section_path: High Middle Ages/Church reforms
section_name: Church reforms
paragraph_text: Church reforms
  
  Papal elections were controlled by Roman aristocrats during the early 11th century, but Emperor Henry III (r. 1039–56) broke their power and placed reform-minded clerics on the papal throne. With popular support, they achieved the acknowledgement of their jurisdiction in church affairs in many parts of Europe. The head of the Byzantine Church, Patriarch Michael I Cerularius (d. 1059), refused papal supremacy and was excommunicated by a papal legate in 1054. After a series of mutual excommunications, this East–West Schism led to the separation of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches.
  
  Lay investiture —the appointment of clerics by secular rulers—was condemned at a 1059 assembly of bishops in Rome. Henry's son and successor Henry IV (r. 1056–1105) wanted to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as prelates in his lands, but his appointments outraged Pope Gregory VII (pope 1073–85). Their quarrel developed into the Investiture Controversy, also involving other powers because kings did not relinquish control of appointments to bishoprics or abbeys voluntarily. All conflicts ended with a compromise—in the case of the Holy Roman Emperors, with the 1122 Concordat of Worms.
  
  The High Middle Ages was a time of great religious movements. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Compostela received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as Monte Gargano and Bari rose to prominence. Popular movements emerged to support the implementation of church reform, but their anticlericalism sometimes led to the rejection of Catholic dogma by radical groups such as the Waldensians and Cathars. To suppress heresies, the popes appointed special commissioners of investigation known as inquisitors. Monastic reforms continued; the Cluniac monasteries' ceremonies were alien to those who preferred the simpler hermetical monasticism of early Christianity, or wanted to live an " apostolic life" of poverty and preaching. New monastic orders were established, including the Carthusians and the Cistercians. In the 13th century, mendicant orders who earned their living by begging (the Franciscans and the Dominicans) were approved by the papacy.
  
  Individuals who were thought to receive divine revelations might present a challenge to clerical monopolies, but most respected official doctrines. The veneration of popular mystics, such as Francis of Assisi (d. 1226), was often sanctioned by church authorities. Many popular mystics were women. Among them, the nun Hildegard of Bingen (d. 1179/80) was a prolific and highly-respected scholar who proudly said that "no man can be made without a woman". Jewish mysticism culminated in the compilation of the Zohar, a 13th-century summary of kabbalistic teaching.