section_path: Western/Enlightenment and other late modern philosophy
section_name: Enlightenment and other late modern philosophy
paragraph_text: Enlightenment and other late modern philosophy
  
  The latter half of the modern period saw the emergence of the cultural and intellectual movement known as the Enlightenment. This movement drew on both empiricism and rationalism to challenge traditional authorities and promote the pursuit of knowledge. It advocated for individual freedom and held an optimistic view of progress and the potential for societal improvement. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) was one of the central thinkers of the Enlightenment. He emphasized the role of reason in understanding the world and used it to critique dogmatism and blind obedience to authority. Kant sought to synthesize both empiricism and rationalism within a comprehensive philosophical system. His transcendental idealism explored how the mind, through its pre-established categories, shapes human experience of reality. In ethics, he developed a deontological moral system based on the categorical imperative, which defines universal moral duties. Other important Enlightenment philosophers included Voltaire (1694–1778), Montesquieu (1689–1755), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778).
  
  Political philosophy during this period was shaped by Thomas Hobbes 's (1588–1679) work, particularly his book Leviathan. Hobbes had a pessimistic view of the natural state of humans, arguing that it involves a war of all against all. According to Hobbes, the purpose of civil society is to avoid this state of chaos. This is achieved through a social contract in which individuals cede some of their rights to a central and immensely powerful authority in exchange for protection from external threats. Jean-Jacques Rousseau also theorized political life using the concept of a social contract, but his political outlook differed significantly due to his more positive assessment of human nature. Rousseau's views led him to advocate for democracy.