WORLD TRADE
ORGANIZATIONG/C/W/463
26 May 2003
(03-2817)
Council for Trade in Goods
SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LITERATURE ON GATT ARTICLE V
Note by the Secretariat
I. INTRODUCTION
The following selective bibliography of literature on GATT Article V has been prepared at
the request of the European Communities. As indi cated in the title, the listing is by no means
comprehensive, but merely represents an illustrative selection of the type of research that has been
carried out in this area.
Section II contains literature on Article V in a more narrow sense, while section III relates to
general transit and transport issues. The references were standardized according to author1, year, title,
publisher and document number (if available).
II. GATT ARTICLE V
Almeen, Ali (1989), "Land-locked States and Int ernational law, with special reference to the
role of Nepal"; South Asian Publishers Pvt.Ltd.
The paper addresses problems of land-locked countries, making special reference to the area of
transit. Chapter V examines the relevant international legal framework and a number of multilateral
initiatives undertaken in this area. With respect to GATT Article V, the study highlights theprovision's lack of any reference to land-locked countries. The author argues that the contracting
parties "regarded freedom of transit less as a rule of law of nations than as a right to be affirmed in
multilateral or bilateral treaties". The study concludes that, while progress has been made in assisting
land-locked countries overcome their specific (transit) problems, much remains to be done.
                                                     
1 Studies commissioned/initiated by international organisations such as UNCTAD or the World Bank
are listed under the author's name, if indicated in the doc ument. Where no particular name is given, the paper is
simply referenced as an "UNCTAD" or "World Bank" document.This document has been prepared under the Secretariat's
own responsibility and without prejudice to the positions of
Members and to their rights and obligations under the WTOG/C/W/463
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Cervenka, Zdenek (1973), "Land-locked Countri es of Africa"; Sweden: The Scandinavian
Institute of African Studies
The book contains a number of papers prepared for a seminar on "Land-locked Countries of Africa"
held in Oslo in September 1972. It addresses several transit and transport issues. An article on "Land-locked African countries and the rights of access to the sea" by Alfred P. Rubin makes a reference to
GATT Article V as a "positive commitment regarding freedom of transit".
Clark, Bryan (1998), "Transit and the Energy Charter Treaty: Rhetoric and Reality"; First
published in the Web Journal of Current Legal Issu es in association with Blackstone Press Ltd.
This paper examines the provisions of the 1994 Energy Charter Treaty (ECT), which seeks to
facilitate freedom of energy transit. An analysis of how freedom of transit is currently ensured under
international law leads the authors to conclude that  it has never been an absolute right. Article V of
the GATT is analysed in relation to Article 7 ECT, which he considers to pursue a "GATT-plus"
approach, since its provisions are found to go be yond those of the GATT in terms of energy transit.
The author notes that it had been questioned whet her the GATT could be applied to the transit of
energy and energy products, given that neither may be able to be considered a "good".  He holds that
"On a strict interpretation of GATT and the Barc elona Convention, it is unlikely these pre-ECT
provisions encompass access to an existing pipeline or electricity grid and certainly not the building of
anew pipeline." He further argues that, although Article V GATT does not expressly include the right
to construct new or additional transit facilities, it could be interpreted in such a manner.
Hare, Christopher and Wong, Jarrod (1995), "A passage through India (and beyond) or a case
of love thy neighbour?"; Leiden journal of international law. 8(2) 1995:311-336
The article examines the right of transit as granted under international law. Reference is made to
GATT Article V as one of the multilateral treaties that support freedom of transit and evidence its
"general customary international law position". The paper shows that Article V (2) of the GATT 1947
was followed in Article 33 of the 1948 Havana Charter for an International Trade Organisation, which
would have addressed more specifically the land-locked countries' right of access to the sea. The
authors call for an enhanced "protection of such (la nd-locked) states by furnishing them transit rights"
and argue that "Not only must international law recognise such rights as existing in one form or
another, but must also provide adequate means of securing them."
International Road Transport Union (2002), "Road Transport Transit, Trade and Tourism
Facilitation, identification of existing barriers"
The document aims at raising awareness of problems with respect to road transport traffic and
suggests ways to overcome them, placing special emphasis on WTO work on this matter. It compiles
initial findings, conclusions, and policy proposals of earlier IRU reports, studies and position papers
regarding barriers in road transit and road transport, making special reference to trade facilitation
aspects. This summary background document is hoped to raise awareness of the challenges and
opportunities provided by the recently launched Doha Round of Trade Negotiations, especially asregards trade facilitation and trade in services. Several problems are identified with regard to GATT
Article V, which, in the authors' view, w ould need to be strengthened and extended.
International Road Transport Union (2003), "Pri ncipes applicables au transit international de
véhicules routiers (document interne établi par le Service juridique du Secrétariat Général del'IRU)"
The paper argues that, while shipping or railway carriage benefit from freedom of transit between the
contracting parties of the 1921 Barcelona Convention, road transport lacked such a far-reachingG/C/W/463
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international law agreement. Both GATT Article V and the New York Convention of 1965 are
considered to have several flaws in the way their deal with road transport. The document analyses the
principles underlying GATT Article V and the New York Convention such as freedom of transit,
MFN treatment or non-discrimination, and argues that they should be applied to road transport.
Moïsé, Evdokia (2003), "Transparency and Simplification approaches to Border Procedures:
Reflections on the Implementation of GATT Article V-Related Proposals in Selected
Countries", OECD, TD/TC/WP(2002)51/FINAL
The paper discusses facilitation approaches to transit procedures, examining which of the measures
suggested by WTO Members to improve or clarify GATT Article V have already been implemented
at the national, regional or international level. The document shows how those proposals may berelated to, or contrast with, policies and prac tices in various OECD and non-OECD countries and
offers some initial reflections on these practices.
Pradhan, Gajendra Mani (1990), "Transit of Land-Locked countries and Nepal", Nirala
Publications
The book analyzes a number of theoretical and practical aspects of the problems faced by land-locked
countries in the context of international law. The author compares the Convention on Transit Trade
and Land-locked States adopted by the United Nations at its 35
th Planetary meetings with GATT
Article V, and concludes that, unlike the Convention, Article V would not reflect the stiffened attitudeof States regarding transit through their territory.
Roggenkamp, Martha M. (1995), "Transit of networkbound energy: a new phenomenon?:
transit examined from the Barcelona Transi t Convention to the Energy Charter Treaty";
World competition: law and economics review.- 19(2) Dec. 1995: 119-146.
This article discusses several international agreemen ts relating to transit, especially as regards
networkbound energy. After analysing GATT Article V's content, the author raises the question of
whether it applied to transit of energy, and more specifically, to transit of networkbound energy. He
concludes that transit provisions of the GATT would also apply to transit of networkbound energy
such as oil, natural gas and electricity, but reminds the reader that "Article V is considered a difficult
and complex Article from which it is hazardous to try to draw conclusions".
Sinjela, A. Mpazi (1982), "Freedom of transit and the right of access for land-locked states: the
evolution of principle and law"; Georgia journal of international law and comparative law.-12
(1):31-52
The article reviews the historic grounds for the claim of land-locked countries for access to the sea,
referring to the 1921 Barcelona Conference, the GATT and the Havana Charter. The author highlights
the fact that the geographic status of these countries places them at a severe disadvantage vis-à-vis
their coastal counterparts, since their access to the sea depended upon their ability to transit through
one or several other countries. In the author's view, the essential legal issue is whether land-lockedcountries had a right of access to and from the sea, or whether such access was merely a privilege. He
notes that, although GATT Article V makes no reference to the situation of land-locked countries, it
reaffirmed the principle of freedom of transit. He concludes that the granting of the widest possible
rights of access was essential for landlocked countries to obtain their goal of economic development
and enhanced living conditions for their peoples.G/C/W/463
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UNCTAD (2002), "Freedom of transit: obligations and implications of Article V of the General
Agreement on Tariff and Trade", UNCTAD/LDC/MISC.84
This document briefly describes how WTO Members have responded to the requirements of Article V
of the GATT 1994. It highlights the notable achievements made in Europe with regard to transitfacilitation and freedom of transit,  but also notes that development of adequate infrastructure,
including upgrading of existing assets, required a degree of financing which exceeded the means of
many developing countries, notably the least developed and landlocked countries. It also points out
that the decline in official development assistance and inadequate private financing had negatively
affected many transit systems, and recommends this trend to be reversed. Furthermore, the paper calls
for greater attention to project design in order to ensure that projects implemented in developing
countries and LDCs were tailor-made to the specific needs of the recipient, taking into account each
country's particular level of economic development
.
UNCTAD (2000), "Trade Facilitation, Transit problems for landlocked developing countries-
an experience from UNCTAD"
This document briefly describes UNCTAD's contribution to alleviating the major transit problems of
land-locked countries. A first part of the document covers general considerations on transit goods,
addressing matters such as the transit cost disadvantage for landlocked countries and their impact on
GATT Article V's objective, regional transit cooperation or the issue of legislative authority, It also
gives an overview on recent recommendations and studies on transit issues in developing countries.
The remaining part of the document focuses on UNCTAD's role in the search for practical solutions tothe transit issues of landlocked countries through studies and information technology developments.
Finally, the papers provides examples of UNCTAD's technical assistance activities regarding transit
issues.
UN/ECE (1998), "Harmo nization of requirements concerning  international road transport and
facilitation of its operation - Development of prov isions on the facilitation of international road
transport transmitted by the International Road Transport Union (IRU)", TRANS/SC.1/1998/6
It the context of efforts to draft a consolidated resolution on the facilitation of international road
transport, GATT Article V is examined in terms of how (and to what extent) it ensures freedom of
transit, non-discrimination, exemption from customs or  transit duties, contribution to costs, formalities
and MFN treatment.
III. GENERAL TRANSIT AND TRANSPORT ISSUES
Audigé, Michel (1995), "Maritime Transport Serving West and Central African Countries:
Trends and Issues", The World Bank, SSATP Working Paper N° 16
The paper provides an overview of trends and deve lopments in maritime transport in the Western and
Central African region. It argues that cost and quality of transport services available to African
shippers, which had not followed the global trend towards cheaper, more rapid and customized
services, were an important reason for Africa's declining role in world trade over the last 25 years.
The author highlights the importance of ports in this process, noting that poor road conditions
hindering transport between places of production a nd ports added to overland travel times, thereby
raising the overall transaction costs. He notes that EDI had become a vital component in modern
logistic chains and stresses that cumbersome cust oms procedures would add to the time cargo had to
spend in ports, often also requiring additional payments. It is held that a possible way to improve theG/C/W/463
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competitiveness of a country's international trade was to increase the quality of international transport
while minimizing associated costs. In addition, it would be essential to reduce any possible
transaction cost in adapting commercial practices to international standards, and to remove any
unnecessary trade barriers within the economical, social and political context of a country.
Cabanius, Philippe and Bouaphanh, Kammou ne (2001), "Review of Progress in the
Development of Transit Transport Systems in South-East Asia", UNCTAD, UNCTAD/LDC/110
The study analyses developments of transit transport systems in the South–East Asian region, with a
special focus on Lao, identifying areas of progress as well as remaining barriers. The paper reviews
existing customs procedures for transit traffic and documentation requirements for imports and
exports, and examines a number of bilateral and multilateral transit transport agreements of specialrelevance to the region.
Castellon, René Pena (2001), "Review of recent progress in the development of transit transport
systems in Latin America"; UNCTAD, UNCTAD/LDC/113
The paper gives an overview of recent developments of transportation facilities and services in the
Latin American region, with a focus on the situation in Bolivia and Paraguay. It highlights problems
and offers recommendations for improvement. Deficient road networks, inadequate productive
investments in infrastructure, and the pace of Customs administration reforms are identified as key
problems. With respect to possible improvements, th e reports refers to a strengthened public-private
sector partnership and a focus on education in the transport field.
Creightney, Cavelle (1991), "The Macro-Economic Framework for Transport Policy in Africa";
Brussels: Infrastructure Division Technical Department, Africa Region, The World Bank
The paper offers an overview of the overall fr amework under which policy makers and planners will
have to address transport issues over the coming decade. It briefly outlines the key tasks for the
various sub-sectors and identifies cross-cutting policy goals with clear linkages to broader
development objectives.
Creightney, Cavelle (1993) "Transport and econ omic performance : a survey of developing
countries", The World Bank,  World Bank technical paper n° WTP 232
This document is the first SSATP publication which addresses the relationship between transport and
economic performance and considers the implications of these linkages for sector policy. It reviews
the existing literature on the linkages between transport and economic performance in developing
countries and identifies some areas where policy interventions need rethinking. The paper' s findingsshould provide the basis for developing policies which are fully aware of the role of transport and
other infrastructure investments in promoting economic development.
Clark, Ximena, Dollar David a nd Micco, Alejandro (2002), "Maritime transport costs and port
efficiency", The World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper Series ; no. WPS 2781
The paper notes that recent literature had emphasized the importance of transport costs and
infrastructure in explaining trade, access to ma rkets, and increases in per capita income. For most
Latin American countries transport costs were a greater barrier to U.S. markets than import tariffs.
The authors investigate the determinants of the cost s of shipping to the United States using a large
database (more than 300,000 observations a year) on shipments of products at the six-digit level of the
Harmonized System of classificati on from different ports around the world. They find that distance
and containerization matter and that port efficiency is an important factor. The paper argues that
improving the efficiency of a port from the 25th to the 75th percentile reduced shipping costs by 12G/C/W/463
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percent. It shows that on average, having bad po rts was equivalent to being 60 percent further away
from markets. Inefficient ports are also shown to increase handling costs. Finally, the authors try to
explain variations in port efficiency, finding that such variations are linked to excessive regulation,
the prevalence of organized crime, and the general condition of the country's infrastructure.
Castro, de, Carlos F. (1996),  "Trade and Transport Facilitation – Review of Current Issues and
Operational Experience", The World Bank/UNCTAD, SSATP Working Paper N° 27
This joint World Bank/UNCTAD paper proposes ways to improve a country's competitiveness by
increasing the quality and reducing the associated costs of international transport as well as possible
transaction costs, adapting commercial practices to international standards and removing unnecessary
trade barriers within the economic, social and political context of that country. The coherentimplementation of these measures is held to require a trade and transport facilitation program that
covered the systematic rationalization of procedures, information flows and documentation related to
a country's trade and transport conditions. Efficient operation of transport modes and interface
facilities through reducing physical barriers and institutional  interference as well as the simplification
of legal regimes is identified as necessary for improving international transport operations. The authoralso shows that there is a need for overall structural changes covering new trade and transport
policies, particularly in the field of Customs proced ures and in the use of modern trade and transport-
related technology. The paper argues that governments had to understand the benefits derived from
the implementation of facilitation measures, and adopt a positive attitude towards them.
Doyen, Jean H. (1991), "The macro-economic  framework for transport policy in Africa"
(proceedings)
This report contains the opening remarks made at the "Conference on Transport in Africa" held in
Brussels in 1991. It notes that a number of factors made transport in Sub-Saharan Africa a precariousand costly undertaking: difficult terrain, low density of demand, and scarcity of human and financial
resources. High costs, unreliability, and poor quality of transport services are identified as stifling
efforts to put African countries back on a growth path. Institutional and regulatory reform are said to
be required to build up maintenance capability, step-up resource mobilization, involve local
communities, improve the functioning of the markets for transport services, restructure parastatals,
and facilitate transit and documentation. The document offers an overview of the overall framework
under which policy makers and planners will have to address transport issues over the coming decade.It briefly outlines the key tasks for the various sub-sectors and identifies cross-cutting policy goals
with clear linkages to broader development objectives.  The report argues that, in order to implement
the broad policy agenda, governments will have to assume the role of enabling agents rather than
direct providers of services.
Evlo, Kodjo (1995), "Transit transport systems in  West and Central Africa: issues, actions and
constraints", UNCTAD, UNCTAD/LDC/94
This study describes West and Central Africa's efforts to improve their transit transport systems.
Section one provides an overview of the current tr ansit transport situation in West and Central Africa
and underlines that, as GATT members, they subscribe to Article V of the Agreement. Issues, actions
and constraints at the country level are discussed under section II. The study concludes that, although
major efforts have been made in the past to im prove transit transport systems, the removal of non-
physical barriers remained a major challenge. Simplification and harmonization of customs and
administrative documentation and procedures are recommended as ways to achieve immediatebenefits in reducing transit times and transit transport costs with modest investments.
Giorgis, Teshome Wolde (1995), "Transit transport systems for Ethiopia"; UNCTAD,
UNCTAD/LDC/96G/C/W/463
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This report briefly considers Ethiopia’s transit options to the sea and discusses some of the current
major problems of transit traffic pertaining to the ports of Assab and Djibouti. After a brief
introduction to the country's road transport networ ks, the paper reviews major developments in the
transit area, particularly the deregulation and liberalization of the Ethiopian transport sector and someof the port use and transit service agreements that Ethiopia had concluded with its neighbours. The
report then assesses all actual and potential sea ports which might be considered for use as transit
ports for cargo originating in or destined for land-locked Ethiopia. Finally, it discusses the main
problems of transit traffic in the Ethiopia-Red Sea Transport Corridor, underlying some of the major
physical and non-physical impediments to Et hiopia’s transit trade in the Corridor.
InfraAfrica (Pty) Ltd (2001), "Review of Prog ress in the Development of Transit Transport
Systems in Eastern and Southern Africa", UNCTAD, UNCTAD/LDC/115
The report reviews the state of performance of transit transport systems in Eastern and Southern
Africa and proposes measures to improve and foster strengthened transit collaboration in this region.
Fragmented operations, a focus on national rather than regional benefits, lack of harmonisation andcoordination, poor implementation, deficient infrastructure, insufficient information availability and
sharing, the absence of performance targets and limited public/private partnerships are identified as
factors which significantly affect the performance of transit transport systems. The authors offer a
number of recommendations to improve the situation, such as the integrated treatment of transit
transport beyond a merely national basis, the coordination and rationalization of existing transittransport initiatives, improved coordination among regional organisations, donors and governments,
the development of systems for effective benchmarking and impact assessment, the establishment of
fora for stakeholder consultations etc.
Lane, M.H. (1999), "The impact of customs on transport and trade facilitation"; World Bank/
UN/ESCAP
The paper holds that customs is an important agency of every government, particularly in emerging
economies. For most travellers, businessmen, and importers Customs created the first impression of
each country. The author argues that if Customs was slow, inept, corrupt, or failed to conform to
international Customs standards, it was likely that  the importer will be reluctant to trade, invest, or
return. The paper notes that in many countries, Customs was the principal source of revenue for thegovernment, accounting for 60% or more of national revenue collections. In all countries, Customs
played a major role in enforcing laws at the nation’s borders, protecting the health, safety,
environment, and preventing the entry of contraband. The complexity and workload of Customs had
grown along with world trade. In recent years, Customs had been called upon to enforce new laws
regarding intellectual property, food safety, hazardous materials, cultural heritage, child labour, andtrafficking in weapons and munitions. New regional and international trade agreements, designed to
facilitate trade, added new requirements and complexity to Customs responsibilities. These new
responsibilities and the increased workload had overwhelmed many Customs Administrations, which
had tried to cope with traditional programs and responses. The paper notes that, in order to keep pace
with the increases in trade and travel and the higher expectations, many Customs had turned tointernational organizations for guidance and support.
Muller-Jentsch, Daniel (2002), "Transport policies for the Euro-Mediterranean free-trade area:
an agenda for multimodal transport reform in  the Southern Mediterranean"; The World Bank,
World Bank technical paper ; n° WTP 527
This study argues that the 15 European Union (EU) countries and their 12 Mediterranean Partners
should complement their Euro-Mediterranean free-trade area for industrial goods with a common
transport space. This would require the removal of policy-induced frictions in the region's multi-G/C/W/463
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modal transport system in order to facilitate the flow of foods, people, and investments within this
emerging trade block. The purpose of this report is to identify the bottlenecks and inefficiencies that
currently exist and to map out the reforms in the legal, regulatory, and institutional framework that
should be implemented to address them. This includes both national and cross-border policy measures
in the various modes (air, maritime, and land-based transport) as well as in transport logistics. Thestudy compares sector performance and sector policies within the concerned countries and it
benchmarks these against international best practice . It draws on policy lessons from other developing
regions, such as Latin America and Eastern Europe and assesses the extent to which the policy
framework of the EU Single Market in the transport sector could provide guidance for the creation of
a common transport space throughout the Mediterranean region.
Narayanan, D.C.A. (1995), "Transit Transp ort Systems in Asia: Issues, Actions and
Constraints"; UNCTAD, UNCTAD/LDC/98
The report analyses the transit transport systems of Afghanistan, Bhutan, Lao PDR, Mongolia and
Nepal, highlighting specific problems and constraints encountered in this context. The  author shows
that these countries' heavy dependence on roads placed extra pressures on the roads and led to roaddeterioration. The document notes that, despite a number of efforts to upgrade these roads with
support of the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and bilateral donors, the share of the paved
roads in the total network still re mained relatively low compared to other developing countries, which
is shown to contribute to the high transport prices of loss of import and export competitivity. The
author identifies the insufficient implementation of a number of existing bilateral transit agreementsand international conventions related to transit transport as the fundamental problem in this area. The
report argues that, despite a number of initiatives, such as the bilateral transit agreement between
India, Nepal and Bhutan, significant weaknesses in the transit facilitation area still had to be
addressed.
Nuno Limào, Anthony J. Venables (1999), "I nfrastructure, Geographical Disadvantage, and
Transport Costs"; The World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper 2257
Limào and Venables use three different data sets to investigate how transport depends on geography
and infrastructure. Landlocked countries have high transport costs, which can be substantially reduces
by improving the quality of their infrastructure and that of transit countries. Their analysis of bilateral
trade data confirms the importance of infrastructure. The authors estimate the elasticity of trade flowswith regard to transport costs to be high, at about-2.5. This meant that: (i) The median landlocked
country had only 30 percent of the trade volume of the median coastal economy; (ii) Halving transport
costs increased the volume of trade by a factor of five; (iii)Improving infrastructure from the 75
th to
the 50th percentile would increase trade by 50 percent. Using their results as a basic gravity model to
study Sub-Saharan African trade, both internally and with the rest of the world, Limào and Venablesfind that infrastructure problems largely explain the relatively low levels of African trade.
Raven, John (2002), "Trade and Transport Fa cilitation: an audit methodology", The World
Bank
The document holds that investments in basic visible transport infrastructure would never yield their
full potential returns in international trade perfor mance without parallel advances in systematically
improving information generation and exchange, which underpinned and controlled every export and
import movement. Such an effort had to begin with a clear understanding of the special characteristics
of each country, and of each significant border entry and import point. This report offers an analyticalapproach to such a perception and reflects practical experience in a number of Bank missions and
inquiries in a range of developing countries. The Audit examines and evaluates difficulties and
obstacles presented to the cross-frontier movement of a routine consignment and its associated
payment. The report is structured in the following manner: it presents an explanatory introduction; aG/C/W/463
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set of questionnaires designed to support and structure personal interviews; and a note on the analysis
and interpretation of the results of these interviews and suggestions for organizing practical remedial
action.
Stone, Jack I. (2001), "Infrastructure Development in Landlocked and Transit Developing
Countries: Foreign Aid, Private Investment and the Transport Cost Burden of Landlocked
Developing Countries", UNCTAD, UNCTAD/LDC/112
The two main objectives of this report are: (a) to examine the extent of external financial support for
the main transit corridors serving landlocked countries, which by their very geographical nature lie
mainly in the territory of transit neighbours; and (b) to provide an analysis of the overall size of the
transport cost burden on imports facing landlocked countries in comparison with their own coastaltransit neighbours. In addition to the landlocked developing countries, the paper focuses on a further
selected 34 countries which are the principal coastal transit countries serving the developing
landlocked countries by providing land transit corridors to ports.
UNCTAD, (2001), "Transit Systems of Landlocked and Transit Developing Countries: Recent
Developments and Proposals for Future Action"; TD/B/LDC/AC.1/17
The paper notes that the high costs of international trade represented a serious constraint on the
economic development of landlocked developing countries. Inadequate infrastructure hampered their
competitiveness in regional and international markets. Lack of adequate government financialresources aggravated by a decline in concessional aid (both bilateral and multilateral) had opened the
door to private sector capital and management expertise. Many countries had now introduced some
form of private sector involvement in infrastructure. However, for many landlocked and least
developed countries attracting private sector investment in infrastructure remained a major challenge
owing to investor's perception of high country risk. The paper argues that a combination of privateand public participation, together with the involv ement of specific regional funds, local capital and
increased official development assistance flow s, could offer a viable solution. Donors and
international financial and development agencies were invited to promote innovative technical
mechanisms which could help these countries meet their infrastructure financing and management
needs.
UN/ECE, (2002), "La ndlocked Countries: Opportunities, Challenges, Recommendations",
TRADE/2002/23
The document analyses the special situation of landlocked countries with respect to the areas of
transport and transit. It looks at specific transport costs entailed by their particular geographic
situation, examines their influence on economic grow th and analyses fundamental legal aspects. The
paper further analyses the role of governments in this process, arguing that they "should play a role as
a facilitator and interfere only when necessary." It then examines the influence of landlocked status on
the transition process in eastern and central European and central Asian countries through various
case studies. The paper concludes with certain recommendations on how to improve the situation,
covering the areas of cost reduction, legal action, infrastructure development, regional/subregionalcooperation, institutional framework and capacity building and public-private cooperation.
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