section_path: Other animals
section_name: Other animals
paragraph_text: Other animals
  
  While none of the main four species of malaria parasite that cause human infections are known to have animal reservoirs, P. knowlesi is known to regularly infect both humans and non-human primates. Other non-human primate malarias (particularly P. cynomolgi and P. simium) have also been found to have spilled over into humans. Nearly 200 Plasmodium species have been identified that infect birds, reptiles, and other mammals, and about 30 of them naturally infect non-human primates. Some malaria parasites of non-human primates (NHP) serve as model organisms for human malarial parasites, such as P. coatneyi (a model for P. falciparum) and P. cynomolgi (a model for P. vivax). Diagnostic techniques used to detect parasites in NHP are similar to those employed for humans. Malaria parasites that infect rodents are widely used as models in research, such as P. berghei. Avian malaria primarily affects species of the order Passeriformes, and poses a substantial threat to birds of Hawaii, the Galapagos, and other archipelagoes. The parasite P. relictum is known to play a role in limiting the distribution and abundance of endemic Hawaiian birds. Global warming is expected to increase the prevalence and global distribution of avian malaria, as elevated temperatures provide optimal conditions for parasite reproduction.