Factors that affect decisions.

Social class, wealth, culture and income have a very strong impact on what methods of child rearing parents use. Cultural values play a major role in how a parent raises their child. However, parenting is always evolving; as times, cultural practices, social norms, and traditions change  In psychology, the parental investment theory suggests that basic differences between males and females in parental investment have great adaptive significance and lead to gender differences in mating propensities and preferences.  A family's social class plays a large role in the opportunities and resources that will be available to a child. Working-class children often grow up at a disadvantage with the schooling, communities, and level of parental attention available compared to those from the middle-class or upper-class. Also, lower working-class families do not get the kind of networking that the middle and upper classes do through helpful family members, friends, and community individuals or groups as well as various professionals or experts.

Styles.

A parenting style is indicative of the overall emotional climate in the home. Developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind identified three main parenting styles in early child development: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. These parenting styles were later expanded to four, to include an uninvolved style. On the one hand, these four styles involve combinations of acceptance and responsiveness, and in turn, involve demand and control. Research has found that parenting style is significantly related to a child's subsequent mental health and well-being. In particular, authoritative parenting is positively related to mental health and satisfaction with life, and authoritarian parenting is negatively related to these variables. With authoritarian and permissive parenting on opposite sides of the spectrum, most conventional modern models of parenting fall somewhere in between.

Practices.

A parenting practice is a specific behavior that a parent uses in raising a child. For example, many parents read aloud to their offspring in the hopes of supporting their linguistic and intellectual development. In cultures with strong oral traditions, such as Indigenous American communities, storytelling is an important parenting practice for children.  Parenting practices reflect the cultural understanding of children. Parents in individualistic countries like Germany spend more time engaged in face-to-face interaction with babies and more time talking to the baby about the baby. Parents in more communal cultures, such as West African cultures, spend more time talking to the baby about other people, and more time with the baby facing outwards, so that the baby sees what the mother sees. Children develop skills at different rates as a result of differences in these culturally driven parenting practices. Children in individualistic cultures learn to act independently and to recognize themselves in a mirror test at a younger age than children whose cultures promote communal values. However, these independent children learn self-regulation and cooperation later than those in communal cultures. In practice, this means that a child in an independent culture will happily play by themselves, but a child in a communal culture is more likely to follow their parents' instruction to pick up their toys. Children who grow up in communities with a collaborative orientation to social interaction, such as some Indigenous American communities, are also able to self-regulate and become very self-confident, while remaining involved in the community.

Skills.

Parenting skills assist parents in leading children into healthy adulthood, influencing their development, and maintaining their negative and positive behaviors. The cognitive potential, social skills, and behavioral functioning a child acquires during the early years are fundamentally dependent on the quality of their interactions with their parents.  Canadian Council on Learning says that children benefit (avoid poor developmental outcomes) when their parents:  Parenting skills are widely thought to be naturally present in parents; however, there is substantial evidence to the contrary. Those who come from a negative or vulnerable childhood environment frequently (often unintentionally) mimic their parents' behavior during interactions with their own children. Parents with inadequate understanding of developmental milestones may also demonstrate problematic parenting. Parenting practices are of particular importance during marital transitions like separation, divorce and remarriage; if children fail to adequately adjust to these changes, they are at risk of negative outcomes (e.g. increased rule-breaking behavior, problems with peer relationships, and increased emotional difficulties).  Research classifies competence and skills required in parenting as follows:  Consistency is considered the “backbone” of positive parenting skills and “overprotection” the weakness.

Parent Training.

Parent psycho-social health can have a significant impact on the parent-child relationship. Group-based parent training and education programs have proven to be effective at improving short-term psycho-social well-being for parents.

Cultural Values.

Parents around the world want what they believe is best for their children. However, parents in different cultures have different ideas of what is best. For example, parents in hunter–gatherer societies or those who survive through subsistence agriculture are likely to promote practical survival skills from a young age. Many such cultures begin teaching children to use sharp tools, including knives, before their first birthdays. In some Indigenous American communities, child work provides children the opportunity to absorb cultural values of collaborative participation and prosocial behavior through observation and activity alongside adults. These communities value respect, participation, and non-interference, the Cherokee principle of respecting autonomy by withholding unsolicited advice. Indigenous American parents also try to encourage curiosity in their children via a permissive parenting style that enables the child to explore and learn through observation of the world.  Differences in cultural values cause parents to interpret the same behaviors in different ways. For instance, European American prize intellectual acuity, especially in a narrow "book learning" sense, and believe that asking questions is a sign of intelligence. Italian parents value social and emotional competence, and believe that inquisitiveness demonstrates good interpersonal skills. Dutch parents, however, value independence, long attention spans, and predictability; in their eyes asking questions is a negative behavior, signifying a lack of independence.  Even so, parents around the world share certain pro-social behavioral goals for their children. Hispanic parents value respect and emphasize putting family above the individual. Parents in East Asia prize order in the household above all else. In some cases, this gives rise to high levels of psychological control and even manipulation on the part of the head of household. The Kipsigis people of Kenya value children who are not only smart, but who wield that intelligence in a responsible and helpful way-- a behavior they call "ng/om". Other cultures, such as Sweden and Spain, value sociable and happiness as well.

Indigenous American cultures.

It is common for parents in many Indigenous American communities to use different tools in parenting such as storytelling —like myths— "consejos" (Spanish for "advice"), educational teasing, nonverbal communication, and observational learning to teach their children important values and life lessons.  Storytelling is a way for Indigenous American children to learn about their identity, community, and cultural history. Indigenous myths and folklore often personify animals and objects, reaffirming the belief that everything possesses a soul and deserves respect. These stories also help preserve language and are used to reflect certain values or cultural histories.  The "consejo" is a narrative form of advice-giving. Rather than directly telling the child what to do in a particular situation, the parent might instead tell a story about a similar situation. The main character in the story is intended to help the child see what the implications of their decision may be, without directly making the decision for them. This teaches the child to be decisive and independent, while still providing some guidance.  The playful form of teasing is a parenting method used in some Indigenous American communities to keep children out of danger and guide their behavior. This parenting strategy utilizes stories, fabrications, or empty threats to guide children in making safe, intelligent decisions. For example, a parent may tell a child that there is a monster that jumps on children's backs if they walk alone at night. This explanation can help keep the child safe because instilling that fear creates greater awareness and lessens the likelihood that they will wander alone into trouble.  In Navajo families, a child's development is partly focused on the importance of "respect" for all things. "Respect" consists of recognizing the significance of one's relationship with other things and people in the world. Children largely learn about this concept via nonverbal communication between parents and other family members. For example, children are initiated at an early age into the practice of an early morning run under any weather conditions. On this run, the community uses humor and laughter with each other, without directly including the child—who may not wish to get up early and run—to encourage the child to participate and become an active member of the community. Parents also promote participation in the morning runs by placing their child in the snow and having them stay longer if they protest.  Indigenous American parents often incorporate children into everyday life, including adult activities, allowing the child to learn through observation. This practice is known as LOPI, Learning by Observing and Pitching In, where children are integrated into all types of mature daily activities and encouraged to observe and contribute in the community. This inclusion as a parenting tool promotes both community participation and learning.  One notable example appears in some Mayan communities: young girls are not permitted around the hearth for an extended period of time, since corn is sacred. Although this is an exception to their cultural preference for incorporating children into activities, including cooking, it is a strong example of observational learning. Mayan girls can only watch their mothers making tortillas for a few minutes at a time, but the sacredness of the activity captures their interest. They will then go and practice the movements their mother used on other objects, such as kneading thin pieces of plastic like a tortilla. From this practice, when a girl comes of age, she is able to sit down and make tortillas without having ever received any explicit verbal instruction.

Across the lifespan.

Pre-pregnancy.

Family planning is the decision-making process surrounding whether and when to become parents, including planning, preparing, and gathering resources. Prospective parents may assess (among other matters) whether they have access to sufficient financial resources, whether their family situation is stable, and whether they want to undertake the responsibility of raising a child. Worldwide, about 40% of all pregnancies are not planned, and more than 30 million babies are born each year as a result of unplanned pregnancies.  Reproductive health and preconception care affect pregnancy, reproductive success, and the physical and mental health of both mother and child. A woman who is underweight, whether due to poverty, eating disorders, or illness, is less likely to have a healthy pregnancy and give birth to a healthy baby than a woman who is healthy. Similarly, a woman who is obese has higher risks of difficulties, including gestational diabetes. Other health problems, such as infections and iron-deficiency anemia, can be detected and corrected before conception.

Pregnancy and prenatal parenting.

During pregnancy, the unborn child is affected by many decisions made by the parents, particularly choices linked to their lifestyle. The health, activity level and nutrition available to the mother can affect the child's development before birth. Some mothers, especially in relatively wealthy countries, eat too much and spend too much time resting. Other mothers, especially if they are poor or abused, may be overworked and may not be able to eat enough, or not able to afford healthful foods with sufficient iron, vitamins, and protein, for the unborn child to develop properly.

Newborns and infants.

Newborn parenting, is where the responsibilities of parenthood begins. A newborn's basic needs are food, sleep, comfort and cleaning which the parent provides. An infant's only form of communication is crying, and attentive parents will begin to recognize different types of crying which represent different needs such as hunger, discomfort, boredom, or loneliness. Newborns and young infants require feedings every few hours which is disruptive to adult sleep cycles. They respond enthusiastically to soft stroking, cuddling and caressing. Gentle rocking back and forth often calms a crying infant, as do massages and warm baths. Newborns may comfort themselves by sucking their thumb or a pacifier. The need to suckle is instinctive and allows newborns to feed. Breastfeeding is the recommended method of feeding by all major infant health organizations. If breastfeeding is not possible or desired, bottle feeding is a common alternative. Other alternatives include feeding breastmilk or formula with a cup, spoon, feeding syringe, or nursing supplementer.  The forming of attachments is considered to be the foundation of the infant's capacity to form and conduct relationships throughout life. Attachment is not the same as love or affection, although they often go together. Attachments develop immediately and a lack of attachment or a seriously disrupted attachment can potentially do serious damage to a child's health and well-being. Physically, one may not see symptoms or indications of a disorder but the child may be emotionally affected. Studies show that children with secure attachment have the ability to form successful relationships, express themselves on an interpersonal basis and have higher self-esteem. Conversely children who have caregivers who are neglectful or emotionally unavailable can exhibit behavioral problems such as post-traumatic stress disorder or oppositional defiant disorder Oppositional-defiant disorder is a pattern of disobedient and defiant behavior toward authority figures.

Toddlers.

Toddlers are small children range between 12 and 36 months old who are much more active than infants and become challenged with learning how to do simple tasks by themselves. At this stage, parents are heavily involved in showing the small child how to do things rather than just doing things for them; it is usual for the toddler to mimic the parents. Toddlers need help to build their vocabulary, increase their communication skills, and manage their emotions. Toddlers will also begin to understand social etiquette such as being polite and taking turns.Toddlers are very curious about the world around them and eager to explore it. They seek greater independence and responsibility and may become frustrated when things do not go the way they want or expect. Tantrums begin at this stage, which is sometimes referred to as the 'Terrible Twos'. Tantrums are often caused by the child's frustration over the particular situation, sometimes simply not being able to communicate properly. Parents of toddlers are expected to help guide and teach the child, establish basic routines (such as washing hands before meals or brushing teeth before bed), and increase the child's responsibilities. It is also normal for toddlers to be frequently frustrated. It is an essential step to their development. They will learn through experience; trial and error. This means that they need to experience being frustrated when something does not work for them, in order to move on to the next stage. When the toddler is frustrated, they will often behave badly with actions like screaming, hitting or biting. Parents need to be careful when reacting to such behaviors, giving threats or punishments is not helpful and will only make the situation worse. Research groups led by Daniel Schechter, Alytia Levendosky, and others have shown that parents with histories of maltreatment and violence exposure often have difficulty helping their toddlers and preschool-age children with these very same emotionally dysregulated behaviors, which can remind traumatized parents of their adverse experiences and associated mental states.  Regarding gender differences in parenting, data from the US in 2014 states that, on an average day, among adults living in households with children under age 6, women spent 1.0 hour providing physical care (such as bathing or feeding a child) to household children. By contrast, men spent 23 minutes providing physical care.

Child.

Younger children are becoming more independent and are beginning to build friendships. They are able to reason and can make their own decisions given hypothetical situations. Young children demand constant attention, but gradually learn how to deal with boredom and be able to play independently. They also enjoy helping and feeling useful and capable. Parents may assist their child by encouraging social interactions and modeling proper social behaviors. A large part of learning in the early years comes from being involved in activities and household duties. Parents who observe their children in play or join with them in child-driven play have the opportunity to glimpse into their children's world, learn to communicate more effectively with their children and are given another setting to offer gentle, nurturing guidance. Parents are also teaching their children health, hygiene, and eating habits through instruction and by example.  Parents are expected to make decisions about their child's education. Parenting styles in this area diverge greatly at this stage with some parents becoming heavily involved in arranging organized activities and early learning programs. Other parents choose to let the child develop with few organized activities.  Children begin to learn responsibility, and consequences of their actions, with parental assistance. Some parents provide a small allowance that increases with age to help teach children the value of money and how to be responsible with it.  Parents who are consistent and fair with their discipline, who openly communicate and offer explanations to their children, and who do not neglect the needs of their children in some way often find they have fewer problems with their children as they mature.  When child conduct problems are encountered, behavioral and cognitive-behavioral group-based parenting interventions have been demonstrated to be effective at improving child conduct, parenting skills and parental mental health.

Adolescents.

Parents often feel isolated and alone in parenting adolescents. Adolescence can be a time of high risk for children, where new-found freedoms can result in decisions that drastically open up or close off life opportunities. There are also large changes occurring in the brain during adolescence; the emotional center of the brain is now fully developed but the rational frontal cortex hasn't matured yet to keep all of those emotions in check. Adolescents tend to increase the amount of time they spend with peers of the opposite gender; however, they still maintain the amount of time they spend with those of the same gender—and they do this by decreasing the amount of time they spend with their parents.  Although adolescents look to peers and adults outside the family for guidance and models for how to behave, parents remain influential in their development. Studies show that parents have a significant impact, for instance, on how much teens drink.  During adolescence children are beginning to form their identity and are testing and developing the interpersonal and occupational roles that they will assume as adults. Therefore, it is important that parents treat them as young adults. Parental issues at this stage of parenting include dealing with "rebellious" teenagers who consistently push the limits. In order to prevent these issues, it is important for the parents to build a trusting relationship with their children. This can be achieved by planning and taking part in fun activities together, keeping promises made to the children, spending time with them, not reminding kids about their past mistakes and listening to and talking to them.  When a trusting relationship is built up, adolescents are more likely to approach their parents for help when faced with negative peer pressure. Helping the children build a strong foundation will help them resist negative peer pressure.

Adults.

Parenting does not usually end when a child turns 18. Support may be needed in a child's life well beyond the adolescent years and continues into middle and later adulthood. Parenting can be a lifelong process.  Parents may provide financial support to their adult children, which can also include providing an inheritance after death. The life perspective and wisdom given by a parent can benefit their adult children in their own lives. Becoming a grandparent is another milestone and has many similarities with parenting.  Roles can be reversed in some ways when adult children become caregivers to their elderly parents.

Assistance.

Parents may receive assistance with caring for their children through child care programs.

Childbearing and happiness.

Data from the British Household Panel Survey and the German Socio-Economic Panel suggests that having up to two children increases happiness in the years around the birth, and mostly so for those who have postponed childbearing. However, having a third child does not increase happiness.

Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively for a biological relationship.

L'éducation familiale est le processus par lequel une famille élève et éduque un enfant, depuis sa naissance jusqu'à son âge adulte.


Geography.

The Lorette River sub-basin occupies the southwest portion of the Saint-Charles River watershed. The main tributaries of the Lorette river are the Friches stream (also called Sainte-Geneviève stream or Martres stream), Mont-Châtel stream originating in Val-Bélair and another tributary (without toponym, but locally called Souvenance stream) which rises at mont Bélair. The other tributaries are mainly agricultural drainage ditches. Land use essentially divides them into three distinct occupations: cultivated land, woodlands and urbanized areas.  The Lorette river is in length and its watershed covers an area of. The course of the Lorette river descends on, with a drop of, according to the following segments:  The Lorette river flows in a river curve on the southwest shore of the [[Saint-Charles River (Quebec City)|Saint-Charles River]], in the Les Saules sector, district of Quebec city.  From this confluence, the current descends on generally towards the northeast, following the course of the Saint-Charles river.

Hydrography.

The general water quality index (from 0 to 100, 100 being a good quality generally allowing all uses including swimming) in the watershed of the Lorette river varies from upstream (60 to 79, quality satisfactory generally allowing most uses) downstream (0 to 19, very poor quality, all uses risk being compromised). In the Lorette River, the rate of fecal coliforms from agricultural and urban waste is very high.  The Lorette River is also a victim of [[erosion]] problems. The massive deforestation of the [[shore (hydrography)|shores]] in agricultural areas and the waterproofing of soils in urban areas accentuate the phenomenon of bank erosion, especially during heavy rains. In several places, you can see soil left bare at the edge of the river and [[bank]]s damaged by erosion. Besides the degradation of the banks, the runoff water also brings about the most fertile part of the soil made up of [[silt (rock)|silt]], [[clay]] and organic matter (in agricultural environment) and pours it into the Lorette river without meet the slightest natural barrier to limit the impact of this phenomenon. The sediments transported to the river, once in suspension, increase the turbidity of the waters and cause physiological stress to the aquatic [[Fauna (biology)|fauna]].  Historically, the Lorette River has always experienced periods of overflow. However, since the beginning of the territory's urbanization, this natural phenomenon has been greatly accentuated. We now observe significant variations in [[flow (physical)|flow]] during heavy rains and the overflows have significant consequences on nearby infrastructure and buildings.

Toponymy.

At the beginning of the French colony in Canada, this winding river bore the name that the Jesuit father Pierre-Joseph-Marie Chaumonot attributed, in 1673, to the Lorette mission established for the Wendats (Hurons), near Quebec.  As early as 1686, Robert de Villeneuve indicated Rivière de Lorette on a map. This stream also bore the name of Ruisseau Lorette, sometimes spelled Laurette or L'aurette, and that of Petite rivière Saint-Charles. See: L'Ancienne-Lorette (ville).  The toponym "Lorette river" was formalized on December 5, 1968 at the [[Commission de toponymie du Québec]].

See also.

External links.

[[Category:Rivers of Capitale-Nationale|Lorette]] [[Category:Capitale-Nationale]]

The Lorette River is a tributary of the Saint-Charles River, crossing the sector Sainte-Foy-Sillery-Cap-Rouge and the area of L'Ancienne-Lorette in Quebec city, in the administrative region of Capitale-Nationale, in the province of Quebec, in Canada.

La rivière Lorette est un affluent de la rivière Saint-Charles, traversant le secteur Sainte-Foy-Sillery-Cap-Rouge et la zone de L'Ancienne-Lorette de la ville de Québec, dans la région administrative de la Capitale-Nationale, dans la province de Québec, au Canada.


Life and work.

Couper was the only surviving son of a wealthy textile mill owner near Glasgow. He studied at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh and intermittently in Germany during the years 1851-54. He began the formal study of chemistry at the University of Berlin in the fall of 1854, then in 1856 entered Charles Adolphe Wurtz's private laboratory at the Faculty of Medicine in Paris (now the ).  Couper published his "New Chemical Theory" in French in a condensed form on 14 June 1858, then in detailed papers simultaneously in French and English in August 1858. Couper's idea that carbon atoms can link to each other following valence regularities was independent of a paper by August Kekulé proposing the same concept. (Kekulé had already proposed the tetravalence of carbon in 1857.) However, through a misunderstanding with Wurtz, Kekulé's paper appeared in print first, in May 1858, and so Kekulé captured the priority for the discovery of the self-linking of carbon atoms. When Couper angrily confronted Wurtz, Wurtz expelled him from the laboratory.  In December 1858, Couper received an offer of an assistantship from the University of Edinburgh. However, Couper's health began to decline after his disappointment. In May 1859 he suffered a nervous breakdown, and entered an institution as a private patient. Released in July 1859, he almost immediately suffered a relapse—it was said to have been from sunstroke—and was treated again until November 1862. But his health was now broken, and he did no more serious work, spending the last 30 years of his life in the care of his mother.  Couper's research differed from Kekulé's in several ways. He was open to the idea of divalent carbon, which Kekulé was not. He provided many more resolved formulas in his paper than Kekulé had, and in two cases even suggested (hetero)cyclical formulas, which could have influenced Kekulé in his later suggestion of the benzene ring. Couper adopted the atomic weight of oxygen as 8 rather than 16, so there are twice as many oxygen atoms in Couper's formulas as in those of Kekulé. Finally, Couper used dotted lines or dashes between the atoms in his formulas, approximating the appearance of later formula styles. In this respect, his work was probably influential on the early structural theorists Aleksandr Butlerov and Alexander Crum Brown.

Archibald Scott Couper (; 31 March 1831 – 11 March 1892) was a Scottish chemist who proposed an early theory of chemical structure and bonding. He developed the concepts of tetravalent carbon atoms linking together to form large molecules, and that the bonding order of the atoms in a molecule can be determined from chemical evidence.

Archibald Scott Couper (né le à Kirkintilloch dans l'East Dunbartonshire en Écosse; mort le dans la même ville) est un chimiste écossais qui développa une théorie de la structure chimique, affirmant que les atomes de carbones tétravalents peuvent se lier pour former de grandes molécules et que l'ordre de liaison entre les atomes peut être déterminé par des preuves chimiques.


Early life.

McKenzie was born on 17 February 1941, in Enfield, Middlesex, England, the daughter of Kathleen Rowe and Albion McKenzie. She attended Tottenham County School, sometimes known as Tottenham County Grammar School, a co-educational grammar school.  She trained at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama.

Career.

Theatre.

McKenzie's early West End musical credits include "Maggie May" (1966), "Mame" (1969), and "Company" (1971). She appeared in the West End revue "Side by Side by Sondheim" in 1976, and made her Broadway debut when the show transferred to New York in 1977 receiving a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. She also received a Drama Desk Award nomination. For her role as Miss Adelaide in the 1982 West End revival of "Guys and Dolls", she won the first of two Olivier Awards for Best Actress in a Musical.  For her role in the 1986 West End production of the Alan Ayckbourn play "Woman in Mind", McKenzie won the Evening Standard Award for Best Actress. She went on to appear in the original West End productions of two Sondheim musicals, playing Sally in "Follies" at the Shaftesbury Theatre in 1987, and the Witch in "Into the Woods" at the Phoenix Theatre in 1990. She continued her association with Stephen Sondheim when she starred as Mrs Lovett in the 1993 London revival of "". The role won her a second Olivier Award in 1994.  McKenzie appeared in a National Theatre 80th birthday tribute to Lord Olivier, "Happy Birthday, Sir Larry", on 31 May 1987 in the presence of Olivier himself.

Television.

On television, McKenzie co-starred with Irene Handl in the sitcom "Maggie and Her" (1978–79), and with Gareth Hunt in "That Beryl Marston...!" (1981). She went on to greater popularity with British viewers as Hester in the 1980s sitcom "Fresh Fields" opposite Anton Rodgers, and its 1990s sequel "French Fields", for which she was voted TV Times Favourite Female Comedy Performance for five consecutive years. The role also earned her a 1985 BAFTA nomination for Best Entertainment Performance. She appeared as Mrs Forthby in "Blott on the Landscape" and as a villager involved in a series of murders in an episode of "Midsomer Murders". Film credits include "Hotel du Lac", "Shirley Valentine", "Bright Young Things" and "These Foolish Things". She made several appearances in BBC TV's long running variety show, The Good Old Days.  She was the subject of "This Is Your Life" in 1981 when she was surprised by Eamonn Andrews.  In 2007 she was reunited with Anton Rodgers (again as a husband and wife team) in the ITV comedy "You Can Choose Your Friends". In 2007 she co-starred with Michael Gambon and Judi Dench in the BBC1 costume drama series "Cranford", playing Mrs. Forrester, a military widow of slender means, very attached to her cow Bessie.  In 2008 she was announced as the replacement for Geraldine McEwan as ITV's Miss Marple. She noted: "It’s difficult because Agatha Christie wrote her in two ways... First, very much what Geraldine McEwan played: a slight, rather Victorian creature. Then, a little sturdier and tweedier. I chose the latter. A lot of people say they don’t like the tweedier version. But they’re both genuine." Also, she said: "Just about everybody in the world knows about Miss Marple and has an opinion of what she should be like, so I’m under no illusions about the size of the task ahead." McKenzie's first series of Marple comprised "A Pocket Full of Rye", "Murder is Easy", "They Do It with Mirrors" and "Why Didn't They Ask Evans?". The second series of the show, which aired in 2010, included "The Pale Horse," "The Secret of Chimneys," "The Blue Geranium," and "The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side". A sixth series, including adaptations of "A Caribbean Mystery", "Greenshaw's Folly" and "Endless Night", began filming in September 2012 and was broadcast in 2013.  During the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony McKenzie played Queen Elizabeth II on board the helicopter in the short film "Happy and Glorious". That year she also played the role of Betty Nicholas in the ITV television series "The Town".  On 26 December 2013, McKenzie appeared as the title character in the film adaption of David Walliams' book "Gangsta Granny". In 2015 McKenzie appeared as Shirley Mollison in the BBC mini series "The Casual Vacancy".

Other work.

She is a radio performer with a long list of credits, including "Blithe Spirit", "The Country Wife" and "A Room with a View". As a director she has staged "Stepping Out", "Peter Pan", "Hey, Mr. Producer!", "Steel Magnolias", "Putting It Together" and "A Little Night Music".  Throughout the early mid 2000s she played A. Oliver in radio adaptations of Agatha Christie novels starring John Moffatt as Hercule Poirot, one such novel was Elephants Can Remember.  She also recorded an audio book of Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking Glass".  McKenzie also lent her voice to several animated works for Martin Gates Productions including three films "The Snow Queen", "Jack and the Beanstalk" and "The Snow Queen's Revenge" and the TV series "Bimble's Bucket".  In 2018, McKenzie was cast as The Twelve in a Big Finish production "The Eighth Doctor - Time War 2".

Personal life.

In 1971 McKenzie married American actor-director Jerry Harte. He died in 2018.  McKenzie is a critic of fox hunting and was among more than 20 high-profile people who signed a letter to Members of Parliament in 2015 to oppose Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron's plan to amend the Hunting Act 2004.  McKenzie was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2018 New Year Honours for services to drama.

Julia Kathleen Nancy McKenzie, (born 17 February 1941) is an English actress, singer, presenter, and theatre director. She has premièred leading roles written by both Alan Ayckbourn and Stephen Sondheim. On television, she is known for her BAFTA Award nominated role as Hester Fields in the sitcom "Fresh Fields" (1984–86) and its sequel "French Fields" (1989–91), and as Miss Marple in "Agatha Christie's Marple" (2008–13).

Julia McKenzie, de son vrai nom Julia Kathleen McKenzie, est une actrice anglaise, née le dans le district londonien d'Enfield (Angleterre).


Location.

Looking at a map, one can easily locate Borzna in northeastern Ukraine. First, find the capital, Kiev. Go north a few miles up the Dnieper river to where the Desna River feeds into it. The Desna comes from the north where, at a city Chernihiv, it curves east. Along this course, where the river bulges southward, is Borzna. More specifically, it is located next to an international highway connecting Kiev and Moscow (E101). Chernihiv is about away. Borzna has no railway (the nearest railway stations being Doch () with north-south routes and Plysky () with west-east routes.  The city derives its name from the river it lies on, a tributary of the Desna.

Climate.

Borzna has a humid continental climate (Koppen "Dfb"). The warmest months are June, July, and August, with mean temperatures of. The coldest are December, January, and February, with mean temperatures of. The highest ever temperature recorded in the town was on July 2010. The coldest temperature ever recorded in the city was on January 1987. Snow cover usually lies from mid-November to the end of March, with the frost-free period lasting 180 days on average, but surpassing 200 days in recent years.

History.

Evidence of settlement in the area of present-day Borzna dates back to the Neolithic era, with Bronze Age and Scythian remains also having been unearthed. According to some modern writers, the earliest fortress (8th—13th centuries) would have been destroyed by the Batu Khan in the 1239.  Borzna was known during the 16th century as selishche, a farming community. As Borzna, it was founded in 1633. The area had been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (in the Kijów Voivodeship of the Crown of Poland) since before the Union of Lublin. Control of the town was wrested from the Commonwealth during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, after which natives of Ruthenia gained some degree of autonomy under Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky and his Cossack state. In 1648, Borzna was transformed into a Cossack regional center Borzna Regiment, and then, in 1650 — sotnia of the Nizhyn Regiment. By 1634 Borzna was granted Magdeburg Rights.  After 1654, the town became part of the Tsardom of Russia and became a county town in the Chernigov governorate in 1782, adopting the emblem of the Russian period.  240 families of the cossacks and 180 families of the peasants living in the town of Borzna in 1748. According to the census of 1859 there were total population of the town of Borzna is about 8,453.  Because of its distance from the railway (14 km), it has not grown (1897 pop 8,582). From 1923 Borzna is the administrative center of the Borznyanskyi raion (Borzna district).  In World War II, the town was occupied by Nazi Germany from September 11, 1941 to September 7, 1943. On January 18, 1942, the Germans rounded up all the local Jews they could find and massacred them at Shapovalivka. 126 people were killed, 179 removed to Germany.  August 26, 1966, Borzna attributed to the category of cities of district subordination.

Nowadays.

While the town benefits from vast farming lands surrounding it, it also has a metalwork and electronic chips plant, a brick factory, a lumber-processing factory, and a food industry. Among its educational institutions, there is an Agricultural Technicum, Panteleimon Kulish Gymnasium, and Khrystyna Alchevska secondary school, as well as a musical school.  Borzna has a concert hall (The House of Culture), Museum of Oleksandr Sayenko (an original artist who, despite being deaf and dumb, gained prominence by inventing his own technique of creating pictures out of straw), Museum of History, and an historical-memorial complex Hannyna Pustyn (commemorating a famous Ukrainian writer and activist of the 19th century Panteleimon Kulish and a peasant life writer Hanna Barvinok, (husband and wife) which is a ten-minute drive away in the nearby village of Motronivka.  The local newspaper the "Visti Borznyanshchyny" () is published twice a week. The local community also operates a radio station which regularly produces programs about local events.

Borzna (, ), also referred to as Borsna, is a historic town in northern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of Borzna Raion (Borzna district) in Chernihiv Oblast. Population:

Borzna (en ukrainien et en russe : Борзна) est une ville de l'oblast de Tchernihiv, en Ukraine, et le centre administratif du raïon de Borzna. Sa population s'élevait à habitants en 2014.


Biography.

He was born in 1922 to Damiano and Ida (née Ragazzini) Monduzzi in Brisighella, Italy. Monduzzi was ordained to the priesthood by Bishop Giuseppe Battaglia of Faenza on 22 July 1945. He celebrated his first Mass the next day, and after this studies at the Pontifical Lateran University in Rome earning a licentiate in utroque iure.  After involvement in Catholic Action missions, Father Monduzzi began work for the Holy See in the late 1950s as an adjunct (and later secretary) in the Prefecture of the Papal Household, which among other duties arranges papal audiences. In 1961 he was elevated to the rank of Monsignor. Monduzzi was named Prefect of the Papal Household and Titular Bishop of "Capreae" on 18 December 1986, and received his episcopal consecration on 6 January 1987, from Pope John Paul II (with Archbishops Eduardo Martínez Somalo and José Tomás Sánchez as co-consecrators). As Prefect, Monduzzi was responsible for the non-liturgical aspects of papal ceremonies, and the public and private audiences of the pope. He accompanied John Paul II on 130 pastoral pilgrimages and 268 pastoral visits to Roman parishes.  On 7 February 1998, he retired as Prefect of the Papal Household, and was created Cardinal-Deacon of "San Sebastiano al Palatino" by John Paul II in the consistory of 21 February 1998. Cardinal Monduzzi finally succumbed to an ongoing illness and died at 1:00 am on 13 October 2006 at the Vatican. Pope Benedict XVI celebrated his funeral Mass on the following 16 October and his remains were then buried in his family tomb in Brisighella.

Dino Monduzzi, ComC • GCIH • ComIH (2 April 1922 – 13 October 2006) was an Italian prelate of the Catholic Church. He was Prefect of the Prefecture of the Papal Household from 1986 to 1998.

Dino Monduzzi, né à Brisighella, dans la province de Ravenne en Émilie-Romagne, le et mort le, est un cardinal italien de la Curie romaine, préfet de la Maison pontificale de 1986 à 1998.


Background.

The emergence of the Lutheran and Calvinist doctrines following the schism of Roman Catholic Church, soon led to the first large scale interdenominational conflict between those new creeds. The Schmalkaldic War ended in 1555 with signing of the Peace of Augsburg. The Free Imperial City of Strasbourg benefited from the treaty by gaining further autonomy, now being able to pursue its own ecclesiastical policies. Strasbourg's status as an important trading hub along with the appeal of its university, attracted radical thinkers from both sides of religious spectrum including Hans Denck, Girolamo Zanchi and Michael Servetus to name but a few. However, by the second half of the century the city started leaning towards Lutheranism under the leadership of Johann Marbach, a former doctoral student of Martin Luther. In his capacity as the President of the Company of Pastors, Marbach organized annual visitations to the 14 rural parishes under the city's control. The visitations included meetings during which catechisms were delivered, while the life and beliefs of every parishioner were publicly examined and those not in accord with the official doctrine were admonished.

Conflict.

At the start of the war, Strasbourg was a Protestant-majority city and its cathedral chapter comprised twelve Protestants and seven Catholics. The immediate cause of the war was the death of Bishop Johann von Manderscheid and the disputed election to replace him. The Protestants feared the powerful Cardinal Charles of Lorraine, whom the Catholic canons had invited to join the chapter in 1585, and who stood for election as bishop. To hedge against this, the Protestants seized the episcopal offices and held their own election on 20 May to replace Manderscheid. Their choice fell upon the 15-year-old Johann Georg, son of the Elector of Brandenburg, Joachim III Frederick. This decision was designed to unite Protestants across Germany behind them. On this occasion, Johannes Pappus, president of the "Compagnie des Pasteurs" ("Kirchenconvent"), delivered a sermon on the "ministry, character and election of a bishop", but only the Protestants were present to hear it. After the election, the Catholic canons had fled to Saverne and there elected Charles bishop in opposition to Johann Georg on 9 June.  At first, the Protestants purchased the support of Duke Frederick I of Württemberg by accepting from him a loan of 300,000 florins. In turn Johann Georg ceded to Württemberg the district of Oberkirch, which connected the duchy to two of its enclaves in Alsace. Frederick's son, Louis Frederick, aged six, was made a canon and promised the succession to Johann Georg.  In the first year of the war, locally raised troops under Christian of Anhalt halted the invasion of Charles of Lorraine. At Saverne, Charles was joined by his 20-year-old brother Francis, who brought with him forty cavalrymen. Charles's war treasury, managed at Paris by his treasurer, Stefano del Poggio, disbursed 15,386 francs during his time at Saverne, and in 1593 another 35,392 francs were spent on military ventures in Alsace.  The reclusive Emperor Rudolph II refused to mediate the conflict, and so Henry IV of France—a Protestant convert to Catholicism—intervened in 1593. In September, he secured the division of the bishopric between the contending prelates: seven districts, including Saverne, went to Charles and six, including Oberkirch, to Johann Georg. Charles felt compelled to apologise to King Philip II of Spain, whose Catholic troops were at that moment fighting the Protestant Dutch, for this compromise. This provisional state persisted until 1604, when the Duke of Württemberg offered to pension Johann Georg and pay off his debts if he would resign the bishopric to Charles. This he did, and in return Charles ceded Oberkirch to Württemberg for a term of thirty years in the Treaty of Haguenau (22 November 1604). The Bishops' War turned out to be less about confessionalism than the dynastic interests of the House of Württemberg.

The Strasbourg Bishops' War (German: "Bischöflicher Krieg" or "Straßburger Kapitelstreit"; ; ) (1592–1604) was a conflict between Protestants and Catholics for control of the Bishopric of Strasbourg. It was one of only two sectarian or confessional conflicts, both highly localised, that occurred within the Holy Roman Empire between the Peace of Augsburg (1555) and the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War (1618). It was less bloody than the Cologne War (1583–88). It coincided with the Counter-Reformation and the Spanish Winter (1598–99), and the Catholic victory caused Protestants in Germany great worry that the tide had turned decidedly against them.

La guerre des évêques est une guerre de religion commencée en 1592, qui met l'Alsace (en particulier les villages de l'évêque de Strasbourg et ceux de la république de Strasbourg) à feu et à sang.


Career.

Shakibai's performance in "Hamoun" marked a turning point in his career. He received a Crystal Simorgh at Fajr International Film Festival for his portrayal of "Hamoun", a literary intellectual who gradually loses his touch with reality and becomes entrapped into an obsessive and destructive conflict with his estranged wife whom he deeply loves. Shakibai played also in some major television series. He won a Crystal Phoenix for "Kimiā" (The Philosopher's Stone) (1994) directed by Ahmad Reza Darvish.  Shakibai found also a considerable following for his voice, brought about through publication of the recordings of his readings of poems by such luminaries of the modern Persian poetry as Forough Farrokhzad and Sohrab Sepehri. Shakibai is credited for helping to raise the stature of performing arts in Iran by the end of the 1980s, when the authorities in charge tended to neglect this area of cultural activities. He married twice. From his first marriage with the actress Tānyā Joharí he has one daughter named Poupak, and from his second marriage with Parvin Koush'yār one son named Pouria.

Death.

Khosrow Shakibai died at 6 am on July 18, 2008, of liver cancer in "Pārsiān Hospital" in Tehran. Earlier it had been reported that Shakibai's death had been a consequence of his heart failure. It has further been reported that on October 5, 2007, Khosrow Shakibai had been admitted to a hospital for suffering from diabetes, however on his explicit request the press had withheld this information from public. On Sunday, July 20, 2008, the body of Khosrow Shakibai was laid to rest in The Artists Section of Behesht-e Zahra Cemetery in Tehran. His funeral procession began at 9 am from Vahdat Hall ("Tālār-e Vahdat"), Hafez Street, in Tehran.

Khosrow Shakibā'í or Khosro Shakibaei (; March 27, 1944, Tehran, Iran – July 18, 2008, Tehran) was an Iranian stage and cinema actor. He ranks amongst the most accomplished actors of his generation. Khosrow Shakibai was born to Colonel Ahmad Shakibāi and Ms Farideh Khātami. His father, who was an army Colonel, died from cancer when Khosrow (called "Mahmoud" by family and close friends) was only fourteen. Khosrow studied acting at Faculty of Fine Arts of University of Tehran. He began his stage career in 1963 and branched out his activities into film dubbing in 1968. Shakibā'í initiated his film acting in 1982 with "Khatt-e Ghermez" (The Red Line), directed by Masoud Kimiai. He had played in seven feature films when the film director Dariush Mehrjui offered him the title role of "Hamoun", a film that over time has achieved a cult status.

Khosro Shakībā'ī, né en 1944 et mort en juillet 2008 à Téhéran, est un acteur iranien. C'est l'un des acteurs les plus actifs de sa génération.


Physical Context.

If a fluid is moving along a straight pipe that after some point becomes curved, the centripetal forces at the bend will cause the fluid particles to change their main direction of motion. There will be an adverse pressure gradient generated from the curvature with an increase in pressure, therefore a decrease in velocity close to the convex wall, and the contrary will occur towards the outer side of the pipe. This gives rise to a secondary motion superposed on the primary flow, with the fluid in the centre of the pipe being swept towards the outer side of the bend and the fluid near the pipe wall will return towards the inside of the bend. This secondary motion is expected to appear as a pair of counter-rotating cells, which are called Dean vortices.

Definition.

The Dean number is typically denoted by "De" (or "Dn"). For a flow in a pipe or tube it is defined as:  where  The Dean number is therefore the product of the Reynolds number (based on axial flow formula_4 through a pipe of diameter formula_5) and the square root of the curvature ratio.

Turbulence transition.

The flow is completely unidirectional for low Dean numbers (De < 40~60). As the Dean number increases between 40~60 to 64~75, some wavy perturbations can be observed in the cross-section, which evidences some secondary flow. At higher Dean numbers than that (De > 64~75) the pair of Dean vortices becomes stable, indicating a primary dynamic instability. A secondary instability appears for De > 75~200, where the vortices present undulations, twisting, and eventually merging and pair splitting. Fully turbulent flow forms for De > 400. Transition from laminar to turbulent flow has been also examined in a number of studies, even though no universal solution exists since the parameter is highly dependent on the curvature ratio. Somewhat unexpectedly, laminar flow can be maintained for larger Reynolds numbers (even by a factor of two for the highest curvature ratios studied) than for straight pipes, even though curvature is known to cause instability.

The Dean equations.

The Dean number appears in the so-called Dean equations. These are an approximation to the full Navier–Stokes equations for the steady axially uniform flow of a Newtonian fluid in a toroidal pipe, obtained by retaining just the leading order curvature effects (i.e. the leading-order equations for formula_10).  We use orthogonal coordinates formula_11 with corresponding unit vectors formula_12 aligned with the centre-line of the pipe at each point. The axial direction is formula_13, with formula_14 being the normal in the plane of the centre-line, and formula_15 the binormal. For an axial flow driven by a pressure gradient formula_16, the axial velocity formula_17 is scaled with formula_18. The cross-stream velocities formula_19 are scaled with formula_20, and cross-stream pressures with formula_21. Lengths are scaled with the tube radius formula_22.  In terms of these non-dimensional variables and coordinates, the Dean equations are then where is the convective derivative.  The Dean number "D" is the only parameter left in the system, and encapsulates the leading order curvature effects. Higher-order approximations will involve additional parameters.  For weak curvature effects (small "D"), the Dean equations can be solved as a series expansion in "D". The first correction to the leading-order axial Poiseuille flow is a pair of vortices in the cross-section carrying flow form the inside to the outside of the bend across the centre and back around the edges. This solution is stable up to a critical Dean number formula_28. For larger "D", there are multiple solutions, many of which are unstable. Relation with nusselt number Nu=0.76Re^-0.23De^-0.114  where Re is Reynolds number

The Dean number ("De") is a dimensionless group in fluid mechanics, which occurs in the study of flow in curved pipes and channels. It is named after the British scientist W. R. Dean, who was the first to provide a theoretical solution of the fluid motion through curved pipes for laminar flow by using a perturbation procedure from a Poiseuille flow in a straight pipe to a flow in a pipe with very small curvature.

Le nombre de Dean formula_1 est un nombre sans dimension utilisé en mécanique des fluides pour caractériser l'écoulement dans les tubes courbés.


History.

Background.

Hypothetical universalist teachings may be found in the writings of early Reformed theologians including Heinrich Bullinger, Wolfgang Musculus, Zacharias Ursinus, and Girolamo Zanchi. Several theologians who signed the Canons of Dort were hypothetical universalists.  Moses Amyraut, originally a lawyer, but converted to the study of theology by the reading of Calvin's 'Institutes', an able divine and voluminous writer, developed the doctrine of hypothetical or conditional universalism, for which his teacher, John Cameron (1580–1625), a Scot, and for two years Headmaster of Saumur Academy, had prepared the way. His object was not to set aside but to moderate Calvinism by ingrafting this doctrine upon the particularism of election, and thereby to fortify it against the objections of Roman Catholics, by whom the French Protestants, or Huguenots, were surrounded and threatened. Being employed by the Reformed Synod in important diplomatic negotiations with the government, he came in frequent contact with bishops, and with Cardinal Richelieu, who esteemed him highly. His system is an approach, not so much to Arminianism, which he decidedly rejected, as to Lutheranism, which likewise teaches a universal atonement and a limited election.  Amyraut maintained the Calvinistic premises of an eternal foreordination and foreknowledge of God, whereby he caused all things to pass, the good efficiently, the bad permissively. He also admitted the double decree of election and reprobation, but his view on double predestination is modified slightly by his view of double election. He also taught that God foreordained a universal salvation through the universal sacrifice of Christ offered to all alike, on condition of faith, so that on the part of God's will and desire, the grace is universal, but as regards the condition it is particular, or only for those who do not reject it which would thereby make it ineffective.  The universal redemption scheme precedes the particular election scheme, and not vice versa. He reasons from the benevolence of God towards his creatures; the traditional Reformed presentation of predestination, he thought, improperly reasons from the result and makes facts interpret the decrees. Amyraut distinguished between objective grace which is offered to all, and subjective grace in the heart which is given only to the elect. He also makes a distinction between natural ability and moral ability, or the power to believe and the willingness to believe; man possesses the former but not the latter in consequence of inherent depravity. It, therefore, takes an act of God to illuminate the mind, thereby engaging the will towards action. He was disposed, like Huldrych Zwingli, to extend the grace of God beyond the limits of the visible Church, inasmuch as God by his general providence operates upon the heathen, as in the case of, and may produce in them a sort of unconscious Christianity, a faith without knowledge; while within the Church he operates more fully and clearly through the means of grace.  Those who never heard of Christ are condemned if they reject the general grace of providence, but the same persons would also reject Christ if he were offered to them. As regards the result, Amyraut agreed with the particularists. His ideology is unavailable, except for those in whom God previously works the condition of faith: for those who are included in the particular decree of election.  Amyraut's doctrine created a great commotion in the Reformed Churches of France, the Dutch Republic, and Switzerland. Jean Daillé (1594–1670), David Blondel (1591–1655), and others considered it innocent and consistent with the decrees of the Synod of Dort, where German Reformed and Anglican delegates professed similar views against the supralapsarianism of Gomarus. But Pierre Du Moulin (Molinæus) (since 1621 professor of the rival theological school of Sedan), Friedrich Spanheim (1600–49, Professor in Leiden), André Rivet (1572–1651, Professor in Leiden), and the theologians of Geneva opposed it.  Similar charges were leveled against the Puritan great, Richard Baxter, who dealt frequently with Cyrus and Peter du Moulin. In Geneva, the chief opponent of Amyraut's scheme was Francis Turretin (1623–87). Amyraut's teaching was not, however, considered to be heretical or outside the Reformed confessions by its opponents.  The friends of Amyraut urged the love, benevolence, and impartial justice of God as well as the numerous passages in Scripture which teach that God loves 'the whole world', that he will have 'all men to be saved', that Christ died 'not for our sins only, but also for the sins of the whole world', that 'he shut up all in unbelief that he might have mercy upon all'. On the other hand, it was objected that God does not really will and intend what is never accomplished; that he could not purpose an end without providing adequate means; God did not actually offer salvation to all; and that a hypothetical universalism based on an unlikely condition is an unfruitful abstraction.  The national Synods at Alençon, 1637; at Charenton, 1645; and at Loudun, 1659 (the last synod permitted by the French government), decided against the excommunication of Amyraut but delimited his views in order to avoid further variance with historic Reformed orthodoxy. He gave the assurance that he did not change the doctrine but only the method of instruction. His opponents allowed that the idea of a universal grace by which no one was actually saved unless included in the particular, effective decree of election, was permissible. In this way hypothetical universalism was sanctioned as a permissible view, along with the particularism that had characterized historic Reformed orthodoxy, and a schism in the French Church was avoided. The literary controversy continued for several years longer and developed a large amount of learning and ability, until it was brought to an abrupt close by the political oppressions of the Reformed Church in France.

17th-century England and Scotland.

John Davenant (1576–1641), like Amyraut a student of John Cameron, was an English delegate at the Synod of Dort and influenced some of the members of the Westminster Assembly. He promoted "hypothetical universalism, a general atonement in the sense of intention as well as sufficiency, a common blessing of the cross, and a conditional salvation. The "root principle of the Davenant School" was the "notion of a universal desire in God for the salvation of all men." In the floor debate on redemption at the Westminster Assembly, Edmund Calamy the Elder of the Davenant School attempted to insert Amyraldism into the Catechism.  Richard Baxter held to a form of Amyraldism, although he was less Calvinistic than Amyraut. He "devised an eclectic middle route between Reformed, Arminian, and Roman doctrines of grace: interpreting the kingdom of God in terms of contemporary political ideas, he explained Christ's death as an act of universal redemption (penal and vicarious, but not substitutionary), in virtue of which God has made a new law offering pardon and amnesty to the penitent. Repentance and faith, being obedience to this law, are the believer's personal saving righteousness... the fruit of the seeds which Baxter sowed was neonomian Moderatism in Scotland and moralistic Unitarianism in England."  Popularised in England by the Reformed pastor Richard Baxter, Amyraldism also gained strong adherence among the Congregationalists and some Presbyterians in the American colonies, during the 17th and 18th centuries.

Recent.

In the United States, Amyraldism can be found among various evangelical groups, such as Southern Baptists, the Evangelical Free Church of America, the dispensationalists in independent Bible Churches and independent Baptist churches. In Australia, many in the Anglican Diocese of Sydney hold to a modified "four point" Calvinism, while in England, one author, Dr Alan Clifford, pastor of the Norwich Reformed Church, tirelessly promotes Amyraldism in self-published pamphlets such as "Amyraut Affirmed". Yet "Five point" Calvinism remains prevalent especially in more conservative groups among the Reformed and Presbyterian churches, Reformed Baptists, among evangelical Anglicans in England and in some non-denominational evangelical churches.

Contrary views.

Amyraldism has come under fire in recent years by contemporary Calvinist theologians who argue that one simply cannot accept that Christ died for all people in the world if not all are saved. That belief either requires a second payment for sin at the judgment, the adoption of a form of universal reconciliation, or abandonment of the penal substitution theory of the atonement.  Reformed theologian, pastor, and author R.C. Sproul suggested there is confusion about what the doctrine of limited atonement actually teaches. While he considered it possible for a person to believe four points without believing the fifth, he claimed that a person who really understands the other four points "must" believe in limited atonement because of what Martin Luther called a resistless logic.

Amyraldism (sometimes Amyraldianism) is also known as the School of Saumur, post redemptionism, moderate Calvinism, four-point Calvinism, or hypothetical universalism (though it is in fact one of several hypothetical universalist systems).

La doctrine de Saumur est une doctrine protestante élaborée au sein de l’Académie protestante de Saumur par John Cameron en opposition à la doctrine de la prédestination.


History.

Hubertus Strughold (1898–1987), a former Nazi physician and physiologist, was brought to the United States after World War II as part of Operation Paperclip. He first coined the term "space medicine" in 1948 and was the first and only Professor of Space Medicine at the School of Aviation Medicine (SAM) at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas. In 1949 Strughold was made director of the Department of Space Medicine at the SAM (which is now the US Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine (USAFSAM) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. He played an important role in developing the pressure suit worn by early American astronauts. He was a co-founder of the Space Medicine Branch of the Aerospace Medical Association in 1950. The aeromedical library at Brooks AFB was named after him in 1977, but later renamed because documents from the Nuremberg War Crimes Tribunal linked Strughold to medical experiments in which inmates of the Dachau concentration camp were tortured and killed.

Project Mercury.

Space medicine was a critical factor in the United States human space program, starting with Project Mercury.

Effects of space-travel.

In October 2018, NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into outer space, including travel to the planet Mars, may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the brains of astronauts, and age them prematurely.  In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts experienced serious blood flow and clot problems while onboard the International Space Station, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term spaceflight, including a mission to the planet Mars, according to the researchers.

Cardiac rhythms.

Heart rhythm disturbances have been seen among astronauts. Most of these have been related to cardiovascular disease, but it is not clear whether this was due to pre-existing conditions or effects of space flight. It is hoped that advanced screening for coronary disease has greatly mitigated this risk. Other heart rhythm problems, such as atrial fibrillation, can develop over time, necessitating periodic screening of crewmembers’ heart rhythms. Beyond these terrestrial heart risks, some concern exists that prolonged exposure to microgravity may lead to heart rhythm disturbances. Although this has not been observed to date, further surveillance is warranted.

Decompression illness in spaceflight.

In space, astronauts use a space suit, essentially a self-contained individual spacecraft, to do spacewalks, or extra-vehicular activities (EVAs). Spacesuits are generally inflated with 100% oxygen at a total pressure that is less than a third of normal atmospheric pressure. Eliminating inert atmospheric components such as nitrogen allows the astronaut to breathe comfortably, but also have the mobility to use their hands, arms, and legs to complete required work, which would be more difficult in a higher pressure suit.  After the astronaut dons the spacesuit, air is replaced by 100% oxygen in a process called a "nitrogen purge". In order to reduce the risk of decompression sickness, the astronaut must spend several hours "pre-breathing" at an intermediate nitrogen partial pressure, in order to let their body tissues outgas nitrogen slowly enough that bubbles are not formed. When the astronaut returns to the "shirt sleeve" environment of the spacecraft after an EVA, pressure is restored to whatever the operating pressure of that spacecraft may be, generally normal atmospheric pressure. Decompression illness in spaceflight consists of decompression sickness (DCS) and other injuries due to uncompensated changes in pressure, or barotrauma.

Decompression sickness.

Decompression sickness is the injury to the tissues of the body resulting from the presence of nitrogen bubbles in the tissues and blood. This occurs due to a rapid reduction in ambient pressure causing the dissolved nitrogen to come out of solution as gas bubbles within the body. In space the risk of DCS is significantly reduced by using a technique to wash out the nitrogen in the body's tissues. This is achieved by breathing 100% oxygen for a specified period of time before donning the spacesuit, and is continued after a nitrogen purge. DCS may result from inadequate or interrupted pre-oxygenation time, or other factors including the astronaut's level of hydration, physical conditioning, prior injuries and age. Other risks of DCS include inadequate nitrogen purge in the EMU, a strenuous or excessively prolonged EVA, or a loss of suit pressure. Non-EVA crewmembers may also be at risk for DCS if there is a loss of spacecraft cabin pressure.  Symptoms of DCS in space may include chest pain, shortness of breath, cough or pain with a deep breath, unusual fatigue, lightheadedness, dizziness, headache, unexplained musculoskeletal pain, tingling or numbness, extremities weakness, or visual abnormalities.  Primary treatment principles consist of in-suit repressurization to re-dissolve nitrogen bubbles, 100% oxygen to re-oxygenate tissues, and hydration to improve the circulation to injured tissues.

Barotrauma.

Barotrauma is the injury to the tissues of air filled spaces in the body as a result of differences in pressure between the body spaces and the ambient atmospheric pressure. Air filled spaces include the middle ears, paranasal sinuses, lungs and gastrointestinal tract. One would be predisposed by a pre-existing upper respiratory infection, nasal allergies, recurrent changing pressures, dehydration, or a poor equalizing technique.  Positive pressure in the air filled spaces results from reduced barometric pressure during the depressurization phase of an EVA. It can cause abdominal distension, ear or sinus pain, decreased hearing, and dental or jaw pain. Abdominal distension can be treated with extending the abdomen, gentle massage and encourage passing flatus. Ear and sinus pressure can be relieved with passive release of positive pressure. Pretreatment for susceptible individuals can include oral and nasal decongestants, or oral and nasal steroids.  Negative pressure in air fill spaces results from increased barometric pressure during repressurization after an EVA or following a planned restoration of a reduced cabin pressure. Common symptoms include ear or sinus pain, decreased hearing, and tooth or jaw pain.  Treatment may include active positive pressure equalization of ears and sinuses, oral and nasal decongestants, or oral and nasal steroids, and appropriate pain medication if needed.

Decreased immune system functioning.

Astronauts in space have weakened immune systems, which means that in addition to increased vulnerability to new exposures, viruses already present in the body—which would normally be suppressed—become active. In space, T-cells do not reproduce properly, and the cells that do exist are less able to fight off infection. NASA research is measuring the change in the immune systems of its astronauts as well as performing experiments with T-cells in space.  On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and virulence".  In March 2019, NASA reported that latent viruses in humans may be activated during space missions, adding possibly more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.

Increased infection risk.

A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that "Salmonella typhimurium", a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and virulence". More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space. Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the International Space Station (ISS) of five "Enterobacter bugandensis" bacterial strains, none pathogenic to humans, that microorganisms on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.

Effects of fatigue.

Human spaceflight often requires astronaut crews to endure long periods without rest. Studies have shown that lack of sleep can cause fatigue that leads to errors while performing critical tasks. Also, individuals who are fatigued often cannot determine the degree of their impairment. Astronauts and ground crews frequently suffer from the effects of sleep deprivation and circadian rhythm disruption. Fatigue due to sleep loss, sleep shifting and work overload could cause performance errors that put space flight participants at risk of compromising mission objectives as well as the health and safety of those on board.

Loss of balance.

Leaving and returning to Earth's gravity causes “space sickness,” dizziness, and loss of balance in astronauts. By studying how changes can affect balance in the human body—involving the senses, the brain, the inner ear, and blood pressure—NASA hopes to develop treatments that can be used on Earth and in space to correct balance disorders. Until then, NASA's astronauts must rely on a medication called Midodrine (an “anti-dizzy” pill that temporarily increases blood pressure), and/or promethazine to help carry out the tasks they need to do to return home safely.

Loss of bone density.

Spaceflight osteopenia is the bone loss associated with human spaceflight. After a 3–4 month trip into space, it takes about 2–3 years to regain lost bone density. New techniques are being developed to help astronauts recover faster. Research in the following areas holds the potential to aid the process of growing new bone:

Loss of muscle mass.

In space, muscles in the legs, back, spine, and heart weaken and waste away because they no longer are needed to overcome gravity, just as people lose muscle when they age due to reduced physical activity. Astronauts rely on research in the following areas to build muscle and maintain body mass:

Loss of eyesight.

After long space flight missions, astronauts may experience severe eyesight problems. Such eyesight problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a human mission to Mars.

Loss of mental abilities and risk of Alzheimer's disease.

On December 31, 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that human spaceflight may harm the brain of astronauts and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.  On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.

Orthostatic intolerance.

"Under the effects of the earth's gravity, blood and other body fluids are pulled towards the lower body. When gravity is taken away or reduced during space exploration, the blood tends to collect in the upper body instead, resulting in facial edema and other unwelcome side effects. Upon return to earth, the blood begins to pool in the lower extremities again, resulting in orthostatic hypotension."  In space, astronauts lose fluid volume—including up to 22% of their blood volume. Because it has less blood to pump, the heart will atrophy. A weakened heart results in low blood pressure and can produce a problem with “orthostatic tolerance,” or the body's ability to send enough oxygen to the brain without fainting or becoming dizzy.

Radiation effects.

Soviet cosmonaut Valentin Lebedev, who spent 211 days in orbit during 1982 (an absolute record for stay in Earth's orbit), lost his eyesight to progressive cataract. Lebedev stated: “I suffered from a lot of radiation in space. It was all concealed back then, during the Soviet years, but now I can say that I caused damage to my health because of that flight.” On 31 May 2013, NASA scientists reported that a possible human mission to Mars may involve a great radiation risk based on the amount of energetic particle radiation detected by the RAD on the Mars Science Laboratory while traveling from the Earth to Mars in 2011–2012.

Sleep disorders.

Fifty percent of space shuttle astronauts take sleeping pills and still get two hours or less of sleep. NASA is researching two areas which may provide the keys to a better night's sleep, as improved sleep decreases fatigue and increases daytime productivity. A variety of methods for combating this phenomenon are constantly under discussion. A partial list of remedies would include:

Spaceflight analogues.

Biomedical research in space is expensive and logistically and technically complicated, and thus limited. Conducting medical research in space alone will not provide humans with the depth of knowledge needed to ensure the safety of inter-planetary travellers. Complementary to research in space is the use of spaceflight analogues. Analogues are particularly useful for the study of immunity, sleep, psychological factors, human performance, habitability, and telemedicine. Examples of spaceflight analogues include confinement chambers (Mars-500), sub-aqua habitats (NEEMO), and Antarctic (Concordia Station) and Arctic FMARS and (Haughton–Mars Project) stations.

Space medicine careers.

Space nursing.

Space nursing is the nursing speciality that studies how space travel impacts human response patterns. Similar to space medicine, the speciality also contributes to knowledge about nursing care of earthbound patients.

Medicine in flight.

Ultrasound and space.

Ultrasound is the main diagnostic imaging tool on ISS and for the foreseeable future missions. X-rays and CT scans involve radiation which is unacceptable in the space environment. Though MRI uses magnetics to create images, it is too large at present to consider as a viable option. Ultrasound, which uses sound waves to create images and comes in laptop size packages, provides imaging of a wide variety of tissues and organs. It is currently being used to look at the eyeball and the optic nerve to help determine the cause(s) of changes that NASA has noted mostly in long duration astronauts. NASA is also pushing the limits of ultrasound use regarding musculoskeletal problems as these are some of the most common and most likely problems to occur. Significant challenges to using ultrasounds on space missions is training the astronaut to use the equipment (ultrasound technicians spend years in training and developing the skills necessary to be "good" at their job) as well as interpreting the images that are captured. Much of ultrasound interpretation is done real-time but it is impractical to train astronauts to actually read/interpret ultrasounds. Thus, the data is currently being sent back to mission control and forwarded to medical personnel to read and interpret. Future exploration class missions will need to be autonomous due to transmission times taking too long for urgent/emergent medical conditions. The ability to be autonomous, or to use other equipment such as MRIs, is currently being researched.

Space Shuttle era.

With the additional lifting capability presented by the Space Shuttle program, NASA designers were able to create a more comprehensive medical readiness kit. The SOMS consists of two separate packages: the Medications and Bandage Kit (MBK) and the Emergency Medical Kit (EMK). While the MBK contained capsulate medications (tablets, capsules, and suppositories), bandage materials, and topical medication, the EMK had medications to be administered by injection, items for performing minor surgeries, diagnostic/therapeutic items, and a microbiological test kit.  John Glenn, the first American astronaut to orbit the Earth, returned with much fanfare to space once again on STS-95 at 77 years of age to confront the physiological challenges preventing long-term space travel for astronauts—loss of bone density, loss of muscle mass, balance disorders, sleep disturbances, cardiovascular changes, and immune system depression—all of which are problems confronting aging people as well as astronauts.

Future investigations.

Feasibility of Long Duration Space Flights.

In the interest of creating the possibility of longer duration space flight, NASA has invested in the research and application of preventative space medicine, not only for medically preventable pathologies but trauma as well. Although trauma constitutes more of a life-threatening situation, medically preventable pathologies pose more of a threat to astronauts. "The involved crewmember is endangered because of mission stress and the lack of complete treatment capabilities on board the spacecraft, which could result in the manifestation of more severe symptoms than those usually associated with the same disease in the terrestrial environment. Also, the situation is potentially hazardous for the other crewmembers because the small, closed, ecological system of the spacecraft is conducive to disease transmission. Even if the disease is not transmitted, the safety of the other crewmembers may be jeopardized by the loss of the capabilities of the crewmember who is ill. Such an occurrence will be more serious and potentially hazardous as the durations of crewed missions increase and as operational procedures become more complex. Not only do the health and safety of the crewmembers become critical, but the probability of mission success is lessened if the illness occurs during flight. Aborting a mission to return an ill crewmember before mission goals are completed is costly and potentially dangerous."

Impact on science and medicine.

Astronauts are not the only ones who benefit from space medicine research. Several medical products have been developed that are space spinoffs, which are practical applications for the field of medicine arising out of the space program. Because of joint research efforts between NASA, the National Institutes on Aging (a part of the National Institutes of Health), and other aging-related organizations, space exploration has benefited a particular segment of society, seniors. Evidence of aging related medical research conducted in space was most publicly noticeable during STS-95 (See below).

Ultrasound microgravity.

The Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study is funded by the National Space Biomedical Research Institute and involves the use of ultrasound among Astronauts including former ISS Commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka who are guided by remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study has a widespread impact and has been extended to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as medical students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations. Findings from this study were submitted for publication to the journal Radiology aboard the International Space Station; the first article submitted in space.

Space medicine is the practice of medicine on astronauts in outer space whereas astronautical hygiene is the application of science and technology to the prevention or control of exposure to the hazards that may cause astronaut ill health. Both these sciences work together to ensure that astronauts work in a safe environment. The main objective is to discover how well and for how long people can survive the extreme conditions in space, and how fast they can adapt to the Earth's environment after returning from their voyage. Medical consequences such as possible blindness and bone loss have been associated with human spaceflight.

La médecine spatiale est une branche de la médecine concernée par la santé de l'homme dans l'espace. Les spécialistes de la médecine spatiale s'intéressent aux effets d'un vol sur le corps humain, au même titre que les spécialistes de la médecine aéronautique, mais hors de l’atmosphère deux problèmes supplémentaires se posent : l'impesanteur et le niveau élevé des radiations cosmiques auxquels sont soumis les astronautes.


History.

Modern boat shoes were invented in 1935 by American Paul A. Sperry of New Haven, Connecticut after noticing his dog's ability to run easily over ice without slipping. Using a knife, he cut siping into his shoes' soles, inspiring a shoe perfect for boating and a company called Sperry Top-Sider. Sperry Top-Siders are still a popular brand of boat shoe today, among many others, including Portside, Sebago and Timberland. Boat shoes are worn by both women and men.  Boat shoes are used by sailors, as the name suggests; however, since the 1970s they have become casual footwear in coastal areas of the Netherlands, United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, China, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and United Kingdom. Some boat shoes today have traditional white, non-marking soles, though many others today have dark non-marking soles. They usually have a "moc-toe" (like a moccasin) construction. They are usually seen as somewhat of a status symbol (owning boating shoes usually denotes the owner of a boat with a deck large enough to walk around on - a moderately expensive vessel)  In the 1980s through to the early 1990s, they became a fashion trend and returned in 2007-2008 and continuing in the 2010s, as a fashion trend and were worn with every day and dress wear alike by boys, girls, men and women. The fashion was widely popular among upper elementary through middle school, high school, and college crowds in many countries. Besides being worn by themselves, many children and adults wear them with socks, especially low-cut, ankle socks and crew in white and many other bright neon and pastel colors. Many schools with uniform requirements allow boat shoes as acceptable uniform shoes.  In the 1980s through the early 1990s they were worn with the slouch socks trend. They were worn a lot with tight rolled/French rolled jeans to show off the slouch socks. Girls would also wear them with a crew neck or v neck sweater over a turtleneck or a crew neck top with the v neck sweater and leggings with slouch socks over them and Sebagos with many wearing their hair with a hair band or hair wrap or ponytail and scrunchie and bangs for a comfortable and fashionable look that could be worn casually every day to school, college, church, hanging out, etc. or would look just as in as a dressy casual or dressy informal wear. Sebago, Sperry Top-Siders and Eastland were the three most popular brands at the time and have remained so through the 2008 into the 2010s fashion trend revival.

Boat shoes (also known as deck shoes) are typically canvas or leather with non-marking rubber soles designed for use on a boat. A siping pattern is cut into the soles to provide grip on a wet deck; the leather construction, along with the application of oil, is designed to repel water; and the stitching is highly durable. Boat shoes are traditionally worn without socks.

Les chaussures bateau sont des chaussures conçues à l'origine pour la navigation. Elles ressemblent un peu aux mocassins puisqu'elles sont en cuir et ne tiennent pas la cheville. Pour ne pas marquer le pont des bateaux, leur semelle est souple et le talon dépasse peu.


Geography.

The region stretches from the Julian Alps (Mt. Triglav) in the north down the Soča River to Nova Gorica and the Karst Plateau in the hinterland of Trieste. It encompasses the following municipalities (from north to south):  It is entirely included in the Gorizia Statistical Region, except for the southernmost municipalities of Komen and Sežana, which are part of the Coastal–Karst Statistical Region.  Goriška borders on Upper Carniola in the northeast and Inner Carniola in the east. In the south, it is confined by Slovenian Istria and the Trieste city limits. Together with the adjacent Italian provinces of Gorizia, Udine and Pordenone in the west, it may be considered part of the larger Friuli region.

History.

Upon the Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps from about 600, Slavic tribes in contact with the neighbouring principality of Carantania moved into the Karst Plateau into the eastern Bassa Friulana, then part of the Lombard Duchy of Friuli. After Charlemagne had defeated the Kingdom of the Lombards at the 774 Siege of Pavia, the territory was incorporated into the Carolingian frontier March of Friuli. Margrave Berengar had himself crowned King of Italy in 888, while the adjacent marches of Carinthia (former Carantania) and Carniola had become part of East Francia upon the 843 Treaty of Verdun. When in 951 the East Frankish king Otto I of Germany invaded Italy, he seized the Friulan lands as part of the larger March of Verona, ruled by the Bavarian, later Carinthian dukes.  In 1077 King Henry IV of Germany enfeoffed the Patriarchs of Aquileia with Friuli; the town of Gorizia ("Görz") became the power base of their "ministeriales" from the comital Meinhardiner dynasty. They were able to acquire and consolidate an immediate home territory, the County of Görz, which they retained even after the Friulan territory of Aquileia was conquered by the Republic of Venice in 1420 and incorporated into the "Domini di Terraferma". When the House of Gorizia became extinct in 1500, their county fell to the House of Habsburg; with neighbouring Carinthia and Carniola it was administrated within Inner Austria.  From 1754 onwards, the region belonged to the Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca, a crown land of the Habsburg Monarchy. When in 1809 Napoleon created the short-lived French Illyrian Provinces, he drew the border with the re-established Kingdom of Italy in the west along the Soča/Isonzo River. After the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the entire crown land of Gorizia and Gradisca with Trieste and the March of Istria as well as Carinthia and Carniola formed the Austrian Kingdom of Illyria with its capital at Ljubljana ("Laibach").  Part of the Austrian Littoral from 1849, the Soča Valley was the site of the fierce Battles of the Isonzo on the Italian front of Austria-Hungary during World War I. According to the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the whole Littoral region passed to the Kingdom of Italy. Together with the adjacent Inner Carniolan and Istrian lands, it was incorporated into the Julian March administrative region. The border with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was confirmed in the 1920 Treaty of Rapallo. During the Fascist regime the Slovene minority was submitted to a violent policy of Italianization, against the resistance of the TIGR movement.  After World War II, the present borders were established: most of the Slovene-inhabited areas were ceded to the newly established Yugoslav republic of Slovenia, while the town of Gorizia itself with Gradisca and the territory downstream the Isonzo River to the Adriatic coast were left to Italy.

Notable people.

Well-known people from the region include

Goriška is a historical region in western Slovenia on the border with Italy. It comprises the northern part of the wider traditional region of the Slovenian Littoral ("Primorska"). The name "Goriška" is an adjective referring to the city of Gorizia, its historical and cultural centre.

La Goriška est une région traditionnelle de l’ouest de la Slovénie, une partie intégrante du Littoral slovène. Son nom remonte au comté de Gorizia et Gradisca, une ancienne principauté appartenant à la monarchie de Habsbourg, à l'est de la vaste région de Frioul.


Synthesis.

2-Picoline was the first pyridine compound reported to be isolated in pure form. It was isolated from coal tar in 1846 by T. Anderson. This chemistry was practiced by Reilly Industries in Indianapolis. It is now mainly produced by two principal routes, the condensation of acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, and ammonia and the cyclization of nitriles and acetylene. One example of such reaction is the combination of acetaldehyde and ammonia:  Approximately 8000 t/a was produced worldwide in 1989.

Reactions.

Most of the reactions of picoline are centered on the methyl group. For example, the principal use of 2-picoline is as a precursor of 2-vinylpyridine. The conversion is achieved by condensation with formaldehyde:  The copolymer of 2-vinylpyridine, butadiene and styrene is used as an adhesive for textile tire cord. 2-Picoline is also a precursor to the agrichemical, nitrapyrin, which prevents loss of ammonia from fertilizers. Oxidation by potassium permanganate affords picolinic acid: Deprotonation with butyllithium affords CHNCHLi, a versatile nucleophile.

Biodegradation.

Like other pyridine derivatives, 2-methylpyridine is often reported as an environmental contaminant associated with facilities processing oil shale or coal, and has also been found at legacy wood treatment sites. The compound is readily degradable by certain microorganisms, such as "Arthrobacter" sp. strain R1 (ATTC strain number 49987), which was isolated from an aquifer contaminated with a complex mixture of pyridine derivatives. Arthrobacter and closely related Actinobacteria are often found associated with degradation of pyridine derivatives and other nitrogen heterocyclic compounds. 2-methypyridine and 4-methypyridine are more readily degraded and exhibit less volatilization loss from environmental samples than does 3-methypyridine.

Uses.

2-Methylpyridine is an intermediate used in the production of some pharmaceutical drugs including amprolium, picoplatin, dimethindene, and encainide.

2-Methylpyridine, or 2-picoline, is the compound described with formula CHN. 2-Picoline is a colorless liquid that has an unpleasant odor similar to pyridine. It is mainly used to make vinylpyridine and the agrichemical nitrapyrin.

La 2-méthylpyridine ou 2-picoline est un dérivé méthylé de la pyridine de formule brute CHN. Il s'agit d'un isomère de la picoline, nom donné aux 3 isomères de la méthylpyridine.


History of planetary geology.

Eugene Shoemaker is credited with bringing geologic principles to planetary mapping and creating the branch of planetary science in the early 1960s, the Astrogeology Research Program, within the United States Geological Survey. He made important contributions to the field and the study of impact craters, Selenography (study of the Moon), asteroids, and comets.  Today many institutions are concerned with the study and communication of planetary sciences and planetary geology. The Visitor Center at Barringer Meteor Crater near Winslow, Arizona includes a museum of planetary geology. The Geological Society of America's Planetary Geology Division has been growing and thriving since May 1981 and has two mottos: "One planet just isn't enough!" and "“The GSA Division with the biggest field area!"  Major centers for planetary science research include the Lunar and Planetary Institute, the Applied Physics Laboratory, the Planetary Science Institute, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Southwest Research Institute, and Johnson Space Center. Additionally, several universities conduct extensive planetary science research, including Montana State University, Brown University, the University of Arizona, Caltech, the University of Colorado, Western Michigan University, MIT, and Washington University in St. Louis.

Tools.

Several tools are used in planetary geology, including common archaeological tools such as hammers, shovels, brushes, etc. are often used by planetary geologists. Along with these common tools, new advanced technologies are used by planetary geologists Scientists also with these tools, use maps and images that telescopes on Earth (thirty meter telescope) and orbiting telescopes (Hubble) have taken different planetary bodies. The maps and images are stored in the NASA Planetary Data System where tools such as the Planetary Image Atlas help to search for certain items such as geological features including: mountains, ravines, and craters.

Features and terms.

Planetary geology uses a wide variety of standardized descriptor names for features. All planetary feature names recognized by the International Astronomical Union combine one of these names with a possibly unique identifying name. The conventions which decide the more precise name are dependent on which planetary body the feature is on, but the standard descriptors are in general common to all astronomical planetary bodies. Some names have a long history of historical usage, but new must be recognized by the IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature as features are mapped and described by new planetary missions. This means that in some cases names may change as new imagery becomes available, or in other cases widely adopted informal names changed in line with the rules. The standard names are chosen to consciously avoid interpreting the underlying cause of the feature, but rather to describe only its appearance.

Planetary geology, alternatively known as astrogeology or exogeology, is a planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. Although the geo- prefix typically indicates topics of or relating to Earth, planetary geology is named as such for historical and convenience reasons; due to the types of investigations involved, it is closely linked with Earth-based geology.

La géologie planétaire, également appelée exogéologie ou astrogéologie, est une branche de la planétologie qui emprunte les outils et les raisonnements des géosciences (travail sur le terrain, méthodes de télédétection, expérimentations "in situ" ou en laboratoire, prélèvements d’échantillons, etc.) pour les appliquer aux autres corps solides du Système solaire afin de connaître et de comprendre leur structure, leur composition et leur histoire géologique.