Pseudonaja
elapids
['oryx', 'catostomus', 'green lacewings', 'ageratina', 'cumbungi', 'felid', 'troodontidae', 'paperbark', 'gymnosperms', 'hominid', 'juniper', 'thyreophora', 'ebolavirus', 'colchicaceae', 'limpet', 'geometer moth', 'geoglossaceae', 'weasel shark', 'krascheninnikovia', 'true seal', 'ascomycetous fungi', 'cones', 'syringa', 'nautilida', 'clathrus', 'golden chinquapin', 'phytosaur', 'potentilla', 'lepidoptera', 'cantharellaceae', 'ennomos', 'dogfish', 'salix', 'dragonflies', 'hypericaceae', 'sturnidae', 'oryzomys', 'cycad', 'cercocebus', 'passiflora', 'caprimulgidae', 'tree ferns', 'verbenaceae', 'pycnonotidae', 'iridomyrmex', 'mangifera', 'serranus', 'musteloidea', 'laniidae', 'chevrotain', 'neacomys', 'lungwort', 'great ape', 'squash plants', 'opuntia', 'borophaginae', 'brodiaeoideae', 'lacewing', 'poison dart frog', 'peromyscus', 'captorinid', 'bradyrhizobiaceae', 'scyliorhinidae', 'kalmia', 'rainbow trout', 'tricholoma', 'heterodontidae', 'bactrocera', 'red', 'nautilus', 'chironomidae', 'tainocerataceae', 'tyrannosaur', 'clubmoss family', 'ash tree', 'pollack', 'pyrginae', 'picea', 'threskiornis', 'australopithecine', 'sunfish', 'phyllostomid', 'softshell turtle', 'elasmosaurid', 'cuscutaceae', 'pouteria', 'spinosaurids', 'acorus', 'pierid', 'sylvia', 'crocus', 'grasstrees', 'cercocarpus', 'gilled fungus', 'alder', 'protoceratopsid', 'cervus elaphus', 'bilateria', 'patellogastropoda']
Constriction
Constriction is a method used by various snake species to kill their prey. Although some species of venomous and mildly venomous snakes do use constriction to subdue their prey, most snakes which use constriction lack venom. The snake initially strikes at its prey and holds on, pulling the prey into its coils or, in the case of very large prey, pulling itself onto the prey. The snake will then wrap one or two coils around the prey. The snake will monitor the prey's heartbeat to ascertain when it is dead. Contrary to myth, the snake does not crush the prey, or break its bones. Also, contrary to previous belief, the snake does not cause suffocation by constricting the victim. Instead, a study of death caused by boa constrictors, showed that constriction "shuts off" blood flow (and therefore oxygen) needed by vital organs such as the heart and brain, which would lead to unconsciousness and death very quickly – in seconds – in other words, constriction can interrupt blood flow and overwhelm the prey's usual blood pressure and circulation. Artery pressure drops, vein pressure increases, and blood vessels begin to close. The heart does not have enough strength to pump against the pressure and blood flow stops. Internal organs with high metabolic rates, including the brain, liver, and the heart begin to stop and die due to ischemia, a loss of oxygen and glucose. There is evidence that boa constrictors have more difficulty killing ectotherms, animals like lizards and snakes that rely on external heat to regulate their body temperatures. A boa constrictor was observed attacking a spinytail iguana for an hour, and the iguana survived. As this is comparatively recent research (2015), it is possible that other constrictors kill in other ways. It had previously been accepted that constrictors used their body to hold the prey tight and prevent the prey from drawing air into its lungs, resulting in death from asphyxia, or that the pressure of constriction causes a rise in the pressure in the prey's body cavity greater than the heart can counter, resulting in immediate cardiac arrest; data from earlier studies had also indicated that snakes can exert enough pressure for these to be plausible. Certain groups of snakes have characteristic patterns of constriction, including the number of coils they use and the orientation of the coils. Venomous snakes that also use constriction include the mussuranas (ophiophagous South American mildly venomous rear-fanged colubrids which uses constriction to subdue snakes including pit vipers), the western terrestrial garter snake (North American colubrid which is an inefficient constrictor and, like most Thamnophis garter snakes, mildly venomous), some species of Boiga snakes (Asian and Australian rear-fanged colubrids) including the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis), and some species of Australian elapids, including some of the venomous Pseudonaja brown snakes and one Australian coral snake Simoselaps, and a few Australian colubrids.