Taxonomy.

14 subspecies have been recognized. Two subspecies groups have been recognized based on fossil history, cranial analysis, and mitochondrial DNA analysis. None of the subspecies are separable based on morphology and subspecies taxonomy is usually ignored except with regards to conservation issues centered around subspecies rather than ranges.  "Martes americana americana" subspecies group:  "Martes americana caurina" subspecies group:

Distribution and habitat.

The American marten is broadly distributed in northern North America. From north to south its range extends from the northern limit of treeline in arctic Alaska and Canada to northern New Mexico. From east to west its distribution extends from Newfoundland and south west to Humboldt County, California. In Canada and Alaska, American marten distribution is vast and continuous. In the western United States, American marten distribution is limited to mountain ranges that provide preferred habitat. Over time, the distribution of American marten has contracted and expanded regionally, with local extirpations and successful recolonizations occurring in the Great Lakes region and some parts of the Northeast. The American marten has been reintroduced in several areas where extinction occurred. The marten lives in mature coniferous or mixed forests in Alaska and Canada, the Pacific Northwest of the United States and south into Northern New England and through the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada. Small groups of martens live in the Midwest in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Trapping and destruction of forest habitat have reduced its numbers, but it is still much more abundant than the larger fisher. The Newfoundland subspecies of this animal ("Martes americana atrata") is considered to be threatened. The Pacific Northwest subspecies, the Humboldt marten, is even more so, with only a few hundred individuals remaining.

Home range.

Compared to other carnivores, American marten population density is low for their body size. One review reports population densities ranging from 0.4 to 2.5 individuals/km. Population density may vary annually or seasonally. Low population densities have been associated with low abundance of prey species.  Home range size of the American marten is extremely variable, with differences attributable to sex, year, geographic area, prey availability, cover type, quality or availability, habitat fragmentation, reproductive status, resident status, predation, and population density. Home range size does not appear to be related to body size for either sex. Home range size ranged from 0.04 sq mi (0.1 km) in Maine to 6.1 sq mi (15.7 km) in Minnesota for males, and 0.04 sq mi (0.1 km) in Maine to 3.0 sq mi (7.7 km) in Wisconsin for females.  Males generally exhibit larger home ranges than females, which some authors suggest is due to more specific habitat requirements of females (e.g., denning or prey requirements) that limit their ability to shift home range. However, unusually large home ranges were observed for 4 females in two studies (Alaska and Quebec). Males and females in northeastern California appeared to have approximately equal home range size.  Home ranges are indicated by scent-marking. American marten male pelts often show signs of scarring on the head and shoulders, suggesting intrasexual aggression that may be related to home range maintenance. Home range overlap is generally minimal or nonexistent between adult males but may occur between males and females, adult males and juveniles, and between females.  Several authors have reported that home range boundaries appear to coincide with topographical or geographical features. In northeastern California, movements and home range boundaries were influenced by cover, topography (forest-meadow edges, open ridgetop, lakeshores), and other American marten. In south-central Alaska, home range boundaries included creeks and a major river. In an area burned 8 years previously in interior Alaska, home range boundaries coincided with transition areas between riparian and nonriparian habitats. In northwestern Montana, home range boundaries appeared to coincide with the edge of large open meadows and burned areas; the authors suggested that open areas represent a "psychological rather than physical barriers".

Description.

The American marten is a long, slender-bodied weasel about the size of a mink with relatively large rounded ears, short limbs, and a bushy tail. American marten have a roughly triangular head and sharp nose. Their long, silky fur ranges in color from pale yellowish buff to tawny brown to almost black. Their head is usually lighter than the rest of their body, while the tail and legs are darker. American marten usually have a characteristic throat and chest bib ranging in color from pale straw to vivid orange. Sexual dimorphism is pronounced, with males averaging about 15% larger than females in length and as much as 65% larger in body weight.  Total length ranges from 1.5 to 2.2 feet (0.5–0.7 m), with tail length of 5.4 to 6.4 inches (135–160 mm), Adult weight ranges from 1.1 to 3.1 pounds (0.5–1.4 kg) and varies by age and location. Other than size, sexes are similar in appearance. American marten have limited body-fat reserves, experience high mass-specific heat loss, and have a limited fasting endurance. In winter, individuals may go into shallow torpor daily to reduce heat loss.

Behavior.

American marten activity patterns vary by region, though in general, activity is greater in summer than in winter. American marten may be active as much as 60% of the day in summer but as little as 16% of the day in winter. In north-central Ontario individuals were active about 10 to 16 hours a day in all seasons except late winter, when activity was reduced to about 5 hours a day. In south-central Alaska, American marten were more active in autumn (66% active) than in late winter and early spring (43% active). In northeastern California, more time was spent traveling and hunting in summer than in winter, suggesting that reduced winter activity may be related to thermal and food stress or may be the result of larger prey consumption and consequent decrease in time spent foraging.  American marten may be nocturnal or diurnal. Variability in daily activity patterns has been linked to activity of major prey species, foraging efficiency, gender, reducing exposure to extreme temperatures, season, and timber harvest. In northeastern California, activity in the snow-free season (May–December) was diurnal, while winter activity was largely nocturnal. In south-central Alaska, American marten were nocturnal in autumn, with strong individual variability in diel activity in late winter. Activity occurred throughout the day in late winter and early spring.  Daily distance traveled may vary by age, gender, habitat quality, season, prey availability, traveling conditions, weather, and physiological condition of the individual. Year-round daily movements in Grand Teton National Park ranged from 0 to 2.83 miles (0–4.57 km), averaging 0.6 mile (0.9 km, observations of 88 individuals). One marten in south-central Alaska repeatedly traveled 7 to 9 miles (11–14 km) overnight to move between 2 areas of home range focal activity. One individual in central Idaho moved as much as 9 miles (14 km) a day in winter, but movements were largely confined to a 1,280-acre (518 ha) area. Juvenile American marten in east-central Alaska traveled significantly farther each day than adults (1.4 miles (2.2 km) vs. 0.9 mile (1.4 km)).

Weather factors.

Weather may impact American marten activity, resting site use, and prey availability. Individuals may become inactive during storms or extreme cold. In interior Alaska, a decrease in above-the-snow activity occurred when ambient temperatures fell below −4 °F (−20 °C). In southeastern Wyoming, temperature influenced resting site location. Above-snow sites were used during the warmest weather, while subnivean sites were used during the coldest weather, particularly when temperatures were low and winds were high following storms. High mortality may occur if American marten become wet in cold weather, as when unusual winter rains occur during live trapping. In Yosemite National Park, drought conditions increased the diversity of prey items; American marten consumed fish and small mammal species made more accessible by low snow conditions in a drought year.  A snowy habitat in many parts of the range of the American marten provides thermal protection and opportunities for foraging and resting. American marten may travel extensively under the snowpack. Subnivean travel routes of >98 feet (30 m) were documented in northeastern Oregon, >33 feet (10 m) on the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and up to 66 feet (20 m) in Wyoming.  American marten are well adapted to snow. On the Kenai Peninsula, individuals navigated through deep snow regardless of depth, with tracks rarely sinking >2 inches (5 cm) into the snow pack. Snowfall pattern may affect distribution, with the presence of American marten linked to deep snow areas.  Adaptations to deep snow are particularly important in areas where the American marten is sympatric with the fisher, which may compete with and/or prey on American marten. In California, American marten were closely associated with areas of deep snow (>9 inches (23 cm)/winter month), while fishers were more associated with shallow snow (<5 inches (13 cm)/winter month). Overlap zones were areas with intermediate snow levels. Age and recruitment ratios suggested that there were few reproductive American marten where snow was shallow and few reproductive fishers where snow was deep.  Where deep snow accumulates, American marten prefer cover types that prevent snow from packing hard and have structures near the ground that provide access to sub nivean sites. While American marten select habitats with deep snow, they may concentrate activity in patches with relatively shallow snow. In north-central Idaho, American marten activity was highest in areas where snow depths were <12 inches (30 cm). This was attributed to easier burrowing for food and more shrub and log cover.

Reproduction.

Breeding.

American marten reach sexual maturity by 1 year of age, but effective breeding may not occur before 2 years of age. In captivity, 15-year-old females bred successfully. In the wild, 12-year-old females were reproductive.  Adult American marten are generally solitary except during the breeding season. They are polygamous, and females may have multiple periods of heat. Females enter estrus in July or August, with courtship lasting about 15 days. Embryonic implantation is delayed until late winter, with active gestation lasting approximately a month. Females give birth in late March or April to a litter ranging from 1 to 5 kits. Annual reproductive output is low according to predictions based on body size. Fecundity varies by age and year and may be related to food abundance.

Denning behavior.

Females use dens to give birth and to shelter kits. Dens are classified as either natal dens, where parturition takes place, or maternal dens, where females move their kits after birth. American marten females use a variety of structures for natal and maternal denning, including the branches, cavities or broken tops of live trees, snags, stumps, logs, woody debris piles, rock piles, and red squirrel ("Tamiasciurus hudsonicus") nests or middens. Females prepare a natal den by lining a cavity with grass, moss, and leaves. They frequently move kits to new maternal dens once kits are 7–13 weeks old. Most females spend more than 50% of their time attending dens in both pre-weaning and weaning periods, with less time spent at dens as kits aged. Paternal care has not been documented.

Development of young.

Weaning occurs at 42 days. Young emerge from dens at about 50 days but may be moved by their mother before this. In northwestern Maine, kits were active but poorly coordinated at 7 to 8 weeks, gaining coordination by 12 to 15 weeks. Young reach adult body weight around 3 months.  Kits generally stay in the company of their mother through the end of their first summer, and most disperse in the fall. The timing of juvenile dispersal is not consistent throughout American marten's distribution, ranging from early August to October. In south-central Yukon, young-of-the-year dispersed from mid-July to mid-September, coinciding with the onset of female estrus. Observations from Oregon and Yukon suggest that juveniles may disperse in early spring. Of 9 juvenile American marten that dispersed in spring in northeastern Oregon, 3 dispersed a mean of 20.7 miles (33.3 km) (range: 17.4–26.8 miles (28.0–43.2 km)) and established home ranges outside of the study area. Three were killed after dispersing distances ranging from 5.3 to 14.6 miles (8.6–23.6 km), and 3 dispersed a mean of 5.0 miles (8.1 km) (range: 3.7–6.0 miles (6.0–9.6 km)) but returned and established home ranges in the area of their original capture. Spring dispersal ended between June and early August, after which individuals remained in the same area and established a home range.

Food habits.

American marten are opportunistic predators, influenced by local and seasonal abundance and availability of potential prey. They require about 80 cal/day while at rest, the equivalent of about 3 voles ("Microtus", "Myodes", and "Phenacomys" spp.). Voles dominate diets throughout the American marten's geographic range, though larger prey—particularly snowshoe hares—may be important, particularly in winter. Red-backed voles ("Myodes" spp.) are generally taken in proportion to their availability, while meadow voles ("Microtus"' spp.) are taken in excess of their availability in most areas. Deer mice ("Peromyscus maniculatus") and shrews ("Soricidae") are generally eaten less than expected, but may be important food items in areas lacking alternative prey species. Birds were the most important prey item in terms of frequency and volume on the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia. Fish may be important in coastal areas.  American marten diet may shift seasonally or annually. In general, diet is more diverse in summer than winter, with summer diets containing more fruit, other vegetation, and insects. Diet is generally more diverse in the eastern and southern parts of American marten's distribution compared to the western part, though there is high diversity in the Pacific states. American marten exhibit the least diet diversity in the subarctic, though diversity may also be low in areas where the diet is dominated by large prey species (e.g., snowshoe hares or red squirrels).  American marten may be important seed dispersers; seeds generally pass through the animal intact, and seeds are likely germinable. One study from Chichagof Island, southeast Alaska, found that Alaska blueberry ("Vaccinium alaskensis") and ovalleaf huckleberry ("V. ovalifolium") seeds had higher germination rates after passing through the gut of American marten compared to seeds that dropped from the parent plant. Analyses of American marten movement and seed passage rates suggested that American marten could disperse seeds long distances: 54% of the distances analyzed were >0.3 mile (0.5 km).

Mortality.

Life span.

American marten in captivity may live for 15 years. The oldest individual documented in the wild was 14.5 years old. Survival rates vary by geographic region, exposure to trapping, habitat quality, and age. In an unharvested population in northeastern Oregon, the probability of survival of American marten ≥9 months old was 0.55 for 1 year, 0.37 for 2 years, 0.22 for 3 years, and 0.15 for 4 years. The mean annual probability of survival was 0.63 for 4 years. In a harvested population in east-central Alaska, annual adult survival rates ranged from 0.51 to 0.83 over 3 years of study. Juvenile survival rates were lower, ranging from 0.26 to 0.50. In Newfoundland, annual adult survival was 0.83. Survival of juveniles from October to April was 0.76 in a protected population, but 0.51 in areas open to snaring and trapping. In western Quebec, natural mortality rates were higher in clearcut areas than in unlogged areas.

Predators.

American marten are vulnerable to predation from raptors and other carnivores. The threat of predation may be an important factor shaping American marten habitat preferences, a hypothesis inferred from their avoidance of open areas and from behavioral observations of the European pine marten ("Martes martes"). Specific predators vary by geographic region. In Newfoundland, red foxes ("Vulpes vulpes") were the most frequent predator, though coyote ("Canis latrans") and other American marten were also responsible for some deaths. In deciduous forests in northeastern British Columbia, most predation was attributed to raptors. Of 18 American marten killed by predators in northeastern Oregon, 8 were killed by bobcats ("Lynx rufus"), 4 by raptors, 4 by other American marten, and 2 by coyotes. Throughout the distribution of American marten, other predators include the great horned owl ("Bubo virginianus"), bald eagle ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus"), golden eagle ("Aquila chrysaetos"), Canada lynx ("L. canadensis"), mountain lion ("Puma concolor"), fisher ("M. pennanti"), wolverine ("Gulo gulo"), grizzly bear ("Ursus arctos horribilis"), American black bear ("U. americanus"), and grey wolf ("C. lupus"). In northeastern Oregon, most predation (67%) occurred between May and August, and no predation occurred between December and February.

Hunting.

The fur of the American marten is shiny and luxuriant, resembling that of the closely related sable. At the turn of the twentieth century, the American marten population was depleted due to the fur trade. The Hudson's Bay Company traded in pelts from this species among others. Numerous protection measures and reintroduction efforts have allowed the population to increase, but deforestation is still a problem for the marten in much of its habitat. American marten are trapped for their fur in all but a few states and provinces where they occur. The highest annual take in North America was 272,000 animals in 1820.  Trapping is a major source of American marten mortality in some populations and may account for up to 90% of all deaths in some areas. Overharvesting has contributed to local extirpations. Trapping may impact population density, sex ratios and age structure. Juveniles are more vulnerable to trapping than adults, and males are more vulnerable than females. American marten are particularly vulnerable to trapping mortality in industrial forests.

Other.

Other sources of mortality include drowning, starvation, exposure, choking, and infections associated with injury. During live trapping, high mortality may occur if individuals become wet in cold weather.  American marten host several internal and external parasites, including helminths, fleas (Siphonaptera), and ticks (Ixodida). American marten in central Ontario carried both toxoplasmosis and Aleutian disease, but neither affliction was suspected to cause significant mortality. High American marten mortality in Newfoundland was caused by encephalitis.

The American marten or American pine marten ("Martes americana") is a species of North American mammal, a member of the family Mustelidae. The species is sometimes referred to as simply the pine marten. The name "pine marten" is derived from the common name of the distinct Eurasian species "Martes martes". The American marten differs from the fisher ("Pekania pennanti") in that it is smaller in size and lighter in color.

La Martre d'Amérique (Martes americana) est une espèce de mammifères terrestres de la famille des Mustélidés. Cette martre se rencontre en Amérique du Nord.


Overview.

The Wroclaw Electronic Works (Wrocławskie Zakłady Elektroniczne) were established 6 February 1959; the name "Elwro" was derived from the company's telegraphic address. The first model designed at this plant was the vacuum-tube based Odra 1001, released in December 1960; this was a research computer not put into serial production. The next model was the Odra 1002 which was constructed from transistors made in Poland, in 1962. The Elwro factory was responsible for mass production of the tube-based UMC-1 designed at Warsaw University of Technology; twenty five units were built from 1962 through 1965. Concurrently design work was proceeding on the Odra 1003 transistor computer, which was faster than the UMC-1, and used much less power. The first 1003 was built in 1963 and work was continued on improvements, resulting in the 1013 which was faster, and had a 256 word core memory as well as a drum with 8000 words.  In 1966, the Odra 1204 was built, with 16 k words of magnetic core memory and a 130 k word drum. This machine was aimed at data processing. However, software production was a bottleneck and the company was directed to produce a computer compatible with the ICL 1900; this "compatible" machine was the Odra 1304. It went into serial production in 1970. The Odra 1305 used integrated circuits and began production in 1970; it had one million bytes of main memory and disk drives to store 100 million bytes. A later model, 1325, used dual processors and further increase operating speed to 200,000 operations per second. The 1325 became popular because it supported common programming languages of the time such as ALGOL, COBOL and FORTRAN.  By 1966 the factory had built 100 computers.  From 1985 to 1990 Elwro produced the Elwro 800 Junior microcomputer for education.  Peak employment at the plant was up to 6000 people. The factory was privatized in 1993 and purchased by Siemens, but wound down production. In 2000, the remains of the company were purchased by an American company, Telect, with plans to manufacture telecommunications equipment.  In 2015 the Wroclaw city council named the former location of the factory "ELWRO Square", to commemorate the company's contributions to information technology.

Elwro was a Polish company that manufactured mainframe and microcomputers from 1959 until 1989. Its plant was in Wroclaw. Computer models included Odra mainframe systems, and the Elwro 800 Junior microcomputer for education.

Elwro – de son nom complet "Wrocławskie Zakłady Elektroniczne "Mera-Elwro"" puis "Centrum Komputerowych Systemów Automatyki i Pomiarów Mera Elwro" en 1983 – était un fabricant polonais d'ordinateurs et de calculatrices créé en 1959 à Varsovie. Rachetée par Siemens en 1993, la marque disparut peu après.


Basic formula.

A quantity "x" depends exponentially on time "t" if  where the constant "a" is the initial value of "x",  the constant "b" is a positive growth factor, and "τ" is the time constant—the time required for "x" to increase by one factor of "b":  If and, then "x" has exponential growth. If and, or and 0 <, then "x" has exponential decay.  Example: "If a species of bacteria doubles every ten minutes, starting out with only one bacterium, how many bacteria would be present after one hour?" The question implies "a" = 1, "b" = 2 and "τ" = 10 min.  After one hour, or six ten-minute intervals, there would be sixty-four bacteria.  Many pairs ("b", "τ") of a dimensionless non-negative number "b" and an amount of time "τ" (a physical quantity which can be expressed as the product of a number of units and a unit of time) represent the same growth rate, with "τ" proportional to log "b". For any fixed "b" not equal to 1 (e.g. "e" or 2), the growth rate is given by the non-zero time "τ". For any non-zero time "τ" the growth rate is given by the dimensionless positive number "b".  Thus the law of exponential growth can be written in different but mathematically equivalent forms, by using a different base. The most common forms are the following:  where "x" expresses the initial quantity "x"(0).  Parameters (negative in the case of exponential decay): The quantities "k", "τ", and "T", and for a given "p" also "r", have a one-to-one connection given by the following equation (which can be derived by taking the natural logarithm of the above):  where "k" = 0 corresponds to "r" = 0 and to "τ" and "T" being infinite.  If "p" is the unit of time the quotient "t"/"p" is simply the number of units of time. Using the notation "t" for the (dimensionless) number of units of time rather than the time itself, "t"/"p" can be replaced by "t", but for uniformity this has been avoided here. In this case the division by "p" in the last formula is not a numerical division either, but converts a dimensionless number to the correct quantity including unit.  A popular approximated method for calculating the doubling time from the growth rate is the rule of 70, that is, formula_9.

Reformulation as log-linear growth.

If a variable "x" exhibits exponential growth according to formula_10, then the log (to any base) of "x" grows linearly over time, as can be seen by taking logarithms of both sides of the exponential growth equation:  This allows an exponentially growing variable to be modeled with a log-linear model. For example, if one wishes to empirically estimate the growth rate from intertemporal data on "x", one can linearly regress log "x" on "t".

Differential equation.

The exponential function formula_12 satisfies the linear differential equation:  saying that the change per instant of time of "x" at time "t" is proportional to the value of "x"("t"), and "x"("t") has the initial value  The differential equation is solved by direct integration:  so that  In the above differential equation, if, then the quantity experiences exponential decay.  For a nonlinear variation of this growth model see logistic function.

Difference equation.

The difference equation  has solution  showing that "x" experiences exponential growth.

Other growth rates.

In the long run, exponential growth of any kind will overtake linear growth of any kind (the basis of the Malthusian catastrophe) as well as any polynomial growth, that is, for all α:  There is a whole hierarchy of conceivable growth rates that are slower than exponential and faster than linear (in the long run). See.  Growth rates may also be faster than exponential. In the most extreme case, when growth increases without bound in finite time, it is called hyperbolic growth. In between exponential and hyperbolic growth lie more classes of growth behavior, like the hyperoperations beginning at tetration, and formula_20, the diagonal of the Ackermann function.

Logistic growth.

In reality, initial exponential growth is often not sustained forever. After some period, it will be slowed by external or environmental factors. For example, population growth may reach an upper limit due to resource limitations. In 1845, the Belgian mathematician Pierre François Verhulst first proposed a mathematical model of growth like this, called the "logistic growth".

Limitations of models.

Exponential growth models of physical phenomena only apply within limited regions, as unbounded growth is not physically realistic. Although growth may initially be exponential, the modelled phenomena will eventually enter a region in which previously ignored negative feedback factors become significant (leading to a logistic growth model) or other underlying assumptions of the exponential growth model, such as continuity or instantaneous feedback, break down.

Exponential growth bias.

Studies show that human beings have difficulty understanding exponential growth. Exponential growth bias is the tendency to underestimate compound growth processes. This bias can have financial implications as well. Below are some stories that emphasize this bias.

Rice on a chessboard.

According to an old legend, vizier Sissa Ben Dahir presented an Indian King Sharim with a beautiful handmade chessboard. The king asked what he would like in return for his gift and the courtier surprised the king by asking for one grain of rice on the first square, two grains on the second, four grains on the third, etc. The king readily agreed and asked for the rice to be brought. All went well at first, but the requirement for 2 grains on the "n"th square demanded over a million grains on the 21st square, more than a million million ( trillion) on the 41st and there simply was not enough rice in the whole world for the final squares. (From Swirski, 2006)  The second half of the chessboard is the time when an exponentially growing influence is having a significant economic impact on an organization's overall business strategy.

Water lily.

French children are offered a riddle, which shows an aspect of exponential growth: "the apparent suddenness with which an exponentially growing quantity approaches a fixed limit". The riddle imagines a water lily plant growing in a pond. The plant doubles in size every day and, if left alone, it would smother the pond in 30 days killing all the other living things in the water. Day after day, the plant's growth is small, so it is decided that it won't be a concern until it covers half of the pond. Which day will that be? The 29th day, leaving only one day to save the pond.

Exponential growth is a specific way that a quantity may increase over time. It occurs when the instantaneous rate of change (that is, the derivative) of a quantity with respect to time is proportional to the quantity itself. Described as a function, a quantity undergoing exponential growth is an exponential function of time, that is, the variable representing time is the exponent (in contrast to other types of growth, such as quadratic growth).

En mathématiques, en économie et en biologie, on parle d'un phénomène à croissance exponentielle (ou géométrique) lorsque la croissance en valeur absolue de la population est proportionnelle à la population existante, c'est-à-dire lorsque le taux de croissance intrinsèque est constant et positif.


Early career and Grammy Award.

Guaraldi was born in San Francisco's North Beach area, a place that became very important to his blossoming musical career. His last name changed to "Guaraldi" after his mother, Carmella (née Marcellino), divorced his biological father (whose last name was Dellaglio) and married Tony Guaraldi, who adopted the boy. His maternal uncle was musician, singer, and whistler Muzzy Marcellino. He graduated from Lincoln High School, attended San Francisco State College, and served in the United States Army as a cook in the Korean War.  Guaraldi's first recording was made in November 1953 with Cal Tjader and was released early in 1954. The 10-inch LP record was called "The Cal Tjader Trio", and included "Chopsticks Mambo", "Vibra-Tharpe", and "Lullaby of the Leaves". By 1955, Guaraldi had his own trio with Eddie Duran and Dean Reilly. He then reunited with Tjader in June 1956 and was an integral part of two bands that the vibraphonist assembled. The first band played mainly straight jazz and included Al Torre (drums), Eugene Wright (bass) and Luis Kant (congas and bongos). The second band was formed in the spring of 1958 and included Al McKibbon (bass), Mongo Santamaría (congas and bongos) and Willie Bobo (drums and timbales). Reed men Paul Horn and Jose "Chombo" Silva were also added to the group for certain live performances and recordings.  Guaraldi left the group early in 1959 to pursue his own projects full-time. He might have remained a well-respected, but minor jazz figure had he not written an original number to fill out his covers of Antonio Carlos Jobim/Luis Bonfá tunes on his 1962 album, "Jazz Impressions of Black Orpheus", inspired by the French/Brazilian film "Black Orpheus". Fantasy Records released "Samba de Orpheus" as a single, trying to catch the building bossa nova wave, but it was destined to sink without a trace when radio DJs began flipping it over and playing the B-side, Guaraldi's "Cast Your Fate to the Wind". A gentle, likeable tune, it stood out from everything else on the airwaves and became a grass-roots hit and won the Grammy for Best Original Jazz Composition. While "Cast Your Fate to the Wind" by Guaraldi achieved modest chart success as a single in 1963, a cover version two years later by British group Sounds Orchestral cracked the Billboard top 10 (in the spring of 1965). Guaraldi never minded taking requests to play it when he appeared live. "It's like signing the back of a check", he once remarked. He also said, "I want to write standards, not just hits."  Guaraldi then recorded an album called "Vince Guaraldi, Bola Sete and Friends" with guitarist Bola Sete, Fred Marshall (bass) and Jerry Granelli (drums). This began a period of collaboration between Guaraldi and Sete where Guaraldi began experimenting with bossa nova-influenced music as well as with the electric piano. This experimentation may have led to the loss of Fred Marshall, who left the group in 1964 citing "personal differences" after Guaraldi purportedly threw a cup of coffee at Marshall during the 17th Berkeley Jazz Festival. Shortly after this time, Guaraldi was invited to compose a "jazz mass" the Eucharist chorus at the San Francisco Grace Cathedral. Utilizing his Latin influences from his bossa nova days with Sete, Guaraldi composed a number of pieces with waltz tempos and jazz standards. The performance was recorded on May 21, 1965 and released that September on "At Grace Cathedral".

Compositions for Charles Schulz's "Peanuts".

While searching for music to accompany a planned "Peanuts" documentary, television producer Lee Mendelson heard a single version of "Cast Your Fate to the Wind" on the radio while traveling in a taxicab. Mendelson contacted Ralph J. Gleason, jazz columnist for the "San Francisco Chronicle", and was put in touch with Guaraldi. He proposed that Guaraldi score the upcoming "Peanuts" Christmas special, and Guaraldi enthusiastically took the job, performing a version of what became "Linus and Lucy" over the phone two weeks later. The soundtrack was recorded by the Vince Guaraldi Trio, with drummer Jerry Granelli and bassist Fred Marshall. Guaraldi went on to compose scores for seventeen "Peanuts" television specials, as well as the 1969 feature film "A Boy Named Charlie Brown" and the unaired television documentary of the same name.

Later years.

Guaraldi's final three albums released during his lifetime were recorded for Warner Bros.-Seven Arts after spending considerable time struggling to extricate himself from Fantasy Records. Warner signed Guaraldi to a three-record deal, insisting that his inaugural release consist of "Peanuts" material. This was done in part to fill the void left by a lack of soundtrack albums to accompany the successful television specials, "Charlie Brown's All Stars!", "It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown", "You're in Love, Charlie Brown" and "He's Your Dog, Charlie Brown". Guaraldi responded with new renditions of eight of his most popular scores from those programs on his first release, "Oh Good Grief!".  Guaraldi was then given complete artistic control over his sophomore, self-produced Warner effort, "The Eclectic Vince Guaraldi", resulting in an unfocused and overindulgent album that was not well received by both critics and consumers. At Warner's insistence, arranger Shorty Rogers was recruiter to produce Guaraldi's final album, "Alma-Ville". Though deemed a focused improvement over the previous album, Warner lost interest in Guaraldi and did not promote the album, Warner Bros.-Seven Arts did not retain Guaraldi after the end of their three-record deal. Both "The Eclectic Vince Guaraldi" and "Alma-Ville" fell into obscurity, with "Oh Good Grief!" being a steady seller due to the perpetual popularity of the "Peanuts" franchise.  After working on the soundtrack for the "Peanuts" feature film "A Boy Named Charlie Brown", Guaraldi ceased releasing any new material. In his review of "The Complete Warner Bros.–Seven Arts Recordings", "The Recoup" critic Joseph Kyle lamented, "frustrated and unable to secure a record deal, he spent the remainder of his life as a live performer, recording more soundtrack material, and banking on the goodwill his "Peanuts" compositions earned him."

Death.

Guaraldi died at age 47 on February 6, 1976. The evening before, he had dined at "Peanuts" producer Lee Mendelson's home and was reportedly not feeling well, complaining of indigestion-like chest discomfort. The following evening, after concluding the first set at Butterfield's Nightclub in Menlo Park, California, with his interpretation of the Beatles' "Eleanor Rigby", Guaraldi and drummer Jim Zimmerman returned to the room in which they were staying that weekend at the adjacent Red Cottage Inn, to relax before the next set. Zimmerman commented, "He was walking across the room and just collapsed. That was it." His cause of death has been variously described as a heart attack or an aortic aneurysm. Guaraldi had just finished recording the soundtrack for "It's Arbor Day, Charlie Brown" earlier that afternoon.  Guaraldi's death was a blow to his colleagues. "It was totally unexpected", said Mendelson. "The day of his funeral, they played the Charlie Brown music over the sound system in the church. It was not an easy day; he was so young. It was one of the saddest days of my life. He was up to my house the night before [his death], and said he had not been feeling well, and didn't know what it was." "Peanuts" animator Bill Meléndez added, "He was a real good guy and we miss him." He was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma, California.

Personal.

Guaraldi married high school girlfriend Shirley Moskowitz on February 1, 1953; they divorced in 1970. The union produced two children: David Anthony Guaraldi (b. August 11, 1955) and Dia Lisa (b. February 16, 1960). Guaraldi also had a long-term affair with Gretchen Glanzer, with whom he appeared on the cover of his 1964 album, "The Latin Side of Vince Guaraldi".

Legacy.

A book-length biography of Guaraldi was published in March 2012. "Vince Guaraldi at the Piano", by author and Guaraldi archivist Derrick Bang, chronicles Guaraldi's career and role in the Northern California jazz scene, and also includes a complete discography and filmography, as well as an appendix of quotations from Guaraldi's former sidemen.  Some of Guaraldi's "Peanuts" compositions have been recorded by Dave Brubeck, Wynton Marsalis, and other jazz musicians.  Jazz musician David Benoit has often credited Guaraldi and the original "Peanuts" Christmas special music for his interest in jazz. In 1985, Benoit recorded a cover of Guaraldi's "Linus and Lucy" for an album called "This Side Up", which enjoyed considerable radio airplay and helped launch the smooth jazz genre. He released "Cast Your Fate to the Wind" on the album "Waiting for Spring" in 1989.  Pianist George Winston released a Guaraldi tribute album in 1996 titled "". Winston performed many "Peanuts" songs that had not been released by Guaraldi. "I love his melodies and his chord progressions", Winston said of Guaraldi. "He has a really personal way of doing voicings." The album was very successful, leading Winston to record a follow-up, titled "", released in early 2010. In 2003, a live performance of the eight-part "Charlie Brown Suite" was released on the album "The Charlie Brown Suite & Other Favorites".  In his review of "The Definitive Vince Guaraldi" (2009), "All About Jazz" critic David Rickert credited Guaraldi for introducing many to the world of jazz music "before we even knew what it was. [Guaraldi]'s soundtracks for the "Peanuts" television specials were a novel idea in cartoon scoring, yet seemed to perfectly fit the deceptively sophisticated adventures of Charlie Brown and the rest of the Peanuts gang. His originals were some of the best jazz to come from the West Coast scene and a tribute to what can happen when a great muse hits a gifted composer."

Discography.

As leader/co-leader.

Additional sources:

Vincent Anthony Guaraldi (July 17, 1928 – February 6, 1976), born Vincent Anthony Dellaglio, was an American jazz pianist noted for his innovative compositions and arrangements and for composing music for animated television adaptations of the "Peanuts" comic strip, as well as his performances on piano as a member of Cal Tjader's 1950s ensembles and for his own solo career. His 1962 composition "Cast Your Fate to the Wind" became a radio hit and won a Grammy Award in 1963 for Best Original Jazz Composition.

Vince Guaraldi, né à San Francisco le et décédé le d'une crise cardiaque, est un compositeur et un pianiste américain. Prolifique et talentueux, Vince Guaraldi est emblématique du jazz de San Francisco. Il est surtout connu du public pour ses compositions pour la série de dessins animés "Charlie Brown" de Charles Schulz, notamment "A Charlie Brown Christmas", "It's The Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown" et "Oh Good Grief" (interprétées par le Vince Guaraldi Trio), dont l'un des airs les plus connus est sans doute "Linus and Lucy".


Early life.

Paul Bruce Dickinson was born in Worksop, Nottinghamshire. His mother, Sonia, worked part-time in a shoe shop, and his father, Bruce, was a mechanic in the army. Dickinson's birth hurried the young couple, then just teenagers, into marriage. Initially, he was brought up by his grandparents; his grandfather was a coal-face worker at the local colliery and his grandmother was a housewife. This is referred to in his song "Born In '58" from the album "Tattooed Millionaire".  Dickinson started school at Manton Primary in Worksop while his parents moved away to Sheffield. Soon afterwards, when he was six, he was also despatched to Sheffield, where he attended a primary school in Manor Top. After six months, his parents decided to move him to a small private school called Sharrow Vale Junior. Due to constant moving, Dickinson states that this period of his life taught him to be self-reliant as he was unable to make close friends. Dickinson has a younger sister, professional showjumper, who was born in 1963. He tried to isolate himself from her as much as he could when he was young, supposedly out of spite because she, unlike him, was a planned pregnancy and birth.  Dickinson's first musical experience was dancing in his grandparents' front room to Chubby Checker's "The Twist", when he still lived with them in Worksop. The first record Dickinson recalls owning was The Beatles single "She Loves You", which he managed to persuade his grandfather to buy him, which made him more interested in music. He tried to play an acoustic guitar belonging to his father, but it blistered his fingers.  By the time he moved to Sheffield, Dickinson's parents were earning a good living from buying property, refurbishing it and then selling it for a profit. As a result, much of Dickinson's childhood was spent living

University.

After leaving school with A-levels in English, History and Economics, Dickinson confessed, "I didn't really know what I wanted to do." The first thing he did was join the Territorial Army for six months. Although he enjoyed his time in the TA, Dickinson realised that it was not a career choice, and so he applied for a place to read history at Queen Mary College, London. His parents wanted him in the army, but he told them that he wanted to get a degree first, which acted as his "cover story", and immediately began playing in bands.  At university, Dickinson got involved in the Entertainments Committee: "one day you'd be a roadie for The Jam, the next you'd be putting up the Stonehenge backdrop for Hawkwind or whatever." In 1977, Dickinson met Paul "Noddy" White, a multi-instrumentalist who owned a PA and other equipment, with whom Dickinson, along with drummer Steve Jones, would form a band together called Speed. According to Dickinson, the band was called Speed because of the way in which they played, rather than a reference to drug-taking. In Speed, Dickinson began writing his own material after White taught him how to play three chords on the guitar.  Although Speed would play several gigs at the Green Man pub in Plumstead, the band did not last long, but it encouraged Dickinson to continue to work towards being a musician. Dickinson spotted an advertisement

Samson: 1979–1981.

After meeting Paul Samson and Barry Purkis at the Prince of Wales, and while still undertaking his final university exams, Dickinson joined Samson onstage at Bishop's Stortford to perform one of their songs, "Rock Me Baby", cementing his role as their new lead vocalist.  The band had already released their debut album, "Survivors", in 1979 on an independent label, two months before Dickinson joined. Immediately following the completion of his University work, he met up with the band at Greenwich's Wood Wharf studios to learn the "Survivors" album. Although the tracks did not suit his vocal style, the band soon wrote the majority of the following "Head On" album in their earliest rehearsal sessions, some of which were immediately incorporated into their live set.  It was during these early rehearsals that the nickname "Bruce Bruce" came about, derived from Monty Python's "Bruces sketch". The name became very tiresome as the band's management continually wrote dud cheques, made payable to "Bruce Bruce", as a joke. Dickinson later commented that he did not like it but considered it "a sort of

Iron Maiden.

Beginnings and success: 1981–1985.

Dickinson went to audition for Iron Maiden at a rehearsal room in Hackney in September 1981 and immediately discovered that this was a much more professional operation than he was used to with Samson. In the practice rooms, the band played through "Prowler", "Sanctuary", "Running Free" and "Remember Tomorrow", before asking Dickinson to sing the same songs again in a recording studio, and he was immediately inducted into the group.  Iron Maiden had a strict and organised routine that suited the band's writing style, which Dickinson described as a "time table". After a few gigs, they began writing new material for their third album, "The Number of the Beast", released in 1982. In the wake of Samson's contractual problems, Dickinson could not legally be credited on any of

Growing tensions and departure: 1986–1993.

After a six-month break, which Dickinson mostly spent practising fencing, Iron Maiden began writing their next album, "Somewhere in Time". Dickinson was disappointed with the effort as he felt that the band needed a more dramatic stylistic departure from past records to remain relevant, despite its introduction of synthesised bass and guitars. He has no writing credits on the release, as his material, based on his own suggestion that the album should be more acoustic-focused, was rejected by the rest of

Return: 1999–present.

Along with Adrian Smith, Dickinson rejoined Iron Maiden in 1999 with Janick Gers remaining in the band, after he was approached by manager Rod Smallwood. Smallwood also spoke to Steve Harris about Dickinson's return, who initially had reservations about the prospect, but soon came round to the idea, deliberating that they knew of his abilities and that it was a case of "better the devil you know". Harris and Dickinson agreed to meet at Smallwood's home in Brighton in January 1999 for the first conversation they would have with each other since 1993. Although both men were nervous about the encounter, upon seeing each other the tension immediately dissipated and both agreed that Dickinson should return to the group.  After embarking on a small tour, the band set about recording "Brave New World", their first studio album with Dickinson since 1992. Dickinson insisted that they find a replacement for the now retired Martin Birch, the band's regular producer, and record in a different studio than the one in which they made "No Prayer for the Dying" and "Fear of the Dark", to which Harris agreed. The album was recorded at Guillaume Tell Studios, Paris with producer Kevin Shirley, after

Solo career.

In early 1989, Zomba asked Dickinson to produce a track for the movie "", providing a budget, a studio, and a producer, Chris Tsangarides. Dickinson took up the opportunity and called an old friend of his, former Gillan guitarist, Janick Gers, and, shortly after meeting up, they had "Bring Your Daughter to the Slaughter" ready for the studio, then recorded with the assistance of bassist Andy Carr, and drummer Fabio del Rio. "I wrote it in about three minutes", states Dickinson, "I don't know where the title 'Bring Your Daughter to the Slaughter' came from, but it just popped into my head. I thought, 'Bloody hell, straight out of AC/DC!' And I thought, "'Nightmare on Elm Street". Yeah, that'll do.' Impressed with the results, Zomba asked Dickinson if he was willing to record a whole album as well. With the same line-up and producer, Dickinson's solo debut, "Tattooed Millionaire", was written and recorded within two weeks, and released in May 1990, followed by a supporting tour.  Later that year, Dickinson participated on a re-recording of Deep Purple's "Smoke on the Water", as part of the humanitarian effort "Rock Aid Armenia". Backed by the band Skin, he produced a cover version of Alice Cooper's "Elected", along with Rowan Atkinson (in character as Mr. Bean), which was used in 1992 for Comic Relief, and five years later, on "Bean Soundtrack".  For his second solo effort, Dickinson received the collaboration of American producer, Keith Olsen, and, while working on the record in LA, decided to leave Iron Maiden. Unhappy with the direction he was taking with Olsen, Dickinson began working with Tribe of Gypsies guitarist Roy Z and started the album again from scratch. "Balls to Picasso" was recorded with Tribe of Gypsies as the backing band, and was released in 1994. That same year, Dickinson recorded a cover version of "Sabbath Bloody Sabbath" with the band Godspeed for Black Sabbath's tribute album "Nativity in Black". Tribe of Gypsies departed to work on their own material and Dickinson tracked down another band, including his new writing partner and guitarist, Alex Dickson. While touring with this new outfit in 1994, Dickinson performed in Sarajevo, then under siege during the Bosnian War; a documentary film based on the concert, entitled "Scream For Me Sarajevo", completed filming in December 2015.  After the "Balls to Picasso" supporting tour finished, he started working on a new studio record, "Skunkworks". Dickinson decided that "Skunkworks" would be the title of the band as well, but the record company refused to release the album without his name on the cover.

Personal life.

Dickinson was first married to Erica 'Jane' Barnett in 1984, from whom he was divorced in 1987. He has three children with his second wife, psychotherapist Patrice ‘Paddy’ Bowden (born 1961; died 2020): Austin (born September 23, 1990), Griffin (born 1992), and Kia (born 1994). All three were born in Chiswick, London, where Dickinson has lived since 1981. In 2019, it was reported that Bruce and Paddy split after almost 3 decades of marriage. Paddy Bowden passed away in London on May 18, 2020.  Austin Dickinson was the lead singer in metalcore band Rise to Remain until their break-up in 2015, at which point he formed a new alternative metal group, As Lions. Griffin Dickinson, who previously worked as a stage carpenter for Iron Maiden during their tours, is the vocalist in melodic hardcore band SHVPES (formerly known as Cytota). Dickinson's cousin, Rob Dickinson, was the lead singer of British alternative rock band Catherine Wheel and founded Singer Vehicle Design who specialise in upgrading classic Porsche 911s.  In an interview with Sarah Montague for BBC's "HARDtalk" in 2012, Dickinson agreed with Montague's description of himself as a conservative and a eurosceptic.  In 2015, Dickinson underwent seven weeks of chemotherapy and radiation therapy for a cancerous tumour found at the back of his tongue. Dickinson's medical team expected him to make a full recovery as the tumour was discovered in the early stages. On 15 May, Dickinson was given the all-clear by his specialists.

Honours.

In 2019, Dickinson was made an honorary citizen of Sarajevo and received the city's prestigious Sixth April Award for his efforts in performing under siege in 1994. According to the city's mayor, it was his arrival in Sarajevo that "was one of those moments

Other work.

Dickinson's interests and non-musical activities include writing, broadcasting, fencing (at which he has competed internationally, placing 7th in Great Britain, and has founded a fencing equipment company under the brand name "Duellist"), beer brewing and aviation. Due to the wide variety of Dickinson's pursuits, "Intelligent Life" named him as a living example of a polymath in 2009.

Aviation and entrepreneurship.

Dickinson learned to fly recreationally in Florida in the 1990s and now holds an airline transport pilot's licence. He regularly flew Boeing 757s in his role as captain for the now-defunct UK charter airline Astraeus, which, from 16 September 2010, employed him as Marketing Director. One of his key roles in that position was to promote Astraeus' services by increasing their number of videos, leading to the UK Civil Aviation Authority releasing a video featuring Dickinson on aircraft loading safety in June 2011.  Following Astraeus' closure on 21 November 2011, Dickinson branched into entrepreneurship when he launched Cardiff Aviation Ltd on 1 May 2012, an aircraft maintenance business based at the Twin Peaks Hangar in St Athan, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales. According to "The Wall Street Journal", in January 2013 Cardiff Aviation had created 40 jobs and hoped to have over a hundred personnel by the summer of 2013. In June 2013, "The Daily Telegraph" reported that the business had expanded to between 60 and 70 employees and are in discussions to set up their own airline. In

Radio and TV.

Dickinson presented "Bruce Dickinson's Friday Rock Show" on BBC radio station 6 Music from 2002 to 2010. In March 2010, the BBC announced that, after over eight years, Dickinson's show was to be axed. His final broadcast was on 28 May 2010, with the regular format abandoned in favour of a personal and musical tribute to the recently deceased Ronnie James Dio. Dickinson scorned the BBC executives for the cancellation, playing the Johnny Paycheck version of "Take This Job and Shove It". In addition to his show on 6 Music, Dickinson also hosted a series entitled "Masters of Rock" on BBC Radio 2 from 2003 to 2007. Dickinson's catalogue of 6 Music programmes were acquired in 2014 by TeamRock radio, who began re-broadcasting episodes

Writing.

During a 1986–1987 Iron Maiden tour, and in the wake of a divorce, Dickinson started writing his first book. Inspired by the novels of Tom Sharpe, in addition to Biggles and "Penthouse", he created "The Adventures of Lord Iffy Boatrace", which "Kerrang!" describes as "a satirical swipe at fetishism among the upper classes", and whose title character is a "semi-transvestite" British land owner.  Following its completion, Dickinson approached Sidgwick & Jackson, who, according to Dickinson, agreed to publish the book before reading it based on Iron Maiden's album sales alone. Released in 1990

Beer.

In 2013, Iron Maiden collaborated with Robinsons Brewery in Stockport, England to create Trooper, a 4.8% cask/4.7% bottled ale whose recipe Dickinson formulated with head brewer Martyn Weeks. As of May 2014, the beer has sold 2.5 million pints in 40 countries, making it Robinsons' most successful export.  Following Trooper's success, Dickinson, a fan

Singing style and stage performance.

Although Dickinson never received formal training, he still possesses a wide vocal range which was trademarked by his quasi-operatic tenor. Along with Ronnie James Dio and Rob Halford, Dickinson is one of the pioneers of the operatic vocal style later to be adopted by power metal vocalists and regularly appears near the top in lists of the greatest rock vocalists/front-men of all time. Dickinson says that his style was influenced primarily by Arthur Brown, Peter Hammill (Van der Graaf Generator), Ian Anderson (Jethro Tull) and Ian Gillan (Deep Purple).  Dickinson's singing varied notably in the 1990s in the recording of albums such as "No Prayer for the Dying", "Fear of the Dark" and his first solo work "Tattooed Millionaire", making use of a much more raspy and unpolished sound, befitting their

Discography.

* Dickinson appeared on the album's re-issue only, as the original version was completed before he joined the band.

Paul Bruce Dickinson (born 7 August 1958) is an English singer, songwriter, musician, airline pilot, entrepreneur, author, and broadcaster. He is known for his work as the lead singer of the heavy metal band Iron Maiden and is renowned for his wide-ranging operatic vocal style and energetic stage presence.

Paul Bruce Dickinson (né le ) est un chanteur, compositeur, pilote de ligne, escrimeur, animateur radio, et ancien directeur marketing britannique, célèbre pour être le chanteur du groupe de heavy metal Iron Maiden.


Non-electric and electric foils.

Background.

There are two types of foils that are used in modern fencing. Both types are made with the same basic parts: the pommel, grip, guard, and blade. The difference between them is one is electric, and the other is known as "steam" or "dry". The blades of both varieties are capped with a plastic or rubber piece, with a button at the tip in electric blades, that provides information when the blade tip touches the opponent. (There are also a range of plastic swords made by varying manufacturers for use by juniors.) Lacking the button and associated electrical mechanism, a judge is required to determine the scoring and the victor in a tournament with non-electric foils  Non-electric ones are primarily used for practice. The Fédération Internationale d'Escrime and most national organizations require electric scoring apparatus since the 1956 Olympics, although some organizations still fence competitively with non-electric swords.

Blade.

Foil have standardized, tapered, rectangular blades in length and cross-section that are made of tempered and annealed, low-carbon steel—or maraging steel as required for international competitions To prevent the blade from breaking or causing harm to an opponent, the blade is made to bend upon impact with its target. The maximum length of the blade must be 90 cm, The length of the assembled weapon at maximum is 110 cm, and the maximum weight must be less than 500g; however, most competition foil are lighter, closer to 350g.  The blade of a foil has two sections: the forte (strong) which is the one third of the blade near the guard, and the foible (weak) which is the two thirds of the blade near the tip. There is a part of the blade contained within the grip called a tang. it extends past the grip enough to be fasten to the pommel and hold the rest of the foil together. When an Italian grip is used, see below, a ricasso extends from under the guard, inside of the grip's quillons, into the tang.

Guard assembly.

The guard is fastened to the blade, plug, and grip. Then the pommel, a type of fastener, is attached to the grip and holds the rest together. The type of pommel used depends on the type of grip. Two grips are used in foil: straight traditional grips with external pommels (Italian, French, Spanish, and orthopedic varieties); and the newer design of pistol grips, which fix the hand in a specific, ergonomic position, and which have pommels that fit into a countersink in the grip.

Electric foils.

Beginning with the 1956 Olympics, scoring in foil has been accomplished by means of registering the touch with an electric circuit. A switch at the tip of the foil registers the touch, and a metallic foil vest, or "lamé", verifies that the touch is on valid target.

Cord.

The cord of any type of electric fencing weapon goes through the fencing gear, coming out behind the fencer. The cord of a foil has one end connecting to the back of the fencing strip, and the other end attaches to the foil. The two ends are not interchangeable with one another.

Socket.

The electric foil contains a socket underneath the guard that connects to the scoring apparatus via the body cord and a wire that runs down a channel cut into the top of the blade. Electric foil sockets are fixed so that the body cord plugs into the weapon at the fencer's wrist. There are two main sockets in use today: the "bayonette" which has a single prong and twists-locks into the foil, and the two prong, which has different diameters for each prong, held in place by a clip.

Tip.

The tip of the electric foil terminates in a button assembly that generally consists of a barrel, plunger, spring, and retaining screws. The circuit is a "normally closed" one, meaning that at rest there is always a complete power circuit; depressing the tip breaks this circuit, and the scoring apparatus illuminates an appropriate light. Color-coding is used: white or yellow indicates hits not on the valid target area, and either red or green indicate hits on the valid target area (red for one fencer, green for the other).

History.

The modern foil is the training weapon for the small-sword, the common sidearm of 18th century gentleman. Rapier and even longsword foils are also known to have been used, but their weight and use were very different. Although the foil as a blunted weapon for sword practice goes back to the 16th century (for example, in Hamlet, Shakespeare writes "let the foils be brought"), the use as a weapon for sport is more recent. The foil was used in France as a training weapon in the middle of the 18th century in order to practise fast and elegant thrust fencing. Fencers blunted the point by wrapping a foil around the blade or fastening a knob on the point ("blossom", French "fleuret"). In addition to practising, some fencers took away the protection and used the sharp foil for duels. German students took up that practice in academic fencing and developed the "Pariser" ("Parisian") thrusting small sword for the "Stoßmensur" ("thrusting mensur").  The target area for modern foil is said to come from a time when fencing was practised with limited safety equipment. Another factor in the target area is that foil rules are derived from a period when dueling to the death was the norm. Hence, the favoured target area is the torso, where the vital organs are.  In 1896, foil (and saber) were included as events in the first Olympic Games in Athens.

Women's Foil.

Women's foil was first competed at the Olympics in 1924 in Paris, and was the only Olympic fencing event in which women competed until women's epeé was introduced at the 1996 Olympics. Nowadays, women's fencing is just as popular as men's, and consists of all weapons (foil, epee, and sabre).

Ratings.

Ratings exist in order to separate different level fencers from each other in order to create an even-playing field. A higher ranking is earned by performing well at competitions (and thus, presumably beating higher-rated individuals). The rankings are as following (from lowest to highest: U (unranked), E, D, C, B, A. The ranking is followed by the year earned (e.g. A2017, for individuals who earned their A ranking in the year 2017).

(Age) Groups.

Age groups are necessary to separate skill and body maturity levels in order to create a level playing field. The current age groups for foil (and also épée and sabré) are Y10 (age 10 and under), Y12 (age 12 and under), Y14 (age 14 and under), cadet (age 16 and under), junior (age 19 and under), and senior (anything over 19). While an older competitor cannot compete in a younger category, the contrary is allowed and encouraged, in order to expedite learning.  Other notable groupings are Div 1 (generally consisting of the best fencers), Div 1A (the level right under Div 1), Div 2 (B-rated fencers and below), Div 3 (open to all lower-ranked fencers), and veteran. The veteran age group consists of 40 and over, 60 and over, and 70 and over sub-groups.

Rules.

The rules for the sport of fencing are regulated by national sporting associations—in the United States, the United States Fencing Association (USFA) and internationally by the International Fencing Federation, or "Fédération Internationale d'Escrime" (FIE).  The detailed rules for foil are listed in the USFA Rulebook.  Rules for the sport of fencing date back to the 19th century. The current international rules for foil were adopted by the FIE Committee for Foil on 12 June 1914. They are based on previous sets of rules adopted by national associations. The rules governing the use of electrical judging apparatus were adopted in 1957 and have been amended several times.

Scoring.

The foil is used as a thrusting (or point) weapon only. Contact with the side of the blade (a slap or slash) does not result in a score. The tip of the foil must be depressed for at least 15 (±.5) milliseconds while in contact with the opponent's lamé (wire-mesh jacket which covers valid target area) to score a touch. The foil lamé only covers the torso while in saber it covers the whole upper body. The tip must be able to support a minimum force of 4.90 newtons (500 grams-force) without the circuit breaking. This is tested with a 500g (± 3g) weight.

Target area.

In foil the valid target area includes the torso (including the lower part of the bib of the mask) and the groin. The head (except the lower part of the bib of the mask), arms, and legs are considered off target. Touches made off target do not count for points, but do stop play. The target area has been changed multiple times, with the latest change consisting of adding the bottom half of the bib to the target zone.

Priority (right of way).

Foil competition and scoring is governed by the rules of priority, also known as right of way. Originally meant to indicate which competitor would have scored the touch (or lethally injured the other), it is now a main contributor to the appeal of the sport of fencing. In essence, they decide who receives the point (there can only be one competitor that receives a point per engagement) when both competitors hit.  The basic rules (the full list is extensive) are whoever attacks first wins. This basic rule is far extended by saying that if the defender parries (meets the attacker's blade midair), he now has priority, and thus generally wins the point (touché).

A foil is one of the three weapons used in the sport of fencing, all of which are metal. It is flexible, rectangular in cross section, and weighs under a pound. As with the épée, points are only scored by contact with the tip, which, in electrically scored tournaments, is capped with a spring-loaded button to signal a touch. A foil fencer's uniform features the lamé (a vest, electrically wired to record hits). The foil is the most commonly used weapon in competition.

Le fleuret est une arme d’estoc de convention avec la caractéristique d’une lame à base carrée, utilisée dans la pratique de l’escrime.


Etymology.

The word is a pseudo-Latin neologism (real Latin: "adamans", from original Greek "ἀδάμας" [=indomitable]; "adamantem" [Latin accusative]) based on the English noun and adjective "adamant" (and the derived adjective "adamantine") added to the neo-Latin suffix "-ium." The adjective "adamant" has long been used to refer to the property of impregnable, diamondlike hardness, or to describe a very firm/resolute position (e.g. "He adamantly refused to leave"). The noun "adamant" describes any impenetrably or unyieldingly hard substance and, formerly, a legendary stone/rock or mineral of impenetrable hardness and with many other properties, often identified with diamond or lodestone. "Adamant" and the literary form "adamantine" occur in works such as "The Faerie Queene", "Paradise Lost", "Gulliver's Travels", "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer", "The Lord of the Rings", and the film "Forbidden Planet" (as "adamantine steel"), all of which predate the use of "adamantium" in Marvel's comics.

History and properties.

According to the comic books, the components of the alloy are kept in separate batches—typically in blocks of resin—before molding. Adamantium is prepared by melting the blocks together, mixing the components while the resin evaporates. The alloy must then be cast within eight minutes. Marvel Comics' adamantium has an extremely stable molecular structure that prevents it from being further molded even if the temperature is high enough to keep it in its liquefied form. In its solid form, it is described as a dark, shiny gray, like high-grade steel or titanium. It is almost impossible to destroy or fracture in this state, and when molded to a sharp edge, it can penetrate most lesser materials with minimal force.  The Marvel Comics character Wolverine discovers an adamantium-laced skull in the character Apocalypse's laboratory and says it seems to have been there for eons.

As a key component.

Adamantium appears in various Marvel Comics publications and licensed products, where it is found in:

Other versions.

Secondary adamantium.

Marvel eventually introduced a weaker variant of "true" adamantium to explain why on some occasions adamantium was shown getting damaged by sufficiently powerful conventional forces. The existence of this fictional compound was explained with the secrecy of true adamantium's exact composition and its prohibitive production cost. While secondary adamantium is stronger than titanium steel, its resilience is described as far below the grade of true adamantium.  Appearances of secondary adamantium in Marvel comic books include the casing of the supercomputer F.A.U.S.T., a suit constructed by F.A.U.S.T. and Blastaar for Stilt-Man, a retractable protective dome around Exile Island, and an army of Ultron duplicates.

Ultimate Marvel.

In the Marvel Comics Ultimate Marvel imprint, adamantium is highly durable and can shield a person's mind from telepathic probing or attacks. It is a component of the claws and skeleton of Ultimate Wolverine and of the Ultimate Lady Deathstrike character. This version of adamantium is not unbreakable. In "Ultimates" #5, the Hulk breaks a needle made of adamantium. In "Ultimate X-Men" #11 (December 2001), an adamantium cage is damaged by a bomb. In "Ultimate X-Men" #12 (January 2002), one of Sabretooth's four adamantium claws is broken.

"X-Men" film series.

In the film "X2", adamantium is shown to retain its liquid state when kept at smelting temperature after its creation, and gain its final indestructibility when allowed to cool and become solid.

Adamantium is a fictional metal alloy appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. It is best known as the substance bonded to the character Wolverine's skeleton and claws. Adamantium was created by writer Roy Thomas and artists Barry Windsor-Smith and Syd Shores in Marvel Comics' "Avengers" #66 (July 1969), which presents the substance as part of the character Ultron's outer shell. In the stories where it appears, the defining quality of adamantium is its practical indestructibility.

L’adamantium est un alliage de fiction apparaissant dans les comics publiés par la maison d'édition Marvel Comics. Il a pour principale caractéristique d'être le plus résistant de tous les métaux imaginaires présents dans l'univers Marvel.


Classification.

The Oceanic languages were first shown to be a language family by Sidney Herbert Ray in 1896 and, besides Malayo-Polynesian, they are the only established large branch of Austronesian languages. Grammatically, they have been strongly influenced by the Papuan languages of northern New Guinea, but they retain a remarkably large amount of Austronesian vocabulary.

Lynch, Ross, & Crowley (2002).

According to Lynch, Ross, & Crowley (2002), Oceanic languages often form linkages with each other. Linkages are formed when languages emerged historically from an earlier dialect continuum. The linguistic innovations shared by adjacent languages define a chain of intersecting subgroups (a "linkage"), for which no distinct proto-language can be reconstructed.  Lynch, Ross, & Crowley (2002) propose three primary groups of Oceanic languages:  The "residues" (as they are called by Lynch, Ross, & Crowley), which do not fit into the three groups above, but are still classified as Oceanic are:  Ross & Næss (2007) removed Utupua–Vanikoro, from Central–Eastern Oceanic, to a new primary branch of Oceanic:  Blench (2014) considers Utupua and Vanikoro to be two separate branches that are both non-Austronesian.

Ross, Pawley, & Osmond (2016).

Ross, Pawley, & Osmond (2016) propose the following revised rake-like classification of Oceanic, with 9 primary branches.

Non-Austronesian languages.

Roger Blench (2014) argues that many languages conventionally classified as Oceanic are in fact non-Austronesian (or "Papuan", which is a geographic rather genetic grouping), including Utupua and Vanikoro. Blench doubts that Utupua and Vanikoro are closely related, and thus should not be grouped together. Since each of the three Utupua and three Vanikoro languages are highly distinct from each other, Blench doubts that these languages had diversified on the islands of Utupua and Vanikoro, but had rather migrated to the islands from elsewhere. According to Blench, historically this was due to the Lapita demographic expansion consisting of both Austronesian and non-Austronesian settlers migrating from the Lapita homeland in the Bismarck Archipelago to various islands further to the east.  Other languages traditionally classified as Oceanic that Blench (2014) suspects are in fact non-Austronesian include the Kaulong language of West New Britain, which has a Proto-Malayo-Polynesian vocabulary retention rate of only 5%, and languages of the Loyalty Islands that are spoken just to the north of New Caledonia.  Blench (2014) proposes that languages classified as:

Word order.

Word order in Oceanic languages is highly diverse, and is distributed in the following geographic regions (Lynch, Ross, & Crowley 2002:49).

The approximately 450 Oceanic languages are a branch of the Austronesian languages. The area occupied by speakers of these languages includes Polynesia, as well as much of Melanesia and Micronesia. Though covering a vast area, Oceanic languages are spoken by only two million people. The largest individual Oceanic languages are Eastern Fijian with over 600,000 speakers, and Samoan with an estimated 400,000 speakers. The Kiribati (Gilbertese), Tongan, Tahitian, Māori, Western Fijian and Kuanua (Tolai) languages each have over 100,000 speakers. The common ancestor which is reconstructed for this group of languages is called Proto-Oceanic (abbr. "POc").

Les langues océaniennes (ou "groupe océanien") sont une famille de langues comprenant environ 500 langues, parlées dans les îles de l'océan Pacifique. Elles forment un sous-ensemble de la famille plus vaste des langues austronésiennes.


Plot.

In the autumn of 1959, shy Todd Anderson begins his senior year of high school at Welton Academy, an all-male, elite prep school. He is assigned one of Welton's most promising students, Neil Perry, as his roommate and is quickly accepted by Neil's friends: Knox Overstreet, Richard Cameron, Stephen Meeks, Gerard Pitts, and Charlie Dalton.  On the first day of classes, they are surprised by the unorthodox teaching methods of the new English teacher, John Keating. A Welton alumnus himself, he encourages his students to "make your lives extraordinary", a sentiment he summarizes with the Latin expression "carpe diem", meaning "seize the day."  Subsequent lessons include having them take turns standing on his desk to demonstrate ways to look at life in a different way, telling them to rip out the introduction of their poetry books which explains a mathematical formula used for rating poetry, and inviting them to make up their own style of walking in a courtyard to encourage them to be individuals. His methods attract the attention of strict headmaster Gale Nolan.  Upon learning that Keating was a member of the unsanctioned Dead Poets Society while he was at Welton, Neil restarts the club and he and his friends sneak off campus to a cave where they read poetry and verse, including their own compositions. As the school year progresses, Keating's lessons and their involvement with the club encourage them to live their lives on their own terms. Knox pursues Chris Noel, an attractive cheerleader who is dating Chet Danburry, a football player from a local public school whose family is friends with his.  Neil discovers his love of acting and gets the role as Puck in a local production of "A Midsummer Night's Dream", despite the fact that his domineering father wants him in the Ivy League (and ultimately medical school). Keating helps Todd come out of his shell and realize his potential when he takes him through an exercise in self-expression, resulting in his composing a poem spontaneously in front of the class.  However, Charlie takes things too far when he publishes an article in the school newspaper in the club's name demanding that girls be admitted to Welton. Nolan paddles Charlie to coerce him into revealing who else is in the Dead Poets Society, but he resists. Nolan also speaks with Keating, warning him that he should discourage his students from questioning authority. Keating does admonish the boys (in his manner), warning that one must assess all consequences.  Neil's father discovers his son's involvement in the play and forces him to quit on the eve of the opening performance. Devastated, Neil goes to Keating, who advises him to stand his ground and prove to his father that his love of acting is something he takes seriously. Neil's father unexpectedly shows up at the performance. He takes Neil home and says he has been withdrawn from Welton, only to be enrolled in a military academy to prepare him for Harvard so he will become a doctor. Unable to find the courage to stand up to his father, and lacking any support from his concerned mother, a distraught Neil commits suicide.  Nolan investigates Neil's death at the request of the Perry family. Cameron blames Neil's death on Keating to escape punishment for his own participation in the Dead Poets Society, and names the other members. Confronted by Charlie, Cameron urges the rest of them to let Keating take the fall. Charlie punches Cameron and is expelled. Each of the boys is called to Nolan's office to sign a letter attesting to the truth of Cameron's allegations, even though they know they are false. When Todd's turn comes, he is reluctant to sign, but does so after seeing that the others have complied and succumbing to his parents' pressure.  Keating is fired and Nolan (who taught English at Welton before becoming headmaster) takes over teaching the class, with the intent of adhering to traditional Welton rules. Keating interrupts the class to gather his leftover belongings. As he leaves, Todd stands up on his desk and says "O Captain! My Captain!", which prompts the other members of the Dead Poets Society to do the same, to Nolan’s fury and Keating’s pleasant surprise. Touched by this gesture, Keating proudly thanks the boys and departs.

Production.

Development.

Peter Weir had been eager to follow up his two US breakthrough hits with Harrison Ford, "Witness" and "The Mosquito Coast", with a romantic comedy starring Gérard Depardieu as a Frenchman who marries an American for convenience called "Green Card". Depardieu was in high demand following his success in the Provençal drama "Jean de Florette" and Weir was advised he would have to wait a year for his availability.  In late 1988, Weir met with Jeffrey Katzenberg at Disney (which produced the movie via Touchstone Pictures), who suggested Weir read a script recently received. On a flight back to Sydney, Weir was captivated and 6 weeks later returned to Los Angeles to cast the principal characters.  The original script was written by Tom Schulman, based on his experiences at the Montgomery Bell Academy in Nashville, Tennessee, particularly with his inspirational teacher Samuel Pickering. In Schulman's manuscript, Keating had been ill, slowly dying of Hodgkin lymphoma with a scene showing him on his deathbed in hospital. This was removed by Weir which deemed it unnecessary claiming this would focus audiences on Keating's illness and not on what he stood for.  Early notes on the script from Disney also suggested making the boy's passion dancing rather than poetry as well as a new title ""Sultans of Swing"" focusing on the character of Mr. Keating rather than the boys themselves, but both were dismissed outright.  Filming started in the winter of 1988 and took place at St. Andrew's School in Middletown, Delaware, and at locations in New Castle, Delaware, and in nearby Wilmington, Delaware. During the shooting, Weir requested the young cast not to use modern slang, even off camera.

Cast.

Liam Neeson originally won the part of John Keating before Peter Weir took over direction from Jeff Kanew. Other actors considered were Dustin Hoffman, Tom Hanks and Mickey Rourke.

Reception.

Box office.

The worldwide box office was reported as $235,860,579, which includes domestic grosses of $95,860,116. The film's global receipts were the fifth highest for 1989, and the highest for dramas. The film was released in the United Kingdom on September 22, 1989, and topped the country's box office that weekend.

Critical response.

"Dead Poets Society" holds an 84% approval rating and average rating of 7.28/10 on Rotten Tomatoes based on 57 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads, "Affecting performances from the young cast and a genuinely inspirational turn from Robin Williams grant Peter Weir's prep school drama top honors." The film holds a score of 79 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 14 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare "A+" grade.  "The Washington Post" reviewer called it "solid, smart entertainment", and praised Robin Williams for giving a "nicely restrained acting performance". Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" also praised Williams' "exceptionally fine performance", while noting that ""Dead Poets Society"... is far less about Keating than about a handful of impressionable boys". Pauline Kael was unconvinced by the film, and its "middlebrow highmindedness", but praised Williams. "Robin Williams' performance is more graceful than anything he's done before [–] he's totally, concentratedly there – [he] reads his lines stunningly, and when he mimics various actors reciting Shakespeare there's no undue clowning in it; he's a gifted teacher demonstrating his skills."  Roger Ebert's review was largely negative, only giving the film two out of four stars. He criticized Williams for spoiling an otherwise creditable dramatic performance by occasionally veering into his onstage comedian's persona, and lamented that for a movie set in the 1950s there was no mention of the Beat Generation writers. Additionally, Ebert described the film as an often poorly constructed "collection of pious platitudes... The movie pays lip service to qualities and values that, on the evidence of the screenplay itself, it is cheerfully willing to abandon."  On their Oscar Nomination edition of "Siskel & Ebert", both Gene Siskel (who also gave the film a mixed review) and Ebert disagreed with Williams' Oscar nomination; Ebert said that he would have swapped Williams with either Matt Dillon for "Drugstore Cowboy" or John Cusack for "Say Anything". On their "If We Picked the Winners" special in March 1990, Ebert chose the film's Best Picture nomination as the worst nomination of the year, believing it took a slot that could have gone to Spike Lee's "Do the Right Thing".  John Simon, writing for "National Review", said "Dead Poets Society" was the most dishonest film he had seen in some time.

Accolades.

"Dead Poets Society" won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay (Tom Schulman). Peter Weir received a nomination for Best Director and the film itself was nominated for Best Picture of 1989. Robin Williams received his second Best Actor in a Leading Role nomination and it has since been widely recognized as one of the actor/comedian's best roles. The movie also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film.  The film was voted #52 on the AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers list, a list of the top 100 most inspiring films of all time.  The film's line ""Carpe diem". Seize the day, boys. Make your lives extraordinary." was voted as the 95th greatest movie quote by the American Film Institute.

Legacy.

After Robin Williams' death in August 2014, fans of his work used social media to pay tribute to him with photo and video reenactments of the film's final "O Captain! My Captain!" scene.

Adaptations.

Nancy H. Kleinbaum's novel "Dead Poets Society" (1989) is based on the movie.

Stage play.

A theatrical adaptation written by Tom Schulman and directed by John Doyle opened Off-Broadway on October 27, 2016, and ran through December 11, 2016. Jason Sudeikis stars as John Keating with Thomas Mann as Neil Perry, David Garrison as Gale Nolan, Zane Pais as Todd Anderson, Francesca Carpanini as Chris, Stephen Barker Turner as Mr. Perry, William Hochman as Knox Overstreet, Cody Kostro as Charlie Dalton, Yaron Lotan as Richard Cameron, and Bubba Weiler as Steven Meeks.  The production received a mixed review from "The New York Times", with critic Ben Brantley calling the play "blunt and bland" and criticizing Sudeikis's performance, citing his lack of enthusiasm when delivering powerful lines.

Parodies.

The ending of the film was parodied in the "Saturday Night Live" sketch "Farewell, Mr. Bunting", in which a student, upon climbing onto his desk, is decapitated by a ceiling fan.

Dead Poets Society is a 1989 American teen drama film directed by Peter Weir, written by Tom Schulman, and starring Robin Williams. Set in 1959 at the fictional elite conservative Vermont boarding school Welton Academy, it tells the story of an English teacher who inspires his students through his teaching of poetry.

Le Cercle des poètes disparus ou La Société des poètes disparus au Québec ("") est un film américain réalisé par Peter Weir, sorti en 1989.