Drake's voyage.

Background.

In the late 1500s, a cold war existed between England and Spain—one which involved religious differences, economic pressure, and emerging English navigational and colonisation desires. As part of this, Sir Francis Drake developed a plan to plunder Spanish colonial settlements on the Pacific Coast of the New World. Gathering several investors, and likely with the backing of Queen Elizabeth I—which may have been in the form of a secret commission as a privateer—Drake embarked upon the voyage on 15 November 1577. Even though Drake's actions would damage England's relations with Spain's King Philip, Drake understood he could rely upon Queen Elizabeth's support.  After successfully taking considerable amounts of treasure from Spanish towns and ships along King Philip's eastern Pacific coast colonies, Drake sailed north to seek a shortcut back to England via the hypothetical Strait of Anián, a supposedly navigable shortcut connecting the Pacific and Atlantic. The strait, a fanciful idea similar to the Fountain of Youth, was speculated to exist at about 40 degrees north. Although Drake may have possibly reached a latitude as high as 48 degrees, his northward progress was ultimately stopped by foul weather in the northeast trade winds belt. Upon failing to locate the strait, Drake sought safe harbour to ready his ship, "Golden Hind", before attempting a circumnavigation of the globe to return home.

Drake's coastal exploration and claim.

Prior to Drake's voyage, the western coast of North America had only been partially explored in 1542 by Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, who sailed for Spain. So, intending to avoid further conflict with Spain, Drake navigated northwest of Spanish presence. By navigating well beyond where Cabrillo had asserted Spanish claim, Drake sought to locate a discreet site at which the crew could prepare for the journey back to England.  On 5 June 1579, the ship briefly made first landfall at South Cove, Cape Arago, just south of Coos Bay, Oregon. From there, Drake sailed south while searching for a suitable harbour to repair his ailing ship. On 17 June, Drake and his crew found a protected cove when they landed on the Pacific coast of what is now Northern California. While ashore, he claimed the area for Queen Elizabeth I as "Nova Albion" or New Albion, choosing this particular name for two reasons: first, the white banks and cliffs which he saw were similar to those found on the English coast and, second, because "Albion" was an archaic name by which the island of Great Britain was known. To document and assert his claim, Drake had an engraved plate of brass, one which contained a sixpence bearing Elizabeth's image, attached to a large post. Giving details of Drake's visit, it claimed sovereignty for Elizabeth and every successive English monarch.  After erecting a fort and tents ashore, the crew labored for several weeks as they prepared for the circumnavigating voyage ahead by careening their ship, "Golden Hind", so to effectively clean and repair the hull. Drake had friendly interactions with the Coast Miwok and explored the surrounding land by foot when crossing Inverness Ridge to visit a village and reconnoiter the country. When his ship was ready for the return voyage, Drake and the crew left New Albion on 23 July and paused his journey the next day when anchoring his ship at the Farallon Islands where the crew hunted seal meat. On 25 July, they sailed west to continue their Pacific crossing, and "Golden Hind" finally returned to England in September 1580.

English response.

Drake's circumnavigation began a period of British maritime dominance that lasted until the 20th century, and as a result of his successful deeds against Spain, Drake was admired and celebrated by many in England. According to John Stow, Drake's "name and fame became admirable in all places, the people swarming daily in the streets to behold him, vowing hatred of all that durst mislike him." Not only were his investors and the Queen richly rewarded, Drake was also allowed to keep £24,000 of the purloined treasure for himself and his crew. Drake quickly became a favorite at the Queens's court and was knighted by the French Ambassador on her behalf.  Initially, details of Drake's voyage were suppressed, and Drake's sailors were pledged not to disclose their route under threat of death. When Drake returned, he handed over his log and a large map to the Queen. While the other items disappeared, the map known as the Queen's Map, remained on limited view for a number of years. Finally, it too was lost in the Whitehall Palace fire of 1698. However, a derivative of this map, "Vera Totius Expeditionis Navticae", was composed by Jodocus Hondius sometime around 1590, and into it he incorporated features from the Queen's Map. This map shows Drake's journey and includes an inset of the harbor at "Nova Albion". In 1589, further details emerged when an official account of Drake's circumnavigating voyage by Richard Hakluyt was published. In 1628, "The World Encompassed" was published by Drake's nephew and namesake, Sir Francis Drake, 1st Baronet. This comprehensive account of the voyage, which is based on the notes of his chaplain Francis Fletcher, included numerous details of New Albion and is the most extensive account of Drake's voyage.  Because the extent of Drake's New Albion was vague—essentially a classification of the territory north and west of Spanish territory—the designated location differs among maps. After Elizabeth's death in 1603, maps began to depict the area of North America above Mexico as "Nova Albion". Drake's claim of land on the Pacific coast for England became a basis which influenced subsequent colonial charters issued by English monarchs that purported to grant lands from sea to sea, the area from the Atlantic where English colonies were first settled all the way to the Pacific. Along with Martin Frobisher's claims in Greenland and Baffin Island and Humphrey Gilbert's 1583 claim of Newfoundland, New Albion was one of the earliest English territorial claims in the New World. These claims were eventually followed by settlement of the Roanoke Colony in 1584, and Jamestown, Virginia in 1607.

The people and the land.

By using detailed descriptions of the people encountered by Drake—particularly their houses, feathered baskets, ceremonies, and language—anthropologists have clearly identified the people as Coast Miwok, a people whose traditional homeland included the Point Reyes area in what is now present day Marin County, California.  When Drake landed his crew, the Coast Miwok people initially approached his encampment while armed with bows and arrows, uncertainly cautious regarding the newcomers. But Drake quickly allayed their suspicions, and multitudes of unarmed people soon visited his encampment on a daily basis. In their early encounters with the Coast Miwok, Drake's crew observed as the Miwok wailed and engaged in self-laceration. Drake misinterpreted this response as an act of worship and concluded that the Indians believed him and his crew to be gods; however, this response was actually one of Miwok mourning customs. Most likely the Indians regarded the English visitors as relatives who had returned from the dead. In a particularly significant gesture, one day a large assembly of Coast Miwok descended on the encampment and honored Drake by placing chains around his neck, a sceptre in his hand, and a crown of feathers on his head as if he were being proclaimed king. Upon this uncertain, seemingly voluntary surrender of sovereignty by its owners, England based its presumed legal authority to the territory.  After gaining the Coast Miwok's trust, Drake journeyed to explore the inland area and visit their villages. Accompanied with crew members, Drake trekked on a Coast Miwok trail to traverse the Inverness Ridge and descend into what is now the Olema Valley. Fletcher described the village structures there as round subterranean buildings which came together at the top like spires on a steeple. Fletcher made further note of their culture by recording detailed characteristics of the Coast Miwok baskets stating they were water-tight, shaped like a deep bowl, and covered with a matted down of colored feathers. Such baskets were made only by the Coast Miwok, Pomo, Lake Miwok, Patwin, and Wappo peoples who were all concentrated near Drake's landing site. Additionally, Fletcher was the first person to make a written record of any of the 64 distinct language groups in prehistoric California, namely five specific Coast Miwok words: "Hioh, Gnaah, Huchee kecharo, Nacharo mu", and "Cheepe". These words noted by Fletcher are from a distinct language group, and Heizer wrote that they were unquestionably of Coast Miwok derivation, linguistic proof of Drake's contact with the Coast Miwok. Overall, the relations between the Coast Miwok and their visitors were peaceful and friendly, and the Miwok seemed to exhibit distress when "Golden Hind" sailed away.  Fletcher also recorded climate information and characterised the unpleasant summer weather conditions of the area near the careenage basin. He noted the continuous nipping chill; lack of sun; and cold, sometimes violent, winds. In contrast, across the Inverness Ridge, he found a distinct climate variance and experienced a flourishing land. Fletcher assessed the area: "The inland we found to be farre different from the shoare, a goodly country and fruitful soyle, stored with many blessings fit for the use of man".  Fletcher also chronicled his observation of certain animals unknown to the English and described them as "very large and fat Deere" and "a multitude of a strange kinde of Conies." The "fat Deere" were most likely Roosevelt Elk, and the conies are identified as gophers. These, and the rest of Fletcher's assessments and observations of New Albion are flawlessly in concert with the geography of the Point Reyes.

Historical impact.

The New Albion claim had far-reaching historical consequences. Even though Drake attempted no long-term presence and the English made no immediate follow up to the claim, it constituted England's first assertion of sovereignty on the North American Pacific shore. And since all of their subsequent expeditions along the North American Pacific Coast were infrequent and irregular, Nova Albion was primarily a geographical designation—a new, distinctive name on the world map. Ultimately, this designation was of significance as it proclaimed England's ability and presumed right to pursue its own empire in America. Consequently, Drake's New Albion claim was a forward-thinking, considered component of a new national expansion policy, one of several of his exploits which both determined Elizabeth's policy for the duration of her reign and indirectly impacted England's continuing historical future.  The New Albion claim was the first indication of English goals broader than simple reprisal against Spain which then influenced similar national expansion projects by others such as Humphrey Gilbert and Walter Raleigh. As a rejection of territorial claims based on papal authority, the New Albion claim asserted Elizabeth's notion of territorial claim by occupation, and this promoted the colonial idea of New Albion as "the back side of Virginia," the expression of England's presumed legal status of sea-to-sea colonial entitlement. The claim occupied a significant place in British geopolitical considerations for centuries and even strengthened Britain's entitlement to the fur trade commerce along the Northwest Coast. Its final influential assertion came in negotiaing the 1846 Oregon Treaty which extended the border of Canada along the 49th parallel to the Pacific.

Site recognition and identification.

Early identifications.

Beginning in the seventeenth century, maps identify Drakes Bay as Drake's landing site. In 1793, George Vancouver studied the site, and concluded it was in Drakes Bay. Professor George Davidson, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, after a study of the narrative and the coast, identified the harbour entered by Drake as Drakes Bay, at Point Reyes, about thirty miles (50 km) north of San Francisco. "Drakes Bay," he reported in 1886, "is a capital harbor in northwest winds, such as Drake encountered. It is easily entered, sheltered by high lands, and a vessel may anchor in three fathoms, close under the shore in good holding ground." Davidson published further support for the Drakes Bay location in 1890 and 1908.

20th century identifications.

In 1947, following up on work by archaeologists A. L. Kroeber and William W. Elemendorf, archaeologist Robert F. Heizer analyzed the ethnographic reports of Drake's stay at New Albion. Confirming their work Heizer states that "Drake must have landed in territory occupied by the Coast Miwok-speaking natives." In his full analysis, Heizer concludes, "in June 1579, then, Drake probably landed in what is now known as Drake's Bay." Since 1949, the theory that Drake landed at Drakes Bay has been advocated by the Drake Navigators Guild in California, and by former president Captain Adolph S. Oko, Jr., former honorary chairman Chester W. Nimitz, and former president Raymond Aker. Oko wrote, "Many other correlative facts have been... found true to the Drake's Cove site as part of the "total body of evidence". The weight of evidence truly establishes Drake's Cove as the nodal point of Nova Albion." Nimitz stated that he did "not doubt that in time the public will come to recognize the importance and value of this long-lost site, and will rank it with other National Historic Sites such as Roanoke, Jamestown, and Plymouth." In 1956, Sir Alex A. Cumming, who was the curator of Buckland Abbey, Drake's past home and current museum, also recognised Drake's landing: "That little cove at the mouth of the Estero, sheltered from the wind, protected from the sea and hidden from hostile eyes, must have been a welcome sight, and I believe that Divine Providence guided him to it." In 1978, two time Pulitzer Prize winning historian Samuel Eliot Morison wrote "...that Drakes Bay is correctly so named, that here he spent five weeks, repaired the "Golden Hind", sang songs for the Indians, and marched up country."  Aker conducted detailed studies reconstructing Drake's circumnavigating voyage, and advocated for the site at Point Reyes citing the fact that the official published account placed the colony at 38 degrees north. The geography of Drake's Cove, which lies along the coast of Marin County, has often been suggested as being similar to the cove described by Drake, including the white cliffs that look like the south coast of England and the specific configuration of the Cove. Responding to questions about the geographical fit of the cove, Aker maintained that criticisms—those based on the inconsistent configuration of the sandbars in the cove—were unfounded. He maintained the configuration of the sandbars in the cove was cyclic over the decades. Accordingly, Aker effectively answered the questions when he predicted that a spit of land that disappeared in 1956—one which closely resembles one on the Hondius map—would reappear. Aker's assertions were confirmed when the spit formed again in 2001.  Artefactual evidence emerged when nearly one hundred pieces of sixteenth-century Chinese porcelain wares were found in the vicinity of the Drake's Cove site which, according to Clarence Shangraw of the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco and archaeologist Edward Von der Porten, "must fairly be attributed to Francis Drake's "Golden Hind" visit of 1579." These ceramic samples, found at Point Reyes, are the earliest datable archaeological specimens of Chinese porcelains transported across the Pacific in Manila galleons. The artefacts were found by four different agencies beginning with the University of California, the Drake Navigators Guild, then the Santa Rosa Junior College, and finally San Francisco State College. These porcelain shards are the remains of porcelain dishes Drake took from a Spanish treasure ship in the Pacific. Off-loaded during the careening process and abandoned when Drake sailed from Point Reyes, the porcelain wares were the heaviest items of unknown value that he carried.  The porcelains were first identified by Shangraw and then later by Von der Porten. These researchers specifically distinguished the Drake porcelains, which were found in middens associated with the Coast Miwok, from those of Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeño's "San Agustin", the 1595 Manila galleon shipwreck which rests at the floor of Drakes Bay. Unlike the Drake porcelains, shards from the "San Augustin" wreck had washed onto the Point Reyes shore from the sunken ship's broken structure. Shangraw and Von der Porten were able to differentiate the two cargoes by using such criteria as design, style, quality, and surface wear. The Drake porcelains have clean breaks and show no abrasion from the abrasive action of being tumbled in the surf. In contrast, the Cermeño shards display surf-tumbling, design change, and differences in style and quality—all which suggests two separate cargoes. Drake's purloined cargo included fine porcelain dishes from Jingdezhen, China, the industrial centre of finely crafted ceramics. However, the "San Agustin's" cargo carried poor quality porcelain wares which were made later by south coast entrepreneurs who were quickly capitalising on a rapidly developing, lucrative market. The "San Agustin" cargo included pieces from kilns which only began production in about 1590. All of these factors allowed the cargoes to be convincingly distinguished.

21st century identifications.

Examining the Drake landing site from a nautical perspective, Sir Simon Cassels, Second Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Personnel, Royal Navy, concluded in 2003 that "the weight of evidence... bears heavily on only one and the same site for careening the "Golden Hind": the estuary within what for more than 100 years has been named Drakes Bay."  Engaging in scientific research on the Drake and Cermeño sherds by using X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Dr. Marco Meniketti of San Jose State University tested ceramics from shipwrecks in Mexico, California, and Oregon as well as porcelains linked to Drake found near Point Reyes. Using varied shipwreck sources to provide strong controls to the research, Meniketti's findings support the conclusion that the Cermeño porcelains and the Drake ceramics are from two different ships. He states that these two cargoes can be distinguished based on differences in their key elements and believes these differences may represent changes in glaze chemistry, clay sources, or unique inclusions or tempering. Aker maintained that those porcelain sherds that washed onto shore must be attributed to Cermeño, and those with clean breaks and no water wear must be attributed to Drake.  Historian Dr. John Sugden, after reviewing numerous proposed Drake landing sites, observed, "No aspect of Drake's career has suffered more false leads than the site of Nova Albion." Sugden concludes that "the evidence overwhelmingly favours Drake's Estero in Drakes Bay" and that "it is high time the United States register of National Historic Landmarks officially recognized Drake's Estero as the Elizabethan anchorage."

Official recognitions.

The site of Drake's landing as officially recognised by the U.S. Department of the Interior and other agencies is Drake's Cove. The cove is located in Drakes Estero which trends northerly off Drakes Bay. The site lies in Marin County, California, near Point Reyes, just north of the Golden Gate, at. On 16 October 2012, Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar signed the nomination and on 17 October 2012, the Drakes Bay Historic and Archaeological District was formally announced as a new National Historic Landmark. No Drake anchorage has endured so much scrutiny nor seen the amount of field study and research as has this location.  This distinction endorses the district's artefactual evidence as of one of the earliest instances of interaction between native people and European explorers on the west coast of the current United States of America. This distinction is based on two historical encounters: Sir Francis Drake's 1579 California landing and "Golden Hind" anchorage and Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeño's landing and "San Agustin", his 1595 Manila galleon shipwreck.  That the Coast Miwok people's first contact with Europeans was with Sir Francis Drake is also recognised by the Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria, a federation of Coast Miwok and Southern Pomo people which has been officially sanctioned by the United States Congress.

Ideas suggesting alternative locations.

Considering that in excess of twenty other locations have been advanced as the site of Drake's port, more information has been printed regarding the location of New Albion than any other New World harbour that Drake sought. Describing their lack of seamanship experience and navigational knowledge, Davidson recognises a plethora of confusion, chiefly from armchair historians which include distinguished persons such as Samuel Johnson and Jules Verne.  One such location is Point San Quentin in San Francisco Bay, California. Robert H. Power (1926–1991), co-owner of the Nut Tree in Vacaville, CA, promoted the idea that Drake's New Albion was inside present day San Francisco Bay near Point San Quentin Among his arguments was that the Hondius Broadside map matched a part of the topography when parts were adjusted using a 2:1 correction.  In 2003 Canadian R. Samuel Bawlf suggested that Drake's landing was on present day Vancouver Island at Comox, British Columbia Bawlf supported the idea that Drake careened "Golden Hind" in Whale Cove, Oregon, and he pointed to a number of pieces of evidence in support of his view that the official published record of Drake's voyage was deliberately altered to suppress the true extent of his discoveries.

Speculation of a colony.

A counting discrepancy of "Golden Hind" crew members has led to speculation that Drake left behind men to form a colony. The idea that Drake formed a colony is, however, suspect—it is improbable that Drake would have left settlers at New Albion since he had not equipped the voyage for colonization. Drake was also undoubtedly aware that England would have trouble enforcing its claim by supporting a nascent colony in a land so remote as New Albion and would have likely avoided planting such an English outpost. Additionally, the only person specifically reported as left behind at New Albion was N. de Morena, a European ship pilot who was in ill health. Spanish sources state that he was left ashore, recovered his health, and eventually embarked on a successful four-year journey by walking to Mexico where he reported to authorities.  The counting discrepancy, a difference of at least 20 men, concerns the number of crew Drake commanded before his stay in Northern California as compared to crew tallies when he reached the Moluccas, an archipelago in the Banda Sea, Indonesia. Released Spanish prisoners stated that, off the coast of Central America, the ship's company was about 80 men. Sir Francis Drake's cousin and crew member, John Drake, claimed the number totaled 60 when the ship was at Ternate in the Moluccas. On Vesuvius Reef, "The World Encompassed" puts the number at 58. All notions of an embryo colony are primarily based on these numbers, and the reason for this discrepancy remains unknown.

Plate of Brass hoax.

In the 1900s, a hoax was perpetrated regarding the brass plate which Drake had posted at New Albion. English historian Richard Hakluyt wrote in detail of the distinctive original plate:  The original plate—which served as tangible notice of England's sovereignty over the land—has yet to be found. Consequently, the exact location of the monument erected by Drake is unknown.  In 1936, a counterfeit, known as Drake's Plate of Brass, came to public attention, and for decades its discovery was widely believed to be that of the original. While accepted as authentic by the University of California, Berkeley, doubts persisted. Eventually, in the late 1970s, the supposed original plate failed a battery of metallurgical tests, and scientists determined that the plate was a modern creation. In 2003, it was publicly revealed that the counterfeit plate was created as a practical joke among local historians. Spinning out of control, the joke unintentionally became a public hoax and embarrassment to those who had once confirmed its authenticity.

Localised legacy.

The localised legacy of Drake's New Albion claim is evident in several ways. The inspiration of various local namesakes is owed to the notion of this declaration. New Albion Brewing Company, located near Drake's 1579 landing, is the first United States microbrewery of the modern era, and Sir Francis Drake High School is located in San Anselmo, California, several miles southeast of Drake's landing. Also near Drake's landing is Sir Francis Drake Boulevard, an arterial road running east-west in Marin County, California.  The Drake legacy was promoted in an Arts and Crafts movement literary magazine, "The Golden Hind", published in Marin County in 1902.  From 1999 to 2006, "The Drake Pageant" was hosted annually by NPS Ranger Lanny Pinola at Drake's Beach. Many local groups including the Mother Lode Musical Theatre and Sir Francis Drake High School acted, and played and sang English and Coast Miwok music.  The Prayerbook Cross, also known as the Drake Cross, erected in 1894 in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, was donated by the Church of England to commemorate the 1579 church services held by Drake's chaplain, claiming they were the first-ever held in English in the region.

New Albion, also known as Nova Albion, was the name of the continental area north of Mexico claimed by Sir Francis Drake for England when he landed on the North American west coast in 1579. This claim became the justification for English charters across America to the Atlantic coast and soon influenced further national expansion projects on the continent. Today, Drake's landing site is known as Point Reyes, California, a marine environment which is the setting of several small towns, ranches, and Point Reyes National Seashore.

Nouvelle Albion est la traduction française de l'expression latine « Nova Albion » ("New Albion" en anglais), le nom donné à la contrée trouvée sur la côte ouest de l'Amérique du Nord par Francis Drake, l'explorateur, corsaire et homme militaire anglais qui fit la circumnavigation de la Terre entre 1579 et 1580. Le mot « Albion » qui signifie « blanc » est une ancienne appellation pour la Grande-Bretagne. Avant de quitter l'Amérique pour les Moluques, Drake revendiqua Nouvelle-Albion pour la reine Élisabeth d'Angleterre.


Life.

Eustace Clarence Mullins, Jr. was born in Roanoke, Virginia, the third child of Eustace Clarence Mullins (1899–1961) and his wife Jane Katherine Muse (1897–1971). His father was a salesman in a retail clothing store. He said he was educated at Ohio State University, New York University, and the University of North Dakota, although the FBI was unable to verify his attendance at any of them, with the exception of one summer session at NYU in 1947.  In December 1942 he enlisted in the military as a Warrant Officer at Charlottesville, Virginia. He was a veteran of the United States Army Air Forces, serving thirty-eight months during World War II.  In 1949 Mullins worked at the Institute for Contemporary Arts in Washington, D.C. where he met Ezra Pound's wife Dorothy, who introduced him to her husband. Pound was at the time incarcerated in St. Elizabeth's Hospital for the Mentally Ill. Mullins visited the poet frequently, and for a time acted as his secretary. Later, he wrote a biography, "This Difficult Individual Ezra Pound" (1961), which literary critic Ira Nadel describes as "prejudiced and often melodramatic". According to Mullins it was Pound who set him on the course of research that led to his writing "The Secrets of The Federal Reserve".  Mullins became a researcher at the Library of Congress in 1950 and helped Senator Joseph McCarthy in making claims about Communist Party funding sources. He later stated that he believed McCarthy had "started to turn the tide against world communism". Shortly after his first book, "The Secrets of The Federal Reserve", came out in 1952, he was discharged by the Library of Congress.  From April 1953 until April 1954, Mullins was employed by the American Petroleum Industries Committee (APIC). He was cited in 1954 as a "neo-Fascist" by the House Un-American Activities Committee, which noted in particular his article "Adolph Hitler: An Appreciation", written in 1952, in which he compared Hitler to Jesus and described both as victims of Jews. In 1956 he sued the APIC for breach of contract, charging that the group had hired him as a "sub rosa" propagandist to undermine Zionism, but failed to live up to a verbal agreement to pay him $25,000 for his covert services. The APIC responded that Mullins had been hired “as one of several economist-writers in a subordinate capacity", and denied that he had been employed “in any capacity at any time for the purpose he [alleged].′′ The lawsuit, like many others filed by Mullins over the years, was eventually dismissed.  In the 1950s, Mullins began his career as an author writing for Conde McGinley’s newspaper "Common Sense", which promoted the second edition of his book on the Federal Reserve, entitled "The Federal Reserve Conspiracy" (1954). Around this time, he also wrote for Lyrl Clark Van Hyning's Chicago-based newsletter, "Women's Voice". He was a member of the National Renaissance Party and wrote for its journal, "The National Renaissance". In 1995, he was writing for "Criminal Politics". Mullins was on the editorial staff of the American Free Press and became a contributing editor to the "Barnes Review", both published by Willis Carto's Liberty Lobby.  Mullins lived in Staunton, Virginia, in the house at 126 Madison Place where he grew up, from the mid 1970s through the end of his life.

Writings.

"The Secrets of the Federal Reserve".

In the late 1940s, when the poet Ezra Pound was incarcerated in St. Elizabeths Hospital on treason charges against the US, he corresponded with Mullins. In their correspondence, Mullins exclaimed "THE JEWS ARE BETRAYING US", in a letter written on Aryan League of America stationery. The two became friends and Mullins often visited the poet while he was detained. In his "Foreword" to "The Secrets of the Federal Reserve", Mullins explains the circumstances by which he came to write his investigation into the origins of the Federal Reserve System: "In 1949, while I was visiting Ezra Pound... [he] asked me if I had ever heard of the Federal Reserve System. I replied that I had not, as of the age of 25. He then showed me a ten dollar bill marked "Federal Reserve Note" and asked me if I would do some research at the Library of Congress on the Federal Reserve System which had issued this bill."  Mullins told Pound that he had little interest in such a research project because he was working on a novel. "My initial research" wrote Mullins, "revealed evidence of an international banking group which had secretly planned the writing of the Federal Reserve Act and Congress’ enactment of the plan into law. These findings confirmed what Pound had long suspected. He said, 'You must work on it as a detective story.'"  Mullins completed the manuscript during the course of 1950 when he began to seek a publisher. Eighteen publishers turned the book down without comment before the President of the Devin-Adair Publishing Company, Devin Garrett, told him, "I like your book but we can't print it... Neither can anybody else in New York. You may as well forget about getting [it] published."  In 1952, the book was finally published by two of Pound's other disciples, John Kasper and David Horton, under the title "Mullins on the Federal Reserve". In it, Mullins postulated a conspiracy among Paul Warburg, Edward Mandell House, Woodrow Wilson, J.P. Morgan, Benjamin Strong, Otto Kahn, the Rockefeller family, the Rothschild family, and other European and American bankers that led to the founding of the U.S. Federal Reserve System. He argued that the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 defies Article 1, Section 8, Paragraph 5 of the United States Constitution by creating a "central bank of issue" for the United States. Mullins went on to claim that World War I, the Agricultural Depression of 1920, the Great Depression of 1929 were brought about by international banking interests in order to profit from conflict and economic instability. Mullins also cited Thomas Jefferson's staunch opposition to the establishment of a central bank in the United States.  In an updated edition published in 1983 and retitled "Secrets of the Federal Reserve", Mullins argued that Kuhn, Loeb & Co. and the House of Morgan were fronts for the Rothschilds. He asserted that financial interests connected to the J. Henry Schroder Company and the Dulles brothers financed Adolf Hitler (in contrast to Pound's declaration that Hitler was a sovereign who disdained international finance. ). He called the Rothschilds "world monopolists", and claimed that City of London bankers owned the Federal Reserve, since they owned much of the stock of its member banks. He attempted to trace stock ownership, as it changed hands via mergers and acquisitions, from the inception of the Federal Reserve in 1913 to the early 1980s.  In the last chapter of the book, he noted various Congressional investigations, and criticized the immense degree of power that these few banks who owned majority shares in the Federal Reserve possessed. He also criticized the Bilderberg Group, attacking it as an international consortium produced by the Rockefeller-Rothschild alliance. In an appendix to the book, he delved further into the City of London, and criticized the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, which he claimed helps to conduct psychological warfare on the citizens of Britain and the United States.  A central theme of Mullins' book is that the Federal Reserve allows bankers to monetize debt, creating it out of nothing by book entry, and thus they have enormous leverage over everyone else. Near the end of the book, he said of the Federal Reserve:  Mullins dedicated "Secrets of the Federal Reserve" to George Stimpson and Ezra Pound. It became his best known book, and remains broadly influential in American far-right movements. A copy was reportedly found in Osama bin Laden's library at his compound in Abbottabad, along with "Bloodlines of the Illuminati" by Fritz Springmeier, another right-wing conspiracy theorist.

Hitler and the Holocaust.

Mullins' October 1952 article entitled "Adolf Hitler: An Appreciation" was mentioned in a report by the House Un-American Activities Committee. In it, he espoused anti-Semitic views and expressed the belief that America owed a debt to Hitler. The article first appeared in "The National Renaissance", journal of the National Renaissance Party.  In a tract from 1984 called "The Secret Holocaust", Mullins stated that the accepted account of the Holocaust is implausible, calling it a cover story for Jewish-led Soviet massacres of Christians and anti-communists. In particular, Mullins argues that by the mid-1960s, in order to divert the world's attention away from this putative mass slaughter, "the Jews" had cooked up the story of the Holocaust, using "photographs of the bodies of their German victims, which are exhibited today in gruesome'museums' in Germany as exhibits of dead Jews" as evidence for their claims.

"The Biological Jew".

In 1968, Mullins authored the tract "The Biological Jew", which he claimed was an objective analysis of the forces behind the "decline" of Western Culture. He claimed that the main influence that people were overlooking in their analysis of world affairs was "parasitism".

"The World Order".

Michael Barkun describes Mullins' 1992 work "The World Order: Our Secret Rulers" as "a more openly anti-Semitic version of the Illuminati theory". He writes: Like his mentor [Ezra Pound], Mullins sees the world's evil as a product of financial manipulation, in which Jews play a central role. But as an explanation of world, as opposed to modern, history, his conspiracist vision makes the Illuminati merely a link in a much longer chain that extends back to the ancient Near East and forward to the nascent communist movement of the early Marx. Weishaupt himself is portrayed as a mere figurehead... Mullins sees the Illuminati as really run by Jews...".

Political activities.

Mullins was involved with a number of extremist right-wing and neofascist groups from the early 1950s through the 1990s. These included the National Association for the Advancement of White People and James H. Madole's organization, the National Renaissance Party (NRP). In the early 1950s Mullins regularly spoke in public at NRP demonstrations. His then-roommate was Matt Koehl, later the leader of the American Nazi Party but at that time head of the NRP's "Security Echelon Guard."  In the late 1950s Mullins also collaborated with self-proclaimed "scientific racist" Robert Kuttner, an associate editor of Charles Lee Smith's magazine, "The Truth Seeker", in theorizing Kuttner's ideas on white supremacy. They cofounded the Institute for Biopolitics in 1958 in order to popularize Kuttner's theories and their precursors in the work of Morley Roberts.  By the mid-1990s Mullins was "considered a national leader" in the constitutional militia movement. He spoke regularly to militia groups across the United States during this time. "The Secrets of the Federal Reserve" provided, in part, the theoretical underpinning of the movement's conspiracy theories about a secretive cabal of wealthy families controlling the international monetary system.

Death.

While on a speaking tour in Columbus, Ohio in January 2010, Mullins suffered a stroke. He died on February 2, 2010, aged 86, in Hockley, Texas.

Works.

Books

External links.

FBI files  Media  Other links

Eustace Clarence Mullins Jr. (March 9, 1923 – February 2, 2010) was an antisemitic American writer, propagandist, Holocaust denier, and disciple of the poet Ezra Pound. His best-known book is "The Secrets of The Federal Reserve", in which he alleged that several high-profile bankers had conspired to write the Federal Reserve Act for their own nefarious purposes, and then induced Congress to enact it into law. David Randall called Mullins "one of the world's leading conspiracy theorists." The Southern Poverty Law Center described him as "a one-man organization of hate".

Eustace Mullins (Roanoke, Virginie, 1923 — Hockley, Texas, 2010) était un essayiste et propagandiste antisémite américain, disciple du poète Ezra Pound, et notoire négateur de la Shoah. Dans son ouvrage le plus connu, "les Secrets de la Réserve fédérale", il affirme qu’un groupe de banquiers de haut vol aurait conspiré et rédigé, pour servir perfidement ses propres intérêts, les statuts de la Réserve fédérale, puis aurait réussi à faire adopter ce document comme loi par le Congrès américain. Le journaliste David Randall a appelé Mullins « l’un des théoriciens du complot les plus suivis au monde ».


Early life.

Hunter-Weston was born at Hunterston, West Kilbride, on 23 September 1864, the son of Lieutenant-Colonel John Gould Read Hunter-Weston (1823–1904), and his

Early military career.

He was promoted captain in 1892. He served on the Indian North West Frontier and took

Egypt and Boer War.

He was on General Herbert Kitchener's staff on the Nile Expedition of 1896. He attended Staff College (where he was Master of Staff College Hounds) 1898–9.  He later took part in the Second Boer War in South Africa between 1899 and 1902 as a staff officer then as commander of the Mounted Engineers, then of the Royal Engineer Cavalry Division. He then became Deputy Assistant Adjutant-General (DAAG), then Chief of Staff, to Sir John French’s Cavalry Division, then commanded a cavalry column. His mounted engineers cut Boer-controlled roads and railways, and cut the railway near Bloemfontein to prevent the Boers from reinforcing it. In 1900 he was promoted brevet

World War 1.

A few weeks after the outbreak of the war in 1914, he led his brigade to France as part of 4th Division on the Western Front, including at the battles of Le Cateau and the Aisne, where he supervised his command from a motorbike (at a time when senior generals used

Gallipoli Campaign.

Planning.

When the Battle of Gallipoli commenced in March 1915, Hunter-Weston was promoted to the command of the British 29th Division, which was to make the landing at Cape Helles near the entrance to the Dardanelles.  When asked for his advice before the landings, Hunter-Weston cautioned General Hamilton that the Turks had had ample time to turn the peninsula into "an entrenched camp", that Helles was less vulnerable to Turkish attack than Suvla Bay but conversely offered little room for manoeuvre and given Britain's lack of High Explosive shells needed to cover attacks risked an Allied

Landings.

Hunter-Weston concentrated on V, W and X Beaches at the tip on the peninsula, less on S and Y beaches (on the east and west coast respectively), which were intended merely to threaten the Turkish retreat. No contingency plan had been made for S or Y beach forces to push ahead if the main forces at V, W and X were held up. Admiral Wemyss and Hunter-Weston spent 25 April on board HMS Eurylaus, the attendant ship at W beach, so were unable to inspect elsewhere – Hunter-Weston and his chief of

First Krithia.

Because the French were taking time to get ashore, on 27 April Hunter-Weston postponed his advance until 4pm, with a view to taking the hill of Achi Baba the following day. The complex wheeling plan had neglected the effect of gullies and ravines on troop movements. Hunter-Weston, in response to a request for information at 3.30pm, reported that there was nothing to justify "alarmist" reports, but that his troops were exhausted, short of ammunition, had suffered too many casualties and were at risk from Turkish counter-attack. He declined Hamilton’s request to attack that day.  Hunter-Weston wrote to his wife (27 April) "my men have effected the impossible... we have managed it, we have achieved the impossible!" Having believed that the landing had only a one in four chance of success, he now believed that getting ashore had solved half the problem, and that capturing the hill of Achi Baba would solve three

Second Krithia.

The Second Battle of Krithia (6–8 May 1915) was probably the last chance to break through at Helles. 105 guns were available, of which probably 75 were used but this was still far fewer than would have been used on the Western Front and there was still a lack of H.E. shells (many guns were 18-pounders firing only shrapnel), mules and knowledge of the Turkish positions, whilst Hunter-Weston's plans were excessively detailed and complex, full of map references and complex wheeling manoeuvres. Hunter-Weston had around 25,000 troops, few of them fresh. Intelligence estimated Turkish numbers at around 15,000–20,000 which was broadly accurate.  Hunter-Weston planned a three-pronged assault: 125th Brigade (territorials), part of the newly-arriving 42nd Division, on the left, a composite 88th Brigade in the centre, and the French on the right. Hamilton would have preferred an attack just before dawn, but Hunter-Weston, citing the loss of company officers, did not, and it is unclear that he was wrong. D’Amade agreed and Hamilton deferred to their Western front experience, which he lacked.  Hunter-Weston persisted in his attacks on 7 and 8 May. Hunter-Weston issued a warning order to brigadiers at 23.35 on 7 May, but formal

Third Krithia.

Hunter-Weston thought the sinking of the battleship HMS Majestic (27 May) "a marvellous sight" and later thought the sinking of a French transport "a wonderful sight".  After Second Krithia Hunter-Weston still believed that the capture of Achi Baba was a realistic aspiration, as did Gouraud, who had replaced d’Amade in command of the French troops on 15 May. Hamilton, who would have preferred to wait for more troops and munitions, deferred to their judgement, and planning for Third Krithia began at a conference on 31 May.  Brigadier-General William Marshall recorded how Hunter-Weston insisted that the 127th Manchester Brigade sap forward during a full moon on the night of 2 June, despite his protests that they were advancing into a re-entrant. Visiting the troops afterwards to congratulate them, Hunter-Weston commented that it would have been worth doing even for 500 casualties (there had in fact been fifty).  At the Third Battle of Krithia (4 June), Hunter-Weston planned with more caution and realism, gaining better intelligence of Turkish positions (including aerial photography), ordering night digging to get the start-off point within of the Turkish positions (it had been the previous time)

Improved artillery concentration.

In Prior's view "there is strong evidence that (Hunter-Weston) took to heart the lessons" that concentrated High Explosive bombardment by heavy howitzers was needed for success and held meetings with the French General Gouraud at which they agreed to cooperate with their artillery and adopt this method. Progress was made in some attacks in late June and early July, with one French attack using a density of shelling up to 20 times that of the early attacks. In some cases these inflicted greater casualties on the Turkish defenders than the attackers, as lack of space, reserves and guns did not allow the Turks to adopt the defensive tactics used by the Germans later in the war: holding the front line thinly, counter-attacking and counter-battery fire on Allied artillery. Travers attributes "bite and hold" to Hamilton, who proposed it, on Birdwood’s suggestion on 10 May.  Having been discovered by the Allies, these "bite and hold" tactics were then abandoned and their discovery in Gallipoli largely forgotten by historians. This may be because Hunter-Weston and Gouraud were both soon

Departure.

The next attack was scheduled for 12 July as the superior French artillery would not be available until then. Hunter-Weston aimed to use the relatively fresh 52nd Division as his main offensive force, as the other three divisions of IX Corps were too worn out for much more than line-holding operations. Hamilton had wanted to deploy 52nd Division to ANZAC Cove, but concurred as he accepted that the Turks at Helles needed to be pressed after their losses on 5 July.  The attack was renewed on 12–13 July, with 155th and 157th Brigade (both part

Seaborne Landing on Belgian Coast.

At a meeting at Dover, Hunter-Weston was asked to lend his experience to discussions with Admiral Bacon, commander of the Dover Patrol, about Operation Hush a planned amphibious assault on the Belgian Coast

The Somme.

Planning.

In March 1916 Hunter-Weston was again promoted to acting lieutenant-general and again placed in command of VIII Corps, which was re-established in France; he commanded it in the early months of the Somme Offensive. At a Fourth Army Conference 30 March 1916 Hunter-Weston told Rawlinson that he was "strongly opposed to a wild rush... for an objective 4,000 yards away" and that "to lose the substance by grasping at the shadow is a mistake that has been made too often in this

Patrols.

Prior to the main attack VIII Corps was the only corps of Fourth Army to produce far more negative than positive reports from patrols. Ten raids were conducted, and it was reported that the German wire was intact on 31 Division sector, well cut on 4th Division sector, and variably cut on 29 Division sector. Rawlinson was particularly concerned with the situation, to the point of discussing it with Haig (Haig Diary 28 June 1916).  Haig claimed (Diary 28 June) that VIII Corps had not carried out any successful raids, apparently forgetting 29th Division’s raid on the night of 4/5 June, which had discovered the existence of deep enemy dugouts. Two days

1 July 1916.

Across the entire British front, 19 mines had been dug by Royal Engineer tunnelling companies to weaken enemy defences. The northernmost mine of of explosives was under the Hawthorn Ridge Redoubt, a front-line fortification west of the village of Beaumont Hamel in the VIII Corps sector. Hunter-Weston wished to detonate the mine four hours early, but this was vetoed by the Inspector of Mines at BEF GHQ, who pointed out that the British had a poor record of seizing craters before the Germans got there. As a compromise Hunter-Weston was allowed to detonate at 07:20. The explosion was filmed by British cinematographer Geoffrey Malins, who was recording the 29th Division attack. The other mines were detonated at 7:28 am, two minutes before Zero hour when the infantry advance would begin. In many cases, including Hawthorne Ridge, the Germans were able to

Under Gough.

Haig commented in his diary (1 July) that given their lack of progress VIII Corps men could not have left their trenches, and placed VIII and X Corps under Gough’s command, commenting that "The VIII Corps seems to need looking after!" Reports of the slaughter in that sector had not yet reached him. After 1 July it was impossible to renew the attack in this sector as the trenches were clogged with dead and dying men. Andy Simpson compares Hunter-Weston's command style at this time to that of "a sleepwalker". Hunter-Weston’s own writings show that he regarded this as the modern managerial approach to fighting larger battles, and Simpson also points out that in practice he did direct his divisions actively on 1 July and he was "very busy" on 2 and 3 July as he tried to salvage the disaster which had befallen his corps.  After the event, Hunter-Weston (to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Robertson, 2 July) blamed the failure on the ineffective artillery bombardment, including

1917.

In an October 1916 by-election, he was elected to the House of Commons as the Unionist member for North Ayrshire, defeating a pro-peace clergyman, Reverend Chelmers, by 7,419 votes to 1,300. Hunter-Weston, who was the first Member of Parliament to simultaneously command an army corps on the field, continued to command VIII Corps but was not involved in another offensive. He had Plumer’s permission to attend the Irish Home Rule debate in March 1917.  At the Battle of Messines (in which VIII Corps did not directly participate), he suggested that he launch a feint attack on his front five minutes before the main attack. This was vetoed by Plumer. Hunter-Weston’s VIII Corps was moved again, this

1918.

After three weeks’ home leave for preparation, he delivered his House of Commons maiden speech on the Manpower Bill on 24 January 1918 (at a time of much dispute over the manpower requirements of the army relative to agriculture, munitions, shipbuilding and ship-crewing and open warfare in the press between allies of the Prime Minister and of the CIGS William Robertson over the deployment of troops between fronts). It was praised by his army commander, and the "Daily Sketch" described it as the "Greatest Speech of the War". Hunter-Weston warned Haig (Haig Diary 25 February 1918) that some of his men had asked some

Command style.

Hunter-Weston was a regular inspector of trenches and machine gun positions. He reconnoitred positions personally and on one occasion (1 November 1918) climbed into a fort on a rope ladder. Aged in his early fifties, he took great pride in his physical fitness and was proud of reducing more junior officers, including on one occasion a battalion commander in his mid-thirties, to breathlessness whilst out walking. In his autobiography Bonham-Carter recorded that Hunter-Weston devoted too much time to minor details which should have been left to junior staff officers. He thought him "a mountebank" and self-important, with the brain of an inexperienced boy and with a penchant for heroics. He was

Post-military life.

Hunter-Weston married Grace Steel on 5 December 1905, they had no children.  Hunter-Weston continued in politics after the war, being elected again for Bute and Northern Ayrshire in 1918. He resigned from the Army in 1919. He was promoted to Permanent Lieutenant-General that year. After the war his “Who’s Who” entry filled an entire column.

Assessments.

Hunter-Weston acquired a reputation as an eccentric man, prone to laughter.  Hamilton called him "an acute theorist". Compton Mackenzie, author of "Gallipoli Memories", comments on the way in which he was regarded as a "butcher" but wrote that "Actually no man I have met brimmed over more richly with human sympathy. He was a logican (sic) of war and as a logican he believed and was always ready to contend in open debate that, provided the objective was gained, casualties were of no importance".  W. B. Wood, one of the Official History writing team, wrote (in 1944) "my own blood had boiled as I read of the... results of Hunter-Weston’s pig-headed tactics at Gallipoli".  Les Carlyon comments that he "threw away men the way other men tossed away socks" and writes "One cannot condemn (him) for failing to understand the new warfare of the twentieth century; few generals did in 1915. One can, however, condemn (him) for faults that are timeless. (He was) careless and arrogant and not very good".  Travers comments that VIII Corps staff work was poor, Hunter-Weston had too much freedom at Krithia and attacks became "ritualistic". He comments on his time as a Western Front commander that he was "an officer of intelligence, but lacking mental balance, given to extravagant and flamboyant gestures, and far too interested in irrelevant detail".  Gordon Corrigan claims that Hunter-Weston's performance at Gallipoli was "competent" but that he is unfairly vilified for his premature blowing of the Hawthorn Ridge Redoubt on 1 July 1916.

Lieutenant-General Sir Aylmer Gould Hunter-Weston (23 September 1864 – 18 March 1940) was a British Army general who served in World War I at Gallipoli and in the very early stages of the Somme Offensive. He was also a Scottish Unionist MP.

Aylmer Hunter-Weston (né le - mort le à Hunterston) fut un général britannique. Il a servi dans l'Armée britannique lors de la Première Guerre mondiale.


Plot.

Part 1.

Meursault learns of the death of his mother, who has been living in a retirement home. At her funeral, he expresses none of the expected emotions of grief. When asked if he wishes to view the body, he declines and instead, smokes and drinks coffee in front of the coffin. Rather than expressing his feelings, he comments to the reader only about the aged attendees at the funeral. It takes place on an unbearably hot day.  Meursault later encounters Marie, a former employee of his firm. The two become re-acquainted, go swimming, watch a comedy film, and begin to have a sexual relationship a day after his mother's funeral. In the next few days, Meursault helps his friend and neighbour, Raymond Sintès, take revenge on a Moorish girlfriend suspected of infidelity. Meursault agrees to write a letter to Raymond's girlfriend, with the sole purpose of inviting her over so that Raymond can have sex with her but spit in her face at the last minute as emotional revenge. Meursault sees no reason not to help him, and it pleases Raymond. He does not express concern that Raymond's girlfriend is going to be emotionally hurt, as he believes Raymond's story that she has been unfaithful. While listening to Raymond, he is both somewhat drunk and characteristically unfazed by any feelings of empathy. In general, he considers other people either interesting or annoying, or feels nothing for them at all.  The letter works: the girlfriend returns on a Sunday morning, but the situation escalates when she slaps Raymond after he tries to kick her out, and he beats her. Raymond asks Meursault to testify in court that the girlfriend has been unfaithful. Meursault agrees and the two go out to a café. On their return they encounter Salamano, his curmudgeonly old neighbour who has lost his abused and disease-riddled dog, for which he maintains his usual spiteful and uncaring attitude. Both that evening and the next, Salamano goes to Meursault for comfort. During those meetings, he explains that he had adopted the dog as a companion shortly after his wife's death. Salamano mentions that the neighbours'said nasty things' about him after sending his mother to a retirement home. Meursault is surprised to learn about the negative impression of his actions. Later, he is taken to court where Meursault, who witnessed the event while returning to his apartment with Marie, testifies that she had been unfaithful, and Raymond is let off with a warning. After this, the girlfriend's brother and several Arab friends begin trailing Raymond. Raymond invites Meursault and Marie to a friend's beach house for the weekend. There they encounter the spurned girlfriend's brother and an Arab friend; these two confront Raymond and wound him with a knife during an altercation. Later, Meursault walks back along the beach alone, now armed with a revolver which he took from Raymond to prevent him from acting rashly. Meursault encounters the brother of Raymond's Arab girlfriend. Disorientated and on the edge of heatstroke, Meursault shoots when the Arab flashes his knife at him. It is a fatal shot, but Meursault shoots the man four more times after a pause. He does not divulge to the reader any specific reason for his act or what he feels, other than being bothered by the heat and intensely bright sunlight.

Part 2.

Meursault is now incarcerated, and explains his arrest, time in prison, and forthcoming trial. His general detachment makes living in prison tolerable, especially after he gets used to the idea of being restricted and unable to have sex with Marie. He passes the time sleeping, or mentally listing the objects he owned in his apartment. At the trial, the prosecuting attorney portrays Meursault's quietness and passivity as demonstrating guilt and a lack of remorse. The prosecutor tells the jury more about Meursault's inability or unwillingness to cry at his mother's funeral and the murder. He pushes Meursault to tell the truth, but the man resists. Later, on his own, Meursault tells the reader that he simply was never able to feel any remorse or personal emotions for any of his actions in life. The dramatic prosecutor denounces Meursault, claiming that he must be a soul-less monster, incapable of remorse, and thus deserves to die for his crime. Although Meursault's attorney defends him and later tells Meursault that he expects the sentence to be light, Meursault is alarmed when the judge informs him of the final decision: that he will be publicly guillotined.  In prison, Meursault awaits the results of his appeal. While waiting to learn his fate, either his successful appeal or execution of his death sentence, Meursault meets a chaplain, but rejects his proffered opportunity of turning to God. Meursault says that God is a waste of his time. Although the chaplain persists in trying to lead Meursault from his atheism (or, perhaps more precisely, his apatheism), Meursault finally accosts him in a rage. He has an outburst about his frustrations and the absurdity of the human condition, and his personal anguish without respite at the meaninglessness of his freedom, existence, and responsibility. He expresses anger about others, saying that they have no right to judge him for his actions or for who he is, that no one has the right to judge another. It is hinted that the priest believed Meursault's appeal would be granted, but it is unclear if he is still of this opinion after the ordeal. Meursault is convinced of the universe's indifference towards humankind, and prepares for his execution. At night in his cell, he finds a final happiness in his indifference towards the world and the lack of meaning he sees in everyone and everything. His final assertion is that a large, hateful crowd at his execution will end his loneliness and bring everything to a consummate end.

Critical analysis.

In his 1956 analysis of the novel, Carl Viggiani wrote:  Victor Brombert has analysed "L'Étranger" and Sartre's "Explication de "L'Étranger"" in the philosophical context of the Absurd. Louis Hudon dismissed the characterisation of "L'Étranger" as an existentialist novel in his 1960 analysis. The 1963 study by Ignace Feuerlicht begins with an examination of the themes of alienation, in the sense of Meursault being a'stranger' in his society. In his 1970 analysis, Leo Bersani commented that "L'Étranger" is "mediocre" in its attempt to be a "'profound' novel", but describes the novel as an "impressive if flawed exercise in a kind of writing promoted by the New Novelists of the 1950s". Paul P. Somers Jr. has compared Camus's "L'Étranger" and Sartre's "Nausea", in light of Sartre's essay on Camus's novel. Sergei Hackel has explored parallels between "L'Étranger" and Dostoyevsky's "Crime and Punishment".  Terry Otten has studied in detail the relationship between Meursault and his mother. Gerald Morreale examines Meursault's killing of the Arab and the question of whether Meursault's action is an act of murder. Ernest Simon has examined the nature of Meursault's trial in "L'Étranger", with respect to earlier analysis by Richard Weisberg and jurist Richard A. Posner. René Girard has critiqued the relative nature of 'indifference' in the character of Meursault in relation to his surrounding society.  Kamel Daoud has written a novel "The Meursault Investigation" (2013/2014), first published in Algeria in 2013, and then republished in France to critical acclaim. This post-colonialist response to "The Stranger" counters Camus's version with elements from the perspective of the unnamed Arab victim's brother (naming him and presenting him as a real person who was mourned) and other protagonists. Daoud explores their subsequent lives following the withdrawal of French authorities and most pied-noirs from Algeria after the conclusion of the Algerian War of Independence in 1962.

Publication history and English translations.

On 27 May 1941, Camus was informed about the changes suggested by André Malraux after he had read the manuscript and took his remarks into account. For instance, Malraux thought the minimalist syntactic structure was too repetitive. Some scenes and passages (the murder, the conversation with the chaplain) should also be revised. The manuscript was then read by editors Jean Paulhan and Raymond Queneau. Gerhard Heller, a German editor, translator and lieutenant in the Wehrmacht working for the Censorship Bureau offered to help. The book was eventually published in June 1942–4,400 copies of it were printed.  Éditions Gallimard first published the original French-language novel in 1942. A British author, Stuart Gilbert, first translated "L' Étranger" into English in 1946; for more than 30 years his version was the standard English translation. Gilbert's choice of title, "The Stranger", was changed by Hamish Hamilton to "The Outsider", because they considered it "more striking and appropriate" and because Maria Kuncewiczowa's Polish-language novel "Cudzoziemka" had recently been published in London as "The Stranger". In the United States, Knopf had already typeset the manuscript using Gilbert's original title when informed of the name change and so disregarded it; the British-American difference in titles has persisted in subsequent editions.  In 1982, the British publisher Hamish Hamilton, which had issued Gilbert's translation, published a translation by Joseph Laredo, also as "The Outsider." Penguin Books bought this version in 1983 for a paperback edition.  In 1988, Vintage published a version in the United States with a translation by American Matthew Ward under the standard American title of "The Stranger." Camus was influenced by American literary style, and Ward's translation expresses American usage.  A new translation of "The Outsider" by Sandra Smith was published by Penguin in 2012.  A critical difference among these translations is the expression of emotion in the sentence towards the close of the novel: "I laid my heart open to the benign indifference of the universe" in Gilbert's translation, versus Laredo's "I laid my heart open to the gentle indifference of the universe" (original French: ; literally, "the tender indifference of the world"). The Penguin Classics 2000 reprint of Laredo's translation has "gentle" changed to "benign".  The ending lines differ as well: Gilbert translates "on the day of my execution there should be a huge crowd of spectators and that they should greet me with howls of execration", which contrasts with Laredo's translation of "greet me with cries of hatred." This passage describes a scene that would serve as a foil to the prior "indifference of the world". In French, the phrase is. Ward translates this as "with cries of hate". Gilbert juxtaposes "execration" with "execution".

L'Étranger () is a 1942 novel by French author Albert Camus. Its theme and outlook are often cited as examples of Camus's philosophy, absurdism coupled with that of existentialism, though Camus personally rejected the latter label.

L'Étranger est le premier roman d’Albert Camus, paru en 1942. Il prend place dans la tétralogie que Camus nommera « cycle de l’absurde » qui décrit les fondements de la philosophie camusienne : l’absurde. Cette tétralogie comprend également l’essai intitulé "Le Mythe de Sisyphe" ainsi que les pièces de théâtre "Caligula" et "Le Malentendu".


Baseball career.

Atlanta Braves.

Schafer was drafted by the Atlanta Braves in the third round of the 2005 Major League Baseball Draft out of Winter Haven High School. In April he was suspended 50 games by Major League Baseball after being accused of HGH use. He was the first player to be suspended by Major League Baseball's Department of Investigations.  Schafer was named the Braves' starting center fielder for the 2009 season on April 3, 2009, despite never having played at a higher level than Double-A. He made his major league debut on April 5, 2009, becoming the 99th player in Major League Baseball history to hit his first career home run in his first major league at bat, off Brett Myers of the Philadelphia Phillies. He finished the game 2 for 3, with the home run, a single, an intentional walk, and a strikeout.  On June 2, 2009, Schafer was optioned to Triple-A Gwinnett Braves after batting only.204 with 63 strikeouts in 167 at-bats. He was called back up to the major league team on May 24, 2011.

Houston Astros.

On July 31, 2011, Schafer was traded with Juan Abreu, Paul Clemens, and Brett Oberholtzer to the Houston Astros in exchange for Michael Bourn.  On April 29, 2012, Schafer was ejected from a game by umpire Marvin Hudson after disputing an out call on an attempted steal.

Second stint with Braves.

On November 1, 2012, the Atlanta Braves reacquired Jordan Schafer from the Houston Astros on waivers. Schafer was placed on the disabled list on July 4, 2013 with a stress fracture in his ankle. He was designated for assignment by the Braves on August 1, 2014.

Minnesota Twins.

Schafer was claimed off waivers by the Minnesota Twins on August 3, 2014. He was named the Twins' 2015 Opening Day center fielder. The team released him on June 18 to make room for an influx of outfield prospects.

Los Angeles Dodgers.

Schafer signed a minor league contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers on January 13, 2016. The Dodgers converted him to a pitcher and assigned him to the Double-A Tulsa Drillers of the Texas League. He performed well enough that he was selected to participate in the mid-season Texas League All-Star Game. He pitched in 31 games for Tulsa, six for the Triple-A Oklahoma City Dodgers and another three for the Arizona League Dodgers. Overall, he was 1–1 with a 4.93 ERA in 49 innings.

St. Louis Cardinals.

On December 12, 2016, he signed a minor league contract with the St. Louis Cardinals. He joined the team for spring training, during which, on March 14, 2017, it was announced that Schafer would undergo surgery on his left elbow. He missed the entire season.  Invited to spring training in 2018, he was among six cut to minor-league camp on March 4. He was released on March 12.

San Francisco Giants.

On April 3, 2018, Schafer signed a minor league contract with the San Francisco Giants. He was released on June 9, 2018.

Jordan James Schafer (born September 4, 1986) is a former American professional baseball outfielder. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Atlanta Braves, Houston Astros and Minnesota Twins as a center fielder.

Jordan James Schafer (né le à Hammond, Indiana, États-Unis) est un joueur de champ extérieur de la Ligue majeure de baseball sous contrat avec les Dodgers de Los Angeles.


Description.

Like bananas, "Ensete ventricosum" is a large non-woody plant—a gigantic monocarpic evergreen perennial herb (not a tree)—up to tall. It has a stout pseudostem of tightly overlapping leaf bases, and large banana-like leaf blades of up to tall by wide, with a salmon-pink midrib. The flowers, which only occur once from the centre of the plant at the end of that plant's life, are in massive pendant thyrses covered by large pink bracts. Though the roots are an important foodstuff, the fruits are inedible ("insipid", flavorless) and have hard, black, rounded seeds. After flowering, the plant dies.  The Latin specific epithet "ventricosum" means “with a swelling on the side, like a belly”.

Use as a foodcrop.

Enset is a very important local food source especially in Ethiopia. The Food and Agriculture Organization reports that "enset provides more amount of foodstuff per unit area than most cereals. It is estimated that 40 to 60 enset plants occupying 250-375 sq. meters can provide enough food for a family of 5 to 6 people."  Enset ("E. ventricosum") is Ethiopia's most important root crop, a traditional staple in the densely populated south and southwestern parts of Ethiopia. Its importance to the diet and economy of the Gurage and Sidama peoples was first recorded by Jerónimo Lobo in the seventeenth century. Each plant takes four to five years to mature, at which time a single root will yield about 40 kg of food. Because of the long period of time from planting to harvest, plantings need to be staggered over time, to ensure that there is enset available for harvest in every season. Enset will tolerate drought better than most cereal crops.  Wild enset plants are produced from seeds, while most domesticated plants are propagated from suckers. Up to 400 suckers can be produced from just one mother plant. In 1994 3,000 km of enset were grown in Ethiopia, with a harvest estimated to be almost 10 tonnes per hectare. Enset is often intercropped with sorghum, although the practice amongst the Gedeo people is to intercrop it with coffee.  The young and tender tissues in the centre or heart of the plant (the growing point) are cooked and eaten, being tasty and nutritious and very like the core of palms and cycads. In Ethiopia, more than 150 000 ha are cultivated for the starchy staple food prepared from the pulverised trunk and inflorescence stalk. Fermenting these pulverised parts results in a food called "kocho". "Bulla" is made from the liquid squeezed out of the mixture and sometimes eaten as a porridge, while the remaining solids are suitable for consumption after a settling period of some days. Mixed kocho and bulla can be kneaded into dough, then flattened and baked over a fire. Kocho is in places regarded as a delicacy, suitable for serving at feasts and ceremonies such as weddings, when wheat flour is added. The fresh corm is cooked like potatoes before eating. Dry kocho and bulla are energy-rich and produce from 1400 to 2000kJ per 100 g.  It is a major crop, although often supplemented with cereal crops. However its value as a famine food has fallen for a number of reasons, as detailed in the April 2003 issue of the UN-OCHA Ethiopia unit's "Focus on Ethiopia": Apart from an enset plant disease epidemic in 1984–85 which wiped out large parts of the plantations and created the green famine, in the past 10 years major factors were recurrent drought and food shortage together with acute land shortage that forced farmers more and more into consumption of immature plants. Hence farmers were overexploiting their Enset reserves thereby causing gradual losses and disappearance of the false banana as an important household food security reserve. Even though not all the plant losses can be attributed to drought and land shortage and hence early consumption of immature crops, estimations go as far as more than 60% of the false banana crop stands have been lost in some areas in SNNPR during the last 10 years. This basically means that a great many people who used to close the food gap with false banana consumption are not able to do so any more, and lacking a viable alternative, have become food insecure and highly vulnerable to climatic and economic disruptions of their agricultural system.

Other uses.

The plant is quick-growing and often cultivated as an ornamental plant. In frost-prone areas it requires winter protection under glass. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit, as has the cultivar 'Maurelii' (Ethiopian black banana)  A good quality fibre, suitable for ropes, twine, baskets, and general weaving, is obtained from the leaves. Dried leaf-sheaths are used as packing material, serving the same function as Western foam plastic and polystyrene. The entire plant but the roots is used to feed livestock. Fresh leaves are a common fodder for cattle during the dry season, and many farmers feed their animals with residues of enset harvest or processing.

History.

In 1769, the celebrated Scottish traveller James Bruce first sent a description and quite accurate drawings of a plant common in the marshes around Gondar in Abyssinia, confidently pronounced it to be "no species of Musa" and wrote that its local name was "ensete". In 1853 the British Consul at Mussowah sent some seeds to Kew Gardens, mentioning that their native name was "ansett". Kew, quite understandably, did not make the connection, especially as they had never before seen such seeds. However, when the seeds had germinated and the plants had rapidly gained size, their relationship to the true banana became obvious.  Bruce also discussed the plant's place in the mythology of Egypt and pointed out that some Egyptian statue carvings depict the goddess Isis sitting among the leaves of what was thought to be a banana plant, a plant native to Southeast Asia and not known in Ancient Egypt.

Pests and diseases.

A major issue with the cultivation of enset is its vulnerability to several pests and diseases.

Pests.

The most common pest that threatens enset is caused by the "Cataenococcus enset" which is a root mealybug. The "Cataenococcus enset" feeds on the roots and corm of the enset plant which leads to slower growth and easier uprooting. Even though enset can be infested at all age stages, the highest risk is between the second or fourth growth year. The dispersion of the mealybug occurs through different vectors: First, the larvae can crawl short distances as adults mealybugs tend to move only after being disturbed. Second, mealybugs-ant symbiotic relationships can be linked to enset infestation and protect and even transport the mealybug over short distances. In return, they feed on the mealybug honeydew. Third, flooding events can transport the mealybug over longer distances and reach enset plants. However, the main transport vectors are unclean working tools and the usage of already infected suckers. This means that the best way to get rid of the bug and to limit its propagation is to uproot the plant and burn it. In addition, the fields can be kept free of plant growth for a month since the mealybug can only survive up to three weeks without plant material.  Other pests include nematodes, spider mites, aphids, mole rats, porcupines and wild pigs. The latter erode the corm and pseudostem. As for the nematodes, there are two predominant species: there are the root lesion nematodes ("Pratylenchus goodeyi") and the root-knot nematodes ("Meloidogyne" sp.) and their appearance stand in connection with bacterial wilt. "Pratylenchus goodeyi" create lesions on the corm and roots, which can lead to cavities up to and characteristic purple colouring around the cavities. The nematode infestation leads to the easy uprooting of the affected plants. Crop rotation can counteract high nematode infestations.

Diseases.

The enset plant can be subject to multiple diseases that threaten its use in agriculture. The most well known of them is the infection by the bacteria "Xanthomonas campestris" pathovar Musacerum which creates bacterial wilt, also known as borijje and wol’a by the Kore people. The first observation of this disease was reported by Yirgou and Bradbury in 1968. The manifestation of the bacterial wilt is taking place in the apical leaves that will wilt then dry and finally lead to the drying of the whole plant. The only way to avoid the spreading of the disease is in uprooting, burning and burying plants as well as in applying strict control of the knives and tools used to harvest and treat the plants.  Other diseases have been observed such as Okka and Woqa which occur respectively in case of severe drought and in situations of too much water in the soil which causes the proliferation of bacteria. These problems can be solved by either watering the field when drought is present or by draining the soil to avoid too much water.  Another disease can strike enset even though it has been more observed on Banana plants (Musacea). This disease is caused by Mycospharella spp. and is commonly called black Sigatoka leaf streaks. The symptoms are basically dark/brown lesions surrounded by yellow on the leaves. This disease happens to be favoured by high rainfall and lower temperature.

Socio-cultural importance of enset in Ethiopia.

Enset cultivation in Ethiopia is reported to be 10,000 years old, though there is little emprical evidence to support this. It has major economic, social, cultural and environmental functions related to trade, medicine, cultural identity, rituals or settlement patterns.  Enset-planting complex is one of the four farming systems of Ethiopia together with pastoralism, shifting cultivation and the seed-farming complex. It is widely used by around 20 million people which represent 20-25% of the population. They mainly live in the densely populated highlands of south, southwest Ethiopia.  The plant is very important for food security because it is quite resistant to droughts (growth only stops for a short time) and it can be harvested at any development stage. Nevertheless, in recent years, the population growth has put an important pressure on enset cultivation systems. This is mainly because of a decrease of fertilization through manure and an increase in demand, especially during droughts. At such times, enset becomes the only resource available.

The role of gender in enset cultivation.

Gender roles in enset cultivation are of high importance, as a strong division of work exists: generally men are responsible for the propagation, cultivation, and transplanting of enset, while women are in charge of manuring, hand-weeding, thinning and landrace selection. Additionally, women process enset plants, which is a tedious work (transformation of the plant into useful material, principally food and fibres) for which they generally gather together. Men are banned from the field during this process. As women are responsible to provide sufficient food to their family, they are the ones who choose when and which plant to harvest and which quantity to sell.  Different studies state the importance of women's knowledge on the different crop varieties. Women are more likely to precisely recognize the different varieties of the plant than men. Nevertheless, women's work is often neglected or considered of lesser importance than men's by researchers and farmers and women are less likely to get access to extension services and quality services than men.  Another important aspect in which gender plays a role is in the classification of enset varieties. Indeed, they differentiate "male" varieties from "female" varieties, according to the preferences of men and women who harvest them. Whereas men prefer late maturing genotypes resistant to diseases, women prefer varieties that are good for cooking and can be harvested for consumption at an earlier stage. In general, households tend to have slightly more “female” genotypes than "male" ones.

Enset biodiversity and socio-cultural and -economic groups.

In Ethiopia, over 300 enset varieties have been recorded which is important for agro- and biodiversity. The farmers’ main interest for maintaining biodiversity is the different beneficial characteristics of each varietiy. This means that Ethiopian farmers spread important characteristics over many enset varieties instead of combining a number of desired characteristics in one single genotype This is a significant difference between Ethiopian subsistence farmers’ and plant breeders’ approaches.  More than 11 ethnic groups with different cultures, traditions and agricultural systems inhabit the enset-growing regions. This contributes to the high number of varieties. Over centuries, the different ethnic groups have applied their specific indigenous knowledge of farming systems in order to sustain production in various ways. A dying out of enset varieties would hence also make disappear a part of cultural practices and linguistic terms in Ethiopia (Negash et al., 2004).  Enset biodiversity is preserved not only due to the presence of different ethnic groups but also due to different households’ wealth status. Richer farmers can generally afford to maintain a higher level of farm biodiversity because they have more resources such as land, labour and livestock. Therefore, they can cultivate more varieties with differing specific characteristics. However, also poorer households try to maintain as many clones as possible by selecting the disease-resistant first.

Known variants and hybrids.

Sir John Kirk felt that in habit "Ensete livingstonianum" was indistinguishable from "E. ventricosum" and noted that both are found in the mountains of equatorial Africa.

Ensete ventricosum, commonly known as enset or ensete, Ethiopian banana, Abyssinian banana, and false banana, is an herbaceous species of flowering plant in the banana family Musaceae. The domesticated form of the plant is only cultivated in Ethiopia, where it provides the staple food for approximately 20 million people. The name "Ensete ventricosum" was first published in 1948 in the Kew Bulletin, 1947, p. 101. Its synonyms include "Musa arnoldiana" De Wild., "Musa ventricosa" Welw. and "Musa ensete" J.F.Gmel. In its wild form, it is native to the eastern edge of the Great African Plateau, extending northwards from South Africa through Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania to Ethiopia, and west to the Congo, being found in high rainfall forests on mountains, and along forested ravines and streams.

Le bananier d'Abyssinie ("Ensete ventricosum") est une plante herbacée de la famille des "Musaceae". Ce proche cousin des bananiers du genre Musa est originaire de nombreuses zones de l'ouest, du sud et de l'est de l'Afrique.


Plot.

To defend his countrymen, the mighty Ursus goes off to war in a foreign land, a war that lasts several years. Victorious, he returns home planning to marry his fiancée Attea, only to learn that she had been kidnapped in his absence by a bizarre religious cult that inhabits a far off island. Ursus enlists the aid of a young blind slave girl, Doreide, whom he used to know as a child, and together they embark on a quest to locate and rescue his lost Attea. Unbeknownst to Ursus, Doreide is in love with him, but doesn't let Ursus know, since she feels he will only be happy if he is reunited with Attea.  After overcoming various villains who do not want him to locate the cult's island base, Ursus and Doreide finally arrive on the island, only to be captured by the cult and their masked queen, an evil woman who orders the sacrificing of virgins to her satanic bull-god.  Much to his dismay, Ursus learns that the queen is in fact his ex-fiancée Attea. After being kidnapped by the cult, Attea had somehow managed to trick the cultists into making her their leader, and over the past three years, she degenerated into a cold, heartless monster. The queen commands that Doreide be sacrificed, and Ursus is sent in chains to slave in a hellish work camp.  Ursus manages to escape his captivity and kill the treacherous Setas, an old friend of Ursus' who he learns orchestrated the kidnapping of Attea years before. Ursus then makes his way to the great arena, just in time to rescue Doreide from being mauled to death by a massive bull. Ursus physically wrestles the bull to the ground in a spectacular battle of sinews, and then leads a slave revolt against the queen and her sycophants. In the battle, Doreide receives a blow to the head which miraculously restores her vision. The queen is stabbed to death by her own grand vizier Mok, who in turn is strangled by Ursus.  With the freeing of the slaves, Ursus and Doreide sail off back to their homeland, with Ursus finally realizing that Doreide is the only woman for him. (Strangely, none of the other Ursus films involve the Doreide character, so it's a mystery why she disappeared so quickly from the series after this first film.) Ursus is shown as a very violent character in this film, actually strangling several of the other characters to death in various scenes when he could easily have just rendered them unconscious.

Ursus (also known as "Mighty Ursus") is a 1961 Italian peplum film directed by Carlo Campogalliani. It was originally theatrically released in the US on a double bill with "Jack, the Giant Killer" (1962) before being sold to television in the U.S. The film was later released to American television retitled Ursus, Son of Hercules as part of the "Sons of Hercules" TV syndication package (although Ursus was not related to Hercules at all in the original Italian version).

La Fureur d'Hercule (titre original : "Ursus") est un film italo-espagnol réalisé par Carlo Campogalliani, sorti en 1961. Dans la version originale italienne, le héros du film est Ursus, mais son nom est changé en Hercule dans la version française.