Low-characteristic-impedance superconducting tadpole resonators in the sub-gigahertz regime
Miika Rasola Samuel Klaver Jian Ma Priyank Singh Tuomas Uusnäkki Heikki Suominen Mikko Möttönen


APS/123-QED





[Corresponding author.
]miika.rasola@aalto.fi
QCD Labs, QTF Centre of Excellence, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland


QCD Labs, QTF Centre of Excellence, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland



QCD Labs, QTF Centre of Excellence, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland


QCD Labs, QTF Centre of Excellence, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland


QCD Labs, QTF Centre of Excellence, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland


QCD Labs, QTF Centre of Excellence, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland


[Corresponding author.
]mikko.mottonen@aalto.fi
QCD Labs, QTF Centre of Excellence, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 13500, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
QTF Centre of Excellence, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., P.O. Box 1000, 02044 VTT, Finland




             

§ ABSTRACT 

We demonstrate a simple and versatile resonator design based on a short strip of a typical coplanar waveguide shorted at one end to the ground and shunted at the other end with a large parallel-plate capacitor. Due to the shape of the structure, we coin it the tadpole resonator. The design allows tailoring the characteristic impedance of the resonator to especially suit applications requiring low values. We demonstrate characteristic impedances ranging from Z_c=2 to 10 and a frequency range from f_0=290MHz to 1.1GHz while reaching internal quality factors of order Q_=8.5e3 translating into a loss tangent of tan(δ)=1.2e-4 for the aluminium oxide used as the dielectric in the parallel plate capacitor. We conclude that these tadpole resonators are well suited for applications requiring low frequency and low charactersitic impedance while maintaining a small footprint on chip. The low characteristic impedance of the tadpole resonator renders it a promising candidate for achieving strong inductive coupling to other microwave components.











                              
Low-characteristic-impedance superconducting tadpole resonators in the sub-gigahertz regime
    Mikko Möttönen
    September 9, 2024
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§ INTRODUCTION


Superconducting quantum circuits have provided unforeseen opportunities to tailor quantum systems for various purposes. This development has led to a new field of quantum microwave engineering, serving a purpose beyond fundamental research with the goal of realizing useful quantum devices <cit.>. This field has already produced numerous groundbreaking results in quantum computation <cit.>, communication <cit.>, simulation <cit.>, and sensing <cit.>.

The coplanar waveguide (CPW) resonator <cit.> is perhaps the most utilized standard building block in quantum engineering. A CPW resonator is simply a strip of transmission line with shorted or open-circuit boundary conditions at each end. The advantages of CPW resonators include ease of modelling, a wide range of available parameters and design options complemented by simple fabrication <cit.>. Superconducting CPW resonators with frequencies in the gigahertz range and internal quality factors of several hundred thousands can be routinely achieved <cit.>. 



The physical length of a superconducting CPW resonator is of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the fundamental microwave field mode in the resonator. In a typical setting regarding superconducting quantum circuits, the CPW resonators are fabricated on a low-loss substrate deposited with a superconducting metal film. The relative permittivity of the substrate largely determines the wavelength of the microwave mode, and therefore physical length of the resonator. For a typically used silicon substrate with ϵ_r≈ 11.9, a resonator at the 5 regime has a length of roughly 10. This can be easily fitted on a usual chip size by meandering, but the situation is different at sub-gigahertz frequencies. At 1, the CPW resonator has already a length of about 60, exceeding the typical chip dimensions sixfold. This size limits the number of devices per chip considerably and at even lower frequencies may prevent using CPW resonators in practice. More intricate physical geometries, such as twisting the resonator into a spiral <cit.>, may offer a solution in some cases, but may also raise other concerns with impedance matching, grounding, and parasitic modes <cit.>, and render coupling to other devices somewhat challenging.

Apart from problems arising from the large physical size of the low-frequency CPW resonators, another possible issue emerges when coupling these low-frequency resonators with high-frequency components. Theoretical models describing the quantum physics of superconducting quantum circuits typically only consider the fundamental modes of the circuit components. This approximation is fine as long as all the circuit components reside within the same relatively narrow frequency range. However, a low-frequency CPW resonator has a dense spectrum of harmonic modes in contrast to a high-frequency component, which may cause problems upon coupling the two. For example, a λ/2 CPW resonator with a 500 fundamental mode frequency has ten modes below 5. If these components are to be coupled for their fundamental modes, driving the 5 mode may excite multiple unwanted modes in the 500 resonator. For instance, the detrimental effects of spurious higher harmonics to the qubit lifetime and coherence are a known problem <cit.>.

Alternatives to CPW resonators in superconducting circuits have been demonstrated by using interdigital <cit.> and parallel plate <cit.> capacitors. Although the demonstrated devices solve some issues, most of them also display challenges such as difficulties to align with the fabrication process of a superconducting circuit, complex structures, higher harmonics, excessive losses, or large size. Furthermore, most of the earlier research focuses on devices in the few gigahertz frequency range, leaving uncharted territories in the sub-gigahertz regime. 

In this article, we demonstrate an extremely simple and versatile lumped-element resonator design based on a strip of a traditional CPW transmission line shunted with a parallel-plate capacitor (PPC), thus forming a structure reminiscent of a tadpole. Combining the best of both worlds, our design is applicable in a wide range of frequencies, especially in the low-frequency end of the spectrum, while maintaining a relatively small on-chip footprint, retaining the ease of fabrication and implementation, and boasting an extremely robust structure. Importantly, the present design allows for the tuning of the inductance to capacitance ratio, i.e., the characteristic impedance of the resonator, in a wide range below the typical value of Z_c∼50, reaching values of the order of Z_c∼1. This has the benefit of confining the magnetic field of the resonator mode into a small spatial volume facilitating strong inductive coupling to the resonator. This is potentially beneficial for realizing certain types of superconducting circuits, such as the devices proposed in the references <cit.>. 

The physical size of the tadpole resonator is compared to two other resonator designs in Fig. <ref>. Note that the tail of the tadpole may be more heavily meandered or even replaced by a meandering wire similar to that in the compact inductor-capacitor resonators, thus rendering the tadpole resonator the smallest of the considered designs.



§ LOW-CHARACTERISTIC-IMPEDANCE TADPOLE RESONATORS
 


 §.§ Design and analysis


Let us begin by discussing our design on a general level. A detailed schematic of the resonator design can be found in Fig. <ref> for reference. Our resonator design consists of a strip of typical CPW line with one end shorted to the ground and the other shunted to the ground with a large PPC. In the limit of a large PPC and short CPW strip, the the CPW strip essentially provides the inductance and PCC the capacitance, i.e. C_≫ C_, where C_ and C_ are the capacitances of the PPC and CPW, respectively. Consequently, the physical size of this structure can be much smaller in all dimensions than the wavelength of the resonator mode it houses. This structure can be accurately modelled as a lumped-element resonator where the magnetic field is localized in the short CPW strip and the electric field resides within the PPC. Importantly, this scheme allows for a strong inductive coupling via the CPW strip with a relatively low inductance of the coupler since the total inductance of the resonator is low.



One advantage of the current design is that it is straightforward to estimate the resonance frequency of our resonator, even analytically, given that the effective permittivity of the CPW, ϵ_, and the capacitance per unit area, c_0, of the PPC are known. Although analytical expressions for ϵ_ exist <cit.>, it can be reliably found, either by finite element electromagnetic simulations, or by measurement. Capacitance per unit area, on the other hand, is typically known for established fabrication recipes with corresponding characterization data, but can also be evaluated analytically based on the relative permittivity of the chosen dielectric. Once these values are known, one can estimate the capacitance and the inductance of an arbitrary-length CPW strip by the well-known results <cit.> obtained by conformal mapping methods <cit.>. Furthermore, as long as the dielectric of the PPC is thick enough, so that there is no inductive shunt to ground through the dielectric, the capacitance of the PPC can be evaluated as C_=c_0A, where A is the surface area of the PPC. The frequency of the resonator is thus given by 

    f_0=[2π√(L(C_+C_))]^-1,

where L is the inductance of the CPW strip, i.e. the total inductance of the tadpole resonator, and C_ is the small capacitance contribution of the CPW strip. We ignore other possible sources of stray capacitance as they will be tiny as compared to C_. Also note that we neglect the kinetic inductance contribution to the total inductance here, which is typically found to be a good approximation <cit.>. In addition to the resonator frequency, we define the characteristic impedance of the resonator as Z_c=√(L/(C_+C_)).



We couple our resonators to a feed line by a notch-type coupling at the CPW strip, therefore achieving a mixed coupling with inductive and capacitive nature rather than the typical purely capacitive coupling. We leave a small strip of ground metal in between the resonator CPW strip and the feed line in order to not break the ground plane and hence to reduce the possibility of encountering spurious slotline modes. Although we limit ourselves to a relatively weak coupling here, the design naturally supports strong inductive coupling since the magnetic field is confined to a small volume <cit.>. Such strong inductive coupling may be achieved, for instance, via a SQUID <cit.>.

Let us briefly discuss the internal loss sources of the tadpole resonator. Currently, internal quality factors of several hundreds of thousands in CPW resonators can be achieved routinely <cit.>. The PPC, on the other hand, may introduce significant additional losses since it adds material prone to quantum two-level systems (TLSs) and losses thereof, such as additional dielectrics, metal–dielectric interfaces and metal–vacuum interfaces <cit.>. Thus it is reasonable to model the tadpole as a lumped-element resonator where the losses are dominated by the dielectric losses of the PPC, and an accurate estimate of the loss tangent of the PPC dielectric is provided by the inverse of internal quality factor: tanδ=1/Q_.



 §.§ Fabrication and experimental methods


Our CPW strip has a typical cross-sectional geometry with the width of the center conductor w=10 and the gap between the center conductor and the ground plane s=6. For the sake of simplicity, we equip all our resonators with identical CPW strips of length 2000, but the length can be, of course, chosen differently to tune the characteristic impedance of the resonator. Furthermore, we fix the thickness of the dielectric layer in the PPC to d=42, and only vary the surface area of the PPC to tune the frequency of the resonators. Since we use Al2O3 as the dielectric in the PPC, the 42-nm thickness of the layer is more than enough to suppress any leakage through the oxide and their inductive contributions to the PCC <cit.>. We couple six tadpole resonators to one transmission line for multiplexed readout using a notch-type configuration <cit.>. We design two sets of six resonators: one set with designed frequencies ranging from 280450 and another with frequencies ranging from 450 to 1.1.

We fabricate all of the twelve tadpole resonators on a single chip of 10 x 10 high-purity, high-resistivity (ρ > 10) silicon substrate with a thermally grown 300 layer of silicon oxide. The total substrate thickness is 675. A Nb thin film of 200 is sputtered on top of the oxide layer. The niobium structures are defined onto AZ5214E photoresist using a Heidelberg Instruments MLA150 maskless aligner followed by a reactive ion etching process in order to remove the niobium from the defined areas.

For the PPC, we first use atomic-layer deposition (ALD) to grow the 42 dielectric layer of Al2O3 on the chip in a Beneq TFS-500 system. Next, we protect the dielectric layer at the desired capacitor regions with AZ5214E resist and wet-etch the rest of the aluminium oxide away with a mixture of ammonium fluoride and hydrofluoric acid. Before depositing the top metal of the PPC, we first use argon milling to remove the intrinsic oxide from the niobium contact pad in order to ensure a proper galvanic contact. As the last step before lift-off, dicing, and bonding, we deposit a 30 aluminium layer in an electron beam evaporator for the PPC top metal.

For characterization purposes, we cool down the sample in a commercial cryogen-free dilution refrigerator with a base temperature of about 25. We measure the S_21 transmission coefficient of each resonator with a Rohde & Schwarz ZNB40 vector network analyzer. The sample is mounted to a sample holder and connected to the electronics via aluminium bond wires. The room temperature control electronics are connected to the sample via coaxial cables with a total attenuation of 80 dB across the levels of the cryostat.





§ RESULTS


We extract the fundamental resonance frequencies and the quality factors of the tadpole resonators from the measured microwave transmission coefficients through the feed line  with the help of a circular fit in the in-phase–quadrature-phase (IQ) plane, thus utilizing the complete data offered by the transmission coefficient as a function of frequency <cit.>. The extracted internal and external quality factors, Q_ and Q_, respectively, are presented in Fig. <ref> as a function of the probe power through the feed line. The fundamental resonance frequencies, f_0, and characteristic impedances of the resonators, Z_c, along with other relevant parameters can be found in Table <ref>.

From the values provided in Table <ref>, we observe that we can indeed reach very low characteristic impedances for the tadpole resonator. The tunability of the impedance is not limited to this range, however. By varying the length of the CPW strip one can reach values even lower than presented here, while obtaining higher values is also naturally possible.

Let us next discuss the quality factors. Figure <ref>(a) shows that, on average, we can reach internal quality factors of the order of several thousands at reasonably low probe powers. We find an average internal quality factor of 5.2e3 at the intermediate probe power of -116dBm. The internal quality factor increases linearly with probe power in the intermediate power range and displays saturation at both, low and high power limits. Note that the higher frequency resonators tend to exhibit saturation at higher power at the low-power regime, which is expected as per the higher photon energy. We find that in the low-power limit, the average internal quality factor saturates at Q_i=2.3e3 and in the high power limit at Q_i=8.5e3. The single-photon probe powers, P_in, are given in Table <ref>. As a final remark from Fig. <ref>(a), we note that the resonator D is an outlier, as its internal quality factor is significantly lower, even for a high probe power, as compared with the other resonators.



The external quality factors presented in the lower panel of Fig. <ref> are about an order of magnitude higher than the internal quality factors, confirming the rather weak coupling to the feed line. As expected, the external quality factors exhibit no dependence on power. Here, we note that resonator B seems to be somewhat of an outlier in addition to resonator D since it has a considerably higher external quality factor than the other resonators, especially at high probe power, even though the designed coupling is identical for all resonators. Resonator D was already deemed an outlier above based on the internal quality factor. It may be that these two resonators have a weaker coupling to the transmission line due to some fabrication inconsistency resulting in poor signal to noise ratio, and thus, appear as outliers in the data.

The above-mentioned linear behaviour with saturation at both ends of the power spectrum is expected and supports the TLS loss model of the PPC dielectric <cit.>. 
Furthermore, we measured a control sample of CPW resonators without PPCs, fabricated with the same process, and found the quality factor of such resonators to be of order 3e5. This supports the assumption that most of the losses arise from the PPC dielectric.

Let us next compare our lumped-element model for the resonator frequency against the measured data. In Fig. <ref>(a), we fit the model, defined by equation <ref>, to the measured resonator frequency data as a function of the PPC plate area. The only fitting parameter is the capacitance per unit area, as we do not have a recent verification for that for the used fabrication recipe. The effective permittivity of the CPW, ϵ_eff, we find by finite element electromagnetic simulation and estimate the capacitance and inductance per unit length of the CPW analytically <cit.>. From this fit we find the capacitance per unit area to be c_0=1.39fF/ m^2, which matches very well to the value, c_0=1.4fF/ m^2, reported for the same recipe in reference <cit.>. From table <ref> we see that, on average, the fitted model can estimate the resonance frequency within 1.7 % of the measured value. In Fig. <ref>(b), we show the total capacitance, C_+C_, as a function of PPC plate area. The total capacitance values are obtained by solving equation <ref> for the total capacitance and plugging in the measured resonance frequencies and the determined c_0. The data is fitted with a simple straight line to highlight the linear dependence of total capacitance to PPC area. Based on these results, the tadpole resonator can be described by the lumped-element model to a remarkable precision.



In addition to the above characterization of the tadpole resonators at the base temperature of the cryostat, we present the temperature dependence of the internal quality factors and frequencies of resonators A–L in Fig. <ref>. We find that the quality factors remain relatively constant or slightly increase with increasing temperature and that the resonance frequencies increase with temperature. Both observations are expected in a system where the intrinsic dissipation is dominated by TLS losses <cit.>. Furthermore, we fit the resonance frequency data with a model describing the temperature dependence of the resonance frequency of a resonator within the TLS model <cit.> and find a good agreement with the experimental data. These findings strongly support the use of the TLS model of losses for our devices.



As shown above, most of the internal losses of the tadpole resonator can be attributed to the TLS losses in the PPC dielectric. Thus, assuming the lumped-element model for the tadpole resonator, one can extract the loss tangent of the Al2O3 used as the dielectric in the PPC. Based on the extracted internal quality factors, we find the average loss tangent to vary between tan(δ)=1.2e-4 and tan(δ)=4.3e-4 as a function of probe power, as shown in Fig. <ref>(a).



§ CONCLUSIONS


We demonstrated a simple and versatile low-characteristic-impedance lumped-element resonator design based on a strip of a conventional CPW transmission line shunted with a parallel-plate capacitor resulting in a structure shaped like a tadpole. We fabricated twelve tadpole resonators in the sub-10 range and characterize the them at subkelvin temperatures reaching internal quality factors of the order of Q_=1e4. We further demonstrated that the resonator can, indeed, be considered as a lumped-element resonator where most of the losses arise from the dielectric losses of the PPC dielectric, translating into a loss tangent of order tan(δ)=1/Q_=1.0e-4 for the used Al2O3. 

We further showed that the frequency of the tadpole resonator can be modelled by a simple analytical model to a high accuracy. Typically, the values of the physical quantities needed for the model are known for well-established recipes, but the values can also be found by finite-element electromagnetic simulation or even by analytical expressions and tabulate values for a rough approximation of the resonance frequency.

While the tadpole resonator offered only a moderate internal quality factor, it boasts a number of advantageous properties including versatility, relatively simple fabrication process, small footprint on the chip even at extremely low frequencies, tunable characteristic impedance in fabrication, and inherent capability of strong inductive coupling using low coupling inductance. This renders the tadpole resonator a viable candidate for multiple novel low-frequency applications where reaching top-notch internal quality factors is not of great importance. For instance, the SQUID-mediated inductive coupling proposed in Refs. <cit.> would benefit significantly from the concentrated magnetic field of the tadpole resonator resulting in strong coupling.


We acknowledge the support from the members of the QCD and PICO groups at Aalto University. Especially, we thank Jukka Pekola, Bayan Karimi, Christoforus Satrya, Qiming Chen, and Suman Kundu for fruitful scientific discourse and other help. 

This work was funded by the Academy of Finland Centre of Excellence program (project Nos. 352925, and 336810) and Academy of Finland grant Nos. 316619 and 349594 (THEPOW). We also acknowledge funding from the European Research Council under Advanced Grant No. 101053801 (ConceptQ), and Business Finland under the Quantum Technologies Industrial project (Grant no. 2118781).


















