section_path: Economy/Research
section_name: Research
paragraph_text: Research
  
  Norway has a rich history of contributions to science, mathematics, and technology, with several internationally recognized scientists and innovators.
  
  In mathematics, Niels Henrik Abel and Sophus Lie made groundbreaking contributions to analysis and group theory. Caspar Wessel was the first to describe vectors and complex numbers in the complex plane, laying the foundation for modern vector and complex analysis. Thoralf Skolem made revolutionary contributions to mathematical logic, while Øystein Ore and Ludwig Sylow advanced group theory. Atle Selberg, a major figure in 20th-century mathematics, was honored with the Fields Medal, Wolf Prize, and Abel Prize. Ernst S. Selmer 's work significantly influenced modern cryptographic algorithms.
  
  In physics, notable figures include Kristian Birkeland, known for his work on the aurora borealis, and Ivar Giaever, a Nobel laureate in physics. Carl Anton Bjerknes and Christopher Hansteen made contributions to hydrodynamics and geomagnetism, respectively. The meteorologists Vilhelm Bjerknes and Ragnar Fjørtoft were instrumental in the development of numerical weather prediction.
  
  Norwegian chemists like Lars Onsager, a Nobel laureate, and Odd Hassel, recognized for his work in stereochemistry, have left a lasting legacy. Peter Waage and Cato Maximilian Guldberg formulated the law of mass action, fundamental to chemical reaction theory.
  
  In technology, Victor Goldschmidt is regarded as a founder of modern geochemistry. Håkon Wium Lie pioneered Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), a cornerstone of web design. Pål Spilling contributed to the development of the Internet Protocol, bringing the Internet to Europe. Computer scientists Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard developed Simula, the first object-oriented programming language, earning them the prestigious Turing Award.
  
  Norwegian academics have also advanced social sciences. Arne Næss founded deep ecology, while Johan Galtung established the field of peace studies. Criminologists Nils Christie and Thomas Mathiesen, sociologists Vilhelm Aubert, Harriet Holter, and Erik Grønseth, and political scientist Stein Rokkan made pioneering contributions to their fields. Economists Ragnar Frisch, Trygve Haavelmo, and Finn E. Kydland were honored with Nobel Prizes for their work in econometrics and macroeconomics.
  
  As of 2024, Norway is ranked 21st in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. The country has produced fourteen Nobel laureates across various disciplines.