary\" was released in Japan. Featuring 10 of the titular Mobile Suit RX-78-2 Gundam's plastic models for 1980 to 2010. Additionally, the mobile suit and other notable mecha from various Gundam series were recognized in the second set of \"Anime Heroes and Heroines\" stamps, released in 2005. It was one of only four franchises to be given the honor; the others were \"Pokémon\", \"Galaxy Express 999\", and \"Detective Conan\".\nThe RX-78-2 Gundam and 2 Medea transport planes were featured in a fire fighting poster in Japan. The RX-78-2 was equipped with water spraying equipment instead of weapons.", "Mobile Suit Gundam 00\nFour TV broadcast-based manga series exist to date. One was serialized in \"Kerokero Ace\" and drawn by Kouzoh Ohmori. Minor changes are present compared to the anime, such as the use of more visually comedic facial expressions, and the omission of certain characters and subplots. The first volume to this version was released on March 26, 2008 by Kadokawa Comics. It has been released in English in North America by Bandai Entertainment, with the first volume released on September 23, 2009.", "Gundam (fictional robot)\nThe RX-78-2 Gundam is a fictional manned robot (mecha), introduced in 1979 in Yoshiyuki Tomino's and Sunrise's anime series \"Mobile Suit Gundam\". In the series, it is a prototype weapon for the Earth Federation when it falls into the hands of Amuro Ray, the son of its designer in story (Tem Ray), who goes on to pilot it in the Earth Federation's war against the Principality of Zeon.", "Comic BomBom\n\"Comic BomBom\" was established in 1981. The first issue was published on October 15, 1981. \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" was extremely popular at that time. Although the \"Gundam\" boom is centered at the higher age group, the fire slowly spread to the lower age group in the form of gunpla and thus it was decided to mainly publish gunpla content. Many popular series were published in \"Comic BomBom\" like the \"SD Gundam\" series, \"Rockman\" series and \"Medarot\" series, just to name a few.", "Amuro Ray\nAmuro is the hero of the anime series \"Mobile Suit Gundam\". He is the son of Tem Ray, the project leader for the Earth Federation's Project V, which produces the prototype mobile suits Gundam, Guncannon, and Guntank to combat the Principality of Zeon's Zaku. At the beginning of the \"Mobile Suit Gundam\" TV series, Amuro is merely a 15-year-old civilian, along with his friends Fraw Bow and Hayato Kobayashi, living in Side 7, one of the few space colonies untouched by the One Year War at the time. Amuro is a talented amateur mechanic, who spends a lot of time in building different mechanical parts with little social interactions with other people, and as a hobby designed the basketball-sized talking robot Haro.", "Gundam\nBandai, \"Gundam\" primary licensee, produces a variety of products. Other companies produce unofficial merchandise, such as toys, models and T-shirts. Products include Mobile Suit In Action (MSiA) action figures and Gundam model kits in several scales and design complexities. Each series generally has its own set of products, MSiA and model lines such as Master Grade and High Grade Universal Century may extend across series. The most popular action-figure line has been the Gundam Fix series, which includes the mecha in the animated series, manga and novels and accessories to create an updated version. In addition to Master Grade and High Grade Gundams, Bandai released a 30th-anniversary series of Gundam models in 2010. The Real Grade (RG) Gundam series combined the Master Grade's detailed inner structure with additional colour separation, making the 1:144-scale series complex in design and compact in size. After the introduction of the RG Gundam series, Bandai released the Metal Build series in March 2011 (beginning with the 00 Gundam).", "Anime composer\nShigeaki Saegusa, composer for \"Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam\" in 1985, was a classical composer who produced a symphonic score for this series, which went on to be extremely popular (one of the foundation successes of the Gundam franchise). While Saegusa produced only a little more anime music, his \"Zeta Gundam\" soundtrack is still considered a classic among \"otaku\". For many of them, Saegusa and Hisaishi were the first to inspire the idea that anime music could be of very high quality.", "Mobile Suit Gundam\nFollowing the closure in 2012 of Bandai Entertainment, the series has been out of print. At their New York Comic-Con 2014 panel, Sunrise announced their plans to re-release all of the Gundam series on home video in North America, starting with the original series. They will be distributed via Right Stuf Inc.. They will release the series on Blu-ray and DVD in October 2015.", "Mecha anime and manga\nBy 1977, a large number of super robot anime had been created, including \"Brave Raideen\" and \"Danguard Ace\". The market for super robot toys also grew, spawning metal die-cast toys such as the Chogokin series in Japan and the Shogun Warriors in the U.S., that were (and still are) very popular with children and collectors. The super robot genre became heavily commercialized and stagnant, creating an opening for innovation, which was seized upon by Yoshiyuki Tomino in 1979 with the creation of \"Mobile Suit Gundam\", a complex \"space saga\" that was called the \"\"Star Wars\" of Japan\" and birthed the real robot genre, which featured more realistic, gritty technology. Tomino did not like the formulaic storylines and overt advertising of the super robot shows he had worked on, and wanted to create a movie where robots were used as tools. While the response to \"Gundam\" was lukewarm at first, efforts by dedicated fans led to it becoming a success. It created a massive market for mecha model robots, and became an industry that earned Bandai ¥42.8 billion in 2004. Many real robot series and other media were later created, such as \"Full Metal Panic!\" and the video game series \"Armored Core\".", "Mobile Suit Gundam\nThe \"Mobile Suits\" of the show were inspired by the powered armor from the American novel \"Starship Troopers\" from 1959. Mobile suits were conceptualized as human-like robots which would not only appeal to children. Yoshiyuki Tomino's original plot for the anime was considerably much more grim, with Amuro dying halfway through the series, and the crew of the White Base having to ally with Char (who is given a red Gundam), but finally having to battle him after he takes control of the Principality of Zeon. The original concept found expression in a series of novels written by Tomino soon after the show's conclusion, and elements of the storyline weaved themselves into \"Zeta Gundam\" and \"Char's Counterattack\".", "List of Gundam Build Fighters Try episodes\nThe series is directed by Shinya Watada and written by Yousuke Kuroda, who wrote the first series. Character designs were done by both Kenichi Ohnuki and Suzuhito Yasuda. The series was officially unveiled by Bandai on May 15, 2014, and began airing on TV Tokyo in Japan while streaming on YouTube in limited areas internationally on October 8, 2014. The first opening theme is by Back-On, and the ending theme is by Screen Mode. The second opening theme is \"Just Fly Away\" by Edge of Life, while the ending theme is by StylipS. Both songs debuted in episode 14.", "Parallel universes in fiction\nThe anime \"Turn A Gundam\" attempted to combine all the parallel Gundam universes (other incarnations of the series, with similar themes but differing stories and characters, that had played out at different times since the debut of the concept in the 1970s) of the metaseries into one single reality.", "List of Mobile Fighter G Gundam episodes\nThis is a list of episodes from the anime series Mobile Fighter G Gundam. The series originally aired on TV Asahi in Japan from April 1, 1994 to March 23, 1995, and later aired on Cartoon Network's Toonami block in the United States from August 5 to October 16, 2002.", "SD Gundam\nare Gundam units modelled after samurai, ninja, or other forms of feudal Japanese warriors. Musha Gundam first appeared in \"Plamo-Kyoshiro\" (Story by Craft dan and art by Koichi Yamato). In the story, the \"SD Gundam\" is an original Gundam created by Kyoshiro (protagonist) for a showdown with Shigeru (antagonist). The original design of the SD form Musha Gundam is credited to Koichi Yamato, and Yasui Hisashi. The story of Musha Gundam, SD Sengokuden, originated from the manga \"Seven Gundams\" of the \"Comic World\" series by MARSHI (a.k.a. Susumu Imaishi). The Musha Gundam series is the longest running SD Gundam series, since the series is set in the Warring States period the use of katakana is avoided, and kanji is used heavily.", "Asatsu-DK\nAsatsu-DK is also involved in producing and providing its services to numerous anime series, through itself as well as its subsidiaries, including recent installments of Sunrise's Gundam series, such as the latest series \"Mobile Suit Gundam 00\", \"Turn A Gundam\", \"Mobile Suit Gundam Seed\" and \"Mobile Suit Gundam Seed Destiny\", as well as several other anime titles.", "Kunihisa Sugishima\nSugishima started his career on Sunrise in the 1980s, having worked as the setting producer for \"Heavy Metal L-Gaim\"s episodes 1 to 18, as well as the director and storyboarder for other episodes. Another major work in his early career was his involvement with the \"Gundam\" series; he directed some episodes of \"Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam\" and \"Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ\". His first work as main director was in 1994 when he directed at Sunrise a single-episode special titled \"Shinizokonai Kakarichō\". His subsequent works were not at Sunrise; he directed \"Gokudo\" (1999) at Trans Arts, \"Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters\" (2000–2004) at Gallop, and \"Speed Grapher\" (2005) at Gonzo. For the latter company he also directed the original video animation \"Strike Witches\" in 2007. After directing \"Nabari no Ou\" at J.C.Staff in 2008, he went to direct four \"Beyblade\"-related television series and one film at Tatsunoko Productions and SynergySP between 2009 and 2012. He returned to work for Sunrise where he was the director for two \"Battle Spirits\" anime; \"Burning Soul\" (2015) and \"Double Drive\" (2016).", "Gundam model\nGundam models are model kits depicting the vehicles and characters of the fictional \"Gundam\" multiverse by Bandai. These kits have become popular among mecha anime fans and model enthusiasts in Japan and in other nearby Asian countries since the 1980s. Gundam modeling spread in the 1990s with North America and Europe being exposed to \"Gundam\" through television, video and manga. Gundam models, as well as the hobby of assembling and painting them, is known in Japan as , a portmanteau of \"\"Gun\"dam \"pla\"stic \"mo\"del\", plastic being the most common material for the retail kits.", "After War Gundam X\n, is a 1996 Japanese anime television series and the seventh installment in the long running \"Gundam\" franchise that started in 1979, but takes place in an alternate timeline called . The series has 39 episodes, aired in Japan from April 5, 1996, to December 28, 1996, across TV Asahi's ANN stations. It was directed by Sunrise veteran Shinji Takamatsu (\"Mobile Suit SD Gundam\", \"The Brave of Gold Goldran\", \"School Rumble\"), and the screenplay was written by Hiroyuki Kawasaki. The series was released on DVD in North America in 2016.", "Gundam model\nThe Gundam FIX Figuration (aka G.F.F.) series of collectible figures was started based on the Gundam mechanical designs of Hajime Katoki and his 'Gundam FIX' illustration artbook and are released by Tamashii Nations, a Bandai's characters based toys line. These figures share similar features as those found in the MSiA series, but are considerably more detailed and often include more accessories. Changeable parts and variant models are often utilized throughout the line, offering the collector a wide variety of display abilities. The collectible figures use PVC (with some ABS plastic) for construction materials, and a recently introduced expansion to the line use metal in the skeleton of the figure. Gundam FIX figures are designed to be true to Hajime Katoki's vision, and as such often adopt design elements and styling found throughout his artwork. The Fix series caters to Gundam fans who enjoy the scale, possibility and durability of the MSiA line, but seek the extensive details and variations that can often only be found in the Master Grade Gundam model-kits." ]

[ 97.9375, 95.0625, 96.1875, 95.4375 ]

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[ "Dieselisation\nDieselisation took place largely because of the tremendous reduction in operating costs it allowed. Steam locomotives require large pools of labour to clean, load, maintain and run. They also require extensive service, coaling and watering facilities. This was their biggest inferior measure as compared to the diesel locomotive in the number of ton-miles or passenger traffic miles either could run. Diesels could and did have a significantly higher initial price per unit-horsepower delivered. However, their far greater range between fueling stops, the absence of water stops, and the much higher unit availability between inspection repair and maintenance stops, were far better than steam. Diesels simply required significantly less time and labour to operate and maintain. Diesel power was also more scalable to power requirements, owing to the control systems that allowed multiple units to be controlled by one operator. \"Double header\" steam power required a crew for each locomotive. Initially, diesel locomotives were less powerful than the typical steam locomotives. Between the late 1930s and the late 1950s the power available with diesel locomotive engines roughly doubled, although the most powerful steam locomotives ever built still exceeded the power of the most powerful diesel locomotives from the late Twentieth Century.", "Dieselisation\nWeighing against the cost of, and inertia against, replacing the large investment that railroads had in existing steam power were the dramatic increases in flexibility and efficiency with diesel. The fastest and most powerful steam locomotives were faster and more powerful than diesels; however, their range of efficient operation was severely limited. Diesels pro-rate their fuel usage to the length of trains, which a steam engine cannot do. Multiple-unit diesel power is scalable to power requirements with one locomotive crew; steam power is not. A high speed Hudson steam locomotive is good for only one situation, high speeds on level grades. The diesel locomotive can be operated by a single person, with no need of a fireman to run the boiler (two person cab crews may be required for other reasons). Also, diesels use much less fuel and no manpower when idling, something locomotives often do. Diesels can be parked running for days unattended, whereas steam engines must be constantly tended to if not completely shut down. Bringing a steam engine boiler up to operating temperature is often regarded as both an art and science, requiring much training and experience. A diesel is much simpler to start and shut down.", "Diesel locomotive\nDiesel locomotives offer significant operating advantages over steam locomotives. They can safely be operated by one person, making them ideal for switching/shunting duties in yards (although for safety reasons many main-line diesel locomotives continue to have 2-man crews: an engineer and a conductor/switchman) and the operating environment is much more attractive, being quieter, fully weatherproof and without the dirt and heat that is an inevitable part of operating a steam locomotive. Diesel locomotives can be worked in multiple with a single crew controlling multiple locomotives in a single train — something not practical with steam locomotives. This brought greater efficiencies to the operator, as individual locomotives could be relatively low-powered for use as a single unit on light duties but marshaled together to provide the power needed on a heavy train. With steam traction a single very powerful and expensive locomotive was required for the heaviest trains or the operator resorted to double heading with multiple locomotives and crews, a method which was also expensive and brought with it its own operating difficulties." ]

[ "Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)\nThis invention was only primarily used with steam locomotives that had booster valves or superchargers to heat the fire even hotter to produce extra power. The coal used was semi-bituminous and bituminous coal only inside the steam locomotives. Sadly, this invention lasted until 1960 when Diesel's fully replaced American railroads.", "Lancaster and Chester Railroad\nIn 1946, the L&C upgraded its fleet by buying six diesel locomotives from the U.S. Army. These 65-ton Whitcomb locomotives had seen service in Italy during the war and burned about the same amount of oil to run that the old steam engines used for lubrication. The purchase of these engines made the L&C the first fully diesel-operated railroad in the state, something that Springs liked to boast of. The steam engines formerly used by the railroad were either sold or put out to pasture. However, these diesels did not spend long on the line as they were replaced by three 70-ton GEs in late 1950. Among the Whitcombs, number 51 passed to the Allegheny and South Side Railway where it would stay until the end of that property.", "Track pan\nDiesel locomotives were introduced in the United Kingdom by British Railways in the 1950s, working alongside steam traction until 1968. Passenger vehicles were heated by steam from the locomotive boiler at that time, and the early diesel locomotives were provided with auxiliary boilers to provide the steam. Locomotives intended for long non-stop runs (such as the Class 40 and Class 55) were fitted with water scoops to allow them to replenish the steam generator's water supply from troughs/pans. The withdrawal of steam traction and the introduction of rolling stock with electric rather than steam heating removed the need for such equipment on later types and scoop-equipped locomotives had their scoops removed.", "Prime mover (locomotive)\nIn a diesel-mechanical locomotive, the prime mover is the diesel engine that is mechanically coupled to the driving wheels (drivers). In a diesel-electric locomotive, the prime mover is the diesel engine that rotates the main generator responsible for producing electricity to power the traction motors that are geared to the drivers. The prime mover can also be a gas turbine instead of a diesel engine. In either case, the generator, traction motors and interconnecting apparatus are considered to be the power transmission system and not part of the prime mover. A wired-electric or battery-electric locomotive has no on-board prime mover, instead relying on an external power station.", "Steam locomotive\nA factor that limits locomotive performance is the rate at which fuel is fed into the fire. In the early 20th century some locomotives became so large that the fireman could not shovel coal fast enough. In the United States, various steam-powered mechanical stokers became standard equipment and were adopted and used elsewhere including Australia and South Africa.", "Steam locomotive\nWith the booming post-war Japanese economy, steam locomotives were gradually withdrawn from main line service beginning in the early 1960s, and were replaced with diesel and electric locomotives. They were relegated to branch line and sub-main line services for several more years until the late 1960s, when electrification and dieselisation began to increase. From 1970 onwards, steam locomotion was gradually abolished on the JNR:", "District Railway steam locomotives\nWhen in 1871 the District Railway needed its own locomotives, they ordered 24 condensing steam locomotives from Beyer Peacock similar to the A Class locomotives the Metropolitan Railway was using on the route. The 4-4-0 tank locomotives had x cylinders, diameter driving wheels and weighed 42 ton 3 cwt in working order. The boiler pressure was , the front wheels were on a Bissel truck and fitted with bunker. As they were intended for an underground railway, the locomotives did not have cabs. To reduce smoke underground, at first the Metropolitan had used coke, but after 1869 this was changed to smokeless Welsh coal. The only obvious differences were a different chimney style and a bent-back top to the weatherboard, and the back plate of the bunker was raised to provide protection when running bunker first.", "Diesel locomotive\nThe maintenance and operational costs of steam locomotives were much higher than diesels. Annual maintenance costs for steam locomotives accounted for 25% of the initial purchase price. Spare parts were cast from wooden masters for specific locomotives. The sheer number of unique steam locomotives meant that there was no feasible way for spare-part inventories to be maintained. With diesel locomotives spare parts could be mass-produced and held in stock ready for use and many parts and sub-assemblies could be standardized across an operator's fleet using different models of locomotive from the same builder. Modern diesel locomotives are designed to allow the power assemblies to be replaced, which greatly reduces the time that a locomotive is out of revenue-generating service when it requires maintenance.", "Railway electrification system\nCentral station electricity can often be generated with higher efficiency than a mobile engine/generator. While the efficiency of power plant generation and diesel locomotive generation are roughly the same in the nominal regime, diesel motors decrease in efficiency in non-nominal regimes at low power while if an electric power plant needs to generate less power it will shut down its least efficient generators, thereby increasing efficiency. The electric train can save energy (as compared to diesel) by regenerative braking and by not needing to consume energy by idling as diesel locomotives do when stopped or coasting. However, electric rolling stock may run cooling blowers when stopped or coasting, thus consuming energy.", "Diesel locomotive\nUnlike steam engines, internal combustion engines require a transmission to power the wheels. The engine must be allowed to continue to run when the locomotive is stopped.", "Electric locomotive\nIn North America, the flexibility of diesel locomotives and the relative low cost of their infrastructure has led them to prevail except where legal or operational constraints dictate the use of electricity. An example of the latter is the use of electric locomotives by Amtrak and commuter railroads in the Northeast. New Jersey Transit New York corridor uses ALP-46 electric locomotives, due to the prohibition on diesel operation in Penn Station and the Hudson and East River Tunnels leading to it. Some other trains to Penn Station use dual-mode locomotives that can also operate off third-rail power in the tunnels and the station. Electric locomotives are planned for the California High Speed Rail system.", "Dieselisation\nThe Great Western Railway introduced diesel railcars in the 1930s and the first British mainline diesel locomotive was built by the London, Midland and Scottish Railway in 1947 but, unlike elsewhere in the developed world, the transition away from steam was delayed during the early postwar years. The delay was driven by two economic considerations: the lower initial cost of steam locomotives for immediate replacement of the large number of locomotives worn out from wartime service, and a projected rise in the cost of petroleum relative to coal, a plentiful domestic resource. Nationalisation of the railways took place in 1948; diesel locomotives were first introduced on a wide scale following the Modernisation Plan of 1955. Poor reliability among the first diesel locomotives used in the Modernisation Plan caused it to be implemented at a slower pace while the problems with the locomotives were worked out during the second half of the 1950s.", "Diesel locomotive\nThe flameproof diesel locomotive has replaced the fireless steam locomotive in areas of high fire risk such as oil refineries and ammunition dumps. Preserved examples of flameproof diesel locomotives include:\nLatest development of the \"Flameproof Diesel Vehicle Applied New Exhaust Gas Dry Type Treatment System” does not need the water supply.", "Diesel locomotive\nThe earliest recorded example of the use of an internal combustion engine in a railway locomotive is the prototype designed by William Dent Priestman, which was examined by Sir William Thomson in 1888 who described it as a \"\"[Priestman oil engine] mounted upon a truck which is worked on a temporary line of rails to show the adaptation of a petroleum engine for locomotive purposes.\"\". In 1894, a two axle machine built by Priestman Brothers was used on the Hull Docks. In 1896 an oil-engined railway locomotive was built for the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, in 1896, using an engine designed by Herbert Akroyd Stuart. It was not, strictly, a diesel because it used a hot bulb engine (also known as a semi-diesel) but it was the precursor of the diesel.", "Dieselisation\nDue to the advantages of diesel locomotives, railroads in North America had retired 90% of their steam locomotives by the mid-1950s. Also, major cities and their railyards became unhappy neighbors in post-war America. People were no longer content to endure the large amounts of soot and smoke that coal burning steam engines produced. Early diesels, while dirty by today's standards, were a gigantic improvement in air pollution over steam.", "Steam locomotive\nIn Spain, the first electric trains were introduced en 1911, and the first diesels in 1935, just one year before the Spanish Civil War. National railway company (Renfe) operated steam locomotives until 9 June 1975.", "Electro-diesel locomotive\nThis is effectively an electric locomotive with a relatively small auxiliary diesel prime mover intended only for low-speed or short-distance operation (e.g. British Rail Class 73). Some of these, such as the British Rail Class 74, were converted from electric locomotives. The Southern Region of British Railways used these locomotives to cross non-electrified gaps and to haul boat trains that used tramways at the ports of Southampton and Weymouth. For economy, the diesel engine and its generator are considerably smaller than the electric capacity. The Southern types were of 1,600 hp or 'Type 3' rating as electrics, but only 600 hp as diesels. Later classes had as much as 2,500 hp on electric power, but still the same diesel engines. Despite this large difference, their comparable tractive efforts were much closer (around three-quarters as diesels) and so they could start and work equally heavy trains as diesels, but not to the same speeds.", "Dieselisation\nCompetition from diesel spurred a round of development in steam locomotive technology. High style, high speed \"steamliners\" produced during the second half of the 1930s became the speed kings of passenger service. Duplex and articulated steam locomotives built in the early 1940s exceeded the power of any diesel ever built, although their power was edged by gas turbine-electric locomotives during the 1950s. But the limits of steam technology were rapidly being reached. The new locomotives were mechanically complex and extremely specialized. Locomotive size became an issue, as steam engines became so big in the 1940s that the cylinder and boiler dimensions were pushing the limits that the loading gauge would allow. Fireboxes became so big that firing a steam locomotive became an extremely difficult job without the aid of mechanical stokers. Mechanical stokers for feeding coal to locomotives were in use in the 1920s. Steam turbine-electric locomotive power was developed in 1938 by General Electric. GE abandoned the project in 1943 after results were unsatisfactory during trials with three railroads, however, Baldwin Locomotive Works built three steam turbine-electric locomotives in 1948. They were expensive to operate and insufficiently reliable for their intended service, and were scrapped in 1950. Baldwin's steam turbine-electric program resulted in one more locomotive in 1954, which was also not successful in service.", "Diesel locomotives of Ireland\nInitially, CIÉ numbered and classified its handful of early diesel locomotives in the same way as steam. However, it soon developed a series based on engine power Types, with the highest-powered locomotives being Type A and numbered in the Axx series, and the lowest powered being Type G and numbered in the G6xx series. Locomotive K801 was a one-off prototype and did not truly fit in this scheme.", "0-6-0\nThe 0-6-0 configuration was the most widely used wheel arrangement for both tender and tank steam locomotives. The type was also widely used for diesel switchers (shunters). Because they lack leading and trailing wheels, locomotives of this type have all their weight pressing down on their driving wheels and consequently have a high tractive effort and factor of adhesion, making them comparatively strong engines for their size, weight and fuel consumption. On the other hand, the lack of unpowered leading wheels have the result that 0-6-0 locomotives are less stable at speed. They are therefore mostly used on trains where high speed is unnecessary.", "Diesel locomotive\nThe first regular use of diesel–electric locomotives was in switching (shunter) applications, which were more forgiving than mainline applications of the limitations of contemporary diesel technology and where the idling economy of diesel relative to steam would be most beneficial. GE entered a collaboration with the American Locomotive Company (ALCO) and Ingersoll-Rand (the \"AGEIR\" consortium) in 1924 to produce a prototype \"boxcab\" locomotive delivered in July 1925. This locomotive demonstrated that the diesel–electric power unit could provide many of the benefits of an electric locomotive without the railroad having to bear the sizeable expense of electrification. The unit successfully demonstrated, in switching and local freight and passenger service, on ten railroads and three industrial lines. Westinghouse Electric and Baldwin collaborated to build switching locomotives starting in 1929. However, the Great Depression curtailed demand for Westinghouse's electrical equipment, and they stopped building locomotives internally, opting to supply electrical parts instead.", "Dieselisation\nIn rail transport, dieselisation refers to the replacement of the steam locomotive or electric locomotive with the diesel-electric locomotive (often referred to as a \"diesel locomotive\"), a process which began in the 1930s and is now substantially complete around the world.\nThe replacement of either steam or diesel haulage with electric locomotives is known as electrification. Whereas the benefit of replacing steam traction is indisputable, there is some dispute as to whether it is best replaced by dieselisation or electrification. Electrification has a high initial capital cost but the operating costs are lower. The overall savings depend on the effect of the investment cost compared with the savings due to lower operational and maintenance costs and the influence of better acceleration and tractive effort on railroad throughput. These are obviously different for e.g. urban networks and very long-distance networks with low frequencies. However, many railway commentators are increasingly suggesting that the ability of railways to operate with electricity not produced from fossil fuels may offer a decisive advantage over diesel power.", "Diesel locomotive\nHowever, one study published in 1959 suggested that many of the comparisons between diesel and steam locomotives were made unfairly mostly because diesels were newer. After painstaking analysis of financial records and technological progress, the author found that if research had continued on steam technology instead of diesel, there would be negligible financial benefit in converting to diesel locomotion.", "British Rail Class 73\nSeveral locomotives have been preserved on heritage railways, where perforce they run on their diesel engines: no preserved line has third rail electrification. They are particularly popular because they have a small diesel engine and hence are efficient with speeds normally limited to 25 mph, yet they are big mainline locomotives and thus more attractive than diesel shunters with similar-sized engines. Of note are the first built locomotive, No. 73001 (an ex-Merseyrail Class 73/9), and the former Pullman locomotive, No. 73101.", "Tender (rail)\nThe largest steam locomotives are semi-permanently coupled by a drawbar to a tender that carries the water and fuel. The fuel source used depends on what is economically available locally. In the UK and parts of Europe, a plentiful supply of coal made this the obvious choice from the earliest days of the steam engine. Until around 1850 in the United States, the vast majority of locomotives burned wood until most of the eastern forests were cleared. Subsequently, coal burning became more widespread, and wood burners were restricted to rural and logging districts.", "LMS Turbomotive\nCompared to some other experimental steam locomotives of the era such as the LNER Class W1, Turbomotive was relatively successful, showing a saving of coal compared to a normal reciprocating engine and no hammer blow on the track. Because steam turbines are highly inefficient when throttled (not a problem on steamships, where turbines typically run at constant output, but a major disadvantage for a railway locomotive which has to run at different speeds), power was instead controlled by turning on a different number of nozzles (from the six available) through which steam was admitted to the turbine. One disadvantage of the design was that the small reverse turbine only had sufficient power for manoeuvring \"light engine\" and the locomotive always had to be turned to face forwards in order to pull a train.", "Weardale Railway\nDiesel Locomotives", "Carolina and Northwestern Railway\nDiesel Locomotives", "Steele v. Louisville &amp; Nashville Railway Co.\nTo this would also be added that there was simply no in-cab motive power operational role for the \"Fireman\" of a diesel locomotive. The firemen had no engine-operation functions in the cab of a diesel locomotive. He had no functional responsibility to ignite, raise or lower, the power output of the diesel prime mover. This was fully (electro-mechanically) automated, under the sole control of the locomotive Engineer, from the introduction of diesel prime movers in locomotive service. It made all Fireman positions redundant when diesel motive power was planned. This fact gave railroad management; and their labor union's leadership pause; in devising a strategy for the implementation of technical innovation known as diesel locomotives.", "Locomotive\nIn comparison to the principal alternative, the diesel engine, electric railways offer substantially better energy efficiency, lower emissions and lower operating costs. Electric locomotives are also usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and reliable than diesels. \nThey have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Some electric traction systems provide regenerative braking that turns the train's kinetic energy back into electricity and returns it to the supply system to be used by other trains or the general utility grid. While diesel locomotives burn petroleum, electricity can be generated from diverse sources including renewable energy.Steam-diesel hybrid locomotives can use steam generated from a boiler or diesel to power a piston engine. The \"Cristiani Compressed Steam System\" used a diesel engine to power a compressor to drive and recirculate steam produced by a boiler; effectively using steam as the power transmission medium, with the diesel engine being the prime mover", "Union Pacific GTELs\nUnion Pacific had long sought the biggest and best locomotives. In the 1930s, a pair of steam turbine locomotives were tried but rejected. Before World War II, Union Pacific had been adding diesels to its roster, but none pulled road freight trains. The idea of using four diesels to equal the power of a steam locomotive was unappealing, so the search began for something bigger. General Electric had been building gas turbines for aircraft and proposed using something similar on a locomotive. Union Pacific thought maintenance costs for a locomotive were largely independent of its power, so a smaller number of more powerful locomotives would save money.", "2-6-6-6\nThough it was apparent to knowledgeable people in the railroad industry that reciprocating piston driven steam locomotives might soon be replaced by diesel power, Lima and C&O set out to build the ultimate in high power steam locomotives and they succeeded. No diesel engine ever surpassed the output of these giants, which were among the heaviest steam locomotives ever constructed. The three-axle trailing truck supporting the firebox was unusual, carrying over 190,000 lbs, allowing the huge firebox needed for the high power. As it turned out, steam locomotives continued in service for almost another 20 years.", "Diesel engine\nDiesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles. They were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of diesel engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK.", "Steam turbine locomotive\nA steam turbine locomotive is a steam locomotive which transmits steam power to the wheels via a steam turbine. Numerous attempts at this type of locomotive were made, mostly without success. In the 1930s this type of locomotive was seen as a way both to revitalize steam power and challenge the diesel locomotives then being introduced.\nThere are two ways to drive the wheels: either directly via gears, or using generator-driven traction motors.", "Steam locomotive\nTrials of diesel locomotives and railcars began in Britain in the 1930s but made only limited progress. One problem was that British diesel locomotives were often seriously under-powered compared with the steam locomotives against which they were competing. Moreover, labour and coal were relatively cheap.", "Railway electrification system\nElectric locomotives may easily be constructed with greater power output than most diesel locomotives. For passenger operation it is possible to provide enough power with diesel engines (see e.g. 'ICE TD') but, at higher speeds, this proves costly and impractical. Therefore, almost all high speed trains are electric. The high power of electric locomotives also gives them the ability to pull freight at higher speed over gradients; in mixed traffic conditions this increases capacity when the time between trains can be decreased. The higher power of electric locomotives and an electrification can also be a cheaper alternative to a new and less steep railway if trains weights are to be increased on a system.", "British Rail locomotive and multiple unit numbering and classification\nIn the early period of British Railways, steam locomotion had continued to be of prime importance. Apart from a growing selection of diesel shunters, there had been almost no development of mainline diesel or electric traction beyond the few locomotives ordered by the 'Big Four' companies.", "British Rail Class 93 (Stadler)\nThe locomotives will be capable of running on diesel engines, overhead wires and battery power. They will have a top speed of and have around 1,800hp of usuable power when running on diesel.", "Steam diesel hybrid locomotive\nIn 1925, Jakob Buchli of Switzerland obtained US patent 1559548 for a combined steam and internal-combustion engined locomotive. This differed from the Kitson-Still system in that there was no waste heat recovery and the steam and internal combustion engines had separate cylinders (vertically mounted in the tender), but both driving the same traction wheels. Buchli specified that \"…the steam generator is supported upon one vehicle…and the steam and internal combustion engine cylinders together with their driving gear are carried by a separate truck or vehicle\". His proposal was for the \"steam generator vehicle\" to be in the form of a traditional steam locomotive boiler with driver's cab, but without pistons. A \"flexible pipe\" would lead steam to the pistons within the \"detachably coupled…truck\" (tender). His claimed advantages were the reduced complexity of a combined transmission system, the improved comfort of the operators being separated from the driving cylinders and the differing maintenance requirements of steam and diesel (such as boiler washouts) being more easily accommodated when the units were detachable. It is not known whether any locomotives to Buchli's design were actually built.\nIn 1954 Chicago inventor Charles Denker patented a system whereby the exhaust from a conventional four-stroke diesel engine was directed into a large-diameter steam cylinder. There was no boiler: instead a pump, operated by a cam driven from the common crankshaft, injected water (warmed by the diesel cylinder water jacket) into the steam cylinder so that it was instantly evaporated by the hot exhaust gases, powering the piston by expansion. Again, no operational examples are known.", "Rail transport\nIn 1906, Rudolf Diesel, Adolf Klose and the steam and diesel engine manufacturer Gebrüder Sulzer founded Diesel-Sulzer-Klose GmbH to manufacture diesel-powered locomotives. Sulzer had been manufacturing diesel engines since 1898. The Prussian State Railways ordered a diesel locomotive from the company in 1909. The world's first diesel-powered locomotive was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur–Romanshorn railway in Switzerland, but was not a commercial success. The locomotive weight was 95 tonnes and the power was 883 kW with a maximum speed of 100 km/h. Small numbers of prototype diesel locomotives were produced in a number of countries through the mid-1920s.\nA significant breakthrough occurred in 1914, when Hermann Lemp, a General Electric electrical engineer, developed and patented a reliable direct current electrical control system (subsequent improvements were also patented by Lemp). Lemp's design used a single lever to control both engine and generator in a coordinated fashion, and was the prototype for all diesel–electric locomotive control systems. In 1914, world's first functional diesel–electric railcars were produced for the \"Königlich-Sächsische Staatseisenbahnen\" (Royal Saxon State Railways) by Waggonfabrik Rastatt with electric equipment from Brown, Boveri & Cie and diesel engines from Swiss Sulzer AG. They were classified as DET 1 and DET 2 (). The first regular use of diesel–electric locomotives was in switching (shunter) applications. General Electric produced several small switching locomotives in the 1930s (the famous \"44-tonner\" switcher was introduced in 1940) Westinghouse Electric and Baldwin collaborated to build switching locomotives starting in 1929.", "Steam locomotive\nIn 1998, in his book \"The Red Devil and Other Tales from the Age of Steam\", David Wardale put forward the concept of a high-speed high-efficiency \"Super Class 5 4-6-0\" locomotive for future steam haulage of tour trains on British main lines. The idea was formalised in 2001 by the formation of 5AT Project dedicated to developing and building the 5AT Advanced Technology Steam Locomotive, but it never received any major railway backing.", "Diesel locomotive\nThese special locomotives can operate as an electric locomotive or as a diesel locomotive. The Long Island Rail Road, Metro-North Railroad and New Jersey Transit Rail Operations operate dual-mode diesel–electric/third-rail (catenary on NJTransit) locomotives between non-electrified territory and New York City because of a local law banning diesel-powered locomotives in Manhattan tunnels. For the same reason, Amtrak operates a fleet of dual-mode locomotives in the New York area. British Rail operated dual diesel–electric/electric locomotives designed to run primarily as electric locomotives with reduced power available when running on diesel power. This allowed railway yards to remain un-electrified, as the third rail power system is extremely hazardous in a yard area.", "Diesel locomotives of Ireland\nAlthough prototype diesel locomotives ran in Britain before World War II, the railways of both the Republic and Northern Ireland changed over much more rapidly from steam to diesel traction, in the 1950s than those in Britain, due to the island's limited coal reserves and (in the Republic) ageing steam locomotive fleet. The initial diesel locomotives for CIÉ were built and supplied by British railway locomotive builders (Birmingham RCW with Sulzer engines and AEI Metropolitan Vickers with Crossley engines), with notably poor results from the latter. From the early 1960s, locomotives with more reliable engines from General Motors Electro-Motive Division (now the independent company, EMD), of the USA, were adopted. In the late 1960s the Crossley engines were replaced by EMD 645 units in a major programme to re-engine the fleet. Since the early 1960s all new locomotives on the two Irish rail systems have been purchased from EMD, with the exception of three from Hunslet Engine Company of Leeds, England, for NIR in 1970.", "Brooklyn Eastern District Terminal\nIt was only after the parts for the steam locomotives and steam tugs became unavailable or too costly to machine, that diesel electric tugs and likewise diesel electric locomotives replace their steam powered counterparts.", "Steam locomotive\nA steam locomotive is a type of railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material – usually coal, wood, or oil – to produce steam in a boiler. The steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotive's main wheels (drivers). Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons (tenders) pulled behind.", "Electric locomotive\nElectric locomotives benefit from the high efficiency of electric motors, often above 90% (not including the inefficiency of generating the electricity). Additional efficiency can be gained from regenerative braking, which allows kinetic energy to be recovered during braking to put power back on the line. Newer electric locomotives use AC motor-inverter drive systems that provide for regenerative braking. Electric locomotives are quiet compared to diesel locomotives since there is no engine and exhaust noise and less mechanical noise. The lack of reciprocating parts means electric locomotives are easier on the track, reducing track maintenance. Power plant capacity is far greater than any individual locomotive uses, so electric locomotives can have a higher power output than diesel locomotives and they can produce even higher short-term surge power for fast acceleration. Electric locomotives are ideal for commuter rail service with frequent stops. Electric locomotives are used on freight routes with consistently high traffic volumes, or in areas with advanced rail networks. Power plants, even if they burn fossil fuels, are far cleaner than mobile sources such as locomotive engines. The power can also come from clean or renewable sources, including geothermal power, hydroelectric power, nuclear power, solar power and wind turbines.", "Diesel locomotive\nDiesel–mechanical propulsion is limited by the difficulty of building a reasonably sized transmission capable of coping with the power and torque required to move a heavy train. A number of attempts to use diesel–mechanical propulsion in high power applications have been made (e.g., the British Rail 10100 locomotive), although none have proved successful in the end.", "Locomotive\nIn a diesel–electric locomotive, the diesel engine drives either an electrical DC generator (generally, less than net for traction), or an electrical AC alternator-rectifier (generally net or more for traction), the output of which provides power to the traction motors that drive the locomotive. There is no mechanical connection between the diesel engine and the wheels. The vast majority of diesel locomotives today are diesel-electric.", "Steam locomotive\nMore-powerful locomotives tend to be longer, but long rigid-framed designs are impractical for the tight curves frequently found on narrow-gauge railways. Various designs for articulated locomotives were developed to overcome this problem. The Mallet and the Garratt were the two most popular, both using a single boiler and two engines (sets of cylinders and driving wheels). The Garratt has two power bogies, whereas the Mallet has one. There were also a few examples of triplex locomotives that had a third engine under the tender. Both the front and tender engines were low-pressure compounded, though they could be operated simple (high-pressure) for starting off. Other less common variations included the Fairlie locomotive, which had two boilers back-to-back on a common frame, with two separate power bogies.", "Rack railway\nOriginally almost all cog railways were powered by steam locomotives. The steam locomotive needs to be extensively modified to work effectively in this environment. Unlike a Diesel locomotive or electric locomotive, the steam locomotive only works when its powerplant (the boiler, in this case) is fairly level. The locomotive boiler requires water to cover the boiler tubes and firebox sheets at all times, particularly the crown sheet, the metal top of the firebox. If this is not covered with water, the heat of the fire will soften it enough to give way under the boiler pressure, leading to a catastrophic failure.", "Diesel locomotive\nAs diesel locomotives advanced, the cost of manufacturing and operating them dropped, and they became cheaper to own and operate than steam locomotives. In North America, steam locomotives were custom-made for specific railway routes, so economies of scale were difficult to achieve. Though more complex to produce with exacting manufacturing tolerances ( for diesel, compared with for steam), diesel locomotive parts were easier to mass produce. Baldwin Locomotive Works offered almost five hundred steam models in its heyday, while EMD offered fewer than ten diesel varieties.. In the United Kingdom, British Railways built steam locomotives to standard designs from 1951 onwards. These included standard, interchangeable parts, and were cheaper to produce than the diesel locomotives then available. The capital cost per drawbar horse power was £13 6s (steam), £65 (diesel), £69 7s (turbine) and £17 13s (electric).", "Railway electrification system\nIn comparison to the principal alternative, the diesel engine, electric railways offer substantially better energy efficiency, lower emissions and lower operating costs. \nElectric locomotives are also usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and reliable than diesels. \nThey have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. \nSome electric traction systems provide regenerative braking that turns the train's kinetic energy back into electricity and returns it to the supply system to be used by other trains or the general utility grid. \nWhile diesel locomotives burn petroleum, electricity can be generated from diverse sources including renewable energy.", "Steam locomotive\nThe reciprocating mechanism on the driving wheels of a two-cylinder single expansion steam locomotive tended to pound the rails (see hammer blow), thus requiring more maintenance. Raising steam from coal took a matter of hours, and created serious pollution problems. Coal-burning locomotives required fire cleaning and ash removal between turns of duty. Diesel or electric locomotives, by comparison, drew benefit from new custom-built servicing facilities. The smoke from steam locomotives was also deemed objectionable; the first electric and diesel locomotives were developed in response to smoke abatement requirements, although this did not take into account the high level of less-visible pollution in diesel exhaust smoke, especially when idling. In some countries, however, power for electric locomotives is derived from steam generated in power stations, which are often run by coal.", "Steele v. Louisville &amp; Nashville Railway Co.\nThe diesel-electric locomotive assaulted the primacy of the coal/oil fired steam locomotive from every angle. First, it had a much higher duty cycle than any steam locomotive could match. Famously, the use of steam locomotives to attempt the achievement of the schedules for the crack passenger trains between Chicago and the West Coast, required no less than nine (9) complete changes of engine and tender between Chicago and Los Angeles/San Francisco. With no steam engine/tender set travelling more than 250 miles. Diesels would complete these long distance runs with the same motive power units. And the diesel units would only receive fuel and water at limited operating stops. So the number of in-cab crews necessary to operate any schedule would be dramatically reduced by the introduction of diesels", "Rail transport\nSteam locomotives are locomotives with a steam engine that provides adhesion. Coal, petroleum, or wood is burned in a firebox, boiling water in the boiler to create pressurized steam. The steam travels through the smokebox before leaving via the chimney or smoke stack. In the process, it powers a piston that transmits power directly through a connecting rod (US: main rod) and a crankpin (US: wristpin) on the driving wheel (US main driver) or to a crank on a driving axle. Steam locomotives have been phased out in most parts of the world for economical and safety reasons, although many are preserved in working order by heritage railways.", "Snowdon Mountain Railway\nIt is stated by the management that the vast majority of passengers do not care whether the trains are powered by steam or diesel locomotives. In the late 1980s comparative figures for the diesels against steam locomotives made it clear that they made economic sense.", "Locomotive\nA diesel–mechanical locomotive uses a mechanical transmission to transfer power to the wheels. This type of transmission is generally limited to low-powered, low speed shunting (switching) locomotives, lightweight multiple units and self-propelled railcars. The earliest diesel locomotives were diesel-mechanical.", "Diesel locomotive\nSteam-diesel hybrid locomotives can use steam generated from a boiler or diesel to power a piston engine. The \"Cristiani Compressed Steam System\" used a diesel engine to power a compressor to drive and recirculate steam produced by a boiler; effectively using steam as the power transmission medium, with the diesel engine being the prime mover", "GE steam turbine locomotives\nDuring test runs, the locomotives displayed excellent acceleration and an ability to maintain schedules better than conventional steam engines, although they also had serious reliability problems and relatively high maintenance costs. On one occasion, the two locomotives failed while hauling a train from Colorado to Omaha, necessitating a 2800-class Pacific steam locomotive to pull them along with the rest of the train for the remainder of the journey. The locomotives worked on several routes in a variety of different capacities, including both passenger and perishable freight service, although they never entered regular revenue service; in June 1939, the railroad returned them to GE in Chicago for what UP president W. M. Jeffers called \"necessary modification and/or reconstruction\".", "Diesel locomotive\nBefore diesel power could make inroads into mainline service, the limitations of diesel engines circa 1930 - low power-to-weight ratios and narrow output range - had to be overcome. A major effort to overcome those limitations was launched by General Motors after they moved into the diesel field with their acquisition of the Winton Engine Company, a major manufacturer of diesel engines for marine and stationary applications, in 1930. Supported by the General Motors Research Division, GM's Winton Engine Corporation sought to develop diesel engines suitable for high speed mobile use. The first milestone in that effort was delivery in early 1934 of the Winton 201A, a two-stroke, Roots-blown, uniflow-scavenged, unit-injected diesel engine that could deliver the required performance for a fast, lightweight passenger train. The second milestone, and the one that got American railroads moving towards diesel, was the 1938 delivery of GM's Model 567 engine that was designed specifically for locomotive use, bringing a fivefold increase in life of some mechanical parts and showing its potential for meeting the rigors of freight service.", "Diesel locomotive\nThe diesel-pneumatic locomotive was of interest in the 1930s because it offered the possibility of converting existing steam locomotives to diesel operation. The frame and cylinders of the steam locomotive would be retained and the boiler would be replaced by a diesel engine driving an air compressor. The problem was low thermal efficiency because of the large amount of energy wasted as heat in the air compressor. Attempts were made to compensate for this by using the diesel exhaust to re-heat the compressed air but these had limited success. A German proposal of 1929 did result in a prototype but a similar British proposal of 1932, to use an LNER Class R1 locomotive, never got beyond the design stage.", "Victorian Railways B class (diesel)\nWhile costing £80 per horsepower compared to £60 for steam, the new locomotives ran 130,000 miles per year, compared to 35,000 and 60,000 miles per year for main line steam locomotives. The Chief Engineers Office found that one B class did the work of three steam locomotives. Their success led to further dieselisation, with the delivery of the T class branch line units from 1955, and the single ended S class mainline units from 1957.", "Steam locomotive\nIn 2012, the Coalition for Sustainable Rail project was started in the US with the goal of creating a modern higher-speed steam locomotive, incorporating the improvements proposed by Livio Dante Porta and others, and using torrefied biomass as solid fuel. The fuel has been recently developed by the University of Minnesota in a collaboration between the university's Institute on the Environment (IonE) and Sustainable Rail International (SRI), an organisation set up to explore the use of steam traction in a modern railway setup. The group have received the last surviving (but non-running) ATSF 3460 class steam locomotive (No. 3463) via donation from its previous owner in Kansas, the Great Overland Station Museum. They hope to use it as a platform for developing \"the world's cleanest, most powerful passenger locomotive\", capable of speeds up to . Named \"Project 130\", it aims to break the world steam-train speed record set by LNER Class A4 4468 Mallard in the UK at . However, any demonstration of the project's claims is yet to be seen.", "Motive power depot\nThe maintenance of the new diesel locomotives in filthy steam sheds soon proved difficult and although some old sheds survived, many new diesel depots were built on new sites or on the sites of the old steam sheds. The major problem was the disposal of oil which initially was left lying around causing pollution and safety issues. The new depots were equipped to deal with diesel fuel and the ability to access the underside as well as upper body work was improved.\nThe tasks were not that much different in that diesel locomotives were fuelled rather than coaled (although they did require water as early diesels were equipped with steam generators for train heating purposes).", "Locomotive\nIn the 1940s, diesel locomotives began to displace steam power on American railroads. Following the end of World War II, diesel power began to appear on railroads in many countries. The significantly better economics of diesel operation triggered a dash to diesel power, a process known as Dieselization. By the late 1990s, only heritage railways continued to operate steam locomotives.", "1 gauge\nDue to the size of the locomotives it is possible for them to be powered with live steam, which to many is a large advantage as they are cheaper than traditional live steam garden railways. These are usually fired by gas or methylated spirit, which are both very popular. Another form, which is becoming popular, is coal, which gives the user the smell that only steam locomotives carry.", "Locomotive\nSuch locomotives are used where a conventional diesel or electric locomotive would be unsuitable. An example is maintenance trains on electrified lines when the electricity supply is turned off. Another use is in industrial facilities where a combustion-powered locomotive (i.e., steam- or diesel-powered) could cause a safety issue due to the risks of fire, explosion or fumes in a confined space. Battery locomotives are preferred for mines where gas could be ignited by trolley-powered units arcing at the collection shoes, or where electrical resistance could develop in the supply or return circuits, especially at rail joints, and allow dangerous current leakage into the ground.", "Switcher\nAs diesel shunters began to appear in ever-increasing numbers, attempts were made by companies such as Sentinel to adapt the vertical boilers from their steam powered road vehicles for use in shunting locomotives, in order to compete with the newcomers. Although these were found to be equal in power and efficiency to most of the early diesel designs, their development came too late to have any real impact. Outwardly, they bear more resemblance to diesels than steam locomotives. A number have been preserved on heritage railways, although few of these are in working order, being designed very specifically for shunting work and lacking the necessary speed to travel any kind of distance.", "GE AC6000CW\nThe AC6000CW is a roadswitcher diesel electric locomotive built by GE Transportation. This locomotive, along with the EMD SD90MAC, is among the most powerful single-engined diesel locomotives in the world. The only locomotives to surpass them are the dual-engine EMD DDA40X, the Pennsylvania Railroad T-1 and S-2 class duplex-drive steam locomotives, and certain electric locomotives.", "The Railway Series\nThe most obvious theme relating to British Railways was the decline of steam locomotion and its replacement with diesels. The first real instance of this was in the book \"Duck and the Diesel Engine\" (1958) in which an unpleasant diesel shunter arrives, causes trouble and is sent away. This theme may have been visited again in \"The Twin Engines\" (1960), in which an engine is ordered from Scotland, and two arrive, implying the other went to Sodor with his brother to avoid being scrapped. The 1963 volume \"Stepney the \"Bluebell\" Engine\" explained that steam engines were actually being scrapped to make way for these diesels, and again featured a diesel getting his comeuppance. The book \"Enterprising Engines\" was published in 1968, the year when steam finally disappeared from British Railways, and was the most aggressive towards dieselisation and Dr Beeching's modernisation plan. It features yet another arrogant diesel who is sent away, an additional one who stays on the Island of Sodor, a visit by the real Flying Scotsman locomotive, a steam engine, Oliver, making a daring escape to Sodor, and Sir Topham Hatt making a declaration that the steam engines of his railway will still be in service.", "Diesel locomotive\nMost diesel locomotives are capable of multiple unit operation (MU) as a means of increasing horsepower and tractive effort when hauling heavy trains. All North American locomotives, including export models, use a standardized AAR electrical control system interconnected by a 27-pin jumper cable between the units. For UK-built locomotives, a number of incompatible control systems are used, but the most common is the Blue Star system, which is electro-pneumatic and fitted to most early diesel classes. A small number of types, typically higher-powered locomotives intended for passenger only work, do not have multiple control systems. In all cases, the electrical control connections made common to all units in a consist are referred to as trainlines. The result is that all locomotives in a consist behave as one in response to the engine driver's control movements.", "Dieselisation\nDieselization got a boost in the early 1930s from three factors: the development by General Motors and its Winton Engine Corporation subsidiary of diesel engines with vastly improved power-to-weight ratios and output flexibility; the desire of railways to find more cost-efficient locomotion for passenger service at the height of the Great Depression; and design innovations in rail equipment that reduced weight, making the contemporary diesel engines, which were low-powered by today's standards, viable for mainline passenger service. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of lightweight diesel-powered streamlined trainsets such as the Burlington Route's \"Zephyrs\" and Union Pacific's M-1000x \"City\" trains, which were diesel's first assault against the dominance of steam in mainline passenger service. During the second half of the decade, diesel locomotives with sufficient power for full-size passenger trains were developed and put into regular production. Improved GM diesel engines in 1938 increased power and reliability. Dieselization of passenger service gained momentum as the decade drew to a close and the first model of mainline diesel freight locomotive was on the market in 1940. Dieselization was especially attractive to western railroads, for whom the watering requirements of steam locomotives were a problem in vast stretches of the western interior. Coal-country railroads were generally reluctant to embrace diesel, a competitor to one of their main hauling markets, well into the 1940s.", "Steam locomotive\nIn Poland, on non-electrified tracks, steam locomotives were superseded almost entirely by diesels by the 1990s. A few steam locomotives, however, operate in the regular scheduled service from Wolsztyn. After ceasing on 31 March 2014, regular service resumed out of Wolsztyn on 15 May 2017 with weekday runs to Leszno. This operation is maintained as a means of preserving railway heritage and as a tourist attraction. Apart from that, numerous railway museums and heritage railways (mostly narrow gauge) own steam locomotives in working condition.", "Steam motor\nThe principle of the steam motor is to use the developments of the high-speed steam engine, and to apply them to light locomotives. Rather than a large conventional locomotive having only two cylinders, rotating at the speed of the driving wheels, the steam motor uses several small cylinders geared to run at high speeds. With all other factors remaining the same, doubling the speed of a piston engine doubles its power. The steam motor allowed small, light engines to be used. As many of the engine's performance losses remain constant, or are also related to the engine size, these small engines could also be more efficient overall.", "Diesel locomotive\nEarly internal combusition locomotives and railcars used kerosene and gasoline as their fuel. Dr. Rudolf Diesel patented his first compression ignition engine in 1898, and steady improvements in the design of diesel engines reduced their physical size and improved their power-to-weight ratio to a point where one could be mounted in a locomotive. Internal combustion engines only operate efficiently within a limited torque range, and while low power gasoline engines can be coupled to a mechanical transmission, the more powerful diesel engines required the development of new forms of transmission.", "Steam locomotive\nA steam-electric locomotive is similar in concept to a diesel-electric locomotive, except that a steam engine instead of a diesel engine is used to drive a generator. Three such locomotives were built by the French engineer in the 1890s.", "Steam locomotive\nIn other countries, the dates for conversion from steam to diesel and electric power varied.", "Steamship\nThe decline of the steamship began after World War II. Many had been lost in the war, and marine diesel engines had finally matured as an economical and viable alternative to steam power. The diesel engine had far better thermal efficiency than the reciprocating steam engine, and was far easier to control. Diesel engines also required far less supervision and maintenance than steam engines, and as an internal combustion engine it did not need boilers or a water supply, therefore was more space efficient.", "Diesel locomotive\nThe economic recovery from the Second World War saw the widespread adoption of diesel locomotives in many countries. They offered greater flexibility and performance than steam locomotives, as well as substantially lower operating and maintenance costs. Diesel–hydraulic transmissions were intrdouced in the 1950s, but from the 1970s onwards diesel–electric transmission has dominated.", "Fireless locomotive\nThe Swiss company, DLM, was recently (2012) trying to promote the fireless steam locomotive as an environmentally-friendly alternative to the diesel locomotive for shunting. DLM claims that diesel shunters typically spend 75% of their working time with the engine idling.", "Locomotive\nA steam locomotive is a locomotive whose primary power source is a steam engine. The most common form of steam locomotive also contains a boiler to generate the steam used by the engine. The water in the boiler is heated by burning combustible material – usually coal, wood, or oil – to produce steam. The steam moves reciprocating pistons which are connected to the locomotive's main wheels, known as the \"drivers\". Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons called \"tenders\" pulled behind.\nThe first full-scale working railway steam locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick in 1802. It was constructed for the Coalbrookdale ironworks in Shropshire in the United Kingdom though no record of it working there has survived. On 21 February 1804, the first recorded steam-hauled railway journey took place as another of Trevithick's locomotives hauled a train from the Pen-y-darren ironworks, in Merthyr Tydfil, to Abercynon in South Wales. Accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations including the use of high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine and increased its efficiency.\nIn 1812, Matthew Murray's twin-cylinder rack locomotive \"Salamanca\" first ran on the edge-railed rack-and-pinion Middleton Railway; this is generally regarded as the first commercially successful locomotive. Another well-known early locomotive was \"Puffing Billy\", built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on static display in the Science Museum, London. George Stephenson built \"Locomotion No. 1\" for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in the north-east of England, which was the first public steam railway in the world. In 1829, his son Robert built \"The Rocket\" in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Rocket was entered into, and won, the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent early builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the UK, US and much of Europe. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway, built by Stephenson, opened a year later making exclusive use of steam power for passenger and goods trains.", "East Coast Main Line\nDuring the early 1960s, the line's steam locomotives were replaced by Diesel-electric counterparts, amongst them the purpose-built Deltic, a powerful high-speed locomotive developed and built by British manufacturing conglomerate English Electric. The prototype was found to have been successful in its trials, leading to a fleet of 22 locomotives being built and put into BR service to handle all the important express traffic. Designated as the , they were powered by a pair of Napier Deltic engines, which had been originally developed for fast torpedo boats; the unusual three crankshaft triangular configuration of the engines was the source of the locomotive's Deltic moniker. Their characteristic throaty exhaust roar and chubby body outline made them unmistakable and distinctive amongst their peers. The Class 55 was for a time the most powerful diesel locomotive in service in Britain, capable of providing up to .", "Rolling stock of the Korean State Railway\nLater, around the late 1960s or early 1970s, a system similar to that introduced for electric locomotives was applied to steam and diesel locomotives. Steam locomotives were universally given the type designator 증기 (\"Chŭnggi\", \"steam\") and diesel locomotives 내연 (\"Naeyŏn\", \"internal combustion\"), along with a three- (for mainline diesels) or four-digit (for shunting diesels and all steam engines) serial number, with diesel locomotives are numbered sequentially within their number series. On steam locomotives, the first of the new four-digit serial number reflects the former type designator (부러 → 1, 미가 → 6, 마더 → 7; the others are unknown, and the 8000 series is applied to steam locomotives of foreign origin supplied as war aid during the Korean War); the second digit reflects the former type-series, directly translating the number, e.g. 미가서 became 6300, 마더하 became 7100. The last two digits are the locomotive's original running number (last three digits, in the case of the Migaha class numbered into the 6000 and 6100 series). The system behind determining which numeral represents which type designator (that is, why Miga became \"6\", etc.) is unclear, as this numeral has no relation to anything obvious, e.g. number of powered axles, etc.", "Brooklyn Eastern District Terminal\nAs with the steam locomotives, coal fired tugboats fell out of favor when heavy oils became dominant as an industrial fuel. The reason BEDT operated their steam locomotives later than any other railroads, is that their tugs were fired by Bunker C fuel as well. It naturally made for simpler logistics to operate all equipment with one type of fuel.", "Corris Railway\nLocomotive 7 is the only steam engine, but will share passenger duties with locomotive 10 on completion. Locomotive 11 is the main diesel motive power unit for both works trains and out of season passenger trains, supported by the lighter diesel locomotives 5 and 6, which are currently the main works and shunting units.", "Locomotive\nMost steam locomotives have reciprocating engines, with pistons coupled to the driving wheels by means of connecting rods, with no intervening gearbox. This means the combination of starting tractive effort and maximum speed is greatly influenced by the diameter of the driving wheels. Steam locomotives intended for freight service generally have smaller diameter driving wheels than passenger locomotives.", "DSB (railway company)\nGeneral Motors' diesel-electric locomotives had proved themselves in the US and Canada before the war. DSB's class MY A1A-A1A diesel locomotives, built on license from GM and delivered from NOHAB starting in 1954, were found to be very reliable and economically feasible compared to the steam locomotives, eventually putting the age of steam to an end as well as being a decisive factor in DSB's choice of motive power for nearly three decades. They were followed by the equally successful class MX with a lower axle load for branch line services and the class MZ for heavy express services.", "Diesel locomotive\nGM, seeing the success of the custom streamliners, sought to expand the market for diesel power by producing standardized locomotives under their Electro-Motive Corporation. In 1936 EMC's new factory started production of switch engines. In 1937 the factory started producing their new E series streamlined passenger locomotives, which would be upgraded with more reliable purpose-built engines in 1938. Seeing the performance and reliability of the new 567 model engine in passenger locomotives, EMC was eager to demonstrate diesel's viability in freight service.", "Head-end power\nOriginally, trains hauled by a steam locomotive would be provided with a supply of steam from the locomotive for heating the carriages. When diesel locomotives and electric locomotives replaced steam, the steam heating was then supplied by a steam-heat boiler. This was oil-fired (in diesel locomotives) or heated by an electric element (in electric locomotives). Oil-fired steam-heat boilers were unreliable. They caused more locomotive failures on any class to which they were fitted than any other system or component of the locomotive, and this was a major incentive to adopt a more reliable method of carriage heating.", "Streamliner\nWith power and reliability of new Diesel units improved with the 2000 hp GM 567 powered E3 model in 1938, the advantages of Diesel became compelling enough for a growing number of rail lines to select Diesel over steam for new passenger equipment. The power and top speed advantages of state-of-the-art steam locomotives were more than offset by Diesel's advantages in service flexibility, downtime, maintenance costs, and economic efficiency for most operators. The American Locomotive Company (ALCO), builder of the Hiawatha speedsters, saw Diesel as the future of passenger service and introduced streamlined locomotives influenced by the design of the E units in 1939. The replacement of steam with Diesel power was interrupted by the US entry into World War II, with a military premium on Diesel technology that stopped all production of Diesel locomotives for passenger service between September 1942 and January 1945.", "Heilmann locomotive\nAlthough other railway companies, such as the Ohio River, Madison & Southern Railway in the United States and the Southern Railway in Russia, as well as at least one from Germany, showed interest in steam-electric locomotives, the two locomotives suffered the same fate as their predecessor. They were the ancestors of diesel-electric, and those gas turbine and steam turbine locomotives which use an electric transmission. When one of the first diesel-electric locomotives was reported in 1905, the Automotor Journal stated it \"appears to be something on the Heilmann principle, that is to say the engine is employed to operate a dynamo which in turn supplies electric current to motors geared to the driving wheels\".", "Electro-Motive Diesel\nPassenger trains made little money for the railroads, but replacement of steam engines with reliable Diesel units could provide railroads with a crucial difference for profitability. With standardized production of locomotives, EMC simplified the processes for ordering, manufacturing, and servicing locomotives and introduced economies of scale that would lower unit costs. EMC offered support services including financing, training, and field maintenance that would ease the transition from steam to Diesel and boost their market in the last years before US entry into World War II. The performance of the new 567 engine in passenger locomotives also built confidence in the viability of Diesel power for freight service.", "0-6-0+0-6-0\nThe only steam locomotive example of this type of engine in the United Kingdom was the Leader. It was originally commissioned by the Southern Railway but it was completed by British Railways in 1949. The locomotive was a class of experimental articulated steam locomotive, produced in the United Kingdom to the design of the innovative engineer Oliver Bulleid. The Leader was effectively a Meyer locomotive since both sets of drivers were articulated. It was built in an attempt to extend the life of steam traction by eliminating many of the operational drawbacks associated with existing steam locomotives.\nThe 0-6-0+0-6-0 configuration was also applied to diesel-electric locomotives when British Rail created the Class 13 in 1965. This was done by permanently coupling two Class 08 0-6-0DE shunting engines as \"master and slave\" units, the latter with its cab removed. In North American terminology, this is referred to as a \"cow and calf\" arrangement. The modification came about because of a need to provide more powerful shunting locomotives for the Tinsley Marshalling Yard.", "Electro-Motive Diesel\nBy the late 1940s the majority of American railroads had decided to transition from steam to Diesel power, known as Dieselization. The demand for Diesel-powered passenger service did not grow at the same rate as for freight service, as air and automobile travel were the burgeoning modes of passenger travel. Nevertheless, the lower profit margins of passenger service made the cost advantages of Diesel over steam all the more critical and steam power was increasingly seen as dirty, smelly, and dated among the travelling public. To meet post-war demands, EMD opened another locomotive production facility in 1948 at Cleveland, Ohio.", "Henry Roe Campbell\nOne of the most visually striking features of a steam locomotive is its \"wheel arrangement\" which is largely a function of its intended application and purpose. The fundamental principle of design for 19th century steam locomotives was tractive force which relies on adhesion. A switching locomotive for example, is relatively low-powered but with a high starting tractive effort for getting heavy cars rolling quickly. These locomotives are geared to produce high torque but are restricted to low top speeds and have small diameter driving wheels. Switchers are rail analogs to tugboats. For higher speeds, larger boilers were required which in turn led to the development of lead trucks.\nPrior to 1832, the typical locomotive for general road service on American roads was a 2-2-0 which could be built with either inside or outside steam cylinders. The critical element of the design was the single pair of driving wheels placed either in front of the firebox, as in the Norris engines, or in back of the firebox, as patented in 1834 by E. L. Miller and used extensively by in the Baldwin engines.", "Rail transport\nDiesel locomotives use a diesel engine as the prime mover. The energy transmission may be either diesel-electric, diesel-mechanical or diesel-hydraulic but diesel-electric is dominant. Electro-diesel locomotives are built to run as diesel-electric on unelectrified sections and as electric locomotives on electrified sections.", "Train\nThe first trains were rope-hauled, gravity powered or pulled by horses, but from the early 19th century almost all trains were powered by steam locomotives. From the 1910s onwards, steam locomotives began to be replaced with less labor-intensive (and cleaner) diesel and electric locomotives, although these new forms of propulsion were far more complex and expensive than steam power. At about the same time, self-propelled multiple unit vehicles (both diesel and electric) became much more widely used in passenger service. Dieselisation of locomotives in day-to-day use was completed in most countries by the 1970s. Steam locomotives are still used in heritage railways which are operated in many countries for the leisure and enthusiast market.", "Engine efficiency\nA very well designed and built steam locomotive used to get around 7-8% efficiency in its heyday. The most efficient reciprocating steam engine design (per stage) was the uniflow engine, but by the time it appeared steam was being displaced by diesel engines, which were even more efficient and had the advantage of requiring less labor for coal handling and oil, being a more dense fuel, displaced less cargo.", "London Underground diesel locomotives\nDiesel locomotives have seen limited use on the London Underground, largely because exhaust gases cannot be discharged when the vehicles are working in tunnels. A prototype diesel engine numbered DEL120 was built in 1939 from two 1915 stock motor cars, which was expected to be part of a batch of ten, but experience with battery locomotives showed that these were a better alternative. Three 0-6-0 diesels (DL81-DL83) were obtained in 1971, to replace the last steam engines, but were too short to operate the signalling system, and too heavy for some of the bridges. In 1996, fourteen diesels (numbered 1 through 14, but also given female names) were supplied by Schöma of Germany, which were used during the construction of the Jubilee line tunnels. They were fitted with exhaust scrubbers, to enable them to work in the tunnels. To speed up track renewals on the subsurface lines, class 66 locomotives have been hired in since 2006 to handle permanent way trains, but again suffer from being too heavy for some of the bridges. Because they are not fitted with tripcock safety devices, and pull trains much longer than the signalling system is designed for, they are restricted to slow speed running.", "Dieselisation\nDieselisation or dieselization is a term generally used for the increasingly common use of diesel fuel in vehicles as opposed to gasoline or steam engines. The term is commonly used to refer to the replacement of steam locomotives by diesel locomotives and multiple units from the 1930s to the 1960s." ]

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[ "Special relativity\nIn physics, special relativity (SR, also known as the special theory of relativity or STR) is the generally accepted and experimentally well-confirmed physical theory regarding the relationship between space and time. In Albert Einstein's original pedagogical treatment, it is based on two postulates:It was originally proposed by Albert Einstein in a paper published 26 September 1905 titled \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\". The inconsistency of Newtonian mechanics with Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism and the lack of experimental confirmation for a hypothesized luminiferous aether led to the development of special relativity, which corrects mechanics to handle situations involving motions at a significant fraction of the speed of light (known as \"\"). As of today, special relativity is the most accurate model of motion at any speed when gravitational effects are negligible. Even so, the Newtonian mechanics model is still useful as an approximation at small velocities relative to the speed of light, due to its simplicity and high accuracy within its scope.", "Special relativity (alternative formulations)\nHendrik Lorentz and Henri Poincaré developed their version of special relativity in a series of papers from about 1900 to 1905. They used Maxwell's equations and the principle of relativity to deduce a theory that is mathematically equivalent to the theory later developed by Einstein.", "Inertia\nAlbert Einstein's theory of special relativity, as proposed in his 1905 paper entitled \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\" was built on the understanding of inertia and inertial reference frames developed by Galileo and Newton. While this revolutionary theory did significantly change the meaning of many Newtonian concepts such as mass, energy, and distance, Einstein's concept of inertia remained unchanged from Newton's original meaning (in fact, the entire theory was based on Newton's definition of inertia). However, this resulted in a limitation inherent in special relativity: the principle of relativity could only apply to reference frames that were \"inertial\" in nature (meaning when no acceleration was present). In an attempt to address this limitation, Einstein proceeded to develop his general theory of relativity (\"The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity,\" 1916), which ultimately provided a unified theory for both \"inertial\" and \"noninertial\" (accelerated) reference frames. However, in order to accomplish this, in general relativity, Einstein found it necessary to redefine several fundamental concepts (such as gravity) in terms of a new concept of \"curvature\" of space-time, instead of the more traditional system of forces understood by Newton.", "Scientific theory\nIn 1905, Albert Einstein published the principle of special relativity, which soon became a theory. Special relativity predicted the alignment of the Newtonian principle of Galilean invariance, also termed \"Galilean relativity\", with the electromagnetic field. By omitting from special relativity the luminiferous aether, Einstein stated that time dilation and length contraction measured in an object in relative motion is inertial—that is, the object exhibits constant velocity, which is speed with direction, when measured by its observer. He thereby duplicated the Lorentz transformation and the Lorentz contraction that had been hypothesized to resolve experimental riddles and inserted into electrodynamic theory as dynamical consequences of the aether's properties. An elegant theory, special relativity yielded its own consequences, such as the equivalence of mass and energy transforming into one another and the resolution of the paradox that an excitation of the electromagnetic field could be viewed in one reference frame as electricity, but in another as magnetism." ]

[ "Criticism of the theory of relativity\nAs was shown by Einstein, the only form of accelerated motion that cannot be described is the one due to gravitation, since special relativity is not compatible with the Equivalence principle. Einstein was also unsatisfied with the fact that inertial frames are preferred over accelerated frames. Thus over the course of several years (1908–1915), Einstein developed general relativity. This theory includes the replacement of Euclidean geometry by non-Euclidean geometry, and the resultant curvature of the path of light led Einstein (1912) to the conclusion that (like in accelerated frames) the speed of light is not constant in extended gravitational fields. Therefore, Abraham (1912) argued that Einstein had given special relativity a coup de grâce. Einstein responded that within its area of application (in areas where gravitational influences can be neglected) special relativity is still applicable with high precision, so one cannot speak of a coup de grâce at all.", "Ricardo Carezani\nHowever, after the setbacks in the 1980s, Carezani regained some prominence in the 1990s and 2000s. In 1991, he discovered a mathematical conversion theorizing that special relativity is a subset of autodynamics. Despite a heart transplant in 1992 stopping any research for the next year, Carezani regained momentum and founded the Society of the Advancement of Autodynamics, a California-Based organization now run by David De Hilster. In 1996, Carezani was presented the \"Lifetime Achievement Award\" in relative physics, and he published his first book one year later.", "Relativity priority dispute\nIn several papers, Elie Zahar (1983, 2000) argued that both Einstein (in his June paper) and Poincaré (in his July paper) independently discovered special relativity. He said that \"\"though Whittaker was unjust towards Einstein, his positive account of Poincaré's actual achievement contains much more than a simple grain of truth\"\". According to him, it was Poincaré's unsystematic and sometimes erroneous statements regarding his philosophical papers (often connected with conventionalism), which hindered many to give him due credit. In his opinion, Poincaré was rather a \"structural realist\" and from that he concludes, that Poincaré actually adhered to the relativity of time and space, while his allusions to the aether are of secondary importance. He continues, that due to his treatment of gravitation and four-dimensional space, Poincaré's 1905/6-paper was superior to Einstein's 1905-paper. Yet Zahar gives also credit to Einstein, who introduced Mass–Energy equivalence, and also transcended special relativity by taking a path leading to the development of general relativity.", "History of special relativity\nEventually Poincaré (independently of Einstein) finished a substantially extended work of his June paper (the so-called \"Palermo paper\", received July 23, printed December 14, published January 1906 ). He spoke literally of \"the postulate of relativity\". He showed that the transformations are a consequence of the principle of least action and developed the properties of the Poincaré stresses. He demonstrated in more detail the group characteristics of the transformation, which he called the Lorentz group, and he showed that the combination formula_23 is invariant. While elaborating his gravitational theory, he said the Lorentz transformation is merely a rotation in four-dimensional space about the origin, by introducing formula_24 as a fourth imaginary coordinate (contrary to Palagyi, he included the speed of light), and he already used four-vectors. He wrote that the discovery of magneto-cathode rays by Paul Ulrich Villard (1904) seemed to threaten the entire theory of Lorentz, but this problem was quickly solved. However, although in his philosophical writings Poincaré rejected the ideas of absolute space and time, in his physical papers he continued to refer to an (undetectable) aether. He also continued (1900b, 1904, 1906, 1908b) to describe coordinates and phenomena as local/apparent (for moving observers) and true/real (for observers at rest in the aether). So, with a few exceptions, most historians of science argue that Poincaré did not invent what is now called special relativity, although it is admitted that Poincaré anticipated much of Einstein's methods and terminology.", "Aberration of light\nAberration is historically significant because of its role in the development of the theories of light, electromagnetism and, ultimately, the theory of special relativity. It was first observed in the late 1600s by astronomers searching for stellar parallax in order to confirm the heliocentric model of the Solar System. However, it was not understood at the time to be a different phenomenon.\nIn 1727, James Bradley provided a classical explanation for it in terms of the finite speed of light relative to the motion of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun, \nwhich he used to make one of the earliest measurements of the speed of light. However, Bradley's theory was incompatible with 19th century theories of light, and aberration became a major motivation for the aether drag theories of Augustin Fresnel (in 1818) and G. G. Stokes (in 1845), and for Hendrik Lorentz's aether theory of electromagnetism in 1892. The aberration of light, together with Lorentz's elaboration of Maxwell's electrodynamics, the moving magnet and conductor problem, the negative aether drift experiments, as well as the Fizeau experiment, led Albert Einstein to develop the theory of special relativity in 1905, which presents a general form of the equation for aberration in terms of such theory.", "History of special relativity\nSome claim that Poincaré and Lorentz, not Einstein, are the true founders of special relativity. For more see the article on relativity priority dispute.", "Special relativity (alternative formulations)\nAs formulated by Albert Einstein in 1905, the theory of special relativity was based on two main postulates:", "History of special relativity\nImportant early experiments confirming special relativity as mentioned above were the Fizeau experiment, the Michelson–Morley experiment, the Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments, the Trouton–Noble experiment, the experiments of Rayleigh and Brace, and the Trouton–Rankine experiment.", "Special relativity (alternative formulations)\nHsu & Hsu then explore other relationships between w and t such as w=bt where b is a function. They show that there are versions of relativity which are consistent with experiment but have a definition of time where the \"speed\" of light is not constant. They develop one such version called \"common relativity\" which is more convenient for performing calculations for \"relativistic many body problems\" than using special relativity.", "History of special relativity\nAlthough Isaac Newton based his physics on absolute time and space, he also adhered to the principle of relativity of Galileo Galilei restating it precisely for mechanical systems . This can be stated as: as far as the laws of mechanics are concerned, all observers in inertial motion are equally privileged, and no preferred state of motion can be attributed to any particular inertial observer. However, as to electromagnetic theory and electrodynamics, during the 19th century the wave theory of light as a disturbance of a \"light medium\" or Luminiferous ether was widely accepted, the theory reaching its most developed form in the work of James Clerk Maxwell. According to Maxwell's theory, all optical and electrical phenomena propagate through that medium, which suggested that it should be possible to experimentally determine motion relative to the aether.", "Special relativity\nwhere", "History of special relativity\nIn 1907 Minkowski named four predecessors who contributed to the formulation of the relativity principle: Lorentz, Einstein, Poincaré and Planck. And in his famous lecture (1908) he mentioned Voigt, Lorentz and Einstein. Minkowski himself considered Einstein's theory as a generalization of Lorentz's and credited Einstein for completely stating the relativity of time, but he criticized his predecessors for not fully developing the relativity of space. However, modern historians of science argue that Minkowski's claim for priority was unjustified, because Minkowski (like Wien or Abraham) adhered to the electromagnetic world-picture and apparently didn't fully understand the difference between Lorentz's electron theory and Einstein's kinematics. In 1908, Einstein and Laub rejected the four-dimensional electrodynamics of Minkowski as overly complicated \"learned superfluousness\" and published a \"more elementary\", non-four-dimensional derivation of the basic-equations for moving bodies. But it was Minkowski's geometric model that (a) showed that the special relativity is a complete and internally self-consistent theory, (b) added the Lorentz invariant proper time interval (which accounts for the actual readings shown by moving clocks), and (c) served as a basis for further development of relativity. Eventually, Einstein (1912) recognized the importance of Minkowski's geometric spacetime model and used it as the basis for his work on the foundations of general relativity.", "Theory of relativity\nGeneral relativity is a theory of gravitation developed by Einstein in the years 1907–1915. The development of general relativity began with the equivalence principle, under which the states of accelerated motion and being at rest in a gravitational field (for example, when standing on the surface of the Earth) are physically identical. The upshot of this is that free fall is inertial motion: an object in free fall is falling because that is how objects move when there is no force being exerted on them, instead of this being due to the force of gravity as is the case in classical mechanics. This is incompatible with classical mechanics and special relativity because in those theories inertially moving objects cannot accelerate with respect to each other, but objects in free fall do so. To resolve this difficulty Einstein first proposed that spacetime is curved. In 1915, he devised the Einstein field equations which relate the curvature of spacetime with the mass, energy, and any momentum within it.", "Albert Einstein\nGeneral relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.", "Special relativity (alternative formulations)\nDoubly special relativity (DSR) is a modified theory of special relativity in which there is not only an observer-independent maximum velocity (the speed of light), but an observer-independent minimum length (the Planck length).", "Principle of relativity\nGeneral relativity was developed by Einstein in the years 1907 - 1915. General relativity postulates that the global Lorentz covariance of special relativity becomes a local Lorentz covariance in the presence of matter. The presence of matter \"curves\" spacetime, and this curvature affects the path of free particles (and even the path of light). General relativity uses the mathematics of differential geometry and tensors in order to describe gravitation as an effect of the geometry of spacetime. Einstein based this new theory on the general principle of relativity, and he named the theory after the underlying principle.See the special relativity references and the general relativity references.", "History of special relativity\nThe failure of any known experiment to detect motion through the aether led Hendrik Lorentz, starting in 1892, to develop a theory of electrodynamics based on an immobile luminiferous aether (about whose material constitution Lorentz didn't speculate), physical length contraction, and a \"local time\" in which Maxwell's equations retain their form in all inertial frames of reference. Working with Lorentz's aether theory, Henri Poincaré, having earlier proposed the \"relativity principle\" as a general law of nature (including electrodynamics and gravitation), used this principle in 1905 to correct Lorentz's preliminary transformation formulas, resulting in an exact set of equations that are now called the Lorentz transformations. A little later in the same year Albert Einstein published his original paper on special relativity in which, again based on the relativity principle, he independently derived and radically reinterpreted the Lorentz transformations by changing the fundamental definitions of space and time intervals, while abandoning the absolute simultaneity of Galilean kinematics, thus avoiding the need for any reference to a luminiferous aether in classical electrodynamics. Subsequent work of Hermann Minkowski, in which he introduced a 4-dimensional geometric \"spacetime\" model for Einstein's version of special relativity, paved the way for Einstein's later development of his general theory of relativity and laid the foundations of relativistic field theories.", "History of special relativity\nAt the same time, when Lorentz worked out his theory, Wien (1903) recognized an important consequence of the velocity dependence of mass. He argued that superluminal velocities were impossible, because that would require an infinite amount of energy — the same was already noted by Thomson (1893) and Searle (1897). And in June 1904, after he had read Lorentz's 1904 paper, he noticed the same in relation to length contraction, because at superluminal velocities the factor formula_22 becomes imaginary.", "Theory of relativity\nThe theory transformed theoretical physics and astronomy during the 20th century, superseding a 200-year-old theory of mechanics created primarily by Isaac Newton. It introduced concepts including spacetime as a unified entity of space and time, relativity of simultaneity, kinematic and gravitational time dilation, and length contraction. In the field of physics, relativity improved the science of elementary particles and their fundamental interactions, along with ushering in the nuclear age. With relativity, cosmology and astrophysics predicted extraordinary astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars, black holes, and gravitational waves.", "Criticism of the theory of relativity\nIt was also claimed that special relativity cannot handle acceleration, which would lead to contradictions in some situations. However, this assessment is not correct, since acceleration actually can be described in the framework of special relativity (see Acceleration (special relativity), Proper reference frame (flat spacetime), Hyperbolic motion, Rindler coordinates, Born coordinates). Paradoxes relying on insufficient understanding of these facts were discovered in the early years of relativity. For example, Max Born (1909) tried to combine the concept of rigid bodies with special relativity. That this model was insufficient was shown by Paul Ehrenfest (1909), who demonstrated that a rotating rigid body would, according to Born's definition, undergo a contraction of the circumference without contraction of the radius, which is impossible (Ehrenfest paradox). Max von Laue (1911) showed that rigid bodies cannot exist in special relativity, since the propagation of signals cannot exceed the speed of light, so an accelerating and rotating body will undergo deformations.", "Criticism of the theory of relativity\nCriticizing Lorentz's 1904 theory, Abraham (1904) held that the Lorentz contraction of electrons requires a non-electromagnetic force to ensure the electron's stability. This was unacceptable to him as a proponent of the electromagnetic worldview. He continued that as long as a consistent explanation is missing as to how those forces and potentials act together on the electron, Lorentz's system of hypotheses is incomplete and doesn't satisfy the relativity principle. Poincaré (1905) removed this objection by showing that the non-electromagnetic potential (\"Poincaré stress\") holding the electron together can be formulated in a Lorentz covariant way, and showed that in principle it is possible to create a Lorentz covariant model for gravitation which he considered non-electromagnetic in nature as well. Thus the consistency of Lorentz's theory was proven, but the electromagnetic worldview had to be given up. Eventually, Albert Einstein published in September 1905 what is now called special relativity, which was based on a radical new application of the relativity principle in connection with the constancy of the speed of light. In special relativity, the space and time coordinates depend on the inertial observer's frame of reference, and the luminiferous aether plays no role in the physics. Although this theory was founded on a very different kinematical model, it was experimentally indistinguishable from the aether theory of Lorentz and Poincaré, since both theories satisfy the relativity principle of Poincaré and Einstein, and both employ the Lorentz transformations. After Minkowski's introduction in 1908 of the geometric spacetime model for Einstein's version of relativity, most physicists eventually decided in favor of the Einstein-Minkowski version of relativity with its radical new views of space and time, in which there was no useful role for the aether.", "History of special relativity\nOther physicists besides Lorentz and Larmor also tried to develop a consistent model of electrodynamics. For example, Emil Cohn (1900, 1901) created an alternative Electrodynamics in which he, as one of the first, discarded the existence of the aether (at least in the previous form) and would use, like Ernst Mach, the fixed stars as a reference frame instead. Due to inconsistencies within his theory, like different light speeds in different directions, it was superseded by Lorentz's and Einstein's.Janssen/Stachel (2004), 31–32", "Acceleration (special relativity)\nConcerning the historical development, relativistic equations containing accelerations can already be found in the early years of relativity, as summarized in early textbooks by Max von Laue (1911, 1921) or Wolfgang Pauli (1921). For instance, equations of motion and acceleration transformations were developed in the papers of Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1899, 1904), Henri Poincaré (1905), Albert Einstein (1905), Max Planck (1906), and four-acceleration, proper acceleration, hyperbolic motion, accelerating reference frames, Born rigidity, have been analyzed by Einstein (1907), Hermann Minkowski (1907, 1908), Max Born (1909), Gustav Herglotz (1909), Arnold Sommerfeld (1910), von Laue (1911), Friedrich Kottler (1912, 1914), see section on history.", "Stellar aberration (derivation from Lorentz transformation)\nIn the year 1926 the astrophysicist Robert Emden published the article \"Aberration und Relativitätstheorie\" in the journal \"Naturwissenschaften\". In this article he states that the direction of a light ray isn't influenced by the motion of the star or by the motion of Earth. At that time, the opponents of the special theory of relativity reasoned that the theory must be flawed, because it would state that the stellar aberration would depend on the relative velocity of the star — which would be in contradiction to observation — and R. Emden's article explains that the special theory of relativity does not predict this. Today, the special theory of relativity isn't contested anymore but there are still articles that suggest that the aberration would depend on the relative velocity of the star.", "Branches of physics\nThe theory of special relativity was proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his article \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\". The title of the article refers to the fact that special relativity resolves an inconsistency between Maxwell's equations and classical mechanics. The theory is based on two postulates: (1) that the mathematical forms of the laws of physics are invariant in all inertial systems; and (2) that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the source or observer. Reconciling the two postulates requires a unification of space and time into the frame-dependent concept of spacetime.", "Introduction to general relativity\nGeneral relativity is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational effect between masses results from their warping of spacetime.", "Michelson–Morley experiment\nAlbert Einstein formulated the theory of special relativity by 1905, deriving the Lorentz transformation and thus length contraction and time dilation from the relativity postulate and the constancy of the speed of light, thus removing the \"ad hoc\" character from the contraction hypothesis. Einstein emphasized the kinematic foundation of the theory and the modification of the notion of space and time, with the stationary aether no longer playing any role in his theory. He also pointed out the group character of the transformation. Einstein was motivated by Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism (in the form as it was given by Lorentz in 1895) and the lack of evidence for the luminiferous aether.", "Wolfgang Rindler\nIn 1960 Oliver & Boyd and InterScience published his first book on special relativity. Reviewer Alfred Schild said it was an \"excellent, clear and concise account\" and \"provided a sound balance between physical ideas, analytical formulae and space-time geometry\". (1966, second edition)", "General relativity\nSoon after publishing the special theory of relativity in 1905, Einstein started thinking about how to incorporate gravity into his new relativistic framework. In 1907, beginning with a simple thought experiment involving an observer in free fall, he embarked on what would be an eight-year search for a relativistic theory of gravity. After numerous detours and false starts, his work culminated in the presentation to the Prussian Academy of Science in November 1915 of what are now known as the Einstein field equations. These equations specify how the geometry of space and time is influenced by whatever matter and radiation are present, and form the core of Einstein's general theory of relativity.", "Tests of special relativity\nSpecial relativity also predicts that two light rays traveling in opposite directions around a spinning closed path (e.g. a loop) require different flight times to come back to the moving emitter/receiver (this is a consequence of the independence of the speed of light from the velocity of the source, see above). This effect was actually observed and is called the Sagnac effect. Currently, the consideration of this effect is necessary for many experimental setups and for the correct functioning of GPS.", "Two-body problem in general relativity\nAround 1904–1905, the works of Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and finally Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity, exclude the possibility of propagation of any effects faster than the speed of light. It followed that Newton's law of gravitation would have to be replaced with another law, compatible with the principle of relativity, while still obtaining the newtonian limit for circumstances where relativistic effects are negligible. Such attempts were made by Henri Poincaré (1905), Hermann Minkowski (1907) and Arnold Sommerfeld (1910). In 1907 Einstein came to the conclusion that to achieve this a successor to special relativity was needed. From 1907 to 1915, Einstein worked towards a new theory, using his equivalence principle as a key concept to guide his way. According to this principle, a uniform gravitational field acts equally on everything within it and, therefore, cannot be detected by a free-falling observer. Conversely, all local gravitational effects should be reproducible in a linearly accelerating reference frame, and vice versa. Thus, gravity acts like a fictitious force such as the centrifugal force or the Coriolis force, which result from being in an accelerated reference frame; all fictitious forces are proportional to the inertial mass, just as gravity is. To effect the reconciliation of gravity and special relativity and to incorporate the equivalence principle, something had to be sacrificed; that something was the long-held classical assumption that our space obeys the laws of Euclidean geometry, e.g., that the Pythagorean theorem is true experimentally. Einstein used a more general geometry, pseudo-Riemannian geometry, to allow for the curvature of space and time that was necessary for the reconciliation; after eight years of work (1907–1915), he succeeded in discovering the precise way in which space-time should be curved in order to reproduce the physical laws observed in Nature, particularly gravitation. Gravity is distinct from the fictitious forces centrifugal force and coriolis force in the sense that the curvature of spacetime is regarded as physically real, whereas the fictitious forces are not regarded as forces. The very first solutions of his field equations explained the anomalous precession of Mercury and predicted an unusual bending of light, which was confirmed \"after\" his theory was published. These solutions are explained below.", "Special relativity\nSeveral experiments predating Einstein's 1905 paper are now interpreted as evidence for relativity. Of these it is known Einstein was aware of the Fizeau experiment before 1905, and historians have concluded that Einstein was at least aware of the Michelson–Morley experiment as early as 1899 despite claims he made in his later years that it played no role in his development of the theory.", "Special relativity (alternative formulations)\nEuclidean relativity", "Special relativity\nRather than considering universal Lorentz covariance to be a derived principle, this article considers it to be the fundamental postulate of special relativity. The traditional two-postulate approach to special relativity is presented in innumerable college textbooks and popular presentations. Textbooks starting with the single postulate of Minkowski spacetime include those by Taylor and Wheeler and by Callahan. This is also the approach followed by the Wikipedia articles Spacetime and Minkowski diagram.", "Theory of relativity\nAlbert Einstein published the theory of special relativity in 1905, building on many theoretical results and empirical findings obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others. Max Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others did subsequent work.", "Einstein's thought experiments\nThe topic of how Einstein arrived at special relativity has been a fascinating one to many scholars: A lowly, twenty-six year old patent officer (third class), largely self-taught in physics and completely divorced from mainstream research, nevertheless in the year 1905 produced four extraordinary works (\"Annus Mirabilis\" papers), only one of which (his paper on Brownian motion) appeared related to anything that he had ever published before.", "Einstein's thought experiments\nIn the very first paragraph of Einstein's seminal 1905 work introducing special relativity, he writes: \nThis opening paragraph recounts well-known experimental results obtained by Michael Faraday in 1831. The experiments describe what appeared to be two different phenomena: the \"motional EMF\" generated when a wire moves through a magnetic field (see Lorentz force), and the \"transformer EMF\" generated by a changing magnetic field (due to the Maxwell–Faraday equation). James Clerk Maxwell himself drew attention to this fact in his 1861 paper \"On Physical Lines of Force\". In the latter half of Part II of that paper, Maxwell gave a separate physical explanation for each of the two phenomena.", "Mass in special relativity\nand", "Affine geometry\nIn 1912, Edwin B. Wilson and Gilbert N. Lewis developed an affine geometry to express the special theory of relativity.", "History of Lorentz transformations\nOn June 30, 1905 (published September 1905) Einstein published what is now called special relativity and gave a new derivation of the transformation, which was based only on the principle on relativity and the principle of the constancy of the speed of light. While Lorentz considered \"local time\" to be a mathematical stipulation device for explaining the Michelson-Morley experiment, Einstein showed that the coordinates given by the Lorentz transformation were in fact the inertial coordinates of relatively moving frames of reference. For quantities of first order in \"v/c\" this was also done by Poincaré in 1900, while Einstein derived the complete transformation by this method. Unlike Lorentz and Poincaré who still distinguished between real time in the aether and apparent time for moving observers, Einstein showed that the transformations concern the nature of space and time.", "Sagnac effect\nThe first description of the Sagnac effect in the framework of special relativity was done by Max von Laue in 1911, two years before Sagnac conducted his experiment. By continuing the theoretical work of Michelson (1904), von Laue confined himself to an inertial frame of reference (which he called a \"valid\" reference frame), and in a footnote he wrote \"a system which rotates in respect to a valid system formula_7 is \"not\" valid\". Assuming constant light speed formula_8, and setting the rotational velocity as formula_9, he computed the propagation time formula_10 of one ray and formula_11 of the counter-propagating ray, and consequently obtained the time difference formula_12. He concluded that this interferometer experiment would indeed produce (when restricted to terms of first order in formula_13) the same positive result for both special relativity and the stationary aether (the latter he called \"absolute theory\" in reference to the 1895-theory of Lorentz). He also concluded that only complete-aether-drag models (such as the ones of Stokes or Hertz) would give a negative result.", "Special relativity\nEinstein consistently based the derivation of Lorentz invariance (the essential core of special relativity) on just the two basic principles of relativity and light-speed invariance. He wrote:\nThus many modern treatments of special relativity base it on the single postulate of universal Lorentz covariance, or, equivalently, on the single postulate of Minkowski spacetime.", "Theory of relativity\nThe Ives–Stilwell experiment was carried out by Herbert Ives and G.R. Stilwell first in 1938 and with better accuracy in 1941. It was designed to test the transverse Doppler effect – the redshift of light from a moving source in a direction perpendicular to its velocity—which had been predicted by Einstein in 1905. The strategy was to compare observed Doppler shifts with what was predicted by classical theory, and look for a Lorentz factor correction. Such a correction was observed, from which was concluded that the frequency of a moving atomic clock is altered according to special relativity.", "Louisiana Purchase Exposition\nHenri Poincaré gave a keynote address on mathematical physics, including an outline for what would eventually become known as special relativity.", "Einstein's thought experiments\nIn a 1920 review on the \"Fundamental Ideas and Methods of the Theory of Relativity\" (unpublished), Einstein related how disturbing he found this asymmetry: \nEinstein needed to extend the relativity of motion that he perceived between magnet and conductor in the above thought experiment to a full theory. For years, however, he did not know how this might be done. The exact path that Einstein took to resolve this issue is unknown. We do know, however, that Einstein spent several years pursuing an emission theory of light, encountering difficulties that eventually led him to give up the attempt. \nThat decision ultimately led to his development of special relativity as a theory founded on two postulates of which he could be sure. Expressed in contemporary physics vocabulary, his postulates were as follows:", "Special relativity\nwe get", "Numerical relativity\nAlbert Einstein published his theory of general relativity in 1915. It, like his earlier theory of special relativity, described space and time as a unified spacetime subject to what are now known as the Einstein field equations. These form a set of coupled nonlinear partial differential equations (PDEs). After more than 100 years since the first publication of the theory, relatively few closed-form solutions are known for the field equations, and, of those, most are cosmological solutions that assume special symmetry to reduce the complexity of the equations.", "Special relativity\nThe energy and momentum are properties of matter and radiation, and it is impossible to deduce that they form a four-vector just from the two basic postulates of special relativity by themselves, because these don't talk about matter or radiation, they only talk about space and time. The derivation therefore requires some additional physical reasoning. In his 1905 paper, Einstein used the additional principles that Newtonian mechanics should hold for slow velocities, so that there is one energy scalar and one three-vector momentum at slow velocities, and that the conservation law for energy and momentum is exactly true in relativity. Furthermore, he assumed that the energy of light is transformed by the same Doppler-shift factor as its frequency, which he had previously shown to be true based on Maxwell's equations. The first of Einstein's papers on this subject was \"Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Energy Content?\" in 1905. Although Einstein's argument in this paper is nearly universally accepted by physicists as correct, even self-evident, many authors over the years have suggested that it is wrong. Other authors suggest that the argument was merely inconclusive because it relied on some implicit assumptions.", "Special relativity\nIn 1928, Paul Dirac constructed an influential relativistic wave equation, now known as the Dirac equation in his honour, that is fully compatible both with special relativity and with the final version of quantum theory existing after 1926. This equation explained not only the intrinsic angular momentum of the electrons called \"spin\", it also led to the prediction of the antiparticle of the electron (the positron), and fine structure could only be fully explained with special relativity. It was the first foundation of \"relativistic quantum mechanics\". In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, spin is and cannot be explained.", "History of special relativity\nPoincaré's attempt of a four-dimensional reformulation of the new mechanics was not continued by himself, so it was Hermann Minkowski (1907), who worked out the consequences of that notion (other contributions were made by Roberto Marcolongo (1906) and Richard Hargreaves (1908)). This was based on the work of many mathematicians of the 19th century like Arthur Cayley, Felix Klein, or William Kingdon Clifford, who contributed to group theory, invariant theory and projective geometry. Using similar methods, Minkowski succeeded in formulating a geometrical interpretation of the Lorentz transformation. He completed, for example, the concept of four vectors; he created the Minkowski diagram for the depiction of space-time; he was the first to use expressions like world line, proper time, Lorentz invariance/covariance, etc.; and most notably he presented a four-dimensional formulation of electrodynamics. Similar to Poincaré he tried to formulate a Lorentz-invariant law of gravity, but that work was subsequently superseded by Einstein's elaborations on gravitation.", "Quantum field theory\nIn the same year as his paper on the photoelectric effect, Einstein published his theory of special relativity, built on Maxwell's electromagnetism. New rules, called Lorentz transformation, were given for the way time and space coordinates of an event change under changes in the observer's velocity, and the distinction between time and space was blurred. It was proposed that all physical laws must be the same for observers at different velocities, \"i.e.\" that physical laws be invariant under Lorentz transformations.", "Luminiferous aether\nIn 1918 Einstein publicly alluded to that new definition for the first time. Then, in the early 1920s, in a lecture which he was invited to give at Lorentz's university in Leiden, Einstein sought to reconcile the theory of relativity with Lorentzian aether. In this lecture Einstein stressed that special relativity took away the last mechanical property of the aether: immobility. However, he continued that special relativity does not necessarily rule out the aether, because the latter can be used to give physical reality to acceleration and rotation. This concept was fully elaborated within general relativity, in which physical properties (which are partially determined by matter) are attributed to space, but no substance or state of motion can be attributed to that \"aether\" (by which he meant curved space-time).", "History of special relativity\nEinstein (1907a) proposed a method for detecting the transverse Doppler effect as a direct consequence of time dilation. And in fact, that effect was measured in 1938 by Herbert E. Ives and G. R. Stilwell (Ives–Stilwell experiment). And Lewis and Tolman (1909) described the reciprocity of time dilation by using two light clocks A and B, traveling with a certain relative velocity to each other. The clocks consist of two plane mirrors parallel to one another and to the line of motion. Between the mirrors a light signal is bouncing, and for the observer resting in the same reference frame as A, the period of clock A is the distance between the mirrors divided by the speed of light. But if the observer looks at clock B, he sees that within that clock the signal traces out a longer, angled path, thus clock B is slower than A. However, for the observer moving alongside with B the situation is completely in reverse: Clock B is faster and A is slower. Also Lorentz (1910–1912) discussed the reciprocity of time dilation and analyzed a clock \"paradox\", which apparently occurs as a consequence of the reciprocity of time dilation. Lorentz showed that there is no paradox if one considers that in one system only one clock is used, while in the other system two clocks are necessary, and the relativity of simultaneity is fully taken into account.", "Lorentz ether theory\nEinstein's 1905 presentation of special relativity was soon supplemented, in 1907, by Hermann Minkowski, who showed that the relations had a very natural interpretation in terms of a unified four-dimensional \"spacetime\" in which absolute intervals are seen to be given by an extension of the Pythagorean theorem. (Already in 1906 Poincaré anticipated some of Minkowski's ideas, see the section \"Lorentz-transformation\"). The utility and naturalness of the representations by Einstein and Minkowski contributed to the rapid acceptance of special relativity, and to the corresponding loss of interest in Lorentz's ether theory.", "History of special relativity\nLorentz (1892a) set the foundations of Lorentz aether theory, by assuming the existence of electrons which he separated from the aether, and by replacing the \"Maxwell-Hertz\" Equations by the \"Maxwell-Lorentz\" Equations. In his model, the aether is completely motionless and, contrary to Fresnel's theory, also is not partially dragged by matter. An important consequence of this notion was that the velocity of light is totally independent of the velocity of the source. Lorentz gave no statements about the mechanical nature of the aether and the electromagnetic processes, but, vice versa, tried to explain the mechanical processes by electromagnetic ones and therefore created an abstract electromagnetic æther. In the framework of his theory, Lorentz calculated, like Heaviside, the contraction of the electrostatic fields. Lorentz (1895) also introduced what he called the \"Theorem of Corresponding States\" for terms of first order in formula_3. This theorem states that a moving observer (relative to the aether) in his \"fictitious\" field makes the same observations as a resting observer in his \"real\" field. An important part of it was local time formula_2, which paved the way to the Lorentz transformation and which he introduced independently of Voigt. With the help of this concept, Lorentz could explain the aberration of light, the Doppler effect and the Fizeau experiment as well. However, Lorentz's local time was only an auxiliary mathematical tool to simplify the transformation from one system into another – it was Poincaré in 1900 who recognized that \"local time\" is actually indicated by moving clocks. Lorentz also recognized that his theory violated the principle of action and reaction, since the aether acts on matter, but matter cannot act on the immobile aether.", "Fundamental interaction\nThe constant speed of light in a vacuum (customarily described with a lowercase letter \"c\") can be derived from Maxwell's equations, which are consistent with the theory of special relativity. Einstein's 1905 theory of special relativity, however, which flows from the observation that the speed of light is constant no matter how fast the observer is moving, showed that the theoretical result implied by Maxwell's equations has profound implications far beyond electromagnetism on the very nature of time and space.", "History of Maxwell's equations\nAlbert Einstein dismissed the notion of the aether as an unnecessary one, and he concluded that Maxwell's equations predicted the existence of a fixed speed of light, \"independent\" of the velocity of the observer. Hence, he used the Maxwell's equations as the starting point for his Special Theory of Relativity. In doing so, he established that the FitzGerald–Lorentz transformation is valid for all matter and space, and not just Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's equations played a key role in Einstein's groundbreaking scientific paper on special relativity (1905). For example, in the opening paragraph of his paper, he began his theory by noting that a description of an electric conductor moving with respect to a magnet must generate a consistent set of fields regardless of whether the force is calculated in the rest frame of the magnet or that of the conductor.", "Classical electromagnetism and special relativity\nwhere", "Theory of relativity\nRelativity is a falsifiable theory: It makes predictions that can be tested by experiment. In the case of special relativity, these include the principle of relativity, the constancy of the speed of light, and time dilation. The predictions of special relativity have been confirmed in numerous tests since Einstein published his paper in 1905, but three experiments conducted between 1881 and 1938 were critical to its validation. These are the Michelson–Morley experiment, the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment, and the Ives–Stilwell experiment. Einstein derived the Lorentz transformations from first principles in 1905, but these three experiments allow the transformations to be induced from experimental evidence.", "Tests of special relativity\nStarting with 1901, a series of measurements was conducted aimed at demonstrating the velocity dependence of the mass of electrons. The results actually showed such a dependency but the precision necessary to distinguish between competing theories was disputed for a long time. Eventually, it was possible to definitely rule out all competing models except special relativity.", "Spacetime\nOther physicists and mathematicians at the turn of the century came close to arriving at what is currently known as spacetime. Einstein himself noted, that with so many people unraveling separate pieces of the puzzle, \"the special theory of relativity, if we regard its development in retrospect, was ripe for discovery in 1905.\"\nAn important example is Henri Poincaré, who in 1898 argued that the simultaneity of two events is a matter of convention. In 1900, he recognized that Lorentz's \"local time\" is actually what is indicated by moving clocks by applying an explicitly \"operational definition\" of clock synchronization assuming constant light speed. In 1900 and 1904, he suggested the inherent undetectability of the aether by emphasizing the validity of what he called the principle of relativity, and in 1905/1906 he mathematically perfected Lorentz's theory of electrons in order to bring it into accordance with the postulate of relativity. While discussing various hypotheses on Lorentz invariant gravitation, he introduced the innovative concept of a 4-dimensional space-time by defining various four vectors, namely four-position, four-velocity, and four-force. He did not pursue the 4-dimensional formalism in subsequent papers, however, stating that this line of research seemed to \"entail great pain for limited profit\", ultimately concluding \"that three-dimensional language seems the best suited to the description of our world\". Furthermore, even as late as 1909, Poincaré continued to believe in the dynamical interpretation of the Lorentz transform. For these and other reasons, most historians of science argue that Poincaré did not invent what is now called special relativity.", "Special relativity\nNot until Einstein developed general relativity, introducing a curved spacetime to incorporate gravity, was the phrase \"special relativity\" employed. A translation that has often been used is \"restricted relativity\"; \"special\" really means \"special case\".", "Special relativity\nSpecial relativity in its Minkowski spacetime is accurate only when the absolute value of the gravitational potential is much less than \"c\" in the region of interest. In a strong gravitational field, one must use general relativity. General relativity becomes special relativity at the limit of a weak field. At very small scales, such as at the Planck length and below, quantum effects must be taken into consideration resulting in quantum gravity. However, at macroscopic scales and in the absence of strong gravitational fields, special relativity is experimentally tested to extremely high degree of accuracy (10)\nand thus accepted by the physics community. Experimental results which appear to contradict it are not reproducible and are thus widely believed to be due to experimental errors.", "Introduction to general relativity\nIn September 1905, Albert Einstein published his theory of special relativity, which reconciles Newton's laws of motion with electrodynamics (the interaction between objects with electric charge). Special relativity introduced a new framework for all of physics by proposing new concepts of space and time. Some then-accepted physical theories were inconsistent with that framework; a key example was Newton's theory of gravity, which describes the mutual attraction experienced by bodies due to their mass.", "E. T. Whittaker\nIn 1951 (Vol. 1) and 1953 (Vol. 2), he published an extended and revised edition of his book in two volumes. The second volume contains some interesting historical remarks. For example, it contains a chapter named \"The Relativity Theory of Poincaré and Lorentz\", where Whittaker credited Henri Poincaré and Lorentz for developing special relativity, and especially alluded to Lorentz's 1904 paper (dated by Whittaker as 1903), Poincaré's St. Louis speech () of September 1904, and Poincaré's June 1905 paper. He attributed to Einstein's special relativity paper only little importance, which he said \"set forth the relativity theory of Poincaré and Lorentz with some amplifications, and which attracted much attention”, and he credited Einstein only with being the first to publish the correct relativistic formulas for relativistic aberration and the Doppler effect. He also attributed the formula formula_1 to Poincaré. In 1984 Clifford Truesdell wrote that Whittaker \"aroused colossal antagonism by trying to set the record straight on the basis of print and record rather than recollection and folklore and professional propaganda...\" On the other hand, Abraham Pais wrote that \"Whittaker's treatment of special relativity shows how well the author's lack of physical insight matches his ignorance of the literature\". According to Roberto Torretti, \"Whittaker's views on the origin of special relativity have been rejected by the great majority of scholars\", and he cites Max Born (1956), Gerald Holton (1960,1964), Schribner (1964), Goldberg (1967), Zahar (1973), Hirosige (1976), Schaffner (1976), and Arthur I. Miller (1981).", "Relativity priority dispute\nAfter that, Brown develops his own dynamical interpretation of special relativity as opposed to the kinematical approach of Einstein's 1905 paper (although he says that this dynamical view is already contained in Einstein's 1905-paper, \"masqueraded in the language of kinematics\", p. 82), and the modern understanding of space-time.", "Special relativity\nEinstein discerned two fundamental propositions that seemed to be the most assured, regardless of the exact validity of the (then) known laws of either mechanics or electrodynamics. These propositions were the constancy of the speed of light and the independence of physical laws (especially the constancy of the speed of light) from the choice of inertial system. In his initial presentation of special relativity in 1905 he expressed these postulates as:", "Theory of relativity\nSpecial relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime. It was introduced in Einstein's 1905 paper \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\" (for the contributions of many other physicists see History of special relativity). Special relativity is based on two postulates which are contradictory in classical mechanics:", "Relativity priority dispute\nAlbert Einstein presented the theories of special relativity and general relativity in publications that either contained no formal references to previous literature, or referred only to a small number of his predecessors for fundamental results on which he based his theories, most notably to the work of Hendrik Lorentz for special relativity, and to the work of Carl F. Gauss, Bernhard Riemann, and Ernst Mach for general relativity. Subsequently, claims have been put forward about both theories, asserting that they were formulated, either wholly or in part, by others before Einstein. At issue is the extent to which Einstein and various other individuals should be credited for the formulation of these theories, based on priority considerations.", "Classical electromagnetism and special relativity\nMaxwell's equations, when they were first stated in their complete form in 1865, would turn out to be compatible with special relativity. Moreover, the apparent coincidences in which the same effect was observed due to different physical phenomena by two different observers would be shown to be not coincidental in the least by special relativity. In fact, half of Einstein's 1905 first paper on special relativity, \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,\" explains how to transform Maxwell's equations.", "Fizeau interferometer\nOver half a century passed before a satisfactory explanation of Fizeau's unexpected measurement was developed with the advent of Einstein's theory of special relativity.", "Tests of special relativity\nEventually, Albert Einstein (1905) drew the conclusion that established theories and facts known at that time only form a logical coherent system when the concepts of space and time are subjected to a fundamental revision. For instance:The result is special relativity theory, which is based on the constancy of the speed of light in all inertial frames of reference and the principle of relativity. Here, the Lorentz transformation is no longer a mere collection of auxiliary hypotheses but reflects a fundamental Lorentz symmetry and forms the basis of successful theories such as Quantum electrodynamics. Special relativity offers a large number of testable predictions, such as:", "Lorentz ether theory\nIn 1905, Albert Einstein published his paper on what is now called special relativity. In this paper, by examining the fundamental meanings of the space and time coordinates used in physical theories, Einstein showed that the \"effective\" coordinates given by the Lorentz transformation were in fact the inertial coordinates of relatively moving frames of reference. From this followed all of the physically observable consequences of LET, along with others, all without the need to postulate an unobservable entity (the ether). Einstein identified two fundamental principles, each founded on experience, from which all of Lorentz's electrodynamics follows:", "Inertia\nIt is also worth noting that Galileo later (in 1632) concluded that based on this initial premise of inertia, it is impossible to tell the difference between a moving object and a stationary one without some outside reference to compare it against. This observation ultimately came to be the basis for Einstein to develop the theory of Special Relativity.", "History of special relativity\nIn the 1920s, a series of Michelson–Morley type experiments were conducted, confirming relativity to even higher precision than the original experiment. Another type of interferometer experiment was the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment in 1932, by which the independence of the speed of light from the velocity of the apparatus was confirmed. Also time dilation was directly measured in the Ives–Stilwell experiment in 1938 and by measuring the decay rates of moving particles in 1940. All of those experiments have been repeated several times with increased precision. In addition, that the speed of light is unreachable for massive bodies was measured in many tests of relativistic energy and momentum. Therefore, knowledge of those relativistic effects is required in the construction of particle accelerators.", "History of special relativity\nMany other tests of special relativity have been conducted, testing possible violations of Lorentz invariance in certain variations of quantum gravity. However, no sign of anisotropy of the speed of light has been found even at the 10 level, and some experiments even ruled out Lorentz violations at the 10 level, see Modern searches for Lorentz violation.", "History of special relativity\nAfter Heinrich Hertz in 1887 demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves, Maxwell's theory was widely accepted. In addition, Oliver Heaviside and Hertz further developed the theory and introduced modernized versions of Maxwell's equations. The \"Maxwell-Hertz\" or \"Heaviside-Hertz\" equations subsequently formed an important basis for the further development of electrodynamics, and Heaviside's notation is still used today. Other important contributions to Maxwell's theory were made by George FitzGerald, Joseph John Thomson, John Henry Poynting, Hendrik Lorentz, and Joseph Larmor.", "History of special relativity\nAs was explained above, already in 1895 Lorentz succeeded in deriving Fresnel's dragging coefficient (to first order of v/c) and the Fizeau experiment by using the electromagnetic theory and the concept of local time. After first attempts by Jakob Laub (1907) to create a relativistic \"optics of moving bodies\", it was Max von Laue (1907) who derived the coefficient for terms of all orders by using the colinear case of the relativistic velocity addition law. In addition, Laue's calculation was much simpler than the complicated methods used by Lorentz.", "Special relativity\nThe theory is \"special\" in that it only applies in the special case where the spacetime is flat, i.e., the curvature of spacetime, described by the energy-momentum tensor and causing gravity, is negligible. In order to include gravity, Einstein formulated general relativity in 1915. Special relativity, contrary to some outdated descriptions, is capable of handling accelerations as well as accelerated frames of reference.", "Postulates of special relativity\nThe two-postulate basis for special relativity is the one historically used by Einstein, and it remains the starting point today. As Einstein himself later acknowledged, the derivation of the Lorentz transformation tacitly makes use of some additional assumptions, including spatial homogeneity, isotropy, and memorylessness. Also Hermann Minkowski implicitly used both postulates when he introduced the Minkowski space formulation, even though he showed that \"c\" can be seen as a space-time constant, and the identification with the speed of light is derived from optics.", "Hermann Minkowski\nBy 1907 Minkowski realized that the special theory of relativity, introduced by his former student Albert Einstein in 1905 and based on the previous work of Lorentz and Poincaré, could best be understood in a four-dimensional space, since known as the \"Minkowski spacetime\", in which time and space are not separated entities but intermingled in a four-dimensional space–time, and in which the Lorentz geometry of special relativity can be effectively represented using the invariant interval formula_1 (see History of special relativity).", "Spacetime\nIn 1905, Einstein introduced special relativity (even though without using the techniques of the spacetime formalism) in its modern understanding as a theory of space and time. While his results are mathematically equivalent to those of Lorentz and Poincaré, it was Einstein who showed that the Lorentz transformations are not the result of interactions between matter and aether, but rather concern the nature of space and time itself. He obtained all of his results by recognizing that the entire theory can be built upon two postulates: The principle of relativity and the principle of the constancy of light speed.", "Rindler coordinates\nRegarding the history, such coordinates were introduced soon after the advent of special relativity, when they were studied (fully or partially) alongside the concept of hyperbolic motion: In relation to flat Minkowski spacetime by Albert Einstein (1907, 1912), Max Born (1909), Arnold Sommerfeld (1910), Max von Laue (1911), Hendrik Lorentz (1913), Friedrich Kottler (1914), Wolfgang Pauli (1921), Karl Bollert (1922), Stjepan Mohorovičić (1922), Georges Lemaître (1924), Einstein & Nathan Rosen (1935), Christian Møller (1943, 1952), Fritz Rohrlich (1963), Harry Lass (1963), and in relation to both flat and curved spacetime of general relativity by Wolfgang Rindler (1960, 1966). For details and sources, see section on history.", "Acceleration (special relativity)\n1905: Albert Einstein derived the equations of motions on the basis of his special theory of relativity, which represent the relation between equally valid inertial frames without the action of a mechanical aether. Einstein concluded, that in a momentary inertial frame formula_127 the equations of motion retain their Newtonian form:", "Henri Poincaré\nPoincaré made clear the importance of paying attention to the invariance of laws of physics under different transformations, and was the first to present the Lorentz transformations in their modern symmetrical form. Poincaré discovered the remaining relativistic velocity transformations and recorded them in a letter to Hendrik Lorentz in 1905. Thus he obtained perfect invariance of all of Maxwell's equations, an important step in the formulation of the theory of special relativity. In 1905, Poincaré first proposed gravitational waves (\"ondes gravifiques\") emanating from a body and propagating at the speed of light as being required by the Lorentz transformations.", "History of special relativity\nThe history of special relativity consists of many theoretical results and empirical findings obtained by Albert A. Michelson, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others. It culminated in the theory of special relativity proposed by Albert Einstein and subsequent work of Max Planck, Hermann Minkowski and others.", "Light cone\nThis view of special relativity was first proposed by Albert Einstein's former professor Hermann Minkowski and is known as Minkowski space. The purpose was to create an invariant spacetime for all observers. To uphold causality, Minkowski restricted spacetime to non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry.", "History of special relativity\nOn September 26, 1905 (received June 30), Albert Einstein published his annus mirabilis paper on what is now called \"special relativity\". Einstein's paper includes a fundamental new definition of space and time (all time and space coordinates in all reference frames are on an equal footing, so there is no physical basis for distinguishing \"true\" from \"apparent\" time) and makes the aether an unnecessary concept, at least in regard to inertial motion. Einstein identified two fundamental principles, the principle of relativity and the \"principle of the constancy of light\" (\"light principle\"), which served as the axiomatic basis of his theory. To better understand Einstein's step, a summary of the situation before 1905, as it was described above, shall be given (it must be remarked that Einstein was familiar with the 1895 theory of Lorentz, and \"Science and Hypothesis\" by Poincaré, but not their papers of 1904-1905):", "Theory of relativity\nThe theory of relativity usually encompasses two interrelated theories by Albert Einstein: special relativity and general relativity. Special relativity applies to elementary particles and their interactions, describing all their physical phenomena except gravity. General relativity explains the law of gravitation and its relation to other forces of nature. It applies to the cosmological and astrophysical realm, including astronomy.", "History of general relativity\nGeneral relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915, with contributions by many others after 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses.", "Lorentz ether theory\nTaken together (along with a few other tacit assumptions such as isotropy and homogeneity of space), these two postulates lead uniquely to the mathematics of special relativity. Lorentz and Poincaré had also adopted these same principles, as necessary to achieve their final results, but didn't recognize that they were also \"sufficient\", and hence that they obviated all the other assumptions underlying Lorentz's initial derivations (many of which later turned out to be incorrect ). Therefore, special relativity very quickly gained wide acceptance among physicists, and the 19th century concept of a luminiferous ether was no longer considered useful.", "Velocity-addition formula\nThe aberration of light, of which the easiest explanation is the relativistic velocity addition formula, together with Fizeau's result, triggered the development of theories like Lorentz aether theory of electromagnetism in 1892. In 1905 Albert Einstein, with the advent of special relativity, derived the standard configuration formula ( in the ) for the addition of relativistic velocities. The issues involving aether were, gradually over the years, settled in favor of special relativity.", "Special relativity\nFollowing Einstein's original presentation of special relativity in 1905, many different sets of postulates have been proposed in various alternative derivations. However, the most common set of postulates remains those employed by Einstein in his original paper. A more mathematical statement of the Principle of Relativity made later by Einstein, which introduces the concept of simplicity not mentioned above is:\nHenri Poincaré provided the mathematical framework for relativity theory by proving that Lorentz transformations are a subset of his Poincaré group of symmetry transformations. Einstein later derived these transformations from his axioms.", "Special relativity\nThe principle of relativity, which states that physical laws have the same form in each inertial reference frame, dates back to Galileo, and was incorporated into Newtonian physics. However, in the late 19th century, the existence of electromagnetic waves led physicists to suggest that the universe was filled with a substance that they called \"aether\", which would act as the medium through which these waves, or vibrations travelled. The aether was thought to constitute an absolute reference frame against which speeds could be measured, and could be considered fixed and motionless. Aether supposedly possessed some wonderful properties: it was sufficiently elastic to support electromagnetic waves, and those waves could interact with matter, yet it offered no resistance to bodies passing through it. The results of various experiments, including the Michelson–Morley experiment, led to the theory of special relativity, by showing that there was no aether. Einstein's solution was to discard the notion of an aether and the absolute state of rest. In relativity, any reference frame moving with uniform motion will observe the same laws of physics. In particular, the speed of light in vacuum is always measured to be \"c\", even when measured by multiple systems that are moving at different (but constant) velocities.", "History of special relativity\nThere were some attempts to derive the Lorentz transformation without the postulate of the constancy of the speed of light. Vladimir Ignatowski (1910) for example used for this purpose (a) the principle of relativity, (b) homogeneity and isotropy of space, and (c) the requirement of reciprocity. Philipp Frank and Hermann Rothe (1911) argued that this derivation is incomplete and needs additional assumptions. Their own calculation was based on the assumptions that: (a) the Lorentz transformation forms a homogeneous linear group, (b) when changing frames, only the sign of the relative speed changes, (c) length contraction solely depends on the relative speed. However, according to Pauli and Miller such models were insufficient to identify the invariant speed in their transformation with the speed of light — for example, Ignatowski was forced to seek recourse in electrodynamics to include the speed of light. So Pauli and others argued that both postulates are needed to derive the Lorentz transformation. However, until today, others continued the attempts to derive special relativity without the light postulate.", "History of special relativity\nThe first derivations of relativity of simultaneity by synchronization with light signals were also simplified. Daniel Frost Comstock (1910) placed an observer in the middle between two clocks A and B. From this observer a signal is sent to both clocks, and in the frame in which A and B are at rest, they synchronously start to run. But from the perspective of a system in which A and B are moving, clock B is first set in motion, and then comes clock A – so the clocks are not synchronized. Also Einstein (1917) created a model with an observer in the middle between A and B. However, in his description two signals are sent \"from\" A and B to the observer. From the perspective of the frame in which A and B are at rest, the signals are sent at the same time and the observer \"\"is hastening towards the beam of light coming from B, whilst he is riding on ahead of the beam of light coming from A. Hence the observer will see the beam of light emitted from B earlier than he will see that emitted from A. Observers who take the railway train as their reference-body must therefore come to the conclusion that the lightning flash B took place earlier than the lightning flash A.\"\"", "Moshe Carmeli\nIn the 1990s, Carmeli developed a new cosmological theory called cosmological general relativity. He took Einstein's theory of general relativity and extended it into five dimensions, adding the radial velocity of galaxies expanding in the Hubble flow as the fifth dimension. This fifth dimension is known as \"space-velocity\". He published his initial special relativistic version of the theory in 1997 in his book \"Cosmological Special Relativity: The Large-Scale Structure of Space, Time, and Velocity\". He then developed the complete general relativistic theory called cosmological general relativity, publishing several papers on its implications over the next decade.", "Aether drag hypothesis\nHowever, the accumulation of hypotheses to rescue the stationary aether concept was considered to be very artificial. So it was Albert Einstein (1905), who recognized that it is only required to assume the principle of relativity and the constancy of the speed of light in all inertial frames of reference, in order to develop the theory of special relativity and to derive the complete Lorentz transformation. All this was done without using the stationary aether concept.", "History of special relativity\nIn 1911 Laue also discussed a situation where on a platform a beam of light is split and the two beams are made to follow a trajectory in opposite directions. On return to the point of entry the light is allowed to exit the platform in such a way that an interference pattern is obtained. Laue calculated a displacement of the interference pattern if the platform is in rotation – because the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source, so one beam has covered less distance than the other beam. An experiment of this kind was performed by Georges Sagnac in 1913, who actually measured a displacement of the interference pattern (Sagnac effect). While Sagnac himself concluded that his theory confirmed the theory of an aether at rest, Laue's earlier calculation showed that it is compatible with special relativity as well because in \"both\" theories the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source. This effect can be understood as the electromagnetic counterpart of the mechanics of rotation, for example in analogy to a Foucault pendulum. Already in 1909–11, Franz Harress (1912) performed an experiment which can be considered as a synthesis of the experiments of Fizeau and Sagnac. He tried to measure the dragging coefficient within glass. Contrary to Fizeau he used a rotating device so he found the same effect as Sagnac. While Harress himself misunderstood the meaning of the result, it was shown by Laue that the theoretical explanation of Harress' experiment is in accordance with the Sagnac effect. Eventually, the Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment (1925, a variation of the Sagnac experiment) indicated the angular velocity of the Earth itself in accordance with special relativity and a resting aether.", "Spacetime\nMinkowski had been concerned with the state of electrodynamics after Michelson's disruptive experiments at least since the summer of 1905, when Minkowski and David Hilbert led an advanced seminar attended by notable physicists of the time to study the papers of Lorentz, Poincaré et al. However, it is not at all clear when Minkowski began to formulate the geometric formulation of special relativity that was to bear his name, or to which extent he was influenced by Poincaré's four-dimensional interpretation of the Lorentz transformation. Nor is it clear if he ever fully appreciated Einstein's critical contribution to the understanding of the Lorentz transformations, thinking of Einstein's work as being an extension of Lorentz's work.\nOn November 5, 1907 (a little more than a year before his death), Minkowski introduced his geometric interpretation of spacetime in a lecture to the Göttingen Mathematical society with the title, \"The Relativity Principle\" (\"Das Relativitätsprinzip\"). On September 21, 1908, Minkowski presented his famous talk, \"Space and Time\" (\"Raum und Zeit\"), to the German Society of Scientists and Physicians. The opening words of \"Space and Time\" include Minkowski's famous statement that \"Henceforth, space for itself, and time for itself shall completely reduce to a mere shadow, and only some sort of union of the two shall preserve independence.\" \"Space and Time\" included the first public presentation of spacetime diagrams (Fig. 1‑4), and included a remarkable demonstration that the concept of the \"invariant interval\" (discussed below), along with the empirical observation that the speed of light is finite, allows derivation of the entirety of special relativity." ]

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[ "Chinese emperors family tree (early)\nEmperor Xian, the last emperor of the Han dynasty, was a descendant of the first emperor Liu Bang. Lasting for over 400 years (the first to last for more than a century), the Han Dynasty is regarded as one of the golden ages of Chinese history. The Han Dynasty was interrupted by the reign of the usurper Wang Mang, who declared the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD); on this basis, the Han Dynasty is generally divided into the Western Han (206 BC – 9 AD and 23–25 AD) and the Eastern Han (25–220 AD). The rulers of the Shu Han, one of the three successor states to the Han Dynasty during the Three Kingdoms period, were descended from the Han imperial family, and considered themselves a continuation of the Han Dynasty; they are included below.", "List of emperors of the Han dynasty\nThe Han dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader (Liu Bang), known posthumously as Emperor Gao (\"r\". 202 –195 BC) or Gaodi. The longest reigning emperor of the dynasty was Emperor Wu (\"r\". 141–87 BC), or Wudi, who reigned for 54 years. The dynasty was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang, but he was overthrown in 23 AD and the Han dynasty was reestablished by Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu (r. 25–57 AD), or Guangwu Di. The last Han emperor, Emperor Xian (\"r\". 189–220 AD), was a puppet monarch of Chancellor Cao Cao (155–220 AD), who dominated the court and was made King of Wei. In 220 AD, Cao's son Pi usurped the throne as Emperor Wen of Wei (\"r\". 220–226 AD) and ended the Han dynasty.", "Ruzi Ying\nRuzi Ying (; 5 – 25), also known as Emperor Ruzi of Han and the personal name of Liu Ying (劉嬰), was the last emperor of the Chinese Western Han Dynasty from 6 CE to 9 CE. After Emperor Ai of Han and Emperor Ping died without heirs, Wang Mang chose the youngest of the available successors in order to maintain his power in the government. The child Ying was soon deposed by Wang Mang who declared the Xin Dynasty in place of the Han. During Xin Dynasty, Ying was under effective house arrest—so much so that as an adult, he did not even know the names of common animals. Before and after the Xin Dynasty was overthrown in 23 CE, many ambitious people claimed to be restoring the Han dynasty. In 25 CE, a rebellion against the temporary Gengshi Emperor used the former Emperor Ruzi as a focus, and when the rebellion was defeated, he was killed. He is often viewed as an innocent child who was the victim of tragic circumstances. (The expression \"Emperor Ruzi\" is a misnomer, as he never assumed the throne and was only named crown prince. Nevertheless, he is commonly referred to as such.)", "End of the Han dynasty\nThe end of the Han dynasty refers to the period of Chinese history from 189 to 220 AD, which roughly coincides with the tumultuous reign of the Han dynasty's last ruler, Emperor Xian. During this period, the country was thrown into turmoil by the Yellow Turban Rebellion (184–205). Meanwhile, the Han Empire's institutions were destroyed by the warlord Dong Zhuo, and fractured into regional regimes ruled by various warlords, some of whom were nobles and officials of the Han imperial court. Eventually, one of those warlords, Cao Cao, was able to gradually reunify the empire, ostensibly under Emperor Xian's rule, but the empire was actually controlled by Cao Cao himself. Cao Cao's efforts to completely reunite the Han empire were rebuffed at the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 / 209, when his armies were defeated by the allied forces of Sun Quan and Liu Bei. The Han dynasty formally ended in 220 when Cao Cao's son and heir, Cao Pi, pressured Emperor Xian into abdicating in his favour. Cao Pi became the emperor of a new state, Cao Wei. A year later, in response to Cao Pi's usurpation of the Han throne, Liu Bei declared himself emperor of Shu Han; and in 229, Sun Quan followed suit, declaring himself emperor of Eastern Wu. The period from Emperor Xian's abdication in 220 to the partial reunification of China under the Jin dynasty in 265 was known as the Three Kingdoms era in Chinese history.", "Emperor Xian of Han\nCao Cao died on 15 March 220. His son and successor, Cao Pi, soon forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne in favour of himself, ending the Han dynasty. Cao Pi established a new state known as Cao Wei (sometimes known inaccurately as the Kingdom of Wei), and he granted Emperor Xian a noble title – Duke of Shanyang (山陽公). The former Emperor Xian died in 234 and was buried with honours befitting an emperor, using Han ceremonies, and the then emperor of Wei, Cao Rui, was one of the mourners. As Emperor Xian's crown prince was already dead, his grandson Liu Kang (劉康) inherited his dukedom, which lasted for 75 more years and two more dukes, Liu Jin (劉瑾) and Liu Qiu (劉秋), until the line was exterminated by invading Xiongnu tribes in about 309, during the Jin dynasty. This practice of an emperor conferring hereditary nobility on his predecessor, from whom he usurped the throne, was known as \"er wang san ke\" (二王三恪)." ]

[ "Cao Cao\nCao Cao (; ; ;  – 15 March 220), courtesy name Mengde, was a Chinese warlord and the penultimate Chancellor of the Eastern Han dynasty who rose to great power in the final years of the dynasty. As one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms period, he laid the foundations for what was to become the state of Cao Wei and ultimately the Jin dynasty, and was posthumously honoured as \"Emperor Wu of Wei\". He is often portrayed as a cruel and merciless tyrant in subsequent literature; however, he has also been praised as a brilliant ruler and military genius who treated his subordinates like his family.", "Marquess Wen of Han\nMarquess Wen of Han (Chinese: 韩文侯; pinyin: Hán Wénhóu) (died 377 BC), ancestral name Jì (姬), clan name Hán (韩), personal name unknown, was the ruler of the State of Han between 386 BC and until his death in 377 BC. He was the son of Marquess Lie of Han. Marquess Wen saw a rise in the state's prosperity and consequently launched several military campaigns. In 385 BC, Marquess Lie attacked the State of Zheng and took Yangcheng. In the same year, Han attacked the State of Song, reaching Pengcheng, and took the Duke Dao of Song prisoner. In 380 BC, an alliance of Han, Zhao, and Wei attacked the State of Qi, reaching Sangqiu. 2 years later in 378 BC, the alliance attacked Qi again, reaching Lingqiu. \nMarquess Wen died in 377 BC and was succeeded by his son Marquess Ai of Han.", "Liu Yao (warlord)\nLiu Yao (157–198), courtesy name Zhengli, was a provincial governor and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was a descendant of Liu Fei, the eldest son of the Han dynasty's founding emperor, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao). When he was 18, he became famous after rescuing a relative who was being held hostage by bandits. He started his career in the Han civil service after being nominated as a \"xiaolian\", and was known for his incorruptibility. In 194, although he was appointed by the Han imperial court as the governor of Yang Province, he barely managed to gain a foothold over his jurisdiction because the warlord Yuan Shu controlled a large part of the territories around the Huai River region in Yang Province. In 195, conflict broke out between Liu Yao and Yuan Shu, who sent his ally Sun Ce to attack Liu Yao. Sun Ce defeated Liu Yao and forced him to retreat south into present-day Jiangxi, where Liu Yao defeated a minor warlord Ze Rong and died of illness shortly later.", "List of ancient great powers\nDespite its military strength, the Qin Dynasty did not last long. When the first emperor died in 210 BC, his son was placed on the throne by two of the previous emperor's advisers, in an attempt to influence and control the administration of the entire country through him. The advisors squabbled among themselves, however, which resulted in both their deaths and that of the second Qin emperor. Popular revolt broke out a few years later, and the weakened empire soon fell to a Chu lieutenant, who went on to found the Han Dynasty. Despite its rapid end, the Qin Dynasty influenced future Chinese regimes, particularly the Han, and the European name for China is derived from it.", "History of the Han dynasty\nAfter Empress Dowager Lü's death in 180 BCE, it was alleged that the Lü clan plotted to overthrow the Liu dynasty, and Liu Xiang the King of Qi (Emperor Gaozu's grandson) rose against the Lüs. Before the central government and Qi forces engaged each other, the Lü clan was ousted from power and destroyed by a coup led by the officials Chen Ping and Zhou Bo at Chang'an. Although Liu Xiang had resisted the Lüs, he was passed over to become emperor because he had mobilized troops without permission from the central government and because his mother 's family possessed the same ambitious attitude as the Lüs. Consort Bo, the mother of Liu Heng, King of Dai, was considered to possess a noble character, so her son was chosen as successor to the throne; he is known posthumously as Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157 BCE).", "Han Xizai\nIn 937, Xu Zhigao had Wu's last emperor Yang Pu yield the throne to him, ending Wu and starting a new state of Southern Tang with him as its emperor. (He shortly after changed his name to Li Bian, restoring his birth family name (as he was an adopted son of the previous regent, Xu Wen).) He recalled Han Xizai from his prefectural assignment and gave Han the office of \"Mishu Lang\" (秘書郎), but put Han on the staff of his son Li Jing the Prince of Qi, who was the apparent heir to the throne. He stated to Han:", "Emperor Ping of Han\nEmperor Ping (9 BC – 3 February 6 CE) was an emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty from 1 BC to AD 5. After Emperor Ai died childless, the throne was passed to his cousin Emperor Ping—then a child of eight years old. Wang Mang was appointed regent by the Grand Empress Dowager Wang. Dissatisfied with his father's dictatorial regency, in AD 3, Wang's son Wang Yu (王宇) conspired with Emperor Ping's maternal uncles of the Wei clan against Wang, but after they were discovered, Wang had not only Wang Yu and the Weis (except Consort Wei) put to death, but also used this opportunity to accuse many actual or potential political enemies as being part of the conspiracy and to execute or exile them. From here onwards, the Han Dynasty existed only in name. Furthermore, Wang Mang also designated his daughter as the empress consort to Emperor Ping to codify his legitimacy to power. Emperor Ping was allegedly poisoned by Wang Mang after reigning less than six years, because Wang was concerned that he would avenge his uncles, and his successor, the infant Emperor Ruzi, would be chosen by none other than Wang Mang himself.", "He Jin\nHe Jin () (died 22 September 189), courtesy name Suigao, was a military general and regent of the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was an elder half-brother of Empress He, the empress consort of Emperor Ling, and a maternal uncle of Emperor Shao. In 189, he and his sister shared power as regents when the young Emperor Shao was put on the throne following Emperor Ling's death. During the time, the conflict between He Jin and the influential eunuch faction intensified. The eunuch faction lured He Jin into a trap in the imperial palace and assassinated him. While He Jin's subordinates slaughtered the eunuch faction in revenge, the warlord Dong Zhuo took advantage of the power vacuum to enter the imperial capital Luoyang and seize control of the Han central government. The subsequent breakdown of central command brought forth the beginning of massive civil wars which led to the end of the Han dynasty and the start of the Three Kingdoms period.", "Liu Chong (Prince Min of Chen)\nLiu Chong (劉寵; died 197) was the sixth and last Prince of Chen (陳王) of the Eastern Han dynasty. He was unique in the imperial household in that he maintained his own territory during the last years of the Han dynasty while the rest of the Han princes and marquises played no role. He was assassinated by the imperial pretender Yuan Shu in 197 and became posthumously known as Prince Min of Chen (陳湣王).", "Han Jian (Zhenguo warlord)\nHan Jian (韓建) (855-August 15, 912), courtesy name Zuoshi (佐時), was a warlord late in the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, who eventually became a subject of the succeeding Later Liang. He is most well known for having had Emperor Zhaozong of Tang under his control at his power base at Hua Prefecture (華州, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi) from 896 to 898 and slaughtering the imperial princes while Emperor Zhaozong was there.", "Emperor Shang of Han\nEmperor Shang of Han (; early 105 – 21 September 106) was an infant emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty and the fifth emperor of the Eastern Han.", "Empress Li (Later Han)\nLiu was able to unite the people rising against Liao rule under his authority, and his Later Han state was able to take over central China, with Kaifeng serving as its capital. However, he ruled only a year before he died in spring 848. Liu Chengxùn predeceased him, so Liu Chengyou became the new emperor. Liu Chengyou honored Empress Li as empress dowager. Per Liu Zhiyuan's directions, the authority over the imperial government largely rested in the hands of several generals and officials — Su Fengji, Yang Bin, Shi Hongzhao, and Guo Wei.", "Han dynasty\nThe period between the foundation of the Han dynasty and Wang Mang's reign is known as the Western Han () or Former Han () (206 BC–9 AD). During this period the capital was at Chang'an (modern Xi'an). From the reign of Guangwu the capital was moved eastward to Luoyang. The era from his reign until the fall of Han is known as the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD).", "Maggie Han\nMaggie Han (born 1959) is an American actress. Her career began with modeling jobs in the United States and France, and progressed to acting in film and television productions. She is best known for playing Yoshiko Kawashima in \"The Last Emperor\" and Cheryl the lawyer in the NBC sitcom \"Seinfeld\".", "Cheng, King of Han\nHan Cheng (died 206 BC), also known as Han Wang Cheng in some Chinese historical texts, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Hán (韓國) of the Eighteen Kingdoms during the Chu–Han Contention, an interregnum between the Qin Dynasty and the Han Dynasty.", "Yang You\nEmperor Gong of Sui (隋恭帝) (605 – 14 September 619), personal name Yang You (楊侑), was an emperor of the Chinese Sui Dynasty. Traditionally, he was considered the last emperor of the dynasty because he was the one who formally yielded the throne to the founding emperor to the succeeding Tang Dynasty, Emperor Gaozu of Tang (Li Yuan), although after him, his brother Yang Tong claimed the throne and continued to do so until 619. Li had rebelled against the rule of Yang You's grandfather Emperor Yang of Sui in 617 and captured the capital Chang'an later that year, seizing Yang You and declaring him emperor, although only the commanderies under Li's control recognized him as emperor; the rest of the commanderies continued to recognize Emperor Yang as emperor. In 618, after news arrived that Emperor Yang had been killed by the general Yuwen Huaji, Li had the young emperor yield the throne to him. The former emperor died the following year, probably on the new emperor's orders.", "Han Chinese\nThe reign of the first imperial dynasty was to be short-lived. Due to the First Emperor's autocratic rule and his massive labor projects, which fomented rebellion among the populace, the Qin dynasty fell into chaos soon after his death. Under the corrupt rule of his son and successor Huhai, the Qin dynasty collapsed a mere three years later. The Han dynasty (206 BC–220 CE) then emerged from the ensuing civil wars and succeeded in establishing a much longer-lasting dynasty. It continued many of the institutions created by the Qin dynasty, but adopted a more moderate rule. Under the Han dynasty, arts and culture flourished, while the Han Empire expanded militarily in all directions. Many Chinese scholars such as Ho Ping-ti believe that the concept (ethnogenesis) of Han ethnicity, though an ancient one, was formally entrenched in the Han dynasty. The Han dynasty is considered one of the golden ages of Chinese history, and to this day, the modern Han Chinese people have since taken their ethnic name from this dynasty and the Chinese script is referred to as \"Han characters\".\nThe fall of the Han dynasty was followed by an age of fragmentation and several centuries of disunity amid warfare among rival kingdoms. During this time, areas of northern China were overrun by various non-Han nomadic peoples, which came to establish kingdoms of their own, the most successful of which was Northern Wei (established by the Xianbei). Starting from this period, the native population of China proper began to be referred to as Hanren, or the \"People of Han\", to distinguish them from the nomads from the steppe. Warfare and invasion led to one of the first great migrations of Han populations in history, as they fled south to the Yangtze and beyond, shifting the Chinese demographic center and speeding up sinicization of the far south. At the same time most of the nomads in northern China came to be sinicized as they ruled over large Chinese populations and adopted elements of their culture and administration. Of note, the Xianbei rulers of Northern Wei ordered a policy of systematic sinicization, adopting Han surnames, institutions, and culture.", "Empress Cao (Han dynasty)\nCao Jie () (197 – 2 July 260), formally known as Empress Xianmu, was an empress of the Eastern Han dynasty of China. She was the second wife of Emperor Xian, the last Han emperor, and became known as the Duchess of Shanyang after her husband's abdication. She was a half-sister of Cao Pi, who ended the Han dynasty by forcing Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne in his favour and established the state of Cao Wei.", "Han dynasty\nThe Han dynasty (; ) was the second imperial dynasty of China (206 BC–220 AD), preceded by the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period (220–280 AD). Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to themselves as the \"Han Chinese\" and the Chinese script is referred to as \"Han characters\". It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods: the Western Han or Former Han (206 BC – 9 AD) and the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 AD).", "History of Asia\nThe Han Dynasty (simplified Chinese: 汉朝; traditional Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàn Cháo; 206 BCE – 220 CE) was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220–265 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. One of the Han Dynasty's greatest emperors, Emperor Wu of Han, established a peace throughout China comparable to the Pax Romana seen in the Mediterranean a hundred years later. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the \"Han people\". The Han Dynasty was established when two peasants succeeded in rising up against Shi Huang's significantly weaker successor-son. The new Han government retained the centralization and bureaucracy of the Qin, but greatly reduced the repression seen before. They expanded their territory into Korea, Vietnam, and Central Asia, creating an even larger empire than the Qin.", "Emperor Wu of Han\nEmperor Wu is considered one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history, due to his effective governance which made the Han dynasty one of the most powerful nations in the world. Michael Loewe called the reign of Emperor Wu the \"high point\" of \"Modernist\" (classically justified Legalist) policies, looking back to \"adapt ideas from the pre-Han period.\" His policies and most trusted advisers were Legalist, favouring adherents of Shang Yang. However, despite establishing an autocratic and centralised state, Emperor Wu adopted the principles of Confucianism as the state philosophy and code of ethics for his empire and started a school to teach future administrators the Confucian classics. These reforms had an enduring effect throughout the existence of imperial China and an enormous influence on neighbouring civilizations.", "Empress Han\nEmpress Han (1165 – 21 December 1200) was the Empress of Emperor Ningzong during the Song Dynasty.", "Emperor Gaozu of Han\nIn 202 BCE, Liu Bang emerged victorious following the Battle of Gaixia, unified most of China under his control, and established the Han dynasty with himself as the founding emperor. During his reign, Liu Bang reduced taxes and corvée, promoted Confucianism, and suppressed revolts by the lords of non-Liu vassal states, among many other actions. He also initiated the policy of \"heqin\" to maintain a \"de jure\" peace between the Han Empire and the Xiongnu after losing the Battle of Baideng in 200 BCE. He died in 195 BCE and was succeeded by his son, Liu Ying.", "Emperor He of Han\nEmperor He of Han (; 79 – 13 February 106) was an emperor of the Chinese Han dynasty who ruled from 88 to 105. He was the 4th emperor of the Eastern Han.", "Shu Han\nCao Cao died in 220 and was succeeded by his son, Cao Pi, who forced the last Han ruler, Emperor Xian, to abdicate the throne in his favour. Cao Pi then established the state of Cao Wei and declared himself emperor. Liu Bei contested Cao Pi's claim to the throne and proclaimed himself \"Emperor of Shu Han\" in 221. Although Liu Bei is widely seen as the founder of Shu, he never claimed to be the founder of a new dynasty; rather, he viewed Shu as a continuation of the fallen Han dynasty.", "Economy of the Han dynasty\nThe Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) of ancient China experienced contrasting periods of economic prosperity and decline. It is normally divided into three periods: Western Han (206 BC – 9 AD), the Xin dynasty (9–23 AD), and Eastern Han (25–220 AD). The Xin regime, established by the former regent Wang Mang, formed a brief interregnum between lengthy periods of Han rule. Following the fall of Wang Mang, the Han capital was moved eastward from Chang'an to Luoyang. In consequence, historians have named the succeeding eras Western Han and Eastern Han respectively.", "Empress Dou (Zhang)\nEmpress Dou (, personal name unknown; died 97 CE), formally Empress Zhangde (, literally \"the polite and virtuous empress\"), was an empress of the Chinese Han dynasty. Her husband was Emperor Zhang. She was already influential during her husband's reign, but became particularly powerful as empress dowager regent for her adoptive son Emperor He after Emperor Zhang's death. Her family members, particularly her brother Dou Xian, became extremely powerful, until they were toppled in a coup d'etat by Emperor He, in 92. Empress Dou lost her power, but remained honored until her death.", "Xi Zuochi\nEven the work's title, naming the Han and Jin dynasties without mention of the intervening Wei, is indicative of its primary thrust. The annals began with Emperor Guangwu of Han, restorer of the dynasty and founding emperor of the Eastern (or Later) Han, and continued through to the time of Emperor Min of Jin, final emperor of the Western Jin (i.e. years CE 25–317). Although his primary goal was to argue that ritual abdication was insufficient to achieve a legitimate mandate, Xi Zuochi's aims had the secondary effect of legitimating Liu Bei's Shu Han as the legitimate successor to the Han dynasty, which he displayed by employing the Shu Han calendar, going so far as to use dynastic founder Emperor Wu of Jin's taboo personal name in recording the events of Liu Shan's final regnal year. Late in life, in his final memorial to the throne, Xi Zuochi laid bare his rationale and method behind delegitimating Wei while conducting the balancing act of considering the Jin dynasty still legitimate.", "Fu Shou\nFu Shou (died 214) was an empress of the Eastern Han dynasty of China. She was the first wife of Emperor Xian, the last Han emperor.", "History of the Han dynasty\nEventually, due to his good reputation, Huo Qubing's half-brother Huo Guang was entrusted by Wu to form a triumvirate regency alongside ethnically Xiongnu Jin Midi (d. 86 BCE) and Shangguan Jie (上官桀) (d. 80 BCE) over the court of his successor, the child Liu Fuling, known posthumously as Emperor Zhao of Han (r. 87–74 BCE). Jin Midi died a year later and by 80 BCE Shangguan Jie and Imperial Counselor Sang Hongyang were executed when they were accused of supporting Emperor Zhao's older brother Liu Dan (劉旦) the King of Yan as emperor; this gave Huo unrivaled power. However, he did not abuse his power in the eyes of the Confucian establishment and gained popularity for reducing Emperor Wu's taxes.", "Battle of Kunyang\nBy the end of the Xin Dynasty, peasants all over the country rebelled against Xin Emperor Wang Mang for the years of his incompetent rule. Calls for the reestablishment of the Han Dynasty, which Wang Mang overthrew, were on the rise. Heeding these voices, the leaders of the rebellions Lulin supported Liu Xuan to be the emperor of the new Han Dynasty.", "Emperor Gaozu of Han\nEmperor Gaozu of Han (; 256 BCE – 1 June 195 BCE), born Liu Bang (劉邦), was the founder and first emperor of the Han dynasty, reigning from 202 – 195 BCE. He was one of the few dynasty founders in Chinese history who was born in a peasant family.", "History of the Han dynasty\nWhen Cao Cao moved Emperor Xian to Xuchang in 196 CE, he took the title of Excellency of Works as Dong Zhuo had before him. In 208 CE, Cao abolished the three most senior offices, the Three Excellencies, and instead recreated two offices, the Imperial Counselor and Chancellor; he occupied the latter post. Cao was enfeoffed as the Duke of Wei in 213 CE, had Emperor Xian divorce Empress Fu Shou in 214 CE, and then had him marry his daughter as Empress Cao Jie in 215 CE. Finally, Cao took the title King of Wei in 216 CE, violating the rule that only Liu family members could become kings, yet he never deposed Emperor Xian. After Cao Cao died in 220 CE, his son Cao Pi (186–226 CE) inherited the title King of Wei and gained the uneasy allegiance of Sun Quan (while Liu Bei at this point had taken over Liu Zhang's territory of Yi Province). With debates over prognostication and signs from heaven showing the Han had lost the Mandate of Heaven, Emperor Xian agreed that the Han dynasty had reached its end and abdicated to Cao Pi on December 11, 220 CE, thus creating the state of Cao Wei, soon to oppose Shu Han in 221 CE and Eastern Wu in 229 CE.", "Hun Jian\nLater, in 762, during the reign of Emperor Suzong's son Emperor Daizong, Hun Jian served under Pugu Huai'en in the final campaign that destroyed Yan's last emperor Shi Chaoyi, and fought innumerable battles during the campaign. For his accomplishments, he was given the honorific title \"Kaifu Yitong Sansi\" (開府儀同三司) and given 200 households in his fief.", "Han Zhaoyin\nHan Zhaoyin (韓昭胤) was an official of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period states Later Tang and Later Jin, serving as the chief of staff (\"Shumishi\") for Later Tang's last emperor Li Congke.", "Ngô Quyền\nNgô Quyền ( March 12, 897 – 944) was a Vietnamese king of Ngô dynasty who ruled from 939 to 944. He defeated the Southern Han kingdom at the Battle of Bạch Đằng River north of modern Haiphong and ended 1,000 years of Chinese domination dating back to 111 BC under the Han dynasty. A central district in modern Haiphong is named after him.", "Han Eum\nHan Eum () also known as Han Do () was one of the four members (No In, Han Eum, Sam and Wang Gyeop) who operated the government of Wiman Joseon. His position was a chancellor. Since Han Eum had a family name, Han, it is believed that he was an exile from China or person related to China. Just like his master Ugeo who was the last king of Wiman Joseon.　In BC 109 to 108, when Han dynasty attacked Wiman Joseon, he was surrendered instantly together with those exiles from China, No In and Wang Gyeop, while leaving the King of Wiman Joseon Ugeo. After his surrender, Han dynasty nominated him as a peerage of Jeok ja (Hangul:적자 Hanja:荻苴). He died after 19 years without a successor.", "Han dynasty\nAfter Wu's reign, Han forces continued to prevail against the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu leader Huhanye Chanyu (呼韓邪) (r. 58–31 BC) finally submitted to Han as a tributary vassal in 51 BC. His rival claimant to the throne, Zhizhi Chanyu (r. 56–36 BC), was killed by Chen Tang and Gan Yanshou (甘延壽/甘延寿) at the Battle of Zhizhi, in modern Taraz, Kazakhstan.", "Chen Han\nThe Han (1360–1364), officially the Great Han and known as Chen Han today, was a short-lived Chinese dynasty in the middle Yangtze region during the chaotic late Yuan dynasty. It was founded by the Red Turban rebel general Chen Youliang who first dominated, and later assassinated the Red Turban leader Xu Shouhui and usurped his regional regime. At its height, the Han territory encompassed the modern provinces of Hubei, Jiangxi, and Hunan, but Jiangxi mostly fell to another warlord Zhu Yuanzhang in 1361. In 1363, Chen and Zhu fought in the decisive Battle of Lake Poyang, where Chen was killed. His teenaged son Chen Li succeeded him, but no longer had the resources to resist the powerful Zhu, who easily conquered Han the next year. Chen Li who surrendered was exiled to Goryeo, and became the progenitor of the Korean Yangsan Jin clan.", "Empress Ma (Southern Han)\nEmpress Ma (馬皇后, personal name unknown) (died January 22, 935) was the only known empress of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period state Southern Han. She was the wife of Southern Han's founding emperor Liu Yan (Emperor Gaozu), and the daughter of Ma Yin (Prince Wumu), the prince of Southern Han's northern neighbor Chu.", "Han dynasty\nUnder Guangwu's rule the Han Empire was restored. Guangwu made Luoyang his capital in 25 AD, and by 27 AD his officers Deng Yu and Feng Yi had forced the Red Eyebrows to surrender and executed their leaders for treason. From 26 until 36 AD, Emperor Guangwu had to wage war against other regional warlords who claimed the title of emperor; when these warlords were defeated, China reunified under the Han.", "Emperor Ai of Tang\nEmperor Ai of Tang (27 October 89226 March 908), also known as Emperor Zhaoxuan (), born Li Zuo, later known as Li Chu (), was the last emperor of the Tang dynasty of China. He reigned—as but a puppet ruler—from 904 to 907. Emperor Ai was the son of Emperor Zhaozong.", "Science and technology of the Han dynasty\nThe Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) of ancient China, divided between the eras of Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE, when the capital was at Chang'an), Xin dynasty of Wang Mang (r. AD 9–23), and Eastern Han (25–220 CE, when the capital was at Luoyang, and after 196 CE at Xuchang), witnessed some of the most significant advancements in premodern Chinese science and technology.", "Yang Pu\nYang Pu (楊溥) (900 – January 21, 939), formally Emperor Rui of Wu (吳睿帝), known as Emperor Gaoshang Sixuan Honggu Rang (高尚思玄弘古讓皇(帝)) or, in short, Emperor Rang (讓皇, \"the emperor who yielded\"), while still living during the initial months of succeeding Southern Tang, was the last ruler of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period state Wu, and the only one that claimed the title of emperor. During his reign, the state was in effective control of the regents Xu Wen and Xu Wen's adoptive son and successor Xu Zhigao. In 938, Xu Zhigao forced Yang Pu to yield the throne to him, who then established Southern Tang.", "Liu Chang (Southern Han)\nLiu Chang (; 942–980), originally Liu Jixing (劉繼興), was the fourth, last and youngest Chinese emperor of Southern Han during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, reigning from 958 until his country was annexed by the Song dynasty in 971.", "Jian'an poetry\nThe term \"Jian'an poetry\" covers the final years at the end of the Han Dynasty and during which the Cao family was rising, or risen, to prominence were known as the \"Jian'an\" era (196-220), the final reign era of Emperor Xian of Han: the following period is known as the Three Kingdoms era, due to the three kingdoms which divided up the Han Dynasty, and war with one another for succession to the Han empire. A prominent Han dynasty general, Cao Cao effectively took control of the Han dynasty from the Liu imperial family, and following Cao Cao's death, his son Cao Pi formalized this by accepting the abdication of the last titular ruler of Han and establishing the Cao family as the ruling dynastic family of a new state, Wei (also known as Cao Wei), one of the Three Kingdoms which were successor states to the Han empire. Besides their role as leaders in war and politics, the Cao family also had an important role in the field of poetry and literature.", "Annals of the Later Han\nAnnals of the Later Han or Hou Hanji (後漢紀) is a Chinese history book of the Eastern Han dynasty. It was written by Yuan Hong (328 - 376) during the Jin dynasty (265–420). Yuan spent eight years to complete his Annals. The annals contain 30 books with some 210 thousand Chinese characters. It covers the period from the farmers' revolts of the later years of Wang Mang to the years when Cao Pi, and Liu Bei became emperors; therefore it covers roughly 200 years. The annals were written 50 years earlier than Fan Ye (historian)'s \"Book of the Later Han\", and it is one of two surviving history books of Eastern Han dynasty.", "Emperor Wu of Han\nThe personal name of Emperor Wu was Liu Che (刘彻). The use of \"Han\" (汉) in referring to emperor Wu is a reference to the Han dynasty of which he was a part. His family name is \"Liu\"; the ruling family or clan of the Han dynasty shared the family name of \"Liu\", the family name of Liu Bang, the founding father of the Han dynasty. The character \"Di\" (帝) is a title: this is the Chinese word which in imperial history of China means \"emperor\". The character \"Wu\" (武) literally means \"martial\" or \"warlike\", but is also related to the concept of a particular divinity in the historical Chinese religious pantheon existing at that time. Combined, \"Wu\" plus \"di\" makes the name \"Wudi\", the emperor's posthumous name used for historical and for religious purposes, such as offering him posthumous honours at his tomb.", "List of emperors of the Han dynasty\nAt times, especially when an infant emperor was placed on the throne, a regent, often the empress dowager or one of her male relatives, would assume the duties of the emperor until he reached his majority. Sometimes the empress dowager's faction—the consort clan—was overthrown in a coup d'état. For example, Empress Lü Zhi (d. 180 BC) was the \"de facto\" ruler of the court during the reigns of the child emperors Qianshao (\"r\". 188–184 BC) and Houshao (\"r\". 184–180 BC). Her faction was overthrown during the Lü Clan Disturbance of 180 BC and Liu Heng was named emperor (posthumously known as Emperor Wen). Before Emperor Wu died in 87 BC, he had invested Huo Guang (d. 68 BC), Jin Midi (d. 86 BC), and Shangguan Jie (上官桀)(d. 80 BC) with the power to govern as regents over his successor Emperor Zhao of Han (\"r\". 87–74 BC). Huo Guang and Shangguan Jie were both grandfathers to Empress Shangguan (d. 37 BC), wife of Emperor Zhao, while the ethnically-Xiongnu Jin Midi was a former slave who had worked in an imperial stable. After Jin died and Shangguan was executed for treason, Huo Guang was the sole ruling regent. Following his death, the Huo-family faction was overthrown by Emperor Xuan of Han (r. 74–49 BC), in revenge for Huo Guang poisoning his wife Empress Xu Pingjun (d. 71 BC) so that he could marry Huo's daughter Empress Huo Chengjun (d. 54 BC).", "Emperor Qianshao of Han\nEmperor Qianshao, considered to be a mere puppet of Grand Empress Dowager Lü, is often omitted from the official list of emperors of the Han Dynasty.", "Military history of the Three Kingdoms\nOn 11 December, 220, Cao Pi deposed the last Han emperor and proclaimed himself Emperor of Cao Wei. During his reign Cao Pi alienated his brothers Cao Zhang and Cao Zhi. Cao Pi deeply distrusted his close kin and reduced their powers out of suspicion of their loyalty. Cao Pi died in 226 and was succeeded by his son Cao Rui. Although Cao Rui was twenty years old, he was nonetheless appointed a regency council by his father prior to his death. By 236, three members of the regency council had died, leaving Sima Yi as the primary leader of Cao Wei. Shu Han continued to press the Wei borders and in 233, Zhuge Liang occupied Wudu Commandery. He was checked there by Sima Yi and died the following year. In 238 Sima Yi annexed the Gongsun state in the northwest. This was followed by a campaign into Goguryeo in 244 and 245. Cao Rui died in 239 and was succeeded by his adopted son Cao Fang, who fell under the regency of Cao Shuang and Sima Yi.", "Government of the Han dynasty\nQin Shi Huang, the first ruler of the Qin dynasty, established China's imperial system of government in 221 BC after unifying the Seven Warring States through conquest, bringing to an end the Warring States period. For a time, the rulers of the warring states claimed nominal allegiance to an overlord king of the Zhou dynasty (c. 1050 – 256 BC), yet the Zhou kings' political power and prestige was less than that of later Chinese emperors. The imperial system fell apart after the fall of Qin in 206 BC. However, following Han's victory over Chu, the King of Han reestablished the imperial system and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BC).", "Emperor Zhao of Han\nEmperor Wu's long reign left the Han Dynasty greatly expanded; however constant warfare had depleted the empire's coffers. Emperor Zhao, under the tutelage of Huo, took the initiative and lowered taxes as well as reduced government spending. As a result, citizens prospered and the Han Dynasty enjoyed an era of peace. Emperor Zhao died after reigning for 13 years, at the age of 20.", "Fu Sheng (scholar)\nFu Sheng's family remained prominent throughout the Han dynasty. His descendant Fu Shou married Emperor Xian, the last emperor of Han.", "King Xi of Han\nKing Xi of Han (Chinese: 韩釐王 or 韩僖王); pinyin: Hán Xī Wáng (died 273 BC), ancestral name Jì (姬), clan name Hán (韩), personal name Jiù (咎), was the ruler of the State of Han between 295 BC and until his death in 273 BC. He was the son of King Xiang of Han.", "Lý Huệ Tông\nLý Huệ Tông (chữ Hán 李惠宗; born Lý Sảm; 1194 – 1226) was the emperor of Vietnam from 1211 to 1224, the penultimate leader of the Lý Dynasty. During Lý Huệ Tông's rule, many members of the Trần family assumed key roles in the government, including Trần Thủ Độ. The Trần family later used its position of power to place a young Trần Cảnh (temple name Trần Thái Tông) on the throne to found the Trần Dynasty.", "Emperor He of Southern Qi\nEmperor He of Southern Qi ((南)齊和帝) (488–502), personal name Xiao Baorong (蕭寶融), courtesy name Zhizhao (智昭), was the last emperor of the Chinese dynasty Southern Qi. He was put on the throne by the generals Xiao Yingzhou (蕭穎冑) and Xiao Yan in 501 as a competing candidate for the throne to his violent and arbitrary older brother Xiao Baojuan. In 502, with Xiao Baojuan having been defeated and killed and Xiao Yingzhou dead, Xiao Yan seized the throne from Emperor He and took the throne himself, ending Southern Qi and starting Liang Dynasty. Soon, Xiao Yan had the 14-year-old former Emperor He put to death.", "The Prince of Han Dynasty\nThe Prince of Han Dynasty is a three-season Chinese television series featuring a fictionalised life story of Liu Che, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. Season 1 was first broadcast on Beijing Television in 2001 in mainland China, followed by the second and third seasons in 2003 and 2005 respectively. Except for Huang Xiaoming, who played Emperor Wu in all three seasons, the cast members in each season are almost different from its preceding one.", "Cao Biao\nIn 216, Cao Biao was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Shouchun (壽春侯) by Emperor Xian, the figurehead last emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty. During this time, he attended a banquet hosted by his half-brother Cao Pi. One of the guests was Zhu Jianping (朱建平), a notable fortune teller. Zhu Jianping told Cao Biao, \"You'll become the lord of a vassal state. When you're 57, you'll get into a military-related disaster. You'll do well to be careful.\"", "Emperor Hui of Han\nEmperor Hui of Han (210 BC – 26 September 188 BC) was the second emperor of the Han Dynasty in China. He was the second son of the first Han emperor, Han Gaozu and Empress Dowager Lü. He is generally remembered as a weak character dominated by his mother, Empress Dowager Lü, personally kind and generous, but unable to escape the impact of her viciousness. He tried to protect Ruyi, Prince Yin of Zhao, his younger half-brother, from being murdered by Empress Dowager Lü, but failed. After that, he indulged himself in drinking and sex, and died at a relatively young age. Empress Dowager Lü installed two of his sons, Liu Gong and Liu Hong (known collectively as Emperors Shao of Han), the sons of the Emperor's concubine(s) after he died without a designated heir. Emperor Hui's wife was Empress Zhang Yan, a niece of his by his sister Princess Yuan of Lu; their marriage was the result of insistence by Empress Dowager Lü and was a childless one.", "Marquess Jing of Han\nMarquess Jing of Han (Chinese: 韩景侯; pinyin: Hán Jǐnghóu) (died 400 BC), ancestral name Jì (姬), clan name Hán (韩), personal name Qían (虔), was the ruler of the State of Han between 408 BC until his death in 400 BC. Marquess Jing was the son of Wuzi of Han. It was during his rule that the State of Han became a recognized state. In the first year of his reign, he attacked the State of Zheng and took over Yongqiu in today's Qi County, Henan. The next year, his army lost to Zheng at Fushu in today's Dengfeng, Henan. In 403 BC, Marquess Jing, along with Marquess Wen of Wei and Marquess Lie of Zhao partitioned the powerful Jin state into the Han, Wei, and Zhao states marking the beginning of the Warring States Period and Han as an independent polity. King Weilie of Zhou was forced to elevate Jing's title from viscount to marquess. Marquess Jing then moved the capital of Han from Pingyang to Yangzhai. In 400 BC, the capital Yangzhai was subject to a siege by the Zheng army. Marquess Jing died later that year and was succeeded by his son Marquess Lie of Han.", "Han dynasty\nThe Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a \"de facto\" inferior and vassal partner, but continued their military raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into the Tarim Basin of Central Asia, divided the Xiongnu into two separate confederations, and helped establish the vast trade network known as the Silk Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean world. The territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful military expeditions in the south, annexing Nanyue in 111 BC and Dian in 109 BC, and in the Korean Peninsula where the Xuantu and Lelang Commanderies were established in 108 BC. After 92 AD, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empresses dowager, causing the Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 AD), the palace eunuchs suffered wholesale massacre by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide the empire. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty ceased to exist.", "End of the Han dynasty\nCao Cao died in March 220 and his son Cao Pi inherited the title of \"King of Wei\" without waiting for formal authorization from Emperor Xian. In the winter of 220, Emperor Xian sent the Imperial Seal to Cao Pi and issued an edict announcing that he was abdicating in favour of Cao Pi. Cao Pi formally declined to accept the throne thrice but obliged eventually. The Han dynasty officially ended at that point and Cao Pi established the state of Cao Wei in its place, moving the capital from Xu back to Luoyang. The dethroned Emperor Xian was granted a title of \"Duke of Shanyang\".", "Emperor Xuan of Han\nUnder Emperor Xuan, the Han dynasty prospered economically and militarily. His rule lasted 25 years and he died in 49 BC. He was succeeded by his son Emperor Yuan.", "Cheng Yu\nCheng Yu (141 – December 220), originally named Cheng Li, courtesy name Zhongde, was an official who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was an adviser to Cao Cao, the warlord who became the \"de facto\" head of the Han central government during that period. He died in December 220 – a few months after Cao Cao's son, Cao Pi, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian (the last Han emperor) and established the state of Cao Wei, an event marking the start of the Three Kingdoms period in China. Cheng Yu was described as a tall man (approximately 1.91 metres) with a beautiful long beard. He was from Dong'e County in present-day Shandong. He was best known in his time for his abnormal approach to cope with a shortage of grain: instead of sending hostages to Cao Cao's rival, Yuan Shao, in exchange for food supplies, he advised Cao Cao to feed his army with human flesh. He was also noted for his expertise in military tactics, which helped Cao Cao defeat Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu in 200 and consolidate control over northern China. It is widely agreed that his numerous contributions laid the foundation of the Cao Wei state; the reason he was not promoted to the rank of a duke was only because of his aforementioned strategy to cope with the food shortage in Yan Province. After Cheng Yu's death, Cao Pi honoured him with the posthumous title \"Marquis Su\", meaning \"solemn marquis\".", "Han (Korean surname)\nThere is a controversy on where Gija is from, which is believed to be from the Chinese Shang Dynasty, Gija as a paternal uncle (or brother) of the last emperor of the Chinese Shang Dynasty, King Zhou, however it is likely that Gija is a Dongyi, a native people in the East of China. Gija's and his descendants were also believed to have the surname Han (韓) as King Jun of Gojoseon the last King of Gojoseon and descendant of Gija claimed himself as the King of Han (한왕; 韓王) with the foundation of Mahan part of the Samhan after fleeing from Wiman. With this it shows that the surname Han may have existed since the time of Gija Joseon or Gojoseon and establishes the Han (韓) clan as the oldest surname in Korea dating back to around 5000 years ago, and to have founded and ruled Gojoseon and Mahan.", "Liu Chang (Southern Han)\nHe was the last Emperor of Southern Han, as his kingdom was defeated and taken over by the Song dynasty in 972. He reigned for a total of 14 years.", "Empress Wu (Zhaolie)\nEmpress Wu (died September or October 245), personal name unknown, formally known as Empress Mu (literally \"the Just Empress\"), was an empress of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. She was the last wife and the only empress of Liu Bei, the founding emperor of Shu Han, and a younger sister of Wu Yi. Her father, whose name is not recorded in history, was a friend of Liu Yan, and followed Liu Yan to Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing) when Liu Yan was made the governor. Because of the friendship between her father and Liu Yan, she was married to Liu Yan's son Liu Mao (劉瑁). After Liu Mao's death, she did not remarry for some time.", "Battle of Xiaoting\nOn 25 November 220, Emperor Xian, the figurehead monarch of the Eastern Han dynasty, abdicated in favour of Cao Pi and ended the Eastern Han dynasty. On 11 December, Cao Pi established the state of Wei to replace the Eastern Han dynasty and became its first emperor. On 10 May 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor at Wudan (武擔; a hill in the northwest of present-day Chengdu, Sichuan) and established a new state, historically known as Shu, to contest Cao Pi's claim to the Han throne. Around the same time, Sun Quan shifted the capital of his territories from Gong'an County to E County (鄂縣; present-day Ezhou, Hubei), which he renamed \"Wuchang\" (武昌). On 23 September 221, Sun Quan pledged allegiance to Cao Pi and became a vassal of the Wei state; in return, Cao Pi awarded Sun Quan the title \"King of Wu\" (吳王).", "Empress Li (Later Han)\nEmpress Li (李皇后, personal name unknown) (d. 954), known as Empress Dowager Zhaosheng (昭聖太后) during Later Zhou, was an empress of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period state Later Han. She was the wife of Later Han's founder Liu Zhiyuan (Emperor Gaozu) and the mother of its second emperor Liu Chengyou (Emperor Yin).", "Empress Li (Li Shi's wife)\nEmpress Li (李皇后, personal name unknown) was an empress of the Chinese/Di state Cheng Han. Her husband was Li Shi, the last emperor of Cheng Han. She was his wife when he was crown prince under his father Li Shou, and when he succeeded his father in 343, he created her empress. Nothing further is known about her, including whether she survived to or survived Cheng Han's destruction by Jin Dynasty (265-420) forces in 347. If she did, since her husband was created the Marquess of Guiyi, she would have carried the title of marchioness.", "Han Chinese\nDuring the Shang dynasty, people of the Wu area in the Yangtze River Delta, were considered a different tribe, and described as being scantily dressed, tattooed and speaking a distinct language. Later, Taibo, elder uncle of Ji Chang – on realising that his younger brother, Jili, was wiser and deserved to inherit the throne – fled to Wu and settled there. Three generations later, King Wu of the Zhou dynasty defeated King Zhou (the last Shang king), and enfeoffed the descendants of Taibo in Wu – mirroring the later history of Nanyue, where a Chinese king and his soldiers ruled a non-Han population and mixed with locals, who were sinicized over time. By the Tang dynasty, however, this area had become part of the Han Chinese heartland.\nAfter the Battle of Muye, the Shang dynasty was overthrown by Zhou (led by Ji Fa), which had emerged as a western state along the Wei River in the 2nd millennium BCE. The Zhou dynasty shared the language and culture of the Shang people, and extended their reach to encompass much of the area north of the Yangtze River. Through conquest and colonization, much of this area came under the influence of sinicization, and this culture extended south. However, the power of the Zhou kings fragmented not long afterwards, and many autonomous vassal states emerged. This dynasty is traditionally divided into two eras – the Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE) and the Eastern Zhou (770–256 BCE) – with the latter further divided into the Spring and Autumn (770–476 BCE) and the Warring States (476–221 BCE) periods. It was a period of significant cultural and philosophical diversification (known as the Hundred Schools of Thought) and Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism are among the most important surviving philosophies from this era.", "Chu–Han Contention\nThe Chu–Han Contention (206–202 BC) was an interregnum between the Qin dynasty and the Han dynasty in Chinese history. Following the collapse of the Qin dynasty in 206 BC, Xiang Yu split the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms. Two major contending powers emerged, Western Chu and Han, which engaged in a struggle for supremacy over China. Western Chu was led by Xiang Yu, while the Han leader was Liu Bang. Several minor kings also warred, but these were largely independent of the main conflict between Western Chu and Han. The war ended in 202 BC with total victory for Han, with Liu Bang soon proclaiming himself first emperor of the Han dynasty.", "Emperor Shun of Han\nEmperor Shun of Han (; 115 – 20 September 144) was an emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty and the seventh emperor of the Eastern Han. He reigned from 125 to 144 AD.", "List of emperors of the Han dynasty\nBelow is a complete list of emperors of the Han dynasty, including their personal, posthumous, and era names. Excluded from the list are \"de facto\" rulers such as regents and empress dowagers.", "Trần Thuận Tông\nTrần Thuận Tông had one wife, Queen Thánh Ngâu who was Hồ Quý Ly's daughter and one son, Crown Prince Trần An who became the Emperor Trần Thiếu Đế, the last emperor of Trần Dynasty.", "Liu Zhiyuan\nLiu Zhiyuan (劉知遠) (March 4, 895 – March 10, 948), later changed to Liu Gao (劉暠), formally Emperor Gaozu of (Later) Han ((後)漢高祖), was the ethnically-Shatuo founder of the Later Han, the fourth of the Five Dynasties in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period of Chinese history. It, if the subsequent Northern Han is not considered part of its history, was also one of the shortest-lived states in Chinese history, lasting only three years.", "History of the Han dynasty\nFrom 26–30 CE, Guangwu defeated various warlords and conquered the Central Plain and Shandong Peninsula in the east. Allying with the warlord Dou Rong (竇融) of the distant Hexi Corridor in 29 CE, Guangwu nearly defeated the Gansu warlord Wei Xiao (隗囂/隗嚣) in 32 CE, seizing Wei's domain in 33 CE. The last adversary standing was Gongsun Shu (公孫述), whose base was at Chengdu in modern Sichuan. Although Guangwu's forces successfully burned down Gongsun's fortified pontoon bridge stretching across the Yangzi River, Guangwu's commanding general Cen Peng (岑彭) was killed in 35 CE by an assassin sent by Gongsun Shu. Nevertheless, Han General Wu Han (d. 44 CE) resumed Cen's campaign along the Yangzi and Min rivers and destroyed Gongsun's forces by December 36 CE.\nSince Chang'an is located west of Luoyang, the names Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE) are accepted by historians. Luoyang's 10 m (32 ft) tall eastern, western, and northern walls still stand today, although the southern wall was destroyed when the Luo River changed its course. Within its walls it had two prominent palaces, both of which existed during Western Han, but were expanded by Guangwu and his successors. While Eastern Han Luoyang is estimated to have held roughly 500,000 inhabitants, the first known census data for the whole of China, dated 2 CE, recorded a population of nearly 58 million. Comparing this to the census of 140 CE (when the total population was registered at roughly 48 million), there was a significant migratory shift of up to 10 million people from northern to southern China during Eastern Han, largely because of natural disasters and wars with nomadic groups in the north. Population size fluctuated according to periodically updated Eastern-Han censuses, but historian Sadao Nishijima notes that this does not reflect a dramatic loss of life, but rather government inability at times to register the entire populace.\nScrapping Wang Mang's denominations of currency, Emperor Guangwu reintroduced Western Han's standard five \"shu\" coin in 40 CE. Making up for lost revenue after the salt and iron monopolies were canceled, private manufacturers were heavily taxed while the government purchased its armies' swords and shields from private businesses. In 31 CE he allowed peasants to pay a military substitution tax to avoid conscription into the armed forces for a year of training and year of service; instead he built a volunteer force which lasted throughout Eastern Han. He also allowed peasants to avoid the one-month corvée duty with a commutable tax as hired labor became more popular. Wang Mang had demoted all Han marquesses to commoner status, yet Guangwu made an effort from 27 CE onwards to find their relatives and restore abolished marquessates.", "Cao Jun (Duke of Fan)\nIn 220, Cao Jun's half-brother Cao Pi became the first emperor of the Cao Wei state after usurping the throne from Emperor Xian, the last emperor of the Han dynasty. The following year, he honoured Cao Jun with the posthumous title \"Duke An of Fan\" (樊安公). Cao Jun's son and heir, Cao Kang, became the Duke of Fan. In 222, Cao Kang's title was changed to \"Duke of Ji\" (薊公), and to \"Duke of Tunliu\" (屯留公) in 223. Cao Kang died in 237 during the reign of Cao Pi's successor, Cao Rui, and was posthumously honoured as \"Duke Ding\" (定公). He was succeeded by his son, Cao Chen (曹諶), as the Duke of Tunliu. Throughout the reigns of the subsequent Wei emperors, the number of taxable households in Cao Chen's dukedom increased until it reached 1,900.", "Records of Heroes\nRegarding the words Late Han, Siku Quanshu Zongmu Tiyao (四庫全書總目提要)\nargued that \"presumably, Wang Can died when the Han dynasty still existed.\nThough there were so many symptoms that the Han dynasty was near its death,\nEmperor Xian still was on the throne. Wang Can surely could not use the words \nof Late Han as the title of his book, therefore Late Han \nis thought to be introduced by the future generations.\nHowever as Wang Can described Cao Cao as holy ruler (聖君) in his book \n\"A Poem of Military Service\" (從軍詩), we cannot not say with full certainty that Wang Can\ndid not put Late Han in the title of his book\".", "Consort Tang (Han dynasty)\nConsort Tang ( 189–190) was a consort of Liu Bian (Emperor Shao), the 13th and penultimate emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty of ancient China.", "Emperor Yuan of Han\nEmperor Yuan of Han (75 BC – 8 July 33 BC) was an emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty. He reigned from 48 to 33 BC. Emperor Yuan was remembered for the promotion of Confucianism as the official creed of Chinese government. He appointed Confucius adherents to important government posts.", "Han (state)\nIn 226 BC, ex-Han nobility launched a failed rebellion in former capital Xinzheng, and An, the last king of Han, was put to death the same year.", "Cao Cao Mausoleum\nDuring the forum, Lin Kuicheng, a historian and member of the China Federation of Literary and Art Circles, pointed out that Cao Cao should not be referred to as \"King Wu of Wei\" before 220 CE. After Cao Cao died in March 220 CE, his vassal king title – \"King of Wei\" – was inherited by his son, Cao Pi, who continued to hold the title until around December when he forced Emperor Xian, the last emperor of the Han dynasty, to abdicate in his favour. Since Cao Cao was buried about one month after his death and his funeral was most likely presided over by Cao Pi, it would be taboo to refer to Cao Cao as \"King Wu of Wei\" because the \"King of Wei\" (Cao Pi) was still living then. Furthermore, when Emperor Xian relinquished his throne to Cao Pi, he referred to Cao Pi and Cao Cao as \"King of Wei\" and \"King Wu\" respectively in his official abdication edict; Cao Cao was never referred to as \"King Wu of Wei\" in the edict.", "Emperor Houshao of Han\nEmperor Houshao, considered to be a mere puppet of Grand Empress Dowager Lü, is often omitted from the official list of emperors of the Han Dynasty.", "Emperor Xuan of Han\nEmperor Xuan of Han (91 BC – 10 January 49 BC), born Liu Bingyi (劉病已), later renamed to Liu Xun (劉詢), was an emperor of the Chinese Han dynasty from 74 to 49 BC. His life story was a riches-to-rags-to-riches story.", "Liu Yao\nLiu Yao (died 329), courtesy name Yongming, was the final emperor of the Xiongnu state Han Zhao. He became emperor in 318 after most other members of the imperial Liu clan were massacred by Jin Zhun in a coup. However, the empire was soon divided in half, as the general Shi Le declared independence and established Later Zhao. In a decisive battle in early 329, Shi captured and executed him, and while his sons Liu Xi the Crown Prince and Liu Yin the Prince of Nanyang continued to hold out for nearly a year, the Han Zhao state fell later that year.", "Empress Wanrong\nWanrong (13 November 1906 – 20 June 1946), posthumously known as Empress Xiaokemin, was the Empress Consort of Puyi, the Last Emperor of China and final ruler of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. In 1932, when the Empire of Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo in Manchuria (northeastern China) and installed Puyi as its nominal emperor, Wanrong became the empress of Manchukuo. During the Soviet invasion of Manchuria at the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1945, Wanrong was captured by Chinese Communist guerrillas and transferred to different locations before she was settled in a prison camp in Yanji, Jilin. She died in prison in around June or August 1946 and her remains were never found. On 23 October 2006, Wanrong's younger brother, Runqi, conducted a ritual burial for her in the Western Qing tombs.", "The Emperor in Han Dynasty\nThe Emperor in Han Dynasty, also released under the title The Emperor Han Wu in some countries, is a 2005 Chinese historical television series based on the life of Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty. It uses the historical texts \"Records of the Grand Historian\" and \"Book of Han\" as its source material.", "He Qi\nAfter the end of the Eastern Han dynasty in 220, He Qi continued serving under Sun Quan, who became an autonomous ruler of his Eastern Wu regime in southern China. On the other hand, Cao Cao's son, Cao Pi, usurped the throne from the last Han emperor and established the Cao Wei state in northern China. Between 222 and 223, the Wu and Wei forces clashed at the Battle of Dongkou. The Wei forces led by Cao Xiu defeated the Wu navy led by Lü Fan which had just experienced a natural disaster and lost several ships. Just when the Wu forces were worried about Cao Xiu's impending attack, Wu reinforcements led by He Qi showed up at Dongkou. Since He Qi arrived behind schedule, his fleet was not affected by the storm which destroyed many of Lü Fan's ships. At the same time, as He Qi had a penchant for extravagance, his ships were all finely decorated and his troops were equipped with the best weapons. Cao Xiu was shocked when he saw He Qi's grandeur display of his refulgent fleet. Believing that the Wu fleet was more powerful, Cao Xiu ordered the Wei forces to retreat, thus sparing Lü Fan and his remaining forces from almost certain doom. When Sun Quan heard about this incident, he promoted He Qi to the position of General of the Rear (後將軍).", "Emperor Xian of Han\nIn late 220, some months after Cao Cao's death, Cao Cao's successor, Cao Pi, forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne to him. He then established the state of Cao Wei with himself as the new emperor – an event marking the formal end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period in China. The dethroned Emperor Xian received the noble title Duke of Shanyang (山陽公) from Cao Pi and spent the rest of his life in comfort and enjoyed preferential treatment. He died on 21 April 234, about 14 years after the fall of the Han dynasty.", "Henan\nYing Zheng, the leader of Qin, crowned himself (220 BCE) as the First Emperor. He abolished the feudal system and centralized all powers, establishing the Qin dynasty and unifying the core of the Han Chinese homeland for the first time. The empire quickly collapsed after the death (210 BCE) of Ying Zheng and was replaced by the Han dynasty in 206 BC, with its capital at Chang'an. Thus, a golden age of Chinese culture, economy, and military power began. The capital moved east to Luoyang in 25 AD, in response to a coup in Chang'an that created the short-lived Xin dynasty. Luoyang quickly regained control of China, and the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220) began, extending the golden age for another two centuries.", "Cao Zizheng\nIn 220, Cao Zizheng's half-brother Cao Pi became the first emperor of the Cao Wei state after usurping the throne from Emperor Xian, the last emperor of the Han dynasty. The following year, he honoured Cao Zizheng with the posthumous title \"Duke Dai of Mei\" (郿戴公), and ordered Cao Fan (曹範), a son of Cao Ju, to be Cao Zizheng's heir. In 222, Cao Pi enfeoffed Cao Fan as the Marquis of Pingshi (平氏侯), but changed his title to Marquis of Chengwu (成武侯) in the following year. In 229, Cao Pi's successor, Cao Rui, promoted Cao Fan from a marquis to a duke. Cao Fan died in 235 without a son to succeed him, and was posthumously honoured as \"Duke Dao\" (悼公). In 236, Cao Rui ordered Cao Chan (曹闡), Cao Fan's younger brother, to be Cao Fan's heir. Cao Chan thus became the new Duke of Mei (郿公). Throughout the reigns of the subsequent Wei emperors, the number of taxable households in Cao Chan's dukedom increased until it reached 1,800.", "Han Liu Bang\nHan Liu Bang is a Chinese television series based on the life of Liu Bang, the founding emperor of the Han dynasty. The series was first broadcast on CCTV in China in 1998.", "Marquess Ai of Han\nMarquess Ai of Han (Chinese: 韩哀侯; pinyin: Hán Āihóu) (died 374 BC), ancestral name Jì (姬), clan name Hán (韩), personal name unknown, was the ruler of the State of Han between 376 BC and until his death in 374 BC. He was the son of Marquess Wen of Han.", "Emperor Cheng of Han\nEmperor Cheng of Han (51 BC – 17 April 7 BC) was an emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty ruling from 33 until 7 BC. He succeeded his father Emperor Yuan of Han. Under Emperor Cheng, the Han dynasty continued its slide into disintegration while the emperor's maternal relatives of the Wang clan continued their slow grip on power and on governmental affairs as promoted by the previous emperor. Corruptions and greedy officials continued to plague the government and as a result rebellions broke out throughout the country. Emperor Cheng died childless after a reign of 26 years (both of his sons by concubines died in infancy, one of them starved to death) and was succeeded by his nephew Emperor Ai of Han.", "Cao Xuan (Cao Cao's son)\nCao Xuan ( 210s) was a son of Cao Cao, a warlord who rose to power in the late Eastern Han dynasty and laid the foundation for the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China. His mother was Lady Qin (秦夫人), a concubine of Cao Cao. She also bore Cao Cao another son, Cao Jun. He was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Xi District (西鄉侯) in 211 by Emperor Xian, the last emperor of the Han dynasty. He died sometime before or in 215, and had no son to succeed him.", "Liu Bin (Southern Han)\nLiu Bin (劉玢) (920 – April 15, 943), né Liu Hongdu (劉弘度), may be nicknamed Shou (壽), formally Emperor Shang of (Southern) Han ((南)漢殤帝), was the second emperor of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period state Southern Han. He reigned only briefly, from 942 to 943, from the time of the death of his father Liu Yan (Emperor Gaozu) to the time he was assassinated in a coup headed by his brother Liu Hongxi (later known as Liu Sheng, Emperor Zhongzong).", "Chen Li (emperor)\nChen Li (), was the second and the last emperor of the Dahan (大漢 Great Han) regime, during the latter Mongol Yuan Dynasty, in China.", "Emperor Xian of Han\nEmperor Xian of Han (2 April 181 – 21 April 234), personal name Liu Xie, courtesy name Bohe, was the 14th and last emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty in China. He reigned from 28 September 189 until 11 December 220." ]

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[ "Wevelgem\nDuring the First World War, the Germans constructed an airport. The airport still exists and is now used for private purposes. Also remaining is the German Military cemetery, which is also partly situated in Menen. There are 47,864 soldiers buried there, who all died during WW1. This makes the cemetery the biggest German cemetery in Belgium. Across the cemetery, there used to be a (fake) airport, with wooden planes to mislead the enemy; there are still remains of the airport consisting of a big bunker and a small bunker near the railway. The bridge that connects Lauwe to Wevelgem was destroyed during the Second World War and was rebuilt later.", "Indian famine of 1899–1900\nEstimates of the excess mortality during the famine vary widely. According to historian David Fieldhouse, over 1 million people may have died during the famine of 1899–1900. However, according to anthropologist Brian Fagan, \"No one knows exactly how many perished in the great famine, but it could have been as many as four and a half million people.\" In her study of famines in the Bombay Presidency during the period 1860–1920, South Asianist, Michelle McAlpin estimated the famine of 1899–1900 to have had the highest mortality—at 37.9 deaths per 1000—among all famines and scarcities there between 1876–77 and 1918–19. Anthropologist Daniel W. Attwood asserts that in the Deccan an estimated 166,000 people may have died, and in the entire Presidency a total of 462,000. Historian Ronald E. Seavoy, in his 1986 study on famine in peasant societies, estimates the mortality in the famine to be 3.2 million, whereas historian Aroop Maharatna, in his historical retrospective of the demography of Indian famines, estimates the mortality to be between 3 million and 4.4 million. Archaeologist Daniel T. Chamberlain, citing Maharatna, points out that in Berar Province, the overall mortality rate in 1900 was 150% higher than the baseline rate, and further, also citing Maharatna, that the famine's effect can be seen in the sharp increase in crude death rate (to approximately 9%) in 1900, a sharp drop in the crude birth rate (down to 3%) in 1901, and a \"compensating\" increase in the birth rate (to approximately 5.5%) in 1902. Public health physician Mark E. Keim considers the mortality in India in the year 1900 to be 1.25 million, and the drought in India that year to be the fifth worst by mortality in the 20th century. Environment and development scholar Arun Agrawal argues that on account of the more liberal government relief in 1898 and 1899, \"the number of people who died was far fewer\" than in the famine of 1896–97 (whose mortality he puts at nearly 5 million). However anthropologist Fagan considers the famine in 1899–1900 to be the worst on record, suggesting that although the viceroy, Lord Curzon \"led the public appeals for humanitarian aid, ... (t)he initiatives from his government ... were grossly inadequate.\"", "Syndemic\nThe worst of the 20th century influenza pandemics was the 1918 pandemic, where between 20-40 percent of the world’s population became ill between 40-100 million people died. More people died of the so-called Spanish flu (caused by the H1N1 viral strain) pandemic in the single year of 1918 than during all four-years of the Black Death. The pandemic had devastating effects as disease spread along trade and shipping routes and other corridors of human movement until it had circled the globe. InIndia, the mortality rate reached 50 per 1,000 population. Arriving during the closing phase of the World War I, the pandemic impacted mobilized national armies. Half of U.S. soldiers who died in the \"Great War,\" for example, were victims of influenza. It is estimated that almost ¾ of a million Americans died during the pandemic. In part, the death toll during the pandemic was caused by viral pneumonia characterized by extensive bleeding in the lungs resulting in suffocation. Many victims died within 48 hours of the appearance of the first symptom. It was not uncommon for people who appeared to be quite healthy in the morning to have died by sunset. Among those who survived the first several days, however, many died of secondary bacterial pneumonia. It has been argued that countless numbers of those who expired quickly from the disease were co-infected with tuberculosis, which would explain the notable plummet in TB cases after 1918.", "Effect of World War I on children in the United States\nOver 21 million people were killed or injured in World War I; in many cases, all of the men in one family were killed, numerous cities in Europe were destroyed, and family life throughout the world was greatly affected. While the United States suffered the fewest casualties, family life was still greatly affected as husbands were deployed and wives had to begin working. As the war draft suddenly removed many men from factory work, the factories began soliciting for women workers in traditionally male-dominated areas. Therefore, women had less time to spend at home with the children, as many of them would have before the war. As fathers, uncles, brothers, and grandfathers deployed in military service, women filled their places in factories and offices, changing the ways young children and teens received home nurturing. Additionally, women moving into new roles in society had lasting effects on children and family life after the war. President Woodrow Wilson stated, \"We have made partners of the women in this war; shall we admit them only to a partnership of suffering and sacrifice and toil and not to a partnership of privilege and right?\" As women began working in the factories, more of society began to realize the need for women's rights; while women had been granted suffrage (voting rights) to varying degrees in several states beginning in the late 19th century, they were now guaranteed full suffrage throughout the United States by the 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution passed in August, 1920. This also paved the way for the children of future generations by creating greater career opportunities for girls and women; as women gained a stronger voice, girls became more involved in the workforce and education and prepared for roles outside of the home. Additionally, family life was affected after the war as more and more women entered the work force, moving away from the traditional stay-at-home mother and housewife role.", "Civilian casualty ratio\nSome 7 million combatants on both sides are estimated to have died during World War I, along with an estimated 10 million non-combatants, including 6.6 million civilians. The civilian casualty ratio in this estimate would be about 59%. Boris Urlanis notes a lack of data on civilian losses in the Ottoman Empire, but estimates 8.6 million military killed and dead and 6 million civilians killed and dead in the other warring countries. The civilian casualty ratio in this estimate would be about 42%. Most of the civilian fatalities were due to famine, typhus, or Spanish flu rather than combat action. The relatively low ratio of civilian casualties in this war is due to the fact that the front lines on the main battlefront, the Western Front, were static for most of the war, so that civilians were able to avoid the combat zones.", "World War I casualties\nThe total number of military and civilian casualties in World War I were about 40 million: estimates range from 15 to 19 million deaths and about 23 million wounded military personnel, ranking it among the deadliest conflicts in human history.", "World War I casualties\nCasualty statistics for World War I vary to a great extent; estimates of total deaths range from 9 million to over 15 million. Military casualties reported in official sources list deaths due to all causes, including an estimated 7 to 8 million combat related deaths (killed or died of wounds) and another two to three million military deaths caused by accidents, disease and deaths while prisoners of war. Official government reports listing casualty statistics were published by the United States and Great Britain. These secondary sources published during the 1920s, are the source of the statistics in reference works listing casualties in World War I. This article summarizes the casualty statistics published in the official government reports of the United States and Great Britain as well as France, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Russia. More recently the research of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) has revised the military casualty statistics of the UK and its allies; they include in their listing of military war dead personnel outside of combat theaters and civilians recruited from Africa, the Middle East and China who provided logistical and service support in combat theaters. The casualties of these support personnel recruited outside of Europe were previously not included with British war dead, however the casualties of the Labour Corps recruited from the British Isles were included in the rolls of British war dead published in 1921. The methodology used by each nation to record and classify casualties was not uniform, a general caveat regarding casualty figures is that they cannot be considered comparable in all cases.", "World War I casualties\nThe total number of deaths includes from 9 to 11 million military personnel. The civilian death toll was about 8 million, including about 6 million due to war-related famine and disease. The Triple Entente (also known as the Allies) lost about 6 million military personnel while the Central Powers lost about 4 million. At least 2 million died from diseases and 6 million went missing, presumed dead. This article lists the casualties of the belligerent powers based on official published sources." ]

[ "Military history of Australia during World War I\nDuring World War I over 421,809 Australians served in the military with 331,781 serving overseas. Over 60,000 Australians lost their lives and 137,000 were wounded. As a percentage of forces committed, this equalled a casualty rate of almost 65 per cent, one of the highest casualty rates amongst the British Empire forces. The financial cost of the war to the Australian government was £188,480,000.Footnotes\nCitations", "World War I\nLobbying by Chaim Weizmann and fear that American Jews would encourage the United States to support Germany culminated in the British government's Balfour Declaration of 1917, endorsing creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. A total of more than 1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War I, including 275,000 in Austria-Hungary and 450,000 in Tsarist Russia.", "Croatia during World War I\nIn July 1918, first cases of Spanish flu, which killed more than 20 million people worldwide, were reported in Croatia. On average, 60 people were dying in Zagreb per week. In the most difficult period of the epidemic that number has grown to more than 200 people, with a peak in the second week of December, when the number increased to 264. In less than four months, Spanish flu took 700 lives in Zagreb alone, and probably tens of thousands on the whole Croatian territory. Contemporaries evaluated that nearly 90% of the Croatian population was affected in the second half of 1918. Estimate of 15,000 to 20,000 victims in Croatia should be taken as the lower limit of the number of victims of the epidemic.", "Middle Eastern theatre of World War I\nThe significance of disease on this front can be best illustrated by comparing British the number of hospitalizations from disease/injury (frostbite, trench foot, etc.) in this theater to the Western Front. In France and Flanders, 2,690,054 British Empire troops were killed, wounded, died of wounds, missing, or captured, while there were 3,528,486 hospitalizations due to \"non-battle casualties\", a rate of 1.3 NBCs for every 1 battle casualty. In Mesopotamia there were 82,207 troops killed, wounded, died of wounds, missing, or captured, and 820,418 hospitalizations for sickness or injury, while in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign 51,451 men became battle casualties (not counting Indians) and 503,377 were hospitalized as non-battle casualties. In both cases, the rate is approximately 10 NBCs for every 1 battle casualty. Additionally, while by the listed numbers the Mesopotamia and Sinai-Palestine campaigns had only had 5% the battle casualties of the Western Front (136,658 v 2,690,054), they had over 70% of the disease deaths (22,693+ v 32,098).", "List of First World War Victoria Cross recipients\nOn 1 July 1916, the first day of the Battle of the Somme, the British Army endured the bloodiest day in its history, suffering 57,470 casualties and 19,240 dead; nine Victoria Crosses were awarded for action on that day. Most of the casualties occurred in the first hour of the attack. The entire Somme offensive cost the British Army almost half a million men. The war was not just fought on land; the First World War saw major naval battles as well as the first large-scale use of military aircraft. The war at sea was mainly characterised by the efforts of the Allied Powers in blockading the Central Powers by sea. In return, the Central Powers attempted to break that blockade and establish an effective blockade of the British Isles and France with U-boats and raiders. The largest naval battle of the First World War was the Battle of Jutland which was the only full-scale clash of battleships in that war. Four Victoria Crosses were awarded for action at Jutland. The war in the air saw 19 VCs being awarded to airmen. The First World War saw significant interest in flying aces, including the German Manfred von Richthofen—also known as The Red Baron—as well as British aces such as Albert Ball, Mick Mannock and Billy Bishop, who were all Victoria Cross recipients. Hostilities ended on 11 November 1918 with the signing of the Armistice Treaty in the Compiègne Forest, but the war was not officially over until the various peace treaties were signed in 1919. By the war's end, four major imperial powers – Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire—had been militarily and politically defeated, and the latter two ceased to exist as autonomous entities. Of the 60 million European soldiers who were mobilised from 1914–1918, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured.", "World War I memorials\nOne result of this style of warfare was a level of casualties unknown in previous conflicts. Approximately 2 million Germans and 1.3 million Frenchmen died during the war; 720,000 British soldiers died, along with 61,000 Canadian, 60,000 Australian and 18,000 New Zealand servicemen. On the Eastern front, 300,000 Romanians alone died. The war had a global impact, and at least 2,000 Chinese died in the European theatre of the conflict alone. Many of the deaths occurred within a short period of time, or affected particular groups: half of France's casualties occurred during the first 17 months of the war, for example, while the French middle and upper classes suffered disproportionate losses. Many of those who survived were injured in the course of the fighting; some injuries, such as facial traumas, resulted in the victim being shunned by wider society and banned from public events. These losses also left large numbers of widows and orphans – 1.36 million in France alone – and affected most families in some way: in Australia, every second family had lost a relative. Even those left at home had suffered extensively from stress, anxiety and grief.", "Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I\nOf the 12.5 million tons of Allied shipping destroyed in World War I, over 8 million tons, two thirds of the total, had been sunk in the waters of the Atlantic war zone. Of the 178 U-boats destroyed during the war, 153 had been from the Atlantic forces, 77 from the much larger High Seas Flotillas and 76 from the much smaller Flanders force.", "World War II\nWorld War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. The vast majority of the world's countries—including all the great powers—eventually formed two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. A state of total war emerged, directly involving more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. The major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources. World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, marked by 50 to 85 million fatalities, most of whom were civilians in the Soviet Union and China. It included massacres, the genocide of the Holocaust, strategic bombing, premeditated death from starvation and disease, and the only use of nuclear weapons in war.", "German strategic bombing during World War I\nOn 28 January 13 Gothas and two Giants set off, six of the Gothas turning back because of poor visibility. Over a hundred defensive sorties were flown, resulting in one Gotha being shot down after being attacked by two Sopwith Camels from the 40 Squadron RFC, flown by Second Lieutenants Charles Banks and George Hackwill, the first victory for night fighters against a heavier-than-air bomber over Britain; both pilots were awarded the DFC. On the ground, 67 people were killed and 166 injured: the casualties included 14 dead and 14 injured in stampedes, when people queuing for admission to shelters were alarmed by maroons set off as a warning that a raid was expected; another 11 were injured by shrapnel from anti-aircraft fire. Many of the other casualties were caused by a bomb, which fell on the Odhams printing works in Long Acre, which was being used as a shelter.", "German Jewish military personnel of World War I\nAn estimated 100,000 German Jewish military personnel served in the German Army during World War I, of whom 12,000 were killed in action. The Iron Cross was awarded to 18,000 German Jews during the war.", "World War I\nWorld War I (often abbreviated as WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War or the Great War, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. Contemporaneously described as \"the war to end all wars\", it led to the mobilisation of more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, making it one of the largest wars in history. It is also one of the deadliest conflicts in history, with an estimated nine million combatants and seven million civilian deaths as a direct result of the war, while resulting genocides and the 1918 influenza pandemic caused another 50 to 100 million deaths worldwide.", "Battle of the Somme\nThe Battle of the Somme was one of the costliest battles of World War I. The original Allied estimate of casualties on the Somme, made at the Chantilly Conference on 15 November 1916, was 485,000 British and French casualties and 630,000 German. As one German officer wrote,", "List of First World War Victoria Cross recipients\nThe First World War, also known as the Great War and in the United States as World War I, was a global military conflict that embroiled most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance. More than 70 million military personnel were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. The main combatants descended into a state of total war, directing their entire scientific and industrial capabilities into the war effort. Over 15 million people were killed, making it one of the deadliest conflicts in history. The proximate cause of war was the assassination on 28 June 1914 of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. Soon after, a system of alliances were activated that would see Europe at war. The Western Front saw the largest concentration of Commonwealth troops with soldiers occupying sectors of the line from the North Sea to the Orne River.", "Chemical weapons in World War I\nPhosgene was never as notorious in public consciousness as mustard gas, but it killed far more people, about 85% of the 90,000 deaths caused by chemical weapons during World War I.", "First World War Honour Board, National Australia Bank (308 Queen Street)\nOf the 331,946 Australians who embarked for overseas service, nearly 60,000 did not survive the First World War. Memorials were commissioned by service organisations, shire or city councils and by business groups. Some commemorated those who had died, while others recorded all who had served in the armed forces during the war. This honour board was erected by the Queensland National Bank in commemoration of those employees who served during this War.", "German casualties in World War II\nStatistics for German World War II military casualties are divergent and contradictory. The wartime military casualty figures compiled by German High Command, up until January 31, 1945, are often cited by military historians when covering individual campaigns in the war. A recent study by the German historian Rüdiger Overmans found that the German High Command statistics are not reliable, he estimated German military dead at 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany's 1937 borders, in Austria and in east-central Europe. The German government still maintains that its records list 4.3 million dead and missing military personnel. Civilian deaths during the war include air raid deaths, estimates of German civilians killed only by Allied strategic bombing have ranged from around 350,000 to 500,000.\nCivilian deaths, due to the flight and expulsion of Germans and the forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union are disputed and range from 500,000 to over 2.0 million. According to the German government \"Suchdienste\" (Search Service) there were 300,000 German victims (including Jews) of Nazi racial, political and religious persecution. This statistic does not include 200,000 German people with disabilities who were murdered in the Action T4 and Action 14f13 euthanasia programs.", "Martinsburg, West Virginia\nOver one thousand (1,039) men from Berkeley County participated in World War I. Of these, forty-one were killed and twenty-one were wounded in battle. A monument to those who fell in battle was erected in Martinsburg in 1925.", "Modern history\nMuch of the fighting in World War I took place along the Western Front, within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a \"No man's land\") running from the North Sea to the border of Switzerland. On the Eastern Front, the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and—for the first time—from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages and genocide committed under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwide influenza outbreak at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become a pandemic.", "Gloucestershire Regiment in World War I\n1st Battalion spent a week in the line near High Wood at the end of August, during which time it endured the most intense shelling it experienced in the whole war. After three days the trenches were practically obliterated, forcing the men into the shell holes in front of them, and by the time the battalion was relieved on 28 August it had lost 46 killed and 141 wounded. On 8 September the battalion joined the 2nd Welch and 9th Black Watch in an attack which carried the German second line in High Wood, but a lack of reinforcements forced them to withdraw. The attack cost 1st Battalion 3 officers (amongst them the commanding officer Lieutenant-Colonel Pagan), of whom 5 were killed, and 206 other ranks, of whom 84 were killed, leaving the battalion with just 4 officers and 96 other ranks fit for duty. The next day 10th Battalion suffered 122 casualties in a failed attack through the northwest corner of the wood.", "Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig\nTotal British First World War deaths seemed especially severe as they fell among certain groups such as Pals Battalions (volunteers who enlisted together and were allowed to serve together – and were often killed together) or the alleged \"Lost Generation\" of public school and university educated junior officers. British deaths, although heavy compared to other British wars, were only around half those of France or Germany as a proportion of the population.", "Horses in World War I\nThe continued resupply of horses was a major issue of the war. One estimate puts the number of horses that served in World War I at around six million, with a large percentage of them dying due to war-related causes. In 1914, the year the war began, the British Army owned only about 25,000 horses. This shortfall required the US to help with remount efforts, even before it had formally entered the war. Between 1914 and 1918, the US sent almost one million horses overseas, and another 182,000 were taken overseas with American troops. This deployment seriously depleted the country's equine population. Only 200 returned to the US, and 60,000 were killed outright. By the middle of 1917, Britain had procured 591,000 horses and 213,000 mules, as well as almost 60,000 camels and oxen. Britain's Remount Department spent £67.5 million on purchasing, training and delivering horses and mules to the front. The British Remount Department became a major multinational business and a leading player in the international horse trade, through supplying horses to not only the British Army but also to Canada, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand, Portugal, and even a few to the US. Shipping horses between the US and Europe was both costly and dangerous; American Expeditionary Force officials calculated that almost seven times as much room was needed per ton for animals than for average wartime cargo, and over 6,500 horses and mules were drowned or killed by shell fire on Allied ships attacked by the Germans. In turn, New Zealand lost around 3 percent of the nearly 10,000 horses shipped to the front during the war.", "History of Germany during World War I\nThe concept of \"total war\" in World War I, meant that food supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and, with German commerce being stopped by the British blockade, German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meagre conditions. Food prices were first controlled. Bread rationing was introduced in 1915 and worked well; the cost of bread fell. Allen says there were no signs of starvation and states, \"the sense of domestic catastrophe one gains from most accounts of food rationing in Germany is exaggerated.\" However Howard argues that hundreds of thousands of civilians died from malnutrition—usually from a typhus or a disease their weakened bodies could not resist. (Starvation itself rarely caused death.) A 2014 study, derived from a recently discovered dataset on the heights and weights of German children between 1914-1924, found evidence that German children suffered from severe malnutrition during the blockade, with working-class children suffering the most. The study furthermore found that German children quickly recovered after the war due to a massive international food aid program.", "World War I prisoners of war in Germany\nCemeteries for deceased prisoners were gradually opened near the camps. It was a point of honour for the survivors to take care of their comrades’ final resting places. Most often, each nationality had its own reserved patch. In certain camps, such as Gardelegen, veritable monuments were erected. Roger Pelletier motivated his comrades: “Doesn’t it fall to us, who have known them, to all of us here who are their great family, to raise, in the cemetery where they rest, a monument of the French soul that, spreading above them like an aegis, will be above our dead, when we have left, as a memory and a goodbye?” Wilhelm Doegen estimates the number of dead in the camps at 118,159 but serious doubts surround this number, notably because Doegen failed to take certain diseases into account. Also according to Doegen, Russia suffered the heaviest losses (perhaps explained by the poorer nutrition of Russians, most of whom did not receive packages from their families) with a little over 70,000 dead, followed by France with 17,069 deaths, Romania with 12,512, and then Italy and the United Kingdom.", "World War I\nThe Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive of July to November 1916. The opening day of the offensive (1 July 1916) was the bloodiest day in the history of the British Army, suffering 57,470 casualties, including 19,240 dead. The entire Somme offensive cost the British Army some 420,000 casualties. The French suffered another estimated 200,000 casualties and the Germans an estimated 500,000. Gun fire wasn't the only factor taking lives; the diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions made it so that countless diseases and infections occurred, such as trench foot, shell shock, blindness/burns from mustard gas, lice, trench fever, cooties (body lice) and the ‘Spanish Flu’.", "History of Germany during World War I\nIt soon became apparent that Germany was not prepared for a war lasting more than a few months. At first, little was done to regulate the economy for a wartime footing, and the German war economy would remain badly organized throughout the war. Germany depended on imports of food and raw materials, which were stopped by the British blockade of Germany. Food prices were first limited, then rationing was introduced. In 1915 five million pigs were massacred in the so-called Schweinemord to both make food and preserve grain. The winter of 1916/17 was called \"turnip winter\" because the potato harvest was poor and people ate animal feed including vile-tasting turnips. During the war from August 1914 to mid-1919, the excess deaths over peacetime caused by malnutrition and high rates of exhaustion and disease and despair came to about 474,000 civilians.", "Economic history of World War I\nThe Commonwealth nations and India all played major roles. The Asian and African colonies provided large numbers of civilian workers, as well as some soldiers. The Indian Army during World War I contributed a large number of divisions and independent brigades to the European, Mediterranean and the Middle East theatres of war. Over one million Indian troops served overseas, of whom 62,000 died and another 67,000 were wounded.", "World War I\nAfter the war, the German government claimed that approximately 763,000 German civilians died from starvation and disease during the war because of the Allied blockade. Germany protested that the Allies had used starvation as a weapon of war. According to the British judge and legal philosopher Patrick Devlin, \"The War Orders given by the Admiralty on 26 August [1914] were clear enough. All food consigned to Germany through neutral ports was to be captured and all food consigned to Rotterdam was to be presumed consigned to Germany. ... The British were determined on the starvation policy, whether or not it was lawful.\"", "Chinese Labour Corps\nThe Corps did not take part in combat. According to the records kept by the British and French recruiters, around 2,000 men of the Chinese Labour Corps died during World War I, most from the 1918 flu pandemic and some as a direct result of enemy action or of wounds received in the course of their duties. In all, an estimated ten thousand died in the war effort, victims of shelling, landmines, poor treatment or the worldwide flu epidemic. Some Chinese scholars, who contest these figures, say the number of deaths was as high as 20,000.", "Military history of New Zealand during World War I\nThe cost of maintaining the division for two and a half years on the Western Front was appalling. Altogether some 13,250 New Zealanders died of wounds or sickness as a direct result of this campaign, including 50 as prisoners of war and more than 700 at home. Another 35,000 were wounded, and 414 prisoners of war were ultimately repatriated. The total casualties therefrom approached 50,000, well over half the number of those who served in France or Belgium.", "Demography of Scotland\nWith a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent 690,000 men to First World War, of whom 74,000 died in combat or from disease, and 150,000 were seriously wounded. Thus, although Scots were only 10 percent of the British population, they made up 15 per cent of the national armed forces and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead. While emigration began to tail off in England and Wales after the First World War, it continued apace in Scotland, with 400,000 Scots, ten per cent of the population, estimated to have left the country between 1921 and 1931. When the Great Depression hit in the 1930s there were no easily available jobs in the US and Canada and emigration fell to less than 50,000 a year, bringing to an end the period of mass migrations that had opened in the mid-18th century. This contributed to the growth of the population, which reached a peak of 5,240,800 in 1974. Thereafter it began to fall slowly, moving down to 5,062,940 in 2000. There was also a decrease in some urban populations as a result of policies of slum clearance, overspill and relocation to new towns, with the population of Glasgow falling from over a million in 1951 to 629,000 in 2001. Rural areas also saw a loss of population, particularly the Highlands and Hebrides.", "German casualties in World War II\nCivilian deaths, due to the flight and expulsion of Germans and the forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union, are sometimes included with World War II casualties. During the Cold War, the West German government estimated the death toll at 2.225 million in the wartime evacuations, forced labor in the Soviet Union as well as the post war expulsions. This figure was to remain unchallenged until the 1990s when some German historians put the actual death toll in the expulsions at 500,000 confirmed deaths listed in a 1965 German Red Cross study. The German Historical Museum puts the figure at 600,000 dead; they maintain the figure of 2 million expulsion deaths cannot be supported. However, the position of the German government, the German Federal Agency for Civic Education and the German Red Cross is that the death toll in the expulsions is between 2.0 and 2.5 million civilians. The German historian Rüdiger Overmans maintains that there are more arguments for a lower figure of 500,000 rather than the higher figures of over 2.0 million. He believes that the previous studies by the German government should be subject to critical revision and new research is needed to establish the actual number of expulsion deaths.", "World War I\nIn the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne. According to various sources, several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the Greek Genocide.", "History of the United Kingdom during the First World War\nA second publication, \"Casualties and Medical Statistics\" (1931), the final volume of the \"Official Medical History of the War\", gives British Empire Army losses by cause of death. The total losses in combat from 1914 to 1918 were 876,084, which included 418,361 killed, 167,172 died of wounds, 113,173 died of disease or injury, 161,046 missing presumed dead and 16,332 died as a prisoner of war.", "Ireland and World War I\nThe number of Irish deaths in the British Army recorded by the registrar general was 27,405, a casualty rate of 14 percent, roughly in line with the rest of the British forces. By contrast, the National War Memorial at Islandbridge, Dublin is dedicated \"to the memory of the 49,400 Irish soldiers who gave their lives in the Great War, 1914–1918\". This figure is often questioned. Recent estimates for Northern Ireland are given at up to 20,000 casualties, and between 30,000 and 35,000 for the whole of Ireland. It has been suggested that the often-cited death toll of 40–50,000 refers to all the fatalities in the Irish Divisions. In fact, only 71 percent of the casualties in these Divisions were natives of Ireland. According to the Irish National War Memorial, the figure of 49,400 is inclusive of recent Irish immigrants living in America.", "World War I casualties\nFrance", "Ottoman casualties of World War I\nIf looked at without breakdowns, the total Ottoman losses run almost as high as 25% of the population — approximately 5 million out of population of 21 million. To be more exact, the 1914 census gave 20,975,345 as the population size, of which 15,044,846 was part of the Muslim millet, 187,073 part of the Jewish millet, 186,152 not belonging to any millet, and the remaining 5,557,274 shared by other millets.", "Hay, New South Wales\nDuring the First World War 641 men enlisted for service from Hay and the surrounding district, one of the highest per capita enlistment rates in Australia.  Of the men who enlisted one-in-six died during the war, with devastating effect on the close-knit communities of the Hay district.", "List of Jewish Medal of Honor recipients\nWhen World War I broke out, the United States initially maintained a policy of isolationism, avoiding conflict while trying to negotiate peace between the warring nations. However, when a German U-boat sank the British liner \"Lusitania\" in 1915, with 128 Americans aboard, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson vowed, \"America isn't too proud to fight\" and demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied and Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. He repeatedly warned that the U.S. would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law. In 1917, three years after the first shots of the war were fired, the United States entered the war and by the end of the conflict more than 4.7 million American soldiers, sailors and Marines would fight in the war.", "Effects of war\nEstimates for the total casualties of World War II vary, but most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million soldiers and 40 million civilians. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, about half of all World War II casualties. The largest number of civilian deaths in a single city was 1.2 million citizens dead during the 872-day Siege of Leningrad. Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white American males aged 13 to 50 died in the American Civil War. Of the 60 million European soldiers who were mobilized in World War I, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured.", "County Wexford (1914–23)\nDuring World War I, a large number of men from Co. Wexford fought and died on the Continent. The local newspapers of the period are full of the obituaries of those who died. Throughout the War Ireland remained under British rule. At least 504 men from Co. Wexford, enlisted in the British Army, died fighting in the land war. German U-boats were very active off Wexford's southern coast during the War. Royal Naval Air Service airships were based at Johnstown Castle, and were primarily used to deal with the U-boat threat – but with limited success. However, later, from 25 February 1918, American seaplanes operating out of United States Naval Air Station Wexford cleared the shipping lanes of U-boats in a short period of time. One famous U-boat that operated off Wexford's coasts was , commanded by Walther Schwieger (d. 1917). On 6 May 1915 it torpedoed and sunk SS \"Centurion\" off the south Wexford coast, but Schwieger allowed the 44-man crew to escape to safety. Later that same day he also sunk SS \"Candidate\", but its crew was rescued by a friendly ship. The next day, this same U-boat infamously torpedoed and sunk , a large passenger liner, off the Old Head of Kinsale, Co. Cork, killing 1,198 of the 1,959 people on board – including many Americans, which partially influenced their entry into the War. The was torpedoed and sunk by a different U-boat 17 March 1917 off the south Wexford coast, with the loss of 55 persons. The main shipping route between Britain (primarily to the port of Liverpool) and America passed through Wexford coastal waters. Britain was incredibly dependent on this route for supplies for its War effort. A huge number of ships were sunk off Wexford's coasts during the War – 1915 and 1917 being the worst years. The area of sea around Tuskar Rock came to be referred to as \"The Graveyard\" – the graveyard of Allied ships. A number of German U-boats were also sunk in Wexford coastal waters. One of these was , sunk off the Hook Peninsula on 4 August 1917 by a mine. The only survivor was the commander, Kurt Tebbenjohanns, who escaped as he was in the conning tower at the time. The rest of the crew – 28 men – died. They had been tricked by false reports from the British that the minefield had been cleared. Another U-boat sunk off the Wexford coast was . It was sunk by a British patrol boat off Tuskar Rock in St George's Channel, 26 September 1917. Only one man, who turned out to be the commander, Alfred Arnold, was rescued. The other 27 members of the crew died. was also sunk further off the south Wexford coast, 25 April 1918 – 41 men died and 1 survived.", "History of Germany\nThe total of German war dead was 8% to 10% out of a prewar population of 69,000,000, or between 5.5 million and 7 million people. This included 4.5 million in the military, and between 1 and 2 million civilians. There was chaos as 11 million foreign workers and POWs left, while 14 million displaced refugees from the east and soldiers returned home. During the Cold War, the West German government estimated a death toll of 2.2 million civilians due to the flight and expulsion of Germans and through forced labour in the Soviet Union. This figure remained unchallenged until the 1990s, when some historians put the death toll at 500,000–600,000 confirmed deaths. In 2006 the German government reaffirmed its position that 2.0–2.5 million deaths occurred.\nAt the Potsdam Conference, Germany was divided into four military occupation zones by the Allies and did not regain independence until 1949. The provinces east of the Oder and Neisse rivers (the Oder-Neisse line) were transferred to Poland, Lithuania, and Russia (Kaliningrad oblast); the 6.7 million Germans living in Poland and the 2.5 million in Czechoslovakia were forced to move west, although most had already left when the war ended.", "France–India relations\nThe British Raj and Princely States of India suffered the greatest World War I casualties amongst dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories of the British Empire. It is estimated that between 64,449 and 73,895 Indians died in Europe during the First World War (compared to between 59,330 and 62,081 Australians and between 58,639 and 64,997 Canadians).", "Jagdstaffel 1\nAmong the 18 aces in the World War I ranks were Hans von Keudell, Kurt Wintgens, balloon buster Hans von Freden, Gustav Leffers, Walter Höhndorf, and Leopold Reimann. The squadron's casualties for the war were twelve killed in action, one killed in a flying accident, four wounded in action, and one captured.", "German casualties in World War II\nThe figure of 1,277,000 killed and missing from January 1 1945 - April 30 1945 was estimated by the U.S. Army in the 1947 report \"German Manpower\"", "Canadian women in the World Wars\nOne of the greatest consequences of the First World War was the number of lives lost, missing, and wounded throughout the entirety of the battles. The Allied and Central powers felt immense casualties and losses with 22,447,500 and 16,403,000 (MIA, KIA, WIA), respectively. Nurses faced this reality throughout the war and even on rare instances, Canadian nurses lost their lives while on duty. The most prominent cases of this was the death of four nursing sisters on May 19, 1918, during the bombing raid on No. 1 Canadian General Hospital at Étaples, France, and the death of 14 nursing sisters and over 200 other service personnel on June 27, 1918, when the HMHS Llandovery Castle was sunk by the U-86 The HMHS Llandovery Castle was one of five Canadian hospital ships that served in the First World War. In total, 234 lives were lost with only 24 survivors. The sinking of the HMHS Llandovery Castle was one of the most significant Canadian naval disasters of the First World War, in terms of the overall death toll. By the end of the war, 47 Canadian nurses lost their lives while on active duty, victims of enemy attack or disease contracted from patients Overall, Canadian nurses dealt with the realities of war and were key assets to the Canadian military and Allied forces.", "Outline of World War I\nWorld War I – major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (centred on the Triple Entente of Britain, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred on the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy). More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of great technological advances in firepower without corresponding advances in mobility. It was the sixth deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.", "Urana Soldiers' Memorial Hall\nA large proportion of these young men who went off to fight in Europe and the Middle East never came home, and of those who returned an even larger proportion were seriously injured in mind and / or body. As the Australian War Memorial website explains: 'For Australia, as for many nations, the First World War remains the most costly conflict in terms of deaths and casualties. From a population of fewer than five million, 416,809 men enlisted, of which over 60,000 were killed and 156,000 wounded, gassed, or taken prisoner.'", "Wingham Memorial Town Hall\nA large proportion of these young men who went off to fight in Europe and the Middle East never came home, and of those who returned an even larger proportion were seriously injured in mind and / or body. As the Australian War Memorial website explains: 'For Australia, as for many nations, the First World War remains the most costly conflict in terms of deaths and casualties. From a population of fewer than five million, 416,809 men enlisted, of which over 60,000 were killed and 156,000 wounded, gassed, or taken prisoner.'", "History of the United Kingdom during the First World War\nThe civilian death rate exceeded the prewar level by 292,000, which included 109,000 deaths due to food shortages and 183,577 from Spanish Flu. The 1922 War Office report detailed the deaths of 1,260 civilians and 310 military personnel due to air and sea bombardment the home islands. Losses at sea were 908 civilians and 63 fisherman killed by U-boat attacks.", "World War I casualties\nFirst World War civilian deaths are \"hazardous to estimate\" according to Michael Clodfelter who maintains that \"the generally accepted figure of noncombatant deaths is 6.5 million.\" The figures listed below include about 6 million excess civilian deaths due to war related privations, that are often omitted from other compilations of World War I casualties. The war brought about malnutrition and disease caused by the U-boat Campaign and the Blockade of Germany which disrupted trade resulting in food shortages. The civilian deaths in the Ottoman Empire include the Armenian Genocide, Assyrian Genocide, and Greek Genocide. Civilian deaths due to the Spanish flu have been excluded from these figures, whenever possible. The figures do not include deaths during the Russian Civil War and the Turkish War of Independence.", "British cavalry during the First World War\nAlthough the trench warfare on the Western Front was dominated by the artillery and infantry, the cavalry still suffered 5,674 dead and 14,630 other casualties. For comparison, one infantry regiment—the Northumberland Fusiliers—had 16,000 casualties. Unlike the huge losses in the infantry regiments, only ten cavalry regiments suffered over 200 dead. The 3rd Dragoon Guards, with 333 dead, had the most killed, while the 7th Hussars had eighty dead, one less than the 21st Lancers, which had remained in India throughout the war. The dead included one major general, eleven brigadier generals, but only twenty-eight of the 1,161 lieutenant colonels killed during the war were from the cavalry, several of those after having assumed command of an infantry battalion.", "Men of Letters\nThe book tells the story of the Post Office Rifles during the First World War. 12,000 men served with the unit during the course of the war, across three battalions, and around 1,500 of them were killed. The book describes in detail the horror and suffering of the war and Barrett writes about a man who was shot in the head by a former Post Office colleague before being suffocated by mud near Passchendaele. He also describes the humour of life in the trenches, including an incident in which some former postmen delivered mail to the Germans on the other side of no man’s land by wedging them into carrots and throwing them across.", "Queensland in World War I\nWorld War I impacted on many aspects of everyday life in Queensland, Australia. Over 58,000 Queenslanders fought in World War I and over 10,000 of them died.\nThe outbreak of war created a heightened sense of patriotism; the recruitment call for Queenslanders to volunteer for the Australian Imperial Force met its initial quota of 2500 enlisted men by September 1914.", "African military systems after 1900\nUnlike the African troops of Britain, who saw very little action on European battfields during World War I or World War II, France deployed hundreds of thousands of African fighting men to aid its cause, including some 300,000 North Africans, some 250,000 West Africans and thousands more from other regions. Over 140,000 African soldiers for example, fought on the Western Front during World War I and thousands of others fought at Gallipoli and in the Balkans. French West African troops fought and died in all the major battles of the Western Front, from Verdun (where they were instrumental in recapturing a fort) to the Armistice. Some writers (Lunn 1999) argue that towards the end of World War I, the black soldiers were increasingly been used as shock troops, and were absorbing three times as many casualties as white French troops. The French did offer such incentives as citizenship for those who fought, and French leader Clemeanceau pushed for continued recruitment of West Africans to fight for France, maintaining that it was better blacks were killed than long-suffering white Frenchmen. One in five West African combat soldiers who fought in World War I died in the war, compared to less than 17% for the French. Colonial troops such as Indian regiments in British employ suffered less.", "Francophobia\nThe prime ministers of France between the World Wars were generally frightened about German intentions, as France sustained more casualties in the First World War than any other Western country, approximately 1.4 million military and 1.6 million total casualties. Accordingly, French policies towards Germany in general, more specifically the Nazis, were more aggressive than that of other Western nations. Relations were very poor at the time, and French leaders were also acutely aware that the population of Germany (64 million) exceeded that of France by a considerable margin (40 million), a major strategic vulnerability.", "Shot at Dawn Memorial\nOf the 200,000 or so men court-martialed during the First World War, 20,000 were found guilty of offences carrying the death penalty. Of those, 3000 actually received it, and of those sentences, 346 were carried out. The others were given lesser sentences, or had death sentences commuted to a lesser punishment, e.g. hard labour, field punishment or a suspended sentence (91 of the men executed were under a suspended sentence: 41 of those executed were previously subject to commuted death sentences, and one had a death sentence commuted twice before). Of the 346 men executed, 309 were pardoned, while the remaining 37 were those executed for murder, who would have been executed under civilian law.", "Outline of World War II\nWorld War II, or the Second World War – global military conflict from 1939 to 1945, which was fought between the Allied powers of the United States, United Kingdom, and Soviet Union against the Axis powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan, with their respective allies. Over 60 million people, the majority of them civilians, were killed, making it the deadliest conflict in human history.Causes of World War II", "Médaille militaire\nDuring World War One, 230 000 \"médailles\" were awarded, when 1 400 000 French Army soldiers were killed and 3 000 000 wounded. For comparison, the UK Military Medal was awarded on 115 000 occasions in World War One, when 673 375 British Army soldiers were killed and 1 643 469 wounded.", "Serbian Campaign of World War I\nThe Serb sources claim that the Kingdom of Serbia lost 1,100,000 inhabitants during the war. Of 4.5 million people, there were 275,000 military deaths and 450,000 among the ordinary citizenry. The civilian deaths were attributable mainly to food shortages and the effects of epidemics such as Spanish flu. In the addition to the military deaths, there were 133,148 wounded. According to the Yugoslav government in 1924, Serbia lost 365,164 soldiers, or 26% of all mobilized personnel, while France suffered 16.8%, Germany 15.4%, Russia 11.5%, and Italy 10.3%.", "Serbian Campaign of World War I\nThe Serbian Army declined severely towards the end of the war, falling from about 420,000 at its peak to about 100,000 at the moment of liberation. The estimates of casualties are various: the Serb sources claim that The Kingdom of Serbia lost more than 1,200,000 inhabitants during the war (both army and civilian losses), which represented over 29% of its overall population and 60% of its male population, while western historians put the number either at 45,000 military deaths and 650,000 civilian deaths or 127,355 military deaths and 82,000 civilian deaths. According to estimates prepared by the Yugoslav government in 1924, Serbia lost 265,164 soldiers, or 25% of all mobilized people. By comparison, France lost 16.8%, Germany 15.4%, Russia 11.5%, and Italy 10.3%.", "World War I\nWorld War I further compounded the gender imbalance, adding to the phenomenon of surplus women. The deaths of nearly one million men during the war in Britain increased the gender gap by almost a million: from 670,000 to 1,700,000. The number of unmarried women seeking economic means grew dramatically. In addition, demobilisation and economic decline following the war caused high unemployment. The war increased female employment; however, the return of demobilised men displaced many from the workforce, as did the closure of many of the wartime factories.", "World War I casualties\nAbout two-thirds of military deaths in World War I were in battle, unlike the conflicts that took place in the 19th century when the majority of deaths were due to disease. Nevertheless, disease, including the 1918 flu pandemic and deaths while held as prisoners of war, still caused about one third of total military deaths for all belligerents.", "Scotland in the modern era\nScotland played a major role in the British effort in the First World War. It especially provided manpower, ships, machinery, food (particularly fish) and money. With a population of 4.8 million in 1911, Scotland sent 690,000 men to the war, of whom 74,000 died in combat or from disease, and 150,000 were seriously wounded. Thus, although Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population, they made up 15 per cent of the national armed forces and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead. Concern for their families' standard of living made men hesitate to enlist; voluntary enlistment rates went up after the government guaranteed a weekly stipend for life to the survivors of men who were killed or disabled. Clydeside shipyards and the engineering shops of west-central Scotland became the most significant centre of shipbuilding and arms production in the Empire. In the Lowlands, particularly Glasgow, poor working and living conditions led to industrial and political unrest. After the end of the war in June 1919 the German fleet interned in Scapa Flow was scuttled by its crews, to avoid its ships being taken over by the victorious allies.", "List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War I\nWorld War I (also known as the First World War and the Great War) was a global military conflict that embroiled most of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Entente and the Central Powers. The immediate cause of the war was the June 28, 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb citizen of Austria–Hungary and member of the Black Hand. The retaliation by Austria–Hungary against Serbia activated a series of alliances that set off a chain reaction of war declarations. Within a month, much of Europe was in a state of open warfare, resulting in the mobilization of more than 65 million European soldiers, and more than 40 million casualties—including approximately 20 million deaths by the end of the war.", "History of Germany during World War I\nOut of a population of 65 million, Germany suffered 1.7 million military deaths and 430,000 civilian deaths due to wartime causes (especially the food blockade), plus about 17,000 killed in Africa and the other overseas colonies.", "Demographics of Croatia\nIn addition to demographic losses through significant migrations, the population of Croatia suffered significant losses due to wars and epidemics. In the 20th century alone, there were several such events. The first was World War I, when the loss of the population of Croatia amounted to an estimated 190,000 persons, or about 5.5% of the total population recorded by the 1910 census. The 1918 flu pandemic started to take its toll in Croatia in July 1918, with peaks of the disease occurring in October and November. Available data is scarce, but it is estimated that the pandemic caused at least 15,000–20,000 deaths. During World War II, nearly 195,000 people died in the territory of present-day Croatia. The surrender of the armed forces of the Independent State of Croatia and of the civilians accompanying the troops of the British Army at the end of World War II was followed by repatriation and subsequent events that became known as the Bleiburg tragedy. A substantial number of people were executed, but the exact number is disputed. The claims range from 12,000–15,000 to as many as 80,000 killed in May 1945. Finally, approximately 20,000 were killed or went missing during the 1991–1995 Croatian War of Independence. The figure pertains only to those persons who would have been recorded by the 1991 census as living in Croatia.", "Avalanche\nDuring World War I, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the mountain campaign in the Alps at the Austrian-Italian front, many of which were caused by artillery fire. Some 10,000 men, from both sides, lost their lives in avalanches in December 1916.", "Australian Army during World War I\nA total of 416,809 men enlisted in the Army during the war and 331,781 men were sent overseas to serve as part of the AIF. A further 3,011 men served in the AN&MEF. The AIF sustained approximately 210,000 casualties, of which 61,519 were killed or died of wounds. This represented a total casualty rate of 64.8 percent, which was among the highest of any belligerent for the war. About another 4,000 men were captured. The majority of casualties occurred among the infantry (which sustained a casualty rate of 79 percent); however, the artillery (58 percent) and light horse (32 percent) also incurred significant losses.", "Weaste Cemetery\nThe cemetery contains the graves of 373 Commonwealth service personnel who died during the First and Second World Wars, plus numerous memorials to servicemen buried abroad. Some of the 274 First World War dead lie in war grave plots in both the Church of England and Roman Catholic sections, each plot having a Screen Memorial listing the dead buried within them, while the 99 Second World War dead are scattered amidst the cemetery and there is also a special memorial listing 7 personnel buried in graves that could not be marked.", "Hamburg Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery\nIn total 708 killed or deceased persons from World War I were buried here or mentioned on commemorative tables. In particular, the prisoners of war who died in Parchim and whose graves could not be identified are mentioned here. Twenty-five unidentified marines, whose submarine sunk in 1916 in the neighborhood of Helgoland, are also honored here. The German War Graves Commission (Volksbund Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge) counts 676 buried Commonwealth soldiers of World War I.", "Serbian Campaign of World War I\nBefore the war, the Kingdom of Serbia had 4,500,000 inhabitants. According to the New York Times, 150,000 people are estimated to have died in 1915 alone during the worst typhus epidemic in world history. With the aid of the American Red Cross and 44 foreign governments, the outbreak was brought under control by the end of the year. The number of civilian deaths is estimated by some sources at 650,000, primarily due to the typhus outbreak and famine, but also direct clashes with the occupiers. Serbia's casualties accounted for 8% of the total Allied military deaths. 58% of the regular Serbian Army (420,000 strong) perished during the conflict. According to the Serb sources, the total number of casualties is placed around 1,000,000: 25% of Serbia's prewar size, and an absolute majority (57%) of its overall male population. \"L.A. Times\" and \"N.Y. Times\" also cited early Serbian sources which claimed over 1,000,000 victims in their respective articles. Modern western and non-Serb historians put the casualties number either at 45,000 military deaths and 650,000 civilian deaths or 127,355 military deaths and 82,000 civilian deaths.", "Middle Eastern theatre of World War I\nAllied military losses are placed between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 including killed, wounded, captured or missing. This includes 303,000 British Empire and French casualties in Gallipoli, 601,000 British Empire casualties in Sinai-Palestine, at least 140,000 Russian casualties in the Caucasus, and 256,000 British Empire casualties in Mesopotamia, as well as additional Russo-British losses in Persia. Most of the British casualties were non-battle casualties; total British battle casualties inflicted by the Ottomans were estimated as 264,000 by Field Marshal Lord Carver. In addition to these were over 11,000 casualties sustained by Italians fighting Ottoman-backed Senussi tribesmen in the first half of 1915 alone, with unknown losses for the Senussi themselves.", "Home front during World War I\nAbout 10 million combatants and seven million civilians died during the entire war, including many weakened by years of malnutrition; they fell in the worldwide Spanish Flu pandemic, which struck late in 1918, just as the war was ending.", "German Jewish military personnel of World War I\nSome Jews did fear marginalisation as the German public enthusiastically geared up for the Great War, but once the war began such attitudes dissipated and the general reaction of Germany's Jewry was to greet the war with enthusiasm. With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the situation drastically changed for German Jews in the military. At the start of the war, 12,000 German Jews volunteered for the German Army. Of the 100,000 Jews who served with the German military, 70,000 fought at the front line, 12,000 were killed in action, and 3,000 were promoted to officer ranks, but they could only become officers of the reserve, not the regular army. The Iron Cross was awarded to 18,000 German Jews during the war, of which 1,000 received the first class award. Jewish-born Wilhelm Frankl became the first member of the flying corps to be awarded the Pour le Mérite. The anti-semitic \"Judenzählung\" of 1916 disgusted many German Jewish soldiers, being aimed at falsely proving that Jews were trying to avoid military service. For many German Jews, the war held the hope of being treated equal to non-Jewish Germans for the first time. Many Jews also held strong patriotic feelings for Germany and the belief that the war in the East against the Russian Empire would bring the liberation of their fellow Eastern European Jews from pogroms and persecution.", "Indian Army during World War I\nThe Indian Army during World War I contributed a large number of divisions and independent brigades to the European, Mediterranean and the Middle East theatres of war in World War I. Over one million Indian troops served overseas, of whom 62,000 died and another 67,000 were wounded. In total at least 74,187 Indian soldiers died during the war.", "France\nFrance was a member of the Triple Entente when World War I broke out. A small part of Northern France was occupied, but France and its allies emerged victorious against the Central Powers at a tremendous human and material cost. World War I left 1.4 million French soldiers dead, 4% of its population. Between 27 and 30% of soldiers conscripted from 1912–1915 were killed. The interbellum years were marked by intense international tensions and a variety of social reforms introduced by the Popular Front government (annual leave, eight-hour workdays, women in government).", "The March (1945)\nThe total number of US POWs in Germany was in the region of 93,000-94,000 and official sources claim that 1,121 died. The British Commonwealth total was close to 180,000 and while no accurate records exist, if a similar casualty rate is assumed, the number who died would be around 2,200. Therefore, according to a report by the US Department of Veterans' Affairs, almost 3,500 US and Commonwealth POWs died as a result of the marches. It is possible that some of these deaths occurred before the death marches, but the marches would have claimed the vast majority.", "Walsall\nOver 2000 men from Walsall were killed in fighting during the First World War. They are commemorated by the town's cenotaph: which is located on the site of a bomb which was dropped by Zeppelin 'L 21' – killing the town's mayoress, and two others. Damage from the Zeppelin can still be seen on what is now a club on the corner of the main road, just opposite a furniture shop. A plaque commemorates the incident. The town also has a memorial to two local VC recipients, John Henry Carless and Frederick Gibbs.", "Paris in World War I\nFearing a long siege, General Gallieni did what he could to reduce the number of Parisians who needed to be fed; a dozen free trains were organized on 5 September to take Parisians to the French provinces. An emergency census ordered by Gallieni on September 8 showed that the population of Paris had dropped to 1,800,000, or only 63 percent of the population counted in 1911. By October, public transportation was again running in the city. The military government declared a moratorium on rents for those Parisians who had been summoned into the army and protected them from legal action until the end of the war. As of December 20, pedestrians could walk freely in Paris once again, but vehicles were only allowed to enter and leave Paris by fourteen of the fifty-five city gates that were open from five in the morning until ten at night. The government returned to Paris on December 11, and President Poincaré was again able to meet with his Council of Ministers in the Élysée Palace. The front lines moved further north, and by 4 January 1915, Paris was no longer considered to be threatened. Nonetheless, the city was bombed by a German Zeppelin airship on March 21, 1915, and by German planes on May 11 and May 22.", "Kārlis Padegs\nHe once wrote in the newspaper that \"just this outsider who dreams about \"Narcissus\" and the perverse madonna does not forget the invalid. He shows him side by side with the fashionable Dorian Gray, the lover Don Juan, but why?- Because of sharp contrast, to make even the most dim-minded people understand that the world in World War I has already lost 12,996,117 people killed and 5,669,000 disabled people who have not died yet, and we do not want new victims.\"", "Tulsk\nWorld War 1\nTulsk was no different from most other British and Irish villages and towns during World War One, in that it contributed to the Allied effort of resisting the Central Powers' threat to European stability. John McGrath, from Tulsk, as published in Ireland's Memorial Records, is registered as a Private in the North Staffordshire Regiment - 12th Battalion - and was killed in action in France on July 28, 1918. His grave, amongst 370, can be viewed at Borre British Cemetery in northern France (grave number 11.F.6). Another WW1 soldier is Mark Phibbs of Corbally, Tulsk. He served in the Leinster Regiment, died of post traumatic stress disorder injuries sustained during battle while in France, and is buried in Glasnevin Cemetery, Dublin. Both McGrath and Phibbs are some of between 30,000 and 35,000 Irish who perished in the Great War. Two other men, Henry Armitage and William Garry, were RIC officers in Tulsk during that same war, and went to the front after an outdoor send-off in the village (from contemperaneous newspaper reports). Their fate is unknown, like that of half of the men who died in World War I (over 9 million), scattered as they are beneath the green fields of mainland Europe. The Cenotaph memorial, erected mostly in England and France - out of the ashes of the first global catastrophe of the 20th century - goes some way to remembering these dead. (re. Jay Winter, Lecture 18 - Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning - from Yale Open Courses, European Civilisation, available online).", "Effect of World War I on children in the United States\nOver the course of the war, the United States mobilized hundreds of thousands of men and endured an estimated 117,465 casualties. Of the men who survived and returned home, post-traumatic stress disorder created a major impact on society. During this time, and still today, post-traumatic stress (then more likely to be known as \"shell shock\") was not fully understood, but because of the traumatic nature of battle, many men were negatively affected after the war. Some men were forced to leave battle, which many people considered cowardice, and there were asylums throughout Europe housing men suffering from this condition. In some extreme cases, men were even shot for showing weakness. There are still people living today who lost family members because of this practice, which created lasting impacts on these children. Additionally, many of these men were teenagers when they left for war, and virtually all were under the age of 30; therefore many of these soldiers were barely out of childhood themselves.", "World War II casualties\nIncluded with total war dead are victims of Japanese war crimes.The total war dead in the USSR includes about 1 million victims of Stalin's regime. The number of deaths in the Gulag labor camps increased as a result of wartime overcrowding and food shortages. The Stalin regime deported the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be potentially disloyal. Since 1990 Russian scholars have been given access to the Soviet-era archives and have published data on the numbers of people executed and those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons. The Russian scholar Viktor Zemskov puts the death toll from 1941–1945 at about 1 million based on data from the Soviet archives. The Soviet-era archive figures on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vigorous academic debate outside Russia since their publication in 1991. J. Arch Getty and Stephen G. Wheatcroft maintain that Soviet-era figures more accurately detail the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin era. Robert Conquest and Steven Rosefielde have disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet archives, maintaining that the demographic data and testimonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate a higher death toll. Rosefielde posits that the release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation generated by the modern KGB. Rosefielde maintains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete; for example, he pointed out that the figures do not include the 22,000 victims of the Katyn massacre. Rosefielde's demographic analysis puts the number of excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in 1939–40 and 5,458,000 from 1941–1945. Michael Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the Soviet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin's victims, they maintain that the demographic data depicts an underdeveloped Soviet economy and the losses in World War Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag labor camps.", "Aftermath of World War I\nThrough the period from the armistice on 11 November 1918 until the signing of the peace treaty with Germany on 28 June 1919, the Allies maintained the naval blockade of Germany that had begun during the war. As Germany was dependent on imports, it is estimated that 523,000 civilians had lost their lives. N. P. Howard, of the University of Sheffield, claims that a further quarter of a million more died from disease or starvation in the eight-month period following the conclusion of the conflict. The continuation of the blockade after the fighting ended, as author Robert Leckie wrote in \"Delivered From Evil\", did much to \"torment the Germans ... driving them with the fury of despair into the arms of the devil.\" The terms of the Armistice did allow food to be shipped into Germany, but the Allies required that Germany provide the means (the shipping) to do so. The German government was required to use its gold reserves, being unable to secure a loan from the United States.", "World War II casualties\nCompiling or estimating the numbers of deaths and wounded caused during wars and other violent conflicts is a controversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed and wounded during World War II. The authors of the \"Oxford Companion to World War II\" maintain that \"casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable.\" The table below gives data on the number of dead and military wounded for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present the different estimates by official governmental sources as well as historians. Military figures include battle deaths (KIA) and personnel missing in action (MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in captivity. Civilian casualties include deaths caused by strategic bombing, Holocaust victims, German war crimes, Japanese war crimes, population transfers in the Soviet Union, Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war related famine and disease.", "Ten commandments of propaganda\nAlready in the First World War, the losses accumulated within the first month and rose to 313,000 casualties. But the Supreme Command never even reported the loss of a horse and did not publish a list of the dead.", "World War II\nThe Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. A quarter of the people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed. Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.", "World War I casualties\nGreece", "1st Army Corps (France)\nDuring the course of its operations in France and Germany in 1944 - 1945, the 1st Army Corps lost 3,518 men killed, 13,339 wounded, and 1,449 missing, for a total of 18,306 casualties. Although not all casualties inflicted on the Germans by 1st Army Corps are known, the corps is credited with taking 101,556 Germans prisoner during the campaigns to liberate France and invade Germany.", "British yeomanry during the First World War\nThe British yeomanry did not have the same huge casualty lists, common among the infantry regiments. The Queen's Own Worcestershire Hussars with 215 had the highest total dead, while the 1st County of London Yeomanry (Middlesex, Duke of Cambridge's Hussars) only had eight dead. The greatest loss on one day was ninety-three from the Leicestershire Yeomanry on 13 May 1915, during the Second Battle of Ypres. Out of the fifty-four regiments, three had over 200 dead, ten of them over 100 dead, sixteen had fifty or more dead and the remainder less than fifty dead. According to the Commonwealth War Graves Commission the yeomanry regiments total dead during the First World War was 3,867 men,\namong that total was Brigadier-General Wight-Boycott of the Warwickshire Yeomanry, and nineteen lieutenant-colonels some while serving with other units.", "Denis Kendall\nWhen world war2 \"[sic]\" heated up and the bombing of Britain commenced, few people realised that my factories were the most bombed in the country, and during the raids I lost approximately 200 of my workpeople killed and wounded when their shelter sustained a direct hit. I had a fine medical staff of three doctors and thirty nurses out of a total 7,800 employees\" [...].\nGrantham was said to have received 21 raids by the Luftwaffe, which killed 70 people in 1941, around the Commercial Road area. This is in the town centre and north of Springfield Road where Kendall's factory was.", "Ottoman casualties of World War I\nAmong the 5 million, 771,844 were military casualties killed in action and other causes. The military only covers 15% of the total casualties. The main question is what happened to 85% (spread over all millets) of the casualties, which is more but not less than 4,000,000. Ottoman statistics analyzed by Turkish Kamer Kasim (Manchester University, Ph.D.), claims that cumulative percentage was 26.9% (higher than 25% reported by western sources) of the population, which this size stands out among the countries that took part in World War I. To understand the size of the issue, Kamer Kasım's %1.9 increase on the totals adds 399,000 civilians to the total number, which has not been reported in western sources.", "Allies of World War I\nThe exact role played by Serbian officials in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand is still debated but despite complying with most of their demands, Austria-Hungary invaded on 28 July 1914. While Serbia successfully repulsed the Austro-Hungarian army in 1914, it was exhausted by the two Balkan Wars and unable to replace its losses of men and equipment. In 1915, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers and by the end of the year, a combined Bulgar-Austrian-German army occupied most of Serbia. Between 1914-1918, Serbia suffered the greatest proportional losses of any combatant, with over 25% of all those mobilised becoming casualties; including civilians and deaths from disease, over 1.2 million died, nearly 30% of the entire population.", "Deadliest single days of World War I\nThe First World War was fought on many fronts around the world from the battlefields of Europe to the far-flung colonies in the Pacific and Africa. While it is most famous for the trench combat stalemate that existed on Europe's Western Front, in other theatres of combat the fighting was mobile and often involved set-piece battles and cavalry charges. The Eastern Front often took thousands of casualties a day during the big offensive pushes but it was the West that saw the most concentrated slaughter. It was in the west that the newly industrialized world powers could focus their end products on the military-industrial complex. The deadliest day of the war was during the opening day of the conflict. The Imperial German war council had initiated the Schlieffen Plan which involved multiple armies flooding through the borders of Belgium and France. On August 22, 1914, during the Battle of the Frontiers five separate French armies engaged the German invaders independently of each other. Across all those battlefields, on that single day, 27,000 French soldiers lost their lives protecting their country.", "Rifle Brigade War Memorial\nAn inscription on the memorial commemorates the 11,575 men from the Rifle Brigade who fell in the First World War; a later inscription mentions the 1,329 men who fell in the Second World War. All are listed on a Roll of Honour held at Winchester Cathedral.", "Military history of New Zealand during World War I\nA total of 17,723 New Zealanders served in this campaign and New Zealand casualties were 640 killed in action and 1,146 wounded.", "The Blitz\nLondon had nine million people – a fifth of the British population – living in an area of , which was difficult to defend because of its size. Based on experience with German strategic bombing during World War I against the United Kingdom, the British government estimated after the First World War that 50 casualties – with about one third killed – would result for every tonne of bombs dropped on London. The estimate of tonnes of bombs an enemy could drop per day grew as aircraft technology advanced, from 75 in 1922, to 150 in 1934, to 644 in 1937. That year the Committee on Imperial Defence estimated that an attack of 60 days would result in 600,000 dead and 1.2 million wounded. News reports of the Spanish Civil War, such as the bombing of Barcelona, supported the 50-casualties-per-tonne estimate. By 1938, experts generally expected that Germany would attempt to drop as much as 3,500 tonnes in the first 24 hours of war and average 700 tonnes a day for several weeks. In addition to high-explosive and incendiary bombs, the enemy would possibly use poison gas and even bacteriological warfare, all with a high degree of accuracy. In 1939 military theorist Basil Liddell-Hart predicted that 250,000 deaths and injuries in Britain could occur in the first week of war. London hospitals prepared for 300,000 casualties in the first week of war.", "Toowong Memorial Park\nAustralia's involvement in the First World War exacted a heavy toll in death and injury. Of a relatively small population of about five million people, 60,000 service people were killed and 152,000 wounded. The outpouring of grief in Australia that accompanied these deaths, and the fact that the dead were buried overseas, led to a period of memorial building across the nation and residents of Toowong were quick to commemorate their soldiers by rededicating Toowong Park as Toowong Memorial Park and erecting a number of memorial features.", "Prisoner of war\nDuring World War I, about eight million men surrendered and were held in POW camps until the war ended. All nations pledged to follow the Hague rules on fair treatment of prisoners of war, and in general the POWs had a much higher survival rate than their peers who were not captured. Individual surrenders were uncommon; usually a large unit surrendered all its men. At Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered during the battle. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, 20,000 Russians became prisoners. Over half the Russian losses were prisoners as a proportion of those captured, wounded or killed. About 3.3 million men became prisoners.", "Portugal during World War I\nApproximately 12,000 Portuguese troops died during the course of World War I, including Africans who served in its armed forces in the colonial front. Civilian deaths in Portugal exceeded 220,000: 82,000 caused by food shortages and 138,000 by the Spanish flu.\nWhen Portugal complies with the British request to confiscate the German ships interned in Portuguese ports, Germany reacts by declaring war on Portugal, thus forcing the Portuguese officially into the war.The war causes Portugal 8,145 dead, 13,751 wounded and 12,318 prisoners or missing. At sea, 96 Portuguese ships are sunk (100,193 tons) and 5 Portuguese ships damaged (7,485 tons) by German submarines." ]

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[ "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nWolfstein was founded in 1275 on Habsburg King Rudolph I's orders, which called for a “fortified and free” town near his castle, “Woluisstein”, now known as the \"Alt-Wolfstein\" (“Old Wolfstein”) ruin. Rudolph forthwith granted the new town the same town rights and freedoms as the town of Speyer. As an “everlasting marketplace”, it was to be a sanctuary for commerce, trade and dealing. The first townsmen and -women came from the surrounding, much older villages." ]

[ "Wolfstein (Verbandsgemeinde)\nWolfstein is a former \"Verbandsgemeinde\" (\"collective municipality\") in the district of Kusel, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. The seat of the \"Verbandsgemeinde\" was in Wolfstein. On 1 July 2014 it merged into the new \"Verbandsgemeinde\" Lauterecken-Wolfstein.", "Wörrstadt\nIn 772, Wörrstadt had its first documentary mention, while Rommersheim, whose name was until 15 January 1931 Eichloch, had its first documentary mention in 824. On 7 November 1970, Rommersheim was amalgamated with Wörrstadt. About 1100, the (later) Evangelical \"Laurentiuskirche\" (Saint Lawrence's Church) was built as a fortress church. There had been a church earlier, in the 8th century. This second church burnt down after being struck by lightning about 1600, but was built again. The old church was taller than the one that now stands. Nevertheless, the current church is the town's tallest building. It can be seen while driving by the town on \"Bundesstraße\" 420. The Catholic church was built in the 18th century and stands next to the Evangelical church. The church in Rommersheim was built between 1733 and 1751. The old crucifix suggests a very old church.", "Gymnasium Petrinum Dorsten\nThe Westphalian town of Dorsten is host to Germany's oldest continuous cloister of the Franciscan Order, founded in 1488. Out of this cloister, Petrinum was established as a Latin school in 1642. Although the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) had badly derogated Dorsten's medieval wealth and status as a member of the Hanseatic League of international trading cities, the town council mobilised support for the clerics’ efforts.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nFrom the late 17th century, the Catholic parish of Wolfstein grew into a broad, scattered community taking in the villages of Rutsweiler, Kreimbach, Kaulbach, Olsbrücken, Neumühle, Katzweiler, Hirschhorn, Obersulzbach, Untersulzbach, Tiefenbach, Oberweiler and Roßbach, with all together 381 souls. For church services, they used the old Saint George's Chapel at the castle, and from time to time, in simultaneum, the Reformed church on Wassergasse. In 1776 they acquired the newly built, stylistically pleasing Baroque church on Obergasse.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nWhile it was true that new ventures arose in the 19th century through Wolfstein citizens’ initiatives, such as chalk mining, coalmining, tanning, brewing, linen and cotton article manufacturing, bricks, and so on, these fell far short of employing everybody who sought a job. Thus, out of the need for a livelihood arose the \"Musikant\" business, not only in Wolfstein but also in many of the outlying villages. For a time, more than 750 professional musicians from the Canton of Wolfstein tried their luck “on the world’s roads”, in circus orchestras, on Siberian noblemen's estates, aboard pleasure boats and elsewhere. Within what is now the \"Verbandsgemeinde\" of Wolfstein, all together roughly 3,500 people were active as \"Musikanten\".", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nArchaeological finds from both the Old Stone Age and the New Stone Age on the Königsberg's and the Selberg's west flank, barrows in the Jungenwald (forest) at the town limits with Aschbach and Lohnweiler that have been explored and many finds of Roman coins with effigies of Roman emperors at the old Celtic settlement, which was once surrounded by a ringwall, on the Kreimberg at the town limit with Kreimbach-Kaulbach (known as the \"Heidenburg\", or “Heathen Castle”) bear witness to the presence of people in what is now Wolfstein in prehistoric times and early historic times. Leading over the ridge of the Königsberg was the “Roman road”, one of the Palatinate's oldest settlement roads. Nevertheless, there was never any Roman settlement within what are now Wolfstein's limits.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nIn 1852, the cantons were changed into district municipalities (\"Distriktgemeinden\"). On the district councils – 30 municipalities belonged to the Wolfstein district (\"Distrikt Wolfstein\") – farmers held the majority, as the voting rather favoured those who were most heavily taxed. Of the 43 councillors in the Wolfstein district, 35 were farmers.", "Wolfsburg\nThe city of Wolfsburg is a member of the association Braunschweigische Landschaft e.V. with a registered office in Braunschweig and in the Lüneburgischen Landschaftsverband e.V. with a registered office in Uelzen. These associations were founded to foster cultural establishments of the regions.\nThe most famous professional sports club in the town is VfL Wolfsburg, established in 1945. The men's football team won the Bundesliga in 2009, the DFB Pokal in 2015 and the DFL-Supercup in 2015. The women's football team has been even more successful, winning the Bundesliga in 2013 and 2014 as well as the DFB-Pokal in 2013 and 2015. The women's team has also succeeded in winning the UEFA Women's Champions League in two consecutive years, 2013 and 2014.", "Lauterstein\nLauterstein is a town in the district of Göppingen in Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany. It is located 15 km east of Göppingen, and 11 km southeast of Schwäbisch Gmünd.", "Wolfsburg\nWolfsburg () is the fifth largest city in the German state of Lower Saxony. Located on the River Aller. It lies about east of Hanover and west of Berlin.", "Würzburger Stein\nAs was tradition in many German wine regions to celebrate notable vintages, several large ceremonial casks were filled with wines from the 1540 vintage. A cask of \"Steinwein\" from the Würzburger Stein vineyard was kept by the Prince-Bishop of Würzburg, being regularly \"topped\" up with newer wine of a similar quality in order to avoid oxidation from the evaporation of what is known as the \"angel's share\". The wine was then bottled in the late 17th century. After bottling several bottles were kept in the cellar of King Ludwig I of Bavaria before eventually finding their way to a London wine merchant in the 20th century.\nA bottle from this 1540 vintage was tried by several wine experts, including wine writer Hugh Johnson, at a 1961 tasting in London when it was 421 years of age, making it one of the oldest wines to have ever been tasted. In his book, \"Vintage: The Story of Wine\" (1989), Johnson recounts that the \"Steinwein\" was \"Madeira-like\" with deep brown coloring and was almost like a \"living organism\" in how it survived so long and still gave evidence of the German \"terroir\" of the vineyard. The wine apparently lasted only a few moments after opening before it was quickly oxidized, noted Johnson, \"\"It gave up the ghost and became vinegar in our glasses.\"\"", "House of Oettingen-Wallerstein\nOettingen-Wallerstein was twice created; first as a partition of \"Oettingen\" (modern day town of Oettingen in Bayern) in 1423 which became extinct in 1486 and was inherited by Oettingen-Oettingen, and the second time as a partition of Oettingen-Oettingen in 1557. Oettingen-Oettingen suffered one partition, between itself and Oettingen-Spielberg in 1602. It was raised to a Principality in 1774, mediatised to the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1806, and divided with the Kingdom of Württemberg in 1810. At this time, the Principality had a territory of 850 km² with 60.000 inhabitants.\"Extinct. Inherited by Oettingen-Oettingen\"", "Wolfsburg\nIn the course of a land reform in Lower Saxony in 1972, 20 localities were added to the city through the \"Wolfsburg-Act\". Wolfsburg gained the status of major city with nearly 131,000 inhabitants. The city's area grew from 35 to nearly 204 square kilometers. In 1973, the city's population peaked at 131,971.", "Wolfhagen\nWolfhagen is a town in the district of Kassel, in Hesse, Germany. It is located 12 km southeast of Bad Arolsen, and 23 km west of Kassel on the German Timber-Frame Road. In 1992, the town hosted the 32nd Hessentag state festival.", "Wolfenstein (2009 video game)\nThe story is set in the fictional town of Isenstadt during World War II, which the Nazis have enforced martial law in order to excavate rare \"Nachtsonne\" crystals necessary to access the \"Black Sun\" dimension. As the game progresses, happenings in Isenstadt become stranger (military patrols are replaced by supernatural creatures, etc.). Locations include the town's sewers, a tavern, a hospital, a farm, an underground mining facility, a church, the SS headquarters, a dig site and caverns, a cannery, a radio station, a paranormal base, a general's home, a castle, an airfield and a large zeppelin.", "Wiesbaden-Frauenstein\nFrauenstein is the western-most borough of the city of Wiesbaden, located in the Rhine Main Area near Frankfurt and capital of the federal state of Hesse, Germany. The borough has a population of approximately 2,400. The formerly independent village was incorporated into Wiesbaden in 1928.", "Beilstein, Württemberg\nBeilstein developed during the Middle Ages adjacent to Hohenbeilstein Castle, which was built around 1080. After overlordship of the castle passed to the Margraves of Baden in 1234, the settlement was promoted to town status between 1250 and 1288 and is first mentioned as such in 1304. Since then it has changed overlordship several times. Ulrich IV and Eberhard II gave the town to emperor Charles IV, who returned it as a fief. Thereafter until the 18th century, the fief reverted to the next emperor or count before any assumption of office.", "Wolfsburg Castle\nThe reason for the construction of the \"Wolfsburg\" was the enfeoffment of land in the area of the present-day city of Wolfsburg to the noble family of von Bartensleben in the 13th century. These knights also watched over the trade routes where they crossed the River Aller and that entailed the construction of a fortification to protect their lordship. The first definite record of the castle was in 1302 where it is referred to as the \"Wluesborch\". The document is made out by the four brothers: Borchard, Günzel, Günter and Werner von Bartensleben. They were a \"ministerialis\" family (unfree knights), who came from the village of Bartensleben near Helmstedt. Their family members appeared at that time in the region, including in 1288 at the castle in Vorsfelde. In addition there is another record dating to 1135, but it is not clear whether this refers to the Wolfsburg or a predecessor castle. Emperor Lothar III then awarded the newly founded Benedictine abbey of \"Kaiserdom Königslutter\" with diversified estates, including a \"Wulvosburg\", that is named in connexion with the village of \"Käsdorf\".", "Wilster\nWilster was granted town rights under Lübeck law in 1282, and thereby counts itself among Schleswig-Holstein's oldest towns. Wilster forms the centre of the Wilstermarsch, a major cattle raising area in Germany.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nCurrently serving the town's needs are \"Grundschule Wolfstein\" (primary school; feeder area: Aschbach, Einöllen, Kreimbach-Kaulbach, Oberweiler-Tiefenbach, Relsberg, Rutsweiler, Wolfstein) and, since 1998, the \"Regionalschule\" and (with some classes being phased out) the Hauptschule (feeder area: the \"Verbandsgemeinde\").", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nOn the Roßbach municipal council, too, the Nazis won a majority. Public servants such as police officials, municipal officials, field and forest rangers and the chief of waterworks were replaced with men who were true to the National Socialist ideology. The Party and its many organizations more and more came to define the town’s economic and cultural life. Thus, in 1933, the local singing clubs were merged into the “Westmark” singers’ association, the chamber of commerce, which had been founded in 1899, was dissolved in 1934 “under approval of all present” and the local \"Jugendleite\" (secular coming-of-age ceremony) was held on Confirmation Day, causing 189 people to leave their religious community. The town, which 100 years earlier had been associated with the struggle for democracy, was now welcoming, with a majority among its population, Nazi dictatorship. Once the Nazis’ goals had become manifest, however, it was too late to turn back. Wolfstein was largely spared any material destruction in the Second World War; however, the human toll was quite heavy: on Wolfstein’s war memorial to the fallen, built in 1930 at Neu-Wolfstein castle, a further 100 names now had to be chiselled; over in Roßbach, the 1931 war memorial bore 44 new names after the war.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nThe estate holders’ names from 1514 are known without any gaps in the record. They discharged their hereditary pledge to the monastery, receiving as a reward usage and grazing rights in the “lordly monastery woodlands”, “free lumber and firewood”, the “sheep meadow on the estate’s area as well as the municipal area of the market town of Wolfstein with its own herd of maximally 200 head” (1786).", "Wolfstein\nPeople:", "Walldorf\nA group of pre-historic Hallstatt culture barrows stands in the Hochholz woods, near the offices of SAP Deutschland.\nThe earliest documentary mention of the settlement occurs as \"Waltorf\" in a 770 deed issued by the Abbey of Lorsch. The Electorate of the Palatinate received Walldorf as an Imperial fief in 1230. The town suffered much during the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648, and in 1689 was completely destroyed in the course of the French invasion during Nine Years' War. The area was settled anew by religious refugees, among them the predecessors of John Jacob Astor, Waldensians from Piedmont. With the 1803 German Mediatisation Walldorf fell to Baden. 1843 saw the building of the Rheintalbahn: this railway decisively promoted economic development. In 1901 Grand Duke Frederick I of Baden granted Walldorf town privileges. After World War II, the establishment of Heidelberger Druckmaschinen (founded 1850) and of SAP (founded 1972; moved to Walldorf in 1977) made Walldorf one of the most prosperous towns of Germany.", "Blaustein\nThe district Klingenstein is considerably marked through the palace Klingenstein and the it surrounding ruins of the castle Klingenstein. The castle was first mentioned in 1215. It belonged to the families of Stain / Klingenstein. Palace and ruins went in 1860 to the property of the Ulm pharmacist and inventor family Leube. It is now owned by the Leube Foundation. The 1931 Protestant Kreuzkirche is next to the nearby Church of St. Joseph one of the few expressionist church buildings in Baden-Württemberg. \n→ Main article: Markbronn\nWeidach has two Catholic churches. St. Wendelin has a small bell tower, the church of Nicholas of Flue has no bell tower.", "Schaefferstown, Pennsylvania\nSchaefferstown is one of the oldest towns in Lebanon County (which was formed from Lancaster County, Pennsylvania in 1813), being at least a century older than the county itself. It is the main town in Heidelberg Township. Although the exact date of the first settlers is unknown, it is certain that they settled here before 1725. Those first settlers were German Jews. Many of them were skilled craftmen and traders. They disappeared, however, when non-Jewish German settlers started moving into the area. The old burial ground was situated about a fourth mile south of Tower Hill and almost a hundred yards east of South Market Street in Schaefferstown. The Jewish settlement was known as the Lebanon Trading Post.", "German wine\nViticulture in present-day Germany dates back to Ancient Roman times, to sometime from 70 to 270 CE/AD (Agri Decumates). In those days, the western parts of today's Germany made up the outpost of the Roman empire against the Germanic tribes on the other side of Rhine. What is generally considered Germany's oldest city, Trier, was founded as a Roman garrison and is situated directly on the river Moselle (\"Mosel\") in the eponymous wine region. The oldest archeological finds that may indicate early German viticulture are curved pruning knives found in the vicinity of Roman garrisons, dating from the 1st century AD. However, it is not absolutely certain that these knives were used for viticultural purposes. Emperor Probus, whose reign can be dated two centuries later than these knives, is generally considered the founder of German viticulture, but for solid documentation of winemaking on German soil, we must go to around 370 AD, when Ausonius of Bordeaux wrote \"Mosella\", where he in enthusiastic terms described the steep vineyards on river Moselle.", "Phaeno Science Center\nThe Phæno Science Center is an interactive science center in Wolfsburg, Germany, completed in 2005. Phæno arose from urban planning by the City of Wolfsburg. In 1998 City officials were developing a plot of vacant, public land immediately adjacent to Wolfsburg's railway station and just south of VW's huge, then-unfinished attraction Autostadt. An art museum was planned for the site, but Dr. Wolfgang Guthardt, then the City's Director for Culture, Sports and Education, knew that such an institution would compete with Wolfsburg's successful Kunst Museum (Art Museum) and needed other options. Guthardt visited Technorama, a science center in Switzerland and became convinced that a science center in Wolfsburg would complement both Autostadt and the Kunst Museum.", "Vaterstetten\nBecause of being on the border of the sandur of Munich, an early settlement in the southern part of today's community area is unlikely, because the tillage was disadvantaged here compared to the northern part. Consequently, the oldest town of the community is Purfing, where a settlement from the period between 750 and 600 BC was found.", "Shepherdstown Historic District\nThe Shepherdstown Historic District comprises the historic core of Shepherdstown, West Virginia. The town is the oldest in West Virginia, founded in 1762 as Mecklenburg. No structures are known to exist from the time before the town became known as Shepherdstown. The historic district is concentrated along German Street, the main street, with 386 contributing resources and 69 non-contributing elements. The chief representative period is the late 18th century, with many Federal style brick houses. German Street is also furnished with 19th-century \"street furniture\" such as metal fences, mounting blocks, wooden pumps and mature trees.", "Hochstätten\nMany dates are given as Hochstätten’s first documentary mention. An often-cited date is 1108, the date of a document issued by the Archbishopric of Mainz to Disibodenberg Abbey, which names \"Hosteden\". Somewhat more certain mentions of Hochstätten date from 1260, 1350 and 1366. It is likely that Hochstätten had its own parish by 1261. The church tower, an icon of the village's appearance today, was built in the 13th century. This church has been put under monumental protection. Very early, Hochstätten came under the lordship of the Raugraves and Rhinegraves, who were based at Rheingrafenstein Castle, and later at Gaugrehweiler. Beginning in 1754 or 1755, Hochstätten belonged to Palatinate-Zweibrücken before passing to the Electoral Palatinate in 1768. In 1801, after French Revolutionary troops had overrun and occupied the German lands on the Rhine's left bank, Hochstätten, along with all the lands that the French had occupied, was absorbed into the French state. Hochstätten was grouped into the Department of Mont-Tonnerre (or Donnersberg in German). After Napoleon's defeat in the German campaign, the last and decisive phase of the War of the Sixth Coalition and indeed of the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna placed Hochstätten in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1816. The village remained in Bavaria until during the Allied occupation after the Second World War, the state of Rhineland-Palatinate was founded. Bearing witness to Hochstätten's history as part of Bavaria, the Bavarian state arms can still be seen today above the stage at the municipal hall, and even the favourite card game at the local \"Stammtische\" (regulars' tables) is still one that Germans commonly associate with Bavaria – Schafkopf. In the course of administrative restructuring in Rhineland-Palatinate, Hochstätten was transferred from the old Rockenhausen district (which was dissolved) to the Bad Kreuznach district in 1969.", "Schloss Wolfsbrunn\nSchloss Wolfsbrunn is the local name for an imposing hotel building in the village of Stein in the borough of Hartenstein in the south of Zwickau district in the German state of Saxony. It was built in 1911 as the villa of a wealthy mining businessman. Since 1997 it has been owned by the Leonhardt brothers (Leonhardt Group).", "Königstein im Taunus\nBesides the town's landmark, the Königstein Castle ruins, other buildings are worth seeing, such as the historic Old Town with its Old Town Hall (Rathaus), and Falkenstein Castle, and the Old Town also found there. Also of interest is the \"Villa Andreae\", located at the top of a small wodded hill. Built in 1891 by Frankfurt Banker Albert Andreae de Neufville, it was transformed into a boarding school (Schülerheim) in the post-war years (1957–1987). Thoroughly restored, it became famous as Jürgen Schneider's headquarters from 1987 until his multi-billion-Deutsche-Mark bankruptcy in 1994.", "Blaustein\nBlaustein has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. There was a Neolithic temporal village near Ehrenstein. This was included in 2011 to the UNESCO World Heritage Site. However, the municipality and later town Blaustein arose only on 1 September 1968 with the merge of the municipalities Ehrenstein and Klingenstein. In the course of the municipal reform in this period, Markbronn-Dietingen was incorporated to Arnegg initially on 1 July, 1971. On 1 October 1974, the incorporation of Bermaringen and Wippingen to Blaustein took place. The community Blaustein received on 1 January 1975, the current form by the association of the municipalities Arnegg, Blaustein and Herrlingen.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nIn 1905, the Bavarian State Government – the Palatinate had belonged to the Kingdom of Bavaria since the Congress of Vienna – ordered the cession of the Kuhbrücker Hübel, with its railway station, seven houses on the slope side of Bahnhofsstraße (“Station Street”), seven others on Hefersweilerstraße, a few storage sheds next to the railway and the storehouse of the \"Consumvereine\" (“coöperatives”), to the town of Wolfstein. The decisive factor in favour of the amalgamation of this strip of land on both sides of the railway line, which had been opened in 1883, was economic considerations. For the goal of expanding the town's residential area, however, it was quite useless, for the slopes east of the ceded area on the valley floor still belonged to Roßbach. Thus, until the village of Roßbach in der Pfalz along with all its \"Ortsteile\" was merged into the town of Wolfstein in 1969, the town's foremost new building area remained the steep slope stretching up the Königsberg west of Hauptstraße (\"Bundesstraße\" 270), even after the Second World War (Röther Weg, Steinwiesen, Am Hang, Am Gericht, In der Trift, Bergstraße, Am Kirchpfad). Even this was hemmed in somewhat by the galleries at the chalk mine.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nSpreading out from the old town (known as the \"Flecken\", meaning “market town”) in the hollow, the settled parts of town lay in the 19th century on the slopes between the Tauchental (dale) and Schlossgasse (or Obergasse – a lane), on the narrow strips of land either side of Lauterstraße (or Untergasse) and on Hauptstraße (“Main Street”, but in an outlying neighbourhood). Worth mentioning are several old buildings in Wolfstein: the Evangelical church (1868, beside the town hall), the Catholic rectory (1845, outside town centre), the Evangelical rectory (1899, outside town centre), the court and prison building (1902/1903, outside town centre) and the former \"Kurhaus Lautertal\" (spa hotel, 1862, renovated in 1912, outside town centre).", "Autostadt\nThe idea for Autostadt was started in 1994 when the concept of documenting the stages of production of Volkswagen vehicles and how the company's operations were showcased at Expo 2000 in Hanover, Germany. In 1998, Autostadt, which is German for \"Car City\", broke ground on the former site of a fuel company bordering Volkswagen's Wolfsburg production plant. Like the adjacent car plant, the site of Autostadt is on the north bank of the Mittelland Canal. The resulting complex is the work of more than 400 architects, created as a new urban center, close to downtown Wolfsburg.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nWith the expansion of Wolfstein's inhabited area, the old town's girding, mediaeval wall, which still stood in the early 19th century, had gaps knocked through it and eventually, along with both the town gates and the \"Bürgerturm\" (tower), it was torn down altogether.", "Old Wolfstein Castle\nIn the 15th and 16th centuries, Electoral Palatinate and the Duchy of Zweibrücken fought for possession of the castle.\nThe dispute ended in 1504 with its destruction by Prince-Elector Philip of the Palatinate. After that, Old Wolfstein was allowed to fall into ruin.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nFrom 1644 to 1788, the estate was run as an hereditary tenancy by the \"Amtsschultheiß\" at Odenbach am Glan and his heirs. After feudalism was abolished, the Ducal Württemberg Minister of State Emich Johann von Üxküll bought the estate for 22,500 \"Gulden\". He let the estate in 1796 to Christoph Burckhardt, who transferred the running of the estate to his son Ludwig Karl Friedrich (born 1779). In 1817, Ludwig Burckhardt bought the estate, and ever since, it has been in the family Burckhardt’s ownership. Even today, Ludwig Burchhardt’s descendants, through his son Heinrich, still run the \"Hotel Reckweilerhof\".", "Freyung-Grafenau\nThe district was established in 1972 by merging the former districts of Grafenau and Wolfstein. In medieval times Wolfstein (east of the Ilz River) was the property of the bishop of Passau and the site of Wolfstein Castle, now a \"schloss\". Grafenau (west of the Ilz River) successively belonged to different countries, before it was annexed by Bavaria in 1438. Wolfstein became a part of Bavaria two years after the dissolution of the clerical states in Germany (1803).", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nOnly for a few decades did the new town enjoy royal immediacy, whereafter it was passed time and again to and from various territorial lordships as a pledged holding. The almost endless chain of pledgings began as early as 1312 with the town's transfer to the Counts of Sponheim, and only ended in 1673 when the town passed to Electoral Palatinate. The Electoral Palatinate \"Amt\" (or \"Unteramt\") of Wolfstein in the \"Oberamt\" of Kaiserslautern comprised the two court regions of Katzweiler and “Rothe am Seelberg” (Rothselberg).", "Wolfstein\nOther:", "Wolfsburg Castle\nThe Wolfsburg is medieval lowland and water castle in North Germany that was first mentioned in the records in 1302, but has since been turned into a Renaissance \"schloss\" or palace. It is located in eastern Lower Saxony in the town of Wolfsburg named after it and in whose possession it has been since 1961. The Wolfsburg developed from a tower house on the River Aller into a water castle with the character of a fortification. In the 17th century it was turned into a representative, but nevertheless defensible palace that was the northernmost example of the Weser Renaissance style. Its founder and builder was the noble family of von Bartensleben. After their line died out in 1742 the Wolfsburg was inherited by the counts of Schulenburg.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nBeginning in 1970, work shifted to what had until recently been a self-administering, neighbouring village, and building began in Roßbach on formerly agricultural lands east of the railway line between Sandfeld (Immetshausen) and Eisenknopf (Schlettweg, Barbarossastraße, Habsburgerstraße, Kurpfalzstraße, Stauferstraße, Wingerstbergstraße, Hahnbach and Sandfeld). By 2000, 78 residential buildings had arisen here, mostly one- and two-family houses. The amalgamation increased Wolfstein's area by 616 ha to 1 377 ha.", "Wolfsberg, Carinthia\nThe area of Wolfsberg belonged to the estates within the medieval Duchy of Carinthia that were ceded to the Prince-Bishopric of Bamberg, probably already by Emperor Henry II in 1007. The castle above the town was first mentioned as \"Wolfsperch\" in an 1178 deed of St. Paul's Abbey in the Lavanttal. The adjacent settlement became the administrative centre of Bamberg's Carinthian territories and in 1331 received town privileges by Prince-Bishop Werntho Schenk von Reicheneck.", "Josef Wolfsthal\nJosef Wolfsthal (12 June 1899 – 3 February 1931), born as Josef Wolfthal, was an Austrian violinist and a professor in Germany's capital Berlin.", "Beilstein, Hesse\nThe current day town is a combination of the villages Beilstein, Haiern and Wallendorf. Written records of Wallendorf trace back to the year 774. Beilstein itself was granted city rights on 18 February 1321 by the count of Nassau. Haiern is part of Beilstein since 1941.\n\"Burg Beilstein\" (Castle of Beilstein), was mentioned in official records in 1129 for the first time, and was expanded around 1320 by the counts of Nassau. Beilstein was between 1607 and 1620 the residence of a branch of the house Nassau-Dillenburg with George, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg. Early 20th century, the town was merged into the municipality of Greifenstein.", "Dorsheim\nAs archaeological finds show, the lands around what is now Dorsheim were settled quite early on. From the Old Stone Age (100,000–10,000 BC) comes a whole series of various artefacts, which are now in private ownership. Known to be from the New Stone Age (4000–1800 BC) are a great many small hatchets and points, the 12 flint blades from the hoard on the street “Am Rebstock” and Rössen finds (ceramic) from the countryside lying east of Dorsheim. Unearthed from the Hallstatt times that followed have been all kinds of bronze rings from former barrows on the Dorsheim Heath, as well as ceramics from not only the Hallstatt culture but also the Urnfield culture and the Hunsrück-Eifel culture, once again in the countryside lying east of Dorsheim. Roman finds (3rd century AD) have come to light at two sites in the municipality. Various archaeological objects that have been found are now in museums in Bad Kreuznach, Mainz, Bonn and Berlin, although many are in private ownership. It can be said with certainty that Dorsheim was one of the villages founded in Frankish times (500–750), bearing witness to which are finds from Merovingian graves unearthed right near the community centre. On 30 March 1349, Dorsheim had its first documentary mention in a document issued by Count Palatine Ruprecht. For almost 650 years, Dorsheim was a Comital-Palatine or Electoral Palatinate village. It is therefore not surprising that the main charge in the municipality’s coat of arms is the Palatine lion. From 1796 to 1814, the village lay under French rule, first Revolutionary French, and later Napoleonic. Dorsheim lay within the Department of Rhin-et-Moselle. After the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna, the region passed to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1815. After the municipality had celebrated its 600th anniversary in 1986 based on the first mention of Dorsheim in documents from 1386, Dorsheim citizen Herrmann Gellweiler delved deeper into the local history and discovered that Dorsheim had already been mentioned in previous documentation from a few decades earlier, in 1349. Too late, the erratum was put to the commemorative plate made for the “600th anniversary” that depicted Count Palatine Ruprecht making a gift of a vineyard in the “Dorsheimer Berg” to his daughter Else. After the new information came to light, Dorsheim was able to mark its 650th anniversary in 1999 based on the now oldest documentation only 13 years after the 600th anniversary.", "Beilstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nFinds from Frankish graves show that Beilstein was settled about AD 800. Beginning in 1268, the village was a fief held by the Lords of Braunshorn. Under Johann von Braunshorn (1299–1346), Beilstein was granted town privileges in 1309 by Heinrich VII and was fortified. In 1309, a Jewish community was founded, whose graveyard up above the castle still exists today. In 1310 the former parish church was endowed. After the family von Braunshorn died out, the fief passed in 1360 to the family von Winneburg. After the Electorate of Trier took over ownership of Beilstein in 1488, it enfeoffed the Imperial Counts of Metternich with the Lordship of Winneburg and Beilstein. In 1689 came the destruction of Castle Metternich (known as \"Die stolze Gemäuer\", or “The Proud Walling”) by French troops. The Carmelite monastery was founded in 1636 (and dissolved in 1803). In 1691, the Carmelite monastery church’s foundation stones were laid; the church was completed in 1783. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the village’s appearance took on the shape that it still largely retains today. The Metternich lordship was swept away in 1794 when French Revolutionary troops occupied the region. In 1815 Beilstein was assigned to the Kingdom of Prussia at the Congress of Vienna. Since 1946, it has been part of the then newly founded state of Rhineland-Palatinate.", "Kufstein\nDue to its long history, the city of Kufstein has various sights to offer:Kufstein is twinned withLocations in and around Kufstein have been used for a number of films and television programmes: \"Destiny\" (1942), \"Mountain Crystal\" (1949), \"Bluebeard\" (1951), \"White Shadows\" (1951), \"Das letzte Aufgebot\" (1953), \"The Flying Classroom\" (1954), \"Graf Porno und die liebesdurstigen Töchter\" (1969), \"Vanessa\" (1977), \"Sachrang\" (1978), TV documentary series \"Bilderbuch Deutschland\" (1996), \"Da wo das Glück beginnt\" (2006), \"Da wo es noch Treue gibt\" (2006), and \"Da wo die Freundschaft zahlt\" (2007). For further information see the \"Internet Movie Database\".", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nThe \"Sport- und Freizeit-Center Königsland\" has games, sport and swimming with sporting grounds and a heated outdoor swimming pool. Other sporting facilities in Wolfstein are riding halls and other equestrian facilities (CJD), shooting facilities, tennis courts and a fistball court, among yet others.Of the 26 clubs in town at the turn of the 20th century, those worthy of mention are:", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nThe Roßbachers built a schoolhouse in the village centre in 1825, and until 1871, both Catholic and Protestant schoolchildren attended classes there given by one teacher in one room. Once the school had been expanded that year with the addition of a second classroom and a second teacher's dwelling, the two denominations were separated, although given the unbalanced numbers, first-year Protestant schoolchildren were assigned to the Catholic school. The two denominational schools were converted into a two-class “German Christian Communal School” in 1933, which in 1937 moved to a new schoolhouse “Auf dem Mühlacker” (“At the Mill Field”), which for the time was quite modern and extensively equipped.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nIt was not possible to expand Wolfstein onto lands over on the Lauter's right bank, for stretching for roughly 4 km between Kreimbach and Oberweiler was the village of Roßbach with, as it had then, its five \"Ortsteile\": Stahlhausen, Roßbach (main centre), Mühle, Immetshausen and Kuhbrücker Hübel. The gap between Stahlhausen and the upper village, and the one between Immetshausen and Kuhbrücke, were used for farming. Any building work worthy of note within Roßbach's limits was never to be seen even as late as 1969. The number of houses there, beginning in 1900, hovered around 100.", "Altenstein Castle (Lower Franconia)\nAltenstein Castle () is a ruined castle in Altenstein (Markt Maroldsweisach) in the district of Haßberge in Lower Franconia, Germany. The family seat of the lords of Stein zu Altenstein, which died out in the 19th century, is located 40 kilometres north of the city of Bamberg and, since the end of the 20th century, has been managed by the district of Haßberge. The castle was renovated around the turn of the millennium.", "Wetter (Ruhr)\nNeighbour municipalities are Gevelsberg, Hagen, Herdecke, Sprockhövel and Witten. The Cities of Dortmund, Bochum, Essen and Wuppertal are near.The town of Wetter is first documented in the year 1214 in relation with the Castle Wetter and the knights Bruno and Friedrich. Another famous castle ruin is the Castle Volmarstein which was built in the 11th century by the archbishop of Cologne Frederick I. The castle is located on the other side of the Ruhr in the district of Volmarstein which has been part of Wetter since the municipal community-reform in 1970.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nIn Electoral Palatinate times, handicrafts and smallhold agriculture defined the town's economic structure. The greater part of Wolfstein's inhabitants lived in poverty. In the late 18th century, improvement came with the mining of cinnabar-bearing stone that yielded quicksilver on the Princely-Electoral side of the Königsberg, a pursuit promoted by Prince-Elector Karl Theodor. Under the leadership brought by experienced professionals who had come to town, this mining reached its highest point between 1770 and 1790. Nevertheless, the mining lasted no longer than 30 years before coming to a complete end in the 19th century, with destitution and hardship as the upshot for the now jobless miners and their families.", "Lichtenstein, Saxony\nLichtenstein is a town in the Zwickau district, in Saxony, Germany. It is situated 11 km northeast of Zwickau, and 22 km southwest of Chemnitz. It was owned by the House of Schönburg from 1286 until 1945.", "Schloß Wolfsgarten\nSchloss Wolfsgarten is a former hunting seat of the ruling family of Hesse-Darmstadt, located in the German state of Hessen, approximately 15 kilometers south of Frankfurt am Main. The hunting lodge was established between 1722 and 1724 by Landgrave Ernst Ludwig of Hesse-Darmstadt. Ernst Ludwig's purpose in establishing Wolfsgarten was to pursue his passion for hunting with dogs which he introduced into Hesse in 1709. The original building corresponded to the usual pattern for hunting seats of that era with a rectangular yard around which was grouped housing for gentlemen, the stables for the houses, and kennels for the dogs. After Ernst Ludwig's successors abandoned hunting with dogs in 1768, Wolfsgarten was abandoned until the 1830s when the grand ducal family began to restore and expand the property. From 1879, Wolfsgarten became a favorite country retreat for Grand Dukes Ludwig IV and his son Ernst Ludwig.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nBeginning in the 1962/1963 school year, all seventh- and eighth-year pupils from Roßbach, Rutsweiler, Kreimbach, Kaulbach, Frankelbach and Oberweiler-Tiefenbach were taught in grade-level-differentiated classes in Wolfstein, which led to great difficulties in allocating room for everybody. This was solved in 1965 with the move to the \"Volksschulhaus\", said to be the “moment of the birth of the \"Mittelpunktschule\" (“midpoint school”, a central school, designed to eliminate smaller outlying schools) on the Königsberg”. Brought together here, beginning in the 1990/1991 school year, were all fifth- to tenth-year classes from 14 villages in the \"Verbandsgemeinde\" feeder area.", "Riedstadt\nWolfskehlen is Riedstadt's northernmost constituent community. It was first mentioned in the document \"Historia Episcopatus Wormatiensis\" in 1002 in which Emperor Heinrich II granted Bishop Burchard of Worms the rights in the Forest of Forehahi. In 1252, the Lords of Wolfskehlen, who had taken their name from the village, sold Neuwolfskehlen Castle to the Archbishop of Mainz. In 1539, Barbara von Wolfskehlen wed Eberhard von Gemmingen-Hornberg, who introduced the Reformation into Wolfskehlen. In 1579, the Mainz Palatinate (\"Kurmainz\") ceded its rights to the Landgraves of Hesse. During the Thirty Years' War, and through the Plague, almost the whole population was killed; the reconstruction began in the 18th century. From 1868 to 1878, the building of the Mannheim–Frankfurt railway brought the dissolution of the village's purely agricultural structure. After the Second World War, the village absorbed about 800 refugees.The mayor was since 1993 Gerald Kummer, SPD. He was reelected in 2005. In January 2011, Werner Amend (independent) was voted as the new mayor. In November 2016 Marcus Kretschmann (CDU) was elected, who will come into office in April 2017.", "Lauterecken-Wolfstein\nLauterecken-Wolfstein is a \"Verbandsgemeinde\" (\"collective municipality\") in the district of Kusel, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. The seat of the \"Verbandsgemeinde\" is in Lauterecken. It was formed on 1 July 2014 by the merger of the former \"Verbandsgemeinden\" Lauterecken and Wolfstein.", "Dornstetten\nDornstetten is first documented in the year 767 in the Lorsch Codex, as part of the \"Waldgeding\" of the Upper Glatt Valley, a loose confederation of settlements roughly corresponding to the modern municipal area. The town received city rights sometime between 1267 and 1276. At that time, Dornstetten belonged to the Counts of Urach-Fürstenberg. After passing through the hands of the Counts of Hohenberg, it was acquired by Württemberg in 1320. A school is first mentioned in the town in 1461. In 1755, Dornstetten was made seat of the \"Oberamt\" of Dornstetten, an administrative district that was nevertheless dissolved in 1807 and incorporated in the \"Oberamt\" of Freudenstadt.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nArising in Wolfstein about the middle of the 16th century, under the pledge-lords Schwickard von Sickingen's (1549-1562) and Georg Johannes I's (Palatinate-Veldenz, 1543-1592) influence, were a Reformed community and a Lutheran one alongside each other. The former belonged (along with Kreimbach, Rothselberg and Rutsweiler) to the parish of Zweikirchen with the chapel of ease on Wassergasse while the latter, to avoid disputes with the former, established its own chapel in Wolfstein. The clergyman's seat changed between Wolfstein, Roßbach and Eßweiler. This chapel was, on the occasion of the union of the Reformed and Lutheran faiths, sold in 1818, and the proceeds were used to build a rectory (\"Haus Adam\", 1822).", "Rosi Wolfstein\nRosalie Wolfstein was born at Witten, then a industrial city west of Dortmund in the Ruhr region. Her father, Samuel Wolfstein (1843–1901), was a businessman. She was one of her parents' four recorded children. Her elder brother, Paul, later died in the First World War: later still, in 1942, both her sisters, Wilhelmine and Bertha, would be deported to Auschwitz concentration camp and murdered.", "Monheim, Bavaria\nThe village of Monheim came into possession of the \"Graf von Oettingen\", now the House of Oettingen-Wallerstein, around the year 1325. Monheim was awarded its town rights shortly after and the oldest seal of the town dates from 1340. The seal from 1340 already shows the moon, which is still part of the towns crest today. The name \"Monheim\" however does not derive from \"moon\". Until 1821, the crest's colors were red and silver, the colors of the House of Oettingen. Only after 1821 were the current blue and gold adopted.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nLiving in Wolfstein about 1600, according to the townsmen’s register in the \"Stattbuch\" (“town book”), which was begun in 1599, were some 150 people in 36 households. In 1618, there were 50 families with some 200 persons, but this is estimated to have dropped to only 50 inhabitants by the time the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) ended. The 1618 population level was once again reached in 1684. Thereafter, the population figures kept rising. No records of Roßbach's population from the 17th century are available. In 1885 – only “present” persons were counted, while soldiers and the wandering musicians for which the region was then famous were left out of the total – there were 471 inhabitants (95 houses, no rented dwellings, no multi-family houses with separated living areas; occupancy per dwelling 4.95 persons). In 1900, there were 577 inhabitants (Kuhbrücke 78, Immetshausen 55, Roßbach main centre 381, Stahlhausen 63). In 1905, after the Kuhbrücke had been transferred to Wolfstein, there were 489 inhabitants. In 1918 there were 466 in 100 dwellings. In 1925, there were 504 in 98 houses. In 1933, there were 483 and in 1939, 515 (263 male and 252 female). In 1969, just before amalgamation with Wolfstein, there were 541 inhabitants.", "Wolfstein (book)\nLike Frankenstein, Wolfstein is the name of a German town in southwestern Germany in the Rhine Palatinate district. Just as there is a Frankenstein Castle, there is also a Wolfstein Castle in Germany. \"Frankenstein\" in German means \"Stone of the Franks\", a Germanic tribe. \"Wolfstein\" means \"Stone of the Wolf\". German names, locations, and characters are a central theme of Gothic horror literature. The Goths were a Germanic tribe. Sir Horace Walpole developed the Gothic horror story with the publication of his novel \"The Castle of Otranto\" in 1764.", "Pfaffenstein\nThe name \"Pfaffenstein\" is very probably derived from the nearby village of Pfaffendorf. This settlement in the borough of Königstein was given its name because its inhabitants paid taxes to the church at Königstein in the Middle Ages, as evinced by the first mention of the village's name in the records in 1437. Its old name of \"Jungfernstein\" (\"Virgin Rock\") comes from a legend about the origin of the Barbarine rock pinnacle, according to which a woman sent her daughter to church on Sundays. However, when she caught her picking bilberries on the Pfaffenstein instead, the mother cursed her daughter, turning her to stone.", "Plochingen\nFor the first time Plochingen was mentioned in 1146 as \"Blochingen\" in a document of Conrad III of Germany. In Plochingen were two castles, but none of them are left. Plochingen was 1698 post station on the imperial post road from Antwerp to Venice. The Fils Valley Railway came 1846 up to Plochingen, only a year after in Württemberg the line between Cannstatt and Untertürkheim had been opened. The Swabian Jura Association (Schwäbischer Albverein) was founded in 1888 in the still existing restaurant Waldhorn. on 1 June 1913 a tornado destroyed numerous buildings in Plochingen. On April 13, 1948, the municipality of Plochingen became a town. On 12 July 1968, was the inauguration of the Neckar harbor Plochingen. Since the beginning of the S-Bahn Stuttgart traffic on 1 October 1978, the vehicles are technically maintained and cleaned in the depot Plochingen.\n1998 Plochingen hosted the Landesgartenschau of Baden-Württemberg.Plochingen is one of the main stations on line one (S1) of the Stuttgart S-Bahn. The Fils Valley Railway, part of the connection from Stuttgart to Munich, runs through Plochingen, with the Neckar-Alb Railway to Tübingen starting here. The public transport here is good, so that even on weekends bus and train connections are very frequent.", "Wolfsburg Hauptbahnhof\nThe first scheduled ICE stopped in Wolfsburg on 26 September 1998. The numbers of long-distance passengers has risen continuously since then. In 2004, 6,500 long-distance passengers were counted daily, in 2006 this has risen to about 7,800. In 2008, the number was 8,500 a day (another source says 10,000).\nAfter the station building was neglected by the city council for a long time, extensive renovations began in 2004, which were estimated to cost €1.9 million. The station received a floor designed by the French artist Daniel Buren, business premises were rebuilt and various businesses including a travel centre and a service centre for Autostadt were installed. In the spring of 2011, the station tunnel was extended to the banks of the Mittelland Canal, giving a direct connection from the city to a new waterfront development.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nThe \"Christliches Jugenddorf Wolfstein\" (CJD; founded in 1972) is a member if the \"Diakonisches Werk der Pfalz\" (a Christian youth charity) and is one of the institutions of professional training and clinical social work of the \"Christliches Jugenddorfwerk Deutschlands\" (likewise abbreviated CJD). In their vocational preparation year, boys and girls aged 14 to 16 who have no \"Hauptschulabschluss\" are taken towards the professional training level. In the CJD's own workshops and external businesses, the CJD leads to a qualification in one of 15 different occupations in the industrial-technical, agricultural, gastronomical and sales fields. While in the \"Jugenddorf\" (“Youth Village”), a broad spectrum of tended lodgings is available to the youths. The administrative seat is the former town mill.", "Old Wolfstein Castle\nOld Wolfstein Castle (, also called the \"Altes Schloß\"), is a ruined hillside castle on the eastern slopes of the Königsberg at the narrowest point in the Lauter valley near Wolfstein in the county of Kusel in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate.", "Neumarkt (district)\nIn early medieval times the region was ruled by the counts of Wolfstein, while the city of Neumarkt was directly subordinate to the emperor and hence independent from the Wolfstein family. In the 14th century the counts of Wolfstein, as well as the city of Neumarkt, became subordinate to the Electorate of the Palatinate, and in 1628 to Bavaria.\"\nBelow an outline of the history of Neumarkt from its founding in the 12th century to its destruction in World War II is provided. The town's development can be divided into 5 periods:", "Wolfsburg\nFrom about 1,000 inhabitants in 1938 the population of the city increased to 25,000 in 1950 and doubled to 50,000 until 1958. On 1 July 1972 the population of Wolfsburg first went beyond the mark of 100,000 because of the suburbanization of several villages which made Wolfsburg a major city. In 1973 the population reached its highest level: 131,971. At the end of December 2010 121,451 people were registered with their principal residence in Wolfsburg. Until the end of 2012 this number climbed up to 123,144.", "Mariastein, Tyrol\nMariastein is the smallest municipality in the Kufstein district in the Austrian state of Tyrol located 4 kilometers north of Wörgl and 11.5 kilometers southwest of Kufstein. Already a fifteenth century pilgrimage destination, it became more so after a local statue of Mary, which had been removed to Bavaria in the late seventeenth century was said to have returned to the church in Mariastein on its own. At the center of the community is a 42-metre-tall \"Wohnturm\", a castle built in the fourteenth century atop a rock outcropping, and which contains 150 stairs. It is now a museum.", "Wachau\nSpitz is a small town with cobbled streets amidst vineyards and views of the Danube valley. It is from Krems. Occupied since Celtic times, it was first mentioned in 830. To the south of Spitz is the fortress of Hinterhaus.The town of Dürnstein was established in 1019 AD on a rocky promontory along a gentle curve of the Danube river, in the midst of the Wachau valley. Known then as Tirnstein, and described later as the \"most romantic place for the picturesque ancient terraced vineyards and monuments, in the Wachau\", it was built at an elevation of with fortifications for the settlement and protection against floods. It is 73 km upstream of Vienna. It now has a population of 936. The small walled town, located upstream of Krems, is known for its scenic environment. The town is also well known for some of the residential buildings on the main street; one such building is the refurbished building of Chorherrenstift, which was originally a monastery built in 1410. It was restored in the 18th century.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nThe name “Wolfstein” has appeared in many different spellings over the ages: \"Woluisstein\" (1275), \"Wolffestein\" (1387), \"Wolffstein\" (1438), \"Wolfsstein\" (1477), Wolfstein (1824). Also, in the local dialectal speech, the town is called \"Wolschde\".", "Wolfsthal\nThe city is located next to the Danube river and Bratislava in Slovakia. It is part of the Industrial Quarter \"Industrieviertel\" in Lower Austria.\nThe area of the municipality covers 21.78 square kilometers. 48.31 percent the area is forested.The mayor of the village is Gerhard Schödinger (ÖVP) and chief officer is Thomas Knaus.\nOn 19 September 2007 Gerhard Schödinger won the Centrope Prize. His engagement for social integration from Slovaks in Wolfsthal.", "Bad Lobenstein\nA legend describes how the inhabitants believe the town's name might have been established. It is believed that emperor Ludwig the Bavarian, who lived from 1328 to 1347 announced \"Praise the stone\" as he had lost and found his favourite dog in this region during hunting for deer. He was looking for the dog for quite a while until finally one of his knights found the tired and slightly injured dog lying on a stone. The knight caried the dog to his master, who was so grateful, he gave this piece of land as fief to the knight. In memory of this event, the place received the name Lobenstein and caried from now on the head of a bracke in its coat of arms.\nOn 4 August 1993 previously independent municipalities Helmsgrün and Lichtenbrunn got incorporated into the community of Bad Lobenstein. On 1 January 1997 also Unterlemnitz and in 1999 Oberlemnitz got in incorporated.", "Lichtenstein Castle (Württemberg)\nLichtenstein Castle () is a privately owned tourist attraction built in Gothic Revival style and located in the Swabian Jura of southern Germany. It was designed by Carl Alexander Heideloff and has been described as the \"fairy tale castle of Württemberg.\" It overlooks the Echaz valley near Honau, Reutlingen in the state of Baden-Württemberg. The modern castle was inspired by the novel \"Lichtenstein\" (1826) by Wilhelm Hauff and was built in 1840–1842. The ruins of the medieval castle that inspired the novel are a few hundred meters away. The name Lichtenstein translates as \"shining stone.\"", "Wolfsburg\nWolfsburg is famous as the location of Volkswagen AG's headquarters and the world's biggest car plant. The Autostadt is a visitor attraction next to the Volkswagen factory that features the company's model range: Audi, Bentley, Bugatti, Ducati, Lamborghini, MAN, Neoplan, Porsche, Scania, SEAT, Škoda Auto, TRATON AG, and Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles. Wolfsburg is one of the few German cities built during the first half of the 20th century. From its foundation on 1 July 1938 as a home for workers producing the \"KdF-Wagen\" (VW Beetle) until 25 May 1945, the city was called \"Stadt des KdF-Wagens bei Fallersleben\". In 1972, the population first exceeded 100,000.", "Dorsten\nDorsten is widely known today for its Jewish Museum of Westphalia which was established in 1987. In 2001, the last coal mine closed and the town celebrated its 750th jubilee with a festival in the old town.Dorsten has its own airfield. The airfield has a grass strip with a runway of and one government-sponsored hangar being used by the local gliding club.", "Würselen\nThe first mention of the town was as \"Wormsalt\" in 870. Between 1265-69, Duke Wilhelm IV of Jülich built the castle of Wilhelmstein. Since 1616 the town has been known as Würselen. In 1972, the neighbouring municipalities of Bardenberg and Broichweiden were incorporated into the town.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nBefore the Reformation, Wolfstein belonged to the parish of Zweikirchen, whereas Roßbach belonged to the parish of Tiefenbach. Only about the middle of the 15th century did Wolfstein get its own church in the town centre (on Wassergasse). This church, called \"St. Georg\" (“Saint George’s”), was the successor to the like-named chapel at Neu-Wolfstein Castle, where church services had been held until then.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nUntil 1905, the town's municipal area was limited to the area on the Lauter's left bank between Rutsweiler to the south, Lohnweiler to the north and Aschbach to the west. According to the original Bavarian cadastral survey (about 1840), Wolfstein's area measured 616 ha. In the 174 houses at that time lived 826 persons.", "Old Falkenstein Castle\nOld Falkenstein Castle ( or \"Burg Alt-Falkenstein\") in the Harz Mountains of Germany is the castle site or \"burgstall\" of a high medieval hill castle. It lies on the territory of Falkenstein/Harz in the state of Saxony-Anhalt in the district of Harz. It was built in the 11th century A.D. and destroyed in 1115.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nWolfstein's old schoolhouse was for a time used by BASF, the chamber of commerce and the CJD. It is foreseen that it will become the town museum and library, while Roßbach's old schoolhouse has already become a village community centre.", "Wolferstedt\nWolferstedt is a village and a former municipality in the Mansfeld-Südharz district, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Since 1 January 2010, it is part of the town Allstedt.", "Römerstein\nPresumably the settlement was in the Roman settlement back Clarenna. The identification of the Roman town Clarenna which is passed down through the Peutingertafel is, with the archaeological finds in Donnstetten very likely, but not absolutely certain.\n→ Main article: Castle Donnstetten\nThe municipality Römerstein originated during the Baden-Württemberg district reform on 1 January 1975 as a merger of the formerly independent municipalities Böhringen (with thatched hamlets and Aglishardt) Donnstetten and Zainingen. The entire current community area was formerly part of the district of Münsingen and came with its resolution 1973 the district of Reutlingen .\nCoat of Böhringen", "Blaustein\nAround 1750, the Alemanni settled in the area. The village was first mentioned in documents in 1225.\nFrom the lion rock (Schlossberg) are findings of the early bronze age. In 1983 the old school house/town hall was demolished and replaced by modern office and residential buildings.\n→ Main article: Herrlingen", "New Wolfstein Castle\nNot much is known about the origins of the castle. It was probably built by Rudolph of Habsburg between 1275 and 1324 in connexion with the founding of the town of Wolfstein, as part of the town's defences. It is first recorded in 1324 as \"Hus zu Wolvenstein\".", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nSignposted paths open the Königsberg and its environs to the hiker. The \"Glan-Lautertal-Höhenweg\", part of the \"Großer Westpfalzwanderweg\" (“Great West Palatinate Hiking Trail”) leads through the town's municipal area. Hiking destinations of particular note are the Laufhauser Weiher (pond), the Neu-Wolfstein and Alt-Wolfstein castle ruins, the Eisenknopf (peak) with its pavilion, the \"Zweikirche\", the \"Heidenburg\" (“Heathen Castle”) on the Kreimberg, the Selberg (545 m above sea level) with its lookout tower and the gliderport near Eßweiler. Worth seeing in the town itself are the inn “Zur Alten Schenke”, which from 1590 to 1753 was the town hall, today's town hall, the former \"Amtskellerei\", which was once an administrative centre, the Schlossplatz (“Castle Square”) with its \"Musikantenbrunnen\", a fountain celebrating the local tradition of the \"Musikanten\" (see the Hinzweiler article – sections \"History\" and \"Famous people\" – for more about this), the remodelled Schlossgasse (“Castle Lane”) with its \"Eulenbrunnen\" (“Owl Fountain”) and the remodelling area around the \"Alte Mühle\" (“Old Mill”, on Mühlgasse).", "Myślibórz\nIn the 16th century, Margrave Johann of Brandenburg-Küstrin converted the Neumark to Protestantism, seceded from Brandenburg and transferred his court from Soldin to Küstrin (now Kostrzyn nad Odrą, Poland). The Dominican monastery was dissolved. Soldin suffered heavy damage in the Thirty Years War, when it was overrun by the Imperial army under Albrecht von Wallenstein marching against King Kresten IV of Denmark. It began to recover only in the 18th century as a garrison town of the Kingdom of Prussia under Frederick the Great. When the German Empire was formed in 1871, Soldin was the capital of a rural district (\"Landkreis\") within the Prussian Province of Brandenburg. In the 19th century, Soldin was largely bypassed by the industrial revolution, and was not served by rail until 1888. Electrification came in 1898, and a municipal water system only in 1912. In the nearby forest, the Lituanica plane crash occurred on 17 July 1933.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nWolfstein's \"Stadtteile\" are the main townsite, also called Wolfstein (1,792), Roßbach (178) and Reckweilerhof (11). The figures are populations as at 2007.", "Wolfstein Castle\nWolfstein Castle was built as a fortification by the Bishop of Passau, Wolfger von Erla, around 1200. Before that, the surrounding land had been ceded to the bishops of Passau by Emperor Henry VI in 1193. In 1301, a place is first mentioned in a document as \"Purchstol zu Wolferstein und ein Wald dazu\", later Freyung. The castle itself served as a fortification, administrative base and episcopal hunting lodge. When the Prince-Bishopric of Passau was dissolved in 1803, Wolfstein was initially annexed by Austria. Three years later, the area went to the Kingdom of Bavaria after the Treaty of Pressburg. In 1806, the Bavarian \"Landgerichtsbezirk\" of Wolfstein was established with its headquarters at Schloss Wolfstein in the municipality (\"Landgemeinde\") of Ort. It belonged to the Lower Danube Circle (which became Lower Bavaria in 1838). In 1862, the new \"Landgerichtsbezirk\" of Waldkirchen was established from municipalities of the \"Landgerichtsbezirke\" of Wolfstein and Wegscheid and the former \"Landgericht\" of Wolfstein was renamed to the \"Landgericht\" of Freyung. Both \"Landgerichtsbezirke\" belonged to the \"Bezirksamt\" of Wolfstein. In 1938, the \"Bezirke\" were renamed \"Landkreise\". Since the incorporation of the municipality of Ort on 1 April 1954, Wolfstein Castle has stood on the territory of the town of Freyung. In 1972 the county of Wolfstein was dissolved.", "Wolfstein, Rhineland-Palatinate\nIn the “Bavarian Rhine District” (\"Bayerischer Rheinkreis\" – that is, the Bavarian Palatinate), Wolfstein was grouped into the \"Landkommissariat\" of Kusel (from 1862 \"Bezirksamt\" and from 1939 \"Landratsamt\").", "Kleinwallstadt\nIn Kleinwallstadt, then also known as Bischofswallstadt, which was converted to Christianity as early as the early 8th century, the Archbishop of Mainz established in 1023 a \"Vogtei\" and a tithe court over a great expanse of the Spessart (range). In the 12th and early 13th century, the Lords of Waldenberg were enfeoffed with the place. About 1185 they built a castle on a crag east of the community, but this had already been destroyed by the mid 13th century. (The remains of the \"Altes Schloss\" were explored by archaeologists in 2006 and 2007). From the 16th century, the Focke von Wallstadt family were resident in the community. Their seat, the “Ingelheimer Hof” next to the town hall, and all appurtenances passed in 1587 to the Echter von Mespelbrunn family, and thereafter to the Imperial Counts (\"Reichsgrafen\") of Ingelheim.\nUnder Archbishop Johann Schweikhard von Kronberg in 1611, 84 witches were put to death in Kleinwallstadt. Since the Thirty Years' War had wrought such devastation upon Kleinwallstadt and all records and documents had been destroyed, the Archbishop of Mainz issued new guild charters in 1733 for Kleinwallstadt and the surrounding villages. It can be inferred from these that earlier on in Kleinwallstadt and the surrounding area, quite a lively commercial life had taken hold, for the charters number 17 occupations, such as cooper, brewer, carpenter, mason, potter, dyer, glazier, stocking weaver and linen weaver. On the same grounds, the market rights, which had surely been granted earlier, were newly confirmed and chartered in 1737 by the Elector of Mainz.", "Wolfheze\nWolfheze, litterly meaning 'the young forest where wolves live', started as a living area at the slopes of the natural streams which still run the little valley. From very early days buriel mounts (1500 B.C.) can be found, one of these known as the 'Kings grave', for the remains found in it.\nIn the 10th or 11th century a stone church, approx. 8 meters wide and about 20 meters long, was built on what's today still called the 'Capellenheuvel' (chapels hill) A few farms (all disappeared), ground walls against game and crop fields built the former hamlet of 'Wolffheezen'. It must have been abandonned at the end of the 16th century. The last of the church remains were sold as building material as an historic source says in the year of 1624. The hamlet wasn't on this location by accident; routes for heavy traffic from Germany to the Netherlands went right through, as still can be seen by the deep trails in the heath.", "Frauenstein Castle (Wiesbaden)\nWhile the German name \"Frauen-stein\" can be translated \"women's stone\", it actually derives from \"Vrowenstein\", a name which first appears in the historical record in 1221. In that year, a deed names a Heinrich Bodo von Vrowenstein (in 1207/1209, he was mentioned as being from Idstein) as a lord of Frauenstein Castle. In the year 1231, a document of the Erbach monastery mentions a knight by the name of Siegfried von Frauenstein who was a marshal with the bishopric of Mainz. He was a descendant of an aristocratic Schierstein family (which would become extinct in 1380)." ]

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[ "Spanish Grand Prix\nThe first Spanish Grand Prix in 1913 was not actually run to the Grand Prix formula of the day, but to touring car rules, taking place on a 300-kilometre road circuit at Guadarrama, near Madrid, on the road to Valladolid.", "1975 Spanish Grand Prix\nIt was the 21st Spanish Grand Prix since the race was first held in 1913. It was the fourth, and last, Grand Prix to be held on the Montjuïc street circuit. The race was shortened to 29 of its scheduled 75 laps, a race distance of 109 kilometres. The race was won by German driver Jochen Mass driving a McLaren M23. It would be the only Formula One win of his career. Mass had just a second lead over the Lotus 72E of Belgian driver Jacky Ickx when the race was declared. Argentine racer Carlos Reutemann was declared third in his Brabham BT44B, a lap behind the race leaders after a penalty was given to Jean-Pierre Jarier. This was the final win by a German driver until Michael Schumacher won the 1992 Belgian Grand Prix." ]

[ "1955 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix\nThe 1955 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix was the first round of the 1955 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on 1 May 1955 at the Montjuïc circuit.", "Montjuïc circuit\nBy 1908 international motorsport was conducted at the Circuit Baix Penedès with the \"Copa Catalunya\". In 1923 the first Great automobile Prize of Spain in the permanent Sitges Terramar circuit was run near Barcelona. In 1932 a race was held on a street circuit with the start in the Montjuïc Park, wooded parkland on a hill above the city's harbour. The course of the 1933 east circuit of that race became the Montjuïc Circuit proper, holding the Penya Rhin Grand Prix.", "2011 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2011 Spanish Grand Prix, formally the Formula 1 Gran Premio de España Santander 2011, was a Formula One motor race that was held on 22 May 2011 at the Circuit de Catalunya in Barcelona, Spain. It was the fifth round of the 2011 Formula One season. The 66-lap race was won by the championship leader, Red Bull Racing's Sebastian Vettel after starting from second on the grid. McLaren's Lewis Hamilton finished in second place, and his teammate Jenson Button completed the podium in third position.", "2018 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2018 Spanish Grand Prix (formally known as the Formula 1 Gran Premio de España Emirates 2018) is a Formula One motor race that was held on 13 May 2018 at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya in Montmeló, Spain. The race was the fifth round of the 2018 Formula One World Championship and marked the forty-eighth running of the Spanish Grand Prix as a World Championship event since the inaugural season in , and the twenty-eighth time that a World Championship round had been held at the Barcelona-Catalunya circuit.", "2016 Mexican Grand Prix\nThe 2016 Mexican Grand Prix (formally known as the Formula 1 Gran Premio de México 2016) was the Formula One motor race run on 30 October 2016 at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in Mexico City, the eighteenth Mexican Grand Prix, and the sixteenth time that the race had been run as a World Championship event since the inaugural season in .", "1983 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix\nThe 1983 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix was the fifth round of the 1983 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on the weekend of 20–22 May 1983 at the Circuito Permanente del Jarama.", "Penya Rhin Grand Prix\nThe Penya Rhin Grand Prix was a Grand Prix motor racing event staged at the three different circuits in three different eras in Spain. The race was held intermittently over its history, sometimes for full-size Grand Prix cars, sometimes for sports cars. In the 1920s, it was held at a street circuit in Vilafranca del Penedès. In the 1930s the race was revived at a parkland circuit in Montjuïc. In the 1950s after the war it was held at the Pedralbes Circuit.", "2008 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2008 Spanish Grand Prix (formally the L Gran Premio de España Telefónica, 50th Telefónica Spanish Grand Prix) was a Formula One motor race held on 27 April 2008 at the Circuit de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain. It was the fourth race of the 2008 Formula One season. The 66-lap race was won by Kimi Räikkönen for the Ferrari team after starting from pole position. Felipe Massa finished second in the other Ferrari, and Lewis Hamilton was third in a McLaren.", "1951 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix\nThe 1951 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix was the first round of the 1951 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on 8 April 1951 at the Montjuïc circuit.", "Spanish Grand Prix\nAn attempt to revive the Spanish Grand Prix on a street circuit in the southwestern resort town of Furengirola for 1984 did not work out; but in 1985, the Mayor of Jerez commissioned a new racing circuit in his town to promote tourism and sherries. The track, the Circuito Permanente de Jerez, located near Seville in southern Spain was finished in time for the championship, which saw a furious battle between Ayrton Senna and Nigel Mansell, with the two cars finishing side by side. Senna won by 0.014 seconds—one of F1's closest finishes. 1987 saw Mansell win in his Williams; and 1989 saw Senna drive a hard race to keep himself in the championship points; he won the event from Austrian Gerhard Berger in a Ferrari and the Brazilian's hated McLaren teammate, Frenchman Alain Prost. The 1990 event was the last Spanish Grand Prix at Jerez (although Jerez did stage the European Grand Prix in 1994 and 1997). During the practice, Martin Donnelly's Lotus was destroyed in a high-speed crash, and the Briton was ejected from the car. He was severely injured, but survived; he never raced in Formula One again. Jerez's remote location did not help build large crowds for the race, combined with Donnelly's appalling crash into Armco barriers close to the track did nothing to help Jerez's reputation; although the circuit was popular with the F1 fraternity. Ferrari finished first and second in the race, with Prost finishing ahead of Mansell.", "Grand Prix motor racing\nAs early as October 1923, the idea of an automobile championship was discussed at the annual autumn conference of the AIACR (Association Internationale des Automobile Clubs Reconnus) in Paris. However, discussion centered on the increased interest in racing by manufacturers and holding the first European Grand Prix at Monza in 1923. The first World Championship took place in 1925, but it was for manufacturers only, consisting of four races of at least in length. The races that formed the first Constructors' Championship were the Indianapolis 500, the European Grand Prix, and the French and Italian Grands Prix. A European Championship, consisting of the major Grand Prix in a number of countries (named \"Grandes Epreuves\") was instituted for drivers in 1931, and was competed every year until the outbreak of World War II in 1939 with the exception of 1933 and 1934.", "Portuguese Grand Prix\nThe first event was held on the Boavista street course in Porto on 17 June 1951 as a sports car race. The Grand Prix was moved to Monsanto Park, Lisbon, in 1954 as a one-off. Monsanto, like the Boavista circuit was a hazardous street circuit lined with trees and had lots of elevation change and fast sweepers; but Monsanto was quite wide as opposed to Boavista, which was narrow. Sportscar events continued until 1957 when the following year it became part of the Formula One world championship. The first Formula One race was held on 14 August 1958 in Boavista. This circuit was situated in a hazardous area; it was laid out through the town and included sections of cobbled street and even tramlines. British drivers Stirling Moss in a Vanwall and Mike Hawthorn in a Ferrari were at the top of the championship table, battling it out for the first eight rain-interrupted laps. Moss then pulled away as Hawthorn slipped behind Frenchman Jean Behra in a BRM until the British car hit spark plug problems. But the drama was only just beginning as a protest was made against Hawthorn who, it was claimed, when he had restarted his car had driven a few yards in the wrong direction, which was against the rules and meant that Hawthorn was to be disqualified. As soon as he heard it, Moss headed to the stewards and told them Hawthorn had been off the course when he was spotted and that was not against the rules. Moss's evidence swung the decision, and no action was taken. Had the protest been upheld, Hawthorn would have lost seven points – six for finishing second and an extra one for recording the fastest lap. In the event, Moss's intervention allowed Hawthorn to win the Drivers' Championship title by one point – from Moss. This race was followed in 1959 by a Grand Prix at Monsanto, which was won again by Moss, this time in a mid-engined Cooper. Australian Jack Brabham hit a telegraph pole after swerving to hit the twice lapped local driver Mario Cabral; Brabham was thrown out of the car and landed on the track; he was then narrowly missed by American Masten Gregory. After this race, Monsanto Park was abandoned, and F1 returned to Boavista in 1960; this race was won by Brabham in a Cooper. The Portuguese Grand Prix was then discontinued and did not return until 1984.", "1922 French Grand Prix\nThe 1922 French Grand Prix (formally the XVI Grand Prix de l'Automobile Club de France) was a Grand Prix motor race held at Strasbourg on 15 July 1922. The race was run over 60 laps of the 13.38km circuit for a total distance of just over 800km and was won by Felice Nazzaro driving a Fiat. This race is notable as the first French Grand Prix to feature a massed start.", "1978 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1978 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 4 June 1978 at Jarama. It was the seventh race of the 1978 World Championship of F1 Drivers and the 1978 International Cup for F1 Constructors. The 75-lap race was won from pole position by Mario Andretti, driving a Lotus-Ford, with teammate Ronnie Peterson second and Jacques Laffite third in a Ligier-Matra.", "2009 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2009 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 10 May 2009 at the Circuit de Catalunya in Barcelona, Spain. It was the fifth race of the 2009 Formula One season.", "European motorcycle Grand Prix\nBetween 1924 and 1948, the European Grand Prix was not a race in its own right but just an honorific title; one of the national Grands Prix was also designated as the European Grand Prix. The first race to be so named was the 1924 Nations Grand Prix, held at the Monza circuit in Italy. Until 1937, the winners of the race designated the European Grand Prix were awarded the title of European champion. In 1938, the European championship became decided over a series of races and the European Grand Prix designation was not used again until 1947, although no longer awarding the European championship title.", "1970 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1970 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at the Jarama circuit on 19 April 1970. It was race 2 of 13 in both the 1970 World Championship of Drivers and the 1970 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers.", "1977 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix\nThe 1977 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix was the fifth round of the 1977 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on 22 May 1977 at the Circuito Permanente del Jarama.", "2018 Mexican Grand Prix\nThe 2018 Mexican Grand Prix (formally known as the Formula 1 Gran Premio de México 2018) was a Formula One motor race held on 28 October 2018 at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in Mexico City. The race was the nineteenth round of the 2018 Formula One World Championship and marked the twentieth running of the Mexican Grand Prix, and the nineteenth time that the race had been run as a World Championship event since the inaugural season in .", "1989 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1989 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Jerez on 1 October 1989. The race, contested over 73 laps, was the fourteenth race of the 1989 Formula One season and was won from pole position by Ayrton Senna, driving a McLaren-Honda. Gerhard Berger was second in a Ferrari, while Senna's teammate and Drivers' Championship rival Alain Prost was third.", "Spanish Grand Prix\nThree of the 17 races at this track between 1991 and 2017 have not been won from pole.\"Drivers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season\"\n\"A pink background indicates an event that was not part of the Formula One World Championship.\"", "1976 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix\nThe 1976 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix was the twelfth and final round of the 1976 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on 19 September 1976 at the Circuito del Montjuïc.", "Alex Soler-Roig\nHis first race in Formula 1 was at the 1970 Spanish Grand Prix with a Lotus 49. Race organisers limited the race to 16 starters, resulting in Soler-Roig failing to qualify, despite lapping only a tenth of a second slower than Mario Andretti. However, on race morning there was a suggestion that the non-qualifiers might be allowed to start after all, so their cars were placed on the grid, only for the organisers to stick to their original decision, removing Soler-Roig's car from the grid as well as those of Jo Siffert and Andrea de Adamich. He subsequently participated at the Belgian Grand Prix, driving the Lotus 72 that was meant for Jochen Rindt. However, the car was not ready for Friday´s practice and he only managed to complete three laps in Saturday's qualifying, and was therefore not allowed to start the race. His final Formula One outing for the season was another non-qualification at the French Grand Prix in a 49. He won the Spanish GT-Sport Championship that same year.", "1980 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1980 Spanish Grand Prix (formally the XXVI Gran Premio de España) was a Formula One motor race held on 1 June 1980 at Circuito Permanente del Jarama. Originally scheduled to be part of the 1980 World Championship of Drivers, following the running of the race it was announced that World Championship points would not be awarded to the competitors, making it a non-championship race. The winner of the race was Alan Jones, driving for the Williams team. Jochen Mass finished second for Arrows and Elio de Angelis third for Team Lotus.", "1977 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1977 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 8 May 1977 at the Circuito del Jarama near Madrid, Spain. It was the fifth race of the 1977 World Championship of F1 Drivers and the 1977 International Cup for F1 Constructors.", "Montjuïc circuit\nIn 1968, Montjuïc was selected as the venue for the Spanish Grand Prix, which had been held at the Jarama circuit in Madrid, with the inaugural Grand Prix being held there on May 4, 1969. The variable character of the anticlockwise course (with one half slow and the other very fast) made setting the cars up correctly a challenge.", "1999 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1999 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 30 May 1999 at the Circuit de Catalunya near Barcelona, Spain. It was the fifth race of the 1999 Formula One season. The 65-lap race was won from pole position by Mika Häkkinen, driving a McLaren-Mercedes, with team-mate David Coulthard second and Michael Schumacher third in a Ferrari.", "1969 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1969 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at the Montjuïc circuit on 4 May 1969. It was race 2 of 11 in both the 1969 World Championship of Drivers and the 1969 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers.", "Mexican Grand Prix\nThe Mexican Grand Prix was first held on 4 November 1962 at the Magdalena Mixhuca circuit. The circuit was the first international racetrack in Mexico and was built within a park in the center part of capital city of Mexico City. The race provided unique challenges for racing, standing at 2,240 (7,340 ft) above sea level, as well as the long, 180-degree, lightly banked and fast Peraltada corner that finishes the lap, in addition to being a bumpy racetrack from actively shifting soils beneath the circuit. The Mexican Grand Prix of this period was always the season finale Grand Prix, held in late October.", "Argentine Grand Prix\nThe Buenos Aires Grand Prix was an event first started in 1930 as a sportscar event held at the Costanera circuit until 1940 and switched to the Retiro circuit for 1941. After a six-year break and by then Juan Peron in office, racing resumed in 1947 at Retiro with the start of the South American \"Temporada\" Grand Prix series, competing twice that year under the Formula Libre regulations. Italian Luigi Villoresi won all 1947 Temporada events. The race regularly attracted Brazilian and European drivers and also Argentine drivers competing in Europe, such as Juan Manuel Fangio and José Froilán González. For the 1948 Grand Prix season, the race was moved to the Palermo circuit where it would remain to host six of twelve \"Peron Cup\" races until the end of 1950. In 1951, the Costanera Norte circuit would host its last three Grand Prix events before completion of the Autodromo 17 de Octubre (October 17), a purpose-built circuit where the championship Formula One Argentine Grand Prix was held on different variants of the facility from 1953 to 1960, 1972 to 1981 and 1995 to 1998.", "1980 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe Spanish Grand Prix was the first race to be affected as part of the FISA-FOCA war. Future races such as the 1981 South African Grand Prix and 1982 San Marino Grand Prix would also see teams not compete as the two organisations competed for control of the sport.", "1976 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1976 Spanish Grand Prix (formally the XXII Gran Premio de España) was a Formula One motor race held at the Circuito del Jarama in Madrid, Spain on 2 May 1976. The race was the fourth round of the 1976 Formula One season. The race was the 22nd Spanish Grand Prix and the sixth to be held at Jarama. The race was held over 75 laps of the 3.404-kilometre circuit for a total race distance of 255 kilometres.", "1988 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1988 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 2 October 1988 at the Circuito Permanente de Jerez, Jerez de la Frontera. It was the fourteenth race of the 1988 Formula One season.", "2016 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2016 Spanish Grand Prix (formally known as the Formula 1 Gran Premio de España Pirelli 2016) was a Formula One motor race held on 15 May 2016 at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya in Montmeló, Spain. The race was the fifth round of the 2016 FIA Formula One World Championship, and marked the forty-sixth running of the Spanish Grand Prix as a round of the Formula One World Championship. It was the twenty-sixth time that the race has been held at the circuit.", "2003 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2003 Spanish Grand Prix (formally the XLV Gran Premio Marlboro de España) was a Formula One motor race held on 4 May 2003 at the Circuit de Catalunya in Barcelona, Spain. It was the fifth round of the 2003 Formula One season and the forty-fifth Spanish Grand Prix. The 65-lap race was won by Michael Schumacher in a Ferrari car after starting from pole position. Fernando Alonso finished second driving for the Renault team with Rubens Barrichello third in the other Ferrari.", "Spanish Grand Prix\nThe Spanish Grand Prix () is a Formula One race currently held at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya in Barcelona. The race is one of the oldest in the world still contested, celebrating its centenary in 2013. The race had modest beginnings as a production car race. Interrupted by the First World War, the race waited a decade for its second running before becoming a staple of the European calendar. It was promoted to the European Championship in 1935 before the Spanish Civil War brought an end to racing. The race was successfully revived in 1967 and has been a regular part of the Formula One World Championship since 1968 at a variety of venues.", "2000 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2000 Spanish Grand Prix (formally the XLII Gran Premio Marlboro de España) was a Formula One motor race held on 7 May 2000 at the Circuit de Catalunya, Montmeló, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It was the fifth round of the 2000 Formula One season and the 42nd Spanish Grand Prix. The 65-lap race was won by McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen who started from the second position. His teammate David Coulthard finished second and Rubens Barrichello finished third in a Ferrari.", "Penske PC1\nThe first race of 1975 was the 1975 Argentine Grand Prix and Donohue finished seventh. Donohue retired from the Brazilian Grand Prix because of a handling issue. The South African Grand Prix saw Donohue finish eighth. Donohue retired from the Spanish Grand Prix when he and Alan Jones (Hesketh) crashed after hitting oil dropped onto the circuit by the car of Jody Scheckter (Tyrrell). The Monaco Grand Prix saw Donohue abandon the race after he had an accident. Donohue finished 11th at Belgium. The Swedish Grand Prix saw Donohue finish fifth. The American finished eighth at Holland. The French Grand Prix saw Donohue retire from the race due to transmission failure.", "French Grand Prix\nThe 1906 race was the first ever Grand Prix, which was an event that originated from the Gordon Bennett Cup races that had started in 1899. This race was run on a 66-mile (106km) closed public road circuit starting at the western French town of Le Mans, through a series of villages and back again to Le Mans. Hungarian Ferenc Szisz won this very long 12hour race on a Renault from Italian Felice Nazzaro in a Fiat, where laps on this circuit took around an hour and the horse carriage road surface was made of dirt. The 1908 race saw Mercedes humiliating the French organizers and finishing 1-2-3 at the lethal circuit at Dieppe, where no less than 4 people were killed during the weekend. The 1913 race was won by Georges Boillot on a one-off 19-mile (31km) circuit near Amiens in northern France. Amiens was another extremely deadly circuit – it had a 7.1 mile straight and 5 people were killed during its use during pre-race testing and the race weekend itself. The 1914 race, run on a 24mile circuit near Lyon is perhaps the most legendary Grand Prix of the preWWI racing era. This was a hard-fought battle between the French Peugeots and the German Mercedes. Although the Peugeots were fast and Boillot ended up leading for 12 of the 20 laps the Dunlop tyres they used wore out badly compared to the Continentials that the Mercedes cars were using. Boillot's four-minute lead was wiped out by Christian Lautenschlager in a Mercedes while he stopped an incredible eight times for tyres. Although Boillot drove very hard to try to catch Christian Lautenschlager, he had to retire on the last lap due to engine failure, and for the second time in 6 years Mercedes finished 1–2–3; a humiliating result for the organizers and Peugeot.", "Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez\nBuilt in the Magdalena Mixhuca public park in 1959, the circuit hosted its first Formula One Grand Prix in 1962, as a non-Championship race. The following year the Mexican Grand Prix became a full World Championship event. The circuit remained part of the F1 calendar through 1970, when spectator overcrowding caused unsafe conditions. When the track re-opened in 1986, the circuit boasted a new pit complex, as well as improved safety all around. In 2001 CIE and Forsythe Racing tasked D3 Motorsport Development with revamping the circuit. A redesign to include the Foro and a complete upgrade of the circuit was done. It saw a record crowd of 402,413 people attend a round of the CART Championship in 2002. As of 2018, the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez has been the only venue for the F1 Mexican Grand Prix.", "2015 Mexican Grand Prix\nThe 2015 Mexican Grand Prix (formally known as the Formula 1 Gran Premio de México 2015) was a Formula One motor race held at the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in Mexico City on 1 November 2015. The race, which was contested over seventy-one laps, was the seventeenth race of the 2015 Formula One season. It marked the seventeenth time that the Mexican Grand Prix had been run as a round of the Formula One World Championship since its inception in , and the first time that the race had been run since .", "1951 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1951 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 28 October 1951 at Pedralbes Circuit. It was the eighth and final race of the 1951 World Championship of Drivers.", "1979 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix\nThe 1979 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix was the fifth round of the 1979 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on the weekend of 18–20 May 1979 at the Circuito Permanente del Jarama.", "Formula One\nSix of the original seven races took place in Europe; the only non-European race that counted towards the World Championship in 1950 was the Indianapolis 500, which was held to different regulations and later replaced by the United States Grand Prix. The F1 championship gradually expanded to other non-European countries. Argentina hosted the first South American Grand Prix in , and Morocco hosted the first African World Championship race in . Asia (Japan in ) and Oceania (Australia in ) followed, and the first race in the Middle East was held in . The nineteen races of the season were spread over every populated continent except for Africa, with ten Grands Prix held outside Europe.\nSome of the Grands Prix, such as the oldest recognised event the French Grand Prix, pre-date the formation of the World Championship and were incorporated into the championship as Formula One races in 1950. The British and Italian Grands Prix are the only events to have been held every Formula One season; other long-running races include the Belgian, German and French Grands Prix. The Monaco Grand Prix, first held in 1929 and run continuously since 1955, is widely considered to be one of the most important and prestigious automobile races in the world.", "2015 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2015 Spanish Grand Prix, formally titled the Formula 1 Gran Premio de España Pirelli 2015, was a Formula One motor race held on 10 May 2015 at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya in Montmeló, Spain. The race was the fifth round of the season and marked the forty-fifth running of the Spanish Grand Prix as a round of the Formula One World Championship and the twenty-fifth running at Catalunya. Mercedes driver Nico Rosberg took his first win of the season, his first in Spain and the ninth of his career. His team-mate Lewis Hamilton finished second after a bad start, followed by Sebastian Vettel in third.", "2012 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2012 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race that was held on 13 May 2012 at the Circuit de Catalunya in Barcelona, Spain. It was the fifth round of the 2012 season and the twenty-second time the Spanish Grand Prix been held at the circuit. The race was supported by the GP2 and GP3 Series.", "1990 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1990 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Jerez on 30 September 1990. It was the fourteenth race of the 1990 FIA Formula One World Championship, and the fifth and last Spanish Grand Prix to be held at Jerez (though the circuit would host the European Grand Prix in and ).", "1975 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1975 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Montjuïc circuit on 27 April 1975. It was race 4 of 14 in both the 1975 World Championship of Drivers and the 1975 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers. It is one of the most controversial and tragic race weekends in the sport's history after the death of five spectators who were hit by the crashing Hill GH1 of Rolf Stommelen. It was also the race in which Lella Lombardi became the first and so far only woman to score points towards the World Championship and future world champion Alan Jones made his first start.", "Circuito Retiro\nThe Circuito Retiro, commonly known as the Retiro Circuit was a Grand Prix street circuit in Buenos Aires (Argentina). The 2.410 km (1.497 m) circuit is best known for hosting the first official Buenos Aires Grand Prix (I Gran Premio Ciudad de Buenos Aires, official name: Gran Premio Juan Domingo Perón) on February 9, 1947, as the first organized international event by the Automóvil Club Argentino.", "1951 British Grand Prix\nThe 1951 British Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 14 July 1951 at the Silverstone Circuit in Northamptonshire, England. It was race 5 of 8 in the 1951 World Championship of Drivers and was contested over 90 laps. The race was the first victory for José Froilán González, and was also the first of many for the Scuderia Ferrari team. Both the team and driver also achieved their first ever pole position during the weekend.", "1968 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1968 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Jarama Circuit on 12 May 1968. It was race 2 of 12 in both the 1968 World Championship of Drivers and the 1968 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers. It was the first race after the death of former double World Champion Jim Clark, who had died in a non-championship Formula Two event in Hockenheim, Germany the previous month. Clark had led the drivers' championship before this race, on 9 points, after he won in the first race in South Africa.", "1962 Mexican Grand Prix\nThe I Gran Premio de Mexico (or 1st Mexican Grand Prix) was held on 4 November 1962 at the Magdalena Mixhuca circuit, Mexico City. The race was a non-championship event run to Formula One rules and attracted a large entry, including many top teams and drivers. The race was run over 60 laps of the main circuit, and was eventually won by Jim Clark and Trevor Taylor, sharing a drive in a Lotus 25. The race meeting was marred by the death during practice of local driving prodigy Ricardo Rodríguez. The circuit would later be renamed the \"Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez\" to honour him and his brother Pedro.", "1937 San Remo Grand Prix\nThe first San Remo Grand Prix was a non-championship event, held on July 25, 1937, for 1500 cc Voiturette class Grand Prix cars and ran counter clockwise on a 1.862 km (1.157 m.) street circuit in the town of San Remo, known as the San Remo Circuit (Circuito di San Remo, official name: Circuita Stracittadino di San Remo)", "Mexican Grand Prix\nThere had been a number of attempts to bring the Mexican Grand Prix back on the F1 calendar. American IndyCars arrived for a brief two-year visit in 1980 and 1981, racing as the Gran Premio Tecate on the Magdalena Mixhuca track now named for Mexico's two lost racing heroes, Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez. The event was dominated by Rick Mears. A number of years later, work began on rebuilding the Hermanos Rodríguez circuit with much improved organisation. The circuit's layout was slightly shorter, the Peraltada's banking had been eased and the circuit was generally much safer than it had been. The Grand Prix returned in 1986 where the race played host to Austrian Gerhard Berger's first race win in his Benetton B186, in a race where an ill Berger outlasted his opposition as tyre problems struck most of the field. The circuit was still very rough and bumpy, however. 1987 saw the race being run in two parts. It was stopped around mid-distance when Briton Derek Warwick crashed heavily coming out of the Peraltada. Brazilian driver Nelson Piquet actually finished first on the road, but because his Williams teammate Nigel Mansell was 30 seconds ahead when the first race ended, Mansell kept Piquet in sight and won the race on corrected time.", "1971 Formula One season\nThe Spanish Grand Prix in 1971 was held at the spectacularly fast and challenging Montjuic Park city street circuit in Barcelona; the year previous it was held at the tight and twisty Jarama permanent circuit near Madrid in 1970 as part of a rotation with the Catalan circuit. The Ferraris of Ickx and Regazzoni were 1-2 on the grid respectively, followed by Amon, Stewart, Rodriguez, Beltoise, Gethin and Andretti; 6 of the first 8 cars had 12-cylinder engines- a testament to the power needed to do well at Montjuic Park. The race was a rather different matter however, as Stewart made a lightning start to second place at the start, chasing Ickx. On lap six the Scot forced his way into the lead. Behind the leaders, Amon overtook Regazzoni for third place on lap 3, but then the order settled down. Stewart began to increase his lead over Ickx while Amon ran third; Regazzoni went out on lap 13 with a fuel pump failure which promoted Rodriguez to fourth place with Andretti fifth and Denny Hulme sixth in his McLaren-Ford. In the mid-race Andretti disappeared with an engine problem and so Hulme moved to fifth place and Beltoise took sixth. In the closing laps Ickx closed the gap to Stewart but he was still 3.4secs behind at the finish, ahead of Amon.", "European Grand Prix\nFrom to the European Grand Prix took place in Valencia, Spain. During the 2009 event, Valencia signed a deal for a further 5 races, which put Valencia on the calendar until 2014. Despite this, in March 2012, it was announced that the European Grand Prix was to be discontinued in 2013, with the Spanish Grand Prix planned to alternate between Barcelona and Valencia. However, Barcelona has retained the race since 2013, and the Valencia circuit was removed from the calendar.", "1965 Mexican Grand Prix\nThe 1965 Mexican Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Ciudad Deportiva Magdalena Mixhuca in Mexico City on October 24, 1965. It was race 10 of 10 in both the 1965 World Championship of Drivers and the 1965 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers. The race was won by Richie Ginther, who took his first victory and the first for the Honda team, after leading for the entire race. The Brabham-Climax of Dan Gurney finished the race second and the Lotus-Climax of Mike Spence completed the podium.", "2005 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix\nThe 2005 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix was the first round of the 2005 MotoGP Championship. It took place on the weekend of 8–10 April 2005 at Jerez.", "1969 Mexican Grand Prix\nThe 1969 Gran Premio de Mexico (Mexican Grand Prix) was a Formula One motor race held at the Ciudad Deportiva Magdalena Mixhuca, Mexico City on October 19, 1969, two weeks after the United States Grand Prix at Watkins Glen. It was race 11 of 11 in both the 1969 World Championship of Drivers and the 1969 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers. The 65-lap race was won by McLaren driver Denny Hulme after he started from fourth position. Jacky Ickx finished second for the Brabham team and his teammate Jack Brabham came in third.", "Spanish Grand Prix\nFrom , the Spanish Grand Prix was due to alternate every year between Catalunya and the Valencia Street Circuit. However, this did not happen—Valencia dropped out for financial reasons and Catalunya remained the sole host of the Spanish Grand Prix.", "French Grand Prix\nBeginning in the early 1920s, French media represented eight races held in France before 1906 as being Grands Prix de l'Automobile Club de France, leading to the first French Grand Prix being known as the ninth Grand Prix de l'ACF. This was done to give the Grand Prix the appearance of being the world's oldest motor race. The winners of these races, along with their original titles, are listed here.", "Luxembourg Grand Prix\nIn 1997, there were two Grands Prix in Spain and two in Germany. Barcelona hosted the Spanish Grand Prix whilst Jerez hosted the European Grand Prix; in Germany, Hockenheim hosted the German Grand Prix and a second race was planned for the Nürburgring. The FIA decided to name the race the Luxembourg Grand Prix as the circuit was located some from the Germany–Luxembourg border, thereby circumventing the ban on two races having the same name. The 1998 race was also known as the Luxembourg Grand Prix despite no European Grand Prix taking place: the rights to the European Grand Prix had been revoked from the organisers of the Jerez race after an incident on the podium in 1997, and they refused to allow the Nürburgring to use the title in 1998. From 1999 to 2007, the Nürburgring hosted its race under the title of the European Grand Prix. And then, since in 2008–2012 the European Grand Prix race was held at the Valencia Street Circuit, the race at the Nürburgring returned to its main title of the German Grand Prix for the races held there in 2009, 2011, and 2013.", "1997 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1997 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 25 May 1997 at the Circuit de Catalunya.", "Spanish Grand Prix\nIn 1968, Jarama hosted the Spanish Grand Prix, near the beginning of the F1 season. It was agreed, following this event, that the race would alternate between the tight, slow and twisty Jarama and the fast, wide and sweeping Montjuïc, and the Montjuïc circuit hosted its first Formula One race in 1969, with Briton Jackie Stewart winning. Jarama would get the race in even-numbered years, and Montjuïc in odd-numbered years. 1970 was a race that saw Belgian Jacky Ickx and Briton Jackie Oliver get involved in a fiery accident; with Ickx and Oliver escaping with burns. The race was won by Stewart, he won again the next year after holding off 3 more powerful 12-cylinder engined cars. Austrian Niki Lauda won his first of 25 races in 1974. The 1975 event was marked by tragedy. There had been concerns about track safety during practice races, as the Armco barriers surrounding the city streets of the Montjuïc circuit had not been fastened down properly. There were a number of protests, and the drivers refused to race. The organizers panicked, and they threatened to lock the cars inside the stadium where they stayed while not being raced. The drivers and teams relented; but double-winner Emerson Fittipaldi retired in protest after a single lap. On the 26th lap of the race, Rolf Stommelen's car crashed when the rear wing broke off, killing four spectators. The race was stopped on the 29th lap and won by Jochen Mass, though only half the points were awarded.", "German Grand Prix\nThe first national event in German Grand Prix motor racing was held at the AVUS (Automobil Verkehrs und Übungs-Straße (Automobile Traffic and Practice Road)) race circuit in southwestern Berlin in 1926 as a sports car race. The AVUS circuit was made up of two 6-mile straights combined with two left-hand hairpins at each end. The first race at AVUS, in heavy rain, was won by Germany's native son, Rudolf Caracciola in a Mercedes-Benz. The event was marred by Adolf Rosenberger's crash into one of the marshals' huts, killing three people. The AVUS circuit was considered extremely dangerous even back then- so the event was moved. The German \"Grand Prix\" became an official event in 1929. Although it was raced on in the non-championship AVUS-Rennen in the 1930s which saw some of the fastest road races ever held, the Grand Prix would not return to AVUS until 1959 for a one-off appearance.", "Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez\nIt was announced in May 2012, that the circuit would again host the Mexican Grand Prix from 2013, in a five-year deal that would see it replace the European Grand Prix in Valencia, but this did not happen. The FIA listed the Mexican Grand Prix as the 19th round of the provisional schedule for the 2014 season, but it was not on the finalized schedule. The Mexican Grand Prix was listed on the 2015 Formula One calendar published by the FIA on 3 December 2014, with Formula One making its return to the circuit with the race on 1 November 2015.", "Tony Brise\nBrise made his Grand Prix debut on 27 April 1975 for Williams at the Spanish Grand Prix in Montjuic Park near Barcelona, a controversial race marred by strikes over safety issues, a high number of crashes, and the deaths of four spectators. Brise finished seventh in this race, two laps behind the leaders, his race affected by a collision with Tom Pryce.", "1998 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix\nThe 1998 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix was the third round of the 1998 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on 3 May 1998 at the Circuito Permanente de Jerez.", "2006 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2006 Spanish Grand Prix (formally the XLVIII Gran Premio Telefónica de España) was a Formula One motor race held on 14 May 2006 at the Circuit de Catalunya in Barcelona, Spain. It was the sixth round of the 2006 Formula One season and the forty-eighth Spanish Grand Prix. The 66-lap race was won by Fernando Alonso for the Renault team, from a pole position start. Michael Schumacher finished second in a Ferrari with Alonso's teammate Giancarlo Fisichella third.", "European Grand Prix\nThe European Grand Prix was created as an honorific title by the AIACR, the FIA's predecessor in the organisation of motor racing events. The first race to receive the title was the Italian Grand Prix, in 1923; the French Grand Prix followed in 1924 and the Belgian Grand Prix in 1925. After a hiatus in 1929, the Belgian race received the title in 1930, becoming the last race to do so before World War II.", "Montjuïc circuit\nThe Montjuïc circuit is a former street circuit located on the Montjuïc mountain in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. The circuit was also the venue for the Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix from 1950 to 1968, and then hosted the event on even-numbered years until 1976. The last Formula One Grand Prix held there in 1975, is notable for both a fatal crash that led to Formula One abandoning the venue and the only occasion to date that a female driver has scored World Championship points.", "1988 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix\nThe 1988 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix was the third round of the 1988 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on the weekend of 22–24 April 1988 at the Circuito Permanente Del Jarama.", "1974 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe Spanish Grand Prix marked the debuts of the Trojan and Amon teams, as well as Liechtensteiner driver Rikky von Opel. Jorge de Bagration, a local driver of Georgian royal descent, was to have taken part in the race, driving a Surtees TS16 with sponsorship from department store El Corte Inglés, but missed out due to a very unusual set of circumstances: the outgoing president of the Spanish Motor Sport Federation cleared his office, taking with him all paper files including the official entry list for the race; a replacement list was hurriedly drawn up that omitted de Bagration, whose sponsorship had just fallen through. Despite this, de Bagration should still have been included on the replacement list, regardless whether or not he would have been able to race.", "1974 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 84-lap race was won from pole position by Austrian driver Niki Lauda, driving a Ferrari. It was Lauda's first Formula One victory. Swiss teammate Clay Regazzoni finished second, with Brazilian Emerson Fittipaldi third in a McLaren-Ford.", "Gran Premio de Madrid\nAn earlier Gran Premio de Madrid, for 3 year olds over 2500 meters, was instituted in 1881 at the Hipódromo de la Castellana in Madrid. It was first called the Gran Premio de Madrid, changed to the Gran Premio Nacional, and then La Copa de su Majesdad el Rey. The modern-day Gran Premio de Madrid is considered to have been instituted in 1919, first held at Casa Real el Hipódromo de Aranjuez/Legamarejo; it was opened to older horses, and intended as an international race. It was moved to the Hipódromo de la Castellana until that racecourse closed in 1933. In 1933 it returned to its original venue at Aranjuez, and in 1934-35 was run at San Sebastián. In 1941 it was moved to the new Hipódromo de la Zarzuela. La Zarzuela went bankrupt in 1994, and the race was not held until new management re-opened the course in 2006. In 2006, after a 13-year hiatus, a 2,400-metre Gran Premio de Madrid was run, and the new weight conditions were 59.5 kilograms for 4 years and older and 52 kilograms for 3 years of age.", "1969 Madrid Grand Prix\nThe 1969 Madrid Grand Prix was a Formula One non-championship race held at Jarama, Madrid on 13 April 1969, run over 40 laps of the circuit. The field only included two Formula One cars however, the remainder being Formula 5000 and Formula Two cars.", "1974 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1974 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 28 April 1974 at the Circuito Permanente del Jarama near Madrid, Spain. It was race 4 of 15 in both the 1974 World Championship of Drivers and the 1974 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers.", "1984 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix\nThe 1984 Spanish motorcycle Grand Prix was the third round of the 1984 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season. It took place on the weekend of 5–6 May 1984 at the Circuito Permanente del Jarama.", "Gran Premio de Madrid\nThe winner of the first edition of the Gran premio de Madrid, in 1919, was the French thoroughbred Nouvel An (son of also French stallion \"Jacobi\".", "1967 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1967 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One non-championship race held at Jarama on 12 November 1967.", "Grand Prix motor racing\nFor the most part, races were run over a lengthy circuit of closed public roads, not purpose-built private tracks. This was true of the Le Mans circuit of the 1906 \"Grand Prix\", as well as the \"Targa Florio\" (run on of Sicilian roads), the German \"Kaiserpreis\" circuit in the Taunus mountains, and the French circuit at Dieppe (a mere ), used for the 1907 Grand Prix. The exceptions were the steeply banked egg-shaped near oval of Brooklands in England, completed in 1907, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, first used in 1909 with the first Indianapolis 500-Mile Race in 1911, and the Autodromo Nazionale Monza, in Italy, opened in 1922.\nIn 1908, the United States of America became the first country outside France to host an automobile race using the name Grand Prix (or Grand Prize), run at Savannah. The first Grande Épreuve outside France was the 1921 Italian Grand Prix held at Montichiari. This was quickly followed by Belgium and Spain (in 1924), and later spread to other countries including Britain (1926). Strictly speaking, this still wasn't a formal championship, but a loose collection of races run to various rules. (A \"formula\" of rules had appeared just before World War I, finally based on engine size as well as weight, but it was not universally adopted.)", "Montjuïc\nThe roads in the slopes facing the city were once the Montjuïc circuit Formula One race track, hosting the Spanish Grand Prix on four occasions. However, a terrible accident in the 1975 race saw Rolf Stommelen's car crash into the stands, killing four people; as a result the Spanish Grand Prix never returned to Montjuïc circuit.", "Sport in Spain\nSpain has hosted four Grand Prix motorcycle racing events. They include the Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix, the Spanish Grand Prix, the Aragon motorcycle Grand Prix, and the Valencian Community motorcycle Grand Prix. Most events have received high attendance numbers.", "1953 Argentine Grand Prix\nThe 1953 Argentine Grand Prix was race 1 of 9 in the 1953 World Championship of Drivers, which was run to Formula Two regulations in 1952 and 1953. The race was held in Buenos Aires on January 18, 1953, at the Autódromo Galvez (official name: Autódromo Juan y Óscar Gálvez, also known as the Autódromo 17 de Octubre) as the first official Formula One race in South America. Previously, the Indianapolis 500 (part of the Formula One championship calendar from 1950 to 1960) was the only Formula One championship race held outside Europe but run to AAA regulations.", "1994 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1994 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 29 May 1994 at the Circuit de Catalunya, Barcelona. It was the 36th Spanish Grand Prix to be held since the first was held at Guadarrama in 1913. It was the fourth to be held at Circuit de Catalunya. It was the fifth race of the 1994 Formula One season.", "2007 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2007 Gran Premio de España Telefónica was a Formula One motor race, fourth round of the 2007 Formula One season, won by Felipe Massa. It was held on 13 May 2007 at the Circuit de Catalunya in Spain.", "Brazilian Grand Prix\nA Brazilian Grand Prix was first held in 1972 at Interlagos, although it was not part of the Formula One World Championship. Typical of European motorsports at the time, this race was done as a test to convince the FIA if the Interlagos circuit and its organizers could capably hold a Grand Prix. Like most major circuits used for Grands Prix in Latin America such as the Hermanos Rodríguez Autodrome in Mexico City and the Almirante Brown Autodrome in Buenos Aires, Interlagos was (and still is) located in the confines of a sprawling urban neighborhood in a very large city. The following year, however, the race was first included in the official calendar, and it was won by defending world champion and São Paulo native Emerson Fittipaldi. In 1974, Fittipaldi won again in rain soaked conditions, and the year after, another São Paulo native, Carlos Pace, won the race in his Brabham, followed by Fittipaldi. 1977 was won by Reutemann, but the drivers began complaining about Interlagos's very rough surface, and the event was then relocated for a year to the new Jacarepaguá circuit in Rio de Janeiro.", "Buenos Aires Grand Prix (motor racing)\nThe Buenos Aires Grand Prix was a motor race held in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The event was first held at the Costanera circuit from the early 1930s until 1936 and then continued in 1941 at the Retiro circuit. After a six-year break and General Juan Peron in office, racing resumed at Retiro in 1947 with the start of the South American \"Temporada\" Grand Prix series to be contested twice a year under Formula Libre regulations. Italian Luigi Villoresi won all 1947 Temporada events. The race regularly attracted Brazilian and European drivers and also Argentine drivers such as Juan Manuel Fangio and José Froilán González were now competing in Europe on a regular basis. For the 1948 Grand Prix season, the race was moved to the Palermo circuit where it would remain to host six of twelve \"Peron Cup\" races until the end of 1950. In 1951, the Costanera Norte circuit would host its last three Grand Prix events before the 1951 completion of the Autodromo 17 de Octubre (October 17), a purpose-built circuit for major Grand Prix series which would host various editions of the Buenos Aires Grand Prix from 1952 until 2009 with the exception of the 1956 event held at the General San Martin circuit in Mendoza.", "First Spanish Republic\nThe Republic of Spain (officially in Spanish \"República de España\"), commonly known as the First Spanish Republic to distinguish it from the Spanish Republic of 1931–39, was the short-lived political regime that existed in Spain between the parliamentary proclamation on 11 February 1873 and 29 December 1874 when General Arsenio Martínez Campos's \"pronunciamiento\" marked the beginning of the Bourbon Restoration in Spain. The Republic's founding started with the abdication as King on 10 February 1873 of Amadeo I, following the , when he had been required by the radical government to sign a decree against the artillery officers. The next day, 11 February, the republic was declared by a parliamentary majority made up of radicals, republicans and democrats.", "1947 Buenos Aires Grand Prix (I)\nThe first of two 1947 Buenos Aires Grand Prix (official name: I Gran Premio del General Juan Perón, also known as the I Gran Premio Ciudad de Buenos Aires) was a Grand Prix motor race held at the Retiro street circuit in Buenos Aires on February 8–9, 1947. The scheduled competitions opened on February 8 with two preliminary rounds of the Mecánica Argentina - Fuerza Limitada and Mecánica Argentina - Fuerza Libre classes for a combined final which determined the qualification for the February 9, Formula Libre main event.", "1966 Mexican Grand Prix\nThe 1966 Mexican Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at the Ciudad Deportiva Magdalena Mixhuca on October 23, 1966. It was race 9 of 9 in both the 1966 World Championship of Drivers and the 1966 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers. The race was the fifth Mexican Grand Prix. The race was held over 65 laps of the circuit for a race distance of . It was the first run under the new three-litre formula.", "Sport in Spain\nIn Formula One the two world championships of Fernando Alonso, in 2005 and 2006, have made the sport popular in Spain. It was, until 2012, the only country to host two Grands Prix, the Spanish Grand Prix in Barcelona and the European Grand Prix on the Valencia Street Circuit, which was discontinued for 2013.", "1980 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe Spanish Grand Prix was originally scheduled to be the seventh round of the 1980 World Championships. Coming into the race, Brabham driver Nelson Piquet led the World Championship of Drivers, one point ahead of Renault's René Arnoux. Williams driver Alan Jones was third, a further two points behind and Ligier driver Didier Pironi was fourth, two points behind Jones. The Constructors' Championship was led by Williams with 34 points, with second place Ligier five points behind. Brabham were third with 22 points and Renault fourth with 21 points.", "Moroccan Grand Prix\nThe Moroccan Grand Prix (Arabic: سباق الجائزة الكبرى المغربي) was a Grand Prix first organised in 1925 in Casablanca, Morocco with the official denomination of \"Casablanca Grand Prix\".", "2001 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2001 Spanish Grand Prix (formally the XLIII Gran Premio Marlboro de Espana) was a Formula One motor race held on 29 April 2001 at the Circuit de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain. It was the fifth round of the 2001 Formula One season. The 65-lap race was won by Michael Schumacher driving a Ferrari car after starting from pole position. Juan Pablo Montoya finished second driving a Williams car with Jacques Villeneuve third for the BAR team.", "2016 Spanish Grand Prix\nIn the Grand Prix, Max Verstappen broke several records: apart from being the youngest ever driver to win a race at 18 years and 228 days, he also was the youngest to stand on a Formula One podium, in both instances breaking Sebastian Vettel's record set at the 2008 Italian Grand Prix by more than two years. Vettel had been 21 years and 2 months at the time. Verstappen also became the youngest driver to lead at least one lap of a Grand Prix, again overcoming a record set by Vettel, at the 2007 Japanese Grand Prix. Verstappen also was the first driver born in the 1990s to win a Grand Prix. He received considerable praise after the race, with Sky Sports F1's David Croft saying that he \"has shown he has everything to be a world champion\". His father Jos Verstappen, himself a former Grand Prix driver, declared that he considered his son a better driver than himself, as race wins had eluded him during his own career in the sport. French sport newspaper \"L'Équipe\" declared Verstappen to be \"already a great\" and \"in the big leagues\". Verstappen was also the first Dutchman to win a race, with the Netherlands becoming the 22nd country to produce a race winner. He was the tenth different winner of the Spanish Grand Prix in as many past editions.", "1996 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 1996 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 2 June 1996 at the Circuit de Catalunya.", "Grand Prix motor racing\nThe only race at the time to regularly carry the name Grand Prix was organised by the Automobile Club de France (ACF), of which the first took place in 1906. The circuit used, which was based in Le Mans, was roughly triangular in shape, each lap covering . Six laps were to run each day, and each lap took approximately an hour using the relatively primitive cars of the day. The driving force behind the decision to race on a circuit - as opposed to racing on ordinary roads from town to town - was the Paris to Madrid road race of 1903. During this race a number of people, both drivers and pedestrians - including Marcel Renault - were killed and the race was stopped by the French authorities at Bordeaux. Further road based events were banned.", "1970 Spanish Grand Prix\nPrior to the race, the organisers of the Grand Prix sparked anger amongst the members of FOCA when they limited the number of starters to only sixteen. To add to the chaos, none of the laps set on Friday were counted towards qualifying. On the morning before the race, the matter seemed resolved and the organisers initially reversed their decision, and those who failed to qualify looked as if they would be allowed to start. The Commission Sportive Internationale then stepped in and forced the Spanish organisers to revert to the original limit of sixteen starters, and the cars that failed to qualify were wheeled off the grid.\nThe race was won by defending world champion Jackie Stewart, driving a March 701. American driver Mario Andretti took his first Formula One podium in third place. The race was marred by a serious accident involving Jackie Oliver and Jacky Ickx. Both their cars burst into flames, and Ickx was slightly burned after his race overalls became soaked in burning fuel. He recovered sufficiently to be able to compete in the next race, however, at Monaco. Bruce McLaren scored his last podium, points and race finish.", "2017 Spanish Grand Prix\nThe 2017 Spanish Grand Prix (formally known as the Formula 1 Gran Premio de España Pirelli 2017) was a Formula One motor race held on 14 May 2017 at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya in Montmeló, Spain. The race was the fifth round of the 2017 FIA Formula One World Championship and marked the forty-seventh running of the Spanish Grand Prix as a World Championship event since the inaugural season in , and the twenty-seventh time that a World Championship round had been held at Catalunya." ]

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[ "Menopause\nMenopause, also known as the climacteric, is the time in most women's lives when menstrual periods stop permanently, and they are no longer able to bear children. Menopause typically occurs between 49 and 52 years of age. Medical professionals often define menopause as having occurred when a woman has not had any vaginal bleeding for a year. It may also be defined by a decrease in hormone production by the ovaries. In those who have had surgery to remove their uterus but still have ovaries, menopause may be viewed to have occurred at the time of the surgery or when their hormone levels fell. Following the removal of the uterus, symptoms typically occur earlier, at an average of 45 years of age.\nIn the years before menopause, a woman's periods typically become irregular, which means that periods may be longer or shorter in duration or be lighter or heavier in the amount of flow. During this time, women often experience hot flashes; these typically last from 30 seconds to ten minutes and may be associated with shivering, sweating, and reddening of the skin. Hot flashes often stop occurring after a year or two. Other symptoms may include vaginal dryness, trouble sleeping, and mood changes. The severity of symptoms varies between women. While menopause is often thought to be linked to an increase in heart disease, this primarily occurs due to increasing age and does not have a direct relationship with menopause. In some women, problems that were present like endometriosis or painful periods will improve after menopause.\nMenopause is usually a natural change. It can occur earlier in those who smoke tobacco. Other causes include surgery that removes both ovaries or some types of chemotherapy. At the physiological level, menopause happens because of a decrease in the ovaries' production of the hormones estrogen and progesterone. While typically not needed, a diagnosis of menopause can be confirmed by measuring hormone levels in the blood or urine. Menopause is the opposite of menarche, the time when a girl's periods start.\nSpecific treatment is not usually needed. Some symptoms, however, may be improved with treatment. With respect to hot flashes, avoiding smoking, caffeine, and alcohol is often recommended. Sleeping in a cool room and using a fan may help. The following medications may help: menopausal hormone therapy (MHT), clonidine, gabapentin, or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Exercise may help with sleeping problems. While MHT was once routinely prescribed, it is now only recommended in those with significant symptoms, as there are concerns about side effects. High-quality evidence for the effectiveness of alternative medicine has not been found. There is tentative evidence for phytoestrogens.", "Menopause\nThe menopause transition typically begins between 40 and 50 years of age (average 47.5). The duration of perimenopause may be for up to eight years. Women will often, but not always, start these transitions (perimenopause and menopause) about the same time as their mother did.", "Menopause\nMenopause typically occurs between 49 and 52 years of age. The majority of women have their last period between the ages of 48 and 55. The average age of the last period in the United States is 51 years, in the United Kingdom is 52 years, in Ireland is 50 years and in Australia is 51 years. In India and the Philippines, the median age of natural menopause is considerably earlier, at 44 years. The menopausal transition or perimenopause leading up to menopause usually lasts 7 years (sometimes as long as 14 years).", "Sex differences in human physiology\nFemale fertility declines after age 30 and ends with the menopause. Female physical experiences vary depending on external forces such as diet, marriage patterns, culture, and other aspects. In Western nations menstruation begins to affect females at 13 and menopause starts around 51. In non-industrialized countries, on the other hand, most females begin menstruation at a later age. More lactation in the lifetime of non-western females inhibits ovulation and extends the number of fertile years. Pregnancy in the 40s or later has been correlated with increased risk of Down syndrome in the children. Males are capable of fathering children into old age. Paternal age effects in the children include multiple sclerosis, autism, breast cancer and schizophrenia, as well as reduced intelligence. Adriana Iliescu was reported as the world's oldest woman to give birth, at age 66. Her record stood until Maria del Carmen Bousada de Lara gave birth to twin sons at Sant Pau Hospital in Barcelona, Spain on December 29, 2006, at the age of 67. In both cases IVF was used. The oldest known father was former Australian miner Les Colley, who fathered a child at age 93." ]

[ "Menstrual cycle\nThe cessation of menstrual cycles at the end of a woman's reproductive period is termed menopause. The average age of menopause in women is 52 years, with anywhere between 45 and 55 being common. Menopause before age 45 is considered \"premature\" in industrialised countries. Like the age of menarche, the age of menopause is largely a result of cultural and biological factors; however, illnesses, certain surgeries, or medical treatments may cause menopause to occur earlier than it might have otherwise.", "Menstrual cycle\nThe menstrual cycle is the regular natural change that occurs in the female reproductive system (specifically the uterus and ovaries) that makes pregnancy possible. The cycle is required for the production of oocytes, and for the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy. Up to 80% of women report having some symptoms during the one to two weeks prior to menstruation. Common symptoms include acne, tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability and mood changes. These symptoms interfere with normal life and therefore qualify as premenstrual syndrome in 20 to 30% of women. In 3 to 8%, they are severe.\nThe first period usually begins between twelve and fifteen years of age, a point in time known as menarche. They may occasionally start as early as eight, and this onset may still be normal. The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world and earlier in developed world. The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women and 21 to 35 days in adults (an average of 28 days). Menstruation stops occurring after menopause which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age. Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days.\nThe menstrual cycle is governed by hormonal changes. These changes can be altered by using hormonal birth control to prevent pregnancy. Each cycle can be divided into three phases based on events in the ovary (ovarian cycle) or in the uterus (uterine cycle). The ovarian cycle consists of the follicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase whereas the uterine cycle is divided into menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase.", "Menopause\nIn contrast to the sudden fall in estradiol during menopause, the levels of total and free testosterone, as well as dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) and androstenedione appear to decline more or less steadily with age. An effect of natural menopause on circulating androgen levels has not been observed. Thus specific tissue effects of natural menopause cannot be attributed to loss of androgenic hormone production.", "Menstrual disorder\n\"Amenorrhea\" is the absence of a menstrual period in a woman of reproductive age. Physiologic states of amenorrhoea are seen during pregnancy and lactation (breastfeeding). Outside of the reproductive years there is absence of menses during childhood and after menopause.", "Irritable male syndrome\nThe term was popularized by author Jed Diamond in 2004 as being related to \"andropause\", a concept he had earlier popularized. According to Diamond, andropause is a change of life in middle-aged men, which has hormonal, physical, psychological, interpersonal, social, sexual, and spiritual aspects. He says that this change occurs in all men, may occur as early as age 45 to 50 and more dramatically after the age of 70 in some men, and that women's and men's experiences are somewhat similar phenomena.", "North American Menopause Society\nThe North American Menopause Society (NAMS), founded in 1989, is a nonprofit, multidisciplinary organization with the mission of promoting the health and quality of life of women during midlife and beyond through an understanding of menopause and healthy aging. Based in Cleveland, Ohio, NAMS has more than 2,000 members from 51 countries, with 88% of its members from North America.Its membership includes experts from many disciplines such as medicine, nursing, sociology, psychology, nutrition, anthropology, epidemiology, pharmacy, and education.", "Gem Theatre\n2005-2006 \"Menopause the Musical\"", "Menopause\nThe male-biased philopatry theory proposes that male-biased philopatry in social species leads to increased relatedness to the group in relation to female age, making inclusive fitness benefits older females receive from helping the group greater than what they would receive from continued reproduction, which eventually lead to the evolution of menopause. In a pattern of male-biased dispersal and local mating, the relatedness of the individuals in the group decreases with female age, leading to a decrease in kin selection with female age. This occurs because a female will stay with her father in her natal group throughout life, initially being closely related to the males and females. Females are born and stay in the group, so relatedness to the females stays about the same. However, throughout time, the older male relatives will die and any sons she gives birth to will disperse, so that local relatedness to males, and therefore the whole group, declines. The situation is reversed in species where males are philopatric and either females disperse, or mating is non-local. Under these conditions, a female’s reproductive life begins away from her father and paternal relatives because she was either born into a new group from non-local mating or because she dispersed. In the case of female-biased dispersal, the female is initially equally unrelated with every individual in the group, and with non-local mating, the female is closely related to the females of the group, but not the males since her paternal relatives are in another group. As she gives birth, her sons will stay with her, increasing her relatedness to males in the group overtime and thus her relatedness with the overall group. The common feature that connects these two otherwise different behaviors is male-biased philopatry, which leads to an increase in kin selection with female age.", "Sexual dysfunction\nThe female sexual response system is complex and even today, not fully understood. The most prevalent of female sexual dysfunctions that have been linked to menopause include lack of desire and libido; these are predominantly associated with hormonal physiology. Specifically, it is the decline in serum estrogens that causes these changes in sexual functioning. Androgen depletion may also play a role, but currently this is less clear. The hormonal changes that take place during the menopausal transition have been suggested to affect women's sexual response through several mechanisms, some more conclusive than others.", "Yanomami\nThe start of \"menstruation\" symbolizes the beginning of womanhood. Girls typically start menstruation around the age of 12-15. Girls are often betrothed before menarche and the marriage may only be consummated once the girl starts menstruating, though the taboo is often violated and many girls become sexually active before then. The Yanomami word for menstruation (\"roo\") translates literally as \"squatting\" in English, as they use no pads or cloths to absorb the blood. Due to the belief that menstrual blood is poisonous and dangerous, girls are kept hidden away in a small tent-like structure constructed of a screen of leaves. A deep hole is built in the structure over which girls squat, to \"rid themselves\" of their blood. These structures are regarded as isolation screens.", "Menopause\nThe menopausal transition, and postmenopause itself, is a natural change, not usually a disease state or a disorder. The main cause of this transition is the natural depletion and aging of the finite amount of oocytes (ovarian reserve). This process is sometimes accelerated by other conditions and is known to occur earlier after a wide range of gynecologic procedures such as hysterectomy (with and without ovariectomy), endometrial ablation and uterine artery embolisation. The depletion of the ovarian reserve causes an increase in circulating follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels because there are fewer oocytes and follicles responding to these hormones and producing estrogen.", "Late-onset hypogonadism\nThe terms \"male menopause\" and \"andropause\" are used in the popular media and are misleading, as they imply a sudden change in hormone levels similar to what women experience in menopause. A decrease in libido in men as a result of age is sometimes colloquially referred to as \"penopause\".", "Menopause\nDuring early menopause transition, the menstrual cycles remain regular but the interval between cycles begins to lengthen. Hormone levels begin to fluctuate. Ovulation may not occur with each cycle.", "Menopause\nIn younger women, during a normal menstrual cycle the ovaries produce estradiol, testosterone and progesterone in a cyclical pattern under the control of FSH and luteinizing hormone (LH), which are both produced by the pituitary gland. During perimenopause (approaching menopause), estradiol levels and patterns of production remain relatively unchanged or may increase compared to young women, but the cycles become frequently shorter or irregular. The often observed increase in estrogen is presumed to be in response to elevated FSH levels that, in turn, is hypothesized to be caused by decreased feedback by inhibin. Similarly, decreased inhibin feedback after hysterectomy is hypothesized to contribute to increased ovarian stimulation and earlier menopause.", "Hormone replacement therapy\nIt is commonly perceived that once women near the end of their reproductive years and enter menopause that this equates to the end of her sexual life. However, especially since women today are living one third or more of their lives in a postmenopausal state, maintaining, if not improving, their quality of life, of which their sexuality can be a key determinant, is of importance. A recent study of sexual activities among women aged 40–69 revealed that 75% of women are sexually active at this age; this indicates that the sexual health and satisfaction of menopausal women are an aspect of sexual health and quality of life that is worthy of attention by health care professionals.", "Menopause\nPremenopause is a term used to mean the years leading up to the last period, when the levels of reproductive hormones are becoming more variable and lower, and the effects of hormone withdrawal are present. Premenopause starts some time before the monthly cycles become noticeably irregular in timing.", "Menopause\nSymptoms that may appear during menopause and continue through postmenopause include:", "Women's Health Initiative\nThe WHI trial was limited by low adherence, high attrition, inadequate power to detect risks for some outcomes, and evaluation of few regimens. Subsequent to publication of the WHI, controversy arose regarding the applicability of its findings to women just entering menopause. To be properly double blinded, the study required that women not be perimenopausal or have symptoms of menopause. As the average age of menopause is 51, this resulted in an older study population, with an average age of 63. Only 3.5% of the women were 50–54 years of age, the time when women usually decide whether to initiate hormonal therapy. Further analysis of WHI data, however, demonstrated that there is no gained preventive benefit in starting hormone therapy soon after menopause.", "Menopause\nThe date of the final menstrual period is usually taken as the point when menopause has occurred. During the menopausal transition and after menopause, women can experience a wide range of symptoms.", "International Menopause Society\nThe Society's official journal, \"Climacteric\", the Journal of Adult Women's Health and Medicine, was founded in 1998 and is listed in Index Medicus/MEDLINE. The editors-in-Chief are Anna Fenton (New Zealand), and Nick Panay (United Kingdom). It publishes international, original, peer-reviewed research on all aspects of aging in men and women, especially during the menopause and climacteric. The content of the journal covers the whole range of subject areas relevant to climacteric studies and adult women’s health and medicine, including underlying endocrinological changes, treatment of the symptoms of the menopause and other age-related changes, hormone replacement therapies, alternative therapies, effective life-style modifications, non-hormonal midlife changes, and the counselling and education of perimenopausal and postmenopausal patients.", "Menstruation\nFor many women, primary dysmenorrhea gradually subsides in late second generation. Pregnancy has also been demonstrated to lessen the severity of dysmenorrhea, when menstruation resumes. However, dysmenorrhea can continue until menopause. 5–15% of women with dysmenorrhea experience symptoms severe enough to interfere with daily activities.", "Menopause\nThe reason for this delay in declaring postmenopause is because periods are usually erratic at this time of life. Therefore, a reasonably long stretch of time is necessary to be sure that the cycling has ceased. At this point a woman is considered infertile; however, the possibility of becoming pregnant has usually been very low (but not quite zero) for a number of years before this point is reached.", "Hot flash\nThe hot-flash event may be repeated a few times each week or every few minutes throughout the day. Hot flashes may begin to appear several years before menopause starts and last for years afterwards. Some women undergoing menopause never have hot flashes. Others have mild or infrequent flashes. The worst sufferers experience dozens of hot flashes each day. In addition, hot flashes are often more frequent and more intense during hot weather or in an overheated room, the surrounding heat apparently making the hot flashes themselves both more likely to occur, and more severe.", "Sexual motivation and hormones\nFollowing natural or surgically induced menopause, many women experience declines in sexual motivation. Menopause is associated with a rapid decline of estrogen, as well as a steady rate of decline of androgens. The decline of estrogen and androgen levels is believed to account for the lowered levels of sexual reproduction desire and motivation in postmenopausal women, although the direct relationship is not well understood.", "Hyperandrogenism\nOne such cause is the end of ovulation and the beginning of menopause. When the body transitions from ovulation to menopause, it stops releasing estrogen at faster rate than it stops releasing androgens. In some cases, estrogen levels can drop enough that there are substantially higher androgen levels leading to hyperandrogenism. A decrease in sex hormone levels while the free androgen index increases helps to aid this process, as well.", "Female promiscuity\nIt is common for sex drive to diminish dramatically after menopause. A number of studies, including Alfred Kinsey's, have concluded that the average age group in which women are the most active sexually is their mid-thirties, one study liberally estimating 27-45 as the limits of the age group (the average man peaks earlier). Women in this age group typically report having sexual fantasies greater in number and intensity, engaging in sexual activity more frequently, and being more interested in casual sex.", "Menopause The Musical\nWritten by Jeanie Linders, Menopause The Musical debuted March 28, 2001 in Orlando, Florida. The original cast members were Shelly Browne as the Power (later Professional) Woman, Patti McGuire as the Iowa Housewife, Pammie O'Bannon as the Earth Mother and Wesley Williams as the Soap Star. The musical follows four women shopping for lingerie at a Bloomingdale's sale sing 25 songs about chocolate cravings, hot flashes, loss of memory, nocturnal sweats, and sexual predicaments. The lyrics parody popular music from the baby boomer era, and includes the numbers \"Stayin' Awake\" and \"Puff, My God I'm Draggin'.\"", "International Menopause Society\nThe International Menopause Society (IMS) is a UK based charity. The Association was created in 1978 in Jerusalem during the second Menopause Congress and currently has members in 62 countries. In addition to organizing congresses, symposia, and workshops, the IMS owns its own journal: Climacteric, the Journal of Adult Women's Health and Medicine, published by Informa Healthcare. The IMS has three sub-organs: CAMS, the Council of Affiliated Menopause Societies, the WSSM, the World School for the Study of the Menopause and the CPP, the Council of Past Presidents.", "Age and female fertility\nThe average age of a young woman's first period (menarche) is 12 to 13 (12.5 years in the United States, 12.72 in Canada, 12.9 in the UK) but, in postmenarchal girls, about 80% of the cycles are anovulatory in the first year after menarche, 50% in the third and 10% in the sixth year. A woman's fertility peaks in her early and mid-20s after which it starts to decline. However, the exact estimates of the chances of a woman to conceive after a certain age are not clear, and are subject to debate.", "Women's health\nWomen's menstrual cycles, the approximately monthly cycle of changes in the reproductive system, can pose significant challenges for women in their reproductive years (the early teens to about 50 years of age). These include the physiological changes that can effect physical and mental health, symptoms of ovulation and the regular shedding of the inner lining of the uterus (endometrium) accompanied by vaginal bleeding (menses or menstruation). The onset of menstruation (menarche) may be alarming to unprepared girls and mistaken for illness. Menstruation can place undue burdens on women in terms of their ability to participate in activities, and access to menstrual aids such as tampons and \"sanitary pads\". This is particularly acute amongst poorer socioeconomic groups where they may represent a financial burden and in developing countries where menstruation can be an impediment to a girl's education.", "Folliculogenesis\nThe supply of follicles decreases slightly before birth, and to 180,000 by puberty for the average case (populations at puberty range from 25,000 to 1.5 million). By virtue of the \"inefficient\" nature of folliculogenesis (discussed later), only 400 of these follicles will ever reach the preovulatory stage. At menopause, only 1,000 follicles remain. It seems likely that early menopause occurs for women with low populations at birth, and late menopause occurs for women with high populations at birth, but there is as yet no clinical evidence for this.", "Age and female fertility\nA woman's fertility peaks in the early and mid-20s, after which it starts to decline slowly. While many sources suggest a more dramatic drop at around 35, this is unclear since studies are still cited from the nineteenth century and earlier. One 2004 study of European women found fertility of the 27–34 and the 35–39 groups had only a four-percent difference. At age 45, a woman starting to try to conceive will have no live birth in 50–80 percent of cases. Menopause, or the cessation of menstrual periods, generally occurs in the 40s and 50s and marks the cessation of fertility, although age-related infertility can occur before then. The relationship between age and female fertility is sometimes referred to as a woman's \"biological clock.\"", "Henopause\nHenopause, a wordplay combination of \"hen\" and \"menopause\", is sometimes used to refer to the point at which hens stop laying eggs. Although daily egg production starts to tail off after 1 year old, it may continue until 5–7 years old. Older hens gradually produce fewer eggs, and the eggs are usually larger. Since the average lifespan of a pet layer hen is 8–15 years, henopause has received attention as a potential problem for backyard or urban chicken farmers who are eventually faced with the decision to either slaughter older layers or keep them as non-producing pets. In the UK, the British Hen Welfare Trust charity rescues commercial hens who would otherwise be sent to slaughter when they become no longer commercially viable. In commercial farming, a layer hen is considered no longer commercially viable at around thirteen months and is called a \"spent hen\".", "Menopause\nWomen who have undergone hysterectomy with ovary conservation go through menopause on average 3.7 years earlier than the expected age. Other factors that can promote an earlier onset of menopause (usually 1 to 3 years early) are smoking cigarettes or being extremely thin.", "Menopause\nIn Japanese culture, reporting of vasomotor symptoms has been on the increase, with research conducted by Melissa Melby in 2005 finding that of 140 Japanese participants, hot flashes were prevalent in 22.1%. This was almost double that of 20 years prior. Whilst the exact cause for this is unknown, possible contributing factors include significant dietary changes, increased medicalisation of middle-aged women and increased media attention on the subject. However, reporting of vasomotor symptoms is still significantly lower than North America.", "Menopause\nPsychological symptoms include anxiety,\npoor memory,\ninability to concentrate,\ndepressive mood,\nirritability,\nmood swings, less interest in sexual activity.", "Menopause\nPremature ovarian failure (POF) is the cessation of the ovarian function before the age of 40 years. It is diagnosed or confirmed by high blood levels of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) on at least three occasions at least four weeks apart.", "Hysterectomy\nThe average onset age of menopause after hysterectomy with ovarian conservation is 3.7 years earlier than average. This has been suggested to be due to the disruption of blood supply to the ovaries after a hysterectomy or due to missing endocrine feedback of the uterus. The function of the remaining ovaries is significantly affected in about 40% of women, some of them even require hormone replacement treatment. Surprisingly, a similar and only slightly weaker effect has been observed for endometrial ablation which is often considered as an alternative to hysterectomy.", "Postmenopausal confusion\nResearch on menopause as a whole declined with the end of the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) studies, but research on the treatment of symptoms associated with menopause—especially the treatment of cognitive decline—continues. New research refutes the WHI findings that estrogen therapy (ET) is not a useful treatment for menopausal symptoms. This is especially shown in Alzheimer's research as the Women's Health Initiative Memory Study refuted the argument that a decline in oestrogens and progestogens seen during menopause increases vulnerability to neurodegenerative diseases. Mice are the main subject for research involving the effects of estrogen on brain health, cognition, and neurodegenerative disorders, and research in this area continues.", "Menopause\nHuman primary oocytes are present at an intermediate stage of meiosis, termed prophase I (see Oogenesis). Expression of four key DNA repair genes that are necessary for homologous recombinational repair during meiosis (BRCA1, MRE11, Rad51, and ATM) decline with age in oocytes. This age-related decline in ability to repair DNA double-strand damages can account for the accumulation of these damages, that then likely contributes to the depletion of the ovarian reserve.", "Postmenopausal confusion\nDuring menopause, the amygdala, which controls emotion, and the prefrontal cortex, which regulates judgment, become more regular. Estrogens, a group of hormones including estradiol and estrone, are secreted by the ovaries and the secretion is regulated by leutenizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), both of which are produced by the pituitary gland. In women, estrogen levels fluctuate during the menstrual cycle but reach a steady decline and then remain at low levels postmenopause.", "Menotropin\nMenotropin (also called human menopausal gonadotropin or hMG) is a hormonally active medication for the treatment of fertility disturbances. Frequently the plural is used as the medication is a mixture of gonadotropins. Menotropins are extracted from the urine of postmenopausal women.", "Late-onset hypogonadism\nPopular interest in the concept of \"andropause\" was fueled by the 1998 book \"Male Menopause\", written by Jed Diamond, a lay person. According to Diamond's view, andropause is a change of life in middle-aged men, which has hormonal, physical, psychological, interpersonal, social, sexual, and spiritual aspects. Diamond claims that this change occurs in all men, may occur as early as age 45 to 50 and more dramatically after the age of 70 in some men, and that women's and men's experiences are somewhat similar phenomena. The language of \"andropause\" and its supposed parallels with menopause have been rejected by the medical community.", "Menopause\nIn rare cases, a woman's ovaries stop working at a very early age, ranging anywhere from the age of puberty to age 40. This is known as premature ovarian failure and affects 1 to 2% of women by age 40.", "Menopause\nIt also appears effective for preventing bone loss and osteoporotic fracture, but it is generally recommended only for women at significant risk for whom other therapies are unsuitable.", "Libido\nAlthough some specialists disagree with this theory, menopause is still considered by the majority a factor that can cause decreased sex desire in women. The levels of estrogen decrease at menopause and this usually causes a lower interest in sex and vaginal dryness which makes intercourse painful. However, the levels of testosterone increase at menopause and this may be why some women may experience a contrary effect of an increased libido.", "Greene Menopause Index\nThe Greene Menopause Index, also known as the Greene Climateric Scale, is a questionnaire a tool used by researchers to study the symptoms of menopause. It is a standard list of 21 questions which women use to rate how much they are bothered by menopause symptoms such as hot flashes, night sweats, rapid heartbeat, and difficulty sleeping.", "Menopause\nRates of premature menopause have been found to be significantly higher in fraternal and identical twins; approximately 5% of twins reach menopause before the age of 40. The reasons for this are not completely understood. Transplants of ovarian tissue between identical twins have been successful in restoring fertility.", "Menopause\nSome believe a problem concerning the grandmother hypothesis is that it requires a history of female philopatry, while in the present day the majority of hunter-gatherer societies are patrilocal. However, there is disagreement split along ideological lines about whether patrilineality would have existed before modern times. Some believe variations on the mother, or grandmother effect fail to explain longevity with continued spermatogenesis in males (oldest verified paternity is 94 years, 35 years beyond the oldest documented birth attributed to females). Notably, the survival time past menopause is roughly the same as the maturation time for a human child. That a mother's presence could aid in the survival of a developing child, while an unidentified father's absence might not have affected survival, could explain the paternal fertility near the end of the father's lifespan. A man with no certainty of which children are his may merely attempt to father additional children, with support of existing children present but small. Note the existence of partible paternity supporting this. Some argue that the mother and grandmother hypotheses fail to explain the detrimental effects of losing ovarian follicular activity, such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, Alzheimer's disease and coronary artery disease.", "Amenorrhea\nThe social effects of amenorrhoea on a person vary significantly. Amenorrhoea is often associated with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders, which have their own effects. If secondary amenorrhoea is triggered early in life, for example through excessive exercise or weight loss, menarche may not return later in life. A woman in this situation may be unable to become pregnant, even with the help of drugs. Long-term amenorrhoea leads to an estrogen deficiency which can bring about menopause at an early age. The hormone estrogen plays a significant role in regulating calcium loss after ages 25–30. When her ovaries no longer produce estrogen because of amenorrhoea, a woman is more likely to suffer rapid calcium loss, which in turn can lead to osteoporosis. Increased testosterone levels cause by amenorrhoea may lead to body hair growth and decreased breast size. Increased levels of androgens, especially testosterone, can also lead to ovarian cysts. Some research among amenorrhoeic runners indicates that the loss of menses may be accompanied by a loss of self-esteem.", "Menopause\nA woman's reproductive hormone levels continue to drop and fluctuate for some time into post-menopause, so hormone withdrawal effects such as hot flashes may take several years to disappear.", "Meg Mathews\nMeg Mathews (born March 14, 1966) is an activist and entrepreneur. She rose to fame in the Britpop scene while working in music management. In 2018, she launched \"MegsMenopause\", a platform dedicated to breaking the stigma around the menopause.", "Hormone replacement therapy\nCurrent research that has examined the impact of menopause on women’s self-reported sexual satisfaction indicates that 50.3% of women experience some sexual disturbance in one of five domains, and 33.7% experience disturbances in two of the domains. Of these were desire, orgasm, lubrication, and arousal disturbances. With regards to arousal, they found a significant negative association between age and arousal, in that as women aged they were more likely to report lower arousal scores. In the desire and orgasm domains, 38% of women reported a disturbances in their desire, and 17% reported a disturbance in their orgasm capabilities; of the 17%, 14% were premenopausal, 15.2% were postmenopausal and taking a form of HRT, and 22% were postmenopausal not on a form of HRT. Eight percent of women reported disturbances lubricating during sexual activity; 14.3% in the premenopausal group, 30% in the postmenopausal group not using a HRT, and 11.7% among those postmenopausal women using HRT. Lastly, 21% of women reported pain as a disturbance in their sexual satisfaction — the premenopausal group at 14.3%, the postmenopausal women using HRT at 13.3% and the group with the highest rates, similarly to the other results, was the postmenopausal women not taking HRT at 34%. This study concluded that there was a significant decline in sexual function related to menopause in the pain and lubrication domains.", "Germaine Greer\nNatalie Angier, writing in \"The New York Times\", called \"The Change: Women, Ageing, and the Menopause\" (1991) a \"brilliant, gutsy, exhilarating, exasperating fury of a book ... tantalizingly close to being a potential feminist classic on a par with \"The Female Eunuch\".\" In it, Greer writes of the myths about menopause—or as she prefers to call it the \"climacteric\", or critical period. \"Frightening females is fun,\" she wrote in \"The Age\" in 2002. \"Women were frightened into using hormone replacement therapy by dire predictions of crumbling bones, heart disease, loss of libido, depression, despair, disease and death if they let nature take its course.\" She argues that scaring women is \"big business and hugely profitable\". The book, including the medical information, was updated and reissued in 2018.", "Menarche\nMenstruation is a cultural as well as scientific phenomenon as many societies have specific rituals and cultural norms associated with it. These rituals typically begin at menarche and some are enacted during each menstruation cycle. The rituals are important in determining a status change for girls. Upon menarche and completion of the ritual, they have become a woman as defined by their culture.", "Menopause\nThe grandmother hypothesis suggests that menopause was selected for humans because it promotes the survival of grandchildren. According to this hypothesis, post-reproductive women feed and care for children, adult nursing daughters, and grandchildren whose mothers have weaned them. Human babies require large and steady supplies of glucose to feed the growing brain. In infants in the first year of life, the brain consumes 60% of all calories, so both babies and their mothers require a dependable food supply. Some evidence suggests that hunters contribute less than half the total food budget of most hunter-gatherer societies, and often much less than half, so that foraging grandmothers can contribute substantially to the survival of grandchildren at times when mothers and fathers are unable to gather enough food for all of their children. In general, selection operates most powerfully during times of famine or other privation. So although grandmothers might not be necessary during good times, many grandchildren cannot survive without them during times of famine. Arguably, however, there is no firm consensus on the supposed evolutionary advantages (or simply neutrality) of menopause to the survival of the species in the evolutionary past.", "Menstruation\nThe first menstrual period occurs after the onset of pubertal growth, and is called menarche. The average age of menarche is 12 to 15. However, it may start as early as eight. The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world, and earlier in the developed world. The average age of menarche has changed little in the United States since the 1950s.", "Menstruation\nMenstruation is the most visible phase of the menstrual cycle and its beginning is used as the marker between cycles. The first day of menstrual bleeding is the date used for the last menstrual period (LMP). The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women, and 21 to 31 days in adults (an average of 28 days).", "Menopause\nThe term \"postmenopausal\" describes women who have not experienced any menstrual flow for a minimum of 12 months, assuming that they have a uterus and are not pregnant or lactating. In women without a uterus, menopause or postmenopause can be identified by a blood test showing a very high FSH level. Thus postmenopause is the time in a woman's life that takes place after her last period or, more accurately, after the point when her ovaries become inactive.", "North American Menopause Society\nNAMS also releases consumer educational materials such as the print resource \"The Menopause Guidebook\" and the e-mail newsletter \"Menopause Flashes\". Other educational resources related to menopause can be found at the NAMS website menopause.org.", "Menopause\nUndiagnosed and untreated coeliac disease is a risk factor for early menopause. Coeliac disease can present with several non-gastrointestinal symptoms, in the absence of gastrointestinal symptoms, and most cases escape timely recognition and go undiagnosed, leading to a risk of long-term complications. A strict gluten-free diet reduces the risk. Women with early diagnosis and treatment of coeliac disease present a normal duration of fertile life span.", "Premature ovarian failure\nThe age of onset can be as early as 11 years, or can even exist from birth, but varies widely. If a girl never begins menstruation, it is called primary ovarian failure. The age of 40 was chosen as the cut-off point for a diagnosis of POF. This age was chosen somewhat arbitrarily, as all women's ovaries decline in function over time. However an age needed to be chosen to distinguish usual menopause from the abnormal state of premature menopause. Premature ovarian failure has components to it that distinguish it from normal menopause.", "Advanced maternal age\nWomen with an inherited mutation in the DNA repair gene \"BRCA1\" undergo menopause prematurely, suggesting that naturally occurring DNA damages in oocytes are repaired less efficiently in these women, and this inefficiency leads to early reproductive failure. Genomic data from about 70,000 women were analyzed to identify protein-coding variation associated with age at natural menopause. Pathway analyses identified a major association with DNA damage response genes, particularly those expressed during meiosis and including a common coding variant in the \"BRCA1\" gene.", "List of The Catherine Tate Show characters\nIn series three Elaine gives up on finding love on-line. Instead she attempts to have a baby with the aid of a sperm donor, but unfortunately her missed periods turned out to be the start of the menopause (a very early menopause, as her age is quoted in the first series as being 34).", "Oophorectomy\nRemoval of ovaries causes hormonal changes and symptoms similar to, but generally more severe than, menopause. Women who have had an oophorectomy are usually encouraged to take hormone replacement drugs to prevent other conditions often associated with menopause. Women younger than 45 who have had their ovaries removed face a mortality risk 170% higher than women who have retained their ovaries. Retaining the ovaries when a hysterectomy is performed is associated with better long-term survival. Hormone therapy for women with oophorectomies performed before age 45 improves the long-term outcome and all-cause mortality rates.", "Menopause\nDuring perimenopause, estrogen levels average about 20–30% higher than during premenopause, often with wide fluctuations. These fluctuations cause many of the physical changes during perimenopause as well as menopause, especially during the last 1–2 years of perimenopause (before menopause). Some of these changes are hot flashes, night sweats, difficulty sleeping, mood swings, vaginal dryness or atrophy, incontinence, osteoporosis, and heart disease. During this period, fertility diminishes but is not considered to reach zero until the official date of menopause. The official date is determined retroactively, once 12 months have passed after the last appearance of menstrual blood.", "International Menopause Society\n\"Menopause Live\" is a weekly service offered via email by the International Menopause Society. It offers recently published commentaries on scientific papers that may be of interest to members of the IMS.", "Menopause\nGabapentin or clonidine may help but does not work as well as hormone therapy. Clonidine may be associated with constipation and sleeping problems.", "Menopause\nAdding testosterone to hormone therapy has a positive effect on sexual function in postmenopausal women, although it may be accompanied by hair growth, acne and a reduction in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. These side effects diverge depending on the doses and methods of using testosterone.", "Adolescence\nThe major landmark of puberty for males is spermarche, the first ejaculation, which occurs, on average, at age 13. For females, it is menarche, the onset of menstruation, which occurs, on average, between ages 12 and 13. The age of menarche is influenced by heredity, but a girl's diet and lifestyle contribute as well. Regardless of genes, a girl must have a certain proportion of body fat to attain menarche. Consequently, girls who have a high-fat diet and who are not physically active begin menstruating earlier, on average, than girls whose diet contains less fat and whose activities involve fat reducing exercise (e.g. ballet and gymnastics). Girls who experience malnutrition or are in societies in which children are expected to perform physical labor also begin menstruating at later ages.", "Life history theory\nThere is criticism of the claim that menopause and somewhat earlier age-related declines in female fertility could coevolve with a long term dependency on monogamous male providers who preferred fertile females. This criticism argues that the longer the time the child needed parental investment relative to the lifespans of the species, the higher the percentage of children born would still need parental care when the female was no longer fertile or dramatically reduced in her fertility. These critics argue that unless male preference for fertile females and ability to switch to a new female was annulled, any need for a male provider would have selected against menopause to use her fertility to keep the provider male attracted to her, and that the theory of monogamous fathers providing for their families therefore cannot explain why menopause evolved in humans.", "Menopause\nDiverging from these conclusions, one study appeared to show that many American women \"experience this time as one of liberation and self-actualization\".", "Menopause\nIn the context of the menopause, hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is the use of estrogen in women without a uterus and estrogen plus progestin in women who have an intact uterus.", "Menopause\nPerimenopause is a natural stage of life. It is not a disease or a disorder. Therefore, it does not automatically require any kind of medical treatment. However, in those cases where the physical, mental, and emotional effects of perimenopause are strong enough that they significantly disrupt the life of the woman experiencing them, palliative medical therapy may sometimes be appropriate.", "Menopause\nAn early menopause can be related to cigarette smoking, higher body mass index, racial and ethnic factors, illnesses, and the surgical removal of the ovaries, with or without the removal of the uterus.", "Hormone replacement therapy\nA major complaint among postmenopausal women is decreased libido, and many may seek medical consultation for this. Several hormonal changes take place during the menopausal period, including a decrease in estrogen levels and an increase in follicle-stimulating hormone. For most women, the majority of change occurs during the late perimenopausal and postmenopausal stages. Decrease in other hormones such as the sex hormone-binding globulim (SHBG) and inhibin (A and B) also take place in the postmenopausal period. Testosterone, a hormone more commonly associated with males, is also present in women. It peaks at age 30, but declines with age, so there is little variation across the lifetime and during the menopausal transition. However, in surgically induced menopause, instead of the levels of estrogens and testosterone slowly declining over time, they decline very sharply, resulting in more severe symptoms.", "Hormone replacement therapy\nThe maintenance and improvement of quality of life during the menopausal period is at the core of estrogen and progestogen-based HRT. Both HRT and estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) have been shown to enhance sexual desire in a significant percent of women; however, as with all pharmacological treatments, not all women have been responsive, especially those with preexisting sexual difficulties. ERT restores vaginal cells, pH levels, and blood flow to the vagina, all of which deterioration are associated with the onset of menopause. Dyspareunia (due to vaginal dryness) appears to be the most responsive component of menopausal women’s sexuality to ERT. It also has been shown to have positive effects on the urinary tract and atrophy and may initially improve libido or sexual sensitivity. Other improvements in areas such as sexual desire, arousal, fantasies, and frequency of coitus and orgasm have also been noted. However, the effectiveness of ERT has been shown to decline in some women after long-term use. A number of studies have found that the combined effects of estrogen/androgen replacement therapy can increase a woman’s motivational aspects of sexual behaviour over and above what can be achieved with estrogen therapy alone. Findings on a relatively new form of HRT called tibolone — a synthetic steroid with estrogenic, androgenic, and progestogenic properties — suggest that it has the ability to improve mood, libido, and somatic symptoms of surgically menopausal women to a greater degree than ERT. In various placebo-controlled studies, improvements in vasomotor symptoms, emotional reactions, sleep disturbances, somatic symptoms, and sexual desire have been observed. However, while this is and has been available in Europe for almost two decades, this has not been approved for use in North America at this point.", "Menopause\nThe stages of the menopause transition have been classified according to a woman's reported bleeding pattern, supported by changes in the pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels.", "European Menopause and Andropause Society\nThe official journal of the European Menopause and Andropause Society, Maturitas, is published on a monthly basis by Elsevier Science It covers a variety of disciplines, including management of chronic diseases, epidemiology, therapeutic techniques, and alternative medicine. The journal impact factor is 2.942. Margaret Rees serves as Editor-in-Chief.", "Menopause\nIt seems that Japanese women experience menopause effects, or \"konenki\", in a different way from American women. Japanese women report lower rates of hot flashes and night sweats; this can be attributed to a variety of factors, both biological and social. Historically, konenki was associated with wealthy middle-class housewives in Japan, i.e., it was a \"luxury disease\" that women from traditional, inter-generational rural households did not report. Menopause in Japan was viewed as a symptom of the inevitable process of aging, rather than a \"revolutionary transition\", or a \"deficiency disease\" in need of management.", "Menopause\nLong-term effects of menopause may include osteoporosis, vaginal atrophy as well as changed metabolic profile resulting in cardiac risks.", "Sexual dysfunction\nWhether or not aging directly affects women's sexual functioning during menopause is another area of controversy. However, many studies, including Hayes and Dennerstein's critical review, have demonstrated that aging has a powerful impact on sexual function and dysfunction in women, specifically in the areas of desire, sexual interest, and frequency of orgasm. In addition, Dennerstien and colleagues found that the primary predictor of sexual response throughout menopause is prior sexual functioning. This means that it is important to understand how the physiological changes in men and women can affect their sexual desire. Despite the seemingly negative impact that menopause can have on sexuality and sexual functioning, sexual confidence and well-being can improve with age and menopausal status. Furthermore, the impact that a relationship status can have on quality of life is often underestimated.", "European Menopause and Andropause Society\nEMAS participates in a variety of medical congresses related to menopause, gynecology, and obstetrics each year. The society hosts its own European Congress every three years in a different European location each time.", "North American Menopause Society\nVideo", "Menopause\nWhile it is fairly common for extant hunter-gatherers to live past age 50 provided that they survive childhood, fossil evidence shows that mortality in adults have decreased over the last 30000 to 50000 years (possibly due to innovations relating to defense from large carnivores and/or decrease in the ratio of large carnivores to humans) and that it was extremely unusual for early Homo sapiens to live to age 50. This discovery have led some biologists to argue that there was no selection for or against menopause at the time at which the ancestor of all modern humans lived in Africa and had not split into different ethnicities, suggesting that menopause is instead a random evolutionary effect of a selection shadow regarding ageing in early Homo sapiens. It is also argued that since the population fraction of post-menopausal women in early Homo sapiens was so low, menopause had no evolutionary effect on mate selection or social behaviors related to mate selection.", "Grandmother hypothesis\nHowever, cross-cultural studies of menopause have found that menopausal symptoms are quite variable among different populations, and that some populations of females do not recognize, and may not even experience, these \"symptoms\". This high level of variability in menopausal symptoms across populations brings into question the plausibility of menopause as a sort of \"culling agent\" to eliminate non-reproductive females from competition with younger, fertile members of the species. This also faces the task of explaining the paradox between the typical age for menopause onset and the life expectancy of female humans.", "Pregnancy over age 50\nPregnancy over age 50 has, over recent years, become possible for more women, and more easily achieved for many, due to recent advances in assisted reproductive technology, in particular egg donation. Typically, a woman's fecundity ends with menopause, which by definition is 12 consecutive months without having had any menstrual flow at all. During perimenopause, the menstrual cycle and the periods become irregular and eventually stop altogether, but even when periods are still regular, the egg quality of women in their forties is lower than in younger women, making the likelihood of conceiving a healthy baby also reduced, particularly after age 42. It is important to note, that the female biological clock can vary greatly from woman to woman. A woman's individual level of fertility can be tested through a variety of methods.", "Menopause\nEthnicity and geography play roles in the experience of menopause. American women of different ethnicities report significantly different types of menopausal effects. One major study found Caucasian women most likely to report what are sometimes described as psychosomatic symptoms, while African-American women were more likely to report vasomotor symptoms.", "Disability and women's health\nWomen with physical disabilities are at a greater risk of having lower bone mass and are at risk for osteoporosis. Women with ID and Down syndrome often go through menopause at an earlier age than other women. Women with various disabilities sometimes show different symptoms from decreased estrogen levels during menopause.", "Oophorectomy\nWomen who have had bilateral oophorectomy surgeries lose most of their ability to produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone, and lose about half of their ability to produce testosterone, and subsequently enter what is known as \"surgical menopause\" (as opposed to normal menopause, which occurs naturally in women as part of the aging process). In natural menopause the ovaries generally continue to produce low levels of hormones, especially androgens, long after menopause, which may explain why surgical menopause is generally accompanied by a more sudden and severe onset of symptoms than natural menopause, symptoms that may continue until the natural age of menopause. These symptoms are commonly addressed through hormone therapy, utilizing various forms of estrogen, testosterone, progesterone, or a combination.", "Woman\nMenarche, the onset of menstruation, occurs on average at age 12–13. Many cultures have rites of passage to symbolize a girl's coming of age, such as confirmation in some branches of Christianity, bat mitzvah in Judaism, or even just the custom of a special celebration for a certain birthday (generally between 12 and 21), like the quinceañera of Latin America.", "Menopause\nRemoval of the uterus \"without\" removal of the ovaries does \"not\" directly cause menopause, although pelvic surgery of this type can often precipitate a somewhat earlier menopause, perhaps because of a compromised blood supply to the ovaries.. The time between surgery and possible early menopause is due to the fact that ovaries are still producing hormones.", "Menopause\nWays of assessing the impact on women of some of these menopause effects, include the Greene climacteric scale questionnaire, the Cervantes scale and the Menopause rating scale.", "Menopause The Musical\nA national tour of Menopause the Musical was presented to raise funds and awareness for the fight against ovarian cancer.Leslie Fischer at chicagocritic.com said \"bring the waterproof mascara because you’ll laugh so hard, you’ll cry. With humor and compassion, writer, producer, and lyricist Jeanie Linders has captured the experiences of every woman in her 40s and 50s.\" Genessee Kagy of the Daily Californian wrote that \"Menopause's collection of great oldies, clever tongue-in-cheek lyrics and entertaining dance routines prevented me from making any I-Need-Air trips to the restroom despite the fact that I hadn't felt like such a fraud since I turned eighteen-years old. Over 90 percent of the audience were women more than twice my age...\"", "Menopause\nMenopause confers:\nWomen who experience menopause before 45 years of age have an increased risk of heart disease, death, and impaired lung function.", "Menopause\nHot flashes and other vasomotor symptoms accompany the menopausal transition. While many sources continue to claim that hot flashes during the menopausal transition are caused by low estrogen levels, this assertion was shown incorrect in 1935 and, in most cases, hot flashes are observed despite elevated estrogen levels. The exact cause of these symptoms is not yet understood, possible factors considered are higher and erratic variation of estradiol level during the cycle, elevated FSH levels which may indicate hypothalamic dysregulation perhaps caused by missing feedback by inhibin. It has been also observed that the vasomotor symptoms differ during early perimenopause and late menopausal transition and it is possible that they are caused by a different mechanism.", "Menopause\nDogs do not experience menopause; the canine estrus cycle simply becomes irregular and infrequent. Although older female dogs are not considered good candidates for breeding, offspring have been produced by older animals. Similar observations have been made in cats.", "Menopause\nAdditionally, while most women in the United States apparently have a negative view of menopause as a time of deterioration or decline, some studies seem to indicate that women from some Asian cultures have an understanding of menopause that focuses on a sense of liberation and celebrates the freedom from the risk of pregnancy. Postmenopausal Indian women can enter Hindu temples and participate in rituals, marking it as a celebration for reaching an age of wisdom and experience.", "Dynamical systems theory\nAccording to this model, stage transitions between age intervals represent self-organization processes at multiple levels (e.g., molecules, genes, cell, organ, organ system, organism, behavior, and environment). For example, at the stage transition from adolescence to young adulthood, and after reaching the critical point of 18 years of age (young adulthood), a peak in testosterone is observed in males and the period of optimal fertility begins in females. Similarly, at age 30 optimal fertility begins to decline in females, and at the stage transition from middle adulthood to older adulthood at 48 years, the average age of onset of menopause occurs.", "Catamenial epilepsy\nDuring menopause, there are drastic changes in the production of gonadal hormones. Most of the reproductive hormones, including the estrogens, progesterone and testosterone, diminish initially (perimenopause), becoming irregular, often showing wide and unpredictable fluctuations. As menopause progresses, there is cessation of estrogen production by the ovaries. Rosciszewska was one of the first researchers to report an increased risk of seizures during perimenopause, but found a marked decreased risk of seizures during menopause if there was a catamenial relationship. This difference may be associated with the radical fluctuations of estradiol and progesterone during the perimenopausal period than what is experienced during the menopausal period and menstrual cycles of reproductive years. Recall that estrone is the predominant estrogen present during menopause (from subcutaneous fat), and little is known about the effect of estrone specifically on epilepsy. Women with epilepsy who do not follow a catamenial pattern may have an unpredictable increase or decrease in seizure activity in perimenopause and menopause, but women with catamenial epilepsy typically follow a more predictable pattern." ]

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[ "Chechen language\nChechens in Jordan have good relations with the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and are able to practice their own culture and language. Chechen language usage is strong among the Chechen community in Jordan. Chechens are bilingual in both Chechen and Arabic, but do not speak Arabic among themselves, only speaking Chechen to other Chechens. Some Jordanians are literate in Chechen as well, having managed to read and write to people visiting Jordan from Chechnya.", "Chechens\nIn 1989, 73.4% spoke Russian, though this figure has declined due to the wars for a large number of reasons (including the lack of proper education, the refusal to learn the language, and the mass dispersal of the Chechen diaspora due to the war). Chechens in the diaspora often speak the language of the country they live in (English, German, Arabic, Polish, Georgian, etc.).", "Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush\nThe Chechens and the Ingush speak languages that are closely related and have a degree of passive intelligibility, both being Vainakh languages. The Chechen-Russian conflict is one of the longest and most protracted conflicts in modern history, spanning three centuries. Its origins date back to 1785, when the Chechens fought against Russian expansionism into the Caucasus. The Caucasus War was fought between 1817 and 1864. The Russian Empire succeeded in annexing the area and subjugating its people, but also killed or deported numerous non-Russian peoples and was responsible for the Circassian genocide. The Circassians, the Ubykh and the Abaza were subsequently resettled to the Ottoman Empire. However, other Caucasus people were affected as well. There were up to 1.5 million Chechens in the Caucasus in 1847, but as a result of this war and ensuing expulsions, their number dropped to 140,000 in 1861, and then further to 116,000 in 1867. In 1865, at least 39,000 Chechens were exiled to the Ottoman Empire by the Russian Empire.", "Chechens\nThe main language of the Chechen people is Chechen. Chechen belongs to the family of Nakh languages (Northeast Caucasian languages). Literary Chechen is based on the central lowland dialect. Other related languages include Ingush, which has speakers in the neighbouring Ingushetia, and Batsbi, which is the language of the people in the adjoining part of Georgia. At various times in their history, Chechens used Georgian, Arabic and Latin alphabets; as of 2008, the official one is now the Cyrillic script of Russia.", "Chechen language\nChechen ( , ) is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by more than 1.4 million people, mostly in the Chechen Republic and by members of the Chechen diaspora throughout Russia, Jordan, Central Asia (mainly Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan), and Georgia." ]

[ "Pashto\nPashto (, , \"Pax̌tō\" ), sometimes spelled Pukhto, is the language of the Pashtuns. It is known in Persian literature as Afghāni () and in Hindustani literature as Paṭhānī. Speakers of the language are called Pashtuns/Pakhtuns/Pathans and sometimes Afghans. It is an Eastern Iranian language, belonging to the Indo-European family. Pashto is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan, and it is the second-largest regional language of Pakistan, mainly spoken in the west and northwest of the country. In Pakistan, it is the majority language of the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the northern districts of Balochistan. Along with Dari Persian, Pashto is the main language among the Pashtun diaspora around the world. The total number of Pashto-speakers is estimated to be 45–60 million people worldwide.", "Chechens\nThe Nakh languages are a subgroup of Northeast Caucasian, and as such are related to Nakho-Dagestanian family, including the languages of the Avars, Dargins, Lezghins, Laks, etc.\nHowever, this relationship is not a close one: the Nakho-Dagestani family is of comparable or greater time-depth than Indo-European, meaning Chechens are only as linguistically related to Avars or Dargins as the French are to the Russians or Iranians.", "Self-determination\nUnder Dzhokhar Dudayev, Chechnya declared independence as the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, using self-determination, Russia's history of bad treatment of Chechens, and a history of independence before invasion by Russia as main motives. Russia has restored control over Chechnya, but the separatist government functions still in exile, though it has been split into two entities: the Akhmed Zakayev-run secular Chechen Republic (based in Poland, the UK and the US), and the Islamic Caucasus Emirate.", "All-National Congress of the Chechen People\nThe All-National Congress of the Chechen People (NCChP) of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria came to power on 1 November 1991 under president Dzhokhar Dudayev, a former commander of the Soviet air force base in Tartu, Estonia. Since its formation, the organization advocated sovereignty for Chechnya as a separate republic within the Soviet Union. During the period of Soviet breakup, it switched this to explicit support for the separation of \"Ichkeria\" from Russia.", "Cheyenne\nThe Northern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne either as Notameohmésêhese, meaning \"Northern Eaters\" or simply as Ohmésêhese meaning \"Eaters\", live in southeastern Montana on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation. Tribal enrollment figures, as of late 2014, indicate that there are approximately 10,840 members, of which about 4,939 reside on the reservation. Approximately 91% of the population are Native Americans (full or part race), with 72.8% identifying themselves as Cheyenne. Slightly more than one quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English.", "Chechens\nChechens are a Nakh people, and discussion of their origins is intertwined with the discussion of the mysterious origins of Nakh peoples as a whole. The only two surviving (and fairly numerous) Nakh peoples are Chechens and Ingush, but they are thought by some scholars to be the remnants of what was once a larger family of peoples.", "Krymchaks\nThe Krymchaks speak a modified form of the Crimean Tatar language, called the Krymchak language. It is the Jewish patois, or ethnolect of Crimean Tatar, which is a Kypchak Turkic language. Krimchak is not a distinct language, but only one constituent of Crimean Tatar. Before the Russian Revolution in 1917, the Krimchaks were at least bilingual: they spoke the Krimchak ethnolect and at the same time mostly used Hebrew for their religious life and for written communication. The Krimchaks adhered to their Turkic patois up to World War II, but later began to lose their linguistic identity. Now they are making efforts to revive their language. Many of the linguistic characteristics of the Krimchak language could be found in the Crimean Tatar language. In addition, it contains numerous Hebrew and Aramaic loan-words and was traditionally written in Hebrew characters (now it is written in Cyrillic script).", "Chechnya\nThe once-strong Russian minority in Chechnya, mostly Terek Cossacks and estimated as numbering approximately 25,000 in 2012, are predominantly Russian Orthodox, although presently only one church exists in Grozny. In August 2011, Archbishop Zosima of Vladikavkaz and Makhachkala performed the first mass baptism ceremony in the history of the Chechen Republic in the Terek River of Naursky District in which 35 citizens of Naursky and Shelkovsky districts were converted to Orthodoxy.", "Pecheneg language\nPecheneg is an extinct Turkic language spoken by the Pechenegs in Eastern Europe (parts of Southern Ukraine, southern Russia, Moldova, Romania and Hungary) in the 7th–12th centuries. It is also possible that the language was spoken by the Cumans, per Byzantine princess Anna Komnene.", "Ingush language\nIngush and Chechen, together with Bats, constitute the Nakh branch of the Northeast Caucasian language family. There is pervasive passive bilingualism between Ingush and Chechen.", "Vainakhish language\nThe Vainakhish language consist of the dialect continuum between the Chechen and Ingush languages, mainly spoken in the Russian republics of Chechnya and Ingushetia, as well as in the Chechen diaspora. Together with Bats it forms the Nakh branch of the Northeast Caucasian languages family.", "Chechens\nThe Chechens are one of the Nakh peoples, who have lived in the highlands of the North Caucasus region since prehistory. There is archeological evidence of historical continuity dating back since 3000 B.C. as well as evidence proving their migration from the Fertile Crescent c. 10,000–8,000 B.C.", "Demographics of the Czech Republic\nAccording to the 2011 census there were 543,000 permanent (i.e. legal) foreign residents in the Czech Republic (5% of the total population). Residents from Ukraine are the largest group (118,000), followed by residents of Slovakia (84,000). There are also Asian minorities in the Czech Republic. The largest is the Vietnamese one (83,000 in 2011). During the communist era the governments of Czechoslovakia and Vietnam had a deal concerning the education of Vietnamese people in Czechoslovakia. Vietnamese people came to Czechoslovakia for the first time in 1956 and then the number of new migrants grew until the fall of communism. First generation Vietnamese work mostly as small-scale businessmen in markets. Still, many Vietnamese are without Czech citizenship. One of the towns with the largest Vietnamese communities is Cheb.\nThere are also many people from Russia (36,000), Germany (21,000) and Poland (18,000).The Czech language (divided into three dialects in Bohemia, four dialects in Moravia, and two dialects in Czech Silesia) is the official language of the state. There is also the transitional Cieszyn Silesian dialect as well as the Polish language in Cieszyn Silesia, both spoken in Czech Silesia. Various Sudeten German dialects are currently practically extinct: present Czech Germans speak mainly Czech or Standard German. Czech Sign Language is the language of most of the deaf community.", "Chechen language\nThe Chechen language has, like most indigenous languages of the Caucasus, a large number of consonants: about 40 to 60 (depending on the dialect and the analysis), far more than in most European languages. Typical of the region, a four-way distinction between voiced, voiceless, ejective, and geminate fortis stops is found.", "Ossetian language\nOssetian is the spoken and literary language of the Ossetes, a people living in the central part of the Caucasus and constituting the basic population of the republic of North Ossetia–Alania, which belongs to the Russian Federation, and of South Ossetia, which is \"de facto\" independent (but is \"de jure\" part of the Georgian Republic according to most other states). Ossetian belongs to the Iranian group of the Indo-European family of languages (as hinted by its endonym, ирон). Within Iranian it is placed in an Eastern subgroup and further to a Northeastern sub-subgroup, but these are areal rather than genetic groups. The other Eastern Iranian languages such as Pashto and Yaghnobi show certain commonalities but also deep-reaching divergences from Ossetic.", "Chukchi language\nChukchi is a Chukotko–Kamchatkan language spoken by the Chukchi people in the easternmost extremity of Siberia, mainly in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. According to the Russian Census of 2002, about 7,000 of the 15,700 Chukchi people speak Chukchi; knowledge of the Chukchi language is decreasing, and most Chukchi now speak the Russian language (fewer than 100 report not speaking Russian at all).", "Ingush people\nThe Ingush (, , , pronounced ) are a Northeast Caucasian native ethnic group of the North Caucasus, mostly inhabiting their native Ingushetia, a federal republic of Russian Federation. The Ingush are predominantly Sunni Muslims and speak the Ingush language, a Northeast Caucasian language that is closely related to Chechen; the two form a dialect continuum. The Ingush and Chechen peoples are collectively known as the Nakh peoples, although the genetics of Ingush and the Chechen indicate a split about 13,000-17,000 Ybp.", "Vietnamese language\nVietnamese is the sole official and national language of Vietnam. It is the first language of the majority of the Vietnamese population, as well as a first or second language for the country's ethnic minority groups.\nIn the Czech Republic, Vietnamese has been recognized as one of 14 minority languages, on the basis of communities that have resided in the country either traditionally or on a long-term basis. This status grants Czech citizens from the Vietnamese community the right to use Vietnamese with public authorities and at courts anywhere in the country. Moreover, it also grants the use of Vietnamese in public signage, election information, cultural institutions, and access to legal information and assistance in municipalities where at least 10% of the population is of the minority group.", "Tushetians\nThe Tushetians , or Tush , are a subgroup of Georgians who mainly live in Tusheti.\nThe Tush divide themselves into two groups, the Chagma-Tush, who speak the local Georgian dialect and Tsova-Tush, also known as Bats or Batsbi, who speak the Bats language, a Nakh language (cousin of Chechen and Ingush). Most Bats also speak Georgian, to which there is a continuing trend of linguistic assimilation. Despite differences in language and culture (to a degree), both Chagma- and Tsova-Tush consider themselves to be part of the larger group of Tush, which in turn is considered a subgroup of Georgians.", "Chenchu language\nChenchu language is a Dravidian language which belongs to the Telugu branch of its South-Central family. This language is spoken mostly in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states in India by about 28,754 people (1981 census) of the Chenchu Aboriginal forests hunter-gatherer tribe. It is also called Chenchukulam, Chenchwar, Chenswar or Choncharu.", "Chechen Kurds\nChechen Kurds or Kurdified Chechens refer to the ethnic Chechens who went through a process of kurdification after fleeing to Kurdistan during and after the Russian conquest of the Caucasus in the 1860s. Today, these Chechens are being perceived as being ethnic Kurds of the \"Chechen tribe\" and \"Lezgî tribe\".", "Kerek language\nIn 1997 there were still two speakers remaining, but by 2005 the language was considered extinct. According to the 2010 census, there were 10 people claiming Kerek as their native language, a number which may include partial speakers and non-speakers who claim the language as part of their ethnic heritage. Over the 20th century many members of the Kerek ethnic group shifted to Chukchi, the language of the majority ethnic group in the area, but now most Chukchis and Kereks speak Russian.", "History of Chechnya\nThe remains include dwellings, cobble bridges, altars, iron objects, bones, and clay and stone objects. There were sickles and stone grain grinders. Grains that were grown included wheat, rye and barley. Cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, pigs and horses were kept. There were shops, where artisans worked on and sold pottery, stone-casting, bone-carving, and stone-carving. There is evidence of an advanced stage of metallurgy. There was differentiation of professionals organized within clans. Jaimoukha argues that while all these cultures probably were made by people included among the genetic ancestors of the Chechens, it was either the Koban or Kharachoi culture that was the first culture made by the cultural and linguistic ancestors of the Chechens (meaning the Chechens first arrived in their homeland 3000–4000 years ago). However, many others disagree, holding the Chechens to have lived in their present-day lands for over 10000 years.", "Chechen language\nDialects of Chechen can be classified by their geographic position within the Chechen Republic. The dialects of the northern lowlands are often referred to as \"Oharoy muott\" (literally \"lowlander's language\") and the dialect of the southern mountain tribes is known as \"Laamaroy muott\" (lit. \"mountainer's language\"). Oharoy muott forms the basis for much of the standard and literary Chechen language, which can largely be traced to the regional dialects of Urus-Martan and contemporary Grozny. Laamaroy dialects include (but are not limited to) Chebarloish, Sharoish, Itum-Qalish, Kisti, and Himoish. Until recently, however, Himoy was undocumented and was considered a branch of Sharoish, as many dialects are also used as the basis of intertribal (teip) communication within a larger Chechen \"tukkhum\". Laamaroy dialects such as Sharoish, Himoish and Chebarloish are more conservative and retain many features from Proto–Chechen. For instance, many of these dialects lack a number of vowels found in the standard language which were a result of long-distance assimilation between vowel sounds. Additionally, the Himoy dialect preserves word-final, post-tonic vowels as a schwa [ə], indicating Laamaroy and Ohwaroy dialects were already separate at the time that Oharoy dialects were undergoing assimilation.", "Chechi, Punjab\nThe vast majority of people speak Hindko. Pashto is another predominately spoken. The population of Chechi consists of Gurjars, Pathanss, Awans, Mughals as well as a few other ethnic groups.", "Pechenegs\nMahmud al-Kashgari, an 11th-century man of letters specialized in Turkic dialects argued that the language spoken by the Pechenegs was a variant of the Cuman and Oghuz idioms. He suggested that foreign influences on the Pechenegs gave rise to phonetical differences between their tongue and the idiom spoken by other Turkic peoples. Anna Komnene likewise stated that the Pechenegs and the Cumans shared a common language. Although the Pecheneg language itself died out centuries ago, the names of the Pecheneg \"provinces\" recorded by Constantine Porphyrogenitus prove that the Pechenegs spoke a Turkic language. The Huns, Khazars and Pechenegs are thought to have belonged to the same proto-Turkic group of languages as the modern Chuvash language (Oghur dialects).", "Khasan Bakayev\nFor this purpose, Bakayev published articles in the \"Ichkeria\" (“Ичкерия”) newspaper, the official daily gazette of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. In 1995, he became the Chief Editor of this newspaper. In November 1996, when the First Russo-Chechen war was over, Kh. Bakayev founded another private newspaper named “The Chechen” (“Чеченец”) to focus on the historical roots of the origin of the Chechens and their historical ties with other ancient and presently existing peoples.", "Chechen Kurds\nToday, the Chechen population in Turkish Kurdistan is scattered among the Kurdish population and has been assimilated into it. A local Chechen from Bağiçi village stated in 2010 that Chechens and Kurds live in harmony and that the later show Chechens love and respect.", "Chechens\nThe Chechens belong to the Western Eurasian or \"Caucasoid\" race, specifically the Caucasus type. \nChechens are black-, brown-, red- or fair-haired (with darker hair predominating) and eyes can be brown, blue or green, while skin is usually light. George Anchabadze notes that the physical traits of Chechens, which includes being taller than average, are typical of the \"Caucasian type\" which many other peoples of the Caucasus exhibit.", "Chechens\nSince then, there have been various Chechen rebellions against Russian/Soviet power (including during the Russian Civil War and World War II), as well as nonviolent resistance to Russification and the Soviet Union's collectivization and anti-religion campaigns. In 1944, all Chechens, together with several other peoples of the Caucasus, were ordered by the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to be ruthlessly deported \"en masse\" to the Kazakh and Kirghiz SSRs; and their republic and nation were abolished. At least one-quarter—and perhaps half—of the entire Chechen population perished in the process, and a severe blow was made to their culture and historical records. Though \"rehabilitated\" in 1956 and allowed to return the next year, the survivors lost economic resources and civil rights and, under both Soviet and post-Soviet governments, they have been the objects of both official and unofficial discrimination and discriminatory public discourse. Chechen attempts to regain independence in the 1990s after the fall of the Soviet Union have led to the first and the second war with the new Russian state, starting in 1994.", "Bats people\nPart of the community still retains its own Bats language, \"batsbur mott\", which has adopted many Georgian loan-words and grammatical rules and is mutually unintelligible with the two other Nakh languages, Chechen and Ingush. As Prof. Joanna Nichols put it, '[the Batsbur] language is related to Chechen and Ingush roughly as Czech is related to Russian [and the Batsbi] not belong to vai naakh nor their language to vai mott, though any speaker of Chechen or Ingush can immediately tell that the language is closely related and can understand some phrases of it. The Batsbi have not traditionally followed Vainakh customs or law, and they consider themselves Georgians.' Batsbur language is unwritten and the Batsbi have used Georgian as a language of literacy and trade for centuries.", "Chechen language\nChechen is an agglutinative language with an ergative–absolutive morphosyntactic alignment. Chechen nouns belong to one of several genders or classes (6), each with a specific prefix with which the verb or an accompanying adjective agrees. The verb does not agree with the subject or object's person or number, having only tense forms and participles. Among these are an optative and an antipassive. Some verbs, however, do not take these prefixes.", "Name of the Czech Republic\nThe current English ethnonym \"Czech\" comes from the Polish ethnonym associated with the area, which ultimately comes from the Czech word \"Čech\". The words \"Czechian\", \"Czechish\", \"Czechic\" and later \"Czech\" (using antiquated Czech spelling) have appeared in English-language texts since the 17th century. During the 19th-century national revival, the word \"Czech\" was also used to distinguish between the Czech- and German-speaking peoples living in the country. The term \"Czechia\" is attested as early as 1569 in Latin and 1841 in English (\"Poselkynie starych Przjbiehuw Czeskych – Messenger of the old Fates of Czechia\"). There were other early mentions in 1856 and in an 1866 report on the Austro-Prussian War.", "Chinchero District\nThe people that live in the district are mainly indigenous citizens of Quechua descent. Quechua is the language which the majority of the population (81.49%) learnt to speak in childhood, 17.95% of the residents started speaking using the Spanish language (2007 Peru Census).", "Chechens\nPrior to the adoption of Islam, the Chechens practiced a unique blend of religious traditions and beliefs. They partook in numerous rites and rituals, many of them pertaining to farming; these included rain rites, a celebration that occurred on the first day of plowing, as well as the Day of the Thunderer Sela and the Day of the Goddess Tusholi. In addition to sparse written record from the Middle Ages, Chechens traditionally remember history through the \"illesh\", a collection of epic poems and stories.", "Kaqchikel language\nThe Kaqchikel language (in modern orthography; formerly also spelled Cakchiquel or Cachiquel) is an indigenous Mesoamerican language and a member of the Quichean–Mamean branch of the Mayan languages family. It is spoken by the indigenous Kaqchikel people in central Guatemala. It is closely related to the K'iche' (Quiché) and Tz'utujil languages.", "Chechnya\nAccording to Leonti Mroveli, the 11th-century Georgian chronicler, the word Caucasian is derived from the Vainakh ancestor Kavkas.\nAccording to Professor George Anchabadze of Ilia State University American linguist Dr. Johanna Nichols \"has used language to connect the modern people of the Caucasus region to the ancient farmers of the Fertile Crescent\" and her research suggests that \"farmers of the region were proto-Nakh-Daghestanians.\" Nichols stated: \"The Nakh–Dagestanian languages are the closest thing we have to a direct continuation of the cultural and linguistic community that gave rise to Western civilization.\" Dr. Henry Harpending, University of Utah, supports her claims.", "Amina – Chechen Republic Online\nAs of May 17, 2007, the Chechen Forum hosted more than 3,500 members and more than 300,000 posts. Although all forum visitors may browse among the various threads, only visitors who have created a free subscription account may be able to make forum posts, receive email notifications of replies to posts, and send and receive private messages. In late April 2007, Albert Digaev added English language registration to the Chechen Forum, to allow English speakers access and an English language thread to allow English speakers to communicate with Chechens.", "Chechen diaspora\nThe Chechen diaspora () is a term used to collectively describe the communities of Chechen people who live outside of Chechnya; this includes Chechens who live in other parts of Russia. There are also significant Chechen populations in other subdivisions of Russia (especially in Dagestan, Ingushetia and Moscow Oblast).", "Koban culture\nAmjad Jaimoukha argues that while all these cultures probably were made by people included among the genetic ancestors of the Northern Caucasian Nakh (i.e. Chechens and Ingush), it was either the Koban or Kharachoi culture that was the first culture made by the cultural and linguistic ancestors of the Chechens (meaning the Chechens first arrived in their homeland 3000–4000 years ago). Johanna Nichols has written that \"There is fairly seamless archeological continuity for the last 8000 years or more in central Daghestan, suggesting that the Nakh-Daghestanian language family is long indigenous.\"", "Nakh peoples\nThere is considerable tension among Chechens about religion. This largely asserts itself in the conflict between the pan-Islamist/Wahhabi/Salafi creed which vows to \"cleanse Islam of impurity and syncretism\" (i.e. de-Chechenize Islam in Chechnya to bring it more in line with global Islam), and those who view the indigenous form as superior, or otherwise as a national custom to be defended. Among the claimant governments for the land of Ichkeria, both the Western exiled Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and the Russian installed Kadyrov regime are largely hostile to Wahhabism/Salafism, while the reaction of the Caucasus Emirate is considerably more positive, though still at times rather uncomfortable towards it (see certain statements by Dokka Umarov, for example). The Kadyrov government, meanwhile, opposes Wahhabism in name, but still rules Chechnya with a rather harsh interpretation of Sharia law, including banning of bare-headed women in public, mandatory Qu'ran study in schools (with the interpretation favored by the government promoted), the death penalty for suspected homosexuality and so on. The exiled Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, meanwhile, has consistently stated both that the indigenous interpretation is a national trait (to be preserved) and that Ichkeria should be a secular national state, and while Islam may certainly be a part of the Chechen identity at times, it is certainly neither a requirement nor more important than any other aspect.", "Chechens\nChechens (; '; Old Chechen: Нахчой \"Naxçoy\") are a Northeast Caucasian ethnic group of the Nakh peoples originating in the North Caucasus region of Eastern Europe. They refer to themselves as Vainakhs (which means \"our people\" in Chechen) or Nokhchiy (pronounced ; singular Nokhchi, Nakhchuo or Nakhtche). Chechen and Ingush peoples are collectively known as the Vainakh. The majority of Chechens today live in the Chechen Republic, a subdivision of the Russian Federation.", "Chechen Kurds\nWhile it was already reported by Kurdish writer Mehmet Şerif Fırat, in his description of Varto in 1948 that the Chechens there had forgotten the Chechen language, the Turkish state, in a secret report in 1987, claimed that the Chechens spoke Kurdish as their mother tongue.", "Chocho people\nTheir traditional language, Chocho, is a member of the Popolocan branch of the Oto-Manguean language family. In 1998 it had 770 speakers. Chochos also speak Spanish, the dominant language of Mexico.", "Kist people\nThe Kists remained faithful to their family traditions and customs. To this day, they identify themselves as Chechen, and for official purposes declare themselves of Georgian nationality. They are typically bilingual in Chechen and Georgian.", "Chechnya\nThe Russification policies towards Chechens continued after 1956, with Russian language proficiency required in many aspects of life, and for advancement in the Soviet system.", "Bohemian\nThe word \"Bohemian\" has never been widely used by the local Czech population. In Czech, the region since the early Middle Ages has been called \"Čechy\" but also, especially during the period of restoration/emancipation of the Czech language and nation, as \"Čechie.\" Another term, stressing the importance of the state/nation, is \"Království české\" (\"Czech Kingdom\") in Czech, or \"Böhmen\" (Königreich) in German. Its mainly Czech-speaking inhabitants were called \"Čechové\" (in modern Czech \"Češi\").", "Caucasus Emirate\nFollowing the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Chechen nationalists, led by Dzhokhar Dudayev, declared the secession of Chechnya from Russia as an independent Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (ChRI). Following two devastating wars with the Russian Federation in the nineties, the ChRI fought an insurgency against the Russian forces and their Chechen allies from 2000, initially under the leadership of Aslan Maskhadov. Although the ChRI was largely founded by Sufi Muslims motivated by nationalism, over time the literalist Salafist form of Islam became increasingly popular with some Chechens, leading to a schism between nationalists and Salafists. As many of the original nationalist figures were killed by Russian forces, the insurgency took on an increasingly Salafist tone embodied by commanders like Shamil Basayev and the Arab fighter Khattab. Many of the surviving nationalists gave up the fight, and by the time Dokka Umarov was declared President of Ichkeria in June 2006, Islamists held increasing influence in the movement.", "Chechens\nThe Chechens are mainly inhabitants of Chechnya. There are also significant Chechen populations in other subdivisions of Russia (especially in Dagestan, Ingushetia and Moscow).", "History of Chechnya\nDuring the late 1860s and 1870s (just 10 years after the incorporation of Chechenia into the Tsarist Empire), the Chechens underwent a national reawakening in the European sense of the term. The conflict with Russia and its final incorporation into the empire, however, brought about the formation of a modern, European, nationalist identity of Chechens, though it ironically solidified their separation, mainly over politics, from the Ingush. The nation was held to be all-important, trumping religion, political belief, or any other such distinction.\nIn 1870, Chakh Akhiev wrote a compilation of Chechen and Ingush fairy tales (called \"Chechen fairytales\"). In 1872, Umalat Laudaev, an early Chechen nationalist, recorded the contemporary customs of the Chechens. Following in his footsteps, Chakh Akhiev did the same for their \"brothers\", the Ingush, the following year.", "Itelmen language\nItelmen (autonym: \"itənmən\") or Western Itelmen, formerly known as Western Kamchadal, is a language of the Chukotko-Kamchatkan family spoken on the western coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula. Fewer than a hundred native speakers, mostly elderly, in a few settlements in the southwest of Koryak Autonomous Okrug, remained in 1993. The 2002 Census counted 3,180 ethnic Itelmens, virtually all of whom are now monolingual in Russian. However, there are attempts to revive the language, and it is being taught in a number of schools in the region.", "Chechen language\nChechen permits syllable-initial clusters , and non-initial plus any consonant and any obstruent plus a uvular of the same manner. The only cluster of three consonants permitted is .", "Chechen Republic of Ichkeria\nThe First Chechen War began in December 1994, when Russian troops were sent to Chechnya to fight the separatist forces. During the Battle of Grozny (1994–95), the city's population dropped from 400,000 to 140,000. Most of the civilians stranded in the city were elderly ethnic Russians, as many Chechens had support networks of relatives living in villages who took them in.", "Kazakh language\nKazakh or Kazak (Cyrillic: or ; Arabic: or ; , ) belongs to the Kipchak branch of the Turkic languages. It is closely related to Nogai, Kyrgyz, and Karakalpak. Kazakh is the official language of the Republic of Kazakhstan and a significant minority language in the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture in Xinjiang, China and in the Bayan-Ölgii Province of Mongolia. Kazakh is also spoken by many ethnic Kazakhs through the former Soviet Union (approximately 472,000 in Russia according to the 2010 Russian Census), Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, and Germany.", "Üzemchin Mongols\nThe Üzemchin language is a dialect of Chakhar Mongolian.", "Chukchi people\nThe Chukchi, or Chukchee (, ), are an indigenous people inhabiting the Chukchi Peninsula and the shores of the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea region of the Arctic Ocean within the Russian Federation. They speak the Chukchi language. The Chukchi originated from the people living around the Okhotsk Sea. According to most recent genomic research (\"Who we are and how we got here. Ancient DNA and the New Science of the human past\", by David Reich. Pantheon books, New York, 2018), Chukchi people are the closest cousins of the First Americans in Asia.", "Chahkan, Dikhan\nChahkan is a village located at a distance of 22 kilometres from Dikhan to Tank road. It is the main station of \"union council chahkan\". This village was first developed by Sahi caste in later 15th century. The sahis came from Afghanistan and started to live near Gomal Kalan. After some time they killed a person in Gomal Kalan and the Govt. of that time decided to settle them in the place now called Chahkan to prevent the clash between two tribes. Chahkan is the combination of two Persian words Chah meaning water and kan meaning well. The area where Chahkan village is situated was abundant in water and the people dig wells for water. Hence the place is now called chahkan. The native language of the people of chahkan is Saraeki and chahkan is also known as KHOEYAN which mean chahkan. The Kochi pawandgans caste renamed this village as Mochiyan due to the Mochi caste which mend shoes because mochi caste is also present in this village. The most popular things of chahkan are shoes prepared in this village and the vessels made of mud used to store water in summer. Malik Muhammad rafique Sahi is the general Counsellor of sahi caste. Mushtaq Raza a famous poet of sraeki also belonged to this village.", "Chechen language\nIn 1992, a new Latin Chechen alphabet was introduced, but after the defeat of the secessionist government, the Cyrillic alphabet was restored.", "Chechen language\nBefore the Russian conquest, most writing in Chechnya consisted of Islamic texts and clan histories, written usually in Arabic but sometimes also in Chechen using Arabic script. Those texts were largely destroyed by Soviet authorities in 1944. The Chechen literary language was created after the October Revolution, and the Latin script began to be used instead of Arabic for Chechen writing in the mid-1920s. In 1938, the Cyrillic script was adopted, in order to tie the nation closer to Russia. With the declaration of the Chechen republic in 1992, some Chechen speakers returned to the Latin alphabet.", "Chechen language\nIn closed syllables, long vowels become short in most dialects (not Kisti), but are often still distinct from short vowels (shortened , , , and vs. short , , , and , for example), though which remain distinct depends on the dialect. and are in complementary distribution ( occurs after pharyngealized consonants, whereas does not, and —identical with for most speakers—occurs in closed syllables, while does not) but speakers strongly feel that they are distinct sounds.", "Dzhokhar Dudayev\nThe Chechen-Ingush Republic split in two in June 1992, amidst the increasing Ossetian-Ingush conflict. After Chechnya had announced its initial declaration of sovereignty in 1991, its former entity Ingushetia opted to join the Russian Federation as a federal subject (Republic of Ingushetia). The remaining rump state of Ichkeria (Chechnya) declared full independence in 1993. That same year the Russian language stopped being taught in Chechen schools and it was also announced that the Chechen language would start to be written using the Latin alphabet (with some additional special Chechen characters) rather than Cyrillic in use since the 1930s. The state also began to print its own money and stamps. One of Dudayev's first decrees gave every man the right to bear arms.", "Chuvash language\nChuvash is the native language of the Chuvash people and an official language of Chuvashia. It is spoken by 1,640,000 persons in Russia and another 34,000 in other countries. 86% of ethnic Chuvash and 8% of the people of other ethnicities living in Chuvashia claimed knowledge of Chuvash language during the 2002 census. Despite that, and although Chuvash is taught at schools and sometimes used in the media, it is considered endangered, because Russian dominates in most spheres of life, and few children learning the language are likely to become active users.", "Chepang people\nThe language is also known as Chepang but is called Chyo-bang by the people themselves. Some Bahun Chettri castes call these people the \"Praja\" meaning \"political subjects\". The people speak 3 different dialects of this Tibeto-Burman language that is closely related to Raute and Raji, two undocumented languages spoken in western Nepal.", "Chechen Americans\nThey are a small minority group with a population numbering only several hundred, as of 2013. Exact statistics are difficult to obtain because Chechens are categorized as Russians in asylee reports. The most significant Chechen communities are in the Boston, Washington, D.C., New York City, and Los Angeles areas.", "Chechen language\nMost Chechen vocabulary is derived from the Nakh branch of the Northeast Caucasian language family, although there are significant minorities of words derived from Arabic (Islamic terms, like \"Iman\", \"Ilma\", \"Do'a\") and a smaller amount from Turkic (like \"kuzga\", \"shish\"), belonging to the universal Caucasian stratum of borrowings) and most recently Russian (modern terms, like computer – \"kamputar\", television – \"telvideni\", televisor – \"telvizar\", metro – \"metro\" etc.).", "Échichens\nMost of the population () speaks French (997 or 89.1%), with German being second most common (44 or 3.9%) and Portuguese being third (22 or 2.0%). There are 11 people who speak Italian.", "History of Chechnya\nChechens were greatly disadvantaged in their homeland even after being allowed to return. There were no Chechen-language schools in their own homeland until 1990, leading to the crippling effect of lack of education of the populace (which did not universally understand Russian). According to sociologist Georgi Derluguian, the Checheno-Ingush Republic's economy was divided into two spheres -much like French settler-ruled Algeria- and the Russian sphere had all the jobs with higher salaries., and non-Russians were systematically kept out of all government positions. Russians (as well as Ukrainians and Armenians) worked in education, health, oil, machinery, and social services. Non-Russians (excluding Ukrainians and Armenians) worked in agriculture, construction, a long host of undesirable jobs, as well as the so-called \"informal sector\" (i.e., illegal, due to the mass discrimination in the legal sector). Due to rapid population growth among the non-Russians, combined with unfavorable economic conditions, the non-Russian population frequently engaged in the practice known is Russian as \"shabashka\", the unofficial migration of republic minorities for economic reasons. This diaspora often later engaged in organized crime partly due to poverty and job discrimination, and the justification that they were only regaining the money that was stolen from them by the Russian elite in their homeland by its institutionalized discrimination. Derluguian (see citation above) describes this further as one of the main causes of the rebirth of the concept of Chechen nationalism in a much more unity-oriented form (that is, unity between Chechens, and Ingush if they want to be part of it).", "Chechnya\nIslam is the predominant religion in Chechnya, practiced by 95% of those polled in Grozny in 2010. Chechens are overwhelmingly adherents to the Shafi'i Madhhab of Sunni Islam, the republic having converted to Islam between the 16th and the 19th centuries. Due to historical importance, many Chechens are Sufis, of either the Qadiri or Naqshbandi orders. Most of the population follows either the Shafi'i or the Hanafi, schools of jurisprudence, fiqh. The Shafi'i school of jurisprudence has a long tradition among the Chechens, and thus it remains the most practiced.", "Ossetians\nThe Ossetians or Ossetes (; , '; дигорæ, дигорæнттæ, ') are an Iranian ethnic group of the Caucasus Mountains, indigenous to the ethnolinguistic region known as Ossetia.\nThey speak Ossetic, an Eastern Iranian (Alanic) language of the Indo-European languages family, with most also fluent in Russian as a second language. The Ossetian language is neither closely related to nor mutually intelligible with any other language of the family today. Ossetic, a remnant of the Scytho-Sarmatian dialect group which was once spoken across the Pontic–Caspian Steppe, is one of the few Iranian languages inside Europe.", "Chechen language\nChechen is a Northeast Caucasian language. Together with the closely related Ingush, with which there exists a large degree of mutual intelligibility and shared vocabulary, it forms the Vainakh branch.", "Khwarshi language\nKhwarshi (also spelled \"Xvarshi, Khvarshi\") is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken in the Tsumadinsky-, Kizilyurtovsky- and Khasavyurtovsky districts of Dagestan by the Khwarshi people. The exact number of speakers is not known, but the linguist Zaira Khalilova, who has carried out fieldwork in the period from 2005 to 2009, gives the figure 8,500. Other sources give much lower figures, such as Ethnologue with the figure 1,870 and the latest population census of Russia with the figure 1,872. The low figures are because many Khwarshi have registered themselves as being Avar speakers, which is also considered their literary language.", "Chukhain Zaam\nThe language spoken in this village is Balochi. Being on the border line of Balochistan province, most of the men also understand Pashto language.", "Czechs\nModern Czech nation was formed in process of Czech national revival. In it, he pushed linguistic concept of the nation (particularly promoted by Jungmann), i.e. \"Czech = one who has Czech language as their first language - naturally or by choice.\" (That is why they are often considered the Czechs, Slovaks who have chosen the Czech language as their literary language, such as Ján Kollár or Pavel Jozef Šafařík). Like other nations, the Czechs also discuss two alternative concepts - land concept (Czech is one who is born in the historic Czech territory), which in times of Jungmann success primarily nobility, and ethnic concept. Definition by the territory is still discussed alternative, from time to time is indicated for Czechs number of natives (speaking mostly German, English or otherwise) - these include US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, film director Karel Reisz, actor Herbert Lom, the founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud, the founder of genetics Gregor Mendel, logician and mathematician Kurt Gödel, the philosopher Edmund Husserl, scientists Gerty Cori, Carl Cori and Peter Grünberg (all Nobel Prize winners) and Ernst Mach, economists Joseph Schumpeter and Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, philosophers Bernard Bolzano, Ernest Gellner, Vilém Flusser and Herbert Feigl, Marxist theoretician Karl Kautsky, astronomer Johann Palisa, legal theorist Hans Kelsen, inventors Alois Senefelder and Viktor Kaplan, automotive designer Ferdinand Porsche, psychologist Max Wertheimer, a geologist Karl von Terzaghi, musicologists Eduard Hanslick and Guido Adler, chemist Johann Josef Loschmidt, biologists Heinrich Wilhelm Schott and Georg Joseph Kamel, the founder of the dermatology Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, peace activist Bertha von Suttner (Nobel Peace Prize), the composers Gustav Mahler, Heinrich Biber, Viktor Ullmann, Ervin Schulhoff, Pavel Haas, Erich Wolfgang Korngold and Ralph Benatzky, writers Franz Kafka, Reiner Maria Rilke, Max Brod, Karl Kraus, Franz Werfel, Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach, Leo Perutz, Tom Stoppard and Egon Erwin Kisch, painters Anton Raphael Mengs and Emil Orlik, architects Adolf Loos, Peter Parler, Josef Hoffmann, Jan Santini Aichel and Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer, cellist David Popper, violist Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst, pianists Alice Herz-Sommer and Rudolf Serkin, president of Austria Karl Renner, Prime Minister of Poland Jerzy Buzek, industrialist Oskar Schindler, or chess player Wilhelm Steinitz.", "Tukkhum\nTukkhum are systems of social organisation in traditional Chechen society. A tukkhum is a grand alliance of familial clans or \"teips\". The tukkhum brings together clans which are unrelated by blood but united in a higher association for the joint solution of common problems — the protection from enemy attack and economic exchange. A tukkhum occupied a specific territory, which consisted of the area inhabited by members of the tukkhum, as well as a surrounding area, where the teips, which comprised the tukkhum, engaged in hunting, farming and cattle breeding. Each tukhum spoke their own dialect of the Vainakh language.", "Languages of Syria\nThe Chechen language is spoken by the Chechen minority in two villages on the Khabur River.", "List of official languages\nChechen:", "Ingushetia\nThe Ingush, a nationality group indigenous to the Caucasus, mostly inhabit Ingushetia. They refer to themselves as Ghalghai (from Ingush: \"Ghala\" (\"fortress\" or \"town\") and \"ghai\" (\"inhabitants\" or \"citizens\"). The Ingush speak the Ingush language, which has a very high degree of mutual intelligibility with neighboring Chechen. The Ingush are traditionally a classless society based on a clan system and unwritten law (approximately 350 clans live in Ingushetia today). Every clan, and each clan member, are viewed as equal. Unlike the neighboring nations in the Caucasus (including Chechens), the Ingush never had social superiors or inferiors. The Ingush/Ingushetia were also known by the following names: Gelia (American cartographer J. H. Colton), Tschetschna (German geographers Joseph Grassl and Joseph Meyer), Ghalghai/Gelgai (Self), Nakh (self, meaning \"people\"), Vainakh (self, meaning \"our people\"), Kist (Georgian), Gergar (Self), Dzurdzuk (Georgian), Ghlighvi (Georgian), Angushtini (Russian), Mack-aloni (Ossetian), Orstkhoi (self), Nart-Orstkhoi (self), Galash (self), Tsori (self), Dzheirakhoi (self), Khamhoi (self), Metshal (self), Fyappi (self), and Nyasareth (self). The self-namings represent different Vainakh tribes which make up the Ingush population today. The history of the Ingush is closely related to Chechens. Byzantine and Georgian missionaries partially Christianised the Ingush, although Christianity was weakened by the Mongol invasions. The remains of several churches, notably the Tkhabya-Yerd and the Albe-Yerd can be found in Ingushetia. Ingush converted to Islam at the end of the 19th century, which is almost three centuries after the beginning of Islamization in Chechnya.", "Itelmens\nNative peoples of Kamchatka (Itelmen, Ainu, Koryaks and Chuvans), collectively referred to as Kamchadals, had a substantial hunter-gatherer and fishing society with up to fifty thousand natives inhabiting the peninsula before they were decimated by the Cossack conquest in the 18th century. So much intermarriage took place between the natives and the Cossacks that \"Kamchadal\" now refers to the majority mixed population, while the term \"Itelmens\" became reserved for persistent speakers of the Itelmen language. By 1993, there were less than 100 elderly speakers of the language left, but some 2,400 people considered themselves ethnic Itelmen in the 1989 census. By 2002, this number had risen to 3,180, and there are attempts at reviving the language. According to the 2010 census, there were 3,193 Itelmen in Russia.", "Chechen–Estonia relations\nDzhokkar Dudayev, before becoming the first president of Ichkeria after winning the democratic election in a landslide had been the commander of the 23rd Strategic Bomber Division in Tartu. In Tartu, Dudayev learned the Estonian language and spent countless hours learning about Estonian and Finnish history, and is thought by some to be an Estophile (a classification given to many Western-minded Chechens). Colonel Ants Laaneots remembers talking to Dudayev when they were wearing civilian clothes in a cafe and discovering that Dudayev was strongly sympathetic to Estonia.", "Northeast Caucasian languages\nSpoken in Chechnya, Ingushetia, and Georgia. Chechen and Ingush are official languages of their respective republics.", "Chechens\nGenetic tests on Chechens, though sparse and not sufficiently thorough so far, have shown roots mostly in the Caucasus as well as slight connections to and influences from the Middle East as well as Europe. As is the case with many other Caucasian peoples, Chechens are broadly connected with Europe on the Y-DNA (the paternal side) from all European regions, but narrowly closer to Western Europe in terms of mitochondrial DNA (the maternal side).", "Kazakh language\nThe Kazakh language has its speakers (mainly Kazakhs) spread over a vast territory from the Tian Shan to the western shore of the Caspian Sea. Kazakh is the official state language of Kazakhstan, with nearly 10 million speakers (based on information from the CIA World Factbook on population and the proportion of Kazakh speakers). In China, more than one million ethnic Kazakhs and Kazakh speakers reside in the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture of Xinjiang.", "Chechens\nNakh peoples such as Chechens are thought to either be descended from original settlers of the Caucasus (North and/or South) or supposedly Nakh-speaking ethnic minorities in the north-eastern regions of the ancient state of Urartu (whose people also spoke a language that was possibly related to the Nakh languages). The two theories are not mutually incompatible, and there has been much evidence that seems to link both of the two together (either by dual origins or the \"return\" theory, in which the Nakh peoples originally lived in the Caucasus and then returned). Chechen genetics show a high level of genetic diversity (see section below).", "Chechen language\nUnlike most other languages of the Caucasus, Chechen has an extensive inventory of vowel sounds, about 44, putting its range higher than most languages of Europe (most vowels being the product of environmentally-conditioned allophonic variation, which varies by both dialect and method of analysis). Many of the vowels are due to umlaut, which is highly productive in the standard dialect. None of the spelling systems used so far have distinguished the vowels with complete accuracy.", "Nakh peoples\nThe Malkhs were a Nakh people who were deemed to be the Westernmost Nakh people, and made an alliance with the Greek Bosporus Kingdom. Durdzuk was the name used historically by Georgians for the Chechens. The Durdzuks constructed numerous kingdoms, notably Durdzuketi; and they were noted for their exceptionally fierce devotion to freedom and their ability to resist invaders, ranging from the Arabs to the Scythians to Turkic peoples to the Mongolian invaders. They seemed also to have been employed as mercenaries by various parties. They had a written language using Georgian script (It is not known whether they spoke that language however.), but most of these writings have been lost, with only a few pieces surviving. After the 14th-century Second Mongol Invasion of Durdzuketi and the destruction wrought by the two invasions (including, as Amjad Jaimoukha notes, the destruction of their memory of their past ), they radically changed their culture. They became known as the Ichkeri (Turkic for \"freedom people\"), and their land as Ichkeria. It was then (as the Ichkeri) that the teip system became formalized into its well-known modern form. The term Ichkeri was also used to refer to the Ingush (for the most part), until the Ingush broke off. The name Ichkeri is a cognate of the names used for \"Chechen\" and \"Chechnya\" in many languages at that time, including Michiki (Lak) and Mitzjeghi. Only after the Russian conquest in the 19th century did the name \"Chechen\" become the internationally accepted name for the people of Chechnya.", "Chechen language\nAt the same time, the alphabet devised by Peter von Uslar, consisting of Cyrillic, Latin, and Georgian letters, was used for academic purposes. In 1911 it too was reformed but never gained popularity among the Chechens themselves.", "Checca District\nThe people in the district are mainly indigenous citizens of Quechua descent. Quechua is the language which the majority of the population (98.68%) learnt to speak in childhood, 1.10% of the residents started speaking using the Spanish language (2007 Peru Census).", "Kazakhs\nKazakh is a state (official) language in Kazakhstan. It is also spoken in the Ili region of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China, where the Arabic script is used, and in western parts of Mongolia (Bayan-Ölgii and Khovd province), where Cyrillic script is in use. European Kazakhs use the Latin alphabet.", "Teip\nHistorically, if non-Chechen minorities living in Chechen lands wanted to take part in the political processes of the Chechen nation, and integrate into it, they would request admittance as an ethnic teip. They would continue, for a time, to speak their other languages, but also learned Chechen. Due to the encouragement of teip exogamy, as the generations passed, they would come to be heavily intermarried into the Chechen nation and as a result, be slowly Chechenized culturally and linguistically. The level of Chechenization varies between these foreign-origin teips, with some well-preserving their cultural traits and others not. They are nonetheless known as impure teips (not in a derogatory sense), for their foreign origin. Their loyalty to the nation is not any more in question than a Chechen-origin teip.", "Chechen language\nAccording to the Russian Census of 2010, 1,350,000 people reported being able to speak Chechen.", "Chechen\nChechen may refer to:", "Chechens\nChechen culture puts a strong value on the concept of freedom. This asserts itself in a number of ways. A large majority of the nation's national heroes fought for independence (or otherwise, like the legendary Zelimkhan, robbed from the nation deemed the oppressor in order to feed Chechen children in a Robin Hood-like fashion). A common greeting in the Chechen language, \"marsha oylla\", is literally translated as \"enter in freedom\". The word for freedom also encompasses notions of peace and prosperity.", "Chechen language\nChechen is an ergative, dependent-marking language using eight cases (absolutive, genitive, dative, ergative, allative, instrumental, locative and comparative) and a large number of postpositions to indicate the role of nouns in sentences.", "Nakh languages\nThe Nakh languages are a group of languages within Northeast Caucasian, spoken chiefly by the Chechens and Ingush in the North Caucasus within Southern Russia.", "Czech language\nImmigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914. Czech is a Less Commonly Taught Language in U.S. schools, and is taught at Czech heritage centers. Large communities of Czech Americans live in the states of Texas, Nebraska and Wisconsin. In the 2000 United States Census, Czech was reported as the most-common language spoken at home (besides English) in Valley, Butler and Saunders Counties, Nebraska and Republic County, Kansas. With the exception of Spanish (the non-English language most commonly spoken at home nationwide), Czech was the most-common home language in over a dozen additional counties in Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, North Dakota and Minnesota. As of 2009, 70,500 Americans spoke Czech as their first language (49th place nationwide, behind Turkish and ahead of Swedish).", "Turkmenistan\nTurkmen ( Turkic language / Oghuz language ) is the official language of Turkmenistan (per the 1992 Constitution), although Russian still is widely spoken in cities as a \"language of inter-ethnic communication\". Turkmen is spoken by 72% of the population, Russian 12%, Uzbek 9%, and other languages 7%. (Russian (349,000), Uzbek (317,000), Kazakh (88,000), Tatar (40,400), Ukrainian (37,118), Azerbaijani (33,000), Armenian (32,000), Northern Kurdish (20,000), Lezgian (10,400), Persian (8,000), Belarusian (5,290), Erzya (3,490), Korean (3,490), Bashkir (2,610), Karakalpak (2,540), Ossetic (1,890), Dargwa (1,600), Lak (1,590), Tajik (1,280), Georgian (1,050), Lithuanian (224), Tabasaran (180), Dungan).", "Terek Cossacks\nIn Chechnya and Ingushetia however, the situation was different. There was a long-running ethnic conflict between the Chechen returnees and the Russian settlers of the region. Before 1989, the Russians had dominated all parts of government as well as the workforce, but then this reversed with the \"Chechen revolution\" in 1990, where the Chechen and Ingush majority took control of the ruling of their homeland. Russians were left jobless as able Vainakh took their places. The Russian language remained in many schools and the Russians of the republic were not immediately made victims.", "Chechens\nIn the late 18th and 19th centuries, Russia embarked on full-scale conquest of the North Caucasus in the Caucasian War. Much of the campaign was led by General Yermolov who particularly disliked the Chechens, describing them as \"a bold and dangerous people\". Angered by Chechen raids, Yermolov resorted to a brutal policy of \"scorched earth\" and deportations; he also founded the fort of Grozny (now the capital of Chechnya) in 1818. Chechen resistance to Russian rule reached its peak under the leadership of the Dagestani leader Imam Shamil. The Chechens were finally defeated in 1861 after a bloody war that lasted for decades, during which they lost most of their entire population. In the aftermath, large numbers of refugees also emigrated or were forcibly deported to the Ottoman Empire.", "Alans\nDescendants of the Alans, who live in the autonomous republics of Russia and Georgia, speak the Ossetian language which belongs to the Northeastern Iranian language group and is the only remnant of the Scytho-Sarmatian dialect continuum, which once stretched over much of the Pontic steppe and Central Asia. Modern Ossetian has two major dialects: \"Digor\", spoken in the western part of North Ossetia; and \"Iron\", spoken in the rest of Ossetia. A third branch of Ossetian, \"Jassic\" (\"Jász\"), was formerly spoken in Hungary. The literary language, based on the Iron dialect, was fixed by the national poet, Kosta Khetagurov (1859–1906).", "Chechens\nChechen society is structured around \"tukhum\" (unions of clans) and about 130 \"teip\", or clans. The teips are based more on land and one-side lineage than on blood (as exogamy is prevalent and encouraged), and are bonded together to form the Chechen nation. Teips are further subdivided into \"gar\" (branches), and gars into \"nekye\" (patronymic families). The Chechen social code is called \"nokhchallah\" (where \"Nokhchuo\" stands for \"Chechen\") and may be loosely translated as \"Chechen character\". The Chechen code of honor implies moral and ethical behaviour, generosity and the will to safeguard the honor of women. The traditional Chechen saying goes that the members of Chechen society, like its teips, are (ideally) \"free and equal like wolves\"." ]

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[ "Gallic Wars\nThe Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes. Rome's war against the Gallic tribes lasted from 58 BC to 50 BC and culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic over the whole of Gaul (mainly present-day France and Belgium). While militarily just as strong as the Romans, the internal division between the Gallic tribes helped ease victory for Caesar, and Vercingetorix's attempt to unite the Gauls against Roman invasion came too late. The wars paved the way for Julius Caesar to become the sole ruler of the Roman Republic.", "Battle of Alesia\nCaesar engaged in the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), which led to his conquest of Gaul beyond Gallia Narbonensis. When the Helvetii, a federation of tribes from what is now Switzerland, planned a migration to the Atlantic coast through Gaul, Caesar went to Geneva and forbade the Helvetii to move into Gaul. While he went to Gallia Cisalpina to collect three other legions, the Helvetii attacked the territories of the Aedui, Ambarri, and Allobroges, three Gallic tribes, which called for Caesar’s help. Caesar and his Gallic allies defeated the Helvetii. The Gallic tribes then asked for Caesar to intervene against an invasion by the Suebi, a Germanic tribe. Caesar defeated the Suebi. In 57 BC he intervened in intra-Gallic conflicts and marched on the Belgae of northern Gaul. From then on he conquered the Gallic peoples one by one. His successes in Gaul brought Caesar political prestige in Rome and great wealth through the spoils of wars and the sale of war captives as slaves.", "Celtic warfare\nThe \"Gallic Wars\" were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against Gallic tribes, lasting from 58 BC to 51 BC. The Romans would also raid Britannia and Germania, but these expeditions never developed into full-scale invasions. The Gallic Wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic over the whole of Gaul. The wars paved the way for Caesar to become the sole ruler of the Roman Republic.", "Military campaigns of Julius Caesar\nThe military campaigns of Julius Caesar constituted both the Gallic War (58 BC-51 BC) and Caesar's civil war (50 BC-45BC) in 59 BC, which had been highly controversial. The Gallic War mainly took place in what is now France. In 55 and 54 BC, he invaded Britain, although he made little headway. The Gallic War ended with complete Roman victory at the Battle of Alesia. This was followed by the civil war, during which time Caesar chased his rivals to Greece, decisively defeating them there. He then went to Egypt, where he defeated the Egyptian pharaoh and put Cleopatra on the throne. He then finished off his Roman opponents in Africa and Hispania. Once his campaigns were over, he served as Roman dictator until his assassination root on March 15, 44 BC. These wars were critically important in the transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.", "Gauls\nIn 58 BC Julius Caesar launched the Gallic Wars and had conquered the whole of Gaul by 51 BC. He noted that the Gauls (Celtae) were one of the three primary peoples in the area, along with the Aquitanians and the Belgae. Caesar's motivation for the invasion seems to have been his need for gold to pay off his debts and for a successful military expedition to boost his political career. The people of Gaul could provide him with both. So much gold was looted from Gaul that after the war the price of gold fell by as much as 20%. While they were militarily just as brave as the Romans, the internal division between the Gallic tribes guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar, and Vercingetorix's attempt to unite the Gauls against Roman invasion came too late. After the annexation of Gaul a mixed Gallo-Roman culture began to emerge." ]

[ "History of Cologne\nIn 260 AD Postumus made Cologne the capital of the Gallic Empire, which included the Gallic provinces, the German provinces to the left of the Rhine, Britannia, and the provinces of Hispania. The Gallic Empire lasted only fourteen years.", "Commentarii de Bello Gallico\nCommentāriī dē Bellō Gallicō (), also Bellum Gallicum (), is Julius Caesar's firsthand account of the Gallic Wars, written as a third-person narrative. In it Caesar describes the battles and intrigues that took place in the nine years he spent fighting the Germanic peoples and Celtic peoples in Gaul that opposed Roman conquest.", "Netherlands in the Roman era\nDuring the Gallic Wars, the area south and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar in a series of campaigns from 57 BC to 53 BC. The approximately 450 years of Roman rule that followed would profoundly change the Netherlands.", "Roman–Gallic wars\n223-193BC: After this came a concerted Roman policy aimed at conquering Gallic territories south of the Alps. Rome invaded the territory of the Insubres in 223BC, and took Clastidium, Acerrae and Mediolanum in 222BC. Rome fought Carthage in the Second Punic War (218-201BC), and the Gauls typically sided with Carthage. After the war, Rome took Bononia (196BC), Placentia (194 BC) and Mutina (193 BC). After this, many of the surviving Boii retreated north across the Alps to form a new state, Boihaemum.", "Gallaeci\nThe region was annexed by the Romans in the time of Caesar Augustus during the Cantabrian Wars, a war which initiated the assimilation of the Gallaeci into Latin culture.", "Commentarii de Bello Gallico\nMost English editions of Asterix begin with the prelude: \"The year is 50 BC. Gaul is entirely occupied by the Romans. Well not entirely! One small village of indomitable Gauls still holds out against the invaders.\" In the 36th book of the Asterix series, \"Asterix and the Missing Scroll\", a fictitious and supposedly censored chapter from Caesar's \"Commentaries on the Gallic War\" forms the basis for the story.", "Gaul\nAs many as a million people (probably 1 in 5 of the Gauls) died, another million were enslaved, 300 clans were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed during the Gallic Wars. The entire population of the city of Avaricum (Bourges) (40,000 in all) were slaughtered. Before Julius Caesar's campaign against the Helvetii (present-day Switzerland), the Helvetians had numbered 263,000, but afterwards only 100,000 remained, most of whom Caesar took as slaves.", "Gallienus\nGallienus (; ; c. 218 – September 268), also known as Gallien, was Roman Emperor with his father Valerian from 22 October 253 to spring 260 and alone from spring 260 to September 268. He ruled during the Crisis of the Third Century that nearly caused the collapse of the empire. While he won a number of military victories, he was unable to prevent the secession of important provinces. His 15-year reign was the longest since the 19-year rule of Caracalla.", "Gallic Wars\nCaesar was across the Alps in Italy when he received the news. With only a single legion in Transalpine Gaul, the endangered province, he immediately hurried to Geneva and ordered a levy of several auxiliary units and the destruction of the Rhone bridge. The Helvetii sent an embassy to negotiate a peaceful passage, promising to do no harm. Caesar stalled the negotiations for fifteen days, and used the time to fortify his position with a rampart nineteen miles long and a parallel trench (De Bello Gallico, I, 7 and 8).\nWhen the embassy returned, Caesar refused their request and warned them that any forceful attempt to cross the river would be opposed. Several attempts were quickly beaten off. The Helvetii turned back and entered negotiations with the Sequani, and with Dumnorix of the Aeduans, for an alternate route.(De Bello Gallico, I, 8 and 9).", "Gallic Wars\nThe 2001 film, \"Druids\", starring Christopher Lambert as Vercingetorix, depicts the Gallic Wars from the Gallic perspective.", "Alesia (city)\nAlesia is best known for being the site of the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC that marked the defeat of the Gauls under Vercingetorix by the Romans under Julius Caesar. Caesar described the battle in detail in his \"\" (Book VII, 69–90). The battle's outcome determined the fate of all of Gaul: in winning the battle, the Romans won both the Gallic Wars and dominion over Gaul.", "Gallic Wars\nThe primary historical source for the Gallic Wars is Caesar's \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\" in Latin, which is one of the best surviving examples of unadorned Latin prose. It has consequently been a subject of intense study for Latinists, and is one of the classic prose sources traditionally used as a standard teaching text in modern Latin education.", "Gallic Wars\nThe TV series \"Rome\" begins during the conquest of Gaul, and protagonists Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo, are based on two historical centurions who fought during the Gallic Wars in Caesar's Legio XI Claudia and are mentioned in \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\".", "Galley\nFrom around 1450, three major naval powers established a dominance over different parts of the Mediterranean using galleys as their primary weapons at sea: the Ottomans in the east, Venice in the center and Habsburg Spain in the west. The core of their fleets were concentrated in the three major, wholly dependable naval bases in the Mediterranean: Constantinople, Venice and Barcelona. Naval warfare in the 16th century Mediterranean was fought mostly on a smaller scale, with raiding and minor actions dominating. Only three truly major fleet engagements were actually fought in the 16th century: the battles of Preveza in 1538, Djerba in 1560 and Lepanto in 1571. Lepanto became the last large all-galley battle ever, and was also one of the largest battle in terms of participants anywhere in early modern Europe before the Napoleonic Wars.", "Battle of the Arar\nThe Battle of the Arar was fought between the migrating tribes of the Helvetii, and four Roman legions (Legions VII, VIII, IX \"Hispana\" and X \"Equestris\"), under the command of Gaius Julius Caesar, in 58 BC. This was the first major battle of the Gallic Wars.", "Namnetes\nIn the spring 56 BC during the Gallic wars and according to Caesar, the Namnetes allied to the Veneti to fight against the fleet made by Caesar. Decimus Brutus, leader of the Roman fleet, finally won the battle.", "Military campaigns of Julius Caesar\nPlutarch claimed that the army had fought against three million men in the course of the Gallic Wars, of whom 1 million died, and another million were enslaved. 300 tribes were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed. Almost the entire population of the city of Avaricum (Bourges) (40,000 in all) was slaughtered. Julius Caesar reports that 368,000 of the Helvetii left home, of whom 92,000 could bear arms, and only 110,000 returned after the campaign. However, in view of the difficulty of finding accurate counts in the first place, Caesar's propagandistic purposes, and the common gross exaggeration of numbers in ancient texts, the totals of enemy combatants in particular are likely to be far too high. Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting Helvetii extremely unlikely in the view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants. Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of ca. 30,000.. men.", "Gallic Empire\nMarius was instated as Emperor upon Postumus' death, but died very shortly after; ancient sources writing much later state that he reigned only two days, though it is more likely, as displayed through the numismatic record, that he reigned for a few months. Subsequently, Victorinus came to power, being recognized as Emperor in northern Gaul and Britannia, but not in Hispania. Victorinus spent most of his reign dealing with insurgencies and attempting to recover the Gaulish territories taken by Claudius Gothicus. He was assassinated in 271, but his mother Victoria took control of his troops and used her power to influence the selection of his successor. With Victoria's support, Tetricus was made Emperor, and was recognized in Britannia and the parts of Gaul still controlled by the Empire. Tetricus fought off Germanic barbarians who had begun ravaging Gaul after the death of Victorinus, and was able to re-take Gallia Aquitania and western Gallia Narbonensis while the Roman Emperor, Aurelian, was engaging Queen Zenobia's Palmyrene Empire in the east. He established the imperial court at Trier, and in 273 he elevated his son, also named Tetricus, to the rank of Caesar. The following year the younger Tetricus was made co-consul, but the Empire grew weak from internal strife, including a mutiny led by the usurper Faustinus. By that time Aurelian had defeated the Palmyrene Empire and had made plans to reconquer the west. He moved into Gaul and defeated Tetricus at the Battle of Châlons in 274; according to some sources, Tetricus offered to surrender in exchange for clemency for him and his son before the battle. This detail may be later propaganda, but either way, Aurelian was victorious, and the Gallic Empire was effectively ended. In contrast with his propaganda after the recent defeat of Zenobia, Aurelian did not present his recapture of Gaul as a victory over a foreign enemy, and indeed many officials who had served in the army and administration of the Gallic Empire continued their careers—including Tetricus, who was appointed to an administrative post in Italy.", "Latin\n\"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\", also called \"De Bello Gallico\" (\"The Gallic War\"), written by Gaius Julius Caesar, begins with the following passage:", "Gothic Wars\nThe Gothic Wars were a long series of conflicts against the Roman Empire between the years 249 and 554. The main wars are detailed below.", "Battle of the Allia\nThe Gallic sack led to a long-lasting and profound fear of the Gauls in Rome. In 350 and 349 BC, unspecified Gauls attacked Latium. They were probably marauding raids. On the second occasion, Marcus Valerius Corvus was said to have fought a duel with a Gallic champion. Polybius said that Rome made a peace with the Gauls, who did not return for 30 years. Despite Rome defeating the Senones in the Battle of Sentinum (295) during the Third Samnite War (298-290), popular fear of the Gauls persisted. In 228, 216, and 114 fears of Gallic attacks led to the Romans performing human sacrifices by burying alive a pair of Gauls and a pair of Greeks even though human sacrifice was not a Roman custom. Presumably, that was to avert the danger of Gallic disaster.", "Gauls\nAfter more than a century of warfare, the Cisalpine Gauls were subdued by the Romans in the early 2nd century BC. The Transalpine Gauls continued to thrive for another century, and joined the Germanic Cimbri and Teutones in the Cimbrian War, where they defeated and killed a Roman consul at Burdigala in 107 BC, and later became prominent among the rebelling gladiators in the Third Servile War. The Gauls were finally conquered by Julius Caesar in the 50s BC despite a rebellion by the Arvernian chieftain Vercingetorix. During the Roman period the Gauls became assimilated into Gallo-Roman culture and by expanding Germanic tribes. During the crisis of the third century, there was briefly a breakaway Gallic Empire founded by the Batavian general Postumus.", "Great St Bernard Pass\nThe pass had entered history with the Gallic invasion of 390 BC. The last Gallic invasion over it occurred in May, 1800, under the direction of the 30-year-old First Consul of the French Republic, Napoleon Bonaparte. An Austrian army of 140,000 men had laid siege to French-occupied Genoa on the west coast of northern Italy. Napoleon traversed the pass with 40,000 men and ⅓ of their heavy artillery sending another 20,000 over three other passes as a diversion, intending to strike the Austrian rear. The panicked Austrians were unable to assemble fast enough to meet the French en masse but rather in a piecemeal way in June 1800, and so were defeated first at the Battle of Montebello and then at the Battle of Marengo.", "Tetricus I\nGaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus was the emperor of the Gallic Empire from 271 to 274. He was originally the \"praeses\" (governor) of Gallia Aquitania, and became emperor after the murder of Emperor Victorinus in 271, after receiving the support of Victorinus's mother Victoria. During his reign, he faced external pressure from Germanic raiders, who pillaged the eastern and northern parts of his empire, and the Roman Empire, from which the Gallic Empire had seceded. He also faced increasing internal pressure, which led him to declare his son, Tetricus II, \"caesar\" in 273 and possibly co-emperor in 274, although this is debated. The Roman emperor Aurelian invaded in 273 or 274, which culminated in the Battle of Châlons, at which Tetricus surrendered. Whether this was the result of a secret agreement between Tetricus and Aurelian or necessary after his defeat is debated. Aurelian spared Tetricus, and even made him a senator and \"corrector\" (governor) of Lucania et Bruttii. He died of natural causes a few years after 274.", "Campaign history of the Roman military\nCaesar defeated the \"Helvetii\" in 58 BC at the Battle of the Arar and Battle of Bibracte, the Belgic confederacy known as the \"Belgae\" at the Battle of the Axona, the \"Nervii\" in 57 BC at the Battle of the Sabis, the \"Aquitani\", \"Treviri\", \"Tencteri\", \"Aedui\" and \"Eburones\" in unknown battles, and the \"Veneti\" in 56 BC. In 55 and 54 BC he made two expeditions to Britain. In 52 BC, following the Siege of Avaricum and a string of inconclusive battles, Caesar defeated a union of Gauls led by Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul. By 50 BC, the entirety of Gaul lay in Roman hands. Caesar recorded his own accounts of these campaigns in \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\" (\"Commentaries on the Gallic War\").", "Campaign history of the Roman military\nDuring a term as praetor in Iberia, Pompey's contemporary Julius Caesar of the Roman Julii clan defeated the Calaici and Lusitani in battle. Following a consular term, he was then appointed to a five-year term as Proconsular Governor of Transalpine Gaul (current southern France) and Illyria (the coast of Dalmatia). Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul, which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. To this end he stirred up popular nightmares of the first sack of Rome by the Gauls and the more recent spectre of the Cimbri and Teutones. When the Helvetii and Tigurini tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his Gallic Wars, fought between 58 BC and 49 BC. After slaughtering the Helvetii tribe, Caesar prosecuted a \"long, bitter and costly\" campaign against other tribes across the breadth of Gaul, many of whom had fought alongside Rome against their common enemy the Helvetii, and annexed their territory to that of Rome. Although \"fierce and able\" the Gauls were handicapped by internal disunity and fell in a series of battles over the course of a decade.", "Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe\nFrom their new bases in northern Illyria and Pannonia, the Gallic invasions climaxed in the early 3rd century BC, with the invasion of Greece. The 279 BC invasion of Greece proper was preceded by a series of other military campaigns waged in the southern Balkans and against the kingdom of Macedonia, favoured by the state of confusion ensuing from the disputed succession after Alexander the Great's death. A part of the invasion crossed over to Anatolia and eventually settled in the area that came to be named after them, Galatia.", "Segni (tribe)\nThe Segni (sometimes Segui) were a tribe living in Belgic Gaul when Julius Caesar's Roman forces entered the area in 57 BCE. They are known from his account of the \"Gallic War\". They were one of a group of tribes listed by his local informants as the \"Germani\" of Belgian Gaul, along with the Eburones, Condrusi, Paemani (or Caemani), and Caeroesi (or Caeraesi). The Segni do not appear in the first listing of the Germani, which was a listing of Germani sending men to fight Caesar. But they appear in a later mention, after the defeat of the Eburones: The Segui and Condrusi, of the nation and number of the Germans [\"Germani\"], and who are between the Eburones and the Treviri, sent ambassadors to Caesar to entreat that he would not regard them in the number of his enemies, nor consider that the cause of all the Germans on this side the Rhine was one and the same; that they had formed no plans of war, and had sent no auxiliaries to Ambiorix. Caesar, having ascertained this fact by an examination of his prisoners, commanded that if any of the Eburones in their flight had repaired to them, they should be sent back to him; he assures them that if they did that, he will not injure their territories.", "Kew\nJulius Caesar may have forded the Thames at Kew in 54 BC during the Gallic Wars.", "Tetricus I\nDuring Tetricus' reign, the main threats to the Gallic Empire came from the Roman Empire and Germanic tribes. Tetricus also had to contend with dissent within the army and government. Tetricus was recognized as emperor by all of Gaul — except Gallia Narbonensis, which had been partially reconquered by the Placidianus, a general under Roman emperor Claudius Gothicus — and Brittania. He was not recognized by the province of Hispania, including Hispania Baetica, Lusitania and Hispania Tarraconensis, — which had earlier refused to recognize Victorinus as emperor — along with the city of Argentoratum (modern-day Strasbourg) in Germania; the provinces which did not recognize Tetricus chose instead to recognize Roman Emperor Aurelian, who had been proclaimed emperor in September 270 at Sirmium in Pannonia. By the time of Tetricus' rule, the Germanic tribes had become increasingly aggressive, launching raids across the Rhine and along the coast. Tetricus moved the capital of the Gallic Empire from Colonia to Augusta Treverorum in late 271, in order to guard against the Germanic tribes. Tetricus attacked them with some success, mainly during the early part of his reign, even celebrating a triumph for one of his victories. Later in his reign he was forced to withdraw troops and abandon forts, which allowed the border territories to be pillaged. Later Germanic raids were met with almost no opposition — one penetrated so far into Gallic territory that it reached the Loire. While Aurelian was concentrated upon attacking the Palmyrene Empire, which had broken away from the Roman Empire in 270, under Empress Zenobia, Tetricus was able to recover Gallia Narbonensis and south-eastern parts of Gallia Aquitania. During 273–274, Faustinus, provincial governor of Gallia Belgica, rebelled against Tetricus, however his revolt was swiftly crushed. Around this time, Tetricus also held the \"quinquennalia\", public games that took place every four years.", "French people\nGaul was militarily conquered in 58–51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar (except the south-east which had already been conquered about one century earlier). Over the next six centuries, the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture. In the late Roman era, in addition to colonists from elsewhere in the Empire and Gaulish natives, Gallia also became home to some in-migrating populations of Germanic and Scythian origin, such as Alans.", "Gallic Wars\nThe following year, 56 BC, Caesar turned his attention to the tribes of the Atlantic seaboard, notably the Veneti tribe in Armorica (modern Brittany), who had assembled a confederacy of anti-Roman tribes. The Veneti were a seafaring people and had built a sailing fleet in the Gulf of Morbihan, requiring the Romans to build galleys and undertake an unconventional land and sea campaign. Eventually Caesar was able to subdue these tribes after a protracted land and sea campaign.", "Roman–Etruscan Wars\nThe many similarities between accounts of the campaigns of 389 and 386 – in both Camillus is placed in command, defeats the Volsci and comes to the aid of Sutrium – has caused several modern authors to consider these to be doublets of each other. This was the view taken by Beloch who held that the Gallic sack had a severe and long-lasting effect on Rome's fortunes. Accordingly, Camillus' stunning victories against the Etruscans and Volsci so soon after must be inventions designed to minimize the scale of the Roman defeat. Different later writers then treated these invented victories in different ways, assigning them to different years with different incidental detail, until in Livy's writings they emerge as separate, but ultimately both unhistorical, events.", "Gauls\nGaulish or Gallic is the name given to the Celtic language that was spoken in Gaul before the Latin of the late Roman Empire became dominant in Roman Gaul. According to Julius Caesar in his \"Commentaries on the Gallic War\", it was one of three languages in Gaul, the others being Aquitanian and Belgic. In Gallia Transalpina, a Roman province by the time of Caesar, Latin was the language spoken since at least the previous century. Gaulish is paraphyletically grouped with Celtiberian, Lepontic, and Galatian as Continental Celtic. The Lepontic language and the Galatian language are sometimes considered to be dialects of Gaulish.", "Battle of Lake Vadimo (283 BC)\nAppian wrote about the wars between Rome and the Gauls in Italy and Gaul and Julius Caesar’s conquest of Gaul (Gallic Wars 1, 2, and 3 of his Roman History). However, his work has survived only in fragments which are often short and sometimes do not shed enough light on events. He wrote about events in 283 BC and mentioned battle fought against the Romans by a Gallic and Etruscan force without mentioning where it was. This fragment concentrates on an incident which involved Roman ambassadors and Roman actions in the ager Gallicus (the land of the Senones).", "French–German enmity\nThe rivalry and cultural differences between Gauls and Germanic tribes – the pre-Roman cultures that gradually evolved into France and Germany – were noted by Julius Caesar in his \"On The Gallic War\".", "Gallic Wars\nThe Helvetii was a confederation of about five related Gallic tribes that lived on the Swiss plateau, hemmed in by the mountains as well as the Rhine and Rhone rivers. They began to come under increased pressure from German tribes to the north and east.", "Gallic Wars\nAlthough Caesar portrayed this invasion as being a preemptive and defensive action, most historians agree that the wars were fought primarily to boost Caesar's political career and to pay off his massive debts. Still, Gaul was of significant military importance to the Romans, as they had been attacked several times by native tribes both indigenous to Gaul and farther to the north. Conquering Gaul allowed Rome to secure the natural border of the river Rhine. The Gallic Wars are described by Julius Caesar in his book \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\", which remains the most important historical source regarding the conflict.", "Lazic War\nThe Lazic War, also known as the Colchidian War or in Georgian historiography as the Great War of Egrisi (Georgian: ეგრისის დიდი ომი, \"Egrisis Didi Omi\"), was fought between the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire and the Sasanian Empire for control of the ancient Georgian region of Lazica. The Lazic War lasted for twenty years, from 541 to 562, with varying success and ended in a victory for the Persians, who obtained an annual tribute in exchange for ending the war. The Lazic War is narrated in detail in the works of Procopius of Caesarea and Agathias.", "Franco-Visigothic Wars\nThe Franco-Visigothic Wars were a series of wars between the Franks and the Visigoths, but it also involved the Burgundians, the Ostrogoths, and the Romans. Most noteworthy war of the conflict would be the \"Second Franco-Visigothic War\" that included the famous Battle of Vouillé and resulted in Frankish annexation of most of Southern France.\nIn 486, Clovis I defeated the Gallo-Romans decisively, impelling the commander, Syagrius to flee to the court of Alaric II. Probably in 487, while Clovis was pillaging the land and besieging the cities that resisted (at least Verdun and Paris) he sent the King of the Visigoths an ultimatum: hand-over Syagrius or risk war. Therefore, instead of aiding the exile, Alaric‒reluctant to combat the Franks‒displayed cowardice and forfeited Syagrius, whom Clovis immediately executed.", "Battle of Bibracte\nThe Battle of Bibracte was fought between the Helvetii and six Roman legions, under the command of Gaius Julius Caesar. It was the second major battle of the Gallic Wars.", "Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium\nIn AD 260 Postumus made Cologne the capital of the Gallic Empire, which included the German and Gallic provinces, Britannia and the provinces of Hispania. The Gallic Empire lasted only fourteen years. By the 3rd century, only 20,000 people lived in and around the town as the city was badly affected by the crisis of the 3rd century. In AD 310, Emperor Constantine I had a bridge over the Rhine constructed; this was guarded by the \"castellum\" Divitia (nowadays \"Deutz\"). In AD 321 Jews are documented in Cologne; when exactly the first Jews arrived in the Rhineland area cannot be established any more, but the Cologne community claims to be the oldest north of the Alps.", "Military\nThe Classical Greeks and the Romans wrote prolifically on military campaigning. Among the best-known Roman works are Julius Caesar's commentaries on the Gallic Wars, and the Roman Civil war – written about 50 BC.", "Gothic War (535–554)\nThe Gothic War between the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Emperor Justinian I and the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy took place from 535 until 554 in the Italian peninsula, Dalmatia, Sardinia, Sicily and Corsica. The war had its roots in the ambition of the East Roman Emperor Justinian I to recover the provinces of the former Western Roman Empire, which the Romans had lost to invading barbarian tribes in the previous century (the Migration Period).", "Western Roman Empire\nWith the assassination of the Emperor Alexander Severus on 18 March 235, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year period of civil war, now known as the Crisis of the Third Century. The rise of the bellicose Sasanian Empire in place of Parthia posed a major threat to Rome in the east, as demonstrated by Shapur I's capture of Emperor Valerian in 259. Valerian's eldest son and heir-apparent, Gallienus, succeeded him and took up the fight on the eastern frontier. Gallienus' son, Saloninus, and the Praetorian Prefect Silvanus were residing in Colonia Agrippina (modern Cologne) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless, Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus – the local governor of the German provincesrebelled; his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known in modern historiography as the Gallic Empire emerged.", "Julius Caesar\nMany rulers in history became interested in the historiography of Caesar. Napoleon III wrote the scholarly work \"Histoire de Jules César\", which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic. Charles VIII ordered a monk to prepare a translation of the \"Gallic Wars\" in 1480. Charles V ordered a topographic study in France, to place The Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent catalogued the surviving editions of the \"Commentaries\", and translated them to Turkish language. Henry IV and Louis XIII of France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively; Louis XIV retranslated the first one afterwards.", "Roman navy\nIn 56 BC, for the first time a Roman fleet engaged in battle outside the Mediterranean. This occurred during Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars, when the maritime tribe of the Veneti rebelled against Rome. Against the Veneti, the Romans were at a disadvantage, since they did not know the coast, and were inexperienced in fighting in the open sea with its tides and currents. Furthermore, the Veneti ships were superior to the light Roman galleys. They were built of oak and had no oars, being thus more resistant to ramming. In addition, their greater height gave them an advantage in both missile exchanges and boarding actions. In the event, when the two fleets encountered each other in Quiberon Bay, Caesar's navy, under the command of D. Brutus, resorted to the use of hooks on long poles, which cut the halyards supporting the Veneti sails. Immobile, the Veneti ships were easy prey for the legionaries who boarded them, and fleeing Veneti ships were taken when they became becalmed by a sudden lack of winds. Having thus established his control of the English Channel, in the next years Caesar used this newly built fleet to carry out two invasions of Britain.\nThe last major campaigns of the Roman navy in the Mediterranean until the late 3rd century AD would be in the civil wars that ended the Republic. In the East, the Republican faction quickly established its control, and Rhodes, the last independent maritime power in the Aegean, was subdued by Gaius Cassius Longinus in 43 BC, after its fleet was defeated off Kos. In the West, against the triumvirs stood Sextus Pompeius, who had been given command of the Italian fleet by the Senate in 43 BC. He took control of Sicily and made it his base, blockading Italy and stopping the politically crucial supply of grain from Africa to Rome. After suffering a defeat from Sextus in 42 BC, Octavian initiated massive naval armaments, aided by his closest associate, Marcus Agrippa: ships were built at Ravenna and Ostia, the new artificial harbor of Portus Julius built at Cumae, and soldiers and rowers levied, including over 20,000 manumitted slaves. Finally, Octavian and Agrippa defeated Sextus in the Battle of Naulochus in 36 BC, putting an end to all Pompeian resistance.\nOctavian's power was further enhanced after his victory against the combined fleets of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Antony had assembled 500 ships against Octavian's 400 ships. This last naval battle of the Roman Republic definitively established Octavian as the sole ruler over Rome and the Mediterranean world. In the aftermath of his victory, he formalized the Fleet's structure, establishing several key harbors in the Mediterranean (see below). The now fully professional navy had its main duties consist of protecting against piracy, escorting troops and patrolling the river frontiers of Europe. It remained however engaged in active warfare in the periphery of the Empire.", "Porcia (wife of Brutus)\nIn 52 BC, Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars came to an end, but he refused to return to Rome, despite the Senate's demands that he lay down his arms. Cato personally detested Caesar, and was his greatest enemy in the Senate; Cato's political faction, the Optimates (also known as the Boni), believed that Caesar should return to Rome, in order for the Optimates to strip him of his property and \"dignitas\", and permanently exile Caesar. In 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his army, thus declaring war, beginning the Great Roman Civil War. Both Cato and Bibulus allied with Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus against Caesar. Though both Boni hated Pompey, he did not pose the threat to their faction that Caesar did. Bibulus commanded Pompey's navy in the Adriatic Sea. He captured a part of Caesar's fleet, although this was a generally insignificant as Caesar went on to decisively defeat Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus. Bibulus died in 48 BC following Pompey's defeat, leaving Porcia a widow.", "List of Valkyria Chronicles episodes\nSet during the Second Europan War between The Autocratic East Europan Imperial Alliance and Atlantic Federation, the plot focuses on the Gallian Front fought between the Empire and The Principality of Gallia. Welkin Gunther, a college student and son of the First Europan War hero General Belgen Gunther, Isara Gunther, a brilliant Darcsen mechanic and Welkin's foster sister, and Alicia Melchiott, a baker and member of the Bruhl Townwatch, get involved in the war when the Imperials invade Gallia to secure its rich Ragnite deposits. After managing to escape their hometown Bruhl after the Imperials captured it, the three of them join Squad 7 of the Gallian Militia to help free their country from the Empire.", "Gallic Empire\nIt was established by Postumus in 260 in the wake of barbarian invasions and instability in Rome, and at its height included the territories of Germania, Gaul, Britannia, and (for a time) Hispania. After Postumus' assassination in 268 it lost much of its territory, but continued under a number of emperors and usurpers. It was retaken by Roman emperor Aurelian after the Battle of Châlons in 274.", "Gauls\nBy the 5th century BC, the tribes later called Gauls had migrated from Central France to the Mediterranean coast. Gallic invaders settled the Po Valley in the 4th century BC, defeated Roman forces in a battle under Brennus in 390 BC and raided Italy as far as Sicily.", "Gaul\nThe Roman proconsul and general Julius Caesar pushed his army into Gaul in 58 BC, on the pretext of assisting Rome's Gaullish allies against the migrating Helvetii. With the help of various Gallic clans (e.g. the Aedui) he managed to conquer nearly all of Gaul. While their military was just as strong as the Romans, the internal division between the Gallic tribes guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar, and Vercingetorix's attempt to unite the Gauls against Roman invasion came too late. Julius Caesar was checked by Vercingetorix at a siege of Gergovia, a fortified town in the center of Gaul. Caesar's alliances with many Gallic clans broke. Even the Aedui, their most faithful supporters, threw in their lot with the Arverni, but the ever-loyal Remi (best known for its cavalry) and Lingones sent troops to support Caesar. The Germani of the Ubii also sent cavalry, which Caesar equipped with Remi horses. Caesar captured Vercingetorix in the Battle of Alesia, which ended the majority of Gallic resistance to Rome.", "Constitutional reforms of Augustus\nJulius Caesar campaigned in Gaul from 59 BC to 49 BC, which granted him unmatched military power and popularity with the people of Rome. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to lay down his military command and return to Rome as a \"privatus\" (\"private citizen\"). Caesar refused, and marked his defiance in 49 BC by crossing the Rubicon River at the head of his army, leaving his province and illegally entering Roman territory under arms. Civil war resulted, from which Caesar emerged as the unrivaled ruler of Rome.", "Sicilian Wars\nThe Sicilian Wars, or Greco-Punic Wars, were a series of conflicts fought between Ancient Carthage and the Greek city-states led by Syracuse, Sicily, over control of Sicily and the western Mediterranean between 580–265 BC.", "Illyrian Wars\nThe Illyrian Wars were a set of wars fought in the period 229–168 BC between the Roman Republic and the Ardiaei kingdom. In the \"First Illyrian War\", which lasted from 229 BC to 228 BC, Rome's concern was that the trade across the Adriatic Sea increased after the First Punic War at a time when Ardiaei power increased under queen Teuta. Attacks on trading vessels of Rome's Italic allies by Illyrian pirates and the death of a Roman envoy named Coruncanius on Teuta's orders, prompted the Roman senate to dispatch a Roman army under the command of the consuls Lucius Postumius Albinus and Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus. Rome expelled Illyrian garrisons from a number of Greek cities including Epidamnus, Apollonia, Corcyra, Pharos and established a protectorate over these Greek towns. The Romans also set up Demetrius of Pharos as a power in Illyria to counterbalance the power of Teuta.", "Galatian War\nThe Galatian War was a war between the Galatian Gauls and the Roman Republic supported by their allies Pergamum in 189 BC. The war was fought in Galatia in central Asia Minor, in present-day Turkey.", "History of France\nThe Gauls became better integrated with the Empire with the passage of time. For instance, generals Marcus Antonius Primus and Gnaeus Julius Agricola were both born in Gaul, as were emperors Claudius and Caracalla. Emperor Antoninus Pius also came from a Gaulish family. In the decade following Valerian's capture by the Persians in 260, Postumus established a short-lived Gallic Empire, which included the Iberian Peninsula and Britannia, in addition to Gaul itself. Germanic tribes, the Franks and the Alamanni, entered Gaul at this time. The Gallic Empire ended with Emperor Aurelian's victory at Châlons in 274.", "Gallic Empire\nThe Gallic Empire () or the Gallic Roman Empire are names used in modern historiography for a breakaway part of the Roman Empire that functioned \"de facto\" as a separate state from 260 to 274. It originated during the Crisis of the Third Century, when a series of Roman military leaders and aristocrats declared themselves emperors and took control of Gaul and adjacent provinces without attempting to conquer Italy or otherwise seize the central Roman administrative apparatus.", "Arverni\nThe Arverni later played an important role in the Gallic Wars of Julius Caesar from 58 BC to 51 BC. At first the Arvenian nobles tried to avoid confronting Caesar during his early incursions. They executed the leader Celtillus, evidently for trying to gain sovereignty over all the Gauls. In 52 BC, Celtillus' son Vercingetorix rallied his supporters to fight the Romans, but was expelled from Gergovia by the nobles, including his uncle Gobanitio. He then raised a great army in the country, and returned to the city where he ejected his opponents and was declared king. This accomplished, Vercingetorix forged an alliance with at least 15 Gallic tribes, requesting the presence of sons of chiefs to prove their alliance. He then led the majority of the Gauls and won the Gergovia battle against Julius Caesar and his cavalry did marvels in pursuing the Roman troops.\nAfter Julius Caesar saved half of his legions and received food from other Gauls, he went further north to fight weaker opposition. Vercingetorix was defeated by Caesar at the Battle of Alesia, after several months where the legions built 14 ranges of military equipment around the city to lay siege upon the Gallic soldiers. After several weeks of support from the western Gallic people with large numbers of troops coming to support Vercingetorix from outside the city, the Gauls were close to merging the inner and outer forces on 2 occasions. When the outer forces decided to depart, Vercingetorix took the decision to surrender himself to the Romans in order to save the people of Alesia.", "Marcus Claudius Marcellus\nFollowing the end of the First Punic War, in which Marcellus fought as a soldier, the Gauls of northern Italy declared war on Rome in 225 BC. In the fourth and final year of the war, Marcellus was elected consul with Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus. The previous consuls had pushed the Insubrians, the primary Gallic tribe involved, all the way up to the Po River. Following such terrible defeats, the Insubrians surrendered, but Marcellus, not yet consul, persuaded the two acting consuls not to accept the terms of peace. As Marcellus and his colleague were ushered into office as the new consuls, the Insubrians mustered 30,000 of their Gallic allies, the Gaesatae, to fight the Romans. Marcellus invaded Insubrian lands up to the Po River, just as the previous consuls had done. From here, the Gauls sent 10,000 men across the Po and attacked Clastidium, a Roman stronghold, to divert the Roman attacks. This battlefield was the stage for Marcellus’ confrontation with the Gallic king, Viridomarus, which cemented his place in history.", "The Stolen Eagle\nDuring the Siege of Alesia in 52 BC, Centurion Lucius Vorenus of the 13th Legion commands his men as Gallic warriors fall on his line. In contrast to the Gauls' chaotic charge, the Roman files fight with precision, until one drunk legionary, Titus Pullo, breaks ranks and charges into the crowd of Gauls. Vorenus angrily orders him back into formation, but Pullo hits him. Later, the assembled soldiers watch as Pullo is flogged and condemned to death for his disorderly conduct. The day after, Vercingetorix, \"King of the Gauls\", is brought before Julius Caesar and made to surrender, ending the eight-year-long Gallic Wars. Caesar's niece, Atia of the Julii, orders her son Octavian to deliver a horse she has purchased straight to Caesar in Gaul to ensure that he remembers them above all other well-wishers. Caesar himself receives news that his daughter, married to his friend Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus with whom he shares power in Rome, has died in childbirth along with her stillborn daughter. A blood tie broken between them, Caesar orders a new wife be found for Pompey.", "Suessiones\nCaesar recounts in his \"Gallic Wars\" that in 57 BC the Suessiones were ruled by Galba, and that in living memory of that time their king Diviciacus had exercised sovereignty over most of the Belgians and even parts of Britain.", "Louis Laurent Gabriel de Mortillet\nMortillet proposed the name \"Marnian Epoch\" as a replacement for the period usually called the Gallic, which extends from about five centuries before the Christian era to the conquest of Gaul by Caesar. Mortillet generally objected to the term Gallic, as the civilization characteristic of the epoch was not peculiar to the ancient Gauls, but was common to nearly all Europe at the same date. The name is derived from the French département of Marne.", "Tetricus I\nThe Gallic Empire is the historiographic name given to a state composed of the Roman provinces which made up Britannia, Hispania, and Gaul, which broke away from the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Gallienus. Gallienus had become emperor after his father, Emperor Valerian, was captured by the Sassanids in 260; his rule was part of the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284), a period of intense political and military power struggles. Gallienus was overwhelmed by numerous issues, including several usurpers, and barbarian attacks in the Balkans and along the Rhine — one attack by the Franks pushed as far as Tarraco (modern-day Tarragona) in Hispania. Because Gallienus was unable to prevent the raids, Postumus, a military commander on the Rhine frontier, rose up and declared himself emperor; at about the same time he assassinated Saloninus, Gallenius' son and co-emperor, in Colonia (modern-day Cologne). Postumus focused on defending the Gallic Empire, and, in the words of ancient Roman historian Eutropius:\nGallienus attempted to invade the Gallic Empire twice, but was repulsed both times, forcing him to acquiesce in the secession. Although he was unable to conquer the Gallic Empire, Gallienus did ensure that the Roman Empire was defended; posting Aureolus, a military commander, in northern Italy, to prevent Postumus from crossing the Alps. Postumus was killed by his own soldiers in 269 in Mogontiacum (modern-day Mainz) while putting down a revolt by the usurper Laelianus, because he refused to allow them to sack the city. After the army killed Postumus, they elected Marcus Aurelius Marius, an officer, as Gallic Emperor. While some ancient sources hold that Marius reigned for only two days before being killed by Victorinus, who had served as \"praetorian prefect\" (commander of the praetorian guard) under Postumus, the quantity of coins issued by Marius indicate that he must have served for a longer time, a period of roughly three months. Victorinus declared himself emperor in mid-269 in Augusta Treverorum (modern-day Trier), two days after killing Marius. Victorinus' rule was recognized by the provinces of Britannia and Gaul, but not by those of Hispania.", "Julius Caesar\nThough the Gallic tribes were just as strong as the Romans militarily, the internal division among the Gauls guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar. Vercingetorix's attempt in 52 BC to unite them against Roman invasion came too late. He proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender. Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the following year, Gaul was effectively conquered. Plutarch claimed that during the Gallic Wars the army had fought against three million men (of whom one million died, and another million were enslaved), subjugated 300 tribes, and destroyed 800 cities.", "Paul Gallico\nFilm", "Democratic elements of Roman Republic\nAfter Sulla's death, republican rule was more or less restored under Pompey the Great. Despite his popularity, he was faced with two astute political opponents: the immensely wealthy Crassus and Julius Caesar. Rather than coming to blows, the three men reached a political accommodation now known as the First Triumvirate. Caesar was awarded governor of two Gallic provinces (what is now France). He embarked on a campaign of conquest, the Gallic War, which resulted in a huge accession of new territory and vast wealth not to mention an extremely battle hardened army after eight years of fighting the Gauls. Crassus, jealous of Caesar's successes, embarked on a campaign in Parthia, where he was defeated and killed in the Battle of Carrhae. In 50 BC Caesar was recalled to Rome to disband his legions and was put on trial for his war crimes. Caesar, not able to accept this insult after his fantastic conquest, crossed the Rubicon with his loyal Roman legions in 49 BC. Caesar was considered an enemy and traitor of Rome, and he was now matched against the Senate, led by Pompey the Great. This led to a violent Civil War between Caesar and the Republic. The senators and Pompey were no match for Caesar and his veteran legions and this culminated in the Battle of Pharsalus, where Caesar, although outnumbered, destroyed Pompey's legions. Pompey, who had fled to Egypt, was murdered and beheaded.", "Gallic League\nGallic League (24 March 1985 – after 1997) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and sire. He showed his best form in the autumn of his two-year-old season but continued to run well in major sprint races for the next two years. In 1987 he won two minor races and finished third in the Norfolk Stakes before returning from a three month absence to win the Flying Childers Stakes and then recorded his biggest win in the Middle Park Stakes. As a three-year-old he won the Leisure Stakes and finished third in the Greenham Stakes. In 1989 he took the Ballyogan Stakes and was placed in both the Duke of York Stakes and the King's Stand Stakes. After his racing career he stood as a breeding stallion in Europe and South Africa.", "Diodorus Siculus\nIn the next section (books VII–XVII), he recounts the history of the world from the Trojan War down to the death of Alexander the Great. The last section (books XVII to the end) concerns the historical events from the successors of Alexander down to either 60 BC or the beginning of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars. (The end has been lost, so it is unclear whether Diodorus reached the beginning of the Gallic War as he promised at the beginning of his work or, as evidence suggests, old and tired from his labours he stopped short at 60 BC.) He selected the name \"Bibliotheca\" in acknowledgment that he was assembling a composite work from many sources. Identified authors on whose works he drew include Hecataeus of Abdera, Ctesias of Cnidus, Ephorus, Theopompus, Hieronymus of Cardia, Duris of Samos, Diyllus, Philistus, Timaeus, Polybius, and Posidonius.", "Postumus\nMarcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus was a Roman commander of Batavian origin who ruled as emperor in the west. The Roman army in Gaul threw off its allegiance to Gallienus around the year 260, and Postumus assumed the title and powers of emperor in the provinces of Gaul, Germania, Britannia and Hispania, thereby founding what scholars have dubbed the Gallic Empire. He ruled for the better part of ten years before he was murdered by his own troops.", "Galley\nAtlantic-style warfare based on heavily armed sailing ships began to change the nature of naval warfare in the Mediterranean in the 17th century. In 1616, a small Spanish squadron of five galleons and a patache was used to cruise the eastern Mediterranean and defeated a fleet of 55 galleys at the battle of Cape Celidonia. By 1650, war galleys were used primarily in the wars between Venice and the Ottoman Empire in their struggle for strategic island and coastal trading bases and until the 1720s by both France and Spain but for largely amphibious and cruising operations or in combination with heavy sailing ships in a major battle, where they played specialized roles. An example of this was when a Spanish fleet used its galleys in a mixed naval/amphibious battle in the second 1641 battle of Tarragona, to break a French naval blockade and land troops and supplies. Even Venice, a purely Mediterranean power, began to construct sail only warships in the latter part of the century, as did other purely Mediterranean powers. Christian and Muslim corsairs had been using galleys in sea roving and in support of the major powers in times of war, but largely replaced them with xebecs, various sail/oar hybrids, and a few remaining light galleys in the early 17th century.", "Wallonia\nJulius Caesar conquered Gaul in 57 BC. The Low Countries became part of the larger Gallia Belgica province which originally stretched from southwestern Germany to Normandy and the southern part of the Netherlands. The population of this territory was Celtic with a Germanic influence which was stronger in the north than in the south of the province. Gallia Belgica became progressively romanized. The ancestors of the Walloons became Gallo-Romans and were called the \"Walha\" by their Germanic neighbours. The \"Walha\" abandoned their Celtic dialects and started to speak Vulgar Latin.", "Ab Urbe Condita Libri\nBooks 91–108 – From 78 BC through the end of the Gallic War, in 50.", "Publius Licinius Crassus (son of triumvir)\nIn the first year of the Gallic Wars, Caesar and his Celtic Aeduan allies fought a defensive campaign against the Celtic Helvetii, and waged an offensive against the Germanic Suebi and their allies, led by Ariovistus. During the decisive battle against the Suebi that brought the first year of fighting to its conclusion, Publius Crassus was given command of the cavalry. In 58 BC, Caesar's cavalry auxiliaries numbered 4,000, comprising regiments from the Aedui and from the Gallic nations of Gallia Transalpina, already a Roman province. In Caesar's army, the primary strategic applications of cavalry were reconnaissance and intelligence gathering, conducted by detachments of \"exploratores\" (“scouts”) and \"speculatores\" (“spies”); communications; patrols, including advance parties and guard units on the flanks of the army on the march; skirmishing, and securing the territory after fighting by preventing the flight of surviving enemy. The cavalry charge was infrequent. In the opening stage of the war against the Helvetii, Caesar had retained a Gallic command structure; a lack of strategic coordination, exacerbated by conflicting loyalties, led to poor performance, which Caesar sought to correct with a more centralized command. Publius Crassus is the first Roman named as a cavalry commander in the war, and was perhaps given the task of restructuring.", "Roman–Gallic wars\n58-50BC. Julius Caesar leads Roman armies in the Gallic Wars in France and Belgium.", "Napoleonic Wars\nIn Dutch historiography, it is common to refer to the seven major wars between 1792 and 1815 as the Coalition Wars (\"coalitieoorlogen\"), referring to the first two as the French Revolution Wars (\"Franse Revolutieoorlogen\").", "History of France\nOver the course of the 1st millennium BC the Greeks, Romans and Carthaginians established colonies on the Mediterranean coast and the offshore islands. The Roman Republic annexed southern Gaul as the province of Gallia Narbonensis in the late 2nd century BC, and Roman forces under Julius Caesar conquered the rest of Gaul in the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC. Afterwards a Gallo-Roman culture emerged and Gaul was increasingly integrated into the Roman Empire.", "Celts\nFollowing the Gallic Wars of 58–51 BC, Caesar's \"Celtica\" formed the main part of Roman Gaul, becoming the province of Gallia Lugdunensis. This territory of the Celtic tribes was bounded on the south by the Garonne and on the north by the Seine and the Marne. The Romans attached large swathes of this region to neighboring provinces Belgica and Aquitania, particularly under Augustus.", "Netherlands in the Roman era\nDuring the Gallic Wars, the Belgic area south of the Oude Rijn and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar in a series of campaigns from 57 BC to 53 BC. He established the principle that this river, which runs through the Netherlands, defined a natural boundary between Gaul and Germania magna. But the Rhine was not a strong border, and he made it clear that there was a part of Belgic Gaul where many of the local tribes were \"Germani cisrhenani\", or in other cases, of mixed origin. The approximately 450 years of Roman rule that followed would profoundly change the area that would become the Netherlands. Very often this involved large-scale conflict with the \"free Germans\" over the Rhine.", "Vitruvius\nAt various locations described by Vitruvius, battles and sieges occurred. He is the only source for the siege of Larignum in 56 BC. Of the battlegrounds of the Gallic War there are references to: the siege and massacre of the 40,000 residents at Avaricum in 52 BC; Vercingetorix commented that \"the Romans did not conquer by valor nor in the field, but by a kind of art and skill in assault, with which they [Gauls] themselves were unacquainted.\" The broken siege at Gergovia in 52 BC. The circumvallation and Battle of Alesia in 52 BC; the women and children of the encircled city were evicted to conserve food, where they starved to death between the opposing walls of the defenders and besiegers. And the siege of Uxellodunum in 51 BC. These are all sieges of large Gallic \"oppida\". Of the sites involved in Caesar's civil war, we find the Siege of Massilia in 49 BC, the Battle of Dyrrhachium of 48 BC (modern Albania), the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC (Hellas – Greece), the Battle of Zela of 47 BC (modern Turkey) and the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC in Caesar's African campaign. A legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the Legio VI Ferrata, of which \"ballista\" would be an auxiliary unit.", "Gothic Wars\nThe \"Gothic War\" between the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman) during the reign of Emperor Justinian I and the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy took place from 535 until 554 in the Italian peninsula, Dalmatia, Sardinia, Sicily and Corsica.", "Roman–Gallic wars\nThe Roman-Gallic Wars were a series of conflicts between the forces of ancient Rome and various groups identified as Gauls (or Galli, Galatai, Celts, Celtae, Keltai, Keltoi). Among these were the Senones, Insubres, Boii and Gaesatae.", "Gallic Wars\nDiscontent among the subjugated Gauls prompted a major uprising in the winter of 54–53 BC, when the Eburones of north-eastern Gaul rose in arms under their leader Ambiorix. Fifteen Roman cohorts were wiped out at Atuatuca Tungrorum (modern Tongeren in Belgium) and a garrison commanded by Quintus Tullius Cicero narrowly survived after being relieved by Caesar in the nick of time. The rest of 53 BC was occupied with a punitive campaign against the Eburones and their allies, who were said to have been all but exterminated by the Romans.", "Punic Wars\nThe Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage from 264 BC to 146 BC. At the time, they were some of the largest wars that had ever taken place. The term \"Punic\" comes from the Latin word \"Punicus\" (or \"Poenicus\"), meaning \"Carthaginian\", with reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry.", "Marcus Popillius Laenas\nNear the end of his consulship with Gnaeus Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus, the Tarquinians invaded the Roman territories on the Etruscan border, if this Gallic war took place 30 years after the occupation of Rome by the Gauls (in 386/5 BC). Dio Cassius apparently identifies this war with the one in Camillus's fifth dictatorship when the election of the consuls was resumed. Those events took place in 364 BC, about a decade earlier, according to Livy.", "Battle of Alesia\nAt one point in the battle the Romans were outnumbered by the Gauls by four to one. The event is described by several contemporary authors, including Caesar himself in his \"Commentarii de Bello Gallico\". After the Roman victory, Gaul (very roughly modern France) was subdued and became a Roman province. The Roman Senate granted a thanksgiving of 20 days for his victory in the Gallic War.", "Battle of the Catalaunian Plains\nThe Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (or Fields), also called the Battle of the Campus Mauriacus, Battle of Châlons, Battle of Troyes or the Battle of Maurica, took place on June 20, 451 AD, between a coalition led by the Roman general Flavius Aetius and the Visigothic king Theodoric I against the Huns and their vassals commanded by their king Attila. It was one of the last major military operations of the Western Roman Empire, although Germanic foederati composed the majority of the coalition army. Whether the battle was strategically conclusive is disputed: the Romans possibly stopped the Huns' attempt to establish vassals in Roman Gaul. However, the Huns successfully looted and pillaged much of Gaul and crippled the military capacity of the Romans and Visigoths. The Hunnic Empire was later dismantled by a coalition of their Germanic vassals at the Battle of Nedao in 454.", "History of Monaco\nAfter the Gallic Wars, \"Monoecus\", which served as a stopping-point for Julius Caesar on his way to campaign in Greece, fell under Roman control as part of the Maritime Alps province (Gallia Transalpina).", "Gallic Wars\nCaesar dated their departure to the 28 March, and mentions that they burned all their towns and villages so as to discourage thoughts among undecided client tribes and enemies of occupying their vacated realm. (De Bello Gallico, I, 5 and 6).", "Gallic Wars\nThe Gallic Wars have become a popular setting in modern historical fiction, especially that of France and Italy. Claude Cueni wrote a semi-historical novel, \"The Caesar's Druid\", about a fictional Celtic druid, servant of Caesar and recorder of Caesar's campaigns. Morgan Llewelyn also wrote a book, \"Druids\", about a Celtic druid who assisted Vercingetorix in his campaign against Julius Caesar. Similarly, Norman Spinrad's \"The Druid King\" follows the campaigns from Vercingetorix's perspective. In addition, the comic \"Astérix\" is set shortly after the Gallic Wars, where the titular character's village is the last holdout in Gaul against Caesar's legions.", "Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain\nThe Chronica Gallica of 452 records for the year 441: \"The British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule.\" The Chronicle was written some distance from Britain. There is uncertainty about precise dates for fifth-century events especially before 446. This, however, does not undermine the position of the Gallic Chronicles as a very important contemporary source, which suggests that Bede's later date for 'the arrival of the Saxons' was mistaken. In the Chronicle, Britain is grouped with four other Roman territories which came under 'Germanic' dominion around the same time, the list being intended as an explanation of the end of the Roman empire in the west. The four share a similar history, as they were all given into the \"power of the barbarians\" by Roman authority: three were deliberately settled with German federates and though the Vandals took Africa by force their dominion was confirmed by treaty.", "Germania Inferior\nThe first confrontations between a Roman army and the peoples of Germania Inferior occurred during Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars. Caesar invaded the region in 57 BC and in the next three years annihilated several tribes, including the Eburones and the Menapii, whom Caesar called \"Germanic\" but who probably were Celtic or at least mixed Celtic-Germanic. Germanic influence (mainly through the Tungri) increased during Roman times, leading to the assimilation of all Celtic peoples in the area.", "Battle of Thermopylae (279 BC)\nFrom their new bases in northern Illyria and Pannonia, the Gallic invasions climaxed in the early 3rd century BC, with the invasion of Greece. The 279 BC invasion of Greece proper was preceded by a series of other military campaigns waged in the southern Balkans and against the kingdom of Macedonia, favoured by the state of confusion ensuing from the complex and divisive succession processes following Alexander's sudden death.", "Gauls\nThe Gauls emerged around the 5th century BC as the bearers of the La Tène culture north of the Alps (spread across the lands between the Seine, Middle Rhine and upper Elbe). By the 4th century BC, they spread over much of what is now France, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Southern Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovakia by virtue of controlling the trade routes along the river systems of the Rhône, Seine, Rhine, and Danube, and they quickly expanded into Northern Italy, the Balkans, Transylvania and Galatia. Gaul was never united under a single ruler or government, but the Gallic tribes were \ncapable of uniting their forces in large-scale military operations. They reached the peak of their power in the early 3rd century BC.\nThe rising Roman Republic after the end of the First Punic War increasingly put pressure on the Gallic sphere of influence; the Battle of Telamon of 225 BC heralded a gradual decline of Gallic power over the 2nd century, until the eventual conquest of Gaul in the Gallic Wars of the 50s BC. \nAfter this, Gaul became a province of the Roman Empire, and the Gauls were ethnically and culturally largely assimilated into Latin (Roman settlers) majority, losing their tribal identities by the end of the 1st century AD.", "Military history of France\nAround 125 BC, the south of France is conquered by the Romans who called this region \"Provincia Romana\" (\"Roman Province\"), which evolved into the name Provence in French. Brennus' sack of Rome was still remembered by Romans, when Julius Caesar conquered the remainder of Gaul. Initially Caesar met with little Gallic resistance: the 60 or so tribes that made up Gaul were unable to unite and defeat the Roman army, something Caesar exploited by pitting one tribe against another. In 58 BC, Caesar defeated the Germanic tribe of the Suebi, which was led by Ariovistus. The following year he conquered the Belgian Gauls after claiming that they were conspiring against Rome. The string of victories continued in a naval triumph against the Veneti in 56 BC. In 53 BC, a united Gallic resistance movement under Vercingetorix emerged for the first time. Caesar laid siege to the fortified city of Avaricum (Bourges) and broke through the defenses after 25 days, with only 800 out of the 40,000 inhabitants managing to escape. He then besieged Gergovia, Vercingetorix's home town, and suffered one of the worst defeats in his career when he had to retreat to suppress a revolt in another part of Gaul. After returning, Caesar surrounded Vercingetorix at Alesia in 52 BC. The townspeople were starved into submission and Caesar's unique defensive earthworks, protruding towards the city and away from it in order to stop a massive Gallic relief force, eventually forced Vercingetorix to surrender. The Gallic Wars were over.", "Battle of Sena Gallica (551)\nThe Battle of Sena Gallica, was a naval battle fought off the Italian Adriatic coast in the autumn of 551 between an East Roman (Byzantine) and an Ostrogoth fleet, during the Gothic War (535–554). It marked the end of the Goths' brief bid to deny the seas to the Romans, and the beginning of the Byzantine resurgence in the war under the leadership of Narses.", "Ain\nIn the year 58 BC Julius Caesar's military action against the Helvetians advancing through Gaul on the territory of today's Ain marked the beginning of the Gallic Wars.", "Military history of France\nAround 390 BC, the Gallic chieftain Brennus made his own way through the Alps, defeated the Romans in the Battle of the Allia and sacked Rome for several months. The Gallic invasion left Rome weakened and encouraged several subdued Italian tribes to rebel. One by one, over the course of the next 50 years, these tribes were defeated and brought back under Roman dominion. Meanwhile, the Gauls would continue to harass the region until 345 BC, when they entered into a formal treaty with Rome. But Romans and Gauls would maintain an adversarial relationship for the next several centuries and the Gauls would remain a threat in Italia.", "Gallic Wars\nBy 58 BC, the Helvetii were well on their way in the planning and provisioning for a mass migration under the leadership of Orgetorix. Caesar mentions as an additional reason their not being able to in turn raid for plunder themselves due to their location. (De Bello Gallico, I, 2) They planned to travel across Gaul to the west coast, a route that would have taken them through lands of the Aedui, a Roman ally, and the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul.", "Battle of Alesia\nAlesia proved to be the end of generalized and organized resistance against Caesar's invasion of Gaul and effectively marked the end of the Gallic Wars. In the next year (50 BC) there were mopping-up operations. During the Roman civil wars Gallia was essentially left on its own. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa became its first governor in 39–38 BC. In 39 BC he settled the Ubians on the west bank of the River Rhine and in 38 BC he suppressed a rebellion in Aquitania. He built a radial network of roads centred on the Gallic capital, Lugdunum (Lyon). Gallia was divided into three Roman provinces; Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Lugdununensis and Gallia Belgica. Only the Arverni kept their independence thanks to their victory against Caesar at the Battle of Gergovia." ]

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[ "David (Michelangelo)\nDavid is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture created in marble between 1501 and 1504 by the Italian artist Michelangelo. \"David\" is a marble statue of a standing male nude. The statue represents the Biblical hero David, a favoured subject in the art of Florence.", "Michelangelo\nMichelangelo returned to Florence in 1499. The republic was changing after the fall of its leader, anti-Renaissance priest Girolamo Savonarola, who was executed in 1498, and the rise of the \"gonfaloniere\" Piero Soderini. Michelangelo was asked by the consuls of the Guild of Wool to complete an unfinished project begun 40 years earlier by Agostino di Duccio: a colossal statue of Carrara marble portraying David as a symbol of Florentine freedom to be placed on the gable of Florence Cathedral. Michelangelo responded by completing his most famous work, the statue of David, in 1504. The masterwork definitively established his prominence as a sculptor of extraordinary technical skill and strength of symbolic imagination. A team of consultants, including Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci, was called together to decide upon its placement, ultimately the Piazza della Signoria, in front of the Palazzo Vecchio. It now stands in the Academia while a replica occupies its place in the square." ]

[ "Sculpture\nMichelangelo was an active sculptor from about 1500 to 1520, and his great masterpieces including his \"David\", \"Pietà\", \"Moses\", and pieces for the Tomb of Pope Julius II and Medici Chapel could not be ignored by subsequent sculptors. His iconic David (1504) has a \"contrapposto\" pose, borrowed from classical sculpture. It differs from previous representations of the subject in that David is depicted before his battle with Goliath and not after the giant's defeat. Instead of being shown victorious, as Donatello and Verocchio had done, David looks tense and battle ready.", "Michelangelo\nIn 1546, Michelangelo was appointed architect of St. Peter's Basilica, Rome. The process of replacing the Constantinian basilica of the 4th century had been underway for fifty years and in 1506 foundations had been laid to the plans of Bramante. Successive architects had worked on it, but little progress had been made. Michelangelo was persuaded to take over the project. He returned to the concepts of Bramante, and developed his ideas for a centrally planned church, strengthening the structure both physically and visually. The dome, not completed until after his death, has been called by Banister Fletcher, \"the greatest creation of the Renaissance\".", "Cast Courts (Victoria and Albert Museum)\nMichelangelo's David was the museum's first major cast of Italian figure sculpture. It was acquired in 1857 when it was sent as a gift from the Grand Duke of Tuscany to Queen Victoria — apparently in an attempt to placate English anger at his refusal to allow the National Gallery to export Domenico Ghirlandaio's \"Madonna Enthroned\". The gift was entirely unexpected and the Queen promptly gave the cast to the then South Kensington Museum which is now the Victoria and Albert Museum.", "Michelangelo and the Medici\nThe new Pope Leo X was no stranger to Michelangelo, being no other than his old schoolmate Giovanni de Medici, the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Since Leo was a Medici, one of the projects that naturally occurred to him was the decoration of the unfinished front of his family’s church, San Lorenzo, in Florence. His predecessor Brunelleschi, finished the interior and he had to finish the façade. In fact, Leo X invited several architects to do so and he was not among the first. However, when he made the woodcut in December 1516, in January 1518 he was given Leo’s approval. In anticipation of the project, he went out the quarries in Carrara, Italy to excavate granite and he spent two years building the road to it, supervising the extraction, and transporting the marble to Florence. The church facade was actually his first architectural task, and he had no experience of producing the working plans and measurements needed for his project. The blocks of marble used in columns, cornices, and other architectural features were different from the ones he used in his sculptures.", "Madonna del cardellino\nRaphael is considered to be a “master” of the High Renaissance, a title he shares with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. He was born in 1483 and died in 1520, living a mere thirty-seven years. Despite his relatively short lifespan, he was highly influential throughout his time on earth. He produced a vast quantity of work in a variety of media. He was active in architecture, printmaking, painting, and drawing. During the first half of his career, he spent years traveling across Northern Italy and was influenced by the Florentine styles he saw there, causing this stage to be called his Florentine Period. After which, in 1508, he moved to Rome where he continued to work. Many of his commissions came from the Vatican, including the Apostolic Palace, which brought about one of his most famous works, School of Athens. Due to his relationship with the church, he and Michelangelo were fierce rivals throughout both of their careers, and often competed for the same commissions. \nDuring his Florentine period, this work, The Madonna Del Cardellino, was painted along with several other well-known Madonnas: The Madonna of the Meadow and La Belle Jardinière. All three share several characteristics: Madonna is clothed in red and blue, the same three subjects are painted, the pyramidal composition, the natural background, and the connection to the church through the representation of books, crosses, or, indeed, the goldfinch.", "Italian art\nIn his sculptures, Donatello tried to portray the dignity of the human body in realistic and often dramatic detail. His masterpieces include three statues of the Biblical hero David. In a version finished in the 1430s, Donatello portrayed David as a graceful, nude youth, moments after he slew the giant Goliath. The work, which is about 5 feet (1.5 meters) tall, was the first large free-standing nude created in Western art since classical antiquity.", "Michelangelo\nIn the same year, the Medici were expelled from Florence as the result of the rise of Savonarola. Michelangelo left the city before the end of the political upheaval, moving to Venice and then to Bologna. In Bologna, he was commissioned to carve several of the last small figures for the completion of the Shrine of St. Dominic, in the church dedicated to that saint. At this time Michelangelo studied the robust reliefs carved by Jacopo della Quercia around main portal of the Basilica of St Petronius, including the panel of \"The Creation of Eve\" the composition of which was to reappear on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Towards the end of 1494, the political situation in Florence was calmer. The city, previously under threat from the French, was no longer in danger as Charles VIII had suffered defeats. Michelangelo returned to Florence but received no commissions from the new city government under Savonarola. He returned to the employment of the Medici. During the half year he spent in Florence, he worked on two small statues, a child \"St. John the Baptist\" and a sleeping \"Cupid\". According to Condivi, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, for whom Michelangelo had sculpted \"St. John the Baptist\", asked that Michelangelo \"fix it so that it looked as if it had been buried\" so he could \"send it to Rome ... pass [it off as] an ancient work and ... sell it much better.\" Both Lorenzo and Michelangelo were unwittingly cheated out of the real value of the piece by a middleman. Cardinal Raffaele Riario, to whom Lorenzo had sold it, discovered that it was a fraud, but was so impressed by the quality of the sculpture that he invited the artist to Rome. This apparent success in selling his sculpture abroad as well as the conservative Florentine situation may have encouraged Michelangelo to accept the prelate's invitation.", "Michael Hirst (art historian)\nDavid Michael Geoffrey Hirst was born on 5 September 1933 and studied at New College, Oxford, and the Courtauld Institute of Art. Lecturer, Reader and Professor of Courtauld Institute of Art, University of London, and a Fellow of the Academy since 1983, Hirst has been one of the foremost specialists on the drawings of Michelangelo. Indeed, such was his international standing in the world of Michelangelo studies that he was made a member of the Pontifical Commission for the Restoration of the Sistine Chapel's ceiling in 1987, and the following year curated an exhibition on Michelangelo as Draftsman for the National Gallery of Art in Washington.", "Apollo (Michelangelo)\nHallmarks of his style and methods exist on the unfinished work that support the attribution of the statue to Michelangelo. The subject of the unfinished statue was never noted by Michelangelo, however, and contemporary historical sources disagree about the subject. According to Vasari it is an \"Apollo\", perhaps in the act of taking an arrow from a quiver. In the inventory of Cosimo I of 1553, however, it is identified as, \"David\", by whoever drew up the historic catalogue. Art critics therefore identify the sculpture as one or the other, or, by showing a hyphenated title, \"Apollo-David\" or \"David-Apollo\", to note the uncertainty. Factors favoring the identity as Apollo are: the body is stocky and mature, as Apollo often was portrayed, rather than the typical portrayal of a youthful David; no bow is represented in the carving and, no unfinished portion of the statue allows enough area for one.", "David (Michelangelo)\nJust the colossal size of the statue impressed Michelangelo's contemporaries. Vasari described it as \"certainly a miracle that of Michelangelo, to restore to life one who was dead,\" and then listed all of the largest and most grand of the ancient statues that he had ever seen, concluding that Michelangelo's work surpassed \"all ancient and modern statues, whether Greek or Latin, that have ever existed.\"", "Apollo (Michelangelo)\nWhen Cosimo came into possession of the collection containing the most important statues of Michelangelo (the Bacchus or the Genius of Victory), the \"Apollo-David\" was placed in the Boboli Gardens, where it decorated a long niche of its amphitheater. In 1824 the statue was transported to the Uffizi, and later placed into the collection at the Bargello. Now it is in the National Gallery of Art Museum, part of the Renaissance wing complete with European paintings and sculptures.", "Michelangelo\nPope Leo X died in 1521 and was succeeded briefly by the austere Adrian VI, and then by his cousin Giulio Medici as Pope Clement VII. In 1524 Michelangelo received an architectural commission from the Medici pope for the Laurentian Library at San Lorenzo's Church. He designed both the interior of the library itself and its vestibule, a building utilising architectural forms with such dynamic effect that it is seen as the forerunner of Baroque architecture. It was left to assistants to interpret his plans and carry out instruction. The library was not opened until 1571, and the vestibule remained incomplete until 1904.", "Michelangelo\nWith the completion of the \"David\" came another commission. In early 1504 Leonardo da Vinci had been commissioned to paint \"The Battle of Anghiara\" in the council chamber of the Palazzo Vecchio, depicting the battle between Florence and Milan in 1440. Michelangelo was then commissioned to paint the \"Battle of Cascina\". The two paintings are very different: Leonardo depicts soldiers fighting on horseback, while Michelangelo has soldiers being ambushed as they bathe in the river. Neither work was completed and both were lost forever when the chamber was refurbished. Both works were much admired, and copies remain of them, Leonardo's work having been copied by Rubens and Michelangelo's by Bastiano da Sangallo.", "David (Donatello)\nDavid continued to be a subject of great interest for Italian patrons and artists. Later representations of the Biblical hero include Antonio del Pollaiuolo's \"David\" (Berlin, Staatliche Museen, c. 1470, panel painting), Verrocchio's \"David\" (Florence, Bargello, 1470s, bronze), Domenico Ghirlandaio's \"David\" (Florence, S. Maria Novella, c. 1485, fresco), Bartolomeo Bellano's \"David\" (New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1470s, bronze), Michelangelo's \"David\" (Florence, Accademia, 1501-1504, marble), and Bernini's \"David\", (Rome, Galleria Borghese, 1623–24, marble).", "The Creation of Adam\nDuring the same period, Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, which took approximately four years to complete (1508–1512). According to Condivi's account, Bramante, who was working on the building of St Peter's Basilica, resented Michelangelo's commission for the Pope's tomb and convinced the Pope to commission him in a medium with which he was unfamiliar, in order that he might fail at the task.", "The Creation of Adam\nMichelangelo was originally commissioned to paint the Twelve Apostles on the triangular pendentives that supported the ceiling, and cover the central part of the ceiling with ornament. Michelangelo persuaded Pope Julius to give him a free hand and proposed a different and more complex scheme, representing the Creation, the Fall of Man, the Promise of Salvation through the prophets, and the genealogy of Christ. The work is part of a larger scheme of decoration within the chapel which represents much of the doctrine of the Catholic Church.", "Michelangelo\nThe composition stretches over 500 square metres of ceiling and contains over 300 figures. At its centre are nine episodes from the Book of Genesis, divided into three groups: God's creation of the earth; God's creation of humankind and their fall from God's grace; and lastly, the state of humanity as represented by Noah and his family. On the pendentives supporting the ceiling are painted twelve men and women who prophesied the coming of Jesus, seven prophets of Israel, and five Sibyls, prophetic women of the Classical world. Among the most famous paintings on the ceiling are The Creation of Adam, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, the Deluge, the Prophet Jeremiah, and the Cumaean Sibyl.", "Michelangelo and the Medici\nAlthough the construction of the monument of Pope Julius did not go according to plan, it was officially unveiled in February 1545. The original design had been cut down to something small and manageable with only?three sculptured done by Michelangelo. Michelangelo, at seventy years old, had set a high standard for the following artists to come. People were already attempting to sum up his accomplishments and considering his place in history. From this time on, he was known as the ‘Divine Michelangelo’, a living legend, the master of Renaissance. Yet old though he was, in 1547, Pope Paul III appointed him chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica, which he would work on for the rest of his life. Michelangelo died of old age, leaving the project unfinished. Though he devoted the last seventeen years of his life to this task, Michelangelo refused to accept anything. He said he did it for the good of his soul. Years later his body was brought back from Rome for interment at the Basilica di Santa Croce, fulfilling his last request to be buried in his beloved Tuscany.", "David (Verrocchio)\nAndrea del Verrocchio's bronze statue of David was most likely made between 1473 and 1475. It was commissioned by the Medici family. It is sometimes claimed that Verrocchio modeled the statue after a handsome pupil in his workshop, the young Leonardo da Vinci.", "Christ on the Mount of Olives (Caravaggio)\nChrist on the Mount of Olives (1604-1606) was a painting by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (Italian, 1571-1610), formerly in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum painting gallery, Berlin, but destroyed in 1945.", "Leonardo da Vinci\nAlthough usually named together as the three giants of the High Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael were not of the same generation. Leonardo was twenty-three when Michelangelo was born and thirty-one when Raphael was born. Raphael lived until the age of only 37 and died in 1520, the year after Leonardo died, but Michelangelo went on creating for another 45 years.", "Sistine Chapel\nMichelangelo used bright colours, easily visible from the floor. On the lowest part of the ceiling he painted the ancestors of Christ. Above this he alternated male and female prophets, with Jonah over the altar. On the highest section, Michelangelo painted nine stories from the Book of Genesis. He was originally commissioned to paint only 12 figures, the Apostles. He turned down the commission because he saw himself as a sculptor, not a painter. The Pope offered to allow Michelangelo to paint biblical scenes of his own choice as a compromise. After the work was finished, there were more than 300. His figures showed the creation, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, and the Great Flood.", "Michelangelo Celesia\nHe was born Pietro Geremia Celesia in Palermo in 1814, the son of Lancellotto Celesia, Marchese of Sant'Antonino, and Giuseppa Caruso Azzolini. As a teenager, he felt called to become a monk of the Monastery of San Martino della Scala in his native city, which belonged to the Cassinese Congregation of the Order of Saint Benedict. He was received as a candidate of the monastery in 1833 and, at admission into the novitiate, he was given the religious name of Michelangelo. He made his solemn profession on January 15, 1835, and was ordained to the priesthood on July 24, 1836.", "David (Donatello)\nThe figure has been interpreted in a variety of ways. One has been to suggest that Donatello was homosexual and that he was expressing that sexual attitude through this statue. A second is to suggest that the work refers to homosocial values in Florentine society without expressing Donatello's personal tendencies. However, during the time of the Renaissance, when the statue was created, sodomy was illegal, and over 14,000 people had been tried in Florence for this crime. So this homosexual implication was very risky and dangerous. A third interpretation is that \"David\" represents Donatello's effort to create a unique version of the male nude, to exercise artistic license rather than copy the classical models that had thus far been the sources for the depiction of the male nude in Renaissance art.", "Gian Lorenzo Bernini\nUnlike sculptures done by his predecessors, these focus on specific points of narrative tension in the stories they are trying to tell: Aeneas and his family fleeing the burning Troy; the instant that Pluto finally grasps the hunted Persephone; the precise moment that Apollo sees his beloved Daphne begin her transformation into a tree. They are transitory but dramatic powerful moments in each story. Bernini's \"David\" is another stirring example of this. Michelangelo's motionless, idealized \"David\" shows the subject holding a rock in one hand and a sling in the other, contemplating the battle; similarly immobile versions by other Renaissance artists, including Donatello's, show the subject in his triumph after the battle with Goliath. Bernini illustrates David during his active combat with the giant, as he twists his body to catapult toward Goliath. To emphasize these moments, and to ensure that they were appreciated by the viewer, Bernini designed the sculptures with a specific viewpoint in mind. Their original placements within the Villa Borghese were against walls so that the viewers' first view was the dramatic moment of the narrative.", "Apollo (Michelangelo)\nConjecture exists that the sculptor had started the work as David, perhaps toward 1525, and later finished it as Apollo. There also are those who have attempted to identify the work as the lost \"Apollo Cupid\" (Valentinier, 1958), carved in 1537 by Jacopo Galli in Rome.", "Angel (Michelangelo)\nThe statue of an \"Angel\" (1494–1495) was created by Michelangelo out of marble. Its height is 51.5 cm. It is situated in the Basilica of San Domenico, Bologna.", "Michelangelo Spada\nThe son of Marcantonio Spada, a merchant, he trained initially under Simone Brentana (1656 – 1742), then traveled to Bologna to work under Giovanni Giuseppe dal Sole. In Bologna, he painted for the palace of the count Ercole Giusti. He painted two canvases, now lost, depicting \"David playing Harp with Angels\" and \"Angels playing music\". Another lost painting was the main altarpiece for the church of the Filippini in Verona, depicting the \"Assumption of the Virgin with the Holy Trinity, and San Phillip Neri\". He also painted for the church of Santa Caterina della Ruota, including one depicting events of the Apocalypse by St John: the \"Woman of Babylon on the seven headed beast\"; but also the \"Fall of Lucifer\", an \"Immaculate Conception\"; and a \"God the father\". He painted lunette frescoes (now lost) in the Convent of Sant'Anastasia ( which became the Lyceum), with scenes from the life of St Dominic and St Peter Martyr. Michelangelo Spada's sister, Veronica, was a painter of still-life.", "David (Bernini)\nThe Baroque saw significant changes in the art of sculpture; Bernini was at the forefront of this. The statues of the Renaissance masters had been strictly frontal, dictating the spectator to view it from one side, and one side only. Bernini's \"David\" is a three-dimensional work that needs space around it and challenges the viewer to walk around it, in order to contemplate its changing nature depending on the angle from which it is seen. The sculpture relates to an unseen entity – in the form of Goliath, the object of David's aggression – as well as to the spectator, caught in the middle of the conflict. The warrior even literally oversteps the boundaries between life and art, putting his toes over the edge of the plinth. The conventions of time, as well as space, were challenged. Instead of the serene constancy of, for example, Michelangelo's \"David\", Bernini has chosen to capture a fraction of time in the course of a continuous movement. Thus the latent energy that permeates Michelangelo's \"David\" is here in the process of being unleashed.", "Michelangelo\nMichelangelo arrived in Rome 25 June 1496 at the age of 21. On 4 July of the same year, he began work on a commission for Cardinal Raffaele Riario, an over-life-size statue of the Roman wine god \"Bacchus\". Upon completion, the work was rejected by the cardinal, and subsequently entered the collection of the banker Jacopo Galli, for his garden.", "David (Bernini)\nFor one thing, the sculpture is no longer self-contained, but interacts with the space around it. Not since the sculptures of the Hellenistic period, such as the Winged Victory of Samothrace, had sculptures been involved in their surroundings like those of Bernini. A likely source for Bernini's figure was the Hellenistic Borghese Gladiator. Another difference lies in the moment that Bernini has chosen to depict. Michelangelo's \"David\" differs from those of Donatello and Verrocchio in that it shows David preparing for the battle, rather than victorious afterwards. Bernini, on the other hand, chose to portray David in the act of throwing the stone. This represented a novelty; throwing figures were extremely rare in post-Antiquity sculptures. The motion motif did exist in painting, however, and one example was Annibale Carracci's fresco of the Cyclops \"Polyphemus\" throwing a stone. Bernini is likely to have known Carracci's \"Polyphemus\"; not only was it to be found in the Galleria Farnese in Rome, but Carracci was the painter Bernini ranked as fourth among the greatest ever.", "Michelangelo and the Medici\nLorenzo de' Medici's death on April 8, 1492, brought a reversal of Michelangelo's circumstances. Michelangelo left the security of the Medici court and returned to his father's house. In the following months he carved a wooden crucifix (1493), as a gift to the prior of the Florentine church of Santo Spirito, who had permitted him some studies of anatomy on the corpses of the church's hospital. Between 1493 and 1494 he bought a block of marble for a larger than life statue of Hercules, which was sent to France and subsequently disappeared sometime around the 18th century. On January 20, 1494, after heavy snowfalls, Lorenzo's heir, Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici commissioned a snow statue, and Michelangelo again entered the court of the Medici. The Medici sixty-year reign came to an end under the reign of Piero Medici. In the same year, the Medici were expelled from Florence as the result of the rise of Girolamo Savonarola. Michelangelo left the city before the end of the political upheaval, moving to Venice and then to Bologna, where he stayed for more than a year. In Bologna he was commissioned to finish the carving of the last small figures of the Shrine of St. Dominic, in the church dedicated to that saint. According to Condivi, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, for whom Michelangelo had sculpted St. John the Baptist, asked that Michelangelo \"fix it so that it looked as if it had been buried\" so he could \"send it to Rome...pass [it off as] an ancient work and...sell it much better.\" Both Lorenzo and Michelangelo were unwittingly cheated out of the real value of the piece by a middleman. Cardinal Raffaele Riario, to whom Lorenzo had sold it, discovered that it was a fraud, but was so impressed by the quality of the sculpture that he invited the artist to Rome. This apparent success in selling his sculpture abroad as well as the conservative Florentine situation may have encouraged Michelangelo to accept the prelate's invitation.", "Michelangelo\nIn November 1497, the French ambassador to the Holy See, Cardinal Jean de Bilhères-Lagraulas, commissioned him to carve a \"Pietà\", a sculpture showing the Virgin Mary grieving over the body of Jesus. The subject, which is not part of the Biblical narrative of the Crucifixion, was common in religious sculpture of Medieval Northern Europe and would have been very familiar to the Cardinal. The contract was agreed upon in August of the following year. Michelangelo was 24 at the time of its completion. It was soon to be regarded as one of the world's great masterpieces of sculpture, \"a revelation of all the potentialities and force of the art of sculpture\". Contemporary opinion was summarised by Vasari: \"It is certainly a miracle that a formless block of stone could ever have been reduced to a perfection that nature is scarcely able to create in the flesh.\" It is now located in St Peter's Basilica.", "David (Donatello)\nMost scholars assume the statue was commissioned by Cosimo de' Medici, but the date of its creation is unknown and widely disputed; suggested dates vary from the 1420s to the 1460s (Donatello died in 1466), with the majority opinion recently falling in the 1440s, when the new Medici Palace designed by Michelozzo was under construction. The iconography of the bronze \"David\" follows that of the marble \"David\": a young hero stands with sword in hand, the severed head of his enemy at his feet. Visually, however, this statue is startlingly different. David is both physically delicate and remarkably effeminate. The head has been said to have been inspired by classical sculptures of Antinous, a favorite of Hadrian renowned for his beauty. The statue's physique contrasted with the absurdly large sword in hand, shows that David has overcome Goliath not by physical prowess, but through God. However, the intention of Donatello is still debated among scholars. The boy's nakedness further implies the idea of the presence of God, contrasting the youth with the heavily-armored giant. David is presented uncircumcised, which is generally customary for male nudes in Italian Renaissance art.", "Alfredo Battistini\nIn 2009 Alfredo Battistini’s sculpture “La Creazione”, an homage to Michelangelo’s creation of Adam in the Sistine Chapel in Rome, was installed in the “Museo Michelangiolesco”. This museum is located next to the master’s birthplace in the town of Caprese Michelangelo, Tuscany. Michelangelo Buonarroti was born there on 6 March 1475.", "Bearded Slave\nThe Bearded Slave (Italian: \"Schiavo barbuto\") is a marble sculpture by Michelangelo datable to around 1525–1530 and kept in the Galleria dell'Accademia in Florence. It forms part of the series of \"unfinished\" Prigioni intended for the Tomb of Pope Julius II.", "Michelangelo\nDuring the same period, Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, which took approximately four years to complete (1508–1512). According to Condivi's account, Bramante, who was working on the building of St. Peter's Basilica, resented Michelangelo's commission for the pope's tomb and convinced the pope to commission him in a medium with which he was unfamiliar, in order that he might fail at the task. Michelangelo was originally commissioned to paint the Twelve Apostles on the triangular pendentives that supported the ceiling, and to cover the central part of the ceiling with ornament. Michelangelo persuaded Pope Julius to give him a free hand and proposed a different and more complex scheme, representing the Creation, the Fall of Man, the Promise of Salvation through the prophets, and the genealogy of Christ. The work is part of a larger scheme of decoration within the chapel that represents much of the doctrine of the Catholic Church.", "David (Bernini)\nAnother potential candidate as inspiration for Bernini's \"David\" is the celebrated 5th century BC \"Discobolus\" by Myron. However, the problem with this theory is that the \"Discobolus\" was in the early 17th century only known from literary sources; the torsos of copies that had survived were not correctly identified until 1781. Both Quintilian and Lucian wrote of the statue, but the descriptions were of a figure stretching or flexing, rather than being in the act of throwing.", "Andrea del Verrocchio\nA bronze statue of \"David\" was commissioned by Piero de'Medici. On grounds of style and technique it was dated by Butterfield to the mid-1460s; he considered it a masterpiece of Verrocchio's early career. It was purchased by the Signoria of Florence from his heirs Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici in 1476 and is now at the Bargello in Florence. Verrocchio's David is a young lad, modestly clad, contrasting with Donatello's provocative \"David\". For this figure, the Master is purported to have used the young Leonardo, a newcomer to his workshop, as his model.", "Michelangelo\nShortly before his death in 1534 Pope Clement VII commissioned Michelangelo to paint a fresco of \"The Last Judgement\" on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel. His successor, Paul III, was instrumental in seeing that Michelangelo began and completed the project, which he laboured on from 1534 to October 1541. The fresco depicts the Second Coming of Christ and his Judgement of the souls. Michelangelo ignored the usual artistic conventions in portraying Jesus, showing him as a massive, muscular figure, youthful, beardless and naked. He is surrounded by saints, among whom Saint Bartholomew holds a drooping flayed skin, bearing the likeness of Michelangelo. The dead rise from their graves, to be consigned either to Heaven or to Hell.", "Greek love\nDuring the Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo used Plato's philosophy as inspiration for some of their greatest works. The \"rediscovery\" of classical antiquity was perceived as a liberating experience, and Greek love as an ideal after a Platonic model. Michelangelo presented himself to the public as a Platonic lover of men, combining Catholic orthodoxy and pagan enthusiasm in his portrayal of the male form, most notably the \"David\", but his great-nephew edited his poems to diminish references to his love for Tommaso Cavalieri.", "Moses (Michelangelo)\nPope Julius II commissioned Michelangelo to build his tomb in 1505 and it was finally completed in 1545; Julius II died in 1513 The initial design by Michelangelo was massive and called for over 40 statues. The statue of Moses would have been placed on a tier about 3.74 meters high (12 ft 3 in), opposite a figure of St. Paul. In the final design, the statue of Moses sits in the center of the bottom tier.", "David (Michelangelo)\nOn 25 January 1504, when the sculpture was nearing completion, Florentine authorities had to acknowledge there would be little possibility of raising the more than six-ton statue to the roof of the cathedral. They convened a committee of 30 Florentine citizens that comprised many artists, including Leonardo da Vinci and Sandro Botticelli, to decide on an appropriate site for \"David\". While nine different locations for the statue were discussed, the majority of members seem to have been closely split between two sites. One group, led by Giuliano da Sangallo and supported by Leonardo and Piero di Cosimo, among others, believed that, due to the imperfections in the marble, the sculpture should be placed under the roof of the Loggia dei Lanzi on Piazza della Signoria; the other group thought it should stand at the entrance to the Palazzo della Signoria, the city's town hall (now known as Palazzo Vecchio). Another opinion, supported by Botticelli, was that the sculpture should be situated on or near the cathedral. In June 1504, \"David\" was installed next to the entrance to the Palazzo Vecchio, replacing Donatello's bronze sculpture of \"Judith and Holofernes\", which embodied a comparable theme of heroic resistance. It took four days to move the statue the half mile from Michelangelo's workshop into the Piazza della Signoria. Later that summer the sling and tree-stump support were gilded, and the figure was given a gilded loin-garland.", "History of Western civilization\nThe Medici became the leading family of Florence and fostered and inspired the birth of the Italian Renaissance along with other families of Italy, such as the Visconti and Sforza of Milan, the Este of Ferrara, and the Gonzaga of Mantua. Greatest artists like Brunelleschi, Botticelli, Da Vinci, Michelangelo, Giotto, Donatello, Titian and Raphael produced inspired works – their paintwork was more realistic-looking than had been created by Medieval artists and their marble statues rivalled and sometimes surpassed those of Classical Antiquity. Michelangelo carved his masterpiece \"David\" from marble between 1501 and 1504.", "David (inspired by Michelangelo)\nThe sculpture is a subject of a 2010 film by Danila Cahen, \"Friendly Enemies\", and of a 2011 book, \"Rise and Fall and Rise of David (inspired by Michelangelo)\".", "Leonardo da Vinci\nIn Cesena in 1502, Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, acting as a military architect and engineer and travelling throughout Italy with his patron. Leonardo created a map of Cesare Borgia's stronghold, a town plan of Imola in order to win his patronage. Maps were extremely rare at the time and it would have seemed like a new concept. Upon seeing it, Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect. Later in the year, Leonardo produced another map for his patron, one of Chiana Valley, Tuscany, so as to give his patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic position. He created this map in conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam from the sea to Florence, in order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during all seasons.\nLeonardo returned to Florence, where he rejoined the Guild of Saint Luke on 18 October 1503. He spent two years designing and painting a mural of \"The Battle of Anghiari\" for the Signoria, with Michelangelo designing its companion piece, \"The Battle of Cascina\". In Florence in 1504, he was part of a committee formed to relocate, against the artist's will, Michelangelo's statue of \"David\".", "Vandalism of art\nOn 14 September 1991, a \"deranged\" man attacked the statue \"David\" by Michelangelo with a hammer he had concealed under his jacket, damaging the toes of the left foot before being restrained. The samples obtained from that incident helped scientists determine that the marble used was obtained from the Fantiscritti quarries in Miseglia, the central of three small valleys in Carrara. The statue was restored.", "David and Jonathan (Rembrandt)\nDavid and Jonathan is a painting by the Dutch painter Rembrandt, made in 1642, now in the collection of the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Painted on oak, It is one of the works, together with the Hellenistic sculpture acquired in 1850, \"The Venus de Taurida\", with which the Hermitage began their collection in 1882.", "The Deposition (Michelangelo)\nOne of the more commendable theories about the Pietà's destruction is explained by the iconography of the hooded figure and the inclusion of Michelangelo's self-portrait as the face of the figure. The representation of Michelangelo's face on Nicodemus solidifies his ties to a specific belief of his known as Nicodemism. Michelangelo was introduced to a group known as the Spirituali by his friend Vittoria Colonna. This group practiced Nicodemism from the 1540s to the mid-1550s. Nicodemists agreed with Protestant beliefs on nearly all their bases except for the Protestants' need to break away from the Catholic Church. Nicodemists wanted to avoid a schism from the church at all costs. However, they also believed that salvation could be reached through baptism, communion, and faith alone. By 1555, Pope Paul IV had been elected head of the Catholic Church and almost instantly launched a Roman Inquisition. This inquisition persecuted anyone who spoke out against the Catholic Church, deeming them as heretics. Upon this inquisition, Michelangelo began to fear for not only his life but also for those he knew including those who were involved with the Spirituali. Michelangelo was forced into secrecy. Knowing that he would be questioned sooner or later by the Pope and that the self-portrait showing him as Nicodemus would be used as truly convicting evidence of his beliefs, he destroyed the work.", "Davidiad\nThe Davidiad (also known as the Davidias) is the name of a neo-Latin heroic epic poem by the Croatian national poet and Renaissance humanist Marko Marulić (whose name is sometimes Latinized as \"Marcus Marulus\"). Likely finished in AD 1517, the poem, as its Latin title suggests, details the ascension and deeds of David, the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah, who is said to have reigned 970 BC.", "David Plates\nThe David Plates are a set of nine silver plates, in three sizes, stamped between 613 and 630. The plates were created in Constantinople, each depicting a scene from the life of the Hebrew king David, and associated with the reign of Emperor Heraclius (610-641). Following their discovery in Karavas (northern Cyprus) in 1902, the David Plates have been considered key additions to early Byzantine secular art. It is also noted that the David Plates were found amongst the Second Cyprus Treasure. Casual laborers from the village of Karavas found the David Plates as they were quarrying the ruins for construction stones. The finders, however, failed to report what they had discovered to the Cypriot authorities. When authorities learned of their taking they confiscated three of the David Plates alongside a pair of cross-monogram plates, and other jewelry held today in the Museum of Antiquities in Nicosia. The rest of the discovery was smuggled from Cyprus and traded to a dealer located in Paris. Most of this hoard was bought by J. Pierpont Morgan and was later given to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City by his heirs in 1917, where they currently remain.", "Day (Michelangelo)\nDay is a marble sculpture by Michelangelo, datable to 1526–31. It is a pair with Night on the tomb of Giuliano de' Medici in the Medici Chapel in San Lorenzo in Florence.", "Michelangelo phenomenon\nThe phenomenon was named after the Italian Renaissance painter, sculptor, architect, poet and engineer Michelangelo (1475–1564) who is said to have thought of sculpting as a process of revealing and uncovering the figures hidden in stone. The term was introduced in 1999 by the US psychologist Stephen Michael Drigotas (\"et al\").\"", "The Creation of Adam\nIn 1505 Michelangelo was invited back to Rome by the newly elected Pope Julius II. He was commissioned to build the Pope's tomb, which was to include forty statues and be finished in five years.", "Galleria dell'Accademia\nThe Galleria dell'Accademia has housed the original \"David\" by Michelangelo since 1873. The sculpture was allegedly brought to the Accademia for reasons of conservation, although other factors were involved in its move from its previous outdoor location on Piazza della Signoria. The original intention was to create a 'Michelangelo museum', with original sculptures and drawings, to celebrate the fourth centenary of the artist's birth. Today, the gallery's small collection of Michelangelo's work includes his four unfinished \"Prisoners\", intended for the tomb of Pope Julius II, and a statue of Saint Matthew, also unfinished. In 1939, these were joined by a \"Pietà\" discovered in the Barberini chapel in Palestrina, though experts now consider its attribution to Michelangelo to be dubious.", "Madonna of the Caves\nIts dating to 1488–1490 is based on Giorgio Vasari's description of Francesco I de' Medici's collections, which attributes it to Mantegna's time in Rome. Some have linked it to a work commissioned from Mantegna by Lorenzo de' Medici and mentioned in a letter from Lorenzo. Other historians date it differently due to its style and figuration. However, Mantegna's re-use of certain themes like rocky backgrounds throughout his career makes it difficult to date uncertain works definitively.", "Dusk (Michelangelo)\nDusk is a marble sculpture by Michelangelo, datable to 1524-34. It is a pair with Dawn on the tomb of Lorenzo II de' Medici in the Medici Chapel in San Lorenzo in Florence.", "Michelangelo\nIn 1546 Michelangelo produced the highly complex ovoid design for the pavement of the Campidoglio and began designing an upper storey for the Farnese Palace. In 1547 he took on the job of completing St Peter's Basilica, begun to a design by Bramante, and with several intermediate designs by several architects. Michelangelo returned to Bramante's design, retaining the basic form and concepts by simplifying and strengthening the design to create a more dynamic and unified whole. Although the late 16th-century engraving depicts the dome as having a hemispherical profile, the dome of Michelangelo's model is somewhat ovoid and the final product, as completed by Giacomo della Porta is more so.", "Piazzale Michelangelo\nThe square, dedicated to the Renaissance sculptor Michelangelo, has bronze copies of some of his marble works found elsewhere in Florence: the David and the four allegories of the Medici Chapel of San Lorenzo. The monument was brought up by nine pairs of oxen on 25 June 1873.", "David (Michelangelo)\nMichelangelo's \"David\" has become one of the most recognized works of Renaissance sculpture, a symbol of strength and youthful beauty.", "Dawn (Michelangelo)\nDawn is a sculpture by Italian Renaissance artist Michelangelo, executed for the Medici Chapel in the area of the tomb of Lorenzo de' Medici in Florence, Italy. \nIt is part of a second pair (the second being \"Dusk\"), which followed \"Day \"and \"Night \"in his work on the Chapel.", "Michelangelo\nThe kneeling angel is an early work, one of several that Michelangelo created as part of a large decorative scheme for the Arca di San Domenico in the church dedicated to that saint in Bologna. Several other artists had worked on the scheme, beginning with Nicola Pisano in the 13th century. In the late 15th century, the project was managed by Niccolò dell'Arca. An angel holding a candlestick, by Niccolò, was already in place. Although the two angels form a pair, there is a great contrast between the two works, the one depicting a delicate child with flowing hair clothed in Gothic robes with deep folds, and Michelangelo's depicting a robust and muscular youth with eagle's wings, clad in a garment of Classical style.\nEverything about Michelangelo's angel is dynamic.\nMichelangelo's \"Bacchus\" was a commission with a specified subject, the youthful God of Wine. The sculpture has all the traditional attributes, a vine wreath, a cup of wine and a fawn, but Michelangelo ingested an air of reality into the subject, depicting him with bleary eyes, a swollen bladder and a stance that suggests he is unsteady on his feet. While the work is plainly inspired by Classical sculpture, it is innovative for its rotating movement and strongly three-dimensional quality, which encourages the viewer to look at it from every angle.\nIn the so-called \"Dying Slave\", Michelangelo has again utilised the figure with marked contraposto to suggest a particular human state, in this case waking from sleep. With the \"Rebellious Slave\", it is one of two such earlier figures for the Tomb of Pope Julius II, now in the Louvre, that the sculptor brought to an almost finished state. These two works were to have a profound influence on later sculpture, through Rodin who studied them at the Louvre.\nThe \"Bound Slave\" is one of the later figures for Pope Julius' tomb. The works, known collectively as \"The Captives\", each show the figure struggling to free itself, as if from the bonds of the rock in which it is lodged. The works give a unique insight into the sculptural methods that Michelangelo employed and his way of revealing what he perceived within the rock.", "Moses (Michelangelo)\nThe Moses ( ; c. 1513–1515) is a sculpture by the Italian High Renaissance artist Michelangelo Buonarroti, housed in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome. Commissioned in 1505 by Pope Julius II for his tomb, it depicts the biblical figure Moses with horns on his head, based on a description in chapter 34 of Exodus in the Vulgate, the Latin translation of the Bible used at that time.", "The Entombment (Michelangelo)\nThere is an anecdote that Michelangelo received a letter from his father saying that he should abandon whatever he was doing because a great piece of marble had arrived for him, which would become his \"David\" sculpture.", "Medici Chapel\nIn a statement in the Michelangelo's biography published in 1553 by his disciple, Ascanio Condivi, and largely based on Michelangelo own recollections, Condivi gives the following description: \"The statues are four in number, placed in a sacristy . . . the sarcophagi are placed before the side walls, and on the lids of each there recline two big figures, larger than life, to wit, a man and a woman; they signify Day and Night and, in conjunction, Time which devours all things… And in order to signify Time he planned to make a mouse, having left a bit of marble upon the work (which [plan] he subsequently did not carry out because he was prevented by circumstances), because this little animal ceaselessly gnaws and consumes just as time devours everything”.", "Crucifix (Michelangelo)\nOne is a polychrome wood sculpture possibly finished in 1492 which had been lost from view by scholars until it re-emerged in 1962; in 2001 new investigations appeared to confirm the attribution to Michelangelo. It was perhaps made for the high altar of the Church of Santa Maria del Santo Spirito in Florence, Italy. The work is especially notable for the fact that this Christ is naked.", "Medici Madonna\nThe work, according to Michelangelo's letters and other documents, was one of the first works begun for the decoration of the \"Sagrestia Vecchia\" (Old Sacristy), as early as 1521. In 1526 it was still incomplete and in 1534, when Michelangelo moved to Rome, it was left in the current unfinished state and moved to the current location by Niccolò Tribolo.", "Risen Christ (Michelangelo, Santa Maria sopra Minerva)\nThe work was commissioned in June 1514, by the Roman patrician Metello Vari, who stipulated only that the nude standing figure would have the Cross in his arms, but left the composition entirely to Michelangelo. Michelangelo was working on a first version of this statue in his studio in Macello dei Corvi around 1515, but abandoned it in roughed-out condition when he discovered a black vein in the white marble, remarked upon by Vari in a letter, and later by Ulisse Aldrovandi. A new version was hurriedly substituted in 1519-1520 to fulfil the terms of the contract. Michelangelo worked on it in Florence, and the move to Rome and final touches were entrusted to an apprentice, Pietro Urbano; the latter, however, damaged the work and had to be quickly replaced by Federico Frizzi at the suggestion of Sebastiano del Piombo.\nThe first version, rough as it was, was asked for by Metello Vari, and given him in January 1522, for the little garden courtyard of his palazzetto near Santa Maria sopra Minerva, ' translated as \"As his greatest honor, as if it were of gold\", a mark of the esteem in which Michelangelo was held\". There it remained, described by Aldrovandi in 1556, and noted in some contemporary letters as apparently for sale in 1607, following which it was utterly lost to sight. In 2000 Irene Baldriga recognized the lost first version, finished in the early seventeenth century, in the sacristy of the church of San Vincenzo Martire, at Bassano Romano near Viterbo; the black vein is clearly distinguishable on Christ's left cheek. It is now often called the Giustiniani Christ. The parts finished later are the \"right hand, parts of the face and the back\".", "Michelangelo and the Medici\nMichelangelo (6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564) had a complicated relationship with the Medici family, who were for most of his lifetime the effective rulers of his home city of Florence. The Medici rose to prominence as Florence's preeminent bankers, some of which was used for patronage of the arts. Michelangelo's first contact with the Medici family began early as a talented teenage apprentice of the Florentine painter, Domenico Ghirlandaio. Following his initial work for Lorenzo de' Medici, Michelangelo's interactions with the family continued for decades including the Medici papacies of Pope Leo X and Pope Clement VII.", "Michelangelo\nMichelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni or more commonly known by his first name Michelangelo (; ; 6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564) was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect and poet of the High Renaissance born in the Republic of Florence, who exerted an unparalleled influence on the development of Western art. Considered by many the greatest artist of his lifetime, and by some the greatest artist of all time, his artistic versatility was of such a high order that he is often considered a contender for the title of the archetypal Renaissance man, along with his rival, the fellow Florentine and client of the Medici, Leonardo da Vinci.Pietà\" and \"David\", before the age of thirty. Despite holding a low opinion of painting, he also created two of the most influential frescoes in the history of Western art: the scenes from Genesis on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome, and \"The Last Judgment\" on its altar wall. His design of the Laurentian Library pioneered Mannerist architecture. At the age of 74, he succeeded Antonio da Sangallo the Younger as the architect of St. Peter's Basilica. He transformed the plan so that the western end was finished to his design, as was the dome, with some modification, after his death.", "Serkan Özkaya\nIn 2005, Özkaya created \"David (inspired by Michelangelo)\", a double-sized golden replica of Michelangeloʼs \"David\" based on a 3D computer model by Marc Levoy of Stanford University. The sculpture was first intended to be part of the 9th International Istanbul Biennial. Unfortunately, the statue crashed and was destroyed while in the process of being installed at Şişli Square. Özkaya created two new versions of the replica at a studio in Eskişehir, one of which was to be placed in the local Sazova Science, Art and Culture Park. The other was acquired by 21c Museum Hotels in Louisville, Kentucky. On its way to Louisville, the piece made a stop in New York City. Although just a mere copy, the statue made quite a spectacle, as the artist intended, attracting the attention of tourists and residents as it was transported uncovered lying horizontally on a semi-trailer truck. The giant 30-foot statue is currently featured in front of the museum hotel on West Main Street in Louisville.", "Italophilia\nMichelangelo was born in Florence in 1475 and, like Leonardo, was a true Renaissance man. He was a sculptor, painter, architect, poet, and engineer who exerted an unparalleled influence on the development of Western art. He was considered the greatest living artist in his lifetime and, since then, one of the greatest artists of all time. His two best-known sculptures, the Pietà and David, are famous throughout the world. Michelangelo also created two of the most famous and influential frescoes in the history of Western art: the scenes from Genesis covering the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, and The Last Judgment on the altar wall of the Chapel.", "Tommaso dei Cavalieri\nTommaso dei Cavalieri (1509–1587) was an Italian nobleman, who was the object of the greatest expression of Michelangelo's love. Cavalieri was 23 years old when Michelangelo met him in 1532, at the age of 57. The young nobleman was exceptionally handsome, and his appearance seems to have fit the artist's notions of ideal masculine beauty, for Michelangelo described him as \"light of our century, paragon of all the world.\" The two men remained lifelong lovers, and Cavalieri was present at the artist's death.", "David (Donatello)\nDonatello, then in his early twenties, was commissioned to carve a statue of David in 1408, to top one of the buttresses of Florence Cathedral, though it was never placed there. Nanni di Banco was commissioned to carve a marble statue of Isaiah, at the same scale, in the same year. One of the statues was lifted into place in 1409, but was found to be too small to be easily visible from the ground and was taken down; both statues then languished in the workshop of the \"opera\" for several years. In 1416, the Signoria of Florence commanded that the \"David\" be sent to their Palazzo della Signoria; evidently the young David was seen as an effective political symbol, as well as a religious hero. Donatello was asked to make some adjustments to the statue (perhaps to make him look less like a prophet), and a pedestal with an inscription was made for it: PRO PATRIA FORTITER DIMICANTIBUS ETIAM ADVERSUS TERRIBILISSIMOS HOSTES DII PRAESTANT AUXILIUM (\"To those who fight bravely for the fatherland the gods lend aid even against the most terrible foes\").", "Michelangelo and the Medici\nIt was then that Michelangelo first began writing down his deepest thoughts in poetry which he continued to do for the rest of his life.\nFrom 1490 to 1492, Michelangelo attended the Humanist academy which the Medici had founded. He absorbed Renaissance Neoplatonism through his direct contact with some of the great Renaissance humanist philosophers of the Medici Court. Consequently, both Michelangelo's outlook and his art were subject to the influence of many of the most prominent philosophers and writers of the day including Marsilio Ficino, Pico della Mirandola and Angelo Poliziano. Michelangelo studied sculpture under Bertoldo di Giovanni. At this time Michelangelo sculpted the reliefs \"Madonna of the Steps\" (1490–1492) and \"Battle of the Centaurs\" (1491–1492). The latter was based on a subject suggested by Poliziano and was commissioned by Lorenzo de' Medici.", "David (Bernini)\nDavid is a life-size marble sculpture by Gian Lorenzo Bernini. The sculpture was one of many commissions to decorate the villa of Bernini's patron Cardinal Scipione Borghese – where it still resides today, as part of the Galleria Borghese. It was completed in the course of seven months from 1623 to 1624.", "The Deposition (Michelangelo)\nVasari noted that Michelangelo began to work on the sculpture around the age of 72. Without commission, Michelangelo worked tirelessly into the night with just a single candle to illuminate his work. Vasari wrote that he began to work on this sculpture to amuse his mind and to keep his body healthy. After 8 years of working on it, Michelangelo would go on and attempt to destroy the work in a fit of frustration. This marked the end of Michelangelo's work on the sculptural group, which found itself in the hands of Francesco Bandini, who hired an apprentice sculptor, by the name of Tiberio Calcagni, to restore the work to its current composition. The left leg of Christ is missing. Since its inception, the sculpture has been plagued by ambiguities and never ending interpretations, with no straightforward answers available.", "David (Michelangelo)\n\"David\" has stood on display at Florence's Galleria dell'Accademia since 1873. In addition to the full-sized replica occupying the spot of the original in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, a bronze version overlooks Florence from the Piazzale Michelangelo. The plaster cast of \"David\" at the Victoria and Albert Museum has a detachable plaster fig leaf which is displayed nearby. Legend claims that the fig leaf was created in response to Queen Victoria's shock upon first viewing the statue's nudity, and was hung on the figure prior to royal visits, using two strategically placed hooks.", "David with the Head of Goliath (Caravaggio, Vienna)\nThe model for David in both versions appears to be a more mature version of the pubescent Cupid of \"Amor Vincit Omnia\" and the Capitoline and Pamphilij \"John the Baptist\", all painted around 1602. The model for these works has been identified by some, most notably Peter Robb, as Cecco, a boy known to have been Caravaggio's servant in Rome in the early 17th century and believed by Robb to be identical with Cecco del Caravaggio, an artist active in Rome in the period 1610–1625 and painting very much in Caravaggio's manner. There is no record of Cecco having been with Caravaggio after the artist's flight from Rome in 1606.", "The Creation of Adam\nUnder the patronage of the Pope, Michelangelo experienced constant interruptions to his work on the tomb in order to accomplish numerous other tasks. Although Michelangelo worked on the tomb for 40 years, it was never finished to his satisfaction. It is located in the Church of S. Pietro in Vincoli in Rome and is most famous for his central figure of \"Moses\", completed in 1516. Of the other statues intended for the tomb, two known as the \"Rebellious Slave\" and the \"Dying Slave\", are now in the Louvre.", "Donatello\nAround 1430, Cosimo de' Medici, the foremost art patron of his era, commissioned from Donatello the bronze \"David\" (now in the Bargello) for the court of his Palazzo Medici. This is now Donatello's most famous work, and the first known free-standing nude statue produced since antiquity. Conceived fully in the round, independent of any architectural surroundings, and largely representing an allegory of the civic virtues triumphing over brutality and irrationality, it is arguably the first major work of Renaissance sculpture. Also from this period is the disquietingly small \"Love-Atys\", housed in the Bargello.", "Sistine Chapel\nBetween 1508 and 1512, under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted the chapel's ceiling, a project which changed the course of Western art and is regarded as one of the major artistic accomplishments of human civilization. In a different climate after the Sack of Rome, he returned and between 1535 and 1541, painted \"The Last Judgment\" for Popes Clement VII and Paul III. The fame of Michelangelo's paintings has drawn multitudes of visitors to the chapel ever since they were revealed five hundred years ago.", "Michelangelo and the Medici\nClement VII had plans to make the private Medici library public and in doing so, the Pope proposed creating a new building. Michelangelo was contracted and produced an amazing design but it was not carried out until he moved to Rome in 1525. In this project, Michelangelo produced new styles such as pilasters tapering thinner at the bottom, and a staircase with contrasting rectangular and curving forms. Michelangelo worked on these two projects off and on for the next thirteen years. Ultimately, it was finished after his lifetime. Mere days before his own death, Clement VII commissioned Michelangelo to paint \"The Last Judgment\" in the Sistine Chapel.", "Michelangelo\nWhile Michelangelo's \"David\" is the most famous male nude of all time and destined to be reproduced in order to grace cities around the world, some of his other works have had perhaps even greater impact on the course of art. The twisting forms and tensions of the \"Victory\", the \"Bruges Madonna\" and the \"Medici Madonna\" make them the heralds of the Mannerist art. The unfinished giants for the tomb of Pope Julius II had profound effect on late-19th- and 20th-century sculptors such as Rodin and Henry Moore.", "Michelangelo\nIn 1513, Pope Julius II died and was succeeded by Pope Leo X, the second son of Lorenzo dei Medici. Pope Leo commissioned Michelangelo to reconstruct the façade of the Basilica of San Lorenzo in Florence and to adorn it with sculptures. He agreed reluctantly and spent three years creating drawings and models for the façade, as well as attempting to open a new marble quarry at Pietrasanta specifically for the project. In 1520 the work was abruptly cancelled by his financially strapped patrons before any real progress had been made. The basilica lacks a façade to this day.", "Medici Madonna\nThe Medici Madonna is a marble sculpture carved by Italian Renaissance master Michelangelo Buonarroti that measures about 88.98 inches (226 cm) in height. Dating from 1521–1534 the sculpture is a piece of the altar decoration of the \"Sagrestia Nuova\" in the Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence.", "Leda and the Swan\nAlso lost, and probably deliberately destroyed, is Michelangelo's tempera painting of the pair making love, commissioned in 1529 by Alfonso d'Este for his palazzo in Ferrara, and taken to France for the royal collection in 1532; it was at Fontainebleau in 1536. Michelangelo's cartoon for the work—given to his assistant Antonio Mini, who used it for several copies for French patrons before his death in 1533—survived for over a century. This composition is known from many copies, including an by Cornelis Bos, c. 1563; the marble sculpture by Bartolomeo Ammanati in the Bargello, Florence; two copies by the young Rubens on his Italian voyage, and the painting after Michelangelo, ca. 1530, in the National Gallery, London. The Michelangelo composition, of about 1530, shows Mannerist tendencies of elongation and twisted pose (the \"figura serpentinata\") that were popular at the time. In addition, a sculptural group, similar to the Prado Roman group illustrated, was believed until at least the 19th century to be by Michelangelo.", "David (Michelangelo)\n\"David\" was originally commissioned as one of a series of statues of prophets to be positioned along the roofline of the east end of Florence Cathedral, but was instead placed in a public square, outside the Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of civic government in Florence, in the Piazza della Signoria where it was unveiled on 8 September 1504. The statue was moved to the Galleria dell'Accademia, Florence, in 1873, and later replaced at the original location by a replica.\nBecause of the nature of the hero it represented, the statue soon came to symbolize the defence of civil liberties embodied in the Republic of Florence, an independent city-state threatened on all sides by more powerful rival states and by the hegemony of the Medici family. The eyes of David, with a warning glare, were turned towards Rome.", "Separation of Light from Darkness\nSeveral authors have proposed that Michelangelo concealed anatomical images in this fresco and that these anatomical images account for its unusual features. In an article published in the journal \"Neurosurgery\" in May 2010, Ian Suk, a medical illustrator, and Rafael Tamargo, a neurosurgeon, both from the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, suggested that Michelangelo concealed three neuroanatomical images in the \"Separation of Light from Darkness.\" Suk and Tamargo explained that Michelangelo started to dissect cadavers at the age of 17–19 years and continued his anatomical studies throughout his life. As a result of his dissections, Michelangelo probably developed a detailed understanding of gross anatomy of the brain and spinal cord. They showed that the anatomical details in God's neck are unlike those of either other necks painted by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel or of other necks painted by Michelangelo's contemporaries, such as Leonardo da Vinci and Raffaello Sanzio (Raphael). The unusual anatomy of God's neck is particularly evident when it is contrasted with the anatomy of the neck of the ignudo facing God in the upper left corner of the panel. The position of the neck of this ignudo is almost identical to that of God's neck, yet the ignudo's neck does not have any of the unusual lines found in God's neck. It is possible that Michelangelo placed these two analogous neck perspectives side by side to emphasize and contrast the hidden image in God's neck.", "Michelangelo Mattei\nMichelangelo Mattei was born in Rome, Italy on 8 May 1628.\nOn 7 November 1689, he was appointed during the papacy of Pope Alexander VIII as Titular Archbishop of \"Hadrianopolis in Haemimonto\".\nOn 13 November 1689, he was consecrated bishop by Fabrizio Spada, Cardinal-Priest of San Crisogono with Francesco de' Marini, Titular Archbishop of \"Teodosia\", and Prospero Bottini, Titular Archbishop of \"Myra\", serving as co-consecrators.\nOn 18 May 1693, he was appointed during the papacy of Pope Innocent XII as Titular Patriarch of Antioch.\nHe served as Titular Patriarch of \"Antioch\" until his death on 22 December 1699.", "Medici Chapel\nThough it was vaulted over by 1524, the ambitious projects of its sculpture and the intervention of events, such as the temporary exile of the Medici (1527), the death of Giulio, now Pope Clement VII and the permanent departure of Michelangelo for Rome in 1534, meant that Michelangelo never finished it. Though most of the statues had been carved by the time of Michelangelo's departure, they had not been put in place, being left in disarray across the chapel, and later installed by Niccolò Tribolo in 1545. By order of Cosimo I, Giorgio Vasari and Bartolomeo Ammannati finished the work by 1555.", "David with the Head of Goliath (Caravaggio, Vienna)\nDavid with the Head of Goliath, c. 1607, in the Kunsthistorisches Museum Gemäldegalerie, Vienna, is a painting by the Italian artist Caravaggio (1571–1610). Peter Robb believes it to have been acquired by the conde de Villamediana in Naples between 1611 and 1617, as Giovanni Bellori records Villamediana as having returned to Spain with a half-figure of David by Caravaggio.", "Battle of the Centaurs (Michelangelo)\nMichelangelo, at 17, was working under the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici when he crafted the \"Battle of the Centaurs\", although the work was not commissioned but created for himself. The work reflected a then current fashion for reproducing ancient themes. Specifically, Michelangelo was inspired by a relief that had been produced for de' Medici by Bertoldo di Giovanni, a work in bronze that hung in the Medici palace. Michelangelo chose to work in marble rather than the more expensive bronze to keep down costs. Bertoldo's work, The \"Equestrian Battle in the Ancient Manner\"—also known as \"Battle (with Hercules)\"—was a recreation of a damaged Roman battle sarcophagus and required liberal imagination to fill in the gaps left by the damaged original. Bertoldo took other liberties with his source material and seems to have himself been inspired by the Antonio del Pollaiolo engraving \"Battle of the Nudes\".", "David (Donatello)\nThe marble \"David\" is Donatello's earliest known important commission, and it is a work closely tied to tradition, giving few signs of the innovative approach to representation that the artist would develop as he matured. Although the positioning of the legs hints at a classical contrapposto, the figure stands in an elegant Gothic sway that surely derives from Lorenzo Ghiberti. The face is curiously blank (curiously, that is, if one expects naturalism, but very typical of the Gothic style), and David seems almost unaware of the head of his vanquished foe that rests between his feet. Some scholars have seen an element of personality – a kind of cockiness -(contrapposto=relaxed stance, shifted weight) suggested by the twist of the torso and the akimbo placement of the left arm, but overall the effect of the figure is rather bland. However it was intended to be gilded and painted, set on a pedestal with mosaic, and also seen from a considerable distance below. Donatello distorted the proportions of the figure to allow for this angle of view. The head of Goliath, lying at David's feet, \"is carved with great assurance and reveals the young sculptor’s genuinely Renaissance interest in an ancient Roman type of mature, bearded head\".", "David and Jonathan\nThe Renaissance artists Donatello and Michelangelo both brought out strong homoerotic elements in their respective sculptures depicting the youthful David.", "Sebastiano del Piombo\nThe first result of this collaboration was one of Sebastiano's most important paintings, a \"Pietà\" in Viterbo. Here the composition is highly unusual for this common subject (which Michelangelo had famously sculpted in 1498–99), with Christ lying across the bottom of the picture space, at the feet of a Virgin looking up to Heaven, so that the two figures do not actually touch. Though no drawing survives, this was Michelangelo's conception, where \"an idea of high tragic power is expressed with extreme simplicity in a structure of severe geometric rigour\". The back of the panels have large sketches in charcoal that seem to be by both artists. In 1516 he painted a similar subject, the \"Lamentation of Jesus\" (now Hermitage Museum) using his own composition, and showing his awareness of Raphael's handling of groups of figures.", "Raffaello da Montelupo\nShortly thereafter, according to Vasari, Raffaello began work in Florence with Michelangelo, at the Medici Chapel (Sagrestia Nuova) of the Basilica di San Lorenzo, where he created \"San Damiano\" (c. 1534). \"St. Cosmas\" is also attributed to him, together with Giovanni Angelo Montorsoli, another assistant to Michelangelo.", "The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)\nThe work took over four years to complete between 1536 and 1541 (preparation of the altar wall began in 1535). Michelangelo began working on it twenty-five years after having finished the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and was nearly 67 at its completion. Michelangelo originally accepted the commission from Pope Clement VII, but it was completed under Pope Paul III, whose stronger reforming views probably affected the final treatment.", "Michelangelo (Stanley book)\nMichelangelo is a 2000 children's biography by Diane Stanley. It covers Michelangelo's life, from his childhood to his death.", "The Creation of Adam\n\"The Creation of Adam\" is generally thought to depict the excerpt \"God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him\" (). The inspiration for Michelangelo's treatment of the subject may come from a medieval hymn, \"Veni Creator Spiritus\", which asks the 'finger of the paternal right hand' (\"digitus paternae dexterae\") to give the faithful speech." ]

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