Overview.

Rollei was a German company that established a worldwide reputation with the Rolleiflex, a twin-lens reflex camera.  Rollei was founded in 1920 as the "Werkstatt für Feinmechanik und Optik, Franke & Heidecke" in order to make a twin-lens reflex camera. The company changed its name and legal form many times: to "Rollei-Werke Franke & Heidecke" in 1962, to "Rollei-Werke Franke & Heidecke GmbH & Co. KG" in 1979, to "Rollei Fototechnic GmbH & Co. KG" in 1981, and finally to "Rollei GmbH" in 2004. In 2006, the headquarters of "Rollei GmbH" were moved to Berlin while production was transferred to "Rollei Produktion GmbH", currently "Franke & Heidecke GmbH", in Braunschweig. The company underwent more radical restructuring in 2007/08.  The frequent name-changes are an indication of

Historical development.

1920 to 1928.

Company foundation.

While Reinhold Heidecke was working as a production manager at Voigtländer in Braunschweig around 1916, he got the idea to manufacture a new type of roll-film camera. However, the company rejected his proposal because they thought there would be problems keeping the film perfectly flat. Besides, their current camera range, which used conventional photographic plates, was selling well. Heidecke tried unsuccessfully to secure financing to start his own company, so, at the insistence of his wife, he presented his concept to, a salesman and former colleague at Voigtländer. Franke was so enthusiastic he put up

Stereo Heidoscop.

To get the company going, Franke and Heidecke decided to manufacture a stereo camera in the short term. Cameras of this type were popular, and Reinhold Heidecke was very familiar with them. As they were also in Voigtländer's product range, however, Franke and Heidecke did not want to look as if they were simply copying theirs. They purchased several Voigtländer units, and from what they learned by dismantling these, constructed the "Stereo Heidoscop". It included two Carl Zeiss "Tessar" lenses (f/4.5, 55 mm) and, mounted between them, a Carl Zeiss

Hyperinflation in Germany.

Between 1914 and 1923, the period of hyperinflation in Germany, Paul Franke lived up to his reputation as a savvy financier: he invested the income from exports (in foreign currency) so astutely that the company came through this difficult period unscathed – a rather unlikely outcome if Heidecke, alone, had made these decisions.  During this period the company acquired new premises. The City Council in Braunschweig did

Rolleiflex.

The first prototype of the new camera, named the "Rolleiflex", was finally completed in 1927; it was built for absolute reliability and featured a rigid, injection-moulded housing made of aluminium. Heidecke wanted to avoid conventional leather bellows for focusing the lens because of an earlier, bad experience: around 1916, he conducted an experiment with a Kodak camera; he left it in a cellar, and when he later retrieved it, he found that rats had eaten the bellows. This convinced him that a camera designed for photojournalism and operation in the tropics had to work perfectly, which excluded components that might rot. He ruled out a cloth shutter curtain for the same reason, choosing instead a Compur mechanical shutter.  Focusing in the "Rolleiflex" was achieved by moving the carriage that held both the viewfinder and the imaging lens, i.e. the camera had so-called "metallic bellows"; that is, the plate enclosed the sides

1929 to 1950.

New premises.

Demand for the new camera exceeded production capacity by a wide margin. Even though it was quite an expensive product, orders for 800 cameras were received in the first month alone. A "Rolleiflex" fitted with a f/4.5 lens cost 198 Reichmarks (RM), with a f/3.8 lens it cost 225 RM. This success made it possible to obtain credit to buy

Babyflex.

Wilhelmine Heidecke, Reinhold Heidecke's wife, suggested building a "ladies camera" – a "Rolleiflex" that used 35 mm film. This was the first "Rolleiflex" to come on the market that used a crank handle to advance the film, a popular feature that emerged on the 6×6 model shortly thereafter. The "Rolleiflex 4×4" – known as the "Babyflex" outside of Germany – used 127 format film and came in two versions with either a f/3.5 and a f/2.8 Tessar lens with a focal length

Studio camera.

In 1932, Salomon Kahn, the owner of the renowned "Fotostudios Kardas" in Berlin, approached Rollei, asking if they could build him a large "Rolleiflex" for the 9 cm x 9 cm film format. Kahn explained as a pretext, that his customers liked to keep the negatives because they had doubts about the durability of prints. Moreover, roll film was much easier to archive than glass plates.  In fact, Kahn had concealed the real rationale behind his request because Franke & Heidecke supported the Nazi Party in order to get the workers they needed. Fearing the consequences of leasing to a Jew, the owner of his studio had already shut off his water supply. This meant that Kahn had

Rolleicord.

In 1933, the "Rolleicord", a cheaper version of the "Rolleiflex", came onto the market. It had simpler optics, a steel

Rolleiflex Automat.

The release of the "Rolleiflex Automat" in the middle of June 1937 marked another significant milestone for Franke & Heidecke. Prior to this, after taking a picture, two separate steps were required to advance the film and cock the shutter. The "Rolleiflex Automat" combined the two, whereby advancing the film automatically cocked the shutter. Not only did this innovation speed up the whole process, it also eliminated accidental double exposures resulting from inadvertently forgetting to wind on the

World War II.

During World War II, the company was required by the Nazis to support the war economy. As a result, Rollei was unable to develop any new models from 1940, and production of its stereo camera finally came to an end. Rollei also suffered massive losses resulting from its inability to collect monies owed by debtors from "enemy states". Furthermore, bureaucratic formalities and controls hindered exports to neutral countries. This situation, combined with the collapse in overseas trade, forced Paul Franke to reduce the workforce to 600 people.

The post-war period.

After the war, Braunschweig ended up in the British occupation zone. The allied occupying forces wanted Rollei to survive as a company, even helping it procure lenses from Zeiss, which had ended up in the Soviet occupation zone. Franke & Heidecke started over with 72 workers, and by Christmas 1945 the workforce had grown to 172 employees. Everything the company made in 1945 was delivered to the British Ministry of Defence. The difficult supply situation forced Rollei into using lenses from the West German manufacturer Schneider as well. However, this was not a problem as Schneider's quality control was equal to that of Zeiss.  Paul Franke's untimely death in the spring of 1950 had serious consequences for the company though. Not only did his passing mark the end of an era for Rollei, the loss of his business acumen also led the company to the edge of ruin on more than one occasion.

1950 to 1963 - Horst Franke era.

The golden era.

After Paul Franke's death, his son Horst Franke succeeded him. Overall, he proved to be less effective as a manager than his father. In particular, he lacked the flexibility required to adapt to changing circumstances; for example, he failed to reduce the workforce in difficult times, whereas Paul Franke had done so immediately at the onset

Development of the Rolleiflex.

Hans Hass, the underwater diving pioneer, approached Franke & Heidecke to see if they could make him a special housing suitable for underwater photography. As a result, Rollei developed the "Rolleimarin", an ingenious underwater camera housing rated for depths up to 100 m. It was made from two cast metal parts. The top part contained a glass prism that was attached to the camera's focusing screen. There were also knobs on top of the housing for adjusting the exposure and aperture settings. On the bottom, left-hand side of the housing was the focusing knob, and on the right-hand side, the winding handle and a frame counter. There was also a filter turret. A special flash bulb could be attached for flash photography, in which case a battery pack had to be installed inside the housing. Of course, a viewfinder frame could also be screwed onto the housing.  Although there were many imitators, none could match the quality of the original "Rolleiflex" – that is, until the "Mamiya C-Series" from Japan appeared in 1956. Mamiya initially offered three sets of interchangeable double lenses for it: normal, telephoto and wide-angle. Later on, additional double lenses with focal lengths of 55 mm and 250 mm were introduced; one even had a dimmable viewfinder lens, which enabled depth of field adjustment through the viewfinder. By comparison, the "Rolleiflex" only had a single, fixed normal lens, although the Rollei "Magnar" tele-converter lens with 4x magnification was available as an accessory. This could be attached to the front of the primary lens while a mask (which did not magnify the image) was placed over the focusing screen. In addition, Zeiss offered

The situation around 1960.

By the end of 1950s, the market for twin-lens medium format cameras had gradually become saturated. More and more amateur photographers and photojournalists were using 35 mm format cameras, while studio photographers preferred single-lens medium format cameras. Although they were more expensive, single-lens cameras offered film holders, which could quickly be swapped (an assistant loaded the film), as well as interchangeable lenses.  Hasselblad was the market leader in this segment. The Swedish company introduced their first camera,

New products.

In 1960, Rollei introduced its first slide projector, the "P11". It included two slide trays: the left-hand tray was for 35 mm (5 cm×5 cm) slides, the right-hand tray was for medium format (7 cm×7 cm) slides. The "Rollei Universal Projector" sold for 398.60 DM, plus 97.50 DM for a standard lens. The "P11" remained in production until 1978; many more projectors were subsequently added to the range, providing a major boost to Rollei's turnover.  In 1963, Rollei introduced the "Rollei 16", its first all-new camera design since the war. It was a 16 mm camera in the format 12 mm x 17 mm with a Tessar f/2.8, 25 mm lens and cost 425 DM. In retrospect, it seems unlikely that such an unusual format might return Rollei to profitability. However, the German camera industry believed that this was the

1964 to 1974 - Peesel era.

Reorganisation of the product line.

To help return the company to profitability, Rollei's management sought advice from a number of experts. One of them, Heinrich Peesel, a physicist from Hamburg, produced a concise, 5-page report that so impressed Rollei management that they offered him the chairmanship of the board, thereby accepting that far-reaching changes were necessary.  Peesel, then 38 years old, thus succeeded Horst Franke as chairman of the board on 1 January 1964. He promptly set Rollei onto an extremely risky course, which, despite some early successes, ultimately ended in a complete fiasco. His basic philosophy was to explore all possible avenues in photography rather than concentrate on a single product line.  His approach was diametrically opposite to the company's previous management policy, as illustrated by the following example; when the British occupation forces queried Rollei as to the secret of their success, the response was: "there

Rolleiflex SL66.

Although there had been speculation in the trade press over a future "Super Rolleiflex" for some time, it was not until 1966 that the "SL66" finally appeared, "SL" being an abbreviation for "single lens". It was a sophisticated system camera, a camera at the heart of an extensive range of interchangeable components. The "SL66" had built-in bellows, as well as a pivoting front (lens) standard that could be tilted back and forth by 8°, thus allowing the region of sharpness to be manipulated according to the Scheimpflug principle. In addition, the lens could be mounted in reverse, thereby enabling macrophotography without additional equipment. With the normal lens reversed and the bellows extended by 50 mm, close-up photography with a magnification ratio of 1.5× was possible. An "SL66" fitted with a normal lens (f/2.8, 80mm) cost 2,778 DM, and several interchangeable lenses were available:  At long last, Rollei had a camera that could match the "Hasselbad 500C". Indeed, had it been

Rollei 35.

For its time, the "Rollei 35" was the smallest camera that used standard 35 mm film cartridges, which made it an ideal second camera for amateur photographers. Initially, it came with a Zeiss "Tessar" lens with an aperture of f/3.5 and focal length of 40

Rolleiflex SL26.

Rollei also produced the "Rolleiflex SL26", an Instamatic camera with interchangeable lenses. It was widely regarded as the best camera that used 126 film cartridges, even though this film format was only ever intended for beginners. Although Kodak, too, made an Instamatic SLR camera,

Rolleiflex SL35.

After 35 mm SLR cameras became popular, Rollei began to develop its own 35 mm product line in 1966; but it was already too late – just as the "SL66" project had been. Rollei now faced competition – not from a small company like Hasselblad, but from large, well-financed Japanese companies who could afford to advertise heavily in glossy magazines and trade journals. What is more, they invited photographic dealers to Japan to view their factories.  The "Rolleiflex SL35" was introduced in 1970; it was quite compact and comparable in price (675 DM) and quality with Japanese cameras. Rollei had

Rollei 35RF.

The "Rollei 35RF" was a compact camera with a fixed f/2.8, 38 mm lens. Despite the similarity in names, this camera should

Flash units.

In 1967, Rollei started to sell flash units, but without much success as this market was already crowded with offerings from other manufacturers – not just other camera makers, but also consumer electronics companies such as Metz.  The Rollei "Strobomatic E66" costing 548 DM was the first electronic flash on the market, but

Super 8.

The advent of Super 8 film created a booming home movie market. This development had not gone unnoticed by Peesel, who decided that Rollei, too, should offer products

Uelzen.

In the meanwhile, Rollei's product range had expanded considerably and it had outgrown the factory in Salzdahlumer Straße. Furthermore, recruiting new employees locally in the Braunschweig area had become increasingly difficult as around half of the local workforce was now employed by Volkswagen. Consequently, Peesel embarked on a search for a suitable location for a branch factory, preferably in an underdeveloped area within reach of Braunschweig. He selected Uelzen, a town some 80 km (50 miles) distant from Braunschweig; it was within 1 hours drive from Hamburg,

Viewfinder cameras.

Rollei made other viewfinder cameras besides the "Rollei 16" and the "Rollei 35", the best-known of which were the "A26" and the "A110 / E110". The "A26" was the smallest camera that used Instamatic film. It was cleverly designed, folding together to protect the lens and the viewfinder. The "A110", a successor to the "Rollei 16", was a pocket-sized camera that used 110 film cartridges; it was compact, stylish and highly regarded.

Singapore.

Although wages in Germany were low to begin with, they increased steadily, which prompted Peesel to negotiate an exclusive agreement with the government of Singapore in 1970 to manufacture photographic equipment there. In return, he promised to create 10,000 new jobs by the year 1980.  Clearly, Rollei would not be able to finance an expansion on this scale itself, so it approached two regional German banks – the "Norddeutsche Landesbank" and the "Hessische Landesbank" – who subsequently became shareholders in the company. In those days, risky investments such as this were not that uncommon; Peesel's imperious demeanor within Rollei had so impressed the bankers that they were confident of their investment. Only after the collapse of the "Herstatt Bank" did financial institutions become more

Voigtländer.

The Braunschweig-based camera manufacturer Voigtländer closed down on 23 August 1971, whereupon the German mail-order firm Quelle GmbH "(Foto-Quelle)" entered into take-over negotiations, but no agreement could be reached. In the end, Voigtländer's assets were divided according to a scheme devised by Peesel: Rollei, Carl Zeiss and the state of Niedersachsen would each receive one third shares with Rollei retaining exclusive rights to its brand names. As a result, a new company called "Optische Werke Voigtländer" was established on 1 March 1972 with 320 employees to manufacture lenses for both Rollei and

1975 to 1981 - Peperzak / Wehling / Porst era.

Downsizing the company.

On 26 August 1974, after Rollei made a loss of 37 million DM on revenue of just 137 million DM, Peesel left the company "by mutual agreement". At this point Rollei's debts amounted to around 500 million DM, which meant that the banks effectively owned 97% of the company. The

Rolleiflex SLX.

Rollei had already shown the "Rolleiflex SLX" to selected journalists in Singapore in 1973, and presented it at photokina in 1974, but this innovative camera did not go into production until September 1976. It was the first microprocessor-controlled medium format camera in the world, whereby the aperture and shutter speed were set electronically via two linear electric motors built into the lens. This technology was expensive and rather

Dissolve projectors.

At "photokina 1976", Rollei presented the "Rollei P3800", the first 35 mm dissolve projector in the world. This product generated renewed interest in the company, because, prior to this, dissolving required two projectors connected to a special controller.

Rolleimatic.

The "Rolleimatic" was the last new camera to go into production before Rollei went bankrupt. It was conceived as a 35 mm viewfinder camera of new design that would be (almost) as easy to use as cameras that used Instamatic film

Under Nord/LB management.

Perzak's behaviour became increasingly erratic; in an attempt to save the factory at Uelzen, he got Kaiser Fototechnik in Buchen to develop an enlarger, which Rollei sold as the "Rolleimat Universal". Although it was extremely popular, the market for amateur photo-laboratories was much too small to make any difference to Rollei. Furthermore, for some obscure reason, he purchased tripods and 35 mm lenses from Japanese companies, fixed focal length lenses from Mamiya, and zoom lenses from Tokina – even though Rollei had enough spare production capacity in Singapore to make them all itself. With the new "Rolleinar" 35 mm lenses,

Hannsheinz Porst.

Obviously, the new owner could not be a Japanese company. Since neither Agfa, Kodak nor Zeiss were interested, "Deutsche Fotoholding GmbH", a company founded by, took over 97% of "Rollei Germany" on 1 April 1981, with the option of purchasing 75% of Nord/LB's share of "Rollei Singapore" in 1982. The chairman of Nord/LB's board of directors greeted this event with the words, "Thank goodness, I am finally rid of Rollei...".  The takeover by Hannsheinz Porst was met with universal astonishment as his own company "" was already in trouble. Also, many wondered who, actually, was behind the holding company. Rumour had it that Agfa had taken a share in order to avoid restrictions from the German Federal Cartel Office. The management of Rollei was shared between Otto Stemmer, a former employee of Agfa who became the technical director, and Hannsheinz Porst, who became chairman of

1982 to 2003 - Rollei Fototechnic / USH / Mandermann / Samsung / Dume / Capitellum era.

New owners.

On 1 January 1982, Rollei split into three separate companies: "Rollei Deutschland GmbH" assumed responsibility for disposing of the remaining stock and servicing its former products, while "Rollei Gebäude GmbH" together with Nord/LB, its largest creditor, took over its properties and the management of its former production facilities. A new company called "Rollei Fototechnic GmbH" employing 380 workers manufactured, sold and (until 1 July 1983) serviced a "rationalised" range of cameras, lenses and slide projectors. This company, which had nothing more to do with the former Rollei company up until the takeover of its "leading designs", was 100% owned by "USH" ("United Scientific Holdings"). The London-based "USH" was founded after the war to manufacture optoelectronic instruments. Rollei initially made contact with USH through its Singapore subsidiary, "Avimo Ltd."  The intention was to collaborate in the development of products for the German military. As a result, Rollei began to make 7×42 binoculars, otherwise "USH" exerted no influence over Rollei's camera

Rolleiflex SL2000F.

In the summer of 1981, Rollei introduced the "Rolleiflex SL2000F", a sophisticated SLR camera. At that time it was the only 35 mm camera that offered interchangeable film backs and dual viewfinders. Development of this camera began in 1975 and a prototype was exhibited at photokina 1978. One year later, however, the project was suspended due to lack of funding, although it was eventually resumed and completed. The features that were borrowed from

Rollei Metric.

In 1986, Rollei started making metric surveying systems. This project was instigated by, a research associate at Rollei who wanted a camera adapted for the purpose of photogrammetry. Accordingly, especially calibrated cameras were developed along with computer programmes to analyse the resultant images: the "35

"Classic" project.

Interest in twin-lens Rollei cameras declined in the 1970s so much that the Rolleicord was discontinued in 1976, while the Rolleiflex was only available on special order from 1977. Although there was some revival in interest shortly thereafter, production ceased altogether after Rollei went into voluntary administration. Nonetheless, 1,250 gold-plated Rolleiflexes were assembled in 1982 from the remaining componentry and sold as the "2.8F Gold" for 4,000 DM. In 1987, a much-admired successor, the "Rolleiflex 2.8 GX", was released

Rollei 35 RF.

Following a trend towards rangefinder cameras, Rollei introduced the "Rollei 35 RF" in 2002. Yet the "35 RF" was neither developed by Rollei, nor was it based on any of the earlier variants of the "Rollei 35". Instead, it was derived from the

Prego cameras.

Despite an earlier resolution to avoid the mass market, Rollei began to sell a range of viewfinder cameras for the amateur market. The cameras were made in

Single-lens medium format systems.

Single-lens medium format cameras represented Rollei's most important market segment. Consequently, development of the "SLX" continued, resulting in the "6006" which was introduced in 1984. Significant improvements included a film magazine and TTL flash metering – superior technology that made it the leading medium format camera. The "6002" followed in 1986, an entry-level model without a film magazine along with three inexpensive lenses (f/4, 50 mm; f/2.8, 80 mm; f/4, 150 mm). For the first time Rollei offered low-cost lenses from Asia, although all of the other lenses were still made by Schneider and Zeiss. In 1988, Rollei introduced the "6008". In addition to improved electronics, this was the first medium format camera to include automatic exposure bracketing; demand for

2004 to 2015 - New Franke & Heidecke / RCP-Technik / DHW era / DW Photo.

Break up.

In 2004, "Rollei Fototechnic GmbH" hived off its manufacturing to "Rollei Produktion GmbH". In September 2005, "Rollei Produktion GmbH" changed its name to "Franke & Heidecke GmbH"; among its shareholders were Kai Franke and Rainer Heidecke, both nephews of the original founders. Once again, Franke & Heidecke was manufacturing medium format cameras, projectors, photo-technical accessories and lenses on the old company site in Salzdahlumer Straße in Braunschweig. On 27 February 2009, Franke & Heidecke filed for bankruptcy, resulting in all 131 employees being made redundant on 30 June 2009. Some of the bankruptcy assets were purchased

New owners.

Hamburg-based "RCP-Technik GmbH & Co. KG", which has been selling Rollei-branded consumer products since 2007 under the terms of a Europe-wide licensing agreement, purchased the Rollei brand on 1 January 2010, thereby extending its rights to the brand world-wide.  Rollei's product portfolio within RCP-Technik included compact digital cameras (Compactline, Flexline, Powerflex,

DHW.

DHW Fototechnik (founded in 2009 by Rolf Daus, Katherina and Hans Hartje and Frank Will) in Braunschweig was an exhibitor at photokina 2010 where it showed the "Rolleiflex Hy6", a hybrid digital back-compatible and 4.5×6 / 6×6 film medium format camera, with integrated TTL-metering and an HFT PQS AF-Xenotar f/2.8, 80 mm standard

DW Photo.

After DHW's insolvency and asset sales, the same management team started the business again with a further reduced number of employees under the name DW Photo. The manufacturing of TLRs and projectors has been dropped to concentrate on the Hy6 system.

Rollei () was a German manufacturer of optical instruments founded in 1920 by and in Braunschweig, Lower Saxony, and maker of the Rolleiflex and Rolleicord series of cameras. Later products included specialty and nostalgic type films for the photo hobbyist market.

Rollei GmbH est une entreprise allemande fabriquant des appareils photographiques. Rollei est surtout célèbre pour sa série des Rolleiflex (et son « petit frère », le Rolleicord). Ces appareils étaient des reflex bi-objectifs moyen format utilisant des optiques Carl Zeiss et Schneider.


Life.

A daughter of Dr. George Napoleon Epps (who was brother of Dr. John Epps), she had two sisters who were also painters (Emily studied under John Brett, a Pre-Raphaelite, and Ellen under Ford Madox Brown), while Edmund Gosse and Rowland Hill were her brothers-in-law.  It was at Madox Brown's home that Alma-Tadema first met her in December 1869, when she was aged 17 and he 33. (His first wife had died in May that year.) He fell in love at first sight, and so it was partly her presence in London (and partly the fact that only in England had his work consistently sold) that influenced him into relocating in England rather than elsewhere when forced to leave the continent by the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in July 1870.  Arriving in London at the beginning of September 1870 with his small daughters and sister Artje, Alma-Tadema wasted no time in contacting Epps, and it was arranged that he would give her painting lessons. During one of these, he proposed marriage. As he was then thirty-four and Alma-Tadema was now only eighteen, her father was initially opposed to the idea. Dr. Epps finally agreed on the condition that they should wait until they knew each other better. They married in July 1871 and, though this second marriage proved childless, it also proved enduring and happy, with Alma-Tadema acting as stepmother to her husband's daughters by his first marriage, Laurence and Anna.  The Paris Salon in 1873 gave Alma-Tadema her first success in painting, and in 1878, at the Paris International Exhibition, she was one of only two English women artists exhibited. Her other venues included the Royal Academy (from 1873), the Grosvenor Gallery and others in London. Alma-Tadema exhibited her work at the Palace of Fine Arts at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois. She also had occasional work as an illustrator, particularly for "The English Illustrated Magazine", and was well known as a hostess in their London residences at Regents Park and later Grove End Road. Alma-Tadema died on 15 August 1909; a letter to the "Times" newspaper printed two days later detailed the circumstances leading to her death:Lady Alma-Tadema spent the months of June and July in a German cur, from which she returned a few days ago in a very weak state. She was advised to leave town immediately, and she entered an establishment in Hindhead. Here her malady suddenly took a critical turn on Friday last and she passed away painlessly after an unconsciousness of many hours on the night of Sunday.A memorial exhibition of her work was held at the Fine Art Society the following year.

Style.

Alma-Tadema specialised in highly sentimental domestic and genre scenes of women and children, often in Dutch 17th-century settings and style, like "Love's Beginning", "Hush-a-bye", "The Carol", "At the Doorway" (c.1898, "shown right") and "Sunshine". She painted some classical subjects and landscapes akin to those of her husband, but in general her main influence was 17th-century Dutch art, which was a far less restrained influence in her work than his. She studied the works of Vermeer and de Hooch on visits to the Low Countries. Alma-Tadema, like her husband, numbered her work chronologically by giving them Opus numbers.

Depictions.

As well as frequently being painted by her husband after their marriage ("The Women of Amphissa" of 1887 being a notable example), she is also shown in a seated statuette by Amendola in 1879, a bust by Jules Dalou in 1876, and a portrait by Jules Bastien-Lepage.

Laura Theresa Alma-Tadema, Lady Alma-Tadema ( Epps; 16 April 185215 August 1909) was an English painter specialising in domestic and genre scenes of women and children. Eighteen of her paintings were exhibited at the Royal Academy. Her husband, Lawrence Alma-Tadema, was also a painter.

Laura Theresa Alma-Tadema, née Laura Theresa Epps le à Londres et morte le dans la même ville ou à Hindhead, est une artiste peintre et illustratrice britannique.


History.

The airline was founded by Arthur "Pappy" Chalk, and started "ad-hoc" charter operations as the Red Arrow Flying Service in 1917. After "Pappy" Chalk served in the Army Air Service in World War I, he returned to Miami and commenced scheduled service between Miami and Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919 as Chalk's Flying Service. Chalk's first base was a beach umbrella on the Miami shore of Biscayne Bay. In 1926 a landfill island, Watson Island, was created in Biscayne Bay close to Miami. Chalk's built an air terminal there, and operated from the island for the next 75 years.  During Prohibition, Chalk's was a major source of alcohol smuggled from the Bahamas to the United States.  Pappy Chalk sold the airline to a friend in 1966, but continued to be involved in the daily operations of the airline until he retired in 1975. He died in 1977 at the age of 88.  In the early 1970s, Frakes Aviation bought the rights to the aircraft and began a conversion program, replacing the old Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp radial engines with Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 turboprops. By 1985 three of Chalk's eight Grumman Mallards had been converted, with five ex-military piston engined Grumman Albatross aircraft making up the balance of the fleet.  In 1974, Resorts International purchased Chalk's Airlines, which became the primary air carrier to Paradise Island near the Bahamian capital of Nassau, where Resorts International owned and operated hotels and other resort facilities. After Resorts International constructed a short take off and landing (STOL) runway on Paradise Island and switched to using STOL-capable de Havilland Canada DHC-7 Dash 7 turboprop aircraft operated by subsidiary Paradise Island Airlines, it sold Chalk's in 1991 to United Capital Corporation, an Illinois-based investment firm (which was not affiliated with United Airlines).  The television show Miami Vice, a symbol of both Miami and the 1980s, featured a Chalk's seaplane in its opening credits. N2969 is featured in an extended scene at the end of the third-season episode "Baseballs of Death", when the antagonist attempts to leave the US. The music video for George Michael's Careless Whisper featured a Chalk's seaplane, N2974. In one of the final scenes of the motion picture Silence of the Lambs, Dr Frederick Chilton is seen disembarking a Chalk's aircraft in Bimini, where Hannibal Lecter is waiting to "have him for dinner". A Chalks plane also makes an appearance at the end of the movie 'After The Sunset' with Pierce Brosnan and Salma Hayek's characters embracing as they stand next to it. Chalk's fleet was as high-maintenance as it was glamorous. It was a unique carrier, its Watson Island base being the smallest port of entry in the United States. Chalk's revenues were about $7.5 million in 1986, when it carried 130,000 passengers. Most were staying at Resorts International properties, although island residents used the airline for shopping trips to Miami.  United Capital expanded Chalk's service to Key West, Florida, and Nassau and acquired additional aircraft, but struggled financially. In 1996, United Capital sold Chalk's to a group of investors, who operated the airline under the name Pan Am Air Bridge. In January 1998, Texas-based aircraft lease company Air Alaska purchased 70% of Pan Am Air Bridge, but following the collapse of Air Alaska, Pan Am Air Bridge filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection only a year later on January 11, 1999. James Confalone, a businessman and former Eastern Airlines pilot, purchased Chalk's out of bankruptcy for $925,000 on August 2, 1999; it had been reduced to two aircraft and only 35 staff. Confalone bought five additional Grumman Mallard seaplanes and arranged a contract to buy 14 larger Grumman G-111 seaplanes to expand the operation. On December 17, 1999, the airline was relaunched as Chalk's Ocean Airways.  In late 2001 following the September 11 attacks, Chalk's was forced to leave its longtime operations base on Watson Island due to security concerns over its proximity to the Port of Miami. Helicopter traffic had also increased around Watson Island. Operations moved to Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport, where Chalk's already had its maintenance base.  The airline suspended operations after the crash of Chalk's Ocean Airways Flight 101 on December 19, 2005. It had planned to resume flights between Fort Lauderdale and the Bahamas under its earlier name of Chalk's International Airlines on November 9, 2006, but its airworthiness certificate issued by the Bahamas had expired. It resorted to using aircraft "wet leased" from and operated by Big Sky Airlines to operate flights from Fort Lauderdale to Key West and to St. Petersburg, Florida. Chalk's added flights between Palm Beach International Airport (PBIA) and destinations in the Bahamas in late May 2007, but carried only 14 passengers through PBIA that August.  Chalk's ceased flying from Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport after September 3, 2007. After the final report from the Flight 101 crash investigation was released, the United States Department of Transportation revoked the airline's flying authority for scheduled service on September 30, 2007. Chalk's continued to hold its FAR 121 operating with a part 298 authority in good standing, and sought to add 60-passenger regional jets to its FAR 121 operating licence, but these efforts never came to fruition.  Chalk's had claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the world, having begun operations in 1917 and scheduled flights in February 1919, and having only ceased operations for three years due to World War II, two days due to 1992's Hurricane Andrew, and eleven months due to an "at altitude tragedy" on December 19, 2005. The title of oldest operating airline is now given to KLM of the Netherlands, founded later in 1919.

Fleet.

During 2006 the airline leased conventional Beechcraft 1900D turboprop commuter land planes from Big Sky Airlines which were later replaced by Saab 340A and other wet leased aircraft while working with the Federal Aviation Administration to rebuild its fleet of Grumman G-73T Turbine Mallards.  As of March 2007 the Chalk's International Airlines fleet comprised:

Chalk's International Airlines, formerly Chalk's Ocean Airways, was an airline with its headquarters on the grounds of Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport in unincorporated Broward County, Florida near Fort Lauderdale. It operated scheduled seaplane services to the Bahamas. Its main base was Miami Seaplane Base (MPB) until 2001, with a hub at Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport. On September 30, 2007, the United States Department of Transportation revoked the flying charter for the airline, and later that year, the airline ceased operations.

Chalk's Ocean Airways (Code AITA OP, Code OACI : CVHK) était une compagnie aérienne américaine qui reliait la Floride aux Bahamas par hydravion. Basée à Fort Lauderdale, elle prétendait être la plus ancienne compagnie en activité au monde ayant débuté en 1917 (vols réguliers dès 1919) et en n'ayant interrompu son service que pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Elle n'avait jamais connu de crash mortel jusqu'au crash du vol 101, le. La compagnie cessa ses opérations le.


Biography.

He was born in Nonouti in 1949, and went to New Zealand to receive his education (St Andrew's College in Christchurch and then going onto Victoria University in Wellington). He then returned to Kiribati and worked as an accountant. He was elected to the House of Assembly of the Gilbert Islands, representing Nonouti, in 1974.  In 1976, the Gilbert Islands received limited self-government, and Tabai served as leader of the Opposition in a system dominated less by formal political parties than by loose coalitions of like-minded members. In this position, he regularly expressed criticism of the perceived centralist tendencies of Chief Minister Naboua Ratieta's government, expressing particular distaste for Ratieta's plans for an expensive defence department and the westernisation he was bringing to Kiribati. He fought in favor of traditional Gilbertese culture, helped to publicise the complaints of village copra growers, and criticized what he saw as a disproportionate amount of government expenditure on Tarawa over the other islands. Tabai became Chief Minister in 1978.  He demonstrated a talent for negotiation when he led his government in discussions with the United Kingdom over a financial settlement regarding the demands of the Banabans for compensation for the loss of their ancestral homeland of Banaba (Ocean Island), which had been devastated by phosphate mining, and their demands that it become independent of Kiribati. In 1979 Tabai was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) by Queen Elizabeth II, and became Beretitenti of the Republic of Kiribati at independence on 12 July 1979. He served as Beretitenti from 1979 until 1991, with a short interruption from 1982 until 1983, serving the maximum number of terms allowed by law. In 1982 he received an honorary knighthood from the Queen - Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG).  Tabai was a member of the National Progressive Party. As Beretitenti, he displayed a strong aversion to being dependent on aid, saying at one point the people were "better poor but free". During his administration, he signed a deal for tuna with fishing authorities from the Soviet Union. The Soviets chose not to renew the deal, saying that the catch they gathered was not worth the licensing fee Tabai demanded. Under his administration, the government also placed its earnings from phosphate mining in a trust fund. The interest from the fund had been used to pay for development projects.  After retiring from politics, Tabai served as Secretary-General of the Pacific Islands Forum from 1992 until 1998.  In May 1996 he was appointed an Honorary Officer of the Order of Australia, "for service to Australian-Pacific Islands countries relations, particularly as Secretary-General to the South Pacific Forum".  In 1999 he was fined for trying to establish an independent radio station in Kiribati, which he described as "censorship". In 2000, he founded a newspaper, the "Kiribati New Star".  Tabai returned to politics and was re-elected to the Kiribati parliament, again representing Nonouti, in 2007. He retained his seat in the 2011, the 2015-16 elections and the 2020. He is aligned with the Boutokaan Te Koaua (Pillars of Truth) party.  He also serves as a secretary for "Pacific Magazine".

Ieremia Tienang Tabai (modern orthography - Tabwai), born 16 December 1949, is an I-Kiribati politician who served as the first Beretitenti (President) of the Republic of Kiribati. During his presidency he was described as being the most able leader of the Pacific island states.

Ieremia Tienang Tabai (orthographe modernisée Tabwai) est un homme politique kiribatien né le à Nonouti. Il a été le premier Président de la République des Kiribati du au avec une courte interruption du au où Rota Onorio, président du conseil d'État a exercé l'intérim.


Early life.

Born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of a merchant, Fisher attended public high school and then studied for three years at the University of Chicago. After a short-lived attempt at prizefighting, he began painting comic signs and for window displays before becoming a layout person in the production department of the "San Francisco Chronicle", where he soon became a cartoonist.  He introduced "A. Mutt", the comic strip that would be better known by its later title, "Mutt and Jeff", on November 15, 1907, on the sports pages of the "San Francisco Chronicle". The featured character had previously appeared in sports cartoons by Fisher, but was unnamed. Fisher had approached his editor, John P. Young, about doing a regular strip as early as 1905, but was turned down. According to Fisher, Young told him, "It would take up too much room, and readers are used to reading down the page, and not horizontally." During this time, newspaper cartoons appeared in a single-panel format. Fisher innovated by telling a cartoon gag in a sequence, or strip, of panels, creating the first American comic strip to successfully pioneer that since-common format. The concept of a newspaper strip featuring recurring characters in multiple panels on a six-day-a-week schedule actually had been created by Clare Briggs with "A. Piker Clerk" four years earlier, but that short-lived effort did not inspire further comics in a comic-strip format. As comics historian Don Markstein explained,

"Mutt and Jeff".

"Mutt and Jeff" gained such popularity that Fisher, who was able to claim copyright to the characters, received an offer to produce it for the "San Francisco Examiner", owned by William Randolph Hearst. The move to the Hearst Corporation chain exposed the strip to a multitude of new readers across the United States. In 1911, Nestor Studios of New Jersey acquired the right to make "Mutt and Jeff" short film comedies, after which Fisher decided he could make more money controlling film production himself. In 1913, he created the Bud Fisher Film Corporation and signed a deal with American Pathé. They made 36 "Mutt and Jeff" short comedies in 1913, but production ceased for two years when Fisher's copyright was challenged. Once the courts upheld Fisher's copyright claim, the comic strip was syndicated nationwide, and between 1916 and 1926, his film production company created another 277 "Mutt and Jeff" film productions. On these film projects, Fisher is almost exclusively credited as the writer, animator and director, although the majority of animation was by Raoul Barré and Charles Bowers, and often the plots were adaptations of popular stories and fairy tales, such as A Kick for Cinderella (1925).  "Mutt and Jeff" was also published in comic book form. The income from multiple uses of his characters made Fisher a wealthy man. In 1932, he authorized Al Smith to produce the strip under his supervision. Smith drew "Mutt and Jeff" for 48 years. When Fisher died in 1954, Smith began signing his own name and continued to draw the strip until 1980 when George Breisacher took over for its final two years.

Personal life.

On April 20, 1912, Fisher eloped with Pauline Margaret Welch, a vaudeville actress from Baltimore. They were divorced in 1917.  On October 25, 1925, Fisher married Aedita de Beaumont, former wife of Count François de Beaumont. The couple parted after four weeks but never divorced. After Fisher's death, ownership of the strip passed to Aedita de Beaumont, and on her death in 1985 to her son from her earlier marriage, Pierre de Beaumont (1915–2010).  Fisher acquired a large stable of Thoroughbred racehorses. In 1924, his horse Nellie Morse became the fourth filly (out of only five total as of 2009) to win the Preakness Stakes. That same year, his colt Mr. Mutt finished second in the Belmont Stakes.  Fisher died September 7, 1954, of cancer at age 69, at Roosevelt Hospital in New York City. He lived at the time at 383 Park Avenue. and was buried in the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York City.

Harry Conway "Bud" Fisher (April 3, 1885 – September 7, 1954) was an American cartoonist who created "Mutt and Jeff", the first successful daily comic strip in the United States.

Bud Fisher est un scénariste, réalisateur et producteur américain né le à Chicago, Illinois (États-Unis), décédé le. Il a créé le premier "comic strip" quotidien à succès, "Mutt and Jeff".


Competition format.

Covering ten weeks, the schedule featured a total of 70 matches. The fourteen unions were grouped by the top three places in each pool, they advanced and secured a spot in the top six. Auckland secured the top position at the start of the second round. Competition points from round one carried over to round two, and teams were seeded according to total points won. If necessary of a tiebreaker, when two or more teams finish on equal points, the union who defeated the other in a head-to-head gets placed higher. In case of a draw between them, the side with the biggest points deferential margin will get rights to be ranked above. If they are tied on points difference, it is then decided by a highest scored try count or a coin toss.  Three teams receive two home fixtures in Round Two:  The remaining three teams receive only one home fixture apiece.  Similarly, the top two teams in each repechage pool, based on competition points earned in Round one (with tiebreakers applied as needed), earn two home fixtures in Round two, with the other teams receiving one apiece. Bay of Plenty and Counties Manukau earned the extra home fixture in "Repechage A", while Southland and Taranaki earned this privilege in "Repechage B".  In Round two saw each team in the competition played three fixtures in this round. In the "Top Six", each team played the three teams that it did not play in Round one. Each team in the repechage pools played the other teams in its pool once.  For the teams in the "Top Six", competition points carried over from Round one. All "Top Six" teams advanced to the quarterfinals, with their seedings determined by their positions at the end of Round two.  In the two repechage pools, competition points did not carry over from Round one. The top team in each pool at the end of Round two advanced to the quarterfinals. The two repechage winners received the seventh and eighth seeds, determined based on competition points at the end of Round two.  At the end of Week 9, Auckland, Waikato and North Harbour secured home quarter-finals. Bay of Plenty secured the top spot in "Repechage A". In "Repechage B", Taranaki dropped out of contention for the top spot.  After defeating Manawatu in Week 10, Bay of Plenty clinched the higher placing of the two repechage quarter-final slots. Also in Week 10, Otago's loss to Wellington placed Otago at the bottom of the "Top 6" going into the quarter-finals. The fourth home quarter-final went to Wellington; although Canterbury defeated Auckland, they did not earn the bonus point they needed to pass Wellington on the table. Wellington's victory over Canterbury in Week 8 gave them the advantage in the tiebreaker.  Southland earned the top spot in "Repechage B" by means of a 19-12 bonus-point loss to Northland, putting them one point ahead of the Taniwha.  The battle for the top overall seed came down to the final match in pool play. Waikato claimed the top seed by defeating North Harbour. Regardless of the Waikato-Harbour result, Auckland was assured of no worse than the second seed they eventually received. Harbour received the third seed.

Regular season.

Confirmed fixture matches for 2006 season as follows:

The 2006 Air New Zealand Cup was the inaugural season of the Air New Zealand Cup, contested by teams from New Zealand. The season ran from July to October 2006. At the end of the regular season, the top team from "Repechage A" and "B" joined with teams from the "Top Six" who entered the quarter-finals, with the winners going through to the semi-finals. The winner of each semi-final qualified for the final, which was contested between Waikato and Wellington, with Waikato winning 37–31 to win the first Air New Zealand Cup title.

La 2006 Air New Zealand Cup est une compétition de rugby à entre quatorze équipes représentant des provinces de Nouvelle-Zélande. Ce championnat des provinces est appelé aussi National Provincial Championship. L'édition 2006 est la première avec quatorze équipes dont quatre équipes qui ont rejoint l'élite : Hawke's Bay Rugby Union, Counties Manukau Rugby Union, Manawatu Rugby Union et la Tasman Rugby Union.


History.

The Auckland Rugby Football Union (ARFU) was officially formed in 1883, when it joined the Canterbury, Wellington and Otago unions in the fledgling New Zealand Rugby Football Union.  Auckland has been the most successful union in New Zealand rugby history, having won a record 16 ITM Cup (and predecessor competition) titles. Auckland also holds the record for the most Ranfurly Shield wins (16), successful defences (148), and longest streak of successful defences (61). All Blacks statistics also reveal the extent of Auckland's influence: of the 1071 players to have worn the national jersey from 1888 to 2008, 133 were born in Auckland, compared to Christchurch (74), Wellington (60) and Dunedin (53).  In 1996, with the advent of professional rugby union, Auckland became the host, and primary feeder, to the Blues, known from 1996–99 as the Auckland Blues.

Golden eras.

Auckland went undefeated for six seasons from 1897, and there was an undefeated run in the early 1920s under Sir Vincent Meredith. The 1960 to 1963 period, known as the Golden Era, was summed up in "The Golden Years" written by Don Cameron in 1983. Sir Wilson Whineray, who captained Auckland through those years and the All Blacks in 30 tests from 1957 to 1965, describes the period as one of "excitement, drama and fervor that transformed Eden Park into an oasis of magic during the winters of 1960, 1961, 1962 and 1963." The period from 1982 to 2007 is also regarded as a golden period, with Auckland winning more than half (16 out of 26 ) of all NPC titles and five South Pacific Championship titles during the era and winning the team of the year award at the 1992 Halberg Awards.

Ranfurly Shield years.

Auckland were the first holders of the Ranfurly Shield in 1902 and have won 153 out of 194 shield matches – the most successful record of any provincial union. Notable periods include from 1905 to 1913, when they defeated 23 successive challenges, 1960 and 1963, when 25 challenges were defeated, 1985 to 1993, when a record 61 were defeated. Auckland most recently held the shield between 2007 and 2008, when 5 challenges were defeated. Players like Andy Haden, Sean Fitzpatrick, John Drake, Olo Brown, Zinzan and Robin Brooke, Gary and Alan Whetton, Michael Jones, Steve McDowall, Grant Fox, Bernie McCahill, Grant Dickson, Mark Carter, Joe Stanley, John Kirwan and Terry Wright were important in Auckland's success in that last period.  In 1993, Auckland defeated the British Lions by 23–18 during their tour to New Zealand.  With six titles in the 1990s, and four so far in the new century, Auckland's domination of the New Zealand rugby landscape continues. The 2007 team is the first since the 1990 side to remain unbeaten in a season and win the Ranfurly Shield and the provincial championship. Players like Kees Meeuws, Keven Mealamu, Ali Williams, Justin Collins, Xavier Rush, Steve Devine, Brad Mika, Ben Atiga, Doug Howlett, Daniel Braid, Brent Ward and Angus Macdonald have contributed to this success.  1982, 1984, 1985, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2018  1986, 1987 (shared with Canterbury), 1988, 1989, 1990  1902–04 (0), 1905–13 (23), 1934–35 (1), 1952 (0), 1959 (2), 1960–63 (25), 1965 (3), 1971 (1), 1972 (0), 1974–76 (10), 1979 (6), 1985–93 (61), 1995–96 (3), 1996–97 (6), 2003–04 (2), 2007–08 (5)

Other representative teams.

In addition to the Men's 1st XV, the ARU has a number of other representative teams for both Men and Women. Their women's team, known as the Auckland Storm, are the most successful women's team in New Zealand. They are the current National Champions, and have won 13 of the 14 Women's Provincial Championship.

Club rugby.

Among the earliest founding clubs in Auckland were Grafton (1874), Ponsonby (1874) and College Rifles (1897), Marist (1908), University (1888), Grammar (1914) and Suburbs (1918). The premier competition's championship round was renamed the Gallaher Shield in 1922, in memory of Ponsonby, Auckland and New Zealand player Dave Gallaher who captained the 1905 All Blacks, known as The Originals, before retiring after the tour. He became the sole selector to the Auckland team, leading the side to eight successive Ranfurly Shield wins, before he served on the All Blacks selection committee from 1907 to 1914. He then joined the army at a relatively late age, and was killed in the Passchendaele offensive in 1917 aged 43. His Ponsonby side has dominated the Gallaher Shield, winning it 33 times.

Structure.

The Auckland Rugby Football Union consists of 20 clubs from the Auckland isthmus. The premier competition runs from March to August and is split into three segments: the Waka Nathan Challenge Cup from March to May (primarily a pre-season tournament), the Alan McEvoy Round-Robin, and the Championship Round (finals series).  The Waka Nathan Challenge Cup is contested at the beginning of the season in a knockout style competition. Teams play for the cup and a winners prize of $2500. Eight teams compete for the Waka Nathan Cup while the bottom seven teams from the previous year's competition contest the Pollard Cup.  The 15 teams entered into the Premier Competition play a 15-week round-robin, played on Saturdays. The team with the highest competition points at the end of this round will be awarded the Alan McEvoy Memorial Trophy which commemorates Alan McEvoy an Auckland rep and All Black Trialist who drowned tragically at Baylys Beach in the early 1950s. To determine this, the bonus points system is used. Teams will be seeded 1-16 after this round. The Fred Allen Trophy is also played for during the round-robin phase. It is similar to the Ranfurly Shield, where it is only up for grabs at home games of the trophy holder. It is not contested in the Championship Round.  In the Championship Round the sixteen teams are split into the top and bottom eight. It is played over three weeks. The top eight compete for the Gallaher Shield, named after former Auckland and All Blacks player Dave Gallaher, while the bottom eight compete for the Portola Trophy. The first week is a quarter-finals style format where the top seeded team play the bottom seeded team and the second seeded team play the second to last seeded team etc. The four losers from each group of eight go on to play for the Jubilee Trophy (Gallaher Shield Losers) and the President's Cup (Portola Trophy Losers). The next week is semi-finals and the two winners compete for the four trophies mentioned, with the overall champion being the winner of the Gallaher Shield Final.

School competition.

The union are one of three organisations (the others being Collegesport and the Secondary Schools Executive Committee) responsible for administering the local secondary school competitions. Notable rugby schools in Auckland include Auckland Grammar School, Kelston Boys High School, King's College, Mount Albert Grammar School and St Kentigern College. The 1st XV competition is split across three divisions, these being 1A, 1B and 1C. In addition to the 1st XV competition there a number of lower-grade (non-1st XV) and girls competitions.

Supporters.

The Auckland Rugby Union Supporters Club (ARUSC) was established in 1976 after a meeting between ARFU administration and a group of supporters. The club's emblem is the "Flying Elephant", which was agreed upon after a competition to find a mascot was found. The winner of the competition was Mr J.E. Hannan. The supporters club is currently located under the North (ASB) Stand at Eden Park.  The ARUSC also operates the Junior Rugby Foundation (JRF). The purposes of the organisation is to provide education, assistant and support for the promotion and development of participation by young people in rugby within the areas governed by the ARFU. Recent JRF bursary recipients include Liaki Moli, Sean Polwart and Tyrone Ngaluafe.

Stadium.

Auckland play their home matches at Eden Park, and have done so since 1925. The ground opened in 1900 and also is used for cricket. Eden Park has the largest crowd capacity of any New Zealand sporting venue, with a capacity of 50,000 for rugby matches.

All Blacks.

This is a list of players who have represented New Zealand from the Auckland representative rugby union team. Players are listed by the decade they were first selected in and players in bold are current All Blacks.

The Auckland Rugby Union (known as Auckland for competition reasons) are a New Zealand governing body of rugby union in the New Zealand province of Auckland. The ARU governs the running of the Auckland representative team which have won New Zealand's first-tier domestic competition, National Provincial Championship ("Air New Zealand Cup" and "ITM Cup") 17 times—more than any other team. Their most recent victory was the 2018 competition. Auckland also acts as a primary feeder to the Blues, who play in the Super Rugby competition.

La Auckland Rugby Football Union est la fédération de rugby à XV pour la région de Auckland au Nord de la Nouvelle-Zélande. L'équipe qui représente cette fédération dans le championnat des provinces NPC joue à l’Eden Park.


History.

Before the Chrystie Street Connection.

The Jamaica Line – then known as the Broadway Elevated – was one of the original elevated lines in Brooklyn, completed in 1893 from Cypress Hills west to Broadway Ferry in Williamsburg. It was then a two-track line, with a single local service between the two ends, and a second east of Gates Avenue, where the Lexington Avenue Elevated merged. This second service later became the 12, and was eliminated on October 13, 1950 with the abandonment of the Lexington Avenue Elevated.  The second major service on the Broadway Elevated ran between Canarsie and Williamsburg via the BMT Canarsie Line, started on July 30, 1906, when the Broadway and Canarsie tracks were connected at East New York. As part of the Dual Contracts, an extension from Cypress Hills east to Jamaica was completed on July 3, 1918, a third track was added west of East New York, and express trains began running on it in 1922.  The Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation numbered its services in 1924, and the Canarsie and Jamaica services became 14 and 15. Both ran express during rush hours in the peak direction west of East New York. Express trains would only stop at Myrtle Avenue, Essex Street and Canal Street, before making local stops afterwards. Additional 14 trains, between Eastern Parkway or Atlantic Avenue on the Canarsie Line and Manhattan provided rush-hour local service on Broadway. When the 14th Street–Eastern Line and Canarsie Line were connected on July 14, 1928, the old "Canarsie Line" service was renamed the "Broadway (Brooklyn) Line", providing only weekday local service over the Broadway Elevated west of Eastern Parkway. The Atlantic Avenue trips remained, and rush-hour trains continued to serve Rockaway Parkway (Canarsie), though they did not use the Broadway express tracks. The 14 was later cut back to only rush-hour service.  On the Manhattan end, the first extension was made on September 16, 1908, when the Williamsburg Bridge subway tracks opened. Broadway and Canarsie trains were extended to the new Essex Street terminal, and further to Chambers Street when the line was extended on August 4, 1913. When the BMT Nassau Street Line was completed on May 30, 1931, the 15 was extended to Broad Street, and the 14 was truncated to Canal Street. Some 14 trains began terminating at Crescent Street on the Jamaica Line in 1956. Manhattan-bound rush hour skip-stop service between Jamaica and East New York was implemented on June 18, 1959, with trains leaving 168th Street on weekdays between 7 AM and 8:30 AM. Express 15 trains served "A" stations, while the morning 14 became the "Jamaica Local", running between Jamaica and Canal Street, and stopped at stations marked "B". Express 15 trains continued to run express between Eastern Parkway and Canal Street, making only stops at Myrtle Avenue, Essex Street, and Canal Street. These stations were as follows:  Letters were assigned to most BMT services in the early 1960s. The BMT Jamaica services retained their numbers until November 1967. The 15 became the QJ (express), and the 14 became the JJ.

Chrystie Street Connection to 1976.

When the Chrystie Street Connection opened on November 26, 1967, many services were changed. The two local services - the JJ (non-rush hours) and KK (rush hours) - were combined as the JJ, but without any major routing changes. Thus non-rush hour JJ trains ran between Jamaica and Broad Street, while morning rush hour JJ trains ran to Canal Street, and afternoon rush hour JJ trains ran between Canal Street and Atlantic Avenue or Crescent Street. The rush-hour express J was combined with the weekday "Brighton Local via tunnel" to form the weekday QJ, running between Jamaica and Brighton Beach via the Jamaica Line (express during rush hours in the peak direction), BMT Nassau Street Line, Montague Street Tunnel, and BMT Brighton Line (local). Finally, the was a special peak-direction rush-hour service, running fully local on the Jamaica Line, Nassau Street Line, Montague Street Tunnel, and BMT Fourth Avenue Line to 95th Street in Fort Hamilton. This was an extension of a former rush-hour service, and thus ran towards Jamaica in the morning and towards Fort Hamilton in the afternoon. The next change was made on July 1, 1968, when the Chrystie Street Connection tracks to the Williamsburg Bridge opened. The Jamaica Line portion of the rush-hour JJ was modified to become a new rush-hour KK, running between Jamaica (peak direction) or Eastern Parkway (both directions) and the new 57th Street station on the IND Sixth Avenue Line in Manhattan. The MM (depicted with a dark green bullet on R27 signage) was a proposed alternative to the KK as a local to 57th Street/6th Avenue, which finally opened on July 1, 1968. The was eliminated, being cut back to an RR variant, and the off-hour JJ was relabeled QJ (but not extended to Brighton Beach). At the same time, the existing skip-stop service was extended to afternoon Jamaica-bound trains, with those QJ trains running express west of Eastern Parkway and serving "A" stations east to Jamaica, and those KK trains serving "B" stations. Less than two months later, on August 18, the QJ was extended to Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue. On July 14, 1969, afternoon skip-stop service on the KK and QJ was discontinued.  On January 2, 1973, the QJ, which was the longest route in the transit system, was cut back to Broad Street and redesignated the J; and the was extended to Coney Island in its place. At the same time, the KK was cut back to Eastern Parkway from 168th Street and renamed the K, and both skip-stop patterns were carried out by alternate J trains. Eventually, the K was discontinued entirely on August 30, 1976, eliminating the J skip-stop and express service east of Myrtle Avenue in the PM rush hour. Skip-stop service was retained toward Manhattan during the AM rush hour. One-way express service remained west of Myrtle Avenue, since the M was switched to the local tracks at that time.  The following table summarizes the changes that were made between 1959 and 1976.

1976 to present.

Archer Avenue Line.

The J was truncated to Queens Boulevard just after midnight on September 11, 1977, and to 121st Street on April 15, 1985, as portions of the elevated Jamaica Line closed and were demolished. The Q49 shuttle bus replaced service at the closed stations until 1988.  The BMT Archer Avenue Line opened on December 11, 1988, extending the line back east from 121st Street to Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer. The Z train first ran that day, introducing the present J/Z skip-stop pattern. The new Z trains would go skip-stop between Jamaica Center and Broadway Junction (later extended to Myrtle Avenue) during rush hours, then making all J stops to Broad Street. Bus service on several Queens bus routes was rerouted to serve Jamaica Center instead of the 169th Street station several blocks away. The J/Z skip-stop service was touted as being faster to lower Manhattan than E, F, and R service, in an attempt to relieve some crowding on the IND Queens Boulevard Line. Because the MTA hoped that Queens passengers would transfer to the J/Z from the E, F, and R, every subway car on the J and Zs fleet was completely graffiti-free.  One of the goals of the Archer Avenue project was to make Jamaica Line service as attractive as possible, and as a result, the TA planned to provide a form of express service. The two options considered to speed up Jamaica Line service were skip-stop service, which would have split Jamaica services into two patterns that served alternate stops, and a zone-express service, which would have split Jamaica services into a short-turn local service and a full-length express services. The zone-express option was dismissed in favor of the skip-stop option because its operation has to be very precisely timed so as to not hinder reliability, because service in the outer zone past the boundary of zone express service at Crescent Street or 111th Street would be too infrequent, and because many stations would lose half their service. Outer-zone expresses, after Crescent Street would skip stops on the local track until Eastern Parkway, from where it would run on the express track, stopping at Myrtle Avenue before going straight to Essex Street in Manhattan, skipping Marcy Avenue. Outer-zone expresses and inner-zone locals would have each been limited to frequencies of 10 minutes.  The TA decided to implement skip-stop service with two services labeled "J" and "Z", with lightly-used stops designated as "J" or "Z" stops, and those with higher ridership being all-stop stations. The all-stop stations were Parsons Boulevard, Sutphin Boulevard, Woodhaven Boulevard, Crescent Street, Eastern Parkway, Myrtle Avenue, Marcy Avenue, and all stops in Manhattan except for Bowery, which was to be served by only the M train. Bowery's low ridership did not justify more than one service to stop at the station; the J stopped there evenings, nights and weekends when the M did not operate into Manhattan. The J-only stops while skip-stop was operating were 111th Street, Forest Parkway, Cypress Hills, Cleveland Street, Alabama Avenue, Halsey Street and Kosciusko Street. The Z-only stops were 121st Street, 102nd Street, Elderts Lane, Norwood Avenue, Van Siclen Avenue, Chauncey Street and Gates Avenue. To further speed up service, J and Z trains would run express between Myrtle and Marcy. Trains on the J/Z ran every five minutes, an improvement over their previous headway of eight minutes. Skip-stop service ran to Manhattan in the morning between 7:15 and 8:15 a.m. and to Jamaica between 4:45 and 5:45 p.m..  Midday express service was added with J service continuing to run express in the peak direction between Marcy and Myrtle. Surveys of ridership at local stops found that service could be adequately provided by midday M service. The running time for skip-stop service from Parsons Boulevard to Broad Street was 48 minutes, compared to 54.5 minutes for all-local service and 52 for the E. It was expected that 2,250 Queens Boulevard riders would switch to the J and Z. To make J/Z service more attractive, all trains on those lines consisted of refurbished subway cars that were more quiet, graffiti-free, and had improved lighting and new floors. All cars on the J/Z were expected to have air-conditioning by summer 1989.  Express service was not implemented between Broadway Junction and Myrtle Avenue because local service would have needed to be operated between those points in addition to the J and Z. The two terminals for such a service (57th Street and Broad Street) lacked spare capacity, although it was acknowledged that 57th Street on the IND Sixth Avenue Line could be used as a terminal once Manhattan Bridge subway-track repairs were completed.  Queens Borough President Claire Schulman made multiple recommendations about revisions to the service plan for the extension at the MTA's February 1988 board meeting. She recommended that trains should use the express track between Myrtle Avenue and Eastern Parkway to reduce travel times, and that the Chrystie Street Connection be reused for service to the Jamaica Line.

Post-1990 changes.

On September 30, 1990, weekend J service was cut back to Canal Street, but it was extended back to Chambers Street in January 1994.  From May 1 to September 1, 1999, the Williamsburg Bridge was closed for reconstruction. J trains ran only between Jamaica Center–Parsons/Archer and Myrtle Avenue. J/Z skip-stop service operated in both directions between Jamaica Center and Eastern Parkway-Broadway Junction. During the closure, B39 bus service over the Williamsburg Bridge was free. The closure was anticipated to last until October 1999, but regular subway service was restored one month ahead of schedule. The project cost $130 million, including replacing the tracks support structure, signal system and other equipment. On September 1, 1999, J and Z trains, which previously skipped Bowery between 6 a.m. and 8 p.m. on weekdays, began stopping there at all times.  After the September 11, 2001 attacks, service on the BMT Broadway Line in Lower Manhattan, as well as all R service, was suspended. J trains were extended beyond Broad Street via the Montague Street Tunnel to replace the R to Bay Ridge–95th Street at all times except late nights, when it only ran to Broad Street and a shuttle ran in Brooklyn between 95th and 36th Streets. J/Z skip-stop service was suspended. Normal service on all three trains was restored on October 28.  In May 2014, all trains began stopping at Alabama Avenue, presumably for the convenience of transit employees who work at the nearby East New York Yard and East New York Bus Depot. In July 2014, the MTA proposed that weekend J service be extended from Chambers Street to Broad Street. The service change went into effect on June 14, 2015. From June 26, 2017 to April 27, 2018, J and Z trains ran local between Broadway Junction and Marcy Avenue at all times, supplementing the M, due to the BMT Myrtle Avenue Line connection being closed for reconstruction. In March 2020, skip-stop service was temporarily suspended due to lack of ridership and train crew availability caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Full service was restored in June.

Route.

Service pattern.

The following table shows the lines used by the J and Z, with shaded boxes indicating the route at the specified times:

Stations.

For a more detailed station listing, see the articles on the lines listed above.  Stations in green and stations in blue denote stops served by the J and Z, respectively, during rush hours in the peak direction. The J makes all stops at all other times.

The J Nassau Street Local and Z Nassau Street Express are two rapid transit services in the B Division of the New York City Subway. Their route emblems, or "bullets", are colored since they use the BMT Nassau Street Line in Lower Manhattan.

La J Nassau Street Local est une ligne (au sens de desserte ou "service" en anglais) du métro de New York. Sa couleur est le marron étant donné qu'elle circule sur la BMT Nassau Street Line sur la majorité de son tracé à Manhattan. Elle est issue du réseau de l'ancienne Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT), rattachée à la "Division B" et compte 30 stations. Tout comme la ligne Z qui suit le même parcours, elle utilise l'intégralité de l'Archer Avenue Line et de la BMT Jamaica Line, et rentre dans Manhattan via le Williamsburg Bridge pour emprunter la BMT Nassau Street Line. Dans la nomenclature du métro, elle est ainsi parfois regroupée avec la "Z Nassau Street Express" sous le terme de desserte J/Z.


History.

Hostilian was born at an unknown date, to Decius, a Roman general who later became Emperor, and his wife Herennia Etruscilla. Decius became emperor after being sent to lead troops in the provinces of Pannonia and Moesia, where he was declared emperor by his troops in September 249, in opposition to Philip the Arab. He led his troops against Philip, their forces meeting in September 249, near Verona, Italy. Philip was killed in battle, after which the Roman Senate declared Decius emperor and honored him with the name Traianus, a reference to Emperor Trajan.  Hostilian was elevated to "caesar" in May 251, by his father Decius. The elevation came after the promotion of his older brother, Herennius Etruscus, to "augustus" in the same month, making Herennius Etruscus co-emperor, with Hostilian as the heir of either or both of them. After Decius and Herennius Etruscus were killed by the Goths at the Battle of Abritus, an ambush in July 251, Trebonianus Gallus was declared emperor. To placate the public, Trebonianus Gallus elevated Hostilian to "augustus" almost immediately, making him co-emperor. Hostilian was co-emperor until his death in November 251; the reason for his death is disputed. Aurelius Victor and the author of the "Epitome de Caesaribus" say that Hostilian died of a plague. Zosimus claims that he was killed by Trebonianus Gallus. After his death, Trebonianus Gallus made Volusianus, his son, co-emperor.

Numismatics.

The "aurei" of Hostilian fall into four types bearing the bust of Hostilian on the obverse, with the reverse showing: Mars walking to the right; priestly implements; Mercury standing; and Roma seated holding Victoria.

Hostilian (; died November 251) was Roman emperor from July to November 251. Hostilian was born to Decius and Herennia Etruscilla at an unknown date and elevated to Caesar in May 251 by Decius, the same month as his older brother, Herennius Etruscus, was raised to co-emperor. After Decius and Herennius Etruscus were killed at the Battle of Abritus, an ambush by the Goths, Trebonianus Gallus was proclaimed emperor by the legions. Almost immediately, he elevated Hostilian to co-emperor and his son, Volusianus, to Caesar. Hostilian died in November 251, either due to plague or being murdered by Trebonianus Gallus.

Hostilien ou Hostilianus (nom complet ") est empereur romain de juillet à. Fils de l'empereur Dèce et d'Herennia Etruscilla, né à une date inconnue, il est élevé au rang de César en par son père, le même mois que l'élévation de son frère aîné Herennius Etruscus au rang de co-empereur.


Thirty Years' War.

The Thirty Years' War brought hardship and misery. In 1648 only 50 inhabitants survived from originally 1242 inhabitants (1622). In the Nine Years' War (1688-1697) Dürrmenz was looted in 1692 by French troops. Eckenweiher was incorporated to Dürrmenz in 1832.

Industrialisation.

With the opening of the Württemberg Western Railway Stuttgart - Bruchsal in 1853 the industrial age began in space Dürrmenz-Mühlacker. As the Karlsruhe-Mühlacker railway was built in 1863, Mühlacker was at the same railway junction and border station. As a curiosity, until 1930 it had two stations side by side, the larger Württemberg station and the Baden railway station. Favored by the dismantling of custom barriers 1819-1851 and the abolition of the compulsory guild (1862), industrial enterprises settled near the train station.

20th century.

After World War I, inflation, great depression and high unemployment interrupted the further development. In 1930, the large Mühlacker radio transmitter was put into operation.  With the dissolution of Oberamt Maulbronn, young city Mühlacker in 1938 was incorporated into district Vaihingen. During the Nazi period five of the eight Jewish citizens of Mühlacker were murdered in Auschwitz. The World War II ended in Mühlacker with destruction by air raids and artillery shelling. After 1945, 3000 refugees and displaced persons found settled in Mühlacker. As part of the district reform on January 1, 1973, the district Vaihingen was dissolved. The western region, with the town of Mühlacker became part of the newly formed Enzkreis. The eastern part of the district Vaihingen was incorporated into the district of Ludwigsburg.

International relations.

Mühlacker is twinned with:

Mühlacker is a town in the eastern part of the Enz district in Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany. Mühlacker station has direct rail connections with Stuttgart, Karlsruhe, Heidelberg, Pforzheim and the Northern Black Forest.

Mühlacker est une ville de Bade-Wurtemberg (Allemagne), située dans l'arrondissement d'Enz, dans l'aire urbaine Nordschwarzwald, dans le district de Karlsruhe. Elle compte environ 27 000 habitants. Elle est célèbre pour son émetteur.


Demographics.

Although there are no reliable figures, the diaspora is estimated to be around 8 -10 million people, far more than the internal population of Lebanon of around 4 million who are citizens. According to other estimates the number of Lebanese living outside the country is thought to at the very least double the number of citizens living inside, which means at least 8 million people. Of the diaspora, 1.2 million are Lebanese citizens.

History.

The Lebanese diaspora, while historically trade-related, has more recently been linked to the Lebanese Civil War, with many Lebanese emigrating to Western countries. Because of the economic opportunities, many Lebanese have also worked in the Arab World, most notably Arab states of the Persian Gulf like Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Currently around 50% of Lebanese citizens resident in Lebanon are Muslim and around 50% are Christian.  The Americas have long been a destination for Lebanese migration, with Lebanese arriving in some countries at least as early as the nineteenth century. The largest concentration of Lebanese outside the Middle East is in Brazil, which has, according to some sources, at least 6 million Brazilians of Lebanese ancestry, making Brazil's population of Lebanese more than twice that of the entire population of Lebanon. The population of Brazil of either full or partial Lebanese descent is estimated at 7 million people by Arab-Brazilian organizations. According to a research conducted by IBGE in 2008, covering only the states of Amazonas, Paraíba, São Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, Mato Grosso and Distrito Federal, 0.9% of white Brazilian respondents said they had family origins in the Middle East There are also other large Lebanese communities in Latin American countries, namely Argentina, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Venezuela, Haiti and Dominican Republic. Many Lebanese have also been settled for quite some time in the United States, Canada, Australia, The United Kingdom, South Africa and in the European Union member states. There are also sizable populations in The United Arab Emirates, Singapore as well as francophone West Africa, particularly Ivory Coast and Ghana.  A law passed in 2008 permitted Lebanese abroad to vote in Lebanese elections starting in 2013.

Business networks and economic impacts.

Many Lebanese entrepreneurs and business people worldwide have proved very successful, in all kinds of sectors and contexts. Therefore, Lebanese abroad are considered "rich, educated and influential." Remittances from Lebanese abroad to family members within the country were estimated at $8.9 billion in 2014 and accounted for 18% of the country's economy. However, there remains a great untapped potential for further collaboration and cooperation between the diaspora and the Lebanese in their home-country. Foreign direct investment is below 7% of the GDP, and almost half the Lebanese population is in tertiary education.  Throughout its history, the Lebanese diaspora used the Lebanese identity to create strong networks to help its members out. That helped develop a productive and profitable activity. Over the course of time, immigration has indeed yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.

Lebanese populations in the diaspora.

The list below contains approximate figures for people of full or partial Lebanese descent by country of residence, largely taken from the iLoubnan diaspora map. Additional reliable cites have been provided where possible. Additional estimates have been included where they can be cited; where applicable, these are used in place of the iLoubnan figures. The Figure below uses the data from the list and calculates the amount of Lebanese residents as a percentage of the total population of the respective country.  Note: An important percentage of Arabs in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela, Bulgaria, Romania, Italy, Portugal and Spain are of Lebanese ancestry. They are denoted ** for this purpose.

Outreach to the Lebanese diaspora by the Lebanese government.

The Lebanese government increasingly sees the diaspora as a critical resource for investment and new immigrants. A 2016 television ad tried to entice Lebanese in the United States to move to Lebanon to help improve the standard of living.  The Lebanese government launched the DiasporaID program in August 2017 to better connect Lebanese abroad to Lebanon itself. Funding for the project was provided by USAID with an objective of improving foreign investment in Lebanon.  On August 8, 2017, Lebanese President Michel Aoun advocated children of Lebanese in the diaspora take on Lebanese citizenship during a speech to the Maronite Diaspora Institution at Baabda Palace.

Notable persons of Lebanese descent.

Famous scientists of Lebanese descent include: Peter Medawar (Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine), Elias Corey (Nobel Prize in Chemistry), Michael Atiyah (Fields Medalist, Mathematics), Michael DeBakey (medical innovator), Mona Nemer (Canada's Chief Science Advisor) and geneticist Huda Zoghbi. Famous writers include William Peter Blatty, film director Alex Garland, Nassim Nicholas Taleb and screenwriter and film producer Geoff Johns.  Prominent members of the Lebanese diaspora include Presidents and Vice-Presidents, e.g. Michel Temer (Brazil), Julio Teodoro Salem, Abdalá Bucaram, Alberto Dahik, Jamil Mahuad (all in Ecuador), Jacobo Majluta Azar (Dominican Republic), Julio Cesar Turbay (Colombia), Alberto Abdala (Uruguay) and Mario Abdo (current president of Paraguay). Other famous politicians include Ralph Nader, 2000, 2004 and 2008 US presidential candidate, Alex Azar current United States Secretary of Health, Spencer Abraham former United States Secretary of Energy, John Sununu former White House Chief of Staff, Darrell Issa US politician, George J. Mitchell US Politician and Peace Envoy, Philip Habib US Politician and Peace Envoy, politician and author Jeanine Pirro, US Representative Donna Shalala, and Edward Seaga Prime Minister of Jamaica.  Notable military and astronauts include US army general John Abizaid, Navy Seal and Medal of Honor recipient Michael Mansoor as well as astronaut and Congressional Space Medal of Honor recipient Christa McAuliffe.  Famous businessmen of Lebanese descent include Carlos Slim Helú, Carlos Ghosn, Nicolas Hayek, John J. Mack, Jacques Nasser, Debra Cafaro, Joseph J Jacobs, Lucie Salhany, Kevin O' Leary, Marcus Lemonis and famous names in entertainment like Danny Thomas, Marlo Thomas, Salma Hayek, Shakira, Jenna Dewan, Terrence Malick, Tom Shadyac, Tony Shalhoub, Tiffany, Jim Backus, Jane Wiedlin, Kristy McNichol, Zoe Saldana, James Stacy, Catherine Keener, Vince Vaughn, Amy Yasbeck, Khrystyne Haje, Skandar Keynes, Barbara Mori, John Leguizamo, Omar Shariff, Paul Anka, Emilio Stefan, Drake's long time producers and Grammy winners Noah "40" Shebib and Oliver El-Khatib, Ricardo Darin, Oscar-winning composer Gabriel Yared, Xavier Dolan, Damian Bichir, Armand Van Helden, Tyler Joseph, Bazzi, Thomas Rhett, Mika, models Yamila Diaz-Rahi and Daniella Sarahyba; and sportsmen like Doug Flutie, Rony Seikaly, Marcos Bagdhatis, Patrick Maroon, Johnny Manziel, surfers Kelly Slater and Maya Gabeira, winner of the Indy 500 Bobby Rahal, FIFA World Cup record holder Mario Zagallo, chess Grandmaster Jennifer Shahade and Olympic medalists Jordyn Wieber, Florencia Habif, Matt Abood and Thaisa Daher.

Lebanese diaspora refers to Lebanese migrants and their descendants who, whether by choice or coercion, emigrated from Lebanon and now reside in other countries. There are more Lebanese living outside Lebanon (4 - 8 million), than within the country (4m). The majority of the diaspora population consists of Lebanese Christians; others are Muslim, Druze, or Jewish. The Christians trace their origin to several waves of emigration, starting with the exodus that followed the 1860 Lebanon conflict in Ottoman Syria.

La diaspora libanaise compte entre et de personnes d'origine libanaise (selon la prise en compte des descendants de, de, de, voire de ). La diaspora libanaise est composée des différentes vagues d'émigration qu'a connues le Liban depuis la fin du.


Names.

"Vaccinium vitis-idaea" is most commonly known in English as 'lingonberry' or 'cowberry'. The name 'lingonberry' originates from the Swedish name "lingon" for the species, and is derived from the Norse "lyngr", or heather.  The genus name "Vaccinium" is a classical Latin name for a plant, possibly the bilberry or hyacinth, and may be derived from the Latin "bacca", berry. The specific name is derived from Latin "vitis" ("vine") and "idaea", the feminine form of "idaeus" (literally "from Mount Ida", used in reference to raspberries "Rubus idaeus").  There are at least 25 other common English names of "Vaccinium vitis-idaea" worldwide, including:

Description.

"Vaccinium vitis-idaea" spreads by underground stems to form dense clonal colonies. Slender and brittle roots grow from the underground stems. The stems are rounded in cross-section and grow from in height. Leaves grow alternately and are oval, long, with a slightly wavy margin, and sometimes with a notched tip. The flowers are bell-shaped, white to pale pink, long, and produced in the early summer.  The fruit is a red berry across, with an acidic taste, ripening in late summer to autumn. While bitter early in the season, they sweeten if left on the branch through winter.

Conservation status in the United States.

The plant is endangered in Michigan. The "minus" subspecies is listed as a species of special concern and believed extirpated in Connecticut.

Ecology.

"Vaccinium vitis-idaea" keeps its leaves all winter even in the coldest years, unusual for a broad-leaved plant, though in its natural habitat it is usually protected from severe cold by snow cover. It is extremely hardy, tolerating temperatures as low as or lower, but grows poorly where summers are hot. It prefers some shade (as from a forest canopy) and constantly moist, acidic soil. Nutrient-poor soils are tolerated but not alkaline soils.

Varieties.

There are two regional varieties or subspecies of "V. vitis-idaea", one in Eurasia and one in North America, differing in leaf size:

Cultivation.

Lingonberry has been commercially cultivated in the Netherlands and other countries since the 1960s. Empress Elizabeth ordered lingonberry to be planted all over Peterhof in 1745.  Some cultivars are grown for their ornamental rather than culinary value. In the United Kingdom, the Koralle Group has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Culinary uses.

The berries collected in the wild are a popular fruit in northern, central and eastern Europe, notably in Nordic countries, the Baltic states, central and northern Europe. In some areas, they can be picked legally on both public and private lands in accordance with the freedom to roam.  The berries are quite tart, so they are often cooked and sweetened before eating in the form of lingonberry jam, compote, juice, smoothie or syrup. The raw fruits are also frequently simply mashed with sugar, which preserves most of their nutrients and taste. This mix can be stored at room temperature in closed but not necessarily sealed containers, but in this condition, they are best preserved frozen. Fruit served this way or as compote often accompanies game and liver dishes.  In Sweden and Norway, reindeer and elk steaks are traditionally served with gravy and lingonberry sauce. Preserved fruit is commonly eaten with meatballs, as well as potato pancakes. A traditional Swedish dessert is "lingonpäron" (literally lingonberry pears), consisting of fresh pears which are peeled, boiled and preserved in "lingondricka" (lingonberry juice) and is commonly eaten during Christmas. This was very common in old times, because it was an easy and tasty way to preserve pears. In Sweden and Russia, when sugar was still a luxury item, the berries were usually preserved simply by putting them whole into bottles of water. This was known as "vattlingon" (watered lingonberries); the procedure preserved them until next season. This was also a home remedy against scurvy.  This traditional Russian soft drink, known as "lingonberry water", is mentioned by Alexander Pushkin in "Eugene Onegin". In Russian folk medicine, lingonberry water was used as a mild laxative. A traditional Finnish dish is sautéed reindeer ("poronkäristys") with mashed potatoes and lingonberries on the side, either raw, thawed or as a jam. In Finland, whipped semolina pudding flavored with lingonberry ("puolukkapuuro") is also popular. In Poland, the berries are often mixed with pears to create a sauce served with poultry or game. The berries can also be used to replace redcurrants when creating Cumberland sauce. The berries are also popular as a wild picked fruit in Eastern Canada, for example in Newfoundland and Labrador and Cape Breton, where they are locally known as partridgeberries or redberries, and on the mainland of Nova Scotia, where they are known as foxberries. In this region they are incorporated into jams, syrups, and baked goods, such as pies, scones, and muffins.  In Sweden lingonberries are often sold as jam and juice, and as a key ingredient in dishes. They are used to make Lillehammer berry liqueur; and, in East European countries, lingonberry vodka is sold, and vodka with lingonberry juice or "mors" is a popular cocktail.  The berries are an important food for bears and foxes, and many fruit-eating birds. Caterpillars of the case-bearer moths "Coleophora glitzella", "Coleophora idaeella" and "Coleophora vitisella" are obligate feeders on "V. vitis-idaea" leaves.

In Native American cuisine.

Alaska natives mix the berries with rose hip pulp and sugar to make jam, cook the berries as a sauce, and store the berries for future use. The Dakelh use the berries to make jam. The Koyukon freeze the berries for winter use. Eskimos dilute and sweeten the juice to make a beverage, freeze and store the berries for spring, and use the berries to make jams and jellies. The Inupiat use the berries to make two different desserts, one where the berries are whipped with frozen fish eggs and eaten, and they mash raw berries with canned milk and seal oil. They also make a dish of the berries which is cooked with fish eggs, fish (whitefish, sheefish or pike) and blubber.  The Upper Tanana boil the berries with sugar and flour to thicken, eat the raw berries, either plain or mixing them with sugar, grease or the combination of the two, fry them in grease with sugar or dried fish eggs, and make them into pies, jam, and jelly. They also preserve the berries alone or in grease and stored them in a birchbark basket in an underground cache, or freeze them.

Use of the "minus" subspecies.

The Anticosti people use the fruit to make jams and jellies. The Nihithawak Cree store the berries by freezing them outside during the winter, mix the berries with boiled fish eggs, livers, air bladders and fat and eat them, eat the berries raw as a snack food, and stew them with fish or meat. The Eskimos of Nelson Island eat the berries, as do the Eskimos of the Northern Bering Sea and Arctic regions of Alaska., as well as the Western Canadian Inuktitut. The Haida people, Hesquiaht First Nation, Wuikinuxv and Tsimshian all use the berries as food.

Nutritional properties.

The berries contain plentiful organic acids, vitamin C, vitamin A (as beta carotene), B vitamins (B, B, B), and the elements potassium, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus.

Traditional medicine.

In folk medicine, "V. vitis-idaea" has been used as an apéritif, astringent, antihemorrhagic, anti-debilitive, depurative, antiseptic (especially for the urethra), a diuretic, a tonic for the nervous system, and in various ways to treat breast cancer, diabetes mellitus, rheumatism, and various urogenital conditions.  In traditional Austrian medicine the fruits have been administrated internally as jelly or syrup for treatment of disorders of the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys and urinary tract, and fever.

Medicinal use by Native Americans.

The Upper Tanana eat the berries or use their juice to treat colds, coughs and sore throats.

Other uses.

The Nihithawak Cree use the berries of the "minus" subspecies to color porcupine quills, and put the firm, ripe berries on a string to wear as a necklace. The Western Canadian Inuktitut use the "minus" subspecies as a tobacco additive or substitute.

Related species.

"Vaccinium vitis-idaea" differs from the related cranberries in having white flowers with petals partially enclosing the stamens and stigma, rather than pink flowers with petals reflexed backwards, and rounder, less pear-shaped berries.  Hybrids between "Vaccinium vitis-idaea" and "Vaccinium myrtillus", named "Vaccinium × intermedium" Ruthe, are occasionally found in Europe.

Vaccinium vitis-idaea (lingonberry, partridgeberry, mountain cranberry or cowberry) is a short evergreen shrub in the heath family that bears edible fruit, native to boreal forest and Arctic tundra throughout the Northern Hemisphere from Europe and Asia to North America. Lingonberries are picked in the wild and used to accompany a variety of dishes in Northern Baltoscandia, Russia, Canada and Alaska. Commercial cultivation is undertaken in the U.S. Pacific Northwest and in many other regions of the world.

Vaccinium vitis-idaea est une espèce de sous-arbrisseau du genre "Vaccinium" et de la famille des "Ericaceae". C'est notamment l'espèce de l'airelle rouge.