section_path: Mathematical formulation/Time evolution of a quantum state
section_name: Time evolution of a quantum state
paragraph_text: Time evolution of a quantum state
  
  The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation:
  
  Here H {\displaystyle H} denotes the Hamiltonian, the observable corresponding to the total energy of the system, and ℏ {\displaystyle \hbar } is the reduced Planck constant. The constant i ℏ {\displaystyle i\hbar } is introduced so that the Hamiltonian is reduced to the classical Hamiltonian in cases where the quantum system can be approximated by a classical system; the ability to make such an approximation in certain limits is called the correspondence principle.
  
  The solution of this differential equation is given by
  
  The operator U (t) = e − i H t / ℏ {\displaystyle U(t)=e^{-iHt/\hbar }} is known as the time-evolution operator, and has the crucial property that it is unitary. This time evolution is deterministic in the sense that – given an initial quantum state ψ (0) {\displaystyle \psi (0)} – it makes a definite prediction of what the quantum state ψ (t) {\displaystyle \psi (t)} will be at any later time.
  
  Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are independent of time, such as eigenstates of the Hamiltonian. Many systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such "static" wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcited atom is pictured classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around the atomic nucleus, whereas in quantum mechanics, it is described by a static wave function surrounding the nucleus. For example, the electron wave function for an unexcited hydrogen atom is a spherically symmetric function known as an s orbital (Fig. 1).
  
  Analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are known for very few relatively simple model Hamiltonians including the quantum harmonic oscillator, the particle in a box, the dihydrogen cation, and the hydrogen atom. Even the helium atom – which contains just two electrons – has defied all attempts at a fully analytic treatment, admitting no solution in closed form.
  
  However, there are techniques for finding approximate solutions. One method, called perturbation theory, uses the analytic result for a simple quantum mechanical model to create a result for a related but more complicated model by (for example) the addition of a weak potential energy. Another approximation method applies to systems for which quantum mechanics produces only small deviations from classical behavior. These deviations can then be computed based on the classical motion.