section_path: Characteristics/Isotopes
section_name: Isotopes
paragraph_text: Isotopes
  
  Sulfur has 23 known isotopes, four of which are stable: S (94.99% ± 0.26%), S (0.75% ± 0.02%), S (4.25% ± 0.24%), and S (0.01% ± 0.01%). Other than S, with a half-life of 87 days, the radioactive isotopes of sulfur have half-lives less than 3 hours.
  
  The preponderance of S is explained by its production in the so-called alpha-process (one of the main classes of nuclear fusion reactions) in exploding stars. Other stable sulfur isotopes are produced in the bypass processes related with Ar, and their composition depends on a type of a stellar explosion. For example, proportionally more S comes from novae than from supernovae.
  
  On the planet Earth the sulfur isotopic composition was determined by the Sun. Though it is assumed that the distribution of different sulfur isotopes should be more or less equal, it has been found that proportions of two most abundant sulfur isotopes S and S varies in different samples. Assaying of these isotopes ratio (δ S) in the samples allows to make suggestions about their chemical history, and with support of other methods, it allows to age-date the samples, estimate temperature of equilibrium between ore and water, determine pH and oxygen fugacity, identify the activity of sulfate-reducing bacteria in the time of formation of the sample, or suggest the main sources of sulfur in ecosystems. However, there are ongoing discussions about what is the real reason of the δ S shifts, biological activity or postdeposital alteration.
  
  For example, when sulfide minerals are precipitated, isotopic equilibration among solids and liquid may cause small differences in the δ S values of co-genetic minerals. The differences between minerals can be used to estimate the temperature of equilibration. The δ C and δ S of coexisting carbonate minerals and sulfides can be used to determine the pH and oxygen fugacity of the ore-bearing fluid during ore formation.
  
  Scientists measure the sulfur isotopes of minerals in rocks and sediments to study the redox conditions in the oceans in the past. Sulfate-reducing bacteria in marine sediment fractionate sulfur isotopes as they take in sulfate and produce sulfide. Prior to the 2010s, it was thought that sulfate reduction could fractionate sulfur isotopes up to 46 permil and fractionation larger than 46 permil recorded in sediments must be due to disproportionation of sulfur compounds in the sediment. This view has changed since the 2010s as experiments show that sulfate-reducing bacteria can fractionate to 66 permil. As substrates for disproportionation are limited by the product of sulfate reduction, the isotopic effect of disproportionation should be less than 16 permil in most sedimentary settings.
  
  In most forest ecosystems, sulfate is derived mostly from the atmosphere; weathering of ore minerals and evaporites contribute some sulfur. Sulfur with a distinctive isotopic composition has been used to identify pollution sources, and enriched sulfur has been added as a tracer in hydrologic studies. Differences in the natural abundances can be used in systems where there is sufficient variation in the S of ecosystem components. Rocky Mountain lakes thought to be dominated by atmospheric sources of sulfate have been found to have measurably different S values than lakes believed to be dominated by watershed sources of sulfate.
  
  The radioactive S is formed in cosmic ray spallation of the atmospheric Ar. This fact may be used for proving the presence of recent (not more than 1 year) atmospheric sediments in various things. This isotope may be obtained artificially by different ways. In practice, the reaction Cl + n → S + p is used by irradiating potassium chloride with neutrons. The isotope S is used in various sulfur-containing compounds as a radioactive tracer for many biological studies, for example, the Hershey-Chase experiment.
  
  Because of the weak beta activity of S, its compounds are relatively safe as long as they are not ingested or absorbed by the body.