DEAS 348:20 19 
ICS 67.180.10  
 
 Page 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DRAFT EAST AFRICAN STANDARD  
 
Glossary of terms used in confectionery  trade  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY  
   DEAS 348: 2019 
ii © EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved   
 
Foreword  
 
Development of the East African Standards has been necessitated by the need for harmonizing 
requirements gove rning quality of products and services in East Africa. It is envisaged that through 
harmonized standardization, trade barriers which are encountered when goods and services are 
exchanged within the Community will be removed.  
 
In order to achieve this obje ctive, the Partner States in the Community through their National Bureaus  
of Standards, have established an East African Standards Committee.  
The Committee is composed of representatives of the National Standards Bodies in Partner States, 
together with th e representatives from the private sectors and consumer organizations. Draft East 
African Standards are circulated to stakeholders through the National Standards Bodies in the Partner 
States. The comments received are discussed and incorporated before fina lization of standards, in 
accordance with the procedures of the Community.  
East African Standards are subject to review, to keep pace with technological advances. Users of the 
East African Standards are therefore expected to ensure that they always have t he latest versions of 
the standards they are implementing.  
This draft is the third  edition and once approved will cancel and replace the second 
edition, EAS 348:2004, which is being technically revised.  
 
 
© East African Community 20 19 — All rights reserv ed* 
East African Community  
P O Box 1096  
Arusha  
Tanzania  
Tel: 255 27 2504253/8  
Fax: 255 -27-2504481/2504255  
E-Mail: eac@eachq.org  
Web: www.each.int  
 
 
                                                 
* 2019 EAC — All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved worldwide for EAC Partner States’ NSBs. 
 DEAS 348:20 194 
© EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved  1  
Glossary of terms used in confectionery trade  
 
 
1 Scope  
 
This Draft East African Standard defines the various terms frequently used in the industries 
concerned with the confectionery trade.  
 
2 Terminology  
 
2.1 
acid drops  
confections; generally hard -boiled sweets which have an acid content between 1.5 to 2 %  
 
2.2 
acidulants  
substances added to food to  modify taste by introducing sourness or tartnees.  
These can be used with buffers to adjust pH, which in turn, modify physical properties.  
Acidulants can also  help in preservation, chelate metals (which also help in reta rding oxidation) and 
modify or enhance taste or flavour..  
Examples of acidulants are : Citric acid, malic acid and  tartaric  acid  
 
2.3 
aeration  
method of increasing bulk and giving better texture by mechanical or chemical inclusion of air in the 
confecti onery  
 
2.4 
agar  
a dried extract of red algae (seaweed) used as a jellying agent  
 
2.5 
alkalization  
a process to modify the colour and flavour of cocoa powder. Also called 'Dutching'  
 
2.6 
almond paste  
a paste composed of crushed almonds, used for Marzipa n (see 2.130) production  
 
2.7 
almond sugared  
almonds coated with gum and sugar syrup (a dragee)  
 
2.8 
antibloom  
an agent used to prevent unstable crystallization occurring in chocolates (as a result of adverse 
storage conditions or faulty tempering)  
 
2.9 
anticaking agents  
substances that can hold many times more than their mass of water. When added to powdered foods 
such as icing sugar, they prevent lumping or caking on storage.  
 
2.10 
anti-oxidants  
substances which lengthen the induction period, thereby  delaying the onset of oxidative rancidity  
 DRAFT EAST AFRICAN STANDA RD  
2 © EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved   
2.11 
aroma  
sum of olfactory impressions derived from the volatile substances of food products  
 
2.12 
balling machine  
a machine which produces hard sugar balls and rolled fancy shapes  
 
2.13 balsams  
Viscous li quids or pastes, which are exudations from plants and find some use in flavourings.  
 
2.14 
banking Process  
Process by which sugar, gum syrup, chocolate, etc, are built up on nuts or other centres.  
 
2.15 
batch roller/former  
a series of horizontal tapered rollers which revolve backwards and forwards and convert product 
mass into a thin rope  
 
2.16 
baume scale  
a scale devised for convenient hydrometer reading which is related to the concentration of sugar 
solution  
 
2.17 
blanch  
to arrest enzymatic activity  and loosen skin of nuts, fruits, etc, by means of hot water or steam  
 
2.18 
block milk  
A form of solid, sweetened condensed milk where moisture content is reduced to 8 percent.  
 
2.19 
bloom  
A separation of fat or sugar on the surface of chocolates is kn own as fat bloom or sugar bloom.  
 
2.20 
boiled sugars (sweet)  
simple formulation of sugar and glucose with colour, flavour and a limited number of other ingredients  
 
2.21 
boiling starch  
modified or softened starches obtained by treatment with dilute aci d solution  
 
2.22 
bonbon  
 
A sweet/candy with a liquid or nut paste at the centre and covered with a plastic boiled sugar”  
 
2.23 
brake  
twin adjustable rollers used to reduce the thickness of confectionery products  
 
2.24 
brazil nut  
a tropical nut (from t he tree Bertholettia excelsa), popular as an ingredient in chocolate bars and 
chocolate blocks  
 
 DEAS 348:20 194 
© EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved  3 2.25 
brix scale  
a scale with the same purpose as Baume Scale (2.16).  
 
 
 
2.26 
buffer  
salt used to minimize small changes in acidity  
 
2.27 
burnt sugar  
a product obtained from cane sugar by heating with continuous stirring in an iron pan until the whole 
mass turns brown and suddenly froths up  
 
2.28 
butternut  
a large South American nut (Juglans  cinerea ), pleasantly flavoured, soft and having a buttery kerne l  
 
2.29 
butterscotch  
a sweet, harder than toffees and caramel (lower water content) and with a lower milk solid content  
 
2.30 
cacao  
botanical name for cocoa; refers to  the tree, the pods and unfermented beans from the pods  
 
2.31 
candied fruits and pee ls 
fruits and peels preserved in sugar syrup  
 
2.32 
candy  
sweet coated with sugar or sugar crystals  
 
2.33 
candy test   
a test of boiling sugar under standard conditions to determine how the sugar will behave when used in 
manufacturing operations  
 
2.34 
caramel colour  
a colouring matter obtained by the action of heat and ammonia or sulphur compounds on sugar  
 
2.35 
caramels  
soft-eating chewy toffee  
 
2.36 
caramelization  
condensation reaction of sugar  
 
2.37 
carnauba Wax   
a very hard, high melting point wax ob tained from leaf of Copernica cenfera  
 
2.38 
casein  
the principal milk protein  
  
4 © EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved   
2.39 
chew  
the mouthfeel of a confection during mastication  
 
2.40 
chewing gum   
 
a confectionary product  made from natural or synthetic gum base   and ingredients and/or  addit ives 
 
2.41 
chicle  
a natural latex used in chewing gum  
 
2.42 
chocolate   
Made from pure cocoa nib, cocoa butter and sugar with or without milk.   
 
2.43 
chocolate Confectionery  
This includes chocolate -coated sugar confectionery and chocolate bars and blocks .   
 
2.44 
cocoa   
Manufactured product like cocoa powder; fermented cocoa beans in bulk are also known as cocoa.  
 
2.45 
cocoa Butter  
Natural edible fat obtained from sound cocoa beans.   
 
2.46 
cocoa Press   
Cake compressed cocoa powder after the removal of cocoa butter.   
 
2.47 
cold Cracking  
The phenomenon produced when light aerated, low moisture products are covered with chocolate 
and subjected to low temperature.   
 
2.48 
comfits  
Smaller panned articles from a revolving pan.   
 
2.49 
conche  
A machine where  the final mixing process of chocolate is done and is responsible for the development 
of smoothness, fluidity and flavour.  
 
2.50 
confectioner’s glucose  
Glucose syrup made from controlled hydrolysis of starch.  
 
2.51 
corn syrup  
A refined and concentrated a queous solution of D -glucose, maltose and other polymers of D -glucose 
obtained by controlled hydrolysis of corn starch.  
 
2.52 
crack  
A stage in boiling sugar syrup.  DEAS 348:20 194 
© EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved  5  
2.53 
cream of Tartar  
Potassium hydrogen tartrate powder used to produce inversion in bo iled sugar products.  
 
2.54 
creme (Fondant)  
Prepared by dissolving sugar and glucose syrup (or invert sugar) and concentrating at a temperature 
of 115 oC to 120oC to 12 percent water and which, when cooled with violent mixing and beating, the 
excess sugar  is deposited in the form of minute crystals.  
 
2.55 
crumb (Milk, Chocolate)  
Chocolate powder prepared with condensed milk, sugar, cocoa butter, etc, by a special process.  
 
2.56 
cyclamates  
Intensely sweet powder, composed of sodium and calcium salts of cyclohexene; used as a 
sweetening agent.  
 
2.57 
depositors (Mogul)  
A machine used to deposit cremes or jellies, by means of a mechanized process for printing the 
starch trays, moving them on a conveyor band to a multiple depositor fed from a hopper kept s upplied 
with hot creme or jelly syrup.  
 
2.58 
desiccated Coconut  
Shredded coconut (copra) dried to a low moisture content (4 percent).  
 
2.59 
dextrin  
Modified starch prepared from starch by heat treatment in the dry  state, with or without the addition of  
small quantities of chemical reagents.  
 
2.60 
dextrose  
d-glucose obtained by the complete hydrolysis of starch followed by purification and crystallization  
 
NOTE 1  Dextrose can be obtained in either anhydrous or monohydrate form.  
 
NOTE 2  The anhydrous form is called anhydrous dextrose. The hydrated form is called     dextrose monohydrate.  
 
2.61 
dietetic chocolate  
Chocolate manufactured by replacing sugar, dextrose, starch, etc, by sweeteners like sorbitol and 
saccharine.  
 
2.62 
doctor  
A sugar ingredie nt which represses the crystallization of sucrose by raising to total saturation 
concentration.  
 
2.63 
dragees  
Sugar coated confectionery in which sugar has been applied as successive layers of syrup, in a  
rotating pan.  
 
2.64 
drinking chocolate  
Instant mixture of cocoa, sugar and added flavour, which will dissolve readily in hot water or milk.   
6 © EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved   
2.65 
drop  
Very hard -boiled sweet produced on a drop roller machine.  
 
2.66 
dull finish  
Poor gloss.  
 
2.67 
dusting  
Coating confection with icing sugar or fine crystal sugar or anti -stick powder.  
 
2.68 
dutching  
See alkalization ( 2.5).  
 
2.69 
easter egg  
Chocolate goods shaped in the form of eggs.  
 
2.70 
edinborough rock  
Pulled hard -boiled sweet, put through rollers until the required diameter is reached and th en cut.  
 
2.71 
emulsifier  
A substance which when added to food is capable of facilitating a uniform dispersion of oils or fats in 
aqueous media or vice versa.  
 
2.72 
engrossing  
In panning, the building up of sugar coat on centres.  
 
2.73 
enrober  
A machi ne which covers a centre with a coating of  chocolate or similar substance.  
 
2.74 
equilibrium relative humidity (Relative Vapour Pressure)  
Humidity of the atmosphere at which a foodstuff neither gains nor loses moisture.  
 
2.75 
extra hard crack  
A stage i n sugar boiling.  
 
2.76 
fat 
Term for greasy look to a confection due to excessive inversion of sucrose during boiling.  
 
2.77 
fat bloom  
Development of unstable fat crystals on the surface of chocolates.  
 
2.78 
feather  
A stage in sugar boiling.  
 
2.79 
flow  DEAS 348:20 194 
© EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved  7 Term used generally for flow behaviour of a confection.  
 
2.80 
foam  
Beaten mixture of a whipping agent in water.  
 
2.81 
foam test  
A test for checking foaming properties of sugar and glucose syrup. High foaming value indicates poor 
quality.  
 
2.82 
fondan t  
See Creme (2.55)  
 
2.83 
fork dipping  
Coating centre by immersing in tempered chocolate and depositing on a glossy surface with the help 
of a thin pronged fork.  
 
2.84 
fourres  
Confectionery dipped in fondant.  
 
2.85 
frappe  
Whipped mixture of foaming ag ent in sugar syrup.  
 
2.86 
fudge  
Grained (low boiled) caramel which has a solid sugar crystal phase dispersed with fat and protein in a 
syrup phase of a saturated solution of sugar and glucose.  
 
2.87 
gel 
thick and sticky substance which consists of high sugar components of sucrose and glucose syrup, 
combined with thickening agents, with/wi thout food additives to form a g elly.”  
 
 
2.88 
gelatine  
An emulsifying and thickening agent obtained from the skins and bones of animals.  
 
2.89 
gellying agent  
A materia l which promotes jellying.  
 
2.90 
glan  
Amorphous ‘rigid liquid’ arising when cooling takes place so rapidly that crystallization does not occur.  
 
2.91 
glassine  
A supercalendered, smooth, dense, transparent or semi -transparent sheet of paper used as a 
protective wrapper. The paper is grease resistant and has high resistance to the passage of air and 
other vapours.  
 
2.92 
glaze  
To coat with a solution, which on drying produces a high gloss.   
8 © EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved   
2.93 
glazed fruits  
Prepared by candying the fruit by impregnat ing with syrup by immersing in a concentrated sugar 
syrup and drying.  
 
2.94 
glucose syrup  
See Corn syrup ( 2.52)  
 
2.95 
golden syrup  
A partly refined sugar syrup made by partial inversion of sugar (sucrose) with acid or enzyme or both. 
It has a golden br own colour and is used for its colouring and flavouring properties.  
 
2.96 
graining  
Unplanned crystallization of sugar in a confection.  
 
2.97 
guar gum  
A kind of Indian gum used mostly for stabilizing syrups. It is obtained from the endosperm of 
Cyam opsis Tetragonololus , an annual plant cultivated in India.  
 
 
2.98 
gum arabic (Acacia)  
Gum obtained from species of Acacia plants. It is used as a jellying and binding agent, also as a 
sealant and glaze.  
 
2.99 
gum mucilage  
Mixture of two or more gum solutio ns. 
 
2.100 
gum tragacanth  
Gum obtained from the plants of species Asuagalus without much value as a binder by itself, but used 
in conjunction with gum arabic.  
 
2.101 
hammer mill  
Micropulveriser, with high speed rotating hammer.  
 
2.102 
hand candy (lollip op)  
Simple combination of sucrose and corn syrup or sucrose alone with an acid doctor.  
 
2.103 
hand covering  
Covering of confectionery with tempered chocolate, by  hand.  
 
2.104 
hard boiling (High Boiling)  
Boiling to a higher temperature.  
 
2.105 
hard cra ck  
A stage in boiling sugar syrup.  
 
2.106 DEAS 348:20 194 
© EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved  9 hyfoama  
A proprietary whipping agent.  
 
2.107 
icing sugar (Powdered Sugar)  
Sugar obtained by milling granulated sugar with or without anticaking agents.  
 
2.108 
Illipe Butter (Fat)  
Also known as 'Borneo Tallow ', extracted from nuts of 'Shorea' tree, has a close resemblance to 
cocoa butter.  
 
2.109 
inversion  
Breakdown of sucrose into glucose and fructose.  
 
2.110 
invert sugar  
Mixture of approximately equal parts of glucose and fructose  
 
2.111 
jam  
Product resul ting from cooking of fruit with sugar in certain proportions under specific conditions  
 
2.112 
japanese dessert   
Low boiled sweet with coconut and preserved fruit (optional).  
 
2.113 
jelly bean   
A soft pan goods variety, where centre is made by using starc h and depositing in jelly bean moulds.  
 
2.114 
jelly crystals   
Used for table jellies by mixing colour, Havour and an acidulant to castor sugar and powdered 
gelatine.  
 
2.115 
large ball/pearl/thread  
(a) Large Ball  — A stage in sugar boiling.  
(b) Large Pearl  — A stage in sugar boiling.  
(c) Large Thread  — A stage in sugar boiling.  
 
2.116 
leaching  
Transfer of constituents from one system to another.  
 
2.117 
leakage  
Seepage of syrup from a coated or centred confection.  
 
2.118 
lecithin  
A natural emulsifier and surfa ce active agent, which is chemically a mixture of phospholipids.  
 
2.119 
licorice  
Extract of roots of a special species of plant known for its medicinal properties and is used in special 
types of Licorice confection.  
  
10 © EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved  2.120 
light crack  
A stage in boilin g syrup.  
 
2.121 
liquid sugar  
Commercial mixture of sugars offered in syrup form.  
 
2.122 
lozenges  
Confection make of powdered sugar with certain binding materials and lubricants with the addition of 
suitable colours and flavours.  
 
2.123 
maple  
A natural  sugar, with health giving properties obtained from maple tree.  
 
2.124 
marmalade  
Preserve of orange or specified fruit.  
 
2.125 
marsh mellow  
A foam confectionery made from root of marsh mellow; variations include jelly like aerated confection 
made by mi xing sugar/glucose with gelatine, egg albumen and hyfoama. Has higher moisture content 
than nougat.  
 
2.126 
masse cuite  
Mixture of golden syrup and sugar crystals.  
 
 
2.127 
marzipan  
Paste composed of crushed almonds and sugar.  
 
2.128 
medium crack  
Stage in boiling sugar syrup.  
 
2.129 
melangeur  
A machine used for preliminary mixing of chocolate ingredients.  
 
2.130 
microfilm cooker  
A cooking unit for sugar and glucose syrup on the principle of evaporating a thin film of syrup spread 
over a heated surfac e inside a cylinder.  
 
2.131 
milk crumb  
See Crumb (2.56)  
 
2.132 
mintoes  
Type of hard -boiling where aeration is obtained by inclusion of frappe and peppermint oil flavour.  
 
2.133 
mogul  
Machine for depositing confectionery mixture into impressions forme d in starch or in rubber mats.  DEAS 348:20 194 
© EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved  11  
2.134 
moulding  
Casting of liquid chocolate into moulds followed by cooling and remoulding.  
 
2.135 
myvacet  
A release agent, acetylated monoglyceride.  
 
2.136 
nibs 
Broker kernel obtained from deshelled roasted cocoa beans.   
 
2.137 
noisette  
Chocolate nut paste in which roasted hazelnuts are ground with sugar and cocoa liquor.  
 
2.138 
non-pareils  
A type of smaller pan goods, where free flowing, coarse, crystal granulated sugar is used.  
 
2.139 
nougats  
A hard -boiled syrup to which is added a frappe which is made from egg albumen, gelatine and 
hyfoama.  
 
2.140 
nougatines  
These resemble marzipans but are prepared with hazelnuts instead of almonds.  
 
2.141 
oleoresin  
Extracted flavouring substance from spices by  means of a pure so lvent, which extracts many other 
aromatic substances and which, when evaporated, gives a tenacious resinous substance, tolerably 
resembling the flavour in the spice.  
 
2.142 
on the turn  
Change of a boiled sugar mass from the plastic to the glassy state.  
 
2.143 
oscillating granulator  
A machine with an attachment turning backwards and forwards, used to prepare granules for com - 
pressed tablets.  
 
2.144 
panning  
The process of building up in a controlled manner, a sugar or chocolate coating on confectionery 
centres. The coating is hard when cane sugar or beet sugar only is used, and soft when glucose 
syrup is used.  
 
2.145 
pastilles  
A softer gum sweet, cast into dry starch and sanded with sugar.  
 
2.146 
pearling  
A process of sugar panning where syrup with a sm all addition of gum arabic is allowed to drip in a 
controlled flow.  
  
12 © EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved  2.147 
pectin  
White or ligh t brown plant extract that forms a gell under high sugar and acidic conditions  
 
 
2.148 
piping jelly  
 
Is a product which is clear, sweet and neutral in flavour m ade from sugar, water, a gelling agent and 
preservative.”  
 
2.149 
plastic state  
semi -labile state of high boiled sugar syrup during cooking  
 
2.150 
pliofilm  
A clear film obtained from crepe rubber.  
 
2.151 
pralines  
Roasted nut pastes refined with sugar.  
 
2.152 
pudding  
Soft mixture of animal or vegetable ingredients especially mixed or enclosed in flour or other 
farinaceous food and cooked by boiling, steaming or baking.  
 
2.153 
pulling  
Repeated stretching and folding of hard -boiled sugar syrup, carried on the revolving arm of a pulling 
machine.  
 
2.154 
purees (pulp)  
A thickened, cooked pulp of fruits used as centre filling  
 
2.155 
refiner  
Machine used for obtaining the required particle size in chocolates, to get  smoothness.  
 
2.156 
release agent  
An edibl e, Flavourless substance which, when interspersed between a confection and the surface 
receiving it prevents adhesion.  
 
2.157 
roller dried milk  
Thickened milk processed to powder on slow revolving drums.  
 
2.158 
rope  
Rod of cooked sugar syrup produced on a forming machine.  
 
2.159 
rostoplast  
A machine to mould sweet ropes when in plastic condition.  
 
2.160 
saccharine  DEAS 348:20 194 
© EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved  13 White crystallized powder, 500 times as sweet as sucrose; used as an artificial sweetener.  
 
2.161 
sanding  
To coat confection with icing sug ar or fine sugar crystals.  
 
2.162 
polyvinyl dichloride (PVDC)  
A type of coating given to flexible packing material to impart sealing and other barrier properties.  
 
2.163 
seeding  
Addition of a small amount of sugar crystals (seed) to a super -saturated syr up to promote 
crystallization  
 
2.164 
shellac  
Refined form of lac which is the resinous secretion of the lac insect, used as a glaze.  
 
2.165 
silicon  
Repellent or anti -release agent.  
 
2.166 
small ball  
Stage in sugar boiling  
 
2.167 
small pearl  
Stage in sug ar boiling  
 
2.168 
snap  
Breaking characteristics of a confection  
 
2.169 
sugar Bloom  
Development of fine sugar clusters on the chocolate surface.  
 
2.170 
sugar confectionery  
This includes boiled sweets, toffees, fudge, fondants, jellies, pastilles and ot her confectionery not 
coated with chocolate. It does not include biscuits or cakes.  
 
2.171 
sweating  
Appearance of droplets of moisture or sugar syrup on the surface of a confection.  
 
2.172 
synerisis  
A phenomenon resulting in breakdown of the jelly with syrup oozing out of the jelly.  
 
2.173 
talc powder  
French chalk.  
 
2.174 
teflon   
14 © EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved  Polytetrafluoroethylene; has an extremely low coefficient of friction and is used for coating the surface 
of equipment to avoid the sticking of food material coming in contact with the surface of the 
equipment.  
 
2.175 
tempering  
To process chocolate so that any crystallization of fat occurs in a stable modification.  
 
2.176 
terpenes  
Essential oils contain a proportion of oil substances which are unsaturated hydrocarbons known a s 
terpenes.  
 
2.177 
cacao  
Botanical name for cocoa ( Theobroma Cacao ); refers to  the tree, the pods and unfermented beans 
from the pods.  
 
2.178 
thread  
A state in boiling sugar syrup.  
 
2.179 
toffee  
 
 
A firm but chewy candy made by caramelized sugar  and ed ible fat (usually  
butter) with or without other approved ingredients  
 
 
 
2.180 
toln balsam  
A soft adhesive solid exudation of a plant, used as flavouring agent.  
 
2.181 
treacle  
Thick black viscous liquid obtained from partially inverted filtered molasses.  
 
2.182 
turkish delight  
Sweet made from thin boiling starch ( a gelatinizing agent ) with honey, flour  and rose water.  
 
2.183 
viscose film  
Cellulose film made by reacting wood pulp with sodium hydroxide solution.  
 
2.184 
wetting  
Charge of syrup added du ring sugar panning  
 
2.185 
whey powder  
White powder by -product in cheese making  
 
2.186 
whip  
To beat a syrup mixture so that air becomes entrapped  
 DEAS 348:20 194 
© EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved  15 2.187 
whipping agent  
Product which promotes formation of stable whips and foams  
 
2.188  bubble gum  
A type of chewing gum that can form a bubble when filled with air  
  
2.189 Gum base  
 Food grade, non -nutritive, non -digestible, inert and masticator substance used to carry sweeteners, 
flavorings and any other substances in chewing gum.”  
 
  
© EAC 20 19 — All rights reserved    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 