Geography.

Bedford is located at. It is a first ring suburb to the southeast of Cleveland. The city is bounded by Maple Heights to the north and west, Valley View to the west, Walton Hills and Northfield to the south, Oakwood to the south and east, and Bedford Heights to the east.  According to the 2010 census, the city has a total area of, of which (or 99.07%) is land and (or 0.93%) is water.  The boundaries of the city of Bedford include part of the Bedford Reservation. The reservation includes Tinker's Creek, which flows through a gorge that has been listed as a National Natural Landmark. The Great Falls of Tinker's Creek are within the city limits of Bedford.

History.

The area that is now Bedford and northeastern Ohio was originally inhabited by Native Americans as early as 11,000 years ago. By 1662 the area had become a part of the Connecticut Colony through royal charter. Much of the colony's land, which extended to the Pacific Ocean, was ceded to the early U.S. government, but a few million acres west of the border of Pennsylvania became what was known as the Western Reserve.  Bedford began as part of the Connecticut Western Reserve in 1797. A large portion of the Western Reserve was sold to the Connecticut Land Company in 1795. Surveying of the land began shortly after and was spearheaded by Moses Cleaveland. Seth Pease and Amzi Atwater surveyed Lot 46, which eventually would become Bedford Township. It was surveyed as township 6, range 11.  The first settlers to the area started to arrive in 1813. Early settlers to the region were drawn to Tinkers Creek and the hardwood forests. Waterfalls on Tinkers Creek were ideal for mills, which would power local businesses. The first mill in Bedford Township was built by Adams and Starr in 1815. It was situated at the mouth of Tinkers Creek. The first official settler to the area was Elijah Nobles. He settled here in 1810 in the western part of the township on one of the 100 lots surveyed.  More settlers followed, including Benjamin Franklin Fitch, who founded the Taylor Chair Company in 1816. He began making chairs at his home, which was located at Warrensville Center and Libby Roads in present-day Maple Heights, Ohio. The company did not close until 2012, making it the longest-running manufacturing company in the Western Reserve area. Fitch made chairs that were considered to be better than others because of his use of pre-shrunk wood that prevented creaking. He is also known for inventing the strap lathe, a tool that would become standard in furniture making.  Bedford Township was officially founded in 1823 and Township 6 was renamed Bedford Township by Daniel Benedict, originally a native of Bedford, New York. The original township covered what today includes Bedford, Bedford Heights, Ohio, Maple Heights, Ohio, Oakwood Village, Ohio, and Walton Hills, Ohio.  In 1834, the First Baptist Church was established to help meet the religious needs of the growing population in the area. The first church in Bedford was the First Baptist Church, founded with just 14 original members at the home of Hezekiah Dunham. In 1893, the church moved into its first dedicated building located on the Bedford Commons. The old First Baptist Church is a stone building done in the Late Gothic Revival style and was designed by architect Jacob Snyder. In 1968, the First Baptist Church moved to its present location at the corner of Turney Road and West Glendale Avenue. The old stone church still stands though and is owned by the Bedford Historical Society. It currently serves as a community building and a rental hall.  Bedford became an incorporated village on March 15, 1837. In 1837, the population of Bedford Township had grown to be 475 people and at that time, the residents petitioned to become the Village of Bedford, which sits at the geographic center of Bedford Township. At this time, Hezekiah Dunham, who was a prominent and wealthy local business man, and his wife, Clarissa Dunham, donated three acres of land for the village to be able to build a public square as well as other public and religious buildings. The deed for the land stated the property was to be "used as a public square forever."  In addition to the falls on Tinkers Creek and the abundant forests, transportation helped Bedford to grow. Before the roads were even built, Bedford was situated along the main route between Pittsburgh and Cleveland and was an important stagecoach stop. Today this is U.S. Route 14, which runs through town from the northwest to southeast.  Transportation became even more important in the area when the Ohio and Erie Canal opened in 1827 and the Cleveland & Pittsburgh Railroad began in 1852. Both of these helped drive more industry to the area, and by 1840 the population of Bedford was 2,021. Another railroad, the Connotton Valley Railroad, opened in 1881.  In 1927, the Bedford Municipal Hospital was built. The original hospital still stands, though it has been heavily added onto since it was first constructed. It is now operated as a branch of University Hospitals of Cleveland.  The village of Maple Heights left Bedford Township in 1915 and in 1932 Maple Heights achieved city status.  In 1932, the Village of Bedford adopted a city manager government and charger and became the City of Bedford. As the village grew, many industries developed in Bedford and new businesses opened. Some of the important businesses in Bedford were manufacturing companies:  The first car dealerships opened on Broadway Avenue in the early 1950s and formed the Bedford Automile Dealers Association in 1956, formally creating the first Bedford Automile. The Bedford Automile Dealers Association was created to not only give the car dealerships in the area a unified voice for working with the city but to also create a group who would actively help to improve the city.  On February 20, 1951, the northeast corner of Bedford Township broke off from the City of Bedford and incorporated to become the village of Bedford Heights, Ohio. Bedford Heights achieved city status in 1961.

Demographics.

96.2% spoke English, 1.3% Spanish, and 0.9% Polish at home.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 13,074 people, 6,265 households, and 3,346 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 6,951 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 53.9% White, 41.9% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.9% Asian, 0.6% from other races, and 2.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.0% of the population.  There were 6,265 households, of which 25.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.2% were married couples living together, 17.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.6% were non-families. 41.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.08 and the average family size was 2.83.  The median age in the city was 41.9 years. 21.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.4% were from 25 to 44; 28.9% were from 45 to 64; and 17% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 45.8% male and 54.2% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 14,214 people, 6,659 households, and 3,682 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,653.3 people per square mile (1,023.9/km). There were 7,062 housing units at an average density of 1,318.2 per square mile (508.7/km). The racial makeup of the city was 79.01% White, 17.63% Black, 0.17% Native American, 1.08% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.47% from other races, and 1.62% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.07% of the population.  There were 6,659 households, out of which 23.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.4% were married couples living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.7% were non-families. 39.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.1 and the average family size was 2.85.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 20.5% under the age of 18, 6.9% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 18.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.6 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $36,943, and the median income for a family was $47,142. Males had a median income of $36,524 versus $27,851 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,076. About 5.5% of families and 7.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.2% of those under age 18 and 8.1% of those age 65 or over.

Transportation.

One of the main roads through Bedford is Ohio State Route 14 (OH-14). It runs northwest to southeast and follows the original stagecoach route between Cleveland and Pittsburgh. Within Bedford city limits, OH-14 is known as Broadway Avenue. Other main roads in Bedford include:  Bedford is served by the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority. Bus route 76: Broadway – Turney travels between downtown Cleveland and the Southgate Transit Center in Maple Heights with several stops in downtown Bedford. Route 90F: Broadway – Libby travels between downtown Cleveland and Oakwood Village with stops in Bedford along Northfield Road.

Commercial districts.

There are two main commercial districts in Bedford, the Automile and the Bedford Historic District. The Automile, which lies along Rockside Road and Broadway, was formally established in 1956 to promote the interests of the auto dealerships and to help these companies work together to give back to the community.  The Bedford Automile is the largest collection of new and used automotive dealerships in Ohio. There are currently 24 dealerships. Together the Automile companies have raised money for a number of charitable causes, including breast cancer awareness, Cleveland's homeless population, and Bedford High School scholarships.  The Historic District is located downtown and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Bedford Baptist Church, Hezekiah Dunham House, and Holsey Gates House are included on the Register. The area is approximately bounded by Broadway, Columbus, Franklin, and Willis. The District also includes the Bedford Public Square and several other historic buildings: the Gates Handyside House, Franklin Victorian House, Moody House, and numerous commercial buildings dating to the 1890s to 1920s.

Economy.

In addition to the important commercial districts of the Automile and Historic District, Bedford is home to a few large companies that employ many residents in the area. Xellia Pharmaceuticals, a company owned by Danish Novo Holdings A/S, opened a manufacturing facility in Bedford in 2017.  Art of Beauty is another big employer in Bedford. The beauty supply company is most well known for its Zoya brand of nail polishes and nail care products.  Nature Stone Flooring is a local company that makes epoxy stone flooring materials. The epoxy resin used is patent pending and the company, founded in 1989, is the largest maker of this type of flooring.  Other large employers in Bedford include:

Education.

Bedford is served by the Bedford City School District, which also serves the communities of Bedford Heights, Oakwood, and Walton Hills. There are approximately 3,400 students in the district, which covers an area of 22 square miles. There are six schools:  In Bedford, 86.3 percent of students are enrolled in the public school system. There are only a few private school and private special education options in Bedford. The Holy Spirit Academy serves students from kindergarten through eighth grade.  Safely Home offers residential and outpatient programs for young people with special education needs and behavioral challenges. The Safely Home School provides specialized educational programming for students who have not been successful in traditional schools. Education Alternatives, non-profit educational agency, serves at-risk students in several Cleveland-area locations, including Bedford.  The Cuyahoga County Public Library Southeast Branch is located in Bedford. Educational youth services include free, after school mentoring and homework assistance. The branch also hosts Aspire Greater Cleveland services, which include adult literacy, GED, English as a second language, and job skills training.

Bedford is a city in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, United States located to the east of Cleveland. The population was 13,074 at the 2010 census. It is an eastern first ring suburb of Cleveland.

Bedford est une ville située dans le comté de Cuyahoga, dans l'État de l'Ohio, aux États-Unis. Elle se trouve dans la banlieue de Cleveland.


Early life.

Leonard was born in 1961 in Liberty, New York. Aged 16, she dropped out of school and started taking photographs. She has spent most of her adult life living in New York City, whose built environment has been the subject matter of much of her work (e.g. sidewalks, storefronts, apartment buildings, chain-link fencing, graffiti, and boarded-up windows.) Leonard became well-known internationally following her installation at Documenta IX in 1992.

Career.

From her earliest aerial photographs to her images of museum displays, anatomical models, and fashion shows, much of Leonard's work reflects on the framing, classifying, and ordering of vision. She explained in an interview: "Rather than any one subject or genre (landscape, portrait, still life, etc), I was, and remain, interested in engaging a simultaneous questioning of both subject and vantage point, the relation between viewer and world — in short, subjectivity and how it informs our experience of the world."  Leonard was active in AIDS advocacy and queer politics in New York in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1992 she wrote "I want a president", a poem inspired by Eileen Myles's run for president.  In 1995 she staged an exhibition at her studio on the Lower East Side of Manhattan which featured the work "Strange Fruit", an installation of various fruit skins (oranges, bananas, grapefruits, lemons) that Leonard saved and then sewed together by hand with wire and thread. "Strange Fruit" grew out of a deeply personal response to the losses of the AIDS epidemic and as a meditation on mourning, it became a seminal work of the 1990s. "Strange Fruit" was exhibited in 1998 at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, where it currently resides.  During the mid-1990s Leonard spent two years living in a remote part of Alaska, an experience that influenced much of her later artwork, which often foregrounds relationships between humans and the natural world. Trees are a motif in Leonard's work: examples include a "reconstructed" tree that she installed in Vienna's Secession in 1997 as well as numerous photographs of urban trees mangled in chain-link and razor wire fences.  Leonard began working on the "Fae Richards Photo Archive" in 1993 after being approached by director Cheryl Dunye to create a fictive archive of photographs for Dunye's 1996 fictional documentary "The Watermelon Woman", in which protagonist Cheryl, played by Dunye, searches for the history of black lesbian entertainer Fae Richards. The photographs, which Leonard treated by hand to appear aged, are used as props in the film and were included in the 1997 Whitney Biennial.  Between 1998 and 2009, Leonard worked on "Analogue", a monumental project consisting of an installation of 412 C-prints and gelatin silver prints (in the collection of The Museum of Modern Art, New York and the Reina Sofia, Madrid), and a portfolio of 40 dye-transfer prints. Influenced by Eugène Atget and Walker Evans but born out of a 21st-century reconsideration of the role of photography, "Analogue" explores transformations in global labor, trade, and social relationships in parallel with the shift from analogue to digital image-making. Holland Cotter described an experience of the work in "The New York Times" in 2009:  "In her straight-ahead photographs of storefronts, an arrangement of shoes or shrink-wrapped furniture becomes a vanitas still life. A hand-painted shop sign becomes a relic. Over several photographs, we sense that an unnamed neighborhood — Ms. Leonard expanded her field work to include East Harlem, Bedford-Stuyvesant and Crown Heights — is packing up to leave. A city's material culture is doing a vanishing act. And where is the material going? Back to a version of the world it came from. Many of the cut-rate goods sold in the Lower East Side shops originated in urban sweatshops in China and Pakistan and are eventually passed on as surplus to other poor cities in Africa and Central America. In the wraparound grid of pictures in Analogue we follow recycled clothes from Brooklyn to the city of Kampala in Uganda, where they are sold as new in stores like the Money Is Life House of Garments."

Exhibitions.

"Analogue" was first exhibited in 2007 at the Wexner Center for the Arts in Columbus, Ohio, and at Documenta XII in Kassel, Germany, followed by presentations at Villa Arson in Nice, and Dia at the Hispanic Society and the Museum of Modern Art in New York and was included in a touring retrospective of Leonard's work which originated in 2007 at the Fotomuseum Winterthur, and later traveled to the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid; MuMOK — Museum Moderner Kunst Stifting Ludwig, Vienna; and Pinakothek der Moderne, Munich. "Analogue" is in the collection of The Museum of Modern Art, New York and the Reina Sofia, Madrid.  More recent exhibitions have included "Serialities" at Hauser & Wirth, "You See I Am Here After All" at (2009), Observation Point, Camden Arts Centre, London (2012), an installation at the Chinati Foundation, Marfa, Texas (2013-2014) and the 2014 Whitney Biennial, for which Leonard won the Bucksbaum Award with her work "945 Madison Avenue". In 2018, the Whitney Museum of American Art mounted Leonard's first career retrospective in the United States, an exhibition organized by the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, where the show traveled in late 2018.

Other activities.

Texts by Leonard, an insightful writer and a pre-eminent thinker on the discipline of photography, have appeared in "LTTR", "October", and "Texte zur Kunst", and in recent monographs on Agnes Martin, James Castle and Josiah McElheny.  In addition to working on her art, Leonard has been serving on the advisory board of the Hauser & Wirth Institute since 2018.

Zoe Leonard (born 1961) is an American artist who works primarily with photography and sculpture. She has exhibited widely since the late 1980s and her work has been included in a number of seminal exhibitions including Documenta IX and Documenta XII, and the 1993, 1997 and 2014 Whitney biennials.

Zoe Leonard, née en 1961, est une artiste américaine, photographe et sculptrice. Depuis la fin des années 1980, son travail est présenté dans un certain nombre d'expositions majeures, dont Documenta IX et Documenta XII, et à Whitney Biennial en 1993, 1997 et 2014.


What does it offer?

Active networking allows the possibility of highly tailored and rapid "real-time" changes to the underlying network operation. This enables such ideas as sending code along with packets of information allowing the data to change its form (code) to match the channel characteristics. The smallest program that can generate a sequence of data can be found in the definition of Kolmogorov complexity. The use of real-time genetic algorithms within the network to compose network services is also enabled by active networking.

How it relates to other networking paradigms.

Active networking relates to other networking paradigms primarily based upon how computing and communication are partitioned in the architecture.

Active networking and software-defined networking.

Active networking is an approach to network architecture with in-network programmability. The name derives from a comparison with network approaches advocating minimization of in-network processing, based on design advice such as the "end-to-end argument". Two major approaches were conceived: programmable network elements ("switches") and capsules, a programmability approach that places computation within packets traveling through the network. Treating packets as programs later became known as "active packets". Software-defined networking decouples the system that makes decisions about where traffic is sent (the control plane) from the underlying systems that forward traffic to the selected destination (the data plane). The concept of a programmable control plane originated at the University of Cambridge in the Systems Research Group, where (using virtual circuit identifiers available in Asynchronous Transfer Mode switches) multiple virtual control planes were made available on a single physical switch. Control Plane Technologies (CPT) was founded to commercialize this concept.

Fundamental challenges.

Active network research addresses the nature of how best to incorporate extremely dynamic capability within networks.  In order to do this, active network research must address the problem of optimally allocating computation versus communication within communication networks. A similar problem related to the compression of code as a measure of complexity is addressed via algorithmic information theory.  One of the challenges of active networking has been the inability of information theory to mathematically model the active network paradigm and enable active network engineering. This is due to the active nature of the network in which communication packets contain code that dynamically change the operation of the network. Fundamental advances in information theory are required in order to understand such networks.

Nanoscale active networks.

As the limit in reduction of transistor size is reached with current technology, active networking concepts are being explored as a more efficient means accomplishing computation and communication. More on this can be found in nanoscale networking.

Active networking is a communication pattern that allows packets flowing through a telecommunications network to dynamically modify the operation of the network.

La mise en réseau actif (ou « active networking ») est une forme de communication qui permet aux paquets de données parcourant un réseau de télécommunications de modifier l’exploitation du réseau de manière dynamique.


Classification and orbit.

"Chelyabinsk" orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.3–2.1 AU once every 2 years and 3 months (814 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.24 and an inclination of 38° with respect to the ecliptic. A first precovery was taken during the Digitized Sky Survey at the Australia Siding Spring Observatory in January 1990, extending the asteroid's observation arc by 2 years prior to its official discovery at La Silla.

Close approaches.

As a near-Earth object, "Chelyabinsk" has a low Earth minimum orbit intersection distance of, which translates into 120.1 lunar distances (LD). This is, however, far too large to make it a potentially hazardous asteroid, which have intersection distances of less than 20 LD. It also crosses the orbit of Mars at 1.666 AU which makes it a Mars-crossing asteroid. In August 2142, it will approach the Red Planet at.

Physical characteristics.

"Chelyabinsk" has been characterized as both a Q-type and L-type asteroid. It is also a generically assumed S-type asteroid.

Lightcurves.

Two rotational light-curves of "Chelyabinsk" were obtained by Czech astronomer Petr Pravec at Ondřejov Observatory in December 2002 and September 2004, respectively. They gave a rotation period of 22.490 and hours, each with a brightness variation of 0.13 magnitude ().

Diameter and albedo.

According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), "Chelyabinsk" measures between 2.79 and 4.2 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.21 and 0.37, while observations by the Japanese Akari satellite gave an albedo of 0.26 and a diameter of 3.5 kilometers. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" adopts Petr Pravec's revised WISE results, that is, a diameter of 4.23 kilometers and an albedo of 0.179 based on an absolute magnitude of 14.35.

Naming.

This minor planet is named after the Russian city Chelyabinsk, located in the Urals, Siberia. The city is well known for the Chelyabinsk meteor, a 20-meter sized, extremely bright fireball that exploded to the south of the city at an altitude of 30 kilometers on 15 February 2013. The indirect effects of the explosion injured more than 1,500 people. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center (MPC) on 21 August 2013 ().

Erratum.

Originally, the name "Chelyabinsk" was erroneously given by the MPC to the numerically similar asteroid on 22 July (). The wrong designation was deleted in the subsequent publication of the Minor Planet Circulars on 21 August 2013 ()

21088 Chelyabinsk, provisional designation, is a stony asteroid and near-Earth object of the Amor group, approximately 4 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 30 January 1992, by Belgian astronomer Eric Elst at ESO's La Silla Observatory in northern Chile. The asteroid was named after the Russian city of Chelyabinsk and for its spectacular Chelyabinsk meteor event in 2013.

(21088) Tcheliabinsk (désignation internationale "(21088) Chelyabinsk") est un astéroïde Amor découvert le par Eric Walter Elst à l'observatoire de La Silla.


History.

Seven Devils was named around 1965 when its founders wanted a unique name to attract visitors. "Seven Devils" was decided upon based on a combination of seven rocky peaks and local history of seven brothers, who in the 19th century were so cantankerous and willing to fight that they were jokingly referred to as the seven devils.

Geography.

Seven Devils is located at (36.151961, -81.807305).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 2.1 square miles (5.3 km2), of which 2.0 square miles (5.3 km2) is land and 0.49% is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 129 people, 62 households, and 40 families residing in the town. The population density was 63.0 people per square mile (24.3/km2). There were 345 housing units at an average density of 168.6 per square mile (65.0/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.45% White, and 1.55% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.78% of the population.  There were 62 households out of which 21.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.3% were married couples living together, 1.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.9% were non-families. 25.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.08 and the average family size was 2.46.  In the town, the population was spread out with 14.0% under the age of 18, 7.8% from 18 to 24, 32.6% from 25 to 44, 29.5% from 45 to 64, and 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 111.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.8 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $38,750, and the median income for a family was $62,813. Males had a median income of $35,417 versus $38,125 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,801. There were 21.6% of families and 20.5% of the population living below the poverty line, including 26.3% of those under eighteen and none of those over 64.

Seven Devils is a town in Avery and Watauga counties in the U.S. state of North Carolina. The population was 192 at the 2010 census. The town, which is located in the Appalachian Mountains, is best known as the site of a popular wintertime tubing resort known as Hawksnest, which claims it has the largest tubing facility on the East Coast, and some of the town's year round residents earn their living at the resort. Many others are retirees. Developed in the 1970s as a vacation home community, Seven Devils is home mostly to seasonal residents.

La ville de est située dans les comtés d’Avery et Watauga, dans l’État de Caroline du Nord, aux États-Unis. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


Viola.

Released in 1991, Viola was the invention of Pei-Yuan Wei, a member of the eXperimental Computing Facility (XCF) at the University of California, Berkeley. Viola was a UNIX-based programming/scripting language; the acronym stood for "Visually Interactive Object-oriented Language and Application".  Pei's interest in graphically based software began with HyperCard, which he first encountered in 1989. Of that, Pei said, "HyperCard was very compelling back then, you know graphically, this hyperlink thing, it was just not very global and it only worked on Mac... and I didn't even have a Mac". Only having access to X terminals, Pei, in 1990, created the first version of Viola for such terminals: "I got a HyperCard manual and looked at it and just basically took the concepts and implemented them..."  Pei released Viola 0.8 in 1991.

History of ViolaWWW.

After graduating, Pei developed Viola further while working with the XCF and startups. Later, he would be funded by O'Reilly Books, the technical publisher, which used the software to help demonstrate its Global Network Navigator site. His major goal was to create a version of Viola for the Internet:  Created in 1992, ViolaWWW was the first browser to add extended functionality such as embedded scriptable objects, stylesheets, and tables. Early versions were received well at CERN. Ed Kroll also highlighted the browser in his popular 1992 text, "Whole Internet User's Guide and Catalog".  As ViolaWWW developed, it began to look more like HyperCard:  ViolaWWW was based on the Viola toolkit, which is a tool for the development and support of visual interactive media applications, with a multimedia web browser being a possible application. Viola ran under the X Window System and could be used to build complex hypermedia applications that were beyond HTML 3.0 (the latest version of HTML at that time), with features like applets and other interactive content as early as 1992.

Firsts.

Viola was the first web browser to have the following features:

Competing against Mosaic.

While ViolaWWW opened the door to the World Wide Web, its limitations, including it only being implemented on the X Window System, meant it could not compete with Mosaic, the browser which brought the Web into the mainstream. Among other things, Mosaic was easier to install on the computers most people were using. Originally developed for UNIX, it was soon ported to Microsoft Windows, a platform on which ViolaWWW never ran.

ViolaWWW in patent lawsuits.

In 1999, Eolas Technologies and the University of California filed suit in the US District Court for the Northern District of Illinois against Microsoft, claiming infringement of U.S. patent 5,838,906, (covering browser plugins) by the Internet Explorer web browser. Eolas won the initial case in August 2003 and was awarded damages of $ from Microsoft. The District Court reaffirmed the jury's decision in January 2004.  In March 2005, an appeals court directed that there be a retrial, overturning a decision that Microsoft pay $521 million in damages. The appeals court said that the initial ruling had ignored two key arguments put forward by Microsoft. Microsoft had wanted to show the court that ViolaWWW was prior art, since it was created in 1993 at the University of California, a year before the key patent were filed. Microsoft had also suggested that Michael David Doyle, Eolas' founder and a former University of California researcher, had intentionally concealed his knowledge of ViolaWWW when filing the patent claim. Microsoft subsequently settled with Eolas, in August 2007, without a retrial. Eolas continued to file suits against dozens of other technology companies.  In February 2012 a Texas jury found that two of Eolas' patents were invalid after testimony from several defendants including Tim Berners-Lee and Pei-Yuan Wei, credited as creator of the Viola browser. The testimony professed that the Viola browser included Eolas' claimed inventions before the filing date (September 7, 1993). There is "substantial evidence that Viola was publicly known and used" before the plaintiffs' alleged conception date, it added. The ruling effectively ended a pending lawsuit against 22 companies including Yahoo, Google, and many online retailers.

ViolaWWW is a discontinued browser, the first to be popular for the World Wide Web (WWW). It was first released in 1991/1992 for Unix and acted as the recommended browser at CERN, where the WWW was invented, but eventually lost its position as most frequently used browser to Mosaic.

ViolaWWW a été le premier navigateur web populaire. Il a été publié en 1992 sur Unix et il était le navigateur recommandé par le CERN où le "World Wide Web" (WWW) a été inventé. Cependant, à cause de certaines limitations, il a perdu sa position de navigateur le plus fréquemment utilisé au profit du navigateur Mosaic.


Biography.

He was born in Orleans around 1590. He studied law in the same city and became a lawyer at the Bar of Orleans, before giving up to become a dramatist. He asked Corneille, also a lawyer, recommendations and opinions. He created nine plays between 1629 and 1666, however, contemporary criticism has always been bad. He is described as mediocre by several contemporary playwrights, including Scudéry.  He took part in the famous querelle du Cid, a literary war surrounding the creation of the famous play by Corneille. Claveret was accused by Corneille of being the author of the anonymous pamphlet "Le Vray Cid espagnol" for which he used the pseudonym Balthazar La Verdad, and to have it circulated throughout Paris, which ended their friendship.  He was closed to Mairet and Scudéry, who constantly attacked Corneille. The latter wrote his "Lettre apologétique" in reply to the attacks of "Observations" by Scudéry, and about Claveret, he wrote: "Il n'a pas tenu à vous que du premier lieu où beaucoup d'honnêtes gens me placent, je ne sois descendu dans toute estime au-dessous de Claveret" ("It has not given to you that the first place where many honest people place me, I've stayed in all esteem below Claveret"). Furious, Claveret then published a violent text, "Lettre du Sieur Claveret au sieur Corneille".  He died in 1666. His work then gradually fell into oblivion.

Literary originality.

In the preface of the "Ravissement de Proserpine", the author claimed not to have followed the Aristotelian rule of unity of place, essential to the likelihood, and very popular in the seventeenth century. For Claveret, the subject of his tragedy could not comply with this rule. However, he used a clever ploy by claiming that the unity of place was respected in a vertical line between heaven, Sicily and hell. He then constructed a decoration in three decks for the mise en scene of his play.

Jean Claveret (1590 – 1666) was a 17th-century French playwright, lawyer and translator of Cicero, Cornelius Nepos and Valerius Maximus.

Jean Claveret, né vers 1590 et mort en 1666, est un avocat, dramaturge et un traducteur de Cicéron, Cornélius Népos et Valère Maxime.


Life and career.

Kuszyńska entered the Polish music scene in 2000, when she was selected as the new vocalist of the Polish pop rock band Varius Manx, replacing Kasia Stankiewicz. In 2001, she released her first album with the band, titled "Eta". The following year, she released her second album with them titled "Eno". On 28 May 2006, Kuszyńska along with the other band members of Varius Manx were involved in a serious car accident in Milicz. The accident resulted in Kuszyńska becoming partially paralyzed from the waist down and having to use a wheelchair.  In February 2010, she was replaced by Anna Józefina Lubieniecka as the lead singer of Varius Manx. In June of the same year, Kuszyńska performed in public for the first time since her accident during "Dzień Dobry TVN". In 2012, she was one of the coaches for the Polish version of "Clash of the Choirs" and placed fifth. On 9 March 2015, it was announced that Kuszyńska would represent Poland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 with the song "In the Name of Love". Monika performed in the second half of the second Eurovision semi-final, placing 8th with 57 points and ultimately qualified to the final. On 23 May she performed 18th in the running order between the Eurovision contestants from Germany and Latvia. She came 23rd in Grand Final with 10 points in the televote result Poland was ranked 15th, with 47 points Jury put her last 27th with 2 points.  Her biography "Drugie Życie" (My Second Life) was published on 4 November 2015.  On 5 March 2016, she guest-starred in the final of national eliminations to the 61st Eurovision Song Contest; she sang the Polish version of her Eurovision song "Obudź się i żyj" and later announced the winner of the show.  In May she was a member of the Polish jurors panel assessing the struggles of the participants of the 61st Eurovision Song Contest organized in Stockholm.  On 1 June 2017, she released the song "To taka Miłość", which she recorded along with the guest vocal of her husband, Jakub Raczyński. The work was dedicated to their son, who was born several months earlier.

Monika Kuszyńska (born 14 January 1980) is a Polish singer and songwriter. She represented Poland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 with the song "In the Name of Love" and was previously the lead singer of the Polish pop rock band Varius Manx.

Monika Kuszyńska, née le à Łódź en Pologne, est une chanteuse polonaise. Le, elle est choisie pour représenter la Pologne au Concours Eurovision de la chanson 2015 à Vienne, en Autriche avec la chanson "In the name of love" ("Au nom de l'amour").


Construction.

The location of the venue was decided in January 1990, following Lillehammer's successful bid to host the 1994 Winter Olympics. Construction was managed by the Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee (LOOC). Architects were 2Ø Arkitekter and the main consultant was Tonning & Lieng. Construction started in early 1991, before planning was completed, and lasted until 1993. The construction work was subcontracted to several companies. Landscaping was completed in 1994. The facilities used concrete and wood as the main materials. The stadium included of temporary buildings, a building converted to a riding center after the Olympics, and a tent. The land around the venue is a swamp, and most of the surface soil had to be removed and replaced with harder earth. The soil was used as fertilizer or fill in other parts of the arena. A creek had to be bypassed with a long pipe. The arena is also so flat that a drainage system had to be installed. After the Olympics, four temporary overpasses were removed. Construction of the tracks was done to minimize the impact on the forest.  The venue cost NOK 83.6 million, and was inaugurated on 28 November 1992 with an international biathlon competition. In December 1992, the LOOC stated that they wanted to upgrade the stadium spectator capacity, but that the transport systems would not allow more people. In 1993, the stadium had World Cup tournaments in biathlon and cross-country skiing as a trial before the Olympics. During several events, the computer system controlling the scoreboard and television scores collapsed. President Johan Baumann of the Norwegian Ski Federation criticized the venue and demanded that a new stadium be built. He stated that the stadium had been built to optimize television pictures, and that it had insufficient facilities for the spectators. In particular, he criticized the fact that the spectators were too far away from the skiers and the lack of a television screen and more scoreboards. In May, the LOOC announced that the stadium would be expanded for another 6,000 people before the Olympics. On 7 September, the ownership of the venue was transferred from the LOOC to Lillehammer Municipality via the subsidiary Lillehammer Olympiavekst, which later changed its name to Lillehammer Olympiapark. In October, the forest along the tracks were partially cleared to allow spectators without tickets to watch the events.

Facilities.

The arena covers an area of, and is from the town center. For the Olympics, of cross-country tracks and of biathlon tracks were built. There are two stadiums, one for cross-country skiing and one for biathlon. The former has a spectator capacity for 31,000, while the latter has a capacity for 13,500. In addition, up to 75,000 people watched the events the trackside during the Olympics. Permanent buildings include a finishing house for biathlon, a finishing house for cross-country, a plant room. The cross-country stadium is long, while the biathlon stadium is long. The biathlon stadium has 30 shooting stations. The facility has a 1,250 kVA transformer, with an additional transformer used during the Olympics. Critical systems, such as computers and time-keeping equipment, have an uninterruptible power supply.  As a recreational venue, Birkebeineren connects to of skiing tracks, including a lighted track which is lit until 22:00 every day during winter, and is open to the public. During the summer, the tracks are available for jogging, running, roller skiing and similar activities. There is a café between the two stadiums, which also have dressing rooms and showers. The biathlon venue can be rented to hold private biathlon competition, with or without skis.  The dominant means of transport during the Olympics was by railway. Spectators heading to Birkebeineren were transported by train to Hovemoen Station on the Dovre Line, and would then be transported by shuttle bus to the stadium. In addition, spectators from certain areas were transported by bus directly to the stadium.

Events.

During the 1994 Winter Olympics, the venue hosted ten cross-country skiing events, six biathlon events and two Nordic combined events. Over 203,000 people applied for the 31,000 seats for the relay. During the 1994 Winter Paralympics, the venue hosted the Paralympic Nordic skiing events and Paralympic biathlon.  The FIS Cross-Country World Cup has been hosted three times, in 1993, 2000 and 2002, all in February or March. The FIS Nordic Combined World Cup has been hosted seven times at the stadium, in 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2009 and 2010. All tournaments have been held in December, and have seen the ski jumping competition hosted at Lysgårdsbakken, the Olympic ski jumping hill in Lillehammer. Birkebeineren hosted Biathlon World Cup events from 1993 to 1997. The stadium has also since 1992 been used as the goal area for Birkebeinerrennet, an annual ski marathon with thousands of participants. It has also hosted the Norwegian Nordic Ski Championships in 1993. Lillehammer hosted the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics; the cross-country, Nordic combined and biathlon events took place at Birkebeineren.

Results.

The following is a list of all Winter Olympics and World Cup events to be held at the stadium. It includes date, sport (cross-country skiing, Nordic combined or biathlon), tournament, distance, and top three athletes (gold, silver and bronze).

Birkebeineren Ski Stadium () is a cross-country skiing and biathlon venue located in Lillehammer, Norway. Situated from the town center and at above mean sea level, it has two stadium areas, one for cross-country and one for biathlon. The former has a capacity for 31,000 spectators, and the latter for 13,500. The venue was built for the 1994 Winter Olympics, costing 83.6 million Norwegian krone (NOK). It was subsequently used by the 1994 Winter Paralympics for Paralympic Nordic skiing and Paralympic biathlon. After the games, ownership was transferred to the municipal Lillehammer Olympiapark. The venue has since been used for one Biathlon World Cup, three FIS Cross-Country World Cup and nine FIS Nordic Combined World Cup tournaments, the latter with the ski jumping competition taking place at the nearby Lysgårdsbakkene Ski Jumping Arena. Birkebeineren hosted the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics.

Le stade de ski Birkebeineren est un site de ski de fond et de biathlon situé à Lillehammer, en Norvège. Il a notamment accueilli des épreuves lors des Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1994 et des Jeux olympiques de la jeunesse d'hiver de 2016.


Plot summary.

The story is set in the future on Earth in which a utopian government has the ability to psychologically "cure" criminals of violent personality traits. The protagonist, David MacKinnon, is a romantic idealist on trial for assault. Since the court determines he is a substantial risk to cause violence in the future, he is given a choice: either allow trained psychologists to fix him, or be exiled to a confinement area for other unregenerate people known as Coventry. MacKinnon chooses to emigrate to escape what he sees as the boredom of a too-civilized society. He is sent to the rugged outland beyond the Barrier that separates Coventry from the rest of the world, where people who refuse to abide by social norms and refuse psychotherapy are exiled. MacKinnon discovers that the peaceful anarchy he envisioned is in reality a bleak dystopia split into three separate "countries:"  He is jailed on arrival in New America, losing everything he had brought through the Barrier with him. Befriended by a man David knows only as "Fader" Magee, he breaks out of jail. He learns that New America and the Free State are combining forces to attack the outside civilization. He and Fader break out of Coventry separately to warn the country from which he had emigrated of the imminent attack. Back in the world he had left, MacKinnon learns that Fader is actually an agent of the United States Army, and that by risking his life to warn the rest of the country, he has redeemed himself and no longer needs therapy.

Influence on Dianetics.

On March 8, 1949, fellow science-fiction author L. Ron Hubbard wrote to Heinlein referencing Coventry as an influence on what would become Dianetics:

"Coventry" is a science fiction short story by American writer Robert A. Heinlein, part of his Future History series. It was first published in 1940 in "Astounding Science Fiction", and later collected into the book "Revolt in 2100" in 1953. The title is inspired by the British idiom "to send someone to Coventry". In 2017, the story won the Prometheus Hall of Fame award.

La Réserve (titre original : "Coventry") est une nouvelle de Robert Heinlein publiée pour la première fois dans le magazine "Astounding Science Fiction" en (en 1969 en français par OPTA) et faisant partie de l"'Histoire du futur". Son titre original s'inspire de l'expression britannique "Envoyer à Coventry" qui désigne une forme de punition d'un comportement jugé inadapté par l'ignorance sociale ostensible du coupable, allant ici jusqu'au bannissement réel. En 2017, cette histoire se voit récompensée par son inscription au Temple de la renommée du prix Prometheus.


Plot summary.

Jack Mann finds Beebo Brinker (real name Betty Jean — she was unable to pronounce it as a child) wandering the streets of New York City's Greenwich Village. Beebo is 18 years old, tall and handsome, vacillating between overconfidence and vulnerability after leaving her family's farm in Wisconsin. Beebo is clearly welling up with a terrible secret that forced her to move east, and guilt that comes with leaving her father alone.  Jack helps Beebo get a job delivering pizzas (one of the advantages is that she can wear pants) for Pete, who is a little creepy, and his wife who cooks. Jack also allows Beebo to live with him until she gets on her feet, and allows her the time and space to ask the questions he knows she needs to ask. When she admits her frank admiration for a woman she sees, Jack tells her about lesbians, and she reacts with obvious fascination. He escorts her to several gay bars in the Village where she is astonished and touched by what she recognizes in herself.  After being treated cruelly by a vindictive woman playing a game with Pete, Beebo happens upon Paula one evening at her apartment, and it is Paula who verifies Beebo's sexuality. She is roused a couple days later to make a delivery to the apartment of an outrageous movie star, Venus Bogardus, who lives with her lonely teenaged son whom Beebo befriends. Beebo is infatuated and unnerved by Venus, who proposes that Beebo join them to return to California as company for her son — and to bridge the gap between them. Venus, in turn, divulges her past loves with men and women and seduces Beebo.  As Venus rehearses for a television show, Beebo learns her new precarious place at her ranch in California negotiating around Venus' business-minded husband, her public persona, and her vulnerable son. She is essentially kept in secret. A dissatisfies Beebo begins to miss Paula. Being briefly seen with Venus in public causes gossip columnists to start asking questions, and Venus' husband warns Beebo to stay away from Venus. But on the night of the show, Venus' son has an epileptic seizure and cuts his head open. Beebo must find Venus at a wrap party, but is intercepted and beaten by Venus' husband before Beebo can tell her what has happened.  The morning papers unleash rumors of Venus being a lesbian. Unwilling to live in secret with Venus, Beebo returns to New York to recover while Venus and her husband appear happily in public. After a while, Beebo goes to find Paula again, who is thrilled to see her once more. Paula assures her that love can be better and they decide to see for themselves how.

Beebo Brinker.

Arguably the most popular of Bannon's characters throughout the series, Beebo Brinker is remarkable in literature — especially in the 1950s and 1960s. She refuses to dress femininely, and readers only once read about her wearing a skirt. In fact, she takes jobs that are clearly below her abilities (elevator operator and delivery boy) and declines a higher education because she knows these vocations would limit her to wearing feminine clothing. A writer who adapted three of the books into a play explained Beebo's draw: "She’s a brave person who tried to pass as a guy at a time when most lesbians were totally under cover. Those women of that era who lived openly like that were heroic. They didn’t live in regular society, they really lived on the edge, they lived on some fringe."  She is described as striking in appearance, tall, muscular, with an unmistakably handsome boyish face. She is intelligent, funny, vulnerable, all at once and she does not apologize for being who she is: a three-dimensional character who is a butch lesbian, when lesbians in literature were rarely mentioned (if only in pulp fiction), and butch ones only as one-dimensional villains. Bannon's characters became archetypes in the lesbian community when there were no role models. As displayed in "", images of butch women were slightly less feminine than other women on pulp fiction covers. Indeed, the image on the 1962 Gold Medal Books cover of "Beebo Brinker", which Bannon describes as "god-awful," illustrates how the titillating cover art was designed more for men, and with no design for accuracy.  Ann Bannon has said that Beebo was modeled physically on a sorority sister of hers.  Beebo appears first in "I Am A Woman" much more confident, in an undetermined number of years after what takes place in "Beebo Brinker". She is also in "Women In The Shadows" less confident and much more flawed, and in "Journey To A Woman" older and wiser.

Reception.

Pulp fiction novels were never reviewed in serious literary journals, but it was reviewed by "The Ladder", who called it, "a disappointment" upon initial review in 1962.  Again in 1969 in a retrospective of lesbian paperbacks, "The Ladder" claimed Beebo Brinker, "a sad failure" and that Beebo's real story lay in the years between arriving in New York and meeting Laura Landon. Although Gene Damon was a pseudonym for Barbara Grier, who started Naiad Press — the publishing company that re-released all of Bannon's books in 1983.  However, author-editor Katherine V. Forrest included chapter 4 of "Beebo Brinker" in a compilation of excerpts from what Forrest considered the best examples of lesbian pulp fiction books, aptly named "Lesbian Pulp Fiction", in 2005, and called Beebo Brinker the character, "arguably still the most iconic figure in all of lesbian fiction."  Upon its release by Cleis Press in 2001, the "Lambda Book Report" claimed Beebo Brinker, "Though four decades old, (it) remains a delightful — and now instructive read."

Beebo Brinker is a lesbian pulp fiction novel written in 1962 by Ann Bannon (pseudonym of Ann Weldy). It is the last in a series of pulp fiction novels that eventually came to be known as "The Beebo Brinker Chronicles". It was originally published in 1962 by Gold Medal Books, again in 1983 by Naiad Press, and again in 2001 by Cleis Press. Each edition was adorned with a different cover. Although this is the last in the series, it is set first — a prequel to the others. In the order of the series, it follows "Journey to a Woman". However, in the order of the events and characters in the series, "Beebo Brinker" takes place several years before "Odd Girl Out" does.

Beebo Brinker (titre original : "Beebo Brinker") est le titre d'un roman de Lesbian pulp fiction écrit en 1962 par Ann Bannon (pseudonyme d'Ann Weldy) ainsi que le nom éponyme du personnage principal. Le roman est le dernier d'une série de romans de fiction pulp connu par après sous le nom de ""The Beebo Brinker Chronicles"". Il fut publié pour la première fois en 1962 par Gold Medal Books, une deuxième fois en 1983 par Naiad Press et une troisième fois en 2001 par Cleis Press. Chaque édition comporte une illustration de couverture différente. Bien que Beebo Brinker soit sorti le dernier de la série, il est la préquelle des autres. Dans l'ordre de la série, Beebo Brinker est sorti après ""Journey to a Woman"". Cependant dans l'ordre des événements et des personnages de la série, l'histoire de "Beebo Brinker" précède de plusieurs années celle relatée dans "Odd Girl Out".


Origin and design.

Various concept sketches came from producer George Lucas' call for a "rocket-powered scooter" in "Return of the Jedi". While Industrial Light & Magic's (ILM) Nilo Rodis-Jamero designed a blocky vehicle with a large engine, Ralph McQuarrie's designs were more fanciful but with less of a sense of the vehicle's power source. The final designs resulted in full-scale Imperial speeder bikes used by the actors for film against a bluescreen, along with miniatures mounted by articulated puppets. ILM used a steadicam recording at 1 frame per second to record the speeder bikes' path through the forest moon of Endor—in reality, a California forest. Playing the footage at the standard rate of 24 frames per second caused a blurring effect, which ILM used to simulate the vehicles' high speed; what was shot at looked like.  The BARC speeder in "Revenge of the Sith" was designed to appear like a predecessor to the speeder bikes in "Return of the Jedi". ILM's Doug Chiang designed Darth Maul's (Ray Park) speeder in "The Phantom Menace" to resemble a scythe, and Chiang's initial designs for the droid army's STAP vehicle resembled the speeder bikes from "Return of the Jedi". An all-CGI swoop appearing in "A New Hope" stems from a design created for "", and the swoop also appears briefly in "The Phantom Menace".

Depiction.

"Return of the Jedi" features a speeder bike chase in which Luke Skywalker (Mark Hamill) and Leia Organa (Carrie Fisher) pilot a pair of Imperial speeders to chase down scout troopers who might reveal the Rebel Alliance's presence on Endor. Darth Maul uses his speeder to chase down Qui-Gon Jinn (Liam Neeson) and Anakin Skywalker (Jake Lloyd) in "The Phantom Menace". A pair of speeder-mounted clone troopers shoot down a speeder-riding Stass Allie when Emperor Palpatine (Ian McDiarmid) initiates Order 66 in "Revenge of the Sith". In the video game,, Swoop racing is a main part of the story with your player having to work for The Hidden Beks, a swoop gang, by infiltrating rival swoop gang, The Black Vulkars, and competing against them in a swoop race in order to rescue Bastila. Film and Expanded Universe depictions of speeder bikes and swoops consistently portray the vehicles as fast and maneuverable: Expanded Universe material describes the speeder bikes in "Return of the Jedi" as being able to travel. Speeders and swoops achieve high speed and maneuverability, however, at the expense of size and protection for their riders. "Swoop racing" is described in the Expanded Universe texts and portrayed in LucasArts games as a dangerous, fast-paced competition between skilled pilots.

Merchandise.

Since their inception, speeder bikes have been included in several "Star Wars" product lines, including Lego models and Hasbro miniatures.

Speeder bikes (also known as "jumpspeeders" or "hover bikes") and swoop bikes (or just "swoops") are small, fast transports that use repulsorlift engines in the fictional "Star Wars" universe. "Return of the Jedi" includes a prominent speeder bike chase; speeders and swoops also appear in "", "", "", "Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope" (added in the 1997 Special Edition, but absent on every earlier print), the animated "Star Wars Rebels" TV series, and the "Star Wars" expanded universe's books, comics, and games.

Un est un véhicule atmosphérique rapide équipé d'une technologie annulant l'effet gravitationnel, appelée répulseurs antigravité (') dans l'univers Star Wars. Les "speeders" sont généralement classés en deux catégories -'et'- selon l'altitude plafond qu'ils peuvent atteindre. Le premier apparaît dans "" en 1977 ; il s'agit du véhicule qu'utilise Luke Skywalker tout au long des événements se déroulant sur Tatooine. Les véhicules qui affrontent les TB-TT impériaux lors de la bataille de Hoth sont les premiers en vol à apparaître dans Star Wars, lors de "", tandis que le premier'(Motojet) apparaît dans "" en 1983 lors d'une scène de poursuite sur la lune forestière d'Endor.


Early history.

Paterson was born and raised on a pig farm in Gladstone, Queensland. He was educated at Brisbane Grammar School and then studied classics at the University of Queensland, before joining the military when the First World War broke out. He subsequently saw action on the battlefields of France. While in France, he was involved in two food-related strikes, which were both successful.  In January 1920, Paterson moved to Merton College, Oxford to study theology, after becoming a Rhodes Scholar. However, by the time he sat for his honours degree in 1922, his belief in Christianity had changed. He had witnessed extreme poverty in Ireland and parts of London, and this concerned him. Not long after returning to Queensland, Paterson joined the Communist Party of Australia.  Paterson began studying law in 1923. By 1924, he was giving lectures on Marxism. Then, in 1925, he began working for the Workers' Educational Association. This saw him addressing unions, giving lectures on the history of the working-class, and trying to increase the association's membership.

Politics and the Communist Party.

In 1931, Paterson was admitted to the New South Wales Bar. He based himself in Brisbane, but later that year went to Townsville to defend two Italian workers, who had been charged with assaulting the Italian consul.  As the Great Depression set in, Paterson became involved in fighting racist employment policies in the sugar industry. At the time, the unions and employer associations had a policy of refusing employment to Italian workers to combat unemployment in the industry. Paterson led a campaign by both the Communist Party and the Italian community and was successful in ending the practice. In 1933, Paterson left Brisbane completely, and set up in Townsville. He spent his time juggling both a part-time legal career and his burgeoning role as a travelling activist for the Communist Party. By this time, he had gained a reputation as a fine public speaker.  In April 1934, Paterson was nominated by the Communist Party as their candidate for mayor of Brisbane but he was easily defeated by Alfred James Jones, the Labor candidate.  During the late 1930s, the Communist Party continued to grow rapidly in North Queensland, with Paterson at the forefront. He played a significant role in the union movement in the sugar industry during a key strike over workplace conditions, and became involved in the anti-fascist movement.  In 1939, Paterson stood successfully as an alderman for the Townsville City Council, becoming the first member of the Communist Party to win such an office in Australia. He was then re-elected in 1943. The same year, he stood for the federal seat of Herbert, but was defeated.

Member for Bowen (1944 - 1949).

The next year, he again made history, when at his third attempt, he won the State electoral seat of Bowen at the 1944 Queensland state election. While Paterson had polled slightly behind his rival in Bowen itself, he was far in front in the mining and sugar-farming areas, which resulted in a significant victory. He retained the seat at the following election.  During his time in parliament, Paterson advocated for a "socialist post-war reconstruction" aimed at achieving full employment. These policies included increasing nurse salaries, the implementation of the 40 hour work week into law, equal pay for women, capping rents in relation to the average income, and abolishing child labor on farms. Paterson also advocated for free publicly owned and managed housing, child care, nurseries, playgrounds, pharmaceuticals and hospitals, and the introduction of free education from kindergarten to "the highest level at university". These public institutions would have been established through wide-spread nationalisation. He also advocated for the nationalisation of most key industries in Australia.

Demonstrations.

After being elected to Parliament, Paterson largely gave up the law, to concentrate on his political career. He continued being actively involved in public issues, particularly through the union movement, and was a vocal critic of the government of the time. He often made speeches at the Domain in central Brisbane. Paterson was rewarded, retaining his seat at the 1947 state election. During the 1948 railway strike, he regularly joined the picket line in the mornings before going to sit in Parliament. He also gave the picketers legal advice. Paterson knew that the police had the power to order the picketers to move, but that they did not have the power to order them where exactly to move. He then devised a strategy where, as they were moved on by the police, the picketers simply moved around the block.  During a demonstration in Brisbane, on 17 March 1948, Paterson intervened when a police officer began to assault a demonstrator near Central station. Paterson was himself then struck from behind by another officer, and was rushed to hospital in an ambulance, unconscious. Paterson was unable to do any political activity for some months afterwards. An inquiry into the incident found that no wrongdoing had occurred and no police officer was ever arrested or charged with the assault. The ex-queensland police officer and former Labor leader Bill Hayden later named the officer as sergeant Jack Mahony, who had boasted about using a pick handle on "the "Commie" Fred Paterson" during Hayden's time as an officer.  While Paterson was recovering, the Queensland branch of the veterans organisation Returned and Services League of Australia (RSL) expelled him for being a Communist. However, his return to Townsville, once he had sufficiently recovered from his injuries to travel, was widely celebrated.

End of political career.

In a 1949 redistribution, Paterson's electorate of Bowen was abolished, and split between two new electorates: Burdekin and Whitsunday. Historian Ross Fitzgerald suggests that the redistribution was done deliberately to split Paterson's electoral support and prevent him from being returned to parliament in the 1950 election. At the time, Prime Minister Robert Menzies was launching his anti-Communist campaign, and was introducing legislation to prevent Communists from holding public office. Paterson contested the election in Whitsunday, but lost to Country Party candidate Lloyd Roberts.  His defeat at the 1950 election largely ended Paterson's political career. However, he was involved in the successful campaign against Menzies' anti-Communist measures together with Max Julius, and he continued to be involved in the union movement and Communist Party right up until his death in 1977.  Paterson and fellow communist Gilbert Burns were constantly the subject of surveillance by the federal security service more correctly known as the Commonwealth Security Service (CSS). The Brisbane office of the CSS was run by Bob Wake.

Frederick Woolnough Paterson (13 June 1897 – 7 October 1977) was an Australian politician, activist, unionist and lawyer. He is the only representative of the Communist Party of Australia to be elected to an Australian parliament.

Frederick Woolnough Paterson, né le à Gladstone dans le Queensland et mort le à Sydney, est un avocat et homme politique australien. Député au Parlement du Queensland de 1944 à 1950, il est le seul membre du Parti communiste à avoir siégé dans une assemblée législative australienne.


Early life and education.

Jane was born to Beryl (). She grew up in St Albans, Hertfordshire. She was raised in the Church of England and remained an active Christian.  She studied languages at the University of London's Westfield College. Jane and Stephen Hawking met through mutual college friends at a party in 1962. Hawking was diagnosed with motor neurone disease (also known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or ALS) in 1963. Even aware of his consequent shortened life expectancy and limitations, the couple became engaged in 1964 and married in 1965 in their shared hometown of St Albans. They had three children: Robert, born in 1967, Lucy, born in 1969, and Timothy, born in 1979.  After years of working on her doctoral thesis through Westfield College, Hawking received her PhD in medieval Spanish poetry in April 1981. She felt compelled to obtain a PhD to have her own academic identity within Cambridge.  Jane and her husband separated in 1990, and divorced five years later. In 1997, she married musician Jonathan Hellyer Jones. However, she continued to support her ex-husband due to his health problems as he continued to work. In the postlude to her 2007 memoir, "Travelling to Infinity", she says of first husband Stephen after his second divorce (from nurse Elaine Mason) "We are able to associate freely again and enjoy many a family occasion together. It has been quite like old times...".  During her marriage to Stephen Hawking while dealing with the progression of his illness, Jane suffered from depression. In a 2004 interview, she cited her Christian faith as giving her hope during her marriage and the depression she experienced as a result of being his then-caregiver. In that interview, Jane noted the irony in her faith-based strength to support him in light of Stephen Hawking's well-known atheism.

Later life.

In 1999 she wrote an autobiography about her first marriage, "Music to Move the Stars: A Life with Stephen". She and her first husband established a working relationship following his separation and divorce from his second wife.  In 2007, an updated version of the autobiography was republished under the title "Travelling to Infinity: My Life with Stephen" and was subsequently made into the award-winning film "The Theory of Everything". Following the release of the film, Hawking discussed her life on BBC Radio 4's "Woman's Hour" in January 2015.

Portrayal in media.

Jane Hawking was portrayed on television by Lisa Dillon in the 2004 television film "Hawking", and on film by Felicity Jones in the 2014 film "The Theory of Everything", for which Jones was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress; the film was adapted from Hawking's memoir "Travelling to Infinity: My Life with Stephen". Hawking discussed Jones' portrayal of her in the film on BBC Radio 4's "Woman's Hour" in January 2015.

Jane Beryl Wilde Hawking Jones (born 29 March 1944) is an English author and teacher. She was married for 30 years to Stephen Hawking.

Jane Wilde Hawking Jones, née Jane Beryl Wilde le à St Albans (Hertfordshire, Royaume-Uni), est une auteure et éducatrice britannique. Elle fut la première femme du physicien Stephen Hawking.


History.

Tarqumiyah is an ancient town situated on a rocky hill. Cisterns have been found here. According to the PEF's "Survey of Western Palestine" (SWP), this place is the early Christian Tricomias, an episcopal see.

Ottoman era.

Tarqumiya, like the rest of Palestine, was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517, and in the census of 1596 the village appeared to be in the "Nahiya" of Halil of the "Liwa" of Quds. It had a population of 17 families, all Muslim. They paid a fixed tax-rate of 33,33% on agricultural products, including wheat, barley, olive trees, goats and beehives, in addition to occasional revenues; a total of 6,500 akçe.  In 1838 Edward Robinson passed by and noted that Tarqumiya was on the most common path from Gaza, via Bayt Jibrin to Hebron. While resting at Tarqumiya, he was visited by the local Sheikh and other dignitaries, who “demeaned themselves kindly and courteously." He further noted it as a Muslim village, between the mountains and Gaza, but subject to the government of el-Khulil.  In 1863 Victor Guérin found it to have 400 inhabitants, while an Ottoman village list from about 1870 counted 45 houses and a population of 108, though the population count included men, only.  In 1883 SWP described Tarqumiyah as “A small village on a rocky hill near the low lands. On the east, about a mile distant, is a spring; on the south are olives.”

British Mandate era.

According to the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Tarqumiyah had a population of 976 inhabitants, all Muslims, increasing in the 1931 census to 1,173, still entirely Muslim, in 225 inhabited houses.  In the 1945 statistics the population of Tarqumiya was 1,550 Muslims, and the total land area was 21,188 dunams of land according to an official land and population survey. 1,029 dunams were plantations and irrigable land, 6,614 were used for cereals, while 152 dunams were built-up (urban) land.

Jordanian era.

In the wake of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, and after the 1949 Armistice Agreements, Tarqumiyah came under Jordanian rule.  In 1961, the population of Tarqumiyah was 2,651.

Post-1967.

Since the Six-Day War in 1967, Tarqumiyah has been under Israeli occupation. The population in the 1967 census conducted by the Israeli authorities was 2,412.  Israel has confiscated land from Tarqumiyah in order to construct two Israeli settlements: Telem and Adora.  According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, the town had a population of over 14,357 in 2007.

Tarqumiyah () is a Palestinian town located twelve kilometers northwest of Hebron. The town is in the Hebron Governorate Southern West Bank.

Tarqumia est une ville d'environ situé à à l'ouest d'Hébron. Sa superficie ne dépasse pas hectares. Elle est composée de collines montagneuses et bâtie sur une colline de 350 à d'altitude.


Championnat américain de course automobile

Sanctioning bodies.

AAA (1902–1955).

The national championship was sanctioned by the Contest Board of the American Automobile Association (AAA). The AAA first sanctioned automobile motorsports events in 1902. At first it used the rules of the Automobile Club of America (ACA), but it formed its own rules in 1903. It introduced the first track season championship for racing cars in 1905. Barney Oldfield was the first champion. No official season championship was recognized from 1906 to 1915, however, many races were held. Official records regard 1916 as the next contested championship season. Years later, retroactive titles were named back to 1902. These "post factum" seasons (1902–1904, 1906–1915, and 1917–1919) are considered unofficial and revisionist history by accredited historians.  Racing did not cease in the United States during WWI, but the official national championship was suspended. The Indianapolis 500 itself was voluntarily suspended for 1917–1918 due to the war. In 1920, the championship officially resumed, and despite the difficult economic climate that would later follow, ran continuously throughout the Depression. Shortly after Pearl Harbor, all auto racing was suspended during World War II. From 1942 to 1945 no events were contested, banned by the U.S. government primarily on account of rationing. Racing resumed in full in 1946. The 1946 season is unique, in that it included six Champ Car events, and 71 "Big Car" races, as organizers were initially unsure about the availability of cars and participation.  AAA ceased participation in auto racing at the end of the 1955 season. It cited a series of high-profile fatal accidents, namely Bill Vukovich at Indianapolis, and the Le Mans disaster.  Through 1922 and again from 1930 to 1937, it was commonplace for the cars to be two-seaters, as opposed to the aforementioned standard single-seat form. The driver would be accompanied by a riding mechanic (or ""mechanician"").

USAC (1956–1978).

The national championship was taken over by the United States Auto Club (USAC), a new sanctioning body formed by the then-owner of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, Tony Hulman. Championship racing continued to grow in popularity in a stabilized environment for over two decades, with the two traditional disciplines of paved oval tracks and dirt oval tracks. During the 1950s, front-engined "roadsters" became the dominant cars on the paved oval tracks, while "upright" Champ Dirt Cars continued to dominate on dirt tracks. In the 1960s, drivers and team owners with road racing backgrounds, both American and foreign, began creeping into the series and the paved oval track cars evolved from front-engine "roadsters" to rear-engine formula-style racers. Technology, speed, and expense climbed at a rapid rate. The schedule continued to be dominated by oval tracks, but a few road course races were added to assuage the newcomers. Dirt tracks were dropped from the national championship after 1970.  During the 1970s, the increasing costs began to drive some of the traditional USAC car owners out of the sport. The dominant teams became Penske, Patrick, Gurney, and McLaren, all run by people with road racing backgrounds. There was a growing dissent between these teams and USAC management. Events outside Indianapolis were suffering from low attendance, and poor promotion. The Indy 500 was televised on a same day tape delayed basis on ABC, however, most of the other races had little or no coverage on television.  Towards the end of the decade, the growing dissent prompted several car owners to consider creating a new sanctioning body to conduct the races. Meanwhile, two events had a concomitant effect on the situation. Tony Hulman, president of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and founder of USAC, died in the fall of 1977. A few months later, eight key USAC officials were killed in a plane crash. By the end of 1978, the owners had broken away and founded Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART) to wrest control of Championship racing away from USAC.

CART & USAC (1979–1981): First open-wheel "split".

Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART) was formed by most of the existing team owners, with some initial assistance from the SCCA (in order to be recognized by ACCUS). Therefore, there were two national championships run each by USAC and CART. The Indianapolis 500 remained under USAC sanction. The top teams allied to CART, and the CART championship quickly became the more prestigious national championship. USAC ran a "rump" 1979 season, with few name drivers — the only exception being A. J. Foyt. In 1979, USAC denied several of the entries from the CART teams at the 1979 Indianapolis 500. The controversy saw a court injunction during the month, which allowed the CART-affiliated entrants to participate.  In 1980 USAC and CART jointly formed the Championship Racing League (CRL) to jointly run the national championship, but IMS management disliked the idea. USAC pulled out of the CRL arrangement in July. CART continued with the schedule for the remainder of the season. Both CART and USAC awarded separate national championship titles that year, and Johnny Rutherford happened to win both.  In 1981–1982, the Indianapolis 500 remained sanctioned by USAC. The preeminent national championship was now the one being sanctioned by CART. The Indy 500 field would consist largely of CART teams, as well as numerous independent, "Indy-only" teams. Indianapolis was not included as a points-paying round of the CART national championship. In addition, by that time USAC had designated Indianapolis an "invitational" race, offering entries only to invited teams. That moved in part to prevent the uproar over denied entries which occurred in 1979. One further race in 1981 was run by USAC at Pocono. This race was not supported by many CART teams, and featured a mixed field filled out by converted dirt track cars. USAC soon stopped sanctioning championship races outside the Indianapolis 500.

CART & USAC (1982–1995).

Stability returned and the national championship was now run by CART full-time. The Indianapolis 500 was sanctioned singly by USAC, but points were paid towards the CART season championship. The cars and engines used in the CART races and USAC-sanctioned Indy 500 were the same, with only relatively minor rules differences. The Indy 500 field would consist of the CART regulars, and numerous one-off ("Indy only") entries. On occasion, some of the "Indy only" entries also elected to participate in the Michigan 500 and Pocono 500 (both sanctioned by CART) given the increased stature and exposure of those two events.  One of the more noticeable rule differences by USAC was allowing "stock block" engines a higher level of turbocharger boost. While most full-time CART-based teams utilized their V-8 quadcam engines at Indy, some of the smaller or "Indy only" teams elected to run stock block engines, attracted by the boost rules.  USAC's Gold Crown Championship continued, settling into an unusual June through May schedule calendar. This provided that the Indianapolis 500 would be the final race of the respective season. However, during that period, the USAC Gold Crown schedule never included more than one race (i.e., Indianapolis). As such, the winner of the Indy 500 would automatically win the USAC Gold Crown Championship.

CART & IRL (1996–2003): Second open-wheel "split".

In 1994, Tony Hulman's grandson, Tony George, president of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, founded the Indy Racing League (IRL), to begin competition in 1996. It would exist as a separate championship, and leveraged the fame of the Indianapolis 500, which was placed as its centerpiece. After the IRL announced that 25 teams that competed in IRL races would get automatic qualifications to the race, making it impossible for the majority of the CART field to make the race, CART teams boycotted the 1996 Indy 500. It was the beginning of the second open-wheel "split". Initially, USAC sanctioned the IRL, however after officiating controversies in 1997 at Indianapolis and Texas, the USAC was replaced by the IRL's in-house officiating.  CART, which had been licensing the trademarked "IndyCar" name for several seasons, subsequently entered into a legal battle with the Indianapolis Motor Speedway (the trademark owner) over the use of the moniker. Eventually a settlement was reached in which CART gave up use of the name, but the IRL in turn could not use it until 2003. CART rebranded themselves with the CART name, and began referring to their machines as Champ Cars.  CART's existing national championship remained dominant after the split for some time, initially retaining the top drivers, teams, and sponsors. However, in 2000, CART teams began to return to the Indy 500, eventually defecting permanently to the IRL. For 2003, it lost title sponsor FedEx and engine providers Honda and Toyota to the IRL.

IRL IndyCar Series & Champ Car World Series (2004–2007).

After steadily losing teams and drivers, sponsors, and manufacturers, and after a series of major financial setbacks, CART filed for bankruptcy in 2003. The assets were purchased by a consortium called Open Wheel Racing Series (OWRS) in 2004 and the series was renamed the Champ Car Open Wheel Racing Series, later renaming it to the Champ Car World Series. However, the sanctioning body continued to be plagued by financial difficulties, In 2007, CCWS's presenting sponsors Bridgestone and Ford Motor Company withdrew.  During this time, the IRL was now operating under the moniker IndyCar Series, and slowly beginning to establish itself as the more preeminent national championship trail. In 2005, the IRL added road/street courses, and began picking up several former CART venues.

IndyCar (2008–2019): Unification era.

Prior to the start of the 2008 season, the CCWS Board authorized bankruptcy and Champ Car was absorbed into the IRL, creating a unified series for the national championship for the first time since 1978. The unified series competed under the name IndyCar Series. The two calendars were merged into one schedule, with the top Champ Car races surviving. Some of the other races from the Champ Car schedule were dropped or put on hiatus for a few seasons. All historical record and property of CART/CCWS was assumed by the IRL.  Randy Bernard was announced as the new IRL CEO in February 2010. In 2011, the sanctioning body dropped the Indy Racing League name, becoming IndyCar to reflect the merged series. The new Dallara DW12 racecar was introduced for the 2012 season. Bernard was replaced by Mark Miles in 2012. The series operated under the name IZOD IndyCar Series from 2010–2013, then became known as the Verizon IndyCar Series from 2014 to 2018, and the NTT IndyCar Series since 2019.

IndyCar (2020): Penske Era.

In 2020, the IndyCar Series, as well as the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and other holdings, was sold to Penske Entertainment Corp., a subsidiary of the Penske Corporation, owned by Roger Penske

Car names and trademarks.

The race cars participating in national championship events have been referred to by various names. Early nomenclature was to call the machines "Championship Cars", which was later shortened to "Champ Cars". The ambiguous term "Big Cars" saw some limited use; a term that identified the machines as larger and faster than junior formulae such as sprints and midgets. That term quickly disappeared from use and was instead largely used for Sprint cars. In the post-World War II era, the term "Speedway Cars" saw brief use, a loosely descriptive term, distinguishing the machines as those driven at the Indianapolis Motor "Speedway" and other major "speedways", as opposed to those driven at smaller tracks, for instance. However, the term "Champ Cars" prevailed as the preferred moniker.  In most years since the USAC era, the term "Indy cars" (after the Indy 500) has taken over as the preferred moniker. Apropos to that, when CART was founded in 1979, its acronym stood for "Championship Auto Racing Teams", which reflected the historical use of the term "Championship Car". Soon thereafter, CART started exclusively marketing itself with the two-word "Indy car" term, advertising itself as the "CART Indy Car World Series".  Through the 1980s, the term "Indy car" referred to machines used to compete in events sanctioned by CART, as well as the machines competing in the Indianapolis 500 (singly sanctioned by USAC).  In 1992, the CamelCase term "IndyCar" was trademarked by IMS, Inc. It was licensed to CART through 1997. After the inception of the IRL in 1996, the terms of the contract were voided after a lawsuit. As part of the settlement, the term was shelved by a six-year non-use agreement. Following the settlement, and the lack of direct connection to the Indianapolis 500, CART decided to revert to the former term. It re-branded itself as Champ Car and the machines were referred to again as "Champ cars".  Complicating the situation resulting from the open-wheel split, Champ Car races held outside the United States were still permitted to use the "Indy" moniker (e.g., Molson Indy Toronto and Lexmark Indy 300). Foreign venue promoters took advantage of the marketing power of the Indy 500 name for their events, even though the Champ Car series they were promoting no longer had any ties to that race. The exceptions created confusion, and Champ Car gradually phased out the usage to distance itself further from the IRL.  After the settlement expired in 2003, the IndyCar term was brought back. The Indy Racing League was re-branded as the "IndyCar Series". The machines in the series were also referred to as "Indy cars". Despite the official acknowledgment, media and fans alike would continue to use the term "IRL" to describe the series, and to a lesser extent, "IRL cars" to describe the machines. Removing the "IRL" term from use proved difficult.  With two series (IndyCar and Champ Car) still competing parallel, the umbrella terms "Open Wheel Cars" and "Open Wheel Racing" saw increased use during the split and post-split era. Many drivers during the era competed in both series at one time or another. The term was used as a way to combine a driver's career accomplishments without being series/machine specific. It also served to link the lineage of events, teams, drivers, etc., even as they switched sanctioning bodies.  In 2008, when Champ Car merged into the Indy Racing League, the term "Champ Car" was abandoned, and all open-wheel racing fell under the "IndyCar" name once again. On January 1, 2011, the name "Indy Racing League" (and "IRL") was officially abandoned, with the sanctioning body re-branded as "IndyCar".

Comparison with Formula One.

At first, American and European open-wheel racing were not distinct disciplines. Races on both continents were mostly point-to-point races, and large ovals tracks emerged on both continents. But in America, racing took off at horse-race tracks and at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, while in Europe, racing from point to point and around large circuits gained in popularity. Grand Prix racing (which became Formula One) and rally racing then diverged in Europe. Formula One was established after World War II as the World Championship for road racing, and F1 cars became increasingly specialized and high-tech.  In the 1960s, road racing gained popularity in North America, and Formula One-style design ideas changed IndyCars, which until then had all been classic-styled front-engined roadsters. When North America's road racing championship, Can-Am Challenge, collapsed in the 1970s, the IndyCars were ready to fill the void. IndyCar was a combination road- and oval-racing championship from this time until the Split. Compared to F1 cars, IndyCars were partly specialized for oval-racing: they were larger and had other safety features, and were designed to run at the higher speeds necessary for oval racing. Because IndyCars were usually "customer" cars that the teams purchased from constructors, and because of rules to contain costs, they were considerably less expensive than F1 cars, each model of which was designed by the team that used it. After the Split in the 1990s, CART maintained the old formula while the IRL drifted toward the "spec" design that has been the only IndyCar model since 2003 (which changed in 2012, with specialized aero kits available from 2015 to 2017).  As engine formulas have changed, and as engine technology has developed over time, F1 cars and IndyCars have each produced more power than the other at different times. But for the foreseeable future, F1 cars will have considerably more power than the spec IndyCar.  Alex Zanardi, who drove both in F1 and CART, said that the lighter, naturally aspirated F1 car was more responsive and accelerated off the turns faster, while the turbocharged CART car was more stable and accelerated to top speed faster.  There is debate on which series is more demanding. Some point out that champions that retired from F1 have won CART championships, e.g. Emerson Fittipaldi and Nigel Mansell, and that drivers who did not excel in F1 have continued their careers in IndyCar, with varying levels of success, while some successful IndyCar drivers have tried but failed to get a seat in even a low level Formula One team (others, however, had success, including Mario Andretti and Jacques Villeneuve, who became Formula One champions, and Juan Pablo Montoya who won several F1 races). Conversely, some point to the different track designs of IndyCar (see below) as presenting a bigger challenge to the drivers.

Types of circuits.

The American National Championship is notable for the wide variety of racetracks it has used compared to other series, such as Formula One and the various forms of Endurance sports car racing. The mainstays of the championship are as follows:  Until 1970 the championship frequently raced on dirt and clay tracks, but all such tracks were removed permanently by USAC before the 1971 season.  From 1915 to 1931 board tracks were frequently used for championship races, however safety concerns and cost of maintenance, especially with the onset of the Great Depression, and nearly all were demolished in the 1930s.  The Pikes Peak Hillclimb was a round of the championship in the years 1947—1955 and 1965–1969.  In 1909 a point-to-point race from Los Angeles to Phoenix was included in the championship.  Airport runways have also been used to create temporary circuits. The most notable used for open-wheel racing was the Cleveland Grand Prix at Burke Lakefront Airport. St. Pete and Edmonton also utilize airport runways for parts of the course, however, they lead back to streets for the rest of the lap.

Events outside the United States.

For the majority of the national championship, the races have been held inside the United States. American championship cars raced at the Monza oval in 1957 and 1958 alongside Formula One and sports cars in the non-championship Race of Two Worlds. Also, in 1966 there was a non-championship USAC race at Fuji Speedway in Japan. The first championship events outside the U.S. took place in 1967 at Mosport and Saint-Jovite in Canada. In 1971, the USAC season-opening race was held at Rafaela. In the autumn of 1978, two races were held in England, the first at Silverstone, then a week later at Brands Hatch.  Beginning in the mid-1980s, CART expanded throughout North America, venturing into Mexico (Mexico City) and Canada (Sanair, Toronto and Vancouver). In the 1990s and early 2000s, international expansion reached overseas with events at Surfer's Paradise, Rio de Janeiro, Motegi, Lausitz, and Rockingham.  Towards the end of its run, Champ Car ran races at European tracks such as TT Circuit Assen and Zolder Circuit, intentionally scheduled in regions and dates that would not compete with Formula One.

Trophies and awards.

Astor Cup.

In 2011 IndyCar revived the Astor Cup, first awarded in 1915 as the series championship trophy. A black granite base has been added displaying the names of all the American Championship car racing series winners since 1909.

Vanderbilt Cup.

The 1916, 1936 and 1937 Vanderbilt Cup races were included in the national championship. The 1909–1915 races were retrospectively added to the championship in 1926. CART resurrected the Cup in 1996 as the winner's trophy for the US500 race. When that race was discontinued in 2000, the Cup changed roles and became the championship trophy. Champ Car retained the rights to use the trophy after CART's bankruptcy, but use of the trophy was discontinued after Champ Car's merger with the Indy Racing League.

Indianapolis 500 as part of the national championship.

From its inception in 1911, the Indianapolis 500 has been considered the marquee event of Championship/Indy car racing. The race has been held every year from 1911–2019, with the exception of 1917-1918 (World War I) and 1942-1945 (World War II). The Indianapolis 500 has been part of an official national championship in 1916, 1920–1941, and 1946–2018. In the years from 1911–1915, as well as 1919, the race was held as a formally sanctioned event, but an official national championship was not recognized in those years. Therefore, those six editions of the race were not attached to an officially recognized national championship.  Winning the Indianapolis 500 has frequently been considered at near or equal profile to winning the national championship. However, direct comparisons are difficult as many of the national champions are also Indy 500 winners in their own right. In many instances, drivers have won both the 500 and the championship in the same calendar year.  During the first USAC/CART open-wheel "split", which encompasses the period from 1979–1995, the status of the Indianapolis 500 as part of the national championship changed somewhat. The Indy 500 was sanctioned by USAC, and during that time, was officially part of the USAC Gold Crown Championship calendar. However, the bulk of the field was CART-based teams and drivers. The Indy 500 paid points to the CART title in 1979 and 1980, but did not count towards the CART title in 1981 and 1982. By 1983, an arrangement was made such that the Indy 500 would continue to be sanctioned singly by USAC, but be it would be recognized on the CART schedule, and pay championship points towards the CART title.  Starting in 1996, the Indianapolis 500 became part of the new Indy Racing League championship. All ties to the CART championship were severed. It was the beginning of the second open-wheel "split". In 2008, when the two series unified as IndyCar, ending the "split", the Indianapolis 500 was now part of the unified IndyCar Series national championship. Since 2014, the Indy 500 has paid double points towards the IndyCar Series points championship, and additional championship points are awarded based on Indy 500 qualifying results.

American open-wheel car racing, also known as Indy car racing, is a category of professional automobile racing in Northern America. As of 2019, the top-level American open-wheel racing championship is sanctioned by IndyCar.

Le championnat américain de course automobile (en anglais : American Championship car racing), également nommé aujourd'hui IndyCar Series est une compétition de course automobile se déroulant majoritairement aux États-Unis et en Amérique du Nord. En 2015, le championnat est géré par l'Indy Racing League.


Elizabeth of Denmark, Electress of Brandenburg

Biography.

As a child, Elizabeth had a close relation with her brother, the later King Christian II of Denmark. She was able to read and write in both Danish and German. On 10 April 1502 she married Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg, in a double wedding alongside her uncle, the future king Frederick I of Denmark, and her sister-in-law Anna of Brandenburg. Elizabeth and Joachim got along quite well during the first twenty years of their marriage and co-existed harmoniously. She received her mother in 1507, attended her brother Christian's wedding in 1515 and received Christian in 1523.  Her spouse was a pugnacious adherent of Roman Catholic orthodoxy during the Reformation. In 1523, she visited a sermon of Martin Luther with her brother and her sister-in-law and became a convinced Protestant. In 1527, she received the Protestant communion in public: this meant a public break with the Catholic Church, and caused a conflict with her husband. In 1528, her husband asked a clerical council from the Catholic Church if he should divorce, execute or isolate her if she refused to renounce her new conviction. The church council replied that he should have her imprisoned.  Elizabeth escaped to the court of her uncle, John, Elector of Saxony, and a public debate broke out: the Protestant monarchs and her brother supported her, Luther supported her freedom to leave her husband for her religion, and she declared that she would return only if she was allowed to keep her conviction and if her husband renounced his adultery and his interest in astrology. Otherwise, she suggested that they separate, referring to the separation of her own parents in 1504. She was given a residence near Wittenberg. Her husband refused to give her an allowance and forbade her sons to visit her. In 1532, her uncle died and her brother was imprisoned, and she thereby lost her supporters.  In 1535, her husband died and her sons asked her to return to Brandenburg, but changed their minds when she made the demand that the parishes in her dowry lands be made Protestant. She finally returned in 1545 and stayed in Spandau.  The marriage of her son Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg, to Hedwig Jagiellon did not satisfy Elizabeth. Catholic services were held for Hedwig in her private chapel, and the Dowager Electress was also unhappy because Hedwig could not speak German.

Issue.

Elizabeth's children were the following:

Elizabeth of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (24 June 1485 – 10 June 1555) was a Scandinavian princess who became Electress of Brandenburg as the spouse of Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg. She was the daughter of King Hans of Denmark, Norway and Sweden and his spouse, Christina of Saxony.

Élisabeth du Danemark, Norvège et Suède (en danois : "Elisabeth af Danmark, Norge og Sverige"), née le au château de Nyborg (Union de Kalmar) et morte le à Berlin (Brandebourg), est une princesse de l'Union de Kalmar.