section_path: Late Middle Ages/Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration
section_name: Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration
paragraph_text: Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration
  
  Prominent late-medieval philosophers departed from Aristotelian logic. Among them, William of Ockham (d. c. 1348) concluded that natural philosophy could not prove God's existence. Under his influence, most scholars who researched subjects yielding verifiable conclusions (such as mathematics or physics) no longer analysed theological issues. Marsilius of Padua (d. 1342), however, was still inspired by Aristotle to argue in favor of a community's right to regulate its life and control the clergy. Scholars such as Petrarch (d. 1374) intensively studied classical literature; many emphasised human dignity, and were known as humanists.
  
  The poetry of Dante (d. 1321) and the prose of Boccaccio (d. 1375), both from Florence, indicate that the Italian Tuscan dialect had matured into a literary language on a par with Latin. English reached the same level with The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer (d. 1400). French became standardised with theoretical discussions about chivalric literature. One of the sharpest critics of chivalric romances, Christine de Pizan (d. c. 1430), wrote the feminist utopian The Book of the City of Ladies. Literacy improved as new schools and universities were established throughout Europe, often sponsored by urban authorities or wealthy individuals. The invention of the printing press with movable type simplified the mass publication of books, and competition between publishing houses contributed to the quick spread of news and ideas.
  
  Several factors, primarily a growing demand for gold and European merchants' eagerness to avoid customs payments, prompted the search for a direct maritime route to India along the African coasts. Initially, the Portuguese led the explorations; Dinis Dias landed at Cap Verde in 1444, Bartolomeu Dias (d. 1500) sailed as far as the Cape of Good Hope in 1486, and Vasco da Gama (d. 1524) reached India in 1498. After visiting the African slave markets, the Portuguese became deeply involved in the slave trade with Europe and the Muslim world. Christopher Columbus proposed a westward, alternative route to India. He gained Isabella of Castile's support for his voyage of exploration that led to the European discovery of the Americas in 1492.