section_path: Indian/Ancient
section_name: Ancient
paragraph_text: Ancient
  
  The ancient period of Indian philosophy began around 900 BCE and lasted until 200 BCE. During this time, the Vedas were composed. These religious texts form the foundation of much of Indian philosophy, covering a wide range of topics, including hymns and rituals. Of particular philosophical interest are the Upanishads, which are late Vedic texts that discuss profound philosophical topics. Some scholars consider the Vedas as part of philosophy proper, while others view them as a form of proto-philosophy. This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic movements, such as Buddhism and Jainism.
  
  The Upanishads introduce key concepts in Indian philosophy, such as Atman and Brahman. Atman refers to the self, regarded as the eternal soul that constitutes the essence of every conscious being. Brahman represents the ultimate reality and the highest principle governing the universe. The Upanishads explore the relationship between Atman and Brahman, with a key idea being that understanding their connection is a crucial step on the spiritual path toward liberation. Some Upanishads advocate an ascetic lifestyle, emphasizing withdrawal from the world to achieve self-realization. Others emphasize active engagement with the world, rooted in the belief that individuals have social duties to their families and communities. These duties are prescribed by the concept of dharma, which varies according to one's social class and stage of life. Another influential idea from this period is the concept of rebirth, where individual souls are caught in a cycle of reincarnation. According to this belief, a person's actions in previous lives determine their circumstances in future lives, a principle known as the law of karma.
  
  While the Vedas had a broad influence, not all Indian philosophical traditions originated from them. For example, the non-Vedic movements of Buddhism and Jainism emerged in the 6th century BCE. These movements agreed with certain Vedic teachings about the cycle of rebirth and the importance of seeking liberation but rejected many of the rituals and the social hierarchy described in the Vedas. Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic concept of Atman by arguing that there is no permanent, stable self. He taught that the belief in a permanent self leads to suffering and that liberation can be attained by realizing the absence of a permanent self.
  
  Jainism was founded by Mahavira (599–527 BCE). Jainism emphasizes respect for all forms of life, a principle expressed in its commitment to non-violence. This principle prohibits harming or killing any living being, whether in action or thought. Another central tenet of Jainism is the doctrine of non-absolutism, which posits that reality is complex and multifaceted, and thus cannot be fully captured by any single perspective or expressed adequately in language. The third pillar of Jainism is the practice of asceticism or non-attachment, which involves detaching oneself from worldly possessions and desires to avoid emotional entanglement with them.