   
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
27 October 2021  
(21-8172) Page: 1/42 
Sub-Committee on Least Developed Countries    
 
- 1 - 
 
MARK ET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OF EXPORT INTEREST  
TO LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES  
NOTE BY THE SECRETARIAT1 
Contents  
1   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 3 
2   INTRODUCTION  ................................ ................................ ................................ ..........  4 
3   LDCS' TRADE PROFILE  ................................ ................................ ................................ . 5 
3.1   Trends in Goods and Commercial Services Trade  ................................ ............................  5 
3.2   Merchandise Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ ................  9 
3.2.1   Short -term trend (quarterly)  ................................ ................................ ....................  9 
3.2.2   Long-term trend (annual)  ................................ ................................ .......................  10 
3.2.3   Commodity price movements  ................................ ................................ ..................  11 
3.2.4   Major LDC traders  ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 12 
3.2.5   Trends in product composition  ................................ ................................ .................  13 
3.2.6   Major markets of LDCs  ................................ ................................ ...........................  15 
3.3   Services Trade Developments  ................................ ................................ .....................  17 
4   MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  .............................  22 
4.1   Duty-free market access granted by selected Members  ................................ ..................  22 
4.2   Duty-free market access by product groups  ................................ ................................ .. 26 
4.3   Recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs  ................................ .....................  28 
ANNEX  ................................ ................................ ................................ ...........................  30 
 
 
1 This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's own responsibility and is without prejudice to 
the positions of Members or to their rights and obligations under the WTO.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 2 - 
  
  List of T ables  
Table 1: Trends in LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2011 -2020 ...........................  5 
Table 2: LDCs and world trade in goods and commercial services, 2011 -2020 ............................  8 
Table 3: LDCs' top ten export markets, 2011 and 2020  ................................ .........................  16 
Table 4: Duty -free tariff lines under MFN and LDC schemes in selected Members, 2019 or 
latest available year  ................................ ................................ ................................ .........  22 
Table 5: Imports of selected Members from UN -LDCs, 2019 or latest available year  ...................  24 
Table 6: Notifications under the LDC Services Waiver  ................................ ............................  29 
 
List of C harts  
Chart 1: Evolution of LDC exports of goods and commercial services, 2011 -2020 .......................  5 
Chart 2: LDCs' total t rade balance, 2011 and 2020  ................................ ................................  6 
Chart 3: Merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies, 2011 -2020 ...................  7 
Chart 4: LDCs' shares in world exports, 2011 -2020................................ ................................  7 
Chart 5: Merchandise exports of LDCs, by major product groups, 2020Q1 -2021Q1  .....................  9 
Chart 6: Merchandise tra de of LDCs, 2011 -2020 ................................ ................................ .. 10 
Chart 7: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs, 2011 -2020 ................................ .......................  11 
Chart 8: Merchandise exports of LDCs by sub -grouping, 2011 -2020 ................................ ........  11 
Chart 9: Export prices of primary commodities, 2011 -2020 ................................ ....................  12 
Chart 10: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 2011 and 2020  ................................ .............  13 
Chart 11: Merchandise export structure of LDCs, 2011 and 2020  ................................ ............  14 
Chart 12: Top ten products of LDC mercha ndise exports, 2011 and 2020  ................................ . 15 
Chart 13: LDCs' exports of commercial services, 2011 -2020 ................................ ..................  17 
Chart 14: LDCs' exports of commercial services by sector, 2011 -2020 ................................ ..... 17 
Chart 15: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2011 -2020 ..............................  18 
Chart 16: Exports of commercial services of selected LDCs, 2020  ................................ ...........  18 
Chart 17: Leading LDC export ers of commercial services, 2020 and 2011  ................................  19 
Chart 18: Travel exports of selected LDCs, 2020  ................................ ................................ .. 20 
Chart 19: LDCs' transport exports by mode of transport, 2020  ................................ ...............  20 
Chart 20: Share of LDC exported products under duty free treatment, 2005 and 2019  ...............  26 
Chart 21: Share of duty -free products from LDCs, 2019  ................................ ........................  27 
 
List of Annex Tables  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 2020  .... 30 
Annex Tabl e 2: Indices of Market Prices for Non -Fuel and Fuel Commodities, 2016 -2021Q2  ........  32 
Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets an d product groups, 2011 -2020 ...............  35 
Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 2020  ................................ .....................  37 
Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 2020  .........................  40 
Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Members, 2021 or latest available year  ................................ ................................ ...............  41 
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 3 - 
 
  1  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY  
1.1.  This Note, which is prepared by the Secretariat on an annual basis, provides an update on the 
trends in the least developed countries' (LDCs) trade and market access con ditions. Between 2011 
and 20 20, exports of goods and services of the LDCs decreased at an average annual rate of -0.7%, 
more than the exports of other developing economies ( -0.1% per year). Low energy prices influenced 
LDC exports of goods negatively during the period 2014 to 2016 and during the peak of the COVID -19 
pandemic in  2020. LDC exports of goods and commercial services fell by 16% in 2020 compared to 
2019, to a nominal value of USD  200.6  billion.   
1.2.  The share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services increased slightly between 
2017 and 2019, from 0.92% to 0.96%,  respectively , but due to the pandemic fell back to 0.91% in 
2020. The LDCs' share in global goods exports decreased from 1.05% in 2019 to 1.01% in 2020. The 
contraction in services trade has been even more pronounced, with the LDCs' share in global 
commercial services exports dropp ing from 0.70% in 2019 to 0.57% in 2020.  
1.3.  LDCs' overall trade deficit marginally improved from USD  98.9 billion in 2019 to 
USD 98.8 billion in 2020. Nevertheless, LDCs' 2020 trade deficit was almost 2.5 times higher than 
in 2011 (USD  40.3 billion), when the trade balance of goods was slightly positive.  
1.4.  The share of primary products  accounted for 73% of total LDC exports in 2011 but decreased 
to 53% in 2019 and further declined to  48% in 2020 – mainly due to a lower value of f uel exports. 
The share of manufactured products increased from 22% in 2011 to 42% in 2020. This was mainly 
due to a higher share of clothing products in LDC merchandise exports, which increased from 13% 
in 2011 to 31% in 2020. The share of agricultural pro ducts (agricultural raw materials and food) in 
LDC exports increased from 10% in 2011 to 14% in 2020.  
1.5.  China was the top destination for total LDC merchandise exports in both 2011 (share of 26%) 
and 2020 (22%), followed by the European  Union (share of 18% in 2011, 2 1% in 2020)  and the 
United  States (share of 15% in 2011, 9% in 2020 ). The fourth and fifth largest merchandise export 
destinations for LDCs were the  United Arab Emirates (share of 7% in 2020, up from 4% in 2011), 
and India (share of 5% in 2020, down from 6% in 2011) , respectively . The top ten importers 
accounted for 78.4% of LDCs' total exports in 2020, less than in 2011 (83.4%).  
1.6.  The COVID -19 pandemic  and associated restrictions have interrupted a decade of rapid services 
exports growth in LDCs. In 2020, LDC services exports dropped by 35% to USD  27.9 billion, from 
USD 43.0 billion in 2019. The decline was largely driven by collapsing LDC travel export s (-62%) 
and a contraction of exports of the transport  sector ( -16%) . Other commercial services were 
relatively less affected, matching global trends, while goods -related services continued to expand.  
1.7.  Most developed country Members, and a number of develop ing country Members,  offer full or 
almost full duty -free access to the beneficiaries of their LDC scheme s. For Australia, New  Zealand, 
Norway, and Switzerland the share of LDC duty -free tariff lines is 100 %, while in Canada, Chile, the 
European  Union, and Japan it is above 97 %. China's duty -free offer is close to 97%, while Iceland, 
India, Korea , and Montenegro grant duty -free access to 90% or more of their tariff lines to the 
countries benefitting from their LDC scheme s. 
1.8.  The proportion of traded products enjoying duty -free market access has substantially increased 
since 2005, the year of the adop tion of the Hong Kong Ministerial Decision on duty -free and 
quota -free (DFQF) market access for LDC products , from 48% of exported products in 2005 to 66% 
in 2019.  
1.9.  Since the last report, a few  notification s on non -reciprocal preferential market access sche mes 
have been received. These include : (i) the GSP scheme of the United Kingdom, which entered into 
force on 1  January 2021 with a duty -free tariff line coverage of 99.8%; and (ii) the extension of 
Japan's GSP scheme until 31  March 2031, with a duty -free t ariff line coverage of 97.8%.  In addition, 
the United Kingdom submitted a notification pursuant to decisions taken by WTO Members to provide 
preferential treatment to services and service suppliers of LDCs.  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 4 - 
  
  2  INTRODUCTION  
2.1.  This Note prepared by the Secretar iat responds to paragraph  8 of the WTO Work Programme 
for the Least Developed Countries, which mandates annual reviews of market access for products 
originating from LDCs (WT/COMTD/LDC/11/Rev.1). It builds on previous Secretariat studies by 
updating the in formation on trends in LDCs' trade and market access conditions.  
2.2.  The Note is divided into two main chapters, in addition to the executive summary and the 
introduction. Chapter 3 provides a description of recent trends f or LDCs' trade flows, both in goods 
and commercial services. Chapter 4 contains information on trends in market access conditions for 
LDC exports, including duty-free market access for LDC products and recent initiatives undertaken 
by Members to improve market access for LDCs, mainly based on  Members' notifications. The Note 
does not attempt to be comprehensive in covering all aspects that condition market access for 
LDC products. It should therefore be read in conjunction with previous Secretariat notes prepared 
on this topic, to gauge the di fferent factors that determine market access for LDCs.  
2.3.  Despite improvements in the production of national data, the statistical coverage of LDCs 
remains incomplete. The Secretariat has been using reported national figures whenever available. 
In many instan ces, it was still necessary to rely on mirror statistics i.e.  data reported by LDCs' trading 
partners. The disadvantage of using mirror data is that it does not allow taking trade among the 
LDCs into consideration , as well as trade with non -reporting devel oping economies.  Estimates for 
merchandise trade data for South Sudan were added in this year's Note  (previously not available) . 
2.4.  The definition of geographical and other groupings in this report serves only statistical 
purposes; it does not imply an expression of opinion by the Secretariat concerning the status of any 
country or territory, the delimitation of its frontiers, nor the rights and obligations of any 
WTO Member in respect of WTO agreements.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 5 - 
 
  3  LDCS'  TRADE PROFILE  
3.1  Trends in Goods and Commercia l Services  Trade  
3.1.  The strong effect of the pandemic on LDCs' trade in 2020 turned the long -term 2011 to 2020 
trend of LDCs ' trade into  the negative: LDC exports of goods and services decreased  at an average 
annual rate of -0.7% between 2011 and 2020, more  than the exports of other developing economies 
(-0.1% per year ). Low energy prices influenced LDC exports of goods  negatively  during the period 
2014 to 2016  and during the peak of the COVID -19 pandemic in 2020.  LDC exports of services 
showed a  more stable  development  for the years 2014 to 2016 , but they were hit even stronger 
than exports of goods by the pandemic -related travel restrictions  in 2020  (Chart 1) . Commodity - 
and travel -exports -dependent  LDCs were particularly affected  by the energy  price development  and 
the pandemic -related travel restrictions , which  constitute the main reason s for the worse  
development in terms of average annual export growth  of the LD Cs vis-à-vis other developing 
economies . 
Chart 1: Evolution of L DC exports of goods and commercial services, 20 11-2020 
(Index, 20 11 = 100; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
 
Table 1: Trends in LDC  exports of goods and commercial services , 2011-2020 
(Billion US dollars and percentage; BOP/BPM6)  
  Value ( USD bn) Annual percentage change (%)  
  2011 2020 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2011-2020 
Exports  
Total goods and commercial services  212.8  200.6  -19.1 -2.3 13.3 13.1 -0.2 -15.9 -0.7 
Goods  187.3  172.6  -21.5 -2.1 14.6 12.8 -2.1 -11.7 -0.9 
Commercial services  25.5 27.9 -5.1 -3.3 6.8 15.1 9.5 -35.1 1.0 
Imports  
Total goods and commercial services  253.1  299.4  -9.9 -5.8 8.6 11.7 -0.1 -11.3 1.9 
Goods 186.9  241.6  -8.0 -4.9 9.7 12.9 0.7 -10.3 2.9 
Commercial services  66.2 57.8 -15.7 -9.0 4.7 7.5 -3.4 -15.3 -1.5 
 
Source:   WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates . 
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 6 - 
  
  3.2.  In 20 20, LDC exports of goods and commercial services fell by 16% compared to 201 9, to a 
nominal value of USD 200.6 billion. The LDC imports went down  by 11% to USD 299.4 billion  
(Table  1). In nominal  terms, goods exports continue  to dominat e services exports. LDC commercial 
services exports reached a value of  USD 27.9 billion  in 2020, which represented a share of only  14% 
of LDC total exports , compared to 18 % in 2019 . Globally , services constituted 2 2% of world total 
exports in 20 20. 
3.3.  LDCs' overall trade deficit marginally improved  from US D 98.9 billion in 201 9 to 
USD 98.8 billion in 20 20. Regarding goods, i mports exceeded exports by US D 68.9 billion  in 2020 , 
and regarding commercial services, imports were higher than exports by US D 29.8 billion (Chart  2). 
LDCs' 20 20 trade deficit was almost 2.5  times higher than in 20 11 (USD 40.3 billion), when the trade 
balance of goods was slightly positive . The m inor improvement of the trade balance against 2019 is 
technically due to the fact that  – in absolute value terms – LDCs' imports of goods decreased more 
(-USD 27.7 billion) than their exports ( -USD 22.9 billion).  
Chart 2: LDCs' total trade balance, 20 11 and 20 20 
(Billion US dollars; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
 
3.4.  Price fluctuations have a marked influence on the value of LDC  trade. Chart  3 shows 
developments in the volume of merchandise trade for LDCs and other economies to give a picture 
of the physical level of trade. In 20 20, LDC merchandise exports diminished  by 1.6% in volume 
terms, while merchandise imports fell by 11.8%. These growth rates are markedly less negative for 
export  volumes compared to  respective figures for exports  values  in nominal terms – reflecting  the 
strong  impact of price developments on the nominal trade figures of LDCs' merchandise trade  
(especially fuel exports) . In comparison to 2011, the export volume increased by  almost  60% and 
the import volume by almost 40%. In 2020, LDCs' total merchandise trade volume (turnover, 
i.e. exports plus imports) decreased by 7.9% against 2019, while the volume of total trade of other 
developing economies decreased by 5.8%. 
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 7 - 
 
  Chart 3: Merchandise trade volume of LDCs and developing economies, 2011 -2020 
(Indices, 2011 = 100)  
 
Source:  WTO Secretariat. LDCs' data are computed based on deflators sourced from UNCTAD.  
3.5.   The share of LDCs in world exports of goods and commercial services increased slightly  from 
0.92% in 2017 to 0.9 6% in 201 9, but due to the pandemic fell back to 0.91% in 2020  (Chart  4). 
With the exception of the years 2015 and 2016 (shares of 0.90% each), t his is the lowest level 
during the period shown. While the share of LDCs' goods exports dropped from 1.05% in 2019 to 
1.01% in 2020, the share of LDCs' commercial services trade collapsed from 0.70% in 2019 to 
0.57% in 2020.  This is the lowest level since 2010 (0.53%).  
Chart 4: LDCs' shares in world exports, 20 11-2020 
(Percentage shares; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  
3.6.  Table 2 shows t he respective shares  for total trade, exports , and imports for all years since 
2011 – including the values for world  total and LDC trade used for the calculation of the shares.  
 
  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 8 - Table 2: LDCs and world trade in go ods and commercial services, 20 11-2020 
(Billion US dollars and percentage; BOP/BPM6)  
 
Value (USD billion) and LDC Shares  Annual 
percentage  
change  
 2011  2012  2013  2014  2015  2016  2017  2018  2019  2020  2011 -2020 
Total trade in goods and commercial servicesa         
    
   World  22055  22416  23051  23500  20914  20498  22612  24851  24457  21612  1.6 
   LDC 466 497 541 564 487 465 514 577 576 500 2.9 
     Share in world  1.06 1.11 1.18 1.20 1.17 1.14 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.16 ... 
Total trade in goods  a         
   
   World  17749  17968  18336  18403  16053  15574  17269  19001  18456  16857  1.0 
   LDC 374 399 434 448 385 370 414 467 465 414 2.8 
     Share in world  1.05 1.11 1.19 1.22 1.20 1.19 1.20 1.23 1.26 1.23 ... 
Total trade in commercial services  a         
   
   World  4306 4448 4715 5098 4861 4925 5343 5850 6001 4755 4.1 
   LDC 92 97 107 117 102 95 100 110 111 86 3.1 
     Share in world  1.07 1.10 1.15 1.15 1.05 0.97 0.94 0.95 0.93 0.91 ... 
Goods exports          
   
   World  17994  18246  18648  18678  16242  15761  17494  19177  18627  17031  0.9 
   LDC 187 191 204 201 158 154 177 200 195 173 0.6 
     Share in world  1.04 1.05 1.09 1.08 0.97 0.98 1.01 1.04 1.05 1.01 ... 
Commercial services exports          
   
   World  4393 4522 4810 5166 4928 5015 5458 6012 6150 4914 4.2 
   LDC 25 28 32 35 33 32 34 39 43 28 6.5 
     Share in world  0.58 0.62 0.66 0.67 0.67 0.64 0.63 0.65 0.70 0.57 ... 
Goods imports          
   
   World  17504  17689  18024  18128  15864  15387  17044  18826  18285  16683  1.1 
   LDC 187 208 231 247 227 216 237 267 269 242 4.8 
     Share in world  1.07 1.18 1.28 1.36 1.43 1.40 1.39 1.42 1.47 1.45 ... 
Commercial services imports          
   
   World  4219 4374 4620 5029 4794 4834 5229 5688 5851 4596 4.0 
   LDC 66 69 75 82 69 63 66 71 68 58 1.5 
     Share in world  1.57 1.58 1.63 1.63 1.44 1.30 1.26 1.24 1.17 1.26 ... 
a World total trade is calculated as the average of world exports and imports , according to the BOP presentation (BPM 6) . Total LDC trade in this table is 
approximated as the sum of their exports and imports. Total trade shares are calculated in relation to the corresponding worl d exports plus imports.  
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD -ITC estimates.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 9 - 
 
  3.2  Merchandise Trade Developments2 
3.2.1   Short -term trend (quarterly)  
3.7.  World trade plunged in the first half of 2020  as the global economy was shaken by the 
COVID -19 pandemic. The trade decline touched countrie s in all regions and at all levels of 
development, including LDCs.  Based on the reported quarterly  import data of 99 economies3, the 
value of LDCs' merchandise exports fell by 29.9% year -on-year in the second quarter of 2020  
(Chart  5) – with exports of fu els and mining products affected the most ( -40.3%), followed by 
exports of manufactured goods ( -35.4%).  
3.8.  The third and fourth quarters of 2020 showed negative percentage changes as well, but on 
much lower scales ( -10.2% in Q3 and -2.4% in Q4) than for the second quarter.  The first quarter of 
2021 shows clear signs of recovery, with a total year -on-year growth of 3.4%, and exports of fuels 
and mining products growing the most (+4.6%)  – also due to increased energy prices . Exports of 
manufactures still show a decline in 2021Q1 ( -1.9%), but on a lower level than during the previous 
two quarters.  LDCs' exports of agricultural products generally suffered the least ( -9.1% during 
2020Q2) from the pandemic and recovered first (+3.5% in 2020 Q4). 
Chart 5: Merchandise exports of LDCs , by major product groups,  2020Q1 -2021Q1  
(Year-on-year percentage  change ) 
 
Source:  WTO estimates based on reported import data of 99 economies in the Trade Data Monitor (TDM).  
 
  
 
2 Differences between Balance of Payments (BOP) (BPM6) and International Merchandise Trade 
Statistics are explained in the International Merchandise Trade Statistics: Compilers Manual, Revision 1 
(IMTS  2010), Chapter XXIV Section B "Goods to be recorded dif ferently in IMTS and BPM6/national accounts" 
(p. 288). ( https://unstats.un.org/unsd/trade/EG -IMTS/IMTS2010 -CM%20 -
%20white%20cover%20version.pdf ). 
3 Albania ; Argentina ; Armenia; Australia ; Austria ; Bahrain , Kingdom of;  Belarus ; Belgium ; Belize ; 
Plurinational State of  Bolivia ; Bosnia and Herzegovina ; Botswana; Brazil; Brunei Darussalam; Bulgaria ; 
Canada ; Chile; China ; Colombia ;  Costa Rica ; Côte d'Ivoire ; Croatia ; Cyprus ; Czech Republic ; Denmark ; 
Dominican Republic; Ecuador ; Egypt ; El Salvador ; Estonia ; Ethiopia ; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; 
Greece; Guatemal a; Honduras ; Hong Kong , China; Hungary ; Iceland ; India; Indonesia ; Ireland ; Israel ; Italy; 
Japan ; Jordan ; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Kosovo; Korea, Republic of; Kosovo; Latvia; Lithuania; Luxembourg; 
Macao, China;  Madagasca r; Malaysia ; Malta ; Mauritius ; Mexico ; Montenegro ; Morocco ; Mozambique ; Namibia ; 
Netherlands; New Zealand; North Macedonia; Norway ; Pakistan ; Panama ; Paraguay ; Peru; Philippines ; Poland ; 
Portugal ; Qatar ; Romania ; Russia; Saudi  Arabia, Kingdom of; Senegal; Serbia; Singapore; Slovak Republic; 
Slovenia; South Africa; Spain ; Sri Lanka ; Sweden ; Switzerland ; Chinese Ta ipei; Thailand; Turkey; Ukraine; 
United Kingdom; United States; Uruguay; and Zambia.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 10 - 
 
  3.2.2   Long -term  trend  (annual)  
3.9.  Merchandise exports of LDCs rose from US D 189 billion in 20 11 to US D 199 billion in 201 9 and 
fell to USD  181 billion in 2020  (Chart  6), corresponding to an average annual decrease  of 0.5% (in 
line with  world exports  that were also falling by an average of 0.5% per year ). In 2020, 
LDC merchandise  exports  – suffering  from a pandemic -related drop  in prices  and demand  for fuels 
and m ining products  – decreased by 9.1%, more than world exports ( -7.5%) . Merchandise imports 
of LDCs declined more than exports in 2020, notably by 11. 2% (from USD  279 billion in 2019 to 
248 USD billion in 2020) .  
3.10.  The LDCs' share in world merchandise exports fell from 1.08% in 2019 to 1.06%  in 2020; the 
share in world imports declined from 1.48% in 2019 to 1.42% in 2020 (Chart 6). Among developing 
economies, the LDCs' share of exports went down to 2.4% in 2020 (from 2.5% in 2019) and  for 
imports to 3.5% (from 3.6 %). The share of LDCs in world exports of manufactures dropped from 
0.60% in 2019 to 0.56% in 2020.  
Chart 6: Merchandise trade of LDCs , 2011-2020 
(Billion US dollars and percentages)  
 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
3.11.  The merchandise trade deficit of LDCs decreased distinctly  in 2020 (from USD 80 billion  in 
2019 to USD  67 billion in 2019 ) – which is mainly an effect of the stronger decrease of imports than 
of exports in 2020 ( Chart 7). This is the lowest deficit since 2014 (USD  63 billion). While in 2019, 
only the LDC oil exporters had a positive trade balance, in 2020 only the LDC exporters of non -fuel 
minerals showed a trade surplus (USD  5 billion). The trade deficit of LDC exporters of manufactur es 
decreased from USD  42 billion in 2019 to USD  35 billion, and for  LDC exporters of agriculture from 
USD 32 billion in 2019 to USD  30 billion in 2020. LDC oil exports trade deficit amounted to 
USD 3 billion in 2020 (down from a trade surplus of USD  7 billion in 2019).  
3.12.  In 2020, only LDC exporters of non -fuel minerals  (+7.6%) and LDC exporters of agriculture  
(+6.4%) showed positive growth rates for their merchandise exports  (Chart 8), while all the other 
LDC groups suffered year -on-year decreases of their ex ports. Non -fuel minerals exporters benefitted 
from price increases of minerals and non -ferrous metals  (see 3.2.2), agricultural exporters from 
stable demand for food and beverages during the pandemic. The highest drop in exports was 
observed for LDC oil ex porters  (-26.6%; distinct fall in fuel prices and low demand), followed by 
other LDCs ( -16.2%). LDC exporters of manufactures experienced an export decrease of 8.0% in 
2020. Annex Table 1 provides details on the value and growth of exports and imports for individual 
LDCs.  
 
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 11 - 
 
  Chart 7: Merchandise trade balance of LDCs , 2011-2020 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
Chart 8: Merchandise exports of LDCs by sub-grouping , 2011-2020 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
3.2.3   Commodity price movements  
3.13.  Exchange rates and commodity prices strongly influence nominal d ollar values of international 
trade flows . As Chart 9 shows, the upward trend of energy prices of the two preceding years came 
to a first halt in 2019 with a drop of 1 5%. The COVID -19 pandemic with its effects on international 
travel and supply chains resulted in a steep decline of demand for fuels; energy prices declined even 
more than in 2019, notably by 31% in 2020. By contrast , prices of minerals and non -ferrous metals 
grew by 5% (demand was higher than supply) and  prices of food and beverages  by 2% (demand 
for food/beverage s remained stable during the pandemic) . Prices of agricultural raw materials 
decreas ed by 3%.  
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 12 - 
 
  3.14.  The price levels of all product groups in 2020 were below the  levels of 2011. Prices for minerals 
and non -ferrous metals stood at  82% of the level of 2011, while p rices of food and beverages 
reached 80% of the 2011 level. In the case of agricultural raw materials and energy, price levels 
were even lower, at 61% and 39% of their respective 2011 levels. Annex Table  2 provides trends in 
prices of commodities at a more disaggregated level.  
Chart 9: Export prices of primary commodities, 2011-2020 
(Indices, 20 11 = 100)  
 
Source:  IMF. 
3.2.4   Major LDC traders  
3.15.  Chart  10 shows t he top ten individual merchandise exporters and importers of the LDCs for 
both 20 11 and 20 20. While Angola was the top exporter in 2011, its share in LDC merchandise 
exports decreased from 3 6% in 2011 to 12% in 20 20 – leaving Angola on second position in 2020, 
after Bangladesh . Bangladesh's share in LDCs' exports increased from 13% in 2011 (second positi on 
after Angola) to 19% in 2020 . Also, Cambodia  (10%), Myanmar (9%) and the Democratic Republic 
of the Congo (8%) , which were on third to fifth  place in 20 20, saw  their shares in LDC merchandise 
exports increase  significantly since 2011.  While the top ten exporters represented more than  80% 
of LDCs' exports in 20 11, this share went down to around 7 3% in 20 20 – constituting a slight 
decrease in terms of country concentration among the LDCs. Nevertheless, the fact that the 
remaining (non -top ten) LDCs account ed for only 2 7% of LDC merchandise exports in 20 20 shows  
that exports are still concentrated in a relatively small number of LDCs.  
3.16.  In 201 1, the three leading importers were Bangladesh (share of 1 8%), Angola (10%) and 
Yemen  (6%). Nine years later , the top three consisted of Bangladesh ( 21%), Cambodia (8%) and 
Myanmar (7%) . More than 63%  of LDC  merchandise  imports in 20 20 were covered by the  top 
ten importers ( as in 2011). Hence, the country concentration for imports is not as high as f or 
exports . 
3.17.  Among the top 15 LDC exporters (in terms of export value), the highest  year-on-year growth  
rates in exports in 20 20 were recorded for Guinea (+42%) [exporter of non -fuel minerals ], 
Burkina  Faso (+35%) [exporter of agricultural products] and Tan zania (+21%) [exporter of non -fuel 
minerals]. The strongest declines amongst the top 15 were recorded for Angola  (-40%) 
[oil exporter ], Mozambique ( -23%) [exporter of non -fuel minerals] and Bangladesh ( -15%) 
[manufacture exporter].  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 13 - 
 
  Chart 10: Top ten LDC exporters and importers, 20 11 and 20 20 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates . 
3.2.5   Trends in product composition  
3.18.  The evolution in the commodity mix of LDCs between 20 11 and 20 20 can be seen in Chart  11. 
The share of primary products in total exports of LDCs decreased from 73% in 2011 to  53% in 201 9 
and further to 48% in 20 20 – due to a lower  value of fuel exports .4 The share of manufactured 
products increased from 2 2% in 20 11 to 42% in 20 20. This was mainly due to a higher share of 
clothing products in LDC merchandise exports, which increased from 1 3% in 2011 to 31% in 20 20.5 
The share of agricultural products (agricultural raw materials and food) in LDC exports increased 
from 10% in 20 11 to 14% in 20 20. The share of the 'residual' -category doubled between 2011 and 
2020, from 5% to 10% in 2020; this is essentially due to the strong increase in exports of non -
monetary gold which is allocated to this product group.  LDCs' gold ex ports more than doubled 
between 2011 and 2020  in value terms (in net weight terms  they grew by 40%). 
 
4 These shares are derived from the WTO network of LDCs by product and destination compiled 
according to the United Nations Standard International Trade Classification (SITC). According to this 
classificati on, diamonds and non -monetary gold are not part of mineral products  – as opposed to the 
Harmonized System (HS) . As a result, the shares of fuels and mining product s in total LDC s' exports derived 
from the LDC network differ from the shares of exporters of fuels and mining products presented in the Annex  
of this report.  
5 This is also a relative effect, due to the marked decline of the share of primary products; in nominal 
terms, the value of LDCs' clothing exports doubled between 2011 and 2020.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 14 - 
 
  Chart 11: Merchandise export structure  of LDCs , 2011 and 20 20 
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source : WTO Secretariat (20 11), WTO estimates based on Comtrade  (importer data; 2020). 
3.19.  Chart  12 shows t he evo lution of the top ten products – and their respective shares – exported 
by LDCs between 20 11 and 20 20 (Annex Table 4 provides  statistics on the top 50 export products). 
Back i n 201 1, petroleum products (HS  27.09, 27.11 and 27.10) clearly dominated exports with a 
share of 5 1% of LDC  merchandise  exports. In 20 20, these three products accounted for less than 
20% of LDC exp orts. Whi le crude petroleum (HS  27.09) was still the top export product, petroleum 
gases and other gaseous hydrocarbons  (HS 27.11) fell from the second position in 201 1 down to 
position nine in 20 20. Petroleum oils, other than crude (HS 27.10) were not even in the top 
ten products anymore in 20 20 (position eight in 201 1, position 52 in 2020). At the same time, the 
share of clothing products featuring among the top ten increased from 1 0% in 20 11 to 19% in 20 20. 
3.20.  In 201 1, gold was in fifth position with a share of 3.0% in LDC exports ; nine years later i t had 
climbed up  to second  position increas ing its share to 8.2%. Refined copper (HS  74.03) fell from the 
third position in 201 1 (share of 3. 5%) down to the fourth  position in 20 20 (4.1%). Un refined coppe r 
(HS 74.02) increased its share from 1 .2% in 201 1 to 3.0% in 20 20, moving from the tenth to the 
eighth position.  
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 15 - 
 
  Chart 12: Top ten products of LDC merchandise exports, 20 11 and 20 20 
(Percentage shares with corresponding HS codes)   
 
Source:  UN Comtrade database (importer  data). 
3.2.6   Major markets of LDCs  
3.21.  LDCs' top ten markets by product groups for both 2011 and 20 20 are listed in Table 3  
(Annex  Table  3 shows trade statistics for a greater number of destination markets). China  was the 
top destination for total LDC merchandise exports in both 2011 (share of 2 6%) and 2020 (22%), 
followed by the European  Union  (18% in 2011, 2 1% in 2020 ) and the United  States (15% in 2011, 
9% in 2020). The United Arab Emirates were on fourth  position (7% in 2020, up from 4 % in 2011), 
India on fifth (5% in 2020, down from 6% in 2011 ). The top ten importers accounted for 78% of 
LDCs'  total exports  in 2020, compared to 83% in 2011. 
3.22.  Regarding agricultural products, the European  Union  was the main destination of LDC  exports 
in 2011 (share of  22%) and  on second position in 2020 (17%). China, main destination in 2020 and 
second position in 2011 , increased  its mar ket share for LDC agricultural products from 1 3% in 20 11 
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 16 - 
 
  to 24% in 20 20. In 2011 and 2020, India was in third position , followed by Viet Nam in fourth 
position . Saudi Arabia completed the top five in 2011, while Thailand was ranked fifth in 2020. The 
top ten destinations accounted for 82% of LDC exports of agricultural products in 20 20 (up from 
71% in 20 11). 
3.23.  In both 2011 and 20 20, China was the most important dest ination for LDC exports of fuels 
and mining products  and e xpand ed its share in LDC exports of this product group to 58% in 20 20 
(up from 39% in 20 11). The European  Union  went from third position in 2011 (share of 1 1%) up to 
second position in 2020 (11%) . Thailand followed on third position (share of 9% in 2020, up from 
sixth position with a share of 5% in 2011).  In both years, the top ten destinations imported more 
than 90% (91% in 201 1 and 9 4% in 20 20) of all LDCs' exports of fuels and mining products.  
3.24.  The European  Union  and the United  States  were the most important destinations for 
LDC exports of manufactured goods in both 20 11 and 20 20. In 20 20, the European  Union  imported 
41% of LDC s' manufacturing exports (up from 37% in 20 11). The share of  LDC exports of 
manufactures to the United  States  remained quite stable at around 21%. The United  Kingdom  was 
the third most important  destination for LDC  manufacturing exports  in both 2011 and  2020, 
representing  a share of 6% (down  from 8% in 20 11). In 20 20, it was followed by Japan (5%) and 
China (4%). The share of the top ten destinations in LDC exports of manufactures increased from 
84% in 201 1 to 88% in 20 20. 
Table 3: LDCs ' top ten export markets , 2011 and 2020 
(Billion US dollars and percentage shares)  
 Total exports  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining 
products  Manufactures  
 Value ( USD bn) 2011  China  51.0 EU (27)  5.0 China  46.5 EU (27)  16.8 
EU (27)  35.0 China  3.1 USA 18.6 USA 9.4 
USA 28.8 India 2.7 EU (27) 12.8 United Kingdom  3.7 
India 12.1 Viet Nam  1.1 India 8.1 Canada  1.8 
United Arab 
Emirates  6.8 Saudi Arabia, 
Kingdom of  1.0 Chinese Taipei  6.0 China  1.4 
Thailand  6.5 Japan  0.7 Thailand  5.7 Japan  1.4 
Chinese Taipei  6.2 USA 0.7 Japan  3.1 India 1.3 
Japan  5.3 Indonesia  0.7 South Africa  3.0 Congo  1.1 
United Kingdom  5.1 Thailand  0.7 Canada  2.6 Turkey  1.0 
Canada  4.9 United Kingdom  0.5 Korea, Rep. of  2.0 United Arab 
Emirates  0.7 
Top 10 markets  161.7  Top 10 markets  16.2 Top 10 markets  108.4  Top 10 markets  38.6 
All markets*  193.9  All markets*  22.8 All markets*  119.1  All markets*  45.7 
Share of top 10:  83.4%  Share of top 10:  71.1%  Share of top 10:  91.0%  Share of top 10:  84.3%   Value (USD  bn) 2020  China  45.5 China  5.9 China  34.9 EU (27)  31.2 
EU (27)  42.7 EU (27)  4.3 EU (27)  6.7 USA 16.1 
USA 18.3 India 3.6 Thailand  5.6 United Kingdom  4.3 
United Arab 
Emirates a 15.1 Viet Nam  1.7 India 3.7 Japan  4.2 
India 10.2 Thailand  1.5 Namibia  1.6 China  3.1 
Thailand  8.7 USA 1.2 Korea, Rep. of  1.0 Canada  2.6 
Switzerland  8.1 Pakistan  0.7 United Arab 
Emirates a 0.9 United Arab 
Emirates a 2.1 
Japan  5.2 Japan  0.7 Chinese Taipei  0.9 India 1.5 
United Kingdom  4.8 Turkey  0.5 USA 0.7 Switzerland  1.2 
Singapore  3.8 Kenya  0.4 South Africa  0.7 Korea, Rep. of  1.2 
Top 10 markets  162.3  Top 10 markets  20.5 Top 10 markets  56.9 Top 10 markets  67.6 
All markets*  207.1  All markets*  24.9 All markets*  60.7 All markets*  76.6 
Share of top 10:  78.4%  Share of top 10:  82.1%  Share of top 10:  93.7%  Share of top 10:  88.2%  
a Estimate . 
* Aggregated export values for all markets may not coincide with total trade figures reported by LDCs.  
Source:  UN Comtrade  (importer data).  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 17 - 
 
  3.3  Services Trade Developments  
3.25.  The COVID -19 pandemic and associated restrictions have interrupted a decade of rapid 
services exports growth in LDCs. In 2020, LDC services exports dropped by 35% to USD  27.9 billion, 
from USD  43.0 billion in 2019 (Chart 13). Annex Table 5 provides data on total commercial services 
for individual LDCs. The decline was largely driven by collapsing travel exports and a contraction of 
transport  services . Other commercial services were relatively less affected, matching global trends, 
while goods -related service s continued to expand (Chart 14).  
Chart 13: LDCs' exports of commercial services, 2011 -2020  
(Annual percentage change and b illion dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
Chart 14: LDCs' exports of commercia l services by sector , 2011 -2020 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD  estimates . 
3.26.  LDCs islands, with a less diversified services sector and dependent on international tourism, 
recorded the steepest fall in 2020 ( -55%), followed by LDCs in Asia (-39%). LDCs in Africa which 
account ed for 56.9% of  LDCs' total commercial services exports  in 2020, saw a 31% decline 
(Chart  15).  
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 18 - 
 
  Chart 15: LDCs' exports of commercial services by LDC region, 2011 -2020 
(Billion US dollars)  
 
Source: WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
3.27.  Chart  16 shows the impact of COVID -19 restrictions on selected LDCs. According to available 
information, only Afghanistan and Bangladesh recorded growth  in commercial services exports . 
Doubling exports of business services suppor ted Afghanistan's services  exports , while computer 
services, professional and management consulting services as well as air freight transport services 
boosted Bangladesh's services exports. For disaggregated statistics see WTO Data6. 
Chart 16: Exports of commercial services  of selected LDCs,  2020 
(Annual percentage change ) 
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
 
 
6 https://timeseries.wto.org/  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 19 - 
 
  3.28.  Losses of s ervices export revenue due to the COVID -19 pandemic have affected countries' 
share s in LDCs' overall services exports  (Chart  17). In 2020, Myanmar and Ethiopia each held a 
15.5% share. Bangladesh followed with 12.3%  and Tanzania with 8.2%. H ard-hit Cambodia fell from 
the second position in 2019 to the fifth position  in 2020 with a share of 6.5% . Overall, the top 
ten leading exporters accounted for 73.9% of the group's services receipts in 2020. The share of 
other LDCs in total services exports declined from 32.8% in 2011 to 26.1%.  
Chart 17: Leading LDC exporters of commercial services, 20 20 and 2011  
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates.  
3.29.  According to the UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), global international tourist arrivals 
decreased by 73% in 2020, following the suspension of international flights, border closures, and 
lockdown measures  in the context of the pandemic . For LDCs, international tourism is the most 
important services export sector, in which micro, small and medium -sized enterprises  (MSMEs ) are 
predominant. In 2020, tourist inflows to LDCs contracted on average by 63%. However, from April 
through December 2020, monthly arrivals were consistently down by at least 80% year -on-year.  
3.30.  Travel  exports, covering foreign t ourists' expenditure in ser vices and goods during their stay 
in LDCs plummeted by 62% to USD 7.7 billion. For the LDC group, this represents an estimated 
export loss of USD  12.8 billion compared to 2019. Nevertheless, LDC participation in global travel 
exports remained stable at 1.4 % in 2020, as sharp declines affected all economies worldwide.  
3.31.  In LDCs in Asia , the average decline  of travel exports  in 2020 was 74%. In Cambodia , the 
leading LDC travel exporter, these contracted by 79% reflecting an 80% drop in foreign tourist 
inflows  (Chart  18). Travellers from China, the top source market, Viet  Nam, and Thailand, which 
together accounted for 57% of total arrivals in 2019, were down  by 86%, 80% and 55% , 
respectively. Prior to the pandemic, in 2019, intra -regional tourism accounted for 82.3% of total 
arrivals to Cambodia.7 According to surveys conducted in the country in April 2021  by the 
Asia Foundation on some 1,000  MSMEs in tourism -related activities , 47% of them had ceased their 
operations since the beginning of the pandemi c.8 In Myanmar,  the second largest LDC travel 
exporter, international tourist arrivals, also largely from Asia, fell by 72% and travel receipts were 
down by 78% as revenues of hotels, tour and local transport operators, and retailers, among others, 
were decim ated.9  
  
 
7 Cambodia Ministry of Tourism "Tourism Statistics Report December 2020.  
8 See https://asiafoundation.org/wp -content/uploads/2021/08/Revisitin g-the-Pandemic -Rapid -Survey -
on-the-Impact -of-Covid -19-on-MSMEs -in-the-Tourism -Sector -and-Households -in-Cambodia.pdf , July 2021.  
9 https://www.mmtimes.com/news/week -review -tourist -arrivals -fall-75-2020.html , 22 January 2021.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 20 - 
 
  3.32.  Tourism is also mainly intra -regional for LDCs in Africa, representing some 65% of all arrivals. 
However, European tourists, whose travel -related spending is higher, are important in several LDCs, 
representing  one third of total arrivals in Tanz ania, almost half in Madagascar, and two -thirds in 
Comoros. In 2020, the lack of foreign tourists resulted in a 71% decline in travel exports in Tanzania, 
81% in Madagascar and 75% in Comoros. In the region, Angola recorded the sharpest drop among 
all LDCs , down 96% while receipts from international tourism fell by 67% in Uganda and by 56% in 
Senegal. Ethiopia represents an exception with travel exports up by 31%. In 2020, African LDCs' 
travel exports overall dropped by 51%.  
Chart 18: Travel exports of selected LDCs , 2020 
(Annual percentage change)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates and national data.  
3.33.  According to the UNWTO, in the period January -May 2021, global international tourist arrivals 
were still 85% below their 2019 pre -pandemic  levels (65% over 2020). Despite rollouts of vaccines 
in many advanced economies, the emergence of new virus variants and the reintroduction of travel 
restrictions and lockdowns  have counter ed hopes of a fast recovery of international  tourism.   
3.34.  Transport was another sector hit hard by the pandemic. In 2020, LDCs t ransport exports 
declined  by 16% to USD  9.2 billion. In LDCs, air transport services, which accounted for 57.8%  of 
total transport exports  in 2019, fell by 21%. This reflects a 51% drop in passenger transport due to 
border closures and quarantine measures imposed by countries worldwide to fight the pandemic.  
Chart 19: LDCs' transport exports by mode of transport, 2020 
(Annual percentage change)  
 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD  estimates . 
3.35.  However, the decline was partly offset by a 77% increase of air freight services, while auxiliary 
services in airports such as cargo handling and storage were also up 20%. Cargo has been essential 
to ship rapidly Personal Protective Equipment  (PPE) and other medical products worldwide during 
the pandemic. In addition, global demand has been fostered by e -commerce, and in 2021, by the 
need to distribute rapidly COVID -19 vaccines.  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 21 - 
 
  3.36.  This has resulted in an increase in air freight rates gl obally due to lack of capacity.10 Air cargo 
represents an important alternative to maritime transport due to port delays and a global shortage 
of containers. According to the International Air Transport Association ( IATA), the share of the global 
airline industry revenue for freight traff ic has doubled  from pre -pandemic levels.  
3.37.  Air freight transport offers export opportunities also for LDCs. In Ethiopia, the main transport 
supplier, air freight services exports were up 87% in 2020, while in Bangladesh exports tripled. 
Myanmar and Cambodia also recorded increases by 56% and 14% , respectively.  
3.38.  Sea transport represented only 17.8% of LDC transport exports prior to the pandemic, as 
many LDCs are landlocked. In 2020, LDC exports of maritime transport services declined by 13%, 
with freight shippi ng down  by 20%, and other port services contracting by 7%. Transport through 
other modes, such as road, rail, through inland waterways, as well as pipeline transport fell relatively 
less ( -4%) (Chart  19). 
3.39.  Finally, exports of other commercial services were more resilient to the crisis. In 2020, they 
decreased by 7% to USD  8.6 billion from USD  9.3 billion in 2019. LDCs' contribution to global 
exports of other commercial services remained negligible, decreasing to  0.26% from 0.27% in 2019. 
Myanmar, Bangladesh,  and Nepal confirmed their leading position as t he main exporters accounting 
together for 5 2% of the group's exports of other commercial services in 20 20.  
  
 
10 IATA, Chart of the week: Air cargo not keeping up with export orders, 2 October 2020.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 22 - 
 
  4  MARKET ACCESS FOR PRODUCTS OF EXPORT INTEREST TO LDCS  
4.1  Duty -free market access granted by selected Members  
4.1.  Table 4 provides statistics on duty -free market access accorded to LDCs by selected Members 
that have mostly  notified LDC preference schemes to the WTO. The first two sets of columns focus 
on the MFN duty scheme and on the LDC preferential scheme p rovided by individual Members to a 
set of defined beneficiaries. The last three columns list information on tariff lines with imports from 
LDC beneficiaries.  Depending upon WTO Members, the beneficiaries of national LDC schemes may 
not include all UN-LDCs and/or may include non -LDCs.  
Table 4: Duty -free tariff lines  under MFN and LDC schemes in selected Members, 2019  or 
latest available year  
Market  Sector  MFN scheme  LDC scheme  Number of tariff lines with 
imports from LDC 
bene ficiariesa 
Number 
of tariff 
lines  % 
lines 
duty-
free Simple 
average  
dutyb % 
lines 
duty-
free Simple 
average  
duty b Total  MFN 
dutiable  LDC 
dutiable  
Armeniac Total  12,178  19.6 6.1 - - - - - 
Ag 2,703  8.0 8.2 - - - - - 
Non-Ag 9,475  22.9 5.6 - - - - - 
Australia  Total  6,474  49.4 2.5 100 0 1,103  689 0 
Ag 850 72.6 1.3 100 0 153 49 0 
Non-Ag 5,624  45.9 2.7 100 0 950 640 0 
Canada  Total  6,986  69.4 2.7 98.5 0.1 2,313  965 1 
Ag 1,425  51.6 3.5 92.6 0.6 411 146 1 
Non-Ag 5,561  73.9 2.5 100 0 1,902  819 0 
Chile  Total  8,559  0.4 6.0 99.5 0 699 699 0 
Ag 1,471  0 6.0 97.2 0 64 64 0 
Non-Ag 7,088  0.5 6.0 100 0 635 635 0 
Chinac,f Total  8,549  8.4 9.7 96.6 0.7 1,477  1,296  46 
Ag 1,169  7.8 15.1 93.5 2.4 147 137 15 
Non-Ag 7,380  8.6 8.8 97.1 0.4 1,330  1,159  31 
European 
Union  Total  9,533  25.9 4.7 99.8 0 4,587  3,490  8 
Ag 2,099  18.9 7.7 100 0 804 610 4 
Non-Ag 7,434  27.8 4.3 99.8 0 3,783  2,880  4 
Hong Kong, 
China  Total  7,584  100 0      
Ag 1,044  100 0      
Non-Ag 6,540  100 0      
Iceland  c Total  8,981  89.4 1.3 91.8 1.0 - - - 
Ag 2,000  58.2 6.5 63.2 5.3 - - - 
Non-Ag 6,981  98.3 0.2 100 0 - - - 
Indiad Total  11,546  2.6 13.2 94.1 1.9 1,612  1,556  190 
Ag 1,495  4.3 36.2 77.0 13.4 295 277 88 
Non-Ag 10,051 2.3 9.6 96.7 0.2 1,317  1,279  102 
Japan  Total  9,377  40.0 4.6 97.8 0.2 1,178  726 22 
Ag 1,980  24.4 10.5 96.2 0.4 194 126 3 
Non-Ag 7,397  44.2 3.3 98.2 0.2 984 600 19 
Kazakhstan  Total  12,241  18.0 5.8 62.9 3.0 584 533 437 
Ag 2,703  7.0 8.2 70.5 1.9 51 44 4 
Non-Ag 9,538  21.1 5.3 60.7 3.2 533 489 433 
Korea, 
Republic of  Total  12,232  19.3 12.7 89.9 6.8 1,625  1,380  182 
Ag 1,726  5.4 53.0 59.3 44.8 233 225 102 
Non-Ag 10,506  21.5 6.3 94.9 0.7 1,392  1,155  80 
Kyrgyz 
Republic  Total  12,241  17.0 6.4 58.5 3.5 216 209 201 
Ag 2,703  6.6 8.8 51.9 3.0 10 7 5 
Non-Ag 9,538  19.9 5.9 60.4 3.6 206 202 196 
Macao, 
China  Total  6,641  100 0      
Ag 900 100 0      
Non-Ag 5,741  100 0      
          WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 23 - 
 
  Market  Sector  MFN scheme  LDC scheme  Number of tariff lines with 
imports from LDC 
bene ficiariesa 
Number 
of tariff 
lines  % 
lines 
duty-
free Simple 
average  
dutyb % 
lines 
duty-
free Simple 
average  
duty b Total  MFN 
dutiable  LDC 
dutiable  
Montenegro  Total  9,533  30.4 4.6 93.9 0.6 439 398 16 
Ag 2,099  18.0 10.7 94.4 0.7 31 24 2 
Non-Ag 7,434  33.9 3.0 93.8 0.5 408 374 14 
Moroccoc Total  18,266  0.1 12.4 1.3 12.3 408 408 380 
Ag 2,576  0 30.0 5.9 29.4 60 60 44 
Non-Ag 15,690  0.1 9.5 0.6 9.5 348 348 336 
New 
Zealand  Total  7,926  59.1 2.3 100 0 1,062  697 0 
Ag 1,082  64.6 1.8 100 0 152 68 0 
Non-Ag 6,844  58.2 2.4 100 0 910 629 0 
Norway  Total  7,189  85.2 2.5 100 0 1,160  307 0 
Ag 1,417  43.8 19.3 100 0 205 66 0 
Non-Ag 5,772  95.4 0.4 100 0 955 241 0 
Russian 
Federation  Total  12,239  15.9 6.5 61.4 3.4 - - - 
Ag 2,703  7.6 8.7 70.6 2.3 - - - 
Non-Ag 9,536  18.3 6.1 58.8 3.7 - - - 
Singapore  Total  10,813  99.9 0      
Ag 1,369  99.4 0      
Non-Ag 9,444  100 0      
Switzerland  Total  8,843  20.9 n.a. 100 0 1,636  1,337  0 
Ag 2,464  17.6 n.a. 100 0 307 231 0 
Non-Ag 6,379  22.1 n.a. 100 0 1,329  1,106  0 
Chinese 
Taipei  Total  9,136  29.3 6.3 30.8 6.2 725 545 504 
Ag 1,505  22.4 13.8 23.3 13.8 104 67 66 
Non-Ag 7,631  30.6 5.0 32.3 4.8 621 478 438 
Tajikistane Total  10,962  3.7 7.7 3.7 3.9 - - - 
Ag 2,466  0.4 10.4 0.4 5.2 - - - 
Non-Ag 8,496  4.7 7.0 4.7 3.5 - - - 
Thailand  Total  10,813  29.5 13.7 70.8 8.6 2,430  1,854  715 
Ag 1,369  9.9 31.5 75.7 13.1 224 195 66 
Non-Ag 9,444  32.3 11.8 70.1 8.0 2,206  1,659  649 
Turkey  Total  11,934  23.2 13.5 78.7 10.2 974 799 79 
Ag 2,259  13.5 51.0 25.6 48.0 99 68 57 
Non-Ag 9,675  25.5 4.7 91.1 1.0 875 731 22 
United 
States  Total  11,109  37.0 4.7 82.5 2.5 2,332  1,553  712 
Ag 1,911  20.5 9.0 85.7 5.1 317 210 12 
Non-Ag 9,198  40.4 3.8 81.8 2.0 2,015  1,343  700 
 
a Beneficiaries are countries eligible to the national LDC scheme; some UN -LDC countries may be excluded.  
b Excludes non -ad valorem duties, except for the United  States , for which  ad valorem equivalents are 
available . 
c 2018 
d 2016 
e 2017 
f China has submitted data on prefere nces for three different groups, i.e. i) 38 LDCs; ii) Benin, Myanmar and 
Timor -Leste; and iii) Bangladesh. The data for the number of tariff lines for the LDC  preference s relate to 
the group of 3 8 beneficiaries. Information on LDC imports assume full prefe rence utilization for all 
beneficiaries.  
Source:   WTO-Integrated DataBase (IDB).  
4.2.  Two Members offer full duty -free access to all products on an MFN basis: Hong Kong, China 
and Macao, China . The situation is similar for Singapore, where 99.9% of tariff lines  are 
MFN duty-free. The share of MFN duty -free lines is above 85% for Iceland and Norway.  
4.3.  Several WTO Members offer full or almost full duty -free access to the beneficiaries of their 
LDC scheme. For Australia, New Zealand, Norway , and Switzerland the share of LDC duty -free lines 
is 100 %, while in Canada, Chile, the European  Union , and Japan it is above 97 %. China 's duty -free WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 24 - 
 
  offer is close to 97% , while Iceland, India, Korea , and Montenegro grant duty -free access to around 
90% or more of their tariff lines to the countries benefitting from their LDC scheme s.  
4.4.  The last three columns of Table 4 provide information on the eligibility of preferential tariff 
treatment on actually imported products originating from the beneficiaries of th e LDC schemes. For 
example, in Thailand the beneficiaries have exported 2,430 different products in terms of national 
tariff lines, of which 1,854 are dutiable under the MFN scheme; under the LDC scheme, the number 
of products that are dutiable, taking int o account the preferential scheme granted to 
LDC beneficiaries, falls to 715. Therefore, 1,139 (i.e.  1,854 - 715) products could enter the 
Thai market duty -free under the LDC scheme, while they were dutiable under the MFN duty regime. 
Similarly, more than 3,000 products exported by LDCs to the European  Union  could enter duty -free 
under the LDC scheme but not under the MFN scheme.11 For China, India, Korea, Switzerland, and 
Thailand, this was the case for more than 1,000 products.  
4.5.  In 201 9, beneficiaries of LDC preferential schemes  exported the highest number of products to 
the European  Union  (4,587 national tariff lines) . The export basket  of LDC beneficiaries  is also 
relatively diversified in Canada, Thailand, and the United  States  with more than 2,000 produ cts.  
4.6.  The average preferential margin is the difference between the average MFN duty and the 
average duty under the LDC scheme . It is an indicator of the depth of the LDC preferential schemes 
and shows how much LDCs could benefit on top of the MFN  treatmen t. Excluding non -ad valorem 
duties, this average preferential margin is the highest for China, Chile, India, Korea, and Thailand 
where it is greater than  five percent age points . For agricultural products, Table  4 shows an average 
preferential margin equal or greater than 10 percentage points for six Members (China, India, Japan, 
Montenegro, Norway, and Thailand).  
4.7.  While Table  4 presented information on tariff lines, Table 5 focuses on imports from UN -LDCs. 
It considers all 46 LDCs, independent of whether they are listed as beneficiaries in Members' 
preferential schemes.  
Table 5: Imports of selected Members  from UN -LDCs , 2019 or latest available year  
Market  Sector  Imports 
(million 
USD)  MFN scheme  LDC scheme  
% duty -
free Trade -
weighted 
average  dutya % duty -
free Trade -
weighted 
average  dutya 
Australia  Total  1,278.0  23.1 3.8 100 0 
Ag 77.9 83.3 0.8 100 0 
Non-Ag 1,200.0  19.2 4.0 100 0 
Canada  Total  3,473.4  16.5 14.4 100 0 
Ag 135.7  90.5 0.7 100 0 
Non-Ag 3,337.7  13.5 15.0 100 0 
Chile  Total  405.1  0 6.0 100 0 
Ag 2.1 0 6.0 100 0 
Non-Ag 403.0  0 6.0 100 0 
China  b Total  53,124.1  70.6 2.1 93.3 1.1 
Ag 2,128.9  0.6 21.2 61.1 14.8 
Non-Ag 50,995.1  73.5 1.3 94.6 0.5 
European 
Union  Total  46,342.3  23.4 8.6 99.7  0 
Ag 3,691.8  42.0 2.8 95.9  0 
Non-Ag 42,650.5  21.8 8.9 100  0 
Hong Kong, 
China  Total  1,599.9  100 0   
Ag 42.2 100 0   
Non-Ag 1,557.7  100 0   
India  c Total  10,449.9  24.9 8.3 94.9 1.6 
Ag 3,343.3  5.5 15.9 91.2 4.7 
Non-Ag 7,106.6  34.0 4.6 96.7 0.1 
 
11 The EU provides full duty -free access to the LDC beneficiaries for agricultural products; however, from 
Table 4, it can be seen that four agricultural products entered the EU market with import duties. This is due to 
the temporary re-introduction of duties on rice from Cambodia and Myanmar.  
See https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_19_427  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 25 - 
 
  Market  Sector  Imports 
(million 
USD)  MFN scheme  LDC scheme  
% duty -
free Trade -
weighted 
average  dutya % duty -
free Trade -
weighted 
average  dutya 
Japan  Total  6,196.4  24.6 6.5 98.3 0.1 
Ag 440.2  90.7 0.8 100 0 
Non-Ag 5,756.2  19.5 7.0 98.2 0.1 
Kazakhstan  Total  71.8 29.7 2.1 38.9 1.0 
Ag 4.8 10.8 4.3 100 0 
Non-Ag 67.0 31.1 1.7 34.5 1.2 
Korea, 
Republic of  Total  2,788.7  21.0 8.1 91.2 1.4 
Ag 203.4  0.7 20.5 68.7 13.5 
Non-Ag 2,585.2  22.6 7.2 92.9 0.6 
Kyrgyz 
Republic  Total  4.5 0.4 12.5 0.8 12.3 
Ag 0 19.1 3.6 63.2 0.2 
Non-Ag 4.5 0.3 12.9 0.3 12.9 
Macao, China  Total  25.1 100 0   
Ag 3.7 100 0   
Non-Ag 21.4 100 0   
Montenegro  Total  8.9 0.8 9.5 98.0 0.2 
Ag 0.1 45.6 9.7 98.1 0.1 
Non-Ag 8.8 0.3 9.5 98 0.2 
Morocco  b Total  256.8  0 12.1 30.7 7.8 
Ag 103.1  0 7.8 64.3 1.5 
Non-Ag 153.7  0 14.9 8.2 12.1 
New Zealand  Total  164.6  18.1 7.9 100 0 
Ag 12.7 88.1 0.6 100 0 
Non-Ag 151.9  12.3 8.5 100 0 
Norway  Total  769.0  51.7 6.8 100 0 
Ag 29.2 62.1 62.8 100 0 
Non-Ag 739.7  51.3 4.8 100 0 
Singapore  Total  3,193.8  100 0   
Ag 90.2 99.3 0   
Non-Ag 3,103.6  100 0   
Switzerland  Total  6,285.6  81.3 n.a. 100 0 
Ag 159.6  53.2 n.a. 100 0 
Non-Ag 6,126.0  82.0 n.a. 100 0 
Chinese 
Taipei  Total  760.9  63.9 3.8 68.1 3.6 
Ag 71.2 43.8 6.9 43.9 6.9 
Non-Ag 689.7  65.9 3.5 70.6 3.3 
Thailand  Total  9,184.4  84.1 4.3 92.8 2.3 
Ag 710.0  5.5 41.1 70.4 20.3 
Non-Ag 8,474.4  90.7 1.4 94.7 0.8 
Turkey  Total 1,100.9  39.5 8.0 76.2 4.1 
Ag 323.7  21.0 13.7 21.1 13.7 
Non-Ag 777.2  47.2 5.6 99.1 0.1 
United 
States  Total  18,030.1  13.6 12.7 33.0 11.4 
Ag 973.8  87.4 0.5 98.5 0.1 
Non-Ag 17,056.3  9.4 13.4 29.3 12.1 
 
a Excludes non -ad valorem duties, except for the USA where ad  valorem equivalents are provided  
b 2018 
c 2016 
Source:  WTO-Integrated DataBase (IDB).  
4.8.  Under MFN conditions, less than 1% of imports from LDCs would be duty -free in Chile, the 
Kyrgyz Republic, Montenegro and Morocco; under their respective LDC schemes, however, these 
shares climb to above 30% for Morocco and ab ove 97% for Chile and Montenegro. On average, 
imports originating from LDCs would face an MFN duty higher than 10% in Canadian, Kyrgyz, 
Moroccan and the U nited States'  markets. These figures are lower under the LDC scheme; in the 
case of Canada, for exampl e, reducing from 14.4% under MFN to 0% under the LDC scheme. For WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 26 - 
 
  agricultural products, the MFN weighted average tariff is above 60% for Norway and around 40% 
for the Thai market, while under the LDC scheme it drops to 0% for Norway and to 20% for Thailand .  
4.9.  Taking into account LDC preferential schemes, all the imports from UN -LDCs would be eligible 
to duty -free access in Australia, Canada, Chile, New Zealand, Norway, and Switzerland; for the 
European  Union , Japan and Montenegro the share is above 97%. Less  than a third of imports from 
UN-LDCs can enjoy duty -free access in the Kyrgyz Republic, Morocco, and the United  States .  
4.2  Duty -free market access by product groups  
4.10.  The measurement of the  extent to which LDC exports enter global markets duty -free is used 
in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as adopted by the United Nations in 
2015. The SDG indicator 10.a.1 measures  the "proportion of tariff lines applied to imports from least 
developed countries […] with zero -tariff".12 In other  words, the indicator allows to observe how many 
distinct products – in terms  of national tariff lines – that are exported by LDCs, are duty-free at 
export destination s. 
4.11.  Complementing the statistics by Members in the previous subchapter, Chart 20 presents the 
proportion of products that face duty -free treatment when exported to the world  by product groups . 
Only products which are actually traded are taken into account. The information is detailed by 
22 product categories .13 The chart shows , for example , that more than 80% of traded cotton 
products enjoy being exempted from tariffs globally .   
Chart 20: Share of LDC exported products under  duty-free treatment, 2005 and 2019  
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  SDG portal, http://sdgtrade.org , indicator 10.a.1, September 2021.  
4.12.  Overall, Chart 20 shows that the proportion of traded products enjoying duty -free market 
access in 2019 has substantially increased since 2005, the year of the adoption of the Hong Kong 
Ministerial Decision on duty -free and quota -free (DFQF) market access for LDC products.14 The 
product category summarizing "all products" indicates that less than half, i.e.  48%, of exported 
products, enjoyed duty -free market access in 2005; this proportion has moved up to 66% in 2019. 
The chart also reveals that there are significant differ ences across product categories, with on the 
 
12 See UN Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017 (A/RES/71/313), 
https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313  
13 These product categories used in the Multilateral Trade Negotiations (MTN) were first defined in the 
Tokyo Round and adapted for the Harmonized System in the Uruguay Round . For further information please 
consult the World Tariff Profiles 2021, https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/tariff_profiles21_e.pdf , 
product categories defined on page 41 -42. 
14 See WT/MIN(05)/DEC  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 27 - 
 
  one hand only very marginal increases in the product groups "animal products" or "clothing", and 
on the other hand significant increases of duty -free exported products in categories such as 
"petroleum" and "tran sport equipment".  
4.13.  In the last years, major preference -granting members have not granted significant additional 
market access to exports from LDCs, as many developed countries implement already full or close 
to full duty -free quota -free market access. As a result, the proportion of products exported by LDCs 
that receive duty -free treatment has remained relatively flat since 2015. For some products of 
particular interest to LDCs and developing countries, such as clothing, changes in this share have 
been modes t. 
4.14.  Chart  21 complements the analysis by presenting – in addition to the share of duty -free 
exported products – the share of duty -free lines with regard to all products in a given product 
category, irrespective of whether they have been traded by LDCs or no t. This decomposition allows 
to depict two measurements for each category: The measure on the left side depicts the proportion 
of products that could potentially enjoy duty -free market access; on the right side the measure 
represents the proportion of trad ed products that are actually exempted from customs duties when 
entering the partner economy. For example, less than half of all cotton products enjoy duty -free 
market access worldwide, however, when narrowing the analysis to cotton products that are 
expor ted by LDCs, this ratio reaches 86%. On the other extreme are clothing products, an example 
how some Members exclude certain products from DFQF market access : overall, less than a 25% of 
clothing products received duty -free treatment in 2019, while 45% of LDC exported products 
received duty -free market access.   
Chart 21: Share of duty -free products from LDCs, 2019  
(Percentage shares)  
 
Source:  SDG portal, http://sdgtrade.org , indicator 10.a.1, Sept ember 2021.  
 
  
WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 28 - 
 
  4.3  Recent initiatives to improve market access for LDCs  
4.15.  Regarding market access in goods, Annex Table  6 provides a non -exhaustive list of major 
non-reciprocal preferential market access schemes undertaken by Members in favour of LDCs. It 
updates the previous year's information based on Members' notifications at the WTO as well as 
submissions made to the WTO's Integrated Data Base (IDB). The  table does  not include regional or 
bilateral initiatives under which, too, LDCs receive preferences.  
4.16.  Since the last report, three new  notification s have been received. These concern the 
GSP scheme of the United  Kingdom, the extension of Japan's GSP scheme, and the n otification by 
Kazakhstan on behalf of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) of amendments to the lists of 
beneficiary countries of the EAEU's Common System of Tariff Preferences.  
4.17.  In February 202 1, the United  Kingdom notified its GSP scheme, which entered int o force on 
1 January 2021, broadly replicating the market access available to developing countries under the 
EU GSP (WT/COMTD/PTA4/N/1). The Least Developed Country Framework (LDCF) provides 
DFQF  market access to LDCs, except for arms and ammunition. The d uty-free tariff line coverage 
offered by the United  Kingdom to LDCs is 99.8%.  
4.18.  In June 2021, Japan notified the extension of its GSP Scheme until 31  March 2031 
(WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.17). The product coverage, preferential tariff rates and preferential rules of 
origin remain unchanged. The duty -free tariff line coverage offered by Japan to LDCs is 97.8%.  
4.19.  In June 2021, Kazakhstan  notified amendments to the lists of developing and least developed 
beneficiary countries of the EAEU's Common System of Tariff Preferenc es 
(WT/COMTD/PTA3/N/1/Add.1). The list of LDC beneficiaries no longer includes Vanuatu, which 
graduated from the LDC category  in 2020. Equatorial Guinea, which graduated in 2017, has not 
been included in the developing beneficiary countries list.15 
4.20.  In July  2021, the WTO Secretariat issued a factual presentation of Thailand's DFQF scheme 
(WT/COMTD/PTA5/1) in accordance with the Transparency Mechanism for Preferential Trade 
Arrangements (WT/L/806). The DFQF scheme for LDCs, which entered into force in April 2 015, 
expired on 31 December 2020.16 Thailand's DFQF scheme applied a single origin criterion, without 
product -specific rules. The minimum value that needed to be added in an LDC for a good to qualify 
for preferential treatment was 50%. The DFQF coverage am ounted to 71% of Thailand's total tariff 
schedule.  
4.21.  As has been reported in the past, most of the developed Members grant either full or 
nearly -full DFQF market access. Developing Members, namely Chile, China, India, Republic of Korea, 
Chinese Taipei, and T hailand have made notifications  concerning their respective DFQF schemes for 
LDCs. Most of them grant a significant degree of DFQF market access to LDC products, and a number 
of them have reached nearly -full DFQF coverage for LDCs. The review of DFQF imple mentation 
continues to be a standing item on the agenda of the Committee on Trade and Development.  
4.22.  Members continue to work towards making progress in the implementation of the Nairobi 
Decision on Preferential Rules of Origin for LDCs (WT/L/917/Add.1). At the 91st session of the 
Sub-Committee on LDCs in July 2021, the Secretariat (Market Access Division) provided a report on 
the annual review of developments in preferential rules of origin for LDCs.  At the formal meeting of 
the Committee on Rules of Origin (CRO) on 14 October 2021, recent developments in relation to 
preferential rules of origin for LDCs were reviewed.  
4.23.  Since the last report, one additional Member has submitted a notification on preferential origin 
requirements for LDCs using the notifi cation template (G/RO/84). This submission is related to the 
new GSP  scheme of the United  Kingdom (G/RO/LDC/N/GBR/1), following its withdrawal from the 
European  Union  as of 31 January 2020 (WT/GC/206). Most preference -granting Members have now  
notified the ir preferential origin requirements.17 
 
15 For the full lists  see: 
http://www.eurasiancommission.org/en/act/trade/dotp/commonSytem/Pages/normatBaza.aspx  
16 Necessary domestic procedures have been initiated by the Tha i authorities for the second phase of 
the DFQF scheme for LDCs.  
17 Notifications are submitted under the document series G/RO/LDC/ N. WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 29 - 
 
  4.24.  The European  Union  provided an update of the REX system of self -certification for registered 
exporters at the meetings of the Committee on Rules of Origin (CRO) on 13 November 2020 and on 
20 May 2021.18 At the May 2021 meeting, the representative of the European  Union  informed that 
seven  countries had not introduced the system, including six  LDCs, namely, the Central  African 
Republic , Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Djibouti , Somali a, and  South Sudan . At the 
same meeting, the representative of the United  Kingdom invited Members , in particular LDCs, to 
engage in consultation s with their delegations  to make possible improvements to rules of origin 
associated with its GSP scheme.  
4.25.  Table 7 provides the list of Members that have submitted notifications of their preferential 
treatment to services and services suppliers of LDCs under the LDC Services Waiver.19 Since the last 
report, the number of notifica tions has increased to twenty -five (25) , following the notification of 
the United  Kingdom on 1 January 2021 . The operationalization of the Services Waiver remains a 
standing agenda item of the Council for Trade in Services (CTS). The operat ion of preferences 
notified under the LDC Services Waiv er was reviewed by Members in a meeting  of the CTS on  1 July 
2021.20  
Table 6: Notifications under the LDC Services Waiver  
Notifying Member  Date of notification  References  
Australia  29-May-15 S/C/N/805  
Brazil  04-Nov-15 S/C/N/839  
Canada  14-Dec-15 S/C/N/792/Rev.1  
Chile 08-Oct-15 S/C/N/834  
China  22-Jul-15 S/C/N/809  
European Union  16-Nov-15 S/C/N/840  
Hong Kong, China  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/810  
Iceland  09-Oct-15 S/C/N/835  
India 29-Sep-15 S/C/N/833  
Japan  31-Jul-15 S/C/N/820  
Korea, Rep. of  10-Jul-15 S/C/N/808  
Liechtenstein  30-Nov-15 S/C/N/841  
Mexico  20-Aug-15 S/C/N/821  
New Zealand  28-Jul-15 S/C/N/813  
Norway  25-Jun-15 S/C/N/806  
Panama  4-May-17 S/C/N/890  
Singapore  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/812  
South Africa  02-Dec-15 S/C/N/853  
Switzerland  30-Jul-15 S/C/N/819  
Chinese Taipei  24-Jul-15 S/C/N/811  
Thailand  17-Feb-16 S/C/N/860  
Turkey  14-Jun-16 S/C/N/824/Rev.1  
United Kingdom  1-Jan-21 S/C/N/1038  
United States  03-Sep-15 S/C/N/825  
Uruguay  12-Jan-16 S/C/N/857  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
 
 
18 The Minutes of the meeting of the CRO on 13 November 2020 and 20 May 2021 are contained in 
document G/RO/M/75 and G/RO/M/7 6, respectively . 
19 See 2011 Decision on the Services Waiver (WT/L/847), and subsequent D ecisions taken at the Bali 
(WT/L/918) and Nairobi Ministerial Conferences (WT/L/982)  in 2013 and 2015, respectively.  
20 Document S/C/M/14 6 contains the rep ort of the meeting of the CTS.    
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 30 - ANNEX  
Annex Table 1: Merchandise exports and imports of LDCs by selected country grouping, 20 20 
(Million dollars and percentage)  
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
 2020  2011 -20 2018  2019  2020  2020  2011 -20 2018  2019  2020  
LDCs  180,843  0.6 15.3  -4.1 -9.1 247,539  3.6 11.3  0.8 -11.2  
Exporters of agricultural products  20,197  3.6 11.8  0.6 6.4 49,859  3.5 6.9 -1.5 -2.1 
Afghanistan  732 11.0  21.1  -1.3 -15.3  7,171  0.4 4.8 -8.5 5.8 
Benin  2,316  10.1  50.9  -8.8 -24.1  3,263  7.1 25.2  -10.1  -17.0  
Burkina Faso  4,372  3.8 13.2  -0.5 35.0  4,117  6.6 11.4  -0.4 -3.9 
Burundi  162 4.8 4.9 -0.2 -9.9 909 1.9 5.1 11.8  2.5 
Central African Republic  125 -3.1 17.1  -10.3  -15.2  602 7.7 24.0  -0.4 -0.2 
Comoros  21 5.4 6.2 -4.9 -47.4  280 -0.5 -3.8 8.7 5.8 
Ethiopia  3,258  -0.6 -10.5  1.4 18.8  13,115  5.6 -2.9 -4.9 -9.9 
Gambia  61 3.4 13.1  -4.7 -54.2  695 6.9 23.5  -8.4 12.0  
Guinea -Bissau  198 0.3 0.0 -26.7  -20.3  285 3.8 -2.3 18.0  -14.9  
Kiribati  9 4.5 -46.3  49.3  -24.1  133 4.1 -7.3 8.3 0.9 
Liberia, Republic of  608 5.0 53.1  -1.0 11.9  1,102  -2.0 5.0 -24.0  26.9  
Malawi  767 -5.4 -0.4 3.7 -16.0  2,820  2.2 6.3 8.7 -4.1 
Rwanda  1,408  13.1  8.2 10.6  13.4  2,542  3.0 11.4  7.9 -4.4 
Sao Tomé and Principe  14 2.2 5.7 -18.0  5.9 136 1.1 0.9 -0.4 -7.7 
Solomon Islands  366 1.2 13.9  -19.0  -20.6  477 2.6 5.2 -1.9 -19.2  
Somalia  360 -1.3 0.0 -2.1 -23.4  1,170  -0.5 1.7 -3.4 1.7 
Timor -Leste  264 35.9  92.7  239.7  71.4  625 7.1 -6.2 13.6  5.9 
Togo  1,008  -1.4 6.3 -2.3 -4.4 2,166  -0.5 12.9  -1.2 3.6 
Uganda  4,149  6.1 6.4 12.6  19.3  8,251  3.3 20.3  11.7  9.7 
Fuel exportersa 46,546  -5.8 16.1  -6.3 -26.6  49,289  0.6 3.6 2.5 -13.3  
Angola  20,937  -7.9 17.8  -14.8  -39.7  9,543  -3.9 9.2 -10.6  -32.4  
Bhutan  651 0.0 5.7 11.4  -3.4 899 -0.7 1.8 -6.3 -8.4 
Chad  2,623  -4.9 20.6  1.4 -18.1  2,675  -2.3 37.8  4.6 0.3 
Myanmar  16,692  8.7 20.4  7.7 -7.3 17,947  8.4 0.5 -4.0 -3.4 
South Sudan  636 - 26.4  1.4 -60.6  988 - -6.9 24.1  23.8  
Sudan  3,803  -11.8  -15.2  7.4 1.8 9,838  0.1 -14.1  18.3  5.9 
Yemen  1,204  -21.2  9.2 5.7 -16.1  7,399  -0.9 15.9  26.7  -28.9  
Manufacture exporters  55,273  6.8 10.3  3.3 -8.0 89,796  6.2 16.8  0.4 -12.1   
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 31 -   Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
 2020  2011 -20 2018  2019  2020  2020  2011 -20 2018  2019  2020  
Bangladesh  33,605  6.1 9.5 0.2 -14.6  52,804  5.6 14.5  -2.3 -10.6  
Cambodia  17,215  10.4  12.6  16.7  16.1  19,131  9.0 22.4  16.0  -5.7 
Haiti  721 5.8 10.1  11.3  -39.9  2,971  4.6 24.0  -6.4 -34.2  
Lesotho  888 -1.2 18.8  -12.9  -16.5  1,811  -2.4 5.8 -7.7 -10.2  
Madagascar  1,987  6.8 9.2 -13.3  -26.3  3,224  3.4 10.6  -2.9 -18.2  
Nepal  856 0.6 5.9 23.1  -11.6  9,856  8.8 22.9  -2.9 -20.1  
Exporters of non -fuel mineralsb 51,976  4.2 21.2  -13.0  7.6 47,323  2.5 13.6  1.0 -16.0  
Congo, Dem. Rep. of  14,122  9.2 62.7  -33.1  5.5 6,663  5.4 36.7  11.3  -24.5  
Eritrea  556 7.5 14.8  14.8  -27.6  976 2.1 3.8 7.6 -14.8  
Guinea  5,595  13.5  -13.4  -0.8 41.8  3,374  5.7 -2.8 2.5 -2.8 
Lao People's Dem. Rep.  6,115  13.0  11.0  7.4 5.3 5,370  11.2  11.4  -0.7 -14.4  
Mali  3,923  5.6 23.7  2.6 6.8 4,877  4.9 10.2  8.7 -5.0 
Mauritania  2,830  -2.4 3.1 10.5  24.9  2,745  4.0 -9.6 10.6  -22.0  
Mozambique  3,589  3.3 6.1 -6.9 -23.1  6,471  1.8 20.9  7.0 -12.9  
Niger  998 -1.3 -0.3 -6.4 -11.4  2,378  0.7 16.9  2.0 2.2 
Sierra Leone  368 7.4 -2.3 11.8  -40.6  1,257  -0.9 4.1 16.4  -20.3  
Tanzania  6,061  0.7 -1.7 23.8  21.1  7,889  -1.5 9.9 3.6 -16.5  
Zambia  7,819  -3.0 12.9  -22.0  10.9  5,323  0.0 18.5  -24.1  -25.9  
Diversified and othersc 6,851  15.2  16.2  14.4  -16.2  11,271  7.5 13.2  5.2 -8.5 
Djibouti  2,921  60.1  11.4  13.5  -26.9  3,425  26.2  0.8 14.9  -17.2  
Senegal  3,929  6.4 21.2  15.3  -6.0 7,812  3.6 20.0  0.9 -4.1 
Tuvalu  0.05  1.4 -11.0  51.1  -82.9  34 2.0 -4.3 28.1  3.9 
Worldd 17,105,494  0.4 10.4  -2.6 -7.5 17,391,273  0.5 10.4  -2.7 -7.7 
 - not applicable  
a Includes  exporters of electricity (Bhutan).  
 b Includes  exporters of gold (normally classified in n.e.s. according to the UN Standard International Trade Classification) and diamond s (normally  included in  
 manufactures according to the UN classification).  
 c Includes  exporters without a clear specialization in a specific category of goods.  
 d Excluding  re-exports of Hong Kong, China; including EU -intra trade.  
 Source:  WTO-UNCTAD estimates .  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 32 - Annex Table 2: Indices of Market Prices for Non -Fuel and Fuel Commodities, 2016 -2021Q2 
(Indices 2016 = 100)  
  2016  2017  2018  2019  2020  2020  
    Q3               Q4  2021  
Q1               Q2  
            Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 
Non-Fuel commodities  100 106 108 109 116 118 126 138 152 
Agriculture  100 103 102 99 100 98 106 117 128 
Food  100 104 103 99 101 99 108 119 133 
Cereals  100 101 115 110 119 116 133 155 171 
Wheat  100 102 130 114 130 128 147 165 176 
Maize  100 97 103 107 104 98 121 151 181 
Rice 100 103 104 102 123 124 122 134 120 
Barley  100 104 107 113 107 105 110 137 183 
Oats 100 128 130 146 151 144 156 185 194 
Sorghum  100 104 108 104 130 124 181 220 248 
Vegetable oils  100 101 95 91 99 99 117 142 152 
Soybeans  100 99 94 90 97 95 115 141 152 
Palm oil  100 101 88 82 104 104 129 151 160 
Rapeseed oil  100 106 101 104 108 112 117 137 153 
Soybean me al 100 100 107 96 100 95 122 134 126 
Sunflower oil  100 94 89 88 105 106 131 171 180 
Olive oil  100 114 98 80 66 75 50 95 109 
Soybean oil  100 102 91 90 96 96 112 147 194 
Meat 100 110 107 112 103 99 106 115 147 
Beef 100 108 103 118 113 112 107 114 133 
Swine meat  100 109 100 104 94 88 110 121 175 
Poultry  100 119 127 127 127 123 125 140 161 
Lamb  100 113 118 107 89 80 91 101 126 
Seafood  100 105 103 95 86 80 79 87 98 
Fish 100 104 105 97 85 79 75 89 106 
Shrimp  100 106 99 92 86 81 86 84 84 
Sugar  100 89 70 71 74 71 83 91 95 
Free market  100 87 68 68 71 68 81 90 93 
United States  100 101 92 95 98 98 103 107 117 
Vegetables (tomato)  100 112 111 110 114 99 120 132 148 
Non-Citrus fruit (apple)  100 107 118 109 114 129 120 119 123 
Oranges  100 91 89 63 68 70 71 68 68 
Groundnuts and tree nuts  100 108 114 103 108 108 109 110 112 
Bananas  100 107 115 114 121 125 114 123 123 
Dairy products (milk)  100 108 99 114 121 137 135 108 109 
Legumes (chickpea)  100 78 56 58 57 58 65 63 71  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 33 -   2016  2017  2018  2019  2020  2020  
    Q3               Q4  2021  
Q1               Q2  
Fishmeal  100 82 95 88 91 91 91 97 104 
Beverages  100 95 88 84 87 88 87 92 97 
Coffee  100 102 89 84 89 92 90 96 106 
Arabica  100 93 84 84 95 99 96 103 113 
Robusta  100 110 94 85 83 86 85 89 99 
Cocoa beans  100 70 79 81 82 80 81 84 82 
Tea 100 126 104 93 88 87 88 89 83 
Agricultural raw materials /2  100 105 107 102 98 95 107 112 117 
Timber /2  100 98 104 102 103 101 105 107 116 
Hardwood  100 96 99 96 97 98 100 102 102 
Sawn wood  /2 100 95 99 94 95 96 98 102 103 
Logs /2  100 97 98 100 102 102 104 103 99 
Softwood  100 100 108 107 108 104 110 111 127 
Sawn wood  /2 100 98 106 109 107 103 107 108 127 
Logs /2  100 104 116 102 110 107 120 123 129 
Cotton  100 113 123 105 97 94 105 122 124 
Rubber  100 122 95 101 107 106 143 142 135 
Wool 100 118 149 133 87 72 85 98 103 
Fine 100 129 150 128 88 73 90 106 114 
Coarse  100 107 149 137 86 70 80 90 92 
Hides  100 92 79 53 44 37 50 57 67 
All fertilizers  100 97 112 109 99 97 100 137 153 
Nitrogen  100 100 124 116 109 107 110 167 191 
Phosphate  100 102 120 100 93 94 104 147 171 
Potassium  100 87 88 104 89 83 83 83 83 
All metals  100 112 116 124 142 151 158 172 188 
Base metals  100 122 130 135 140 147 163 194 225 
Copper  100 127 134 124 127 134 148 174 199 
Iron ore  100 122 120 160 185 200 225 282 340 
Aluminium  100 123 131 112 106 107 120 130 150 
Nickel  100 109 137 145 144 149 166 184 181 
Zinc 100 138 140 122 109 112 126 131 140 
Molybdenum  100 111 163 178 137 121 140 178 217 
Uranium  100 83 93 98 111 118 112 109 116 
Lead 100 124 120 107 98 101 102 108 114 
Tin 100 112 112 104 96 99 105 140 173 
Cobalt  100 219 286 130 124 124 127 180 180 
Precious metals  100 102 102 113 144 155 154 150 153 
Gold 100 101 102 112 142 153 150 144 146 
Silver  100 100 92 95 120 143 143 154 156  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 34 -   2016  2017  2018  2019  2020  2020  
    Q3               Q4  2021  
Q1               Q2  
Platinum  100 96 89 88 90 92 95 118 120 
Palladium  100 142 168 251 358 354 383 392 455 
Energy  100 124 158 130 91 90 104 142 157 
Spot crude /3  100 124 157 144 96 97 100 134 152 
Natural gas  100 116 147 93 71 63 109 147 152 
Netherlands TTF  100 132 182 102 73 62 118 151 204 
LNG - Northeast Asia /4  100 97 132 73 59 47 110 153 134 
Henry Hub  100 119 127 103 81 80 98 137 117 
Coal 100 133 157 114 95 80 105 137 161 
Australian, export markets  100 134 162 117 88 74 96 133 159 
South African export markets  100 131 152 111 101 86 113 141 162 
Propane  100 158 181 112 95 102 118 186 180 
 
1/ Weights based on 2014 -2016 average world export earnings.  
2/ Provisional  
3/ Average Petroleum Spot Price (APSP). Average of U.K. Brent, Dubai, and West Texas Intermediate, equally weighted.  
4/ Argus Media Group  
Source:  IMF commodity prices .  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 35 - Annex Table 3: Imports from LDCs by major markets and product groups, 2011-2020 
(Million dollars and percentage)  
  All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining p roducts  Manufactures  
Regions * and major markets  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
  2011  2020 2020 2020 2011 -
2020 2011  2020 2020 2020 2011 -
2020 2011  2020 2020 2020 2011 -
2020 2011  2020 2020 2020 2011 -
2020 
Africa  9664  6443  100 -24 -4 1771  2177  34 -14 2 5800  2543  39 -35 -9 2043  1717  27 -14 -2 
South Africa  3761 1505 100 -39 -10 259 269 18 -1 0 2981 731 49 -52 -14 521 504 33 -25 0 
Mali (2017)  1045 1137 100 … 1 62 87 8 … 6 739 763 67 … 1 244 286 25 … 3 
Kenya (2010)  341 677 100 -22 7 178 411 61 -27 9 51 43 6 -35 -2 112 219 32 -1 7 
Côte d'Ivoire  414 595 100 24 4 337 389 65 1 2 15 141 24 291 29 58 65 11 12 1 
Nigeria (2019)  552 573 100 … 0 181 116 20 … -5 34 414 72 … 37 338 42 7 … -23 
Egypt  664 547 100 -37 -2 205 260 48 -39 3 438 237 43 -36 -7 21 50 9 -30 10 
Zambia  1442 228 100 -59 -19 22 25 11 11 2 1153 100 44 -73 -24 267 103 45 -38 -10 
Malawi (2019)  233 213 100 4 -1 89 86 41 … 0 13 9 4 … -5 130 117 55 … -1 
Morocco  91 201 100 -38 9 75 114 57 -1 5 1 23 12 -82 50 15 63 31 -15 17 
United Rep. of Tanzania (2018)  170 174 100 … 0 74 72 41 … -1 45 20 11 … -11 51 83 47 … 7 
Sudan (2018)  284 170 100 … -7 46 97 57 … 11 139 3 2 … -43 56 70 41 … 3 
Senegal  75 133 100 34 7 3 80 61 279 46 34 31 24 -41 -1 38 21 16 45 -7 
Ghana  320 132 100 -63 -9 147 71 54 -51 -8 8 11 8 -90 4 166 50 38 -47 -13 
Ethiopia  172 106 100 15 -5 24 62 59 32 11 132 16 15 -50 -21 16 27 26 120 7 
Mauritius  98 54 100 -37 -7 70 36 66 -46 -7 18 0 0 -62 -45 11 18 33 -9 6 
Americas  36558  23873  100 -5 -5 940 1376  6 -10 4 23317  1648  7 -40 -26 11774  19902  83 -2 6 
North America  34128  22593  100 -2 -4 866 1323  6 -11 5 21299  1067  5 -35 -28 11435  19257  85 -1 6 
USA 28761  18266  100 -3 -5 722 1145 6 -8 5 18581  733 4 -47 -30 9376 16067  88 2 6 
Canada  4919 3742 100 8 -3 112 178 5 -22 5 2583 334 9 42 -20 1782 2646 71 -12 4 
Mexico  448 585 100 -22 3 32 0 0 -99 -43 135 0 0 - -100 277 544 93 -23 8 
South and Central America  2431  1280  100 -38 -7 74 53 4 8 -4 2018  581 45 -49 -13 339 645 50 -27 7 
Brazil  782 486 100 -31 -5 30 12 3 -15 -9 556 283 58 -32 -7 196 190 39 -29 0 
Uruguay  7 244 100 -47 48 1 2 1 13 5 1 213 87 -50 77 5 29 12 1 22 
Chile 738 243 100 -40 -12 1 20 8 29 41 706 76 31 -62 -22 32 147 61 -24 19 
Peru 726 102 100 -47 -20 1 2 2 -55 12 713 0 0 -100 -66 13 101 98 -17 25 
Colombia  31 95 100 -36 13 6 3 3 -69 -10 0 1 1 781 14 25 91 96 -34 16 
Argentina  44 58 100 -26 3 6 7 11 485 0 0 8 14 -62 42 37 43 74 -23 2 
Costa Rica  10 19 100 -26 7 1 0 0 33 -24 3 0 0 5720 -64 7 19 100 -26 12 
Ecuador  57 14 100 -56 -14 11 4 28 155 -11 39 0 0 - -100 7 10 72 -67 5 
El Salvador  20 14 100 -2 -4 13 3 21 186 -15 0 0 0 - - 7 11 79 -16 5 
Guatemala  3 3 100 -57 -2 3 1 37 -38 -10 0 0 0 - -100 1 2 63 -64 13 
Venezuela (2018)  11 0 100 … -54 1 0 0 … -100 0 0 0 … -100 10 0 100 … -54 
Asia and Pacific  88065  83083  100 -11 -1 9384  13999  17 8 5 72673  47824  58 -17 -5 5786  14179  17 -11 10 
China  50999  45489  100 -14 -1 3058 5871 13 6 8 46503  34877  77 -18 -3 1438 3133 7 -2 9  
  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 36 -   All Commodities  Agricultural products  Fuels and mining p roducts  Manufactures  
Regions * and major markets  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  Value  Share 
of 
total  Annual 
percentage 
change  
  2011  2020 2020 2020 2011 -
2020 2011  2020 2020 2020 2011 -
2020 2011  2020 2020 2020 2011 -
2020 2011  2020 2020 2020 2011 -
2020 
India 12063  10188  100 -23 -2 2698 3624 36 9 3 8056 3744 37 -41 -8 1272 1537 15 -30 2 
Thailand  6355 8632 100 1 3 524 1420 16 40 12 5688 5594 65 10 0 143 932 11 -15 23 
Japan  5224 5155 100 -17 0 676 633 12 -14 -1 3131 312 6 -59 -23 1363 4199 81 -11 13 
Singapore  1063 3807 100 19 15 242 106 3 -3 -9 588 597 16 16 0 178 596 16 -2 14 
Rep. of Korea  2745 2551 100 -9 -1 225 366 14 -6 6 2017 1018 40 -7 -7 503 1165 46 -12 10 
Australia  456 1776 100 34 16 49 98 6 -5 8 15 127 7 -36 27 325 957 54 -7 13 
Other Asia, n .e.s. 6228 1258 100 74 -16 131 118 9 -2 -1 6005 907 72 147 -19 91 231 18 -1 11 
China, Hong Kong SAR  450 1243 100 43 12 148 232 19 -11 5 25 2 0 -72 -22 276 623 50 5 9 
Malaysia  695 1028 100 -11 4 490 374 36 9 -3 159 331 32 -22 8 43 319 31 -16 25 
Pakistan  585 920 100 7 5 367 746 81 37 8 192 135 15 -54 -4 25 39 4 80 5 
Indonesia  1049 618 100 -18 -6 701 236 38 -34 -11 275 150 24 -4 -7 72 232 38 6 14 
Philippines  88 253 100 -26 12 58 152 60 -16 11 19 19 8 829 0 9 81 32 -49 28 
New Zealand  65 165 100 0 11 16 21 13 8 3 1 10 6 110 32 48 134 81 -4 12 
Europe and CIS  41913  58298  100 -10 4 6163  5281  9 -6 -2 14040  7179  12 -22 -7 21392  38636  66 -13 7 
European Union  34825  42672  100 -13 2 5018 4299 10 -7 -2 12827  6716 16 -23 -7 16689  31223  73 -12 7 
Switzerland  426 8128 100 29 39 146 158 2 2 1 0 0 0 -19 -25 278 1215 15 9 18 
United Kingdom  5109 4778 100 -22 -1 518 396 8 -5 -3 886 36 1 -5 -30 3682 4337 91 -23 2 
Norway  262 649 100 -16 11 28 81 12 9 13 20 169 26 -10 26 214 399 61 -21 7 
 Ukraine  209 401 100 18 8 57 105 26 44 7 109 145 36 22 3 43 148 37 0 15 
CIS1) 1081  1669  100 -10 5 397 241 14 -9 -5 197 112 7 -7 -6 487 1314  79 -11 12 
Russian Federation  1002 1560 100 -9 5 350 231 15 -2 -5 192 100 6 -1 -7 460 1227 79 -10 12 
Kazakhstan  31 52 100 -28 6 12 3 6 -34 -13 4 9 17 -56 8 15 40 77 -15 12 
Belarus  46 41 100 -30 -1 34 5 12 -79 -19 0 4 9 1130 - 12 33 80 -8 12 
Azerbaijan  1 14 100 -36 30 1 2 15 32 7 … 0 0 - ... 0 12 84 -42 63 
* Regional totals are based on the information available and  may not coincide with aggregated trade figures.  
1) including certain associate and former member States . 
… Not available.  
- Not applicable . 
Source : UN Comtrade database and Trade Data Monitor . WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 37 - 
 
  Annex Table 4: Top 50 exported products of LDCs in 20 20 
(Million dollars and percentage shares)  
HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share 
in world 
exports (%)  
  2011 2020 2011 -2020 2011  2020 2011  2020 
2709 Petroleum oils and oils obtained 
from bituminous minerals, crude.  86,722  23,958  -13.3 45.3 13.6 5.3 3.6 
7108 Gold (including gold plated with 
platinum) unwrought or in semi -
manufactured forms, or in 
powder form.  5,743  14,354  10.7 3.0 8.2 2.7 4.0 
6110 Jerseys, pullovers, cardigans, 
waistcoats and similar articles, 
knitted or crocheted.  5,934  7,849  3.2 3.1 4.5 11.2 17.1 
7403 Refined copper and copper 
alloys, unwrought.  6,670  7,162  0.8 3.5 4.1 8.9 11.6 
6109 T-shirts, singlets and other 
vests, knitted or crocheted.  5,203  7,068  3.5 2.7 4.0 14.9 21.8 
6203 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, 
jackets, blazers, trousers, bib 
and brace overalls, breeches and 
shorts (other than swimwear).  4,916  7,066  4.1 2.6 4.0 11.9 22.4 
6204 Women's or girls' suits, 
ensembles, jackets, blazers, 
dresses, skirts, divided skirts, 
trousers, bib and brace overalls, 
breeches and shorts (other than 
swimwear).  3,043  6,547  8.9 1.6 3.7 5.7 14.9 
7402 Unrefined copper; copper anodes 
for electrolytic refining.  2,280  5,300  9.8 1.2 3.0 24.2 44.1 
2711 Petroleum gases and other 
gaseous hydrocarbons.  7,085  5,033  -3.7 3.7 2.9 1.7 2.1 
6104 Women's or girls' suits, 
ensembles, jackets, blazers, 
dresses, skirts, divided skirts, 
trousers, bib and brace overalls, 
breeches and shorts (other than 
swimwear), knitted or crocheted.  1,607  4,336  11.7 0.8 2.5 8.1 18.7 
2606 Aluminium ores and 
concentrates.  749 3,413  18.3 0.4 1.9 18.3 50.4 
8105 Cobalt mattes and other 
intermediate products of cobalt 
metallurgy; cobalt and articles 
thereof, including waste and 
scrap.  658 2,320  15.0 0.3 1.3 23.2 53.9 
6205 Men's or boys' shirts.  2,164  2,318  0.8 1.1 1.3 14.0 25.8 
4202 Trunks, suitcases , vanity -cases, 
executive -cases, brief -cases, 
school satchels, spectacle cases, 
binocular cases, camera cases, 
musical instrument cases, gun 
cases, holsters and similar 
containers; travelling -bags, 
insulated food or beverages 
bags, toile . 44 2,297  55.1 0.0 1.3 0.1 4.3 
2716 Electrical energy. (optional 
heading) . 805 2,148  11.5 0.4 1.2 2.0 8.2 
1207 Other oil seeds and oleaginous 
fruits, whether or not broken.  862 2,130  10.6 0.4 1.2 21.2 40.8 
9999 Commodities not specified 
according to kind . 496 2,121  17.5 0.3 1.2 0.1 0.5 
2601 Iron ores and concentrates, 
including roasted iron pyrites.  1,904  1,954  0.3 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.3 WT/CO MTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 38 - 
 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share 
in world 
exports (%)  
  2011 2020 2011 -2020 2011  2020 2011  2020 
6202 Women's or girls' overcoats, car -
coats, capes, cloaks, anoraks 
(including ski -jackets), wind -
cheaters, wind -jackets and 
similar articles, other than those 
of heading 62.04.  447 1,889  17.4 0.2 1.1 3.0 12.3 
6108 Women's or girls' slips, 
petticoats, briefs, panties, 
nightdresses, pyjamas, 
negligees , bathrobes, dressing 
gowns and similar articles, 
knitted or crocheted.  741 1,691  9.6 0.4 1.0 6.8 18.9 
6403 Footwear with outer soles of 
rubber, plastics, leather or 
composition leather and uppers 
of leather.  930 1,657  6.6 0.5 0.9 1.7 4.0 
6201 Men's or boys' overcoats, car -
coats, capes, cloaks, anoraks 
(including ski -jackets), wind -
cheaters, wind -jackets and 
similar articles, other than those 
of heading 62.03.  636 1,603  10.8 0.3 0.9 5.5 13.1 
2603 Copper ores and concentrates.  2,239  1,541  -4.1 1.2 0.9 4.3 2.6 
0901 Coffee, whether or not roasted 
or decaffeinated; coffee husks 
and skins; coffee substitutes 
containing coffee in any 
proportion.  2,079  1,492  -3.6 1.1 0.8 5.9 5.2 
6111 Babies' garments and clothing 
accessories, knitted or 
crocheted.  612 1,481  10.3 0.3 0.8 8.5 24.5 
1006 Rice. 389 1,447  15.7 0.2 0.8 1.9 10.0 
0713 Dried leguminous vegetables, 
shelled, whether or not skinned 
or split.  1,169  1,446  2.4 0.6 0.8 13.7 16.9 
6210 Garments, made up of fabrics of 
heading 56.02, 56.03, 59.03, 
59.06 or 59.07.  299 1,413  18.8 0.2 0.8 3.5 6.4 
6103 Men's or boys' suits, ensembles, 
jackets, blazers, trousers, bib 
and brace overalls, breeches and 
shorts (other than swimwear), 
knitted or crocheted.  352 1,324  15.9 0.2 0.8 7.8 17.6 
0801 Coconuts, Brazil nuts and 
cashew nuts, fresh or dried, 
whether or not shelled or peeled.  896 1,310  4.3 0.5 0.7 16.0 16.8 
4001 Natural rubber, balata, gutta -
percha, guayule, chicle and 
similar natural gums, in primary 
forms or in plates, sheets or 
strip. 1,029  1,258  2.3 0.5 0.7 2.6 10.4 
6404 Footwear with outer soles of 
rubber, plastics, leather or 
composition leather and uppers 
of textile materials.  227 1,232  20.7 0.1 0.7 1.4 3.5 
6105 Men's or boys' shirts, knitted or 
crocheted.  1,138  1,122  -0.2 0.6 0.6 13.7 18.9 
6107 Men's or boys' underpants, 
briefs, nightshirts, pyjamas, 
bathrobes, dressing gowns and 
similar articles, knitted or 
crocheted.  388 1,058  11.8 0.2 0.6 6.8 18.9 
7102 Diamonds, whether or not 
worked, but not mounted or set.  1,832  985 -6.7 1.0 0.6 1.2 1.4 WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 39 - 
 
  HS (4 digits)  Product description  Value  Annual 
percentage 
change (%)  Share in LDC 
total exports 
(%) LDCs' share 
in world 
exports (%)  
  2011 2020 2011 -2020 2011  2020 2011  2020 
2401 Unmanufactured tobacco; 
tobacco refuse.  1,489  959 -4.8 0.8 0.5 12.2 13.1 
6206 Women's or girls' blouses, shirts 
and shirt -blouses.  549 950 6.3 0.3 0.5 4.1 9.8 
7601 Unwrought aluminium.  1,107  947 -1.7 0.6 0.5 1.9 2.0 
6212 Brass ieres, girdles, corsets, 
braces, suspenders, garters and 
similar articles and parts thereof, 
whether or not knitted or 
crocheted.  208 902 17.7 0.1 0.5 2.0 10.1 
4403 Wood in the rough, whether or 
not stripped of bark or sapwood, 
or roughly squared.  2,165  872 -9.6 1.1 0.5 11.7 5.8 
6402 Other footwear with outer soles 
and uppers of rubber or plastics.  195 864 18.0 0.1 0.5 0.7 3.9 
6211 Track suits, ski suits and 
swimwear; other garments.  384 827 8.9 0.2 0.5 4.1 8.6 
2701 Coal; briquettes, ovoids and 
similar solid fuels manufactured 
from coal.  131 827 22.7 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.9 
0303 Fish, frozen, excluding fish fillets 
and other fish meat of heading 
03.04.  1,103  700 -4.9 0.6 0.4 4.6 3.7 
2614 Titanium ores and concentrates.  213 691 14.0 0.1 0.4 8.9 29.1 
5201 Cotton, not carded or combed.  1,474  662 -8.5 0.8 0.4 6.1 5.8 
0714 Manioc, arrowroot, salep, 
Jerusalem artichokes, sweet 
potatoes and similar roots and 
tubers with high starch or inulin 
content, fresh, chilled, frozen or 
dried, whether or not sliced or in 
the form of pellets; sago pith.  106 656 22.5 0.1 0.4 4.7 24.1 
6114 Other garments, knitted or 
crocheted.  238 654 11.9 0.1 0.4 4.7 10.9 
0306 Crustaceans, whether in shell or 
not, live, fresh, chilled, frozen, 
dried, salted or in brine; 
crustaceans, in shell, cooked by 
steaming or by boiling in water, 
whether or not chilled, frozen, 
dried, salted or in brine; flours, 
meals and pellets . 911 646 -3.7 0.5 0.4 4.6 2.7 
1202 Groundnuts, not roasted or 
otherwise cooked, whether or 
not shelled or broken.  61 645 30.0 0.0 0.4 2.4 17.7 
Source:  UN Comtrade database  [importer data].  
 WT/CO MTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 40 - 
 
  Annex Table 5: Exports and imports of commercial services of the LDCs, 20 20 
(Million dollars and annual percentage change)  
  Exports  Imports  
  Value  Annual percentage change  Value  Annual percentage change  
  2020 2011-
2020 2018 2019 2020 2020 2011-
2020 2018 2019 2020 
LDCs  27,942  1 15 10 -35 57789  -1 7 -3 -15 
Afghanistan  597 -15 98 -19 18 1,042 -4 10 -12 -10 
Angola  66 -23 -36 -28 -85 5,415 -15 -24 -18 -32 
Bangladesh  3,451 10 31 7 9 8,049 5 12 1 -14 
Benin  410 1 50 5 -20 578 2 11 5 -28 
Bhutan  133 6 13 -8 -20 215 3 9 -6 3 
Burkina Faso  413 1 11 -3 -16 1,572 4 10 -3 8 
Burundi  15 -3 41 -25 -16 197 0 1 15 -21 
Cambodia  1,815 -4 20 12 -69 2,045 5 12 7 -37 
Central African 
Republic  36 8 11 -1 -31 256 3 7 0 -35 
Chad 201 -9 81 3 -28 1,523 -5 95 5 -13 
Comoros  65 0 20 -4 -33 96 -1 15 3 -13 
Democratic Republic 
of the Congo  115 -11 50 42 -9 2,496 -1 73 -20 17 
Djibouti  614 17 7 11 -22 492 15 -20 7 -17 
Eritrea  226 0 1 -1 -8 85 0 7 -5 -39 
Ethiopia  4,318 6 38 3 -7 5,375 5 22 -1 -12 
The Gambia  117 -2 45 9 -46 102 3 -17 -5 6 
Guinea  40 -6 93 -6 -58 1,011 7 6 7 19 
Guinea -Bissau  26 -5 17 8 -35 148 4 7 0 -11 
Haiti 201 -9 36 -26 -59 566 -3 15 -11 -44 
Kiribati  9 -3 -30 25 -8 55 0 -10 -1 0 
Lao People’s 
Democratic Republic  346 -5 27 20 -71 444 4 12 0 -64 
Lesotho  10 -15 -3 -10 -64 341 -3 0 -7 -15 
Liberia  10 -30 -53 6 -2 224 -7 -8 9 3 
Madagascar  626 -7 2 8 -57 650 -7 5 -9 -36 
Malawi  162 8 16 9 -7 275 2 11 12 -18 
Mali 542 4 10 38 -19 1,605 4 5 10 5 
Mauritania  110 -6 -15 9 -11 789 1 -8 16 6 
Mozambique  764 9 19 19 -18 2,384 1 46 -36 -14 
Myanmar  4,332 22 19 46 -33 3,421 14 18 6 -5 
Nepal  830 1 7 2 -45 1,074 4 11 -5 -36 
Niger  206 14 10 5 -13 1,157 3 11 -2 9 
Rwanda  295 -1 9 15 -61 543 1 -1 -3 -40 
Sao Tom é and 
Principe  24 3 3 -34 -51 41 4 -1 -2 -30 
Senegal  758 -3 7 -1 -37 2,327 7 12 10 29 
Sierra Leone  44 -13 -1 -31 -32 403 0 -3 9 0 
Solomon Islands  43 -10 14 -10 -65 129 -4 -3 18 -44 
Somalia  264 … 3 2 -36 1,661 … 2 5 7 
South Sudan  99 - -28 -26 -5 1,118 - 37 37 7 
Sudan  1,226 17 -15 -9 -9 1,198 -9 -20 22 -8 
Tanzania  2,287 0 5 7 -47 1,144 -7 -5 -9 -31 
Timor -Leste  33 3 6 -7 -56 209 -13 9 -7 -35 
Togo 451 0 11 -2 -22 407 -2 8 -4 -9 
Tuvalu  7 8 1 15 -29 21 -5 12 -8 -35 
Uganda  882 -6 16 9 -50 3,004 2 24 5 13 
Yemen  170 -19 14 34 -29 755 -11 9 37 -59 
Zambia  554 -2 10 6 -45 1,150 1 14 -9 -22 
Memorandum item:            
World  4,913,807  1 10 2 -20 4,596,398 1 9 3 -21 
… Not available.  
Note:  Data include preliminary estimates  for 20 20. 
Source:  WTO-UNCTAD  estimates.  WT/COMTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 41 - 
 
  Annex Table 6: Major multilateral non -reciprocal LDC preference schemes undertaken by 
Members, 20 21 or latest available  yeara 
Preference -
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)  b References  
Armenia 
(2016)  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
6 April 2016 43.9%  (electrical machinery, 
chemicals, iron and steel 
products, alcoholic 
beverages)  IDB 
Australia  Duty- and quota -free entry 
for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2003 100%  WT/COMTD/N/18  
Canada  GSP – Least  developed 
Countries' Tariff 
Programme (LDCT)  
Entry into force:  
1 January  2000. Extended 
until 31 December 2024.  98.5% (dairy and other 
animal products, meat, meat 
preparations, cereal products)  WT/COMTD/N/15  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.1  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/15/Add.3  
Chile  DFQF scheme for the LDCs  
Entry into force:  
28 February 2014  99.5% (cereals, sugar, 
milling products)  WT/COMTD/N/44  
WT/COMTD/N/44/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/PTA/2/1  
China  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2010 96.1% (chemicals, transport 
vehicles, machinery and 
mechanical appliances, 
electrical machinery, paper)  WT/COMTD/N/39  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.1/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/39/Add.2  
European 
Union  GSP – Everything But 
Arms (EBA) initiative  
Entry into force:  
5 March  2001 99.8% (arms and 
ammunition)  WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.2  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.6  
WT/COMTD/N/4/Add.7  
Iceland   GSP – Tariff preferences 
for the world’s poorest 
countries  
Entry into force:  
29 January 2002  96.6% (meat, food 
preparations, vegetables, 
dairy and other animal 
products, plants and trees)  WT/COMTD/N/17  
WT/COMTD/N/17/Corr.1  
India (2016)  Duty-Free Tariff Preference 
Scheme (DFTP)  
Entry into force:  
13 August  2008 94.1% (plastics, coffee and 
tea, alcoholic beverages, 
tobacco, food residues)  WT/COMTD/N/38  
WT/COMTD/N/38/Add.1  
Japan  
(2020)  GSP – Enhanced duty - and 
quota -free market access  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007.  
Extended until 
31 March  2031 97.8% (fish and crustaceans, 
footwear, milling products, 
cereal products, sugar)  WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.14  
WT/COMTD/N/2/ Add.15  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.16  
WT/COMTD/N/2/Add.17  
Kazakhstan  
(2019)  GSP – Tariff Treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2010  62.9% (vehicles, machinery, 
beverages, articles of iron 
and steel)  WT/COMTD/PTA3/N/1/Add.1  
IDB 
Korea, 
Republic of  Presidential Decree on 
Preferential Tariff for LDCs  
Entry into force:  
1 January 2000  89.9% (fish and crustaceans, 
mineral fuels, oil seeds and 
oleaginous fruits, wood 
products, vegetables)  WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1  
WT/COMTD/N/12/Rev.1/Add.1  
Kyrgyz 
Republic 
(2020) Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
29 March 2006 57.6% (meat, fruits, 
chemicals, wood and paper, 
machinery)  IDB 
Montenegro  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 January 2017  93.5% (fish and crustaceans, 
alcoholic beverages, meat 
and dairy products)  IDB 
New Zealand  GSP – Tariff Treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
1 July 2001 100%  WT/COMTD/27  WT/CO MTD/LDC/W/69  
 
- 42 - 
 
  Preference -
granting 
Member  Description  Duty -free tariff line 
coverage (and major 
exclusions)  b References  
Norway  
(2020)  GSP – Duty- and quota -
free market access  
Entry into force:  
1 July 2002 100%  WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.5/Corr.1  
WT/COMTD/N/6/Add.6  
Russian 
Federation  
(2020)  GSP scheme in the context 
of the Eurasian Economic 
Union between Armenia, 
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz 
Republic and the Russian 
Federation  
Entry into force: 
10 October 2016  61.2% (transport vehicles, 
machinery and mechanical 
appliances, beverages, iron 
and steel products,  electrical 
machinery, meat products, 
articles of wood ) WT/COMTD/PTA1/N/1  
Switzerland  GSP – Revised Preferential 
Tariffs Ordinance  
Entry into force:  
1 April 2007 100%  WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.3  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/7/Add.5  
Chinese 
Taipei  Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
17 December 2003  32.1% (machinery and 
mechanical appliances, 
chemicals, electrical 
machinery, fish and 
crustaceans, plastics)  WT/COMTD/N/40  
WT/COMTD/N/40/Corr.1  
Tajikistan 
(2017) Duty-free treatment for 
LDCs 
Entry into force:  
25 October 2003  3.7% (Duty -free access 
includes machinery, glass 
products, petroleum 
products)  IDB 
Thailand 
(2020) DFQF scheme for the LDCs  
Entry into force:  
9 April 2015  71.1% (transport vehicles, 
electrical machinery, 
machinery and mechanical 
appliances, iron and steel 
products, apparel and 
clothing)  WT/COMTD/N/46  
Turkey 
(2019) GSP 
Entry into force:  
31 December  2005 78.7% (iron and steel 
products, fish and 
crustaceans, food 
preparations, meat, oil seeds 
and oleaginous fruits)  WT/TPR/S/259/Rev.1  
United 
Kingdom  GSP and DFQF scheme for 
LDCs 99.8% (some arms and 
ammunitions)  WT/COMTD/PTA4/N/1  
United 
States   GSP for least -developed 
beneficiary developing 
countries (LDBDC).  
The Trade Preferences 
Extension Act of 2015 
(Title II) authorizes GSP 
until 31 December 2020  
and makes GSP retroactive 
to 1 January  2018 82.3% (apparel and clothing, 
cotton, fibres, footwear, dairy 
and other animal products)  WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.4  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.7  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.8  
WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.9  
 African Growth and 
Opportunity Act (AGOA)  
Entry into force:  
18 May 2000.  
Extended until 
30 September  2025 
(Title I) 97.0% WT/COMTD/N/1/Add.3  
WT/L/970  
WT/L/10 45  
WT/L/10 45/Corr.1  
a This table represents a non -exhaustive list of non -reciprocal multilateral market access initiatives 
undertaken in favour of LDCs.  
b The duty -free tariff line coverage can slightly differ with the one shown in Table 4 due to different 
reference years. Major exclusions refer to HS Chapter descriptions.  
Source:  WTO Secretariat.  
__________  