Etymology.

The island is named in honour of Jacques Marie Boudin de Tromelin de La Nuguy, captain of the French corvette "Dauphine". He arrived at the island on 29 November 1776, and rescued eight stranded enslaved Malagasy people who had been on the island for 15 years.

Description.

Tromelin is situated in the Mascarene Basin and is part of the Iles Eparses. It is currently only high. It formed as a volcano, now eroded, and developed an atoll ring of coral.  Tromelin is about long and wide, with an area of 80 ha (200 acres), covered in scrub dominated by octopus bush and surrounded by coral reefs. Access by sea is quite difficult as there are no harbours and the only anchorage, to the northwest of the island, is poorly situated. The best, but by no means ideal, landing area is on the east side of the northern peninsula. A 1,200-metre airstrip provides a link with the outside world.

Fauna and Flora.

Flora is poorly developed due to weather conditions and lack of fresh water. With the exception of two or three months in summer, this flat island is swept day and night by heavy winds that are sustained in winter. In summer, it can suffer the onslaught of cyclones and tropical storms.  There is only grass and brush (low shrubs) present on the island. Veloutaries (Heliotropium foertherianum) and purslane (Portulaca oleracea), with growth shaped by a dominant east winds are present everywhere on the island.  The fauna consists mainly of hermit crabs (Paguroidea), seabirds and sea turtles for which the island is an important nesting place. The green turtle (Chelonia mydas), also known as the freshwater turtle, is mainly encountered and, to a lesser extent, the tortoiseshell turtle, better known as the caret.  The waters are rich with fish. The French Coral Reef Initiative (IFRECOR) has identified 26 species of corals. Allochthonous species were introduced on the island during the various shipwrecks: rats, mice and rabbits. The latter were decimated in 1986 by cyclone Erinesta.

Important Bird Area.

The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because of its significance as a seabird breeding site. Both masked (with up to 250 pairs) and red-footed boobies (up to 180 pairs) nesting there. Sulidae populations have seriously declined in the western Indian Ocean with those on Tromelin among the healthiest remaining.  The island's masked boobies are of the western Indian Ocean subspecies ("Sula dactylatra melanops"), of which Tromelin is a stronghold. The red-footed boobies constitute the only polymorphic population in the region, indicating its biogeographical isolation. Both great and lesser frigatebirds used to nest on the island. The breeding populations of both birds have since been extirpated, although they continue to use the island for roosting.  There are no resident landbirds.

History.

The island was discovered by France in 1720s. It was recorded by the French navigator Jean Marie Briand de la Feuillée and named "Île des Sables" ('Isle of Sand').

Wreck of the ship "Utile".

On 31 July 1761 the French ship "Utile" ("Useful"), a frigate of the French East India Company, chartered by Jean-Joseph de Laborde and commanded by Captain Jean de La Fargue, transporting slaves from Madagascar to Mauritius in contravention of Mauritian law, ran onto the reefs of the island. The ship had departed Bayonne in France with 142 men. After a stopover on the Isle de France (present-day Mauritius), the ship embarked 160 Malagasy men, women and children at Foulpointe, on the east coast of Madagascar, to bring them into slavery on Mauritius, despite the prohibition of trafficking decreed by the governor. A navigation error, due to the use of two conflicting charts, caused the vessel to wreck on the reefs of Tromelin Island (then known as the Isle of Sand). The ship was a frigate, not a slave ship, and thus was not equipped with the shackles and chains usually found on slave ships.  After the wreck, the crew and about 60 Malagasy people managed to reach the island, but the rest of the slaves, locked in the hold, drowned. The crew retrieved various equipment, food and wood from the wreckage. They dug a well, providing drinking water, and fed on salvaged food, turtles and seabirds.  Captain Jean de Lafargue, having lost his mind as a result of the wreck, was replaced by his first lieutenant, second-in-command, Barthelemy Castellan du Vernet who lost his brother Leon in the shipwreck. Castellan built two camps, one for the crew and one for the slaves, a forge and an oven, and, with the materials recovered from the wreckage, began construction of a boat. On 27 September 1761, a contingent of 122 French sailors (crew and officers) left Tromelin aboard the "Providence". They left the surviving slaves—60 Malagasy men and women—on the desert island, promising to return and rescue them. The sailors reached Madagascar in just over four days and, after a stopover in Foulpointe, where men died of tropical diseases, were transferred to Bourbon Island (now Réunion Island), and then to the Isle de France (now Mauritius). When the crew of the ship reached Mauritius, they requested that colonial authorities send a ship to rescue the Malagasy slaves on the island. However, they met with a categorical refusal from the governor, with the justification that France was fighting the Seven Years' War and thus no ship could be spared, the island of Mauritius being itself under threat of attack from British India.  Castellan left the Isle de France to return to France in 1762 and never gave up hope to one day return to the Isle of Sand to save the Malagasy people. The news of the castaway slaves got published and stirred the Parisian intellectual milieu; later, the episode was all but forgotten with the end of the Seven Years' War and the bankruptcy of the East India Company.  In 1773, a ship passing close to Tromelin Island located the slaves and reported them to the authorities of Isle de France. A boat was sent, but this first rescue failed, as the ship couldn't approach the island. A year later, a second ship, "Sauterelle", also failed to reach the island. During this second failed rescue, a sailor managed to swim to the island, but he had to be abandoned by the ship due to bad weather. This sailor remained on Tromelin Island and, some time later, probably around 1775, built a raft on which he embarked with three men and three women, but which disappeared at sea.  It was not until 29 November 1776, 15 years after the sinking, that Ensign Tromelin-Lanuguy, captain of the corvette "Dauphine", reached Tromelin Island and rescued the survivors—seven women and an eight-month-old child. Upon arriving there, Tromelin-Lanuguy discovered that the survivors were dressed in plaited feather clothes and that they had managed, during all these years, to keep a fire lit (the island does not have a single tree). The Malagasy people, who had been left on the bleak little island, built a shed with coral stones, for most of the wood had been used in the construction of the raft for the crew. They also built a lookout on the highest point of the island in order not to miss the ship that would, they hoped, come to their rescue. They were all from the Central Highlands of Madagascar, and had no knowledge of how to produce food in the coastal environment. Most had died within the first few months on the island. The survivors remained with Jacques Maillart, governor of the Isle de France, who declared them free and offered to bring them back to Madagascar, which they refused. Maillart decided to baptize the child Jacques Moyse (Moses), on the day of his arrival in Port-Louis on 15 December 1776, and to rename his mother Eve (her Malagasy name was Semiavou) and to do the same with the child's grandmother, whom he called Dauphine after the name of the corvette that rescued them. The trio was welcomed in the house of the intendant of the Isle of France. Tromelin was the first to precisely describe the island that now bears his name.  The Marquis de Condorcet, advocating the abolition of slavery in his book "Reflections on the Slavery of Negroes" published in 1781, recounted the tragedy of the castaways of Tromelin to illustrate the inhumanity of the slave trade.

Expedition "Forgotten slaves".

An archeological expedition entitled "Forgotten Slaves", led by Max Guérout, a former French naval officer and director of operations of the Naval Archeology Research Group, and Thomas Romon, archaeologist at INRAP (National Institute for Preventive Archaeological Research), took place from October to November 2006, under the patronage of UNESCO and the French Committee for the History and Remembrance of Slavery (CPMHE). The results of the research were made public on January 17, 2007. The ten members of the expedition probed the wreck of "Utile", and searched the island for traces of shipwreck, in order to better understand the living conditions of the Malagasy people during these fifteen years. According to Max Guérout, head of the mission, "In three days, a well 5 meters deep was dug. This represented a considerable effort. We found many bones of birds, turtles, and fish." One does not have the impression that these people were crushed by their condition. They tried to survive with order and method."  An anonymous logbook, attributed to a writer of the crew, was found. Basements made of beach sandstone and coral were also found (the survivors thus transgressed a Malagasy custom according to which stone constructions were reserved for tombs). There were also six copper bowls and a pebble used to sharpen knives. The fire was maintained for fifteen years, thanks to the wood from the wreck, the island being devoid of trees.  A second expedition, organized in November 2008, did not reveal the burials observed in 1851 by an English naval officer. However, the remains of two bodies displaced during the digging of the foundations of a building of the weather station have been uncovered. Three buildings built with coral blocks have been discovered, including the kitchen, which was still equipped with kitchen utensils, and in particular copper containers that had been repaired several times, testifying to the slaves' determination to survive.  A third archaeological mission took place in November 2010. It allowed the discovery of three new buildings and many objects, including two lighters and flints, which elucidated the technique used by the castaways to rekindle the fire.  The fourth expedition, took place in September / October 2013. It lasted for 45 days, and enabled to identify many tools, shelters and to understand the layout of the site.  In 2016, an exhibition presenting the results of the various excavation campaigns, entitled "Tromelin, the island of forgotten slaves", was presented jointly in metropolitan France and in the DROM: at the Stella Matutina museum in Saint-Leu (La Réunion), the castle of the Dukes of Brittany in Nantes, the House of Agglomeration of Lorient, the Aquitaine Museum in Bordeaux, the departmental museum of archeology and prehistory of Martinique in Fort-de-France, and finally to the Basque Museum of the History of Bayonne from June to November 2017.

Sovereignty claims.

The French claim to sovereignty dates from 29 November 1776, the date that the ship "Dauphine" arrived.  The Mauritian claim to sovereignty is based on the fact that the island must have been ceded to United Kingdom by the treaty of Paris in 1814 and should not continue to be administered by France as a dependency of Réunion.  The United Nations never recognized the Mauritian sovereignty over Tromelin. In 1954, France constructed a meteorological station and a landing strip on the island.  It is a matter of dispute whether the building agreement transferred sovereignty of Tromelin from one to the other, and Mauritius claims the island as part of its territory, on the grounds that France has not retained its sovereignty over island in 1814 which was "de facto" part of the colony of Mauritius at the time of independence. Indeed, as early as 1959, even before independence, Mauritius informed the World Meteorological Organization that it considered Tromelin to be part of its territory. A co-management treaty was reached by France and Mauritius in 2010, but has not been ratified.  Tromelin has an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of, contiguous with that of Réunion. The island's weather station, which warns of cyclones, is still operated by France and is staffed by meteorologists from Réunion.

Tromelin Island (;, ) is a low, flat island in the Indian Ocean about north of Réunion and about east of Madagascar. Tromelin is administered as part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, a French Overseas Territory but Mauritius claims sovereignty over the island despite its absence in the listing of the 8th article of the 1814 Paris Treaty. Indeed, the treaty doesn't specifically mention all the dependencies of Mauritius which leads to uncertainty on the sovereignty of Tromelin. During the British period of Mauritius, France administrated the island as a dependency of the region of Réunion and built infrastructure without British protest. France and Mauritius have been negotiating for years in regard to the possible establishment of a condominium over the island. In 2010, Mauritius and France reached an agreement on the Co-management of Tromelin without prejudice to the sovereignty of Mauritius over Tromelin.

Lîle Tromelin est une île française de l'océan Indien appartenant au district des îles Éparses de l'océan Indien, rattaché aux Terres australes et antarctiques françaises. L'île est revendiquée par Maurice. Soucieux de préserver leurs relations politiques, culturelles et économiques, la France et Maurice entérinent un accord de cogestion de Tromelin le à Port-Louis, qui est toutefois toujours en attente de ratification.


Streets and thoroughfares.

Paris is known for the non-linearity of its street map, as it is a city that grew 'naturally' around roadways leading to suburban and more distant destinations. Centuries of this demographic growth created a city cramped, labyrinth-like and unsanitary, until a late 19th century urban renovation, overseen by Georges-Eugène Haussmann, resulted in the wide boulevards we see there today. This remained relatively unchanged until the 1970s, and the construction of cross-city and periphery expressways.  More recently, the city began renovations to prioritise public transport systems, and has created 'purpose' lanes dedicated to buses, taxis, and, more recently, cyclists, narrowing the passages reserved for automobiles and delivery vehicles. Although reducing traffic flow within the city itself, this traffic modification often results in traffic congestion at the capital's gateway thoroughfares.

Public transport.

Locally, Paris' most-frequented public transport is the Métro: across 16 lines, its closely spaced stations (around 500 metres between them on any given line) allow a connection between any capital quarter to any other, and a few lines extend quite far into the suburbs. This is complemented above-ground by a quite complex bus route map of 347 lines, and, since 1992, the tramway has made a reappearance in eight lines around the capital periphery. Paris is also the hub of the Réseau Express Régional (RER), a higher-speed and wider-spaced-station above- and under- ground train network that connects the capital to more distant suburban regions. The Transilien, in a rail network radiating from the capital's train and RER stations, complements this in turn with yet more suburban destinations.  Paris' transport tarification is dictated by zones, with zones 1-2 covering the capital and its immediate periphery, and zones 3, 4 and 5 covering increasingly distant destinations in the Île-de-France; monthly or weekly 'Navigo' passes cover all forms of public transport within the Île-de-France (zones no longer apply to the pass since September 2015) for a flat fee. Those without a monthly pass can purchase a single ticket or books of tickets; a single ticket allows a traveller to transfer between the bus and tram networks, and transfer between the metro and RER networks, but one-ticket transfer between the below-ground and above-ground networks is prohibited.

Organisation.

For the governance of Paris-area public transport, the basic rule of thumb is that the RATP ("Régie Autonome des Transports Parisiens)" governs all transport within and extending from the Parisian Capital, and the SNCF ("Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Français", the state-owned rail company whose network covers all of France) governs all transport outside of and only penetrating the capital, but there are exceptions to this rule. Metro, Tramway, most of the Bus services and a few sections of inner-city RER are run by the RATP. The rest of the RER, as well as the Transilien, are run by the SNCF.

Métro.

Paris's métro has 14 lines (not including two shorter "navette" "bis" lines and the Montmartre funicular), and 12 of these penetrate into the surrounding suburbs (as two, lines 2 and 6, form a circle within Paris). Most lines cross the city diametrically and only the above-mentioned inner-city circular lines serve as a unique lateral interconnection.

RER.

The RER (Réseau Express Régional) is a network of large-calibre regional trains that run far into the suburbs of Paris, with fewer stops within the city itself. From its first line A in 1977 it has grown into a network of five lines, A, B, C, D and E: three (A, B, and D) pass through Paris' largest and most central Châtelet-Les-Halles metro station. Line C occupies the path of former railways along the Seine's Rive Gauche quays, and the most recently built line E leaves Paris' Gare Saint-Lazare train station for destinations to Paris' north-east.

Transilien.

These are suburban train lines connecting Paris' main stations to the suburbs not reached by the RER. The Transilien lines are named as a play-on-words for the "transit" of "Franciliens," inhabitants of the "Île-de-France" "région" of which Paris is the capital. "lien" also mean link in French.

Tram.

All of Paris' tramways had stopped running by 1937, but this mode of transport has returned recently. Beginning in 1992, two lines (the T1 and T2) were built parallel to the outer boundaries of the capital. The T3 line, opened in 2006, occupies a grassy track running alongside most of Paris' Left Bank boundary.

Bus.

Paris' bus lines interconnecting all points of the capital and its closest suburban cities. There are 58 bus lines operating in Paris that have a terminus within city limits.  The capital's bus system has been given a major boost over the past decade. Beginning in early 2000, Paris' major arteries have been thinned to reserve an express lane reserved only for bus and taxi, usually designated with signs and road markings. More recently, these bus lanes have been isolated from the rest of regular circulation through low concrete barriers that form "couloirs" and prevent all other forms of Paris circulation from even temporarily entering them.  There are electric buses. Autonomous buses are also being experimented in Vincennces since November 2017.

Cycling.

Cycling is becoming a popular mode of transport in Paris although the infrastructure are still very scarce. The Vélib' bike hire scheme was introduced in the middle of 2007 with over 20,000 bicycles available at hire points throughout the city.

Paris Public Transport Statistics.

The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Paris, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 64 min. 15% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 12 min, while 14.% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is, while 29.% travel for over in a single direction.

National and international rail connections.

Paris's first "embarcadère" train station, the predecessor to the gare Saint-Lazare, appeared from 1837 as a home for the novelty Paris-à-Saint-Germain local line. Over the next ten years France's developing rail network would give Paris five (including the Saint-Lazare station) national railway stations and two suburban lines, and from 1848 Paris would become the designated centre of an "Étoile" (star) spider-web of rail with reaches to (and through) all of France's borders. This pattern is still very visible in France's modern railway map.  As far as national and European destinations are concerned, rail transport is beginning to outdistance air travel in both travel time and efficiency. The still-developing SNCF's TGV (Train à Grande Vitesse) network, since its birth in 1981, brings France's most southerly Marseille only 3 hours from the capital. A train similar to the TGV, the Eurostar, has been connecting Paris to central London by rail in 2h 15 since 1994, and in the opposite direction, the Thalys train service connects Brusselsin 1h22 with up to 26 departures/day, Amsterdam in 3h18 with up to 10 departures/day and Cologne in 3h14, with up to 6 departures/day.

National and international air connections.

Paris had its first airport in the fields of Issy-les-Moulineaux (just to the southern limits of Paris by its Seine river's Left Bank) from the first aviation trials of 1908. Aviation became a serious mode of transport during the course of World War I, which in 1915 led to the installation of a larger and more permanent runway installation near the town of Le Bourget to the north of Paris. A yet larger airport to the south of the Capital, Orly Airport, began welcoming flights from 1945, and yet another airport to the north of the City, Roissy-Charles-de-Gaulle, opened its gates from 1974.  Today the former airfields of Issy-les-Moulineaux have become a Heliport annex of Paris, and Le Bourget an airfield reserved for smaller aircraft. Roissy-Charles-de-Gaulle takes the majority of international flights to and from Paris, and Orly is a host to mostly domestic and European airline companies.  In addition, a few low-cost carrier airlines, notably Ryanair and Wizz Air, offer flights to Beauvais–Tillé Airport and Châlons Vatry Airport, while marketing these airports as Paris airports. However, these airports are a lot farther from Paris than Orly and CDG, similarly to airports around London, located hours away from the city center.

History.

In the Middle Ages, Paris was densely populated, but small, with the population packed within the city walls. As late as 1610 it was possible to walk from one side of the city to the other in about thirty minutes. While the nobility and wealthy had carriages, horses or chairs carried by porters, ordinary citizens had to walk. As the city grew, a new means of transport was needed. In 1617, letters of patent were granted for the first public transport service, chairs and porters for hire. The earliest chairs were uncovered, but then covered chairs were imported from London. Beginning in 1671, the chairs and porters had competition from chairs mounted on two wheels, pushed by one or several men. They were known as "brouettes", "roulettes" or "vinaigrettes". These continued to serve Parisians well in the 18th century, with rates set by the city government.  The first public transit service in the modern sense (fixed routes, distance based fares, a seven and a half minute headway) were the short-lived Carrosses à cinq sols introduced on the basis of an idea by Blaise Pascal. However, they were withdrawn shortly after their introduction in the 1660s.

Fiacres, Taxis.

Early in the 17th century, the first wheeled one-horse carriages with drivers for hire, called fiacres, were introduced in Paris. Several companies existed, and rates were set by the Parlement of Paris in 1666. There were thirty-three stations around Paris where they could be hired. Their numbers increase from 45 in 1804 to 900 in 1818 to 2600 in over ten thousand in 1900, about the time for the first automobile taxis were introduced. The last horse-drawn fiacre disappeared in 1922.  The first automobile taxicabs were introduced in Paris in 1898; there were eighteen in service during the 1900 Exposition, and more than four hundred by 1907, though they were still outnumbered by fiacres. Paris taxis played a memorable part in World War I, carrying French soldiers to the front in the First Battle of the Marne in 1914. There were more than ten thousand taxis in Paris in 1949.

The Omnibus, Autobus.

The horse-drawn omnibus, a large square coach with rows of seats inside, carrying between 12 and 18 passengers each, was introduced in Paris in 1828. They ran from seven in the morning until seven in the evening (until midnight on the Grands Boulevards). By 1840 there were twenty-three omnibus lines operated by thirteen different companies. In 1855, Emperor Napoleon III ordered all the lines consolidated into a single company, the Compagnie Generale des omnibus.

The Tramway.

Beginning in 1852, the omnibus faced competition from the horse-drawn tramway, which ran on a track. The first tramway line ran from the Place de la Concorde to Passy, and, since it was modeled after the tramway system of New York, it was known as the "chemin de fer Americain", or American railway. Additional lines were built between 1855 and 1857 between Rueil and Port-Marly and between Sèvres and Versailles. The first steam-driven trams were tried from 1876, but they were too costly and were not a success. The first electric tramway line was opened in April 1892 between Saint-Denis and the Madeleine; but in 1900 most public transport was still horse-drawn; on the 89 omnibus lines and 34 tramway lines in 1900, there were 1,256 horse-drawn vehicles, and just 490 electric trams.  By 1914, the however, the situation had changed dramatically; all of the tramway cars were electric, and the network of tramway lines covered the entire city, except for the Champs-Élysées, the avenue de l'Opera, and the Grands Boulevards. Soon afterwards, however, the tramways faced growing competition from automobiles, and the trams were blamed for slowing down traffic. In 1929, the Municipal Council decided to replace the trams with motorbuses. On 15 May 1937, the last tram ran between porte de Vincennes and the Porte de Saint-Cloud.  Trams made a comeback beginning in 1990s, when the city decided to encourage more clean-energy modes of transport, and opened nine new Paris-suburb tram lines.

The Predecessor to the Metro: The Petite Ceinture.

In 1850 the government decided to create the Chemin de fer de Ceinture, a railroad line around the city periphery, to connect the main stations that until then had to shuttle freight between them across Paris' streets. Construction began from 1851, the first sections were opened later the same year, and its Rive Droite section was operational by the end of 1852. The Nord company Paris-Auteuil passenger line opened from 1854. The Chemin de fer de Ceinture rail companies were loathe to open their freight line to passenger service (that they thought would encumber freight transport), but eventually gave in to government pressure and opened five Rive Droite passenger stations that opened for service from 14 July 1862. With the opening of the Rive Gauche section from 1867, and the completion of a connection between the Auteuil and Rive Droite sections in 1869, passengers could travel in an uninterrupted ring, through twenty-five stations, around the capital.  The Chemin de fer de Petite Ceinture (that had become 'Petite' from 1882 because of the construction of a wider ring of Grande Ceinture rail) was almost a predecessor to the Paris métro: it carried more than twenty million passengers in 1889, and forty million in the year of the 1900 Paris Exposition. After the first Paris metro line opened that year Ceinture passenger numbers dropped steadily; 24 million in 1910 and 12 million in 1920, and it ran up a large deficit each year. In 1931, the Municipal Council decided to stop passenger service. On 31 July 1934 the train service was replaced by a bus line around the city.

The Métro.

Paris was well behind other cities in having its own Metro; London (1863), New York City (1868), Berlin (1878), Budapest (1896) and Vienna (1898). The project was delayed due to political battles about where it would run; the railways, supported by the government, wanted a system that would connect the different stations with each other and with the Paris suburbs, while the City of Paris wanted a system that would operate only inside the twenty arrondissements. In 1898, with the 1900 Paris Universal Exposition approaching, the city won the battle. Work began on the first six lines, totaling 65 kilometers. The first line was between Porte de Vincennes and Porte-Maillot, which served the Exposition site at the Grand Palais. Line 2 between Porte Dauphine and Nation opened in April 1903. The line between Etoile and Nation (now line number 6) was finished in 1905. The new system crossed the Seine via two bridges, at Passy and Bercy; a third, at Austerlitz, was added. In April 1905, the first tunnel under the river was opened. By 1970 there were six tunnels under the Seine and five bridges used by the Metro lines within the city.

Paris is the centre of a national, and with air travel, international, complex transport system. The modern system has been superimposed on a complex map of streets and wide boulevards that were set in their current routes in the 19th century. On a national level, it is the centre of a web of road and railway, and at a more local level, it is covered with a dense mesh of bus, tram and metro service networks. In 2016, the broader mass transit system of Paris has been ranked as the best public transport system in the world by the ITDP with all Parisians having an easy access to rapid transport, ahead of 26 other international cities, including London and New York City.

Le système des transports à Paris est à la mesure de la taille de l'agglomération et de son rôle de capitale de la France.


Biography.

Vadim Meller was born in Saint-Petersburg. He was the second son of a top official in the Ministry of Justice in the Russian Empire. His father, George Meller, was a noble-born Swede; his mother, Helena Caruso, was half Italian and half Greek, and also from a noble family. He married Nina Genke. Vadim Meller died in Kiev.

Education.

From 1903–1908, Meller studied at Kiev University. In 1905, he visited Geneva, Switzerland, where he took art lessons at the private school of Franz Roubaud. In 1908, with the recommendation of Roubaud, he continued his education at the private art school of drawing and painting of Heinrich Knirr in Munich, Germany. There, Meller met fellow student, Paul Klee, who introduced him to Der Blaue Reiter group.  After graduating from the Kiev University with a degree in law, he acquired an artistic education in the Munich Academy of Fine Arts from 1908–1912. V. Meller stayed in close contact with Der Blaue Reiter group. During this time, he also met Wassily Kandinsky, with whom he became friends.

Work.

V.Meller started to exhibit his works after moving to Paris, where he joined the Société des Artistes Indépendants. At the same time Vadim Meller was a student of Antoine Bourdelle. In 1912–1914, together with Kazimir Malevich, Sonia Delaunay, Alexander Archipenko, and Aleksandra Ekster, he participated in a number of exhibitions (Salon des Indépendants, Spring Salon, and Salon D' Automne) alongside Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and André Derain.  After returning to Kiev in 1915, he worked at easel and monumental painting, graphic design, and costume design. His transition to scenography as his main field of artistic activity took place in the post-revolutionary years. From 1918–1921, he worked with scenographer and dancer Bronislava Nijinska (Vaslav Nijinsky's sister) in her ballet studio. In end of this period he became a professor in The National Academy of Fine Arts and Architecture.  In 1922, Les Kurbas invited V. Meller to the recently founded Berezil' theater.  In 1925, V. Meller, together with Sonia Terk, Alexandra Exter, and Nathan Altman, participated in "Exposition Internationale des Modernes" ("Art Deco") in Paris. There, Meller was awarded a gold medal for his scenic design of the Berezil' theater. That same year, V.Meller participated in the "International Theater Exposition" in New York.  V. Meller became the leader of the Constructivism movement in Ukrainian theater design. He worked in the National theater as a chief artist until 1945. From 1925 onward, he also taught at the (KKHI) together with Vladimir Tatlin and Alexander Bogomazov. Also in 1925, V. Meller became a member of the artists union "Association of the Revolutionary Masters of Ukraine" together with David Burliuk (co-founder), Alexander Bogomazov (co-founder), Vasiliy Yermilov, Victor Palmov, and Khvostenko-Khvostov.  In 1928 Vadim Meller participated in the International Press Exhibition "Pressa" Cologne, together with El Lissitzky, Aleksandr Tyshler and Vasyl Yermylov.  V.Meller worked as an acting director of the Monumental Painting and Sculpture Institute of the Academy of Architecture of the Ukrainian SSR (1946–1948), a chief artist of the Kiev Music Comedy Theater (1948–1953), and a chief artist of the Iv. Franko Kiev Academic Theater (1953–1959).

Vadym Meller or Vadim Meller, (;, 1884–1962) was a Ukrainian-Russian Soviet painter, avant-garde Cubist, Constructivist and Expressionist artist, theatrical designer, book illustrator, and architect. In 1925, he was the first artist to be awarded a gold medal in the "Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes" ("Art Deco") in Paris.

Vadim Gueorguievitch Meller (en ), dit aussi Vadym Meller, né à Saint-Pétersbourg le et mort à Kiev le, est un peintre russe d'avant-garde (cubiste et constructiviste), aussi concepteur théâtral et architecte.


Building history.

The Queens Museum is located in the New York City Building, the historic pavilion designed by architect Aymar Embury II for the 1939 World’s Fair. From 1946 to 1950, the pavilion was the temporary home of the United Nations General Assembly, and was the site of numerous defining moments in the UN’s early years, including the creation of UNICEF, the partition of Korea and the authorization by the UN of the creation of Israel.  In 1964, the building was renovated by architect Daniel Chait and was once again used as the New York City Pavilion for the 1964 World’s Fair, where it displayed the "Panorama of the City of New York", which is still on display. The 1939 Billy Rose Aquacade and Amphiteater was also renovated for the 1964-65 World's Fair, but fell into disrepair in the 1980s and was torn down in 1996.  In 1972, with minor alterations, the north side of the New York City building was converted into the Queens Center for Art and Culture, later renamed the Queens Museum of Art. In 1994, the building underwent a further renovation, with architect Rafael Viñoly reconfiguring the structure into galleries, classrooms, and offices. For many years, half of the building was an ice skating rink.  The museum embarked on a $69 million expansion project in 2009, which was originally slated to be completed in October 2013. Grimshaw Architects, along with the engineering firm of Ammann & Whitney, developed plans to add an additional of exhibition, education and office space as well as eight new artist studios, thereby doubling the museum’s size to, as it will take over the entire New York City Building. The ice skating rink, which had occupied the southern half of the building for six decades, was relocated to a new facility in the northeastern section of Flushing Meadows–Corona Park. The expanded museum reopened in November 2013 with a new entrance at Grand Central Parkway.  In 2016, the Queens Museum was unexpectedly closed from September 3–13 due to security restrictions for events at the nearby Grandstand Stadium for the US Open tennis competition., it is not clear whether or not heavy security for future sports events will affect the Museum's accessibility to the public.

Collections and exhibits.

Permanent collection.

The museum's permanent collection consists of around 10,000 items, over 6,000 of which are documents and objects related to the 1939 and 1964 World's Fairs, some of which are on long-term display. Recent acquisitions, either through purchase or donation, include works by Salvador Dalí, Mark Dion, Andrew Moore's photographs from Robert Moses and the Modern City (a collection of 20th century photographs from the 1964 World's Fair Kodak Pavilion), crime scene photographs from the "Daily News" Archive (1920s–1960s), and nearly 1,000 drawings by the court reporter and political cartoonist William Sharp.

Neustadt Collection of Tiffany Glass.

Since 1995, the museum has maintained a partnership with the Neustadt Collection of Tiffany glass. Selections from the collection are on long-term display, drawn from a large private Tiffany collection assembled by Dr. Egon Neustadt and his wife Hildegard starting in the mid-1930s. The collection consists of windows, lamps, and related objects and also boasts an archive of nearly 300,000 pieces of flat and sheet glass formerly used by the Tiffany Studios. An archive containing representative samples of each type, color, texture and pattern of this material is being established for exhibition and study. The history of the creation of Tiffany's work is featured in the Queens Museum exhibitions, as Tiffany Studios and Furnaces was once located within studios in Corona, which were closed in the 1930s.

"Panorama of the City of New York".

The best-known permanent exhibition at the Queens Museum is the "Panorama of the City of New York", which was commissioned by Robert Moses for the 1964 World’s Fair. A celebration of the City’s municipal infrastructure, this architectural model includes every single building constructed before 1992 in all five boroughs, at a scale of 1 inch = 100 feet (1:1200). The "Panorama" was built by a team of 100 people working for the architectural model makers Raymond Lester Associates in the three years before the opening of the 1964 World’s Fair. The model was constructed in 273 sections, depicting a total of 895,000 individual structures; the section showing the Far Rockaway neighborhood was never installed, due to space limitations.  The "Panorama" was one of the most successful attractions at the 1964 Fair, with "millions" of people paying 10 cents each for a 9-minute simulated helicopter ride around the City.  After the Fair closed, the "Panorama" remained open to the public, and Lester’s team updated the map in 1967, 1968, and 1969. After 1970, very few changes were made until 1992, when again Lester Associates was hired to update the model to coincide with the re-opening of the museum, after a two-year total renovation of the building by Rafael Viñoly. The model makers changed over 60,000 structures to bring it up-to-date at that time.  In March 2009, the museum announced the intention to update the "Panorama" on an ongoing basis. To raise funds and draw public attention, the museum will allow individuals and developers to have accurate scale models made of buildings newer than the 1992 update created and added, in exchange for a donation of at least $50. More-detailed models of smaller apartment buildings and private homes, now represented by generic models, can also be added. , the original twin towers of the World Trade Center were still on the map, even though some new buildings have been built on the actual site; the museum has chosen to allow the vanished structures to remain until construction is complete, rather than representing the ongoing construction. The first new building to be added under the new program was the new Citi Field stadium of the New York Mets; the model of the old Shea Stadium was to be displayed elsewhere in the museum.  The mechanical "helicopter" vehicles were showing signs of wear, and were removed before the 1994 reopening. The current installation by Viñoly features ramps and an elevated walkway which surround the "Panorama", allowing viewers to proceed at their own pace, or to linger for as long a look as they desire. Because of space restrictions, portions of the walkway are cantilevered over the outer edges of the map, but a glass floor still allows views of the model below. As in the original installation, tiny scale model airplanes take off and land at LaGuardia Airport, mechanically guided by long wires.  The New York City "Panorama" was featured in two 2011 works: the movie "New Year's Eve" directed by Garry Marshall, and the book "Wonderstruck" by Brian Selznick. Each year, the Queens Museum hosts the "Panorama Challenge", a trivia contest run by The City Reliquary. Contestants use the "Panorama" to identify various New York City landmarks.  A scale model of the 1964 New York World's Fair site, showing all the buildings and pavilions of the time, is located in a separate area devoted to World's Fair exhibits.

"Relief Map of the New York City Water Supply System".

For the 1939 World’s Fair, city agencies were invited to produce exhibits for the New York City Pavilion. The Department of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity (a New York City Department of Environmental Protection predecessor agency) commissioned the Cartographic Survey Force of the Works Progress Administration to create the large "Relief Map of the New York City Water Supply System" and watershed. Work began in 1938, and a team of map builders toiled over the map with an immense depression-era budget of $100,000 (). At, the map was too big for the allocated space in the city pavilion, resulting in its elimination from the World’s Fair. Ten years later, the map made its first and only public appearance at the city’s Golden Anniversary Exposition in Manhattan’s Grand Central Palace.  By the start of the 21st century, the 27-piece map was in desperate need of conservation. In October 2006, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection and the Queens Museum sent the historic display to McKay Lodge Fine Arts Conservation Lab in Oberlin, Ohio, for restoration. Over the next 18 months, conservators and technicians worked on the model full-time, removing over 70 years of accumulated dirt and re-paintings. Clearing away the dirt and debris, they found much of the original geography and painted details to be intact or recoverable. Road maps and satellite images were used to restore lost portions of the model.  Near the 70th anniversary of the model and the 100th anniversary of the inauguration of the Catskill System's construction, the map was restored to its original form and was installed in the New York City Building, where it remains on long-term loan.

World's Fair Visual Storage and Gallery.

Located on the second floor of the Queens Museum, this exhibit displays memorabilia from both the 1939 and 1964 World's Fairs. This exhibit has a long term connection with Queens Museum because both events were held at Flushing Meadows- Corona Park, and the Museum building is the only remnant structure surviving from both celebrations. The online catalog contains over 10,000 items in total from both fairs.  A scale model of the 1964 New York World's Fair site, including all of its buildings and pavilions, is located in the exhibit gallery. It is protected under a clear plastic dome, allowing a close examination of the model, in which each significant structure is labeled with a small flag.

Education and outreach.

Community relations.

Each year, through exhibitions and programs the Queens Museum serves about 200,000 visitors. Attendance is drawn from Queens, the other NYC boroughs and Nassau County as well as international visitors. Museum audiences are distinguished by the diversity of visitors, reflecting the variety of ethnicities living in the borough. Over the last 20 years, a demographic shift has transformed Queens into the most culturally diverse county in the nation, according to the 2000 census: 37% of the population is White, 25% Latino, 20% African-American, and 18% Asian. There are roughly 138 languages spoken in Queens, and more than half of the households are run by people born outside of the United States.

Programs.

The Queens Museum's learning programs annually engages over adults and children.  The museum offers visitors a range of film screenings, dance performances, musical experiences, and public dialogues to provide a point of entry for understanding exhibitions, in addition to making some spaces in the Museum available for rental by outside groups.

Public events.

The Public Events Department at the Queens Museum was founded in 2002, and is said to have resulted in increased attendance at the museum.

Controversy.

The Museum was widely criticized in 2017 for cancelling its agreement to rent space for a party celebrating the 70th anniversary of the Independence of the State of Israel citing objections raised by “Palestinian friends of the museum.” The Museum Director at the time, Laura Raicovich, who had called the party a “political event,” is the co-editor of "Assuming Boycott: Resistance, Agency and Cultural Production." (OR Books, 2017 ), a book advocating the boycott of Israel. The cancellation of the event was condemned by many politicians including Grace Meng, Dov Hikind, Michael Simanowitz, and Rory Lancman, who worked to restore the Museum's commitment to host the event. The planned event was to include a staged reenactment of the November 29, 1947, United Nations vote to partition the British Mandate for Palestine, an event that took place in the building in space that is now the Museum's main gallery. Following the controversy, the event was held and Ms. Raiocovich resigned.

The Queens Museum, formerly the Queens Museum of Art, is an art museum and educational center located in Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in the borough of Queens in New York City, United States. The museum was founded in 1972, and has among its permanent exhibitions, the "Panorama of the City of New York", a room-sized scale model of the five boroughs originally built for the 1964 New York World's Fair, and repeatedly updated since then. It also has a large archive of artifacts from both World's Fairs, a selection of which is on display.

Le Queens Museum of Art ou QMA est le principal musée d'art de l'arrondissement de Queens à New York. Il conserve environ objets.


History.

The Fiat 1500 was introduced at the November 1935 "Salone dell'automobile di Milano" (Milan Motor Show). It was powered by a overhead valve straight-six engine, producing at 4,400 rpm. The transmission had four speeds, and synchromesh on the top two gears. Top speed was. For the first time on a Fiat there were independent suspensions at the front, of the Dubonnet type. The frame was X-shaped, with a boxed centre section. Fiat offered two factory body styles, a 4-door pillarless saloon with suicide doors at the rear, and a 2-door convertible with suicide doors as well; both lacked a boot lid, as the luggage compartment was only accessible folding the rear seat, and carried an external spare wheel in a recess at the rear of the body. As an alternative the 1500 was also available as bare chassis, and numerous cars received coachbuilt bodies.

1939: the 1500 B.

An improved, second series model was introduced in 1939, distinguished as was Fiat's custom at the time by a letter added to the model name: the Fiat 1500 B. It had more powerful brakes and an handbrake acting on the transmission through a band brake instead than on the rear axle drum brakes as before. The 1500 B was otherwise virtually undistinguishable from the original model.

1940: the 1500 C.

The 1500 B was short lived as in 1940 Fiat replaced it with the 1500 C, sporting a redesigned and more conventional looking front end. Following the look introduced with the Fiat 2800 flagship of 1938, the grille was pointed, taller and more upright than before—the so-called "musone", big snout. The headlamps ceased to be integrated in the front wings. Beginning with this model the sole factory body option was the 4-door saloon.

1946: the 1500 D.

In 1946, after World War Two, Fiat resumed production of pre-war models, the 500, 1100 and the 1500 C. Since the ongoing development of all-new cars would take some years, improvements were made to keep these vehicles of 1930s vintage competitive on the market. The resulting 1500 D was introduced at the 1948 Turin Motor Show, alongside the updated 1100 B and the 500 B Giardiniera (station wagon). Externally the 1500 D was largely unchanged from the 1940 1500 C, while there were significant mechanical differences. The front Dubonnet suspension had been replaced by a double wishbone design similar to the 1100s; therefore the steering had to be changed as well. The engine had received a twin-choke Weber 30 DCR carburettor, a higher 6.2:1 compression ratio and other changes, pushing output to ; top speed rose to. Between 1948–49, production of this model amounted to over 2,800.

1949: the 1500 E.

The fifth and final version of the 1500, the 1500 E, was first shown at the 1949 Fiera del Levante in Bari, together with the similarly updated 1100 E. The main distinguishing feature of these "E" models was their luggage compartment, accessible from outside the car; the previously rear-mounted spare wheel had to be carried inside the car, bolted inside the newly acquired boot lid. In the case of the 1500, the body aft of the rear doors was redesigned: the sloping back, almost unchanged since 1935, gave way to three-box styling. Together with more robust bumpers, this increased the overall length of the car by some. The rear window was one-piece instead of being split, and the running boards were integrated in the body-side stampings. Other notable revisions were made to the transmission: the clutch was strengthened, synchromesh was added to second gear, and inside the cabin there was a column-mounted shifter. In total about 1,700 1500 Es were made, for a grand total of about 46,000 1500s of all models. After 15 years of production, in 1950 the 1500 was replaced by the groundbreaking unibody Fiat 1400, the marque's first all-new post-war car.

The Fiat 1500 was a six-cylinder car produced by the Fiat from 1935 to 1950. It was one of the first cars tested in a wind tunnel, following the Chrysler Airflow produced one year earlier. The streamlined styling achieved an aerodynamic efficiency unequalled before it in a touring car and (contrary to the failure of the "lumpen" Airflow) disproved the thesis aerodynamic cars would not sell.

La Fiat 1500 est une voiture de haut de gamme, fabriquée par le constructeur italien Fiat de 1935 à 1950.


History.

Native Americans.

In 1873, English brothers James Hamilton Cator and Arthur J. L. (Bob) Cator were sent by their father, British naval officer Captain John Bertie Cator, to Kansas in search of financial opportunity. The brothers soon found their true calling as buffalo hunters and established an outpost along the North Palo Duro Creek. They named this camp Zulu, and it soon became known as Zulu Stockade.  The depletion of the buffalo herds led in part to the ongoing conflict between Indians and settlers. The Second Battle of Adobe Walls took place in neighboring Hutchinson County in 1874 and led to the Red River War of 1874-1875. A group of buffalo hunters attempted a revitalization of Fort Adobe. The Comanches, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa saw the fort and the decimation of the buffalo herd as threats to their existence. Comanche medicine man Isa-tai prophesied a victory and immunity to the white man’s bullets in battle. Quanah Parker lead several hundred in a raid on the fort. The buffalo hunters were able to force the Indians into retreat. The Red River War of 1874-1875 was a United States Army campaign to force the removal of Indians in Texas and their relocation to reservations, to open the region to white settlers.

Establishment and growth.

The Texas Legislature formed Hansford County in 1876 from Young and Bexar Counties. The county was organized in 1889. The town of Hansford became the first county seat.  Early large ranches in Hansford County were spread in neighboring counties, as well. By 1890, only 23 ranches were in operation in the county. In November 1876 Kansan Thomas Sherman Bugbee established the Quarter Circle T Ranch. The Scissors Ranch was begun in 1878 by William E. Anderson at the Adobe Walls site. The ranch was named after the brand, which looked like a pair of scissors. Coloradan Richard E. McNalty moved to Texas and began the Turkey Track Ranch, which he sold to Charles Wood and Jack Snider in 1881. Scotland born James M. Coburn formed the Hansford Land and Cattle Company. The Quarter Circle T Ranch and Scissors Ranch were sold to Coburn in 1882. Coburn acquired the Turkey Track Ranch in 1883.  In 1887, Hansford became a stage stop on the old Tascosa-Dodge City Trail.  In 1909, Anders L. Mordt began to bring in Norwegian farmers to settle the northern part of the county, centering on a rural community they named Oslo.  By 1920, 221 farms and ranches had been established in the county. The same year, the North Texas and Santa Fe Railway built into Spearman. By 1929, Spearman became the county seat. Chicago, Rock Island and Gulf Railway built southward in the 1920s leading to Gruver, becoming the second-largest town in the county. In 1931 the Santa Fe Railroad connected with the Rock Island, joining Morse.  The county began to be connected by highways and farm roads, from the 1920s through the 1940s. Oil was discovered in Hansford County in 1937. By the end of 1974, had been extracted from county lands since 1937. By the 1980s, Hansford County had a diversified economy based on agriculture, oil, and transportation.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which are land and (0.06%) is covered by water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, 5,369 people, 2,005 households, and 1,489 families resided in the county. The population density was 6 people per square mile (2/km). The 2,329 housing units averaged 2 per square mile (1/km). The racial makeup of the county was 79.88% White, 0.04% African American, 0.75% Native American, 0.22% Asian, 17.47% from other races, and 1.64% from two or more races. About 31.48% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race. In ancestry, 15.6% were of German, 8.4% were of English, 8.2% were of Irish, 6.0% were of American, 3.2% were of Dutch, and 2.3% were of Norwegian.  Of the 2,005 households, 36.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.00% were married couples living together, 5.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.70% were not families. About 24.00% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.14.  In the county, the population was distributed as 29.30% under the age of 18, 6.80% from 18 to 24, 26.30% from 25 to 44, 22.30% from 45 to 64, and 15.20% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.40 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $35,438, and for a family was $40,281. Males had a median income of $29,022 versus $17,668 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,408. About 12.00% of families and 16.40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.60% of those under age 18 and 15.00% of those age 65 or over.

Hansford County is a county located in the U.S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 census, its population was 5,613. Its county seat is Spearman. The county was created in 1876 and organized in 1889. It is named for John M. Hansford, a Texas state congressman and judge.

Le comté de Hansford, en ", est un comté situé dans l'extrême nord de l'État du Texas aux États-Unis. Le siège du comté est Spearman. Selon le recensement de 2010, sa population est de.


History.

This area was among early sections settled by United States immigrants before Texas became an independent republic and, after 1848, a state of the United States. It was an area developed as cotton plantations dependent on slave labor of African Americans. Lumbering of the pine forests was also pursued, especially in the early years of clearing the land for cultivation.  Gregg County was organized in 1873 after the American Civil War from portions of existing counties. When the Texas State Legislature convened in January 1873, Democratic representative B. W. Brown of Upshur County introduced a bill to create a new county from parts of Harrison, Rusk, and Upshur counties. He was likely trying to break up the black majority that dominated county politics in Harrison County. Under Brown's proposal, the county was to be named Roanoke, and Longview was to be the county seat. The proposed name was later changed to honor Texas leader and Confederate General John Gregg, and the county seat was determined by popular election.  Harrison and Rusk counties resisted efforts to have portions of their territory assigned to Gregg County. When Gregg County was created, it first consisted of approximately taken from Upshur County, and the Sabine River was its southern boundary. In April 1874 about south of the Sabine River in Rusk County was added to Gregg County. The third portion, of about to be taken from Harrison County, was never realized. Many of its voters continued to elect Republicans to county offices.  By 1919 the county population was a total of 16,700, of which 8,160, or forty-eight percent, was black. Most were sharecroppers or tenant farmers raising cotton as a commodity crop. Members of the Negro Business League set up a cooperative store in Longview to compete with white merchants and offer African-American residents more choices for purchases. Beginning July 10, the town had a short-lived Longview Race Riot in which one black man was killed, and several black homes and properties were burned. It was quelled when the sheriff asked for Texas National Guard and other law enforcement. They established a curfew and military occupation.  Agricultural work declined during the Great Depression of the 1930s, and many African Americans continued to leave in the Great Migration north to find other work. In October 1930, oil was discovered in Henderson, Texas near Kilgore. Suddenly the county economy was booming, and the East Texas Oil Field attracted so many workers that county population increased by more than 500% by 1940. Growth stabilized but oil has continued to be important. County demographics changed as other workers were attracted to the area. In the early 21st century, slightly less than 20% of the population is African American.  Texas Attorney General John Ben Shepperd, who served from 1953-1957, maintained a ranch in Gregg County near his native Gladewater. He also served on the Gregg County Commissioners Court for a brief period in 1949.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.9%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 111,379 people, 42,687 households, and 29,667 families residing in the county. The population density was 406 people per square mile (157/km2). There were 46,349 housing units at an average density of 169 per square mile (65/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 72.89% White, 19.86% Black or African American, 0.52% Native American, 0.68% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 4.55% from other races, and 1.49% from two or more races. 9.14% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 42,687 households out of which 33.50% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.00% were married couples living together, 13.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.50% were non-families. 26.10% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.06.  In the county, the population was spread out with 26.70% under the age of 18, 10.30% from 18 to 24, 28.20% from 25 to 44, 21.50% from 45 to 64, and 13.20% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.40 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $35,006, and the median income for a family was $42,617. Males had a median income of $33,186 versus $21,432 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,449. About 12.00% of families and 15.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.50% of those under age 18 and 11.40% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

The following school districts serve Gregg County:

Media.

Gregg County is part of the Tyler/Longview/Jacksonville DMA. Local media outlets are: KLTV, KTRE-TV, KYTX-TV, KFXK-TV, KCEB-TV, and KETK-TV.  The daily "Longview News-Journal" is the primary newspaper in the county, published in Longview. Coverage of the area can also be found in the "Tyler Morning Telegraph", based in Tyler, in Smith County. The Gladewater Mirror has been published since 1949, first as a daily newspaper and then became a weekly newspaper.

Politics.

Before the complete disfranchisement of rural freedmen, Gregg County’s black freedmen allowed it to vote for William McKinley twice, and for several other Republicans during the Third Party System.  Gregg subsequently became a classic “Solid South” Democratic county between 1904 and 1948, but has since become solidly Republican at a Presidential level, although the presence of a sizeable black population has permitted the Democrats to gain a quarter of the countywide total at virtually every election. Nonetheless, Gregg was one of only sixteen Texas counties to vote for Barry Goldwater in his 1964 landslide loss, and the last Democrat to carry the county was Harry S. Truman in 1948.

Gregg County is a county located in the eastern part of the U.S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 census, its population was 121,730. Its county seat is Longview. The county is named after John Gregg, a Confederate general killed in action during the American Civil War.

Le comté de Gregg, en "", est un comté situé à l'est de l'État du Texas aux États-Unis. Fondé le, son siège est la ville de Longview. Selon le recensement des États-Unis de 2010, sa population est de. Le comté a une superficie de, dont en surfaces terrestres. Il est nommé en l'honneur de John Gregg, un général de l'Armée des États confédérés pendant la guerre de Sécession.


Geography.

Location.

"Ambérieu-en-Bugey" is 50 km north-east of Lyon, 30 km south of Bourg-en-Bresse, 73 km northwest of Aix-les-Bains, 76 km southeast of Mâcon, and 104 km west of Geneva.  The town is in the commune's western part, on the right bank of the river Albarine, which forms most of the commune's southern border. It is surrounded by the communes of Saint-Denis-en-Bugey, and Bettant. Its expansion is due to demographic expansion with two new housing areas on the eastern side of the city where there is plenty of land (near Bettant).  Ambérieu-en-Bugey is located at the foot of the western foothills of the Jura mountains of Bugey and opens onto the plain of Ain at the mouth of the gorge of Albarine.

Climate.

The climate type is semi-continental with Mediterranean influences: the summers are warm and sunny and the winters are cold.  Weather Data for Ambérieu-en-Bugey

Topography and geology.

The commune is at an altitude between 237 m and 753 m.  The sub-soil has been an important economic activity in the Ambérieu region in the 19th century until the first half of the 20th century. For example, the extraction of lignite (used in particular for heating) was an important activity in Ambérieu during the First World War.  Ambérieu-en-Bugey reflects the characteristics of Bugey in geological terms: the region is composed of a folded mountain relief, partly karstified, which is the southern extension of the Jura mountains. The dating of the limestone of Bugey is between the Jurassic (for the anticlines) and the Cretaceous (for the synclines). The folds are easily visible in outcrops and cliffs.

Hydrography.

There are several rivers in Ambérieu-en-Bugey. Besides the Albarine which flows through Ambérieu-en-Bugey, two streams which are themselves tributaries of the Albarine flow into the commune: the streams of Seymard (15.5 km long and Caline (3.4 km long).

Channels of communication and transport.

Rail.

Ambérieu station is located at the junction of the Macon-Ambérieu line and the Lyon-Geneva line and is served by many TER trains to Lyon, Bourg-en-Bresse, Mâcon, Dijon, Besançon, Strasbourg, Culoz, Geneva, Aix-les-Bains, and Chambery.

Railway history.

The railway has served the commune since 1856, making the city an important railway junction and the railway station, "one of the largest connection centres in France". Some lines which are now extinct (e.g. the Ambérieu-Montalieu-Vercieu line) created a great deal of rail activity at Ambérieu-en-Bugey; these activities have been illustrated in the collections of the Railway Museum since 1987.  In the 1930s the railway junction, sometimes called the "Ambérieu Star" had 247 locomotives stationed at the depot. The town then had about 6,500 inhabitants and the "compagnie des chemins de fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée" employed about 2,150 railway workers.  On 7 June 1944 an operation was organized by resistance railway workers and maquisards to disable 52 locomotives and much other equipment. This action reduced the capacity of this strategic site and reduced the communications of the German army so avoiding bombing by the Allies on the site. A monument near the Ambérieu-en-Bugey station recalls this feat of arms.

Air transport.

Aerial activity has been present in Ambérieu-en-Bugey since the beginning of the 20th century. For example, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry made his first flight in July 1912 at the civil airodrome of Bellievre.  Ambérieu-en-Bugey Air Base was built during the Second World War as a temporary airfield by the "United States Air Force XII Engineer Command" in August 1944. Named the "Colonel Chambonnet Base", today it is a supply and repair centre for electronic equipment aboard aircraft, ground communications detection equipment, navigation aids, and a manufacturing centre for simple equipment.  There is also a civilian aerodrome near Ambérieu-en-Bugey called the Ambérieu aerodrome but it is located in the neighbouring communes of Château-Gaillard and Ambronay.

Air history.

Many flight schools have been located at Ambérieu-en-Bugey: the Bressane Aviation School, founded in 1909 by Mignot and Harding, which was associated with the "Société Aérienne de Lyon-Bron". In 1912 it took the name Deperdussin-SPAD and was directed by the pilot René Vidart. There is also the Louis-Mouthier flight school which was opened in 1911. In 1915 the Military flight school of Ambérieu was established. Finally, in 1928, the Caudron flight school moved from Le Crotoy in the Somme to Ambérieu-en-Bugey. This school trained Jean Mermoz and René Fonck.

Road transport.

The commune is traversed by the A42 autoroute. The exit for the commune is: No. 8 Ambérieu-en-Bugey in the direction of Geneva.  In addition, several departmental roads serve the commune: the D1075 (formerly National Highway 75) which connects Bourg-en-Bresse to Sisteron, the D1504 (the old national road 504) which connects Ambérieu-en-Bugey to the commune of Le Bourget-du-Lac, and the D904 (the old road known as the "Valley of the Saone").  In 2007 there were about 5,468 households in Ambérieu-en-Bugey, 85.1% of households owned at least one car and 35.1% of all households had at least two cars.

Buses.

Since 4 January 2010, a network of three bus lines has been established to replace the "Ambar'bus" service. The new network is called TAM (Transport Network Ambarrois) and links its timetables to the schedules of TER Lyon-Ambérieu. The network operates from 5:40 a.m. to 8:46 p.m. and carries 208 passengers per day.

Housing.

In 2007 the total number of dwellings in the municipality was 5,949 (against 5,185 in 1999). Among these units, 91.9% were primary residences, second homes 2.1%, and 6.0% were vacant housing.  These units were split between 50.7% houses and 48.6% apartments. The proportion of residents owning their own homes was 41.7%.

Toponymy.

"Ambérieu" is mentioned in the form "Ambariacus" in 843 then "Ambayreu" in 1240.  The second element "-acus" represents a suffix of Gallic origin "*-āko(n)" which is usually written as "acum" in Latin. This is a locative suffix which later will designate "villae" in Gallo-Roman. It has generally evolved phonetically as "-ieu" in the region. The first element designates the Gauls ( Celtic people ) of Ambarri whose name meant "living on both (*"amb") sides of the Saone ("Arar", the Saône)" or was a Gallic anthroponym "Ambarrius". Ambérieux-en-Dombes, Ambérieux, Ambérac, and Ambeyrac are similar topographical formations.

History.

Antiquity.

A number of archaeological discoveries relating to antiquity have been made in Ambérieu-en-Bugey:

Middle Ages.

In the Middle Ages Ambérieu belonged to Bugey which, like Vaud, was acquired by Amadeus VI of Savoy, after signing the Treaty of Paris with France in 1355 which set the limits of the Duchy of Savoy and the Dauphiné. The city lay on the line of defence against France of the Duchy of Savoy. A series of fortifications were built to protect Savoy. Allymes Castle, the fortification of Brédevent, the Saint-Germain Castle, and the tower of Saint-Denis were parts of this line of defence in the Bugey possessions of the Duke of Savoy. Pérouges, a city of Savoy located on the plains played a commercial role at the border with France until the Treaty of Lyon.

Renaissance.

Related article: Treaty of Lyon (1601).  On 17 January 1601 the Treaty of Lyon rejoined Bugey and therefore Ambérieu to France. This treaty between the Duke Charles Emmanuel I of Savoy and King Henry IV of France also unified France with Bresse, Bugey (at the time explicitly distinguished from Valromey), and the "Pays de Gex".

World War II.

Marcel Demia and the Resistance of Ain.

In late 1941 Henri Romans-Petit was engaged in the "French Hope" network in Saint-Etienne. During Christmas an independent resistance fighter, Marcel Demia a Market gardener and Horticulturalist from the Ambérieu-en-Bugey commune went there to visit his parents. The two men meet and exchanged views on the situation. Their shared commitment motivated Henri Romans-Petit to create a Resistance organization in the department of Ain. Marcel Demia spoke of some young resistance fighters who he placed on isolated farms and the difficulties encountered in his organization. Henri Romans-Petit arrived in Ain in 1942 and began to help the resistance fighters of the STO and his host. Ambérieu-en-Bugey today has a street called Marcel Demia.

Liberation of the city.

The city was liberated on 3 September 1944 by troops who landed in Provence. Known for the actions of its resistance, particularly from the "Maquis de l'Ain et du Haut-Jura" the city was nicknamed "The Rebel Ambérieu" and was decorated with the Croix de guerre 1939-1945 with citation.

New name.

On 31 March 1955 "Ambérieu" was renamed "Ambérieu-en-Bugey".

Politics and administration.

Elections.

Presidential Elections Second Round:

Municipal administration.

The town has between 10,000 and 20,000 inhabitants and the city council is composed of 33 members: the mayor, nine deputies, and 23 councilors.

Administration.

List of Successive Mayors of Ambérieu-en-Bugey

Political environment.

The commune, at the instigation of Saint-Vulbas and Pérouges has been experimenting with a weed control plan that does not involve the use of chemicals

Air quality.

An integral part of the "Community of communes of the plain of Ain", Ambérieu-en-Bugey commune participates in actions such as air quality control as quality is potentially undermined by the proximity of the industrial park of the Plain of Ain.

Shale gas.

The geological sub-structure of the Ambérieu-en-Bugey region contains Shale gas. The potential exploitation of these deposits has caused some hostility which has been expressed in local politics. Advocacy undertaken by opposition movements are varied: broadcasts, a documentary called "Gasland" - in June 2011, and demonstrations at Blyes the main town in the region concerned.

Twinning.

Ambérieu-en-Bugey has twinning associations with:

Population and society.

Distribution of age groups.

The population of the town is relatively young. The rate of persons above the age of 60 years (19.8%) is lower than the national rate (21.6%) while being however closer to the departmental rate (19.4%). Like the national and departmental allocations, the female population of the municipality is higher than the male population. The rate (51.1%) is of the same order of magnitude than the national rate (51.6%). In 2007 the distribution of the population of the municipality by age groups was as follows:  Percentage distribution of age groups in Ambérieu-en-Bugey and Ain Department in 2009  Sources:

Education.

Public education.

Ambérieu-en-Bugey is located in the Academy of Lyon area. The city administers several kindergartens and communal elementary schools.

Private education.

The Sainte-Marie school brings together a kindergarten, a primary school, and a college.

Other education.

A "GRETA" - an organization specialising in continuing education for adults - is based in Ambérieu-en-Bugey. A Bernard Palissy training centre for apprentices is also based in the commune.

Cultural events and festivals.

In addition to the railway, as shown by the creation of the Railway Museum railway in 1987, Ambérieu-en-Bugey also developed around its library with an interest in autobiographical heritage including hosting the headquarters of the Association For Autobiography (APA). In addition, the city has provided a house for associations.  There have been two notable events in the city:  The first, the festival "Jazz in the Park" was a festival of jazz that took place in the "Parc des Échelles" in July. The 13th and last edition was held in 2006.  The second, the Salon du Gourmet is held each year in November with dozens of exhibitors from all over France to show their crafts.  The "Association for autobiography and autobiographical heritage" located in Ambérieu-en-Bugey also organizes ad hoc cultural events.

Health.

Several medical centres are based in Ambérieu-en-Bugey: other than the mutual clinic there is a maternity unit in the city, a medical practice at Allymes, the Paul-Mourlon centre for early medico-social action, and the specialized home care service also named Paul-Mourlon.

Sports.

Infrastructure.

The city has several sports facilities: the Cordier, Bellievre, Saint-Exupéry, and Plaine de l'Ain gyms. There is also a nautical centre called Laure Manaudou, the Theo-Tillier stadium, and the skatepark.

Media.

Printing press.

The newspaper "le Progrès" offers a daily edition dedicated to the region of Bugey. "Voix de l'Ain" is a weekly publication offering local information for different regions of the department. "Le Journal du Bugey" is a weekly publication more focused on information for the Ambérieu-en-Bugey area and its surroundings.

TV.

"France 3 Rhône-Alpes Auvergne is available in the region.

Radio.

A local radio station broadcasts the "Fréquence Côtière" from Montluel. Since the 2000s, the name has evolved into the station "FC radio, the essential".

Religion.

Catholic worship.

There are six churches for Catholic worship in the parish of Ambérieu-en-Bugey: Saint Symphorien, Saint Jean-Marie Vianney, Notre Dame des Neiges, Sainte Foy, Saint Maurice, and Saint Denis. This parish is in the parish grouping of "Ambérieu-en-Bugey" which depends on the diocese of Belley-Ars in the Archdiocese of Lyon.

Protestant worship.

An evangelical Protestant church is located at 31 rue de la Resistance.

Muslim worship.

Two prayer halls of the Muslim Faith are located in Ambérieu-en-Bugey: the first is for the Union of Maghreb people of Ain and is located on the rue de la Resistance. The second is run by the Union of Muslim Associations for the Lyon Area and is located on Avenue Paul Painlevé. A building permit has been approved by the city council to build a mosque

Freemasonry.

A Masonic lodge, the "Brotherhood bugeysienne" is based in Ambérieu-en-Bugey. They also have a Masonic temple in the commune of Saint-Denis-en-Bugey. It is affiliated to the Grand Orient of France.

Economy.

Incomes of the population and tax.

In 2008 according to the INSEE survey, the average net income per household was in 2008 in the order of EUR 21,335 per year. 54.0% of the commune's households were then taxable.  In 2008 still, the median household income was €17,750, placing Ambérieu-en-Bugey at 13,724th place among the 31,604 communes of more than 50 households in metropolitan France.

Employment.

In 2007 the population of Ambérieu-en-Bugey was distributed as follows: 66.3% of active people, which is significantly higher than the national average of 45.2%, and 7.4% of retirees, a figure much lower than the 18.2% national average.  In 2007 the unemployment rate was 10.5% against 12.1% in 1999.  An employment centre is located in the city. Distribution of Employees by Zone of Activity in 2007

Businesses and shops.

At 1 January 2010, Ambérieu-en-Bugey had 908 business establishments: 59 were specialized in industrial activity, 89 in construction, 618 in trade, 15 in agriculture, and 142 were in the administrative sector.  In 2010 97 new companies were established in the territory of which 69 are under the "auto-entrepreneur" rules.  Pierre Pernod and Raphaelle Cavalli created the "Cotélac" enterprise in 1993 in Ambérieu-en-Bugey.

Culture and heritage.

Civil monuments.

There are three sites in the commune that are registered as historical monuments:

Environmental heritage.

The commune has several parks:  Ambérieu-en-Bugey was awarded one flower in the "Concours des villes et villages fleuris" (Competition for Towns and Villages in bloom) competition in 2005 and second in 2008. In 2014 the commune was awarded two flowers.

Ambérieu-en-Bugey and the cinema.

Several films were partially shot in Ambérieu-en-Bugey:

Ambérieu-en-Bugey (pronounced [ɑ̃.be.ʁjø ɑ̃ by.ʒɛ]) is a French commune in the department of Ain in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of eastern France.

Ambérieu-en-Bugey ( ) est une commune française, située dans le département de l'Ain en région Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes. Elle appartient également à la région naturelle et historique du Bas-Bugey.


Plot.

Pierre Peders (Buscemi) is a tough political correspondent infuriated by his editor's insistence he cover a tabloid-level story about the paparazzi favorite Katya (Miller). Pierre's chagrin increases given the news of a searing White House scandal that is just breaking; instead of covering the piece, Peders must visit a posh Manhattan restaurant and interview Katya, whom he instantly detests. The one-on-one is more of a disaster than either could have predicted, but by some strange twist of fate, Pierre is injured and brought back to Katya's loft. Once there, liquor is downed, cocaine is consumed, minor violence erupts, and the two begin to "dance a pas de deux" — attempting, not so subtly, to outmaneuver one another psychologically, as dark secrets and long-hidden vulnerabilities emerge.  Katya teases Peders into kissing her, which Peders passionately does, but as her cell phone rings and reality reasserts itself, Katya demands that he stop. Peders is exasperated and complains that she doesn't let him finish what she starts, unlike the male prostitute he once visited. During another of Katya's phone calls, Peders uses Katya's laptop and opens a folder containing what he believes is Katya's diary. He is able to barely conceal his surprise when Katya eyes him suspiciously, by saying he is merely Googling her, as per an earlier suggestion by her.  When Katya's attention returns to her phone call, Peders e-mails a particularly expressive and emotional diary passage to himself. Later, unable to forget what he had read, Peders betrays his snooping by asking Katya what has made her lose hope. After an emotional outburst about her loss of privacy, she admits that she has cancer. At this, Peders is immediately contrite about the way he has been treating her. He learns that no one knows about Katya's illness; she feels that saying it aloud will make it more "real". Peders promises not to reveal the truth about her health; Katya demands that Peders reveal something about himself in return.  As Katya films the confession with a camcorder, Peders admits that, as a reporter, he has made up stories and sources, and that he essentially caused his alcoholic former wife's death. (He took his time responding to her distress call to him - by the time he arrived, she was already dead.) Katya swaps out the camcorder tape when Peders is unaware, and a while later, Peders attempts to do the same. On a clandestine phone call to his editor, Peders - against his promise to Katya - tells him that Katya has cancer. Peders leaves Katya's loft, and as he is walking outside, she calls him on his cell phone.  Katya reveals that not only did she lie about having cancer, (the diary Peders believed was hers was actually the diary of the character she played) but she has Peders' confessional tape. She inquires whether she should send it to his editor first or the police. Peders smugly retorts that he swapped the tape first; Katya disagrees and says he only has her rehearsal tape. The movie ends with Peders and Katya watching their tapes - Peders wearing a sullen expression. Katya sips a glass of wine while watching Peders' confessional tape, but it is unknown if she will follow through with her threat.

Interview is a remake of Dutch film maker Theo van Gogh's 2003 film of the same name. The American version, which premiered in 2007, stars Steve Buscemi as Pierre Peders (originally played by Pierre Bokma), a fading political journalist interviewing a soap opera star, Katya, played by Sienna Miller (originally played by Katja Schuurman). This film also features Tara Elders as Maggie, Molly Griffith as a waitress, and Philippe Vonlanthen as an autograph seeker. Steve Buscemi is also a director of this American adaptation. Katja Schuurman, the actress who played Sienna Miller's part in the original movie, has a small cameo as a woman leaving a limo towards the end of the movie.

Interview est un film américain réalisé par Steve Buscemi, produit en 2006 et sorti en 2007 aux États-Unis, en France et en Belgique. Il s'agit du remake du film du même nom réalisé par le Néerlandais Theo van Gogh (2003), et c'est le premier film du projet "Triple Theo".


Biography.

Rabbi Shlomo Chaim Ha-Cohen Aviner was born in 1943 in German-occupied Lyon, France. As a child, he escaped the deportations to Nazi death camps, being hidden under a false identity. As a youth, he was active in the religious Zionist youth movement, Bnei Akiva, in France, eventually becoming its National Director. He studied mathematics, physics, and electrical engineering at the Superior School of Electricity.  At the age of 23, infused with the ideal of working the Land of Israel, Rav Aviner made aliyah to Kibbutz Sde Eliyahu, near Beit She'an. He then went to learn at Yeshivat Mercaz HaRav in Jerusalem, where he met Rabbi Zvi Yehuda Kook, the Rosh Yeshiva and son of Israel's first Chief Rabbi, Rabbi Avraham Yitzchak HaCohen Kook. Rabbi Tzvi Yehudah became his foremost teacher, and Aviner became one of his leading students. During this time, he also served as a soldier in the Israel Defense Forces, participating in the Six-Day War and the Yom Kippur War, earning the rank of Lieutenant. At the direction of Rabbi Zvi Yehuda Kook, he joined a group that was settling Hebron, and learned Torah there.  In the year 1971, Rav Aviner became the rabbi of Kibbutz Lavi in the Lower Galilee, where he spent half of his day working in the farm. A number of years later, he left Lavi to serve as the Rabbi of Moshav Keshet in the Golan Heights. In 1981, he accepted the position of rabbi of Beit El (Aleph), in the Binyamin region of the Shomron. Two years later, he also became the Rosh Yeshiva of the new-established Yeshivat Ateret Yerushalayim (formerly known as Ateret Cohanim). Located in the Old City of Jerusalem, Rav Aviner's yeshiva is the yeshiva closest to Har HaBayit (the Temple Mount). In its more than twenty-year history, Yeshivat Ateret Yerushalayim has produced rabbis, teachers, educators, and officers in the Israel Defense Forces, while also promoting the building and settling of the city of Jerusalem.

Works.

Rabbi Aviner has published about 150 books. Some of the more notable books are:

Controversies.

In the past few years, his outspoken views have attracted controversy. In 2005, prior to the forced mass eviction of Jews from Gush Katif as part of Israel unilateral disengagement plan, Aviner took a rabbinical stance that soldiers should not refuse orders to participate with the plan, explaining that the religious issue was the state's responsibility, not the individual's. He continued to publicly oppose the resistance to the eviction plans, and in one case, he has been accused of taking physical action, including the use of violence against protestors.  Aviner has been accused of sexual abuse. Some of these accusations were published in Maariv. As a result of the uproar following the publication, the newspaper appointed an independent investigator, the psychiatrist Netanel Laor, who came to the conclusion that Aviner was innocent, though maybe guilty of practicing therapy without the backing of a professional. The expert also said that the rabbi's intentions were honorable. After that (and after the public prosecutor closed the investigation due to "lack of guilt"/ rather than "lack of evidence"/), Maariv published a retraction.  Aviner is a prominent advocate of conversion therapy, and a supporter of the Atzat Nefesh organization. Despite the Israel Ministry of Health's rejection of conversion therapy as pseudo-science, the rabbi has said he will continue to counsel homosexuals to the process.  In a 2000 visit by Pope John Paul II, it was announced in Bethlehem that the Vatican had always recognized "Palestinian national rights to a homeland". Rabbi Aviner said at the time that the pope's goal was simply to obtain a foothold in Jerusalem for the Church.  In 2007, in an article about Baruch Marzel's threats over the settler movement, Aviner stated that he felt that the IDF was sincerely evacuating the renewed Homesh settlers and other demonstrators at the site of the abandoned village to protect from future terrorist attacks. Aviner further distinguished between the IDF's responsibility to protect settlements versus its responsibility for protecting demonstrators, saying that the IDF should do whatever is necessary to protect a settlement to keep it intact, including armed forces, but demonstrators may be evacuated if thought necessary where there is a danger to their lives.  In 2009, a booklet drawing on Rabbi Aviner's teachings entitled, "Go Fight My Fight: A Daily Study Table for the Soldier and Commander in a Time of War", was published especially for Operation Cast Lead. Its existence was revealed by Breaking the Silence, a group of Israeli ex-soldiers who accused the Rabbi of encouraging Israeli soldiers to disregard the international laws of war aimed at protecting civilians. Some have interpreted the booklet as advising soldiers that cruelty is sometimes a "good attribute".  In 2010, Aviner started a campaign to forbid renting homes to Arabs in Israel. A number of other rabbis signed his call.  In 2012, Rabbi Aviner presented a religious ruling that women in Israel should not run for parliament for reasons of modesty. Other religious authorities, notably Rabbi Yuval Cherlow, immediately rejected the ruling.  After the Notre-Dame de Paris fire occurred in April 2019, Rabbi Aviner made comments which implied that it could be a divine retribution for the burning of numerous copies of the Talmud in 1242, an outcome of the Disputation of Paris.

Rabbi Shlomo Chaim Hacohen Aviner (, born 1943/5703 as "Claude Langenauer") is an Israeli Orthodox rabbi, born in France. He is the rosh yeshiva of the Ateret Yerushalayim yeshiva (formerly known as Ateret Cohanim) in Jerusalem, and the rabbi of Bet El. He is considered one of the spiritual leaders of the Religious Zionist movement.

Shlomo Hayim ha-Cohen Aviner (en hébreu : שלמה חיים הכהן אבינר, né en 1943 à Lyon) est un rabbin orthodoxe israélien, Juif originaire de France, le rosh de la yeshiva "Ateret Yeroushalayim" dans le quartier musulman de la Vieille Ville de Jérusalem et le rabbin du quartier Alef de Beit El. Il est considéré l'un des dirigeants spirituels du mouvement sioniste religieux.


History.

The region was originally inhabited by the Wyandot and Ottawa tribes. In 1792 Major Alexander Truman, his servant William Lynch and guide/interpreter William Smalley were sent by George Washington on a peace mission. Truman and Lynch were killed; Truman was apparently killed prior to April 20, 1792 at what later became Ottawa, Putnam County Ohio. A similar mission under Colonel John Hardin also ended in Hardin and his servant Freeman being murdered in Shelby County.In 1817, a large tract of land in Northwestern Ohio was ceded to the United States, and Blanchard's Fork Reserve was established, until the Reserve was ceded and extinguished in 1831, and Ottawa population on that Reserve removed to Kansas in 1832. Within the Reserve, two Ottawa villages existed, of which the Lower Tawa Town became the Village of Ottawa, Ohio.  Among the early settlers of the Ottawa area was Henry Kohls, who arrived in 1835 and settled with his family in the village of Glandorf. In the early 1900s, his grandsons, Charles and Frank, were each elected Putnam County treasurer in successive two year stints. Notably, while serving as treasurer they each appointed the other as their chief deputy.  Ottawa was incorporated as a village in 1861.

Geography.

Ottawa is located at (41.020885, -84.041314).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of, of which is land and is water.

Demographics.

95.3% spoke English, 4.2% Spanish, and 0.5% German as their first language.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 4,460 people, 1,829 households, and 1,207 families living in the village. The population density was. There were 1,983 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the village was 92.5% White, 0.8% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 4.8% from other races, and 1.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10.3% of the population.  There were 1,829 households of which 32.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.1% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.0% were non-families. 30.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.98.  The median age in the village was 38.8 years. 26.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.8% were from 25 to 44; 27.5% were from 45 to 64; and 15.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48.5% male and 51.5% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 4,367 people, 1,759 households, and 1,157 families living in the village. The population density was 1,126.6 people per square mile (434.6/km). There were 1,849 housing units at an average density of 477.0 per square mile (184.0/km). The racial makeup of the village was 94.34% White, 0.27% African American, 0.09% Native American, 0.44% Asian, 3.73% from other races, and 1.12% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.35% of the population.  There were 1,759 households out of which 32.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.7% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% were non-families. 30.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.08.  In the village, the population was spread out with 26.8% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 22.9% from 45 to 64, and 14.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 95.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.7 males.  The median income for a household in the village was $39,034, and the median income for a family was $50,810. Males had a median income of $35,174 versus $25,456 for females. The per capita income for the village was $22,476. About 2.8% of families and 5.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.4% of those under age 18 and 9.8% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Ottawa-Glandorf Local Schools operates Ottawa-Glandorf High School in the village.  Ottawa has a public library, a branch of the Putnam County District Library.

Ottawa is a village and the county seat of Putnam County, Ohio, United States. It is located 51 miles southwest of Toledo. The population was 4,460 at the 2010 census.

Ottawa est une ville de l'État de l'Ohio, aux États-Unis. Elle est le siège du comté de Putnam. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


History.

Dallam County was formed in 1876 from portions of Bexar County. It was named after James Wilmer Dallam, the lawyer who made the first digest of Texas laws. The first settlement in the area followed in 1870, which resulted in the Red River War of 1874 and 1875 with the native Comanche and Kiowa tribes. In 1900–01, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad company built a stretch from Liberal, Kansas to Tucumcari, New Mexico, which ran through the county. The location where the tracks met those of the Fort Worth and Denver Railway was named Dalhart. The name is taken from the first letters of Dallam County and Hartley County, between which the town's area is divided. Within a short time, the small railroad stop turned into a sizable town and was named county seat in 1903.  Dallam County was one of the hardest hit areas in the Dust Bowl.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which are land and (0.1%) are covered by water.  Dallam County, Texas is one of only three counties in Texas to border two other U.S. states (the other being Bowie County, Texas and Cass County, Texas). Dallam County forms part of the tripoint—of Texas-Oklahoma-New Mexico.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 6,222 people, 2,317 households, and 1,628 families residing in the county. The population density was 4 people per square mile (2/km2). There were 2,697 housing units at an average density of 2 per square mile (1/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 82.64% White, 1.64% Black or African American, 0.90% Native American, 0.21% Asian, 12.41% from other races, and 2.20% from two or more races. 28.38% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. In terms of ancestry, 19.6% were of German, 8,2% were of Irish, 7,1 % were of English, 5,5% were of American, 2,8% were of French, 2,7 % were of Scotch-Irish, 1,6% were of Dutch.  There were 2,317 households out of which 39.00% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.10% were married couples living together, 9.70% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.70% were non-families. 26.20% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.68 and the average family size was 3.24.  In the county, the population was spread out with 31.80% under the age of 18, 8.60% from 18 to 24, 28.80% from 25 to 44, 20.60% from 45 to 64, and 10.30% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 102.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.30 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $27,946, and the median income for a family was $33,558. Males had a median income of $27,244 versus $19,000 for females. The per capita income for the county was $13,653. About 11.30% of families and 14.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.40% of those under age 18 and 24.80% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Dallam County is located within District 86 of the Texas House of Representatives. The seat has been held by Amarillo attorney John T. Smithee, a Republican, since 1985. Dallam County as a whole is heavily Republican in orientation.

Education.

The following school districts serve Dallam County:

Dallam County is the northernmost county in the U.S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 6,703. Its county seat is Dalhart. The county was founded in 1876 and later organized in 1891. It is named for James Wilmer Dallam, a lawyer and newspaper publisher.

Le comté de Dallam (anglais : "Dallam County") est un comté situé dans l'extrême nord de l'État du Texas aux États-Unis. Le siège du comté est Dalhart. Selon le recensement de 2010, sa population est de.