Participating countries.

Australia.

In Australia, the occasion is known as the Anzac Centenary. Committees planning the event included the National Commission on the Commemoration of the Anzac Centenary and the Anzac Centenary Advisory Board. The government had budgeted $83.5M for a seven-year programme which will include commemorative events in Australia and overseas; educational activities and resources; and refurbishments of galleries and war graves. The Brisbane City Council has spent $13.4 million to refurbish the Shrine of Remembrance, Brisbane located in ANZAC Square and $1 million revitalising 31 suburban war memorials. Many commemorative events were organised by governments and other organisations. In 2015 the Australian Government committed a further $100M to the Anzac Centenary for the creation of the Sir John Monash Centre, unveiled on Anzac Day 2018. It is the Western Front's most expensive visitor centre. During the centenary of the First World War, Australia is said to have spent more than any other country put together to celebrate the Anzacs.

Belgium.

The centenary of World War I was marked by a program of exhibition, lectures and academic research focusing on the theme of Belgian involvement in the conflict and the occupation. The Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History in Brussels hosted an exhibition titled "Expo 14–18: It's Our History" from 2014 to 2015.

Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The city of Sarajevo, where the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand took place, organized a commemoration in the period 21–28 June 2014. The event was named "Sarajevo, heart of Europe".  Filmmaker Emir Kusturica announced an initiative to hold a ceremony on 28 June 2014, in which a re-trial of Gavrilo Princip would be started. The motivation behind the initiative was that Austria-Hungary never ratified the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and that a verdict of high treason therefore should be considered illegal. "It was a political murder, but definitely not high treason. If Princip was convicted of murder, it wouldn't have been possible to sentence him to lifetime imprisonment", Kusturica commented. Further, he will exhibit letters written by Oskar Potiorek, and argues that they prove that a war was planned long before the Sarajevo Assassination.

Canada.

The centenary of the First World War was commemorated on 3 August, the date of the German declaration of war on France. A wreath-laying ceremony was held at the National War Memorial, before continuing at the Canadian War Museum. During the ceremony, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced the permanent extension of the Ceremonial Guard's sentry hours, from Vimy Ridge Day to Remembrance Day.  Other tributes were also held in Halifax, where lights were shut off at major landmarks, and an ecumenical service at the Basilica of St. John the Baptist in St. John's. The event was also commemorated in Toronto in an event organized by the tourism office for Flanders, where a group of men in newsboy costumes distributed fictitious historical newspaper describing the major events of the war. The centenary of the war was also the theme of the 93rd annual Warrior's Day Parade, held on 10 August at Toronto's Canadian National Exhibition.

Czech Republic.

The Czech Radio ran several accounts on the social networks where they are remembering all the events from the World War I day-by-day. That was accompanied by a special website with an archive of radio programmes with stories from World War I.  The Czech Republic was part of Austria–Hungary.

Denmark.

The cultural network "Golden Days" planned a commemoration in September 2014, "1914, the Gateway to Modern Europe".  Denmark remained neutral during World War I and did not take part in the warfare. The biggest event from a Danish perspective is the reunification with Northern Schleswig (Sønderjylland) in 1920. After the Second War of Schleswig in 1864, Denmark was forced to cede Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia. In 1918, the Versailles powers offered to return the region of Schleswig-Holstein to Denmark. After the Schleswig Plebiscites Northern Schleswig (Sønderjylland) was recovered by Denmark in 1920. The reunion day ("Genforeningsdag") is celebrated every 15 June on "Valdemarsdag".

France.

In France, the government carried out a policy of national remembrance. An early start was made in 2011 with the opening of "Le Musée de la Grande Guerre" in Meaux on Armistice Day. France set up an official board for the commemoration of the centenary under the name of "Mission du Centenaire".  A worldwide-level Armistice Day military ceremony, held at the Arc de Triomphe in the capital of Paris, took place at 11 a.m. on November 11, 2018 and was led by President Emmanuel Macron. It was broadcast to Europe and the world by the European Broadcasting Union and through the French media. Leaders from more than 40 international organizations and dignitaries from nearly 200 countries, included approximately 120 heads of state and government, took part in the event (see the list below). Before the main ceremony, Mr Macron hosted a reception party for all the visiting leaders on 10 a.m. at the Elysee Palace. The celebration was the largest gathering of international leaders for a commemoration ceremony in world history.  Also after the ceremony, the first ever Paris Peace Forum was organized as part of the celebrations, with Justin Vaisse and Pascal Lamy (which were both presented at the Arc de Triomphe ceremony) as the co-organizers and attracted as many of the same dignitaries as the military event. The forum went on to be held annually on November in Paris.

Ireland.

The centenary of the First World War was marked in Ireland. A cross of sacrifice was erected in Glasnevin in Dublin, which also included a joint Irish-British commemoration ceremony. A season of First World War programmes will also be broadcast on RTÉ.

Kenya.

The Centenary commemorations were marked primarily in Taita Taveta County, with events starting from 16 August 2014 and going on for another 5 years. Kenya, known as British East Africa during World War I, borders Tanzania, then known as German East Africa. Taita Taveta County was therefore the site of several important battles in what was known as the East African Campaign of World War I. The German Schutztruppe occupied Taveta and built fortified outposts with an intention of blocking the British from using the Voi-Taveta Railway. Major battle sites and commemoration locations include: Commemorations will also take place at the Voi, Maktau and Taveta Commonwealth War Graves. The commemorations will be held in conjunction with the National Museums of Kenya, the Commonwealth War Graves Commission and the Kenya Wildlife Service.

New Zealand.

New Zealand government agencies and other organisations worked together on commemorations to mark the centenary, which was identified as WW100. The commemorations are being led by the Minister for Arts, Culture and Heritage, Maggie Barry. A WW100 Programme Office has been established by the Ministry for Culture and Heritage along with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, the New Zealand Defence Force and the Department of Internal Affairs.  New Zealand's centenary commemorations honoured those who fought, but also told the stories of the people who remained at home. $17 million in lottery funding has been allocated by the Lottery Grants Board to commemorate the First World War Centenary.  The New Zealand Government’s key centenary projects included the development of a National War Memorial Park in Wellington, an education / interpretation centre at the National War Memorial, a series of new histories, and the Ngā Tapuwae New Zealand First World War Trails in Gallipoli and along the Western Front.  A First World War Centenary Panel was established, chaired by Brian Roche of New Zealand Post. The Panel's role was to advocate for the First World War Centenary, attract sponsorship or philanthropic support for centenary projects, coordinate with any equivalent bodies overseas, particularly Australia; and provide advice to the government on the centenary commemorations. Dame Anne Salmond, Bob Harvey, Dr Monty Soutar, Matthew Te Pou and Sir Peter Jackson are all involved.  Several media commentators have criticized different aspects of the official Centenary commemorations. Professor Bryce Edwards noted on 24 April 2015: "As the nation moves into commemorating the Anzac Day centenary, there are growing signs of WWI overload and fatigue."

Slovakia.

On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the end of the First World War, the international project Tree of Peace was established. The Tree of Peace (Slovak: "Strom pokoja", Russian: "Дерево мира", German: "Der Friedensbaum") is an international project that originated in Slovakia. The main goal of the project is to promote a message of peace by planting Trees of Peace on every continent. The first tree was planted on 28 September 2018 at a military cemetery in the village of Velkrop in the Stropkov district in northeast of Slovakia. The war cemetery in Veľkrop is the biggest cemetery from the First World War in Slovakia. 8,662 soldiers of the Austro-Hungarian and Russian armies have found a final resting place here. Only 11 of the buried soldiers from the total number are known by their names. The cemetery originated after being moved from the front. By 2020 thirteen Peace Trees have been planted in important places regarding military and world history, such as the National WWI Museum and Memorial of the United States in Kansas City, The Imperial Villa in Bad Ischl, The Monument to the victims of the 71st Trenčín Infantry Regiment in Kragujevac, The Monument to the Battle of the Nations in Leipzig, or the palace complex of the Tsarskoe Selo State Museum in St. Petersburg. Six trees have been planted in Slovakia and others in Germany, Serbia, Austria, Poland, Russia, the United States and the United Kingdom. The thirteenth tree was planted by the President of the Slovak Republic, Madam Zuzana Čaputová. The umbrella organization for the Tree of Peace project is the Servare et Manere, civic association founded in Slovakia. There is also an official Congressional Record of the proceedings and debates of the United States Congress, about planned planting Tree of Peace in Kansas City, published in Washington, Thursday, June 20, 2019, Vol. 165, No. 104.

Turkey.

Official Anzac Day commemorations were held at Gallipoli, Turkey over two days beginning on 25 April 2015 to mark the 100th anniversary of the Gallipoli landing. The commemoration was attended by the following leaders : A service was held during the dawn of 25 April to remember fallen soldiers.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, the Imperial War Museum (IWM) led a national programme of commemorative events and planned new galleries for the occasion (www.1914.org). In May 2010 the museum launched its First World War Centenary Partnership Programme. Partner organisations receive access to IWM collections objects and expertise, and to digital resources, branding and a collaborative extranet. By November 2011, 330 national and international organisations had become partners. The museum also opened a new permanent First World War gallery at its London branch on 19 July 2014, as part of a £35 million redevelopment of the building.  In November 2011, it was announced that Prime Minister David Cameron had appointed Andrew Murrison MP as his special representative for First World War centenary commemorations. On 11 October 2012, Cameron announced £50 million to fund national centenary commemorations. The anniversaries of Britain's declaration of war on Germany, the opening of the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of Jutland, and the November 1918 Armistice will be marked by national commemorations. The redevelopment of the Imperial War Museum, where Cameron delivered his speech, will be supported by an additional £5 million. A further £5.3 million will fund visits to Western Front battlefields by pupils from English schools. The Heritage Lottery Fund will provide £15 million to community projects, led by young people, to conserve local heritage associated with the war. In addition the preservation of the former Royal Navy light cruiser HMS "Caroline", which served at the Battle of Jutland, will be supported by a grant of up to £1 million.  The Heritage Lottery Fund provided funding to educational projects in fields such as local history, online access to museums and archives, youth heritage projects - such as the Great War Live archive site, which showcases the war day by day as it happens, family history, the preservation of war memorials, and the conservation of historic artefacts.  The BBC planned a First World War centenary season of around 2,500 hours of television, radio and online programming over four years. The programming included documentaries, drama, arts and music, commemorative programmes and programmes for children and schools.  On 14 January 2014, the National Archives released a first batch of digitised British Army war diaries. The same day, the National Archives, together with Imperial War Museums and Zooniverse launched 'Operation War Diary', a crowdsourcing project to tag data on each diary page.  The installation "Blood Swept Lands and Seas of Red" at the Tower of London, by Paul Cummins and Tom Piper, was especially popular — over five million people visited it before it closed in November 2014, with calls for it to be extended. Most of the ceramic poppies were sold to the public and special features from it have been preserved to go on tour and then be displayed in the Imperial War Museum. Artistic reception was mixed but the Queen praised the exhibit in her Christmas message and the artists were honoured in the new year. A similar tribute, "Beyond the Deepening Shadow", in which 10,000 flames were lit, again at the Tower of London, and designed by Piper, was installed to mark the centenary of the end of the war. It ran nightly, ending on Armistice Day (11 November) 2018.  The "Shrouds of the Somme" was laid out at Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park from 8 to 18 November 2018 to commemorate the 72,396 servicemen from the British Commonwealth with no known grave recorded at Thiepval Memorial as missing presumed dead in the Battle of the Somme; the work comprises 72,396 small human figurines, each separately wrapped in a calico shroud which was cut and sewn by hand. All of them were held in the presence of about 2,000 invited guests, included Queen Elizabeth II, British Prime Minister Theresa May and President of Germany, Frank-Walter Steinmeier.

United States.

The United States World War One Centennial Commission was established in 2013. The Commission planned, developed, and executed programs, projects, and activities to commemorate the centennial of World War One. A large part of its mandate was to encourage private organizations and State and local governments to organize and participate in activities that commemorate the centennial of World War I and to facilitate and coordinate activities throughout the U.S. The Commission will also serve as a "clearinghouse" for information about events and plans for commemoration.

International organizations.

The European Union.

The European Union marked the occasion with a special meeting of Prime Ministers or Presidents of the 28 EU members in Ieper (Ypres) which included the national leaders standing together at the Menin Gate while the Last Post is being played.

The European Broadcasting Union (EBU).

The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) organised a concert in Sarajevo with the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra. It took place in the library that had recently been renovated from the devastation of the 1990s wars of disintegration of Yugoslavia, and which is adjacent to the site of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which triggered the war.

Europeana.

Europeana had three digital projects to commemorate the First World World across Europe. These made a range of materials freely available on the web.

Red Cross.

The Red Cross had an archive of records about the twenty million soldiers that were captured or buried by other countries. It planned to put all these paper records online for the centenary.

The First World War Centenary is the centenary of the First World War, which started on 28 July 2014 with a series of commemorations of the outbreak of the war organized across the continent of Europe and ended on 11 November 2018 with a large ceremony in Paris (France) attended by 80 heads of state and 30 heads of government.

Le centenaire de l'armistice de 1918 correspond au centième anniversaire du 11 novembre 1918, date de la fin de la Première Guerre mondiale. Dans ce cadre, ont lieu en novembre 2018 de nombreuses cérémonies commémoratives à travers le monde, et notamment une cérémonie internationale à Paris.


Libretto.

<poem lang="it" style="float:left;">French  [Recitative] Ils s'éloignent enfin; j'ai cru le reconnaître: Mon cœur n'a point trompé mes yeux; Il a suivi mes pas, il est près de ces lieux. Je tremble!...s'il allait paraître! Quel est ce sentiment profond, mystérieux Dont je nourris l'ardeur, que je chéris peut-être? Arnold! Arnold! est-ce bien toi? Simple habitant de ces campagnes, L'espoir, l'orgueil de tes montagnes, Qui charme ma pensée et cause mon effroi? Ah! que je puisse au moins l'avouer moi-même! Melcthal, c'est toi que j'aime; Sans toi j'aurais perdu le jour; Et ma reconnaissance excuse mon amour.</poem> <poem style="margin-left:2em; float:left;">English  [Recitative] They go at last, I thought I saw him: My heart has not deceived my eyes; He followed my steps, he is near this place. I tremble!...if he were to appear! What is this feeling, deep, mysterious I nourished the ardour, which I cherish perhaps? Arnold! Arnold! is it really you? Simple inhabitant of these fields, The hope and pride of the mountains That charms my mind and causes my fear? Ah! I can at least admit to myself! Melcthal, it's you I love; Without you I would have lost the day; And my gratitude excuses my love.</poem> <poem style="margin-left:2em; float:left;">Italian  [Recitative] S'allontanano alfine! Io sperai rivederlo, E il cor non m'ha ingannata, Ei mi seguìa... lontano esser non puote... Io tremo... ohimè!.. se qui venisse mai! Onde l'arcano sentimento estremo Di cui nutro l'ardor, ch'amo fors'anco! Arnoldo! Arnoldo! ah! sei pur tu ch'io bramo. Semplice abitator di questi campi, Di questi monti caro orgoglio e speme, Sei tu sol che incanti il mio pensiero, Che il mio timor cagioni. Oh! almen ch'io possa Confessarlo a me stessa... io t'amo, Arnoldo! Tu i giorni miei salvasti, E l'amor più possente in me destasti.</poem>  <poem style="margin-left; float:left;">[sung] Sombre forêt, désert triste et sauvage, Je vous préfère aux splendeurs des palais: C'est sur les monts, au séjour de l'orage, Que mon cœur peut renaître à la paix; Mais l'écho seulement apprendra mes secrets. Toi, du berger astre doux et timide, Qui, sur mes pas, viens semant tes reflets, Ah! sois aussi mon étoile et mon guide! Comme lui tes rayons sont discrets, Et l'écho seulement redira mes secrets.</poem>  <poem style="margin-left:2em; float:left;">[sung] Dark forest, wilderness sad and wild, I prefer you to the splendours of the palace: It is on the mountains, the place of the storm That my heart can regain peace; And only the echo will learn my secrets. You, the sweet and shy star of the shepherd, Whose light illuminates my footsteps, Ah! be also my star and my guide! Like him, your rays are discrete, And only the echo will repeat my secrets.</poem>  <poem style="margin-left:4em; float:left;">[sung] Selva opaca, deserta brughiera Qual piacer la tua vista mi dà. Sovra i monti ove il turbine impera Alla calma il mio cor s'aprirà. L'eco sol le mie pene udirà. Tu, bell'astro, al cui dolce riflesso Il mio passo vagante sen va, Tu m'addita ove Arnoldo s'aggira; A lui solo il mio cuor s'aprirà, Esso sol le mie pene udirà.</poem

"Sombre forêt" ("Dark Forest") is a soprano aria from act two of the opera "William Tell" by Gioachino Rossini, to a French libretto by Etienne de Jouy and Hippolyte Bis. It is sung by Mathilde, a princess of the Habsburg house, as she waits in the forest on the heights of Rütli for her Swiss lover, Arnold Melchthal.

Sombre forêt est une aria de soprano de l' de l'opéra "Guillaume Tell," de Gioachino Rossini. Le livret français est rédigé par Etienne de Jouy et Hippolyte Bis.


Early life and education.

Hackworth was born in Ocean Park, California (now part of Santa Monica), on November 11, 1930, the son of Leroy E. Hackworth and Lorette (Kensly) Hackworth. His parents both died before he was a year old, and his brother, sister, and he were raised by Ida Stedman, their paternal grandmother. The family had to rely on government aid during the Great Depression, and his grandmother, who had been married to a Colorado gold miner, brought them up on tales of her Old West experiences and her Revolutionary War ancestors. While attending school in Santa Monica, Hackworth and a friend earned money by shining the shoes of soldiers stationed at bases in the area. Imbued with a sense of adventure, at age 14, Hackworth lied about his age and paid a transient to pose as his father so he could claim to be old enough to join the United States Merchant Marine with parental consent.

Military career.

Hackworth served aboard ship in the South Pacific Ocean as a member of the Merchant Marine in 1945, at the end of World War II. He returned home to California, but decided to join the United States Army, and in 1946, he used his false Merchant Marine documents to enlist for three years. After completing his initial training, he was assigned to postwar occupation duty as a rifleman in the 351st Infantry Regiment, 88th Infantry Division. Based in Trieste, his unit was part of Trieste United States Troops. While serving in Trieste, Hackworth earned his General Educational Development high-school equivalency diploma.

Korean War.

Hackworth fought in the Korean War with the 25th Reconnaissance Company and the 27th Infantry (Wolfhound) Regiment of the 25th Infantry Division. He gained a battlefield commission as a second lieutenant in 1951 and was awarded three Silver Stars for heroism and three Purple Hearts. After a successful raid on Hill 1062 and battlefield promotion to first lieutenant, the commander of the 27th Infantry Regiment offered Hackworth command of a new volunteer raider unit. Hackworth created the 27th Wolfhound Raiders and led them from August to November 1951. He subsequently volunteered for a second tour in Korea, this time with the 40th Infantry Division. Hackworth was promoted to the rank of captain.  Demobilized after the in Korea, Hackworth became bored with civilian life after two years of college and re-entered the U.S. Army in 1956 as a captain.

Interwar service.

When Hackworth returned to active duty, the expanding Cold War substantially changed the structure of the army from what he had known. Initially posted to 77th Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion in Manhattan Beach, California, Hackworth was eventually assigned to Germany, initially in staff roles, but returning to infantry in the early 1960s as a company commander under Colonel Glover S. Johns. He was involved in a number of fire drills around the Berlin Crisis of 1961. He recounted his experiences with the Soviet guard and his views on military history in his book "About Face".  After completing an associate of arts degree at Los Angeles Harbor College, and completing additional courses at several other colleges, in 1964, Hackworth graduated from Austin Peay State University with a bachelor of science degree in history, after which he attended the Command and General Staff College.

Vietnam service.

When President John F. Kennedy announced that a large advisory team was being sent to South Vietnam, Hackworth immediately volunteered for service. His request was denied, on the grounds that he had too much frontline experience, and that others who had seen less fighting (or none) should have an opportunity to acquire experience in combat.  In 1965, he deployed to Vietnam as a major. He served as an operations officer and battalion commander in the 101st Airborne Division. In November 1965, he founded the platoon-sized unit Tiger Force to "outguerrilla the guerrillas". Initially, Tiger Force was a highly decorated small unit in Vietnam which suffered heavy casualties and was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation. However, after Hackworth was promoted out of Vietnam, the unit began a string of atrocities and war crimes, with U.S. Army investigative records and interviews by "The Toledo Blade" estimating the unit eventually killed hundreds of noncombatants. Hackworth has stated he did not know about the atrocities and does not know what caused the unit to spiral out of control.  Hackworth quickly developed a reputation as an eccentric but effective soldier, becoming a public figure in several books authored by General S. L. A. "Slam" Marshall. Following a stateside tour at the Pentagon and promotion to lieutenant colonel, Hackworth co-wrote "The Vietnam Primer" with Marshall after returning to Vietnam in the winter of 1966–67 on an Army-sponsored tour with the famous historian and commentator. The book advised counter-insurgency fighters to adopt some of the guerrilla tactics used by Mao Zedong, Che Guevara, and Ho Chi Minh. Hackworth described the strategy as "out-G-ing the G." His personal and professional relationship with Marshall soured as Hackworth became suspicious of his methods and motivation.  However, both his assignment with "Slam" Marshall and his time on staff duty at the Pentagon soured Hackworth on the Vietnam War. One aspect of the latter required him to publicly defend the U.S. position on the war in a speaking tour. Even with his reservations concerning the conflict, he refused to resign, feeling it was his duty as a field grade officer to wage the campaign as best he could. Hackworth was assigned to a training battalion at Fort Lewis, Washington, and then returned to Vietnam to lead elements of the 9th Infantry Division, turning his theories about guerrilla warfare and how to counter it into practice with the 4-39 Infantry in the Mekong Delta, an underperforming unit made up largely of conscripts which Hackworth transformed into the counter-insurgent "Hardcore" Battalion (Recondo) from January to late May 1969.  Hackworth next served as a senior military adviser to the South Vietnamese. His view that the U.S. Army was not learning from its mistakes, and that South Vietnamese ARVN officers were essentially corrupt and ineffective, created friction with Army leadership.  In early 1971, Hackworth was promoted to the rank of colonel, and received orders to attend the Army War College, an indication that he was being groomed for the general officer ranks. He had declined a previous opportunity to go to the War College, and turned down this one, as well, indicating his lack of interest in becoming a general and demonstrating his discontent with the war and the Army's leaders.  Hackworth's dissatisfaction ultimately culminated in a television interview with ABC. On June 27, 1971, he appeared on the program "Issues and Answers" and strongly criticized U.S. commanders in Vietnam, said the war could not be won, and called for U.S. withdrawal. The interview enraged senior U.S. Army officers at the Pentagon.  He subsequently retired as a colonel. Senior Army leaders investigated Hackworth, who avoided them for several weeks. He was nearly court-martialed for various allegations during his Vietnam service, such as running a brothel, running gambling houses, and exploiting his position for personal profit by manipulating the scrip in which soldiers were paid and the limited U.S. currency available in the war zone. Ultimately, Secretary of the Army Robert Froehlke opted not to press charges, deciding that Hackworth's career accomplishments outweighed his supposed misdeeds, and that prosecuting an outspoken war hero would result in unneeded bad publicity for the Army.

Business activity.

Settling on the Australian Gold Coast near Brisbane, Hackworth soon made a fortune through profitable real estate investing, a lucrative duck farm, and a popular restaurant called Scaramouche. He was also active in the Australian antinuclear movement.

Writing career.

Hackworth returned to the U.S. in the mid-1980s and began working as a contributing editor on defense issues for "Newsweek". He also made regular television appearances to discuss various military-related topics, and the shortcomings of the military. His commentary on the psychological effects of post-traumatic stress disorder, based on his own experiences in overcoming it, resonated with disabled veterans.  In the mid-1990s, Hackworth investigated Admiral Jeremy Michael Boorda, then Chief of Naval Operations. Hackworth, through his "Newsweek" articles, questioned Boorda's longtime wearing of two bronze "valor pins" (in the Navy, the "V" device was worn on certain decorations to denote valor in combat or direct combat participation with the enemy) on his Navy Commendation Medal and Navy Achievement Medal service ribbons, generating much controversy. Boorda committed suicide before he could be interviewed by Hackworth, who had received at least one Army Commendation Medal and other decorations with the "V" device from the U.S. Army in the Vietnam War (in the Army, the "V" device denoted valor in combat only). The Navy reviewed the matter and determined afterwards that the two "Combat Distinguishing Devices" (Combat "V"'s) that Boorda had worn on two of his uniform service ribbons since the Vietnam War and until almost a year before Hackworth's and "Newsweek's" intervention, were both unauthorized despite the fact Boorda and some others serving on Boorda's destroyer had been given verbal authorization for the devices by Admiral Elmo Zumwalt during the war.  Hackworth's last assignment in a combat/conflict zone was with "Newsweek" during the initial deployment of US forces into Bosnia and Herzegovina in February 1996. Hackworth joined 3-5 CAV of the 1st Brigade, 1st Armored Division near the disputed village of Brcko. Hackworth interviewed a number of officers and enlisted soldiers, reinforcing his historical tenure as a seasoned combat veteran of previous wars and as a well-known and respected journalist.  Hackworth appeared on countless televisions and radio talk shows and formed his own website, Soldiers for the Truth, continuing to be the self-proclaimed voice of the "grunts" (ground troops) until his death.  King Features Syndicate distributed Hackworth's weekly column "Defending America". Many of his columns discussed the War on Terrorism and the Iraq War and were concerned with the policies of the American leadership in conducting the wars, as well as the conditions of the soldiers serving. Hackworth continued the column until his death from bladder cancer in May 2005. Associates believe that his cancer was caused by exposure to Agent Blue (a defoliant used in Vietnam), and are lobbying the United States government to have the substance labelled a known carcinogen like the more famous Agent Orange.  Hackworth died on May 4, 2005, at the age of 74 in Tijuana, Mexico, as he was searching for alternative treatments for his bladder cancer. He is survived by his wife, Eilhys England, four children from his two previous marriages, and a stepdaughter. His remains were interred at Arlington National Cemetery.

Military decorations and awards.

Hackworth earned over 90 U.S. and foreign military awards, and frequently wore a CIB lapel pin on his civilian sport jackets.  His military awards include:

Ranger tab issue.

In response to Hackworth's investigation of Admiral Boorda, CNN and the "CBS Evening News with Dan Rather" questioned the accuracy of Hackworth's own military decorations. In particular, the reports accused Hackworth of claiming a Ranger Tab to which he was not entitled and an extra Distinguished Flying Cross listed on his website. Hackworth threatened to sue CBS and requested a formal audit of his military records. In response to the military audit, the executive producer of CBS News sent a letter to Hackworth that stated:  In 2002, Hackworth was asked about the controversy in an interview with "Proceedings". In the interview, he stated:

Works.

Books  Journalism – Hackworth wrote articles for:  Hackworth was also a founder of Soldiers for the Truth, an advocacy group focused on military reform, both in terms of capability and treatment of personnel.

David Haskell Hackworth (November 11, 1930 – May 4, 2005) also known as Hack, was a prominent military journalist and a former United States Army colonel who was decorated in both the Korean War and Vietnam War. Hackworth is known for his role in the creation and command of Tiger Force, a military unit which was formed in South Vietnam to apply guerrilla warfare tactics against Viet Cong guerrilla fighters.

David Hackworth, né le à Ocean Park en Californie et mort le à Tijuana au Mexique, est un membre décoré des Forces armées des États-Unis qui sert pendant plus de trois décennies et combat au cours de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, de la guerre de Corée et de la guerre du Viêt Nam.


Life.

According to Orthodox tradition, Saint Onesiphorus was one of the seventy disciples chosen and sent by Jesus to preach. They were chosen some time after the selection of the Twelve Apostles (Luke 10:1-24). St Onesiphorus was bishop at Colophon (Asia Minor), and later at Corinth. Both the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches hold that he died a martyr in the city of Parium (not far from Ephesus) on the shores of the Hellespont.

2 Timothy.

The persecution of Christians during Nero’s reign made Rome a dangerous city for Christians. Paul praises Onesiphorus for his hospitality, kindness, and courage. Onesiphorus is contrasted with the other Christians in Asia who have deserted Paul at this time. In 2 Timothy 1:16-18, Paul sends greeting to the man’s household in Ephesus and makes reference to the help he showed Paul earlier in Ephesus. Timothy, who led the Ephesian church is apparently familiar with these acts. Paul's praise of Onesiphorus is significant because it was written shortly before Paul's death as a final encouragement to Timothy.  But now, at the time of correspondence, only "Luke alone is with (Paul)" (4:11). Because Paul speaks of Onesiphorus only in the past tense, wishes blessings upon his house (family), and mercy for him "in that day", some scholars believe that Onesiphorus had at this point died. Towards the end of the same letter, in, Paul sends greetings to "Priscilla and Aquila, and the house of Onesiphorus", again apparently distinguishing the situation of Onesiphorus from that of the still living Priscilla and Aquila. Paul's reference to Onesiphorus, along with, is cited by Catholics as one of the early examples of prayer for the dead, while some Protestants opposing this practice reject such an interpretation.  He is commemorated on September 6 in Roman Catholic Church, and September 7 in Orthodox Church.  He should not be confused with the Onesiphorus of Ephesus who was martyred with Porphyrius during the Diocletian persecution, and is commemorated on November 9.

Onesiphorus (meaning "bringing profit" or "useful") was a Christian referred to in the New Testament letter of Second Timothy ( and ). According to the letter sent by St. Paul, Onesiphorus sought out Paul who was imprisoned at the time in Rome.

Onésiphore est un chrétien mentionné par Paul dans sa seconde épître à Timothée. Décrit comme un ami loyal originaire d'Éphèse, Onésiphore rendit visite à Paul durant son emprisonnement à Rome.


History.

In 1977, co-founders Stephan Rechtschaffen, author of "Timeshifting," and Elizabeth Lesser, author of "The Seeker’s Guide" and "New York Times" best-selling "Broken Open", say they were inspired to create the Omega Institute by scholar and Eastern meditation teacher, Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan. The name “Omega” came from the teachings of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, a 20th-century French philosopher and Jesuit priest who used the term “Omega Point” to describe the peak of unity and integration toward which all life is evolving. First established while Lesser and Rechtschaffen were staying at New Lebanon Shaker Village, then in 1980 it found a new home at a land which once housed the Sholem Aleichem Folk Institute's Camp Boiberick, in the Hudson River Valley.  Omega Institute began its programming with several workshops, and now holds more than 300 workshops in Rhinebeck, New York City, Costa Rica, and California.

Rhinebeck, New York Campus.

In 1982, Omega expanded from rented facilities in New York and Vermont to its current location on the former grounds of Camp Boiberik, a Yiddish camp, in Rhinebeck, New York. There are more than 100 buildings on the campus, including a dining hall, café, and bookstore. Its buildings also include the Ram Dass Library, named for author Ram Dass who "has been a trusted guide to Omega". In honor of Dass' life’s work, the organization commissioned the library, which is designed in an eight petal lotus blossom shape to represent Ram Dass’ service to public health, advancing social justice, and supporting spiritual development throughout the world.  The campus also includes the (OCSL), which is an education center powered by a 48.5 kW solar electric system and has a water reclamation facility.  The OCSL was one of the first two buildings in the world to be certified as "living" by the International Living Building Institute. The Omega Center for Sustainable Living is a wastewater filtration facility that is designed to use the treated water for garden irrigation and in a grey water recovery system. Omega will use the system and the building as a teaching tool in their educational program designed around the ecological impact of their campus.

Programs and faculty.

Omega’s educational programs include workshops, professional trainings, retreats, and conferences. Workshops are organized into six categories: body, mind, and spirit; health and healing; creative expression; relationships and family; leadership and work; and sustainable living.  New York City events have included speakers such as Al Gore, Christopher Reeve, and Eckhart Tolle. Annually, Omega hosts a yoga service conference, and the Omega Women’s Leadership Center offers a conference that has included speakers such as Eve Ensler, Isabel Allende, and Sally Field. Omega offers scholarships to a variety of its workshops, trainings, conferences, and retreats.  Other Omega speakers and teachers have included Adyashanti, Maya Angelou, Deepak Chopra, Pema Chödrön, Jeanne Fleming, Jane Goodall, Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan, Ram Dass, Thich Nhat Hanh, Allen Ginsberg, Gloria Steinem, Pete Seeger, Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., Philip Glass, Betty Williams, Lon Milo DuQuette, and many others.

Staff.

Omega has a core staff of 85 and a seasonal staff of more than 250. The core staff plan and develop the curriculum, marketing, and production for the season’s programs, and its seasonal staff manage and staff campus departments. Inspired by Ram Dass, Omega created a curriculum for Omega’s staff that includes classes designed to encourage self-development, mindfulness, and community service.

Omega Institute for Holistic Studies is a non-profit educational retreat center located in Rhinebeck, New York. Founded in 1977 by Elizabeth Lesser and Stephan Rechtschaffen, inspired by Sufi mystic, Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan and his ecumenical spirituality, today it offers classes to over 25,000 people a year, at the campus.

L'Omega Institute for Holistic Studies (en français, Institut Omega pour les études holistiques) est un centre de formation et de conférences fondé à Rhinebeck, New York en 1977 par deux écrivains New Age, et Stephan Rechtschaffen.


Early life and education.

Radewagen is the daughter of Peter Tali Coleman, the first popularly elected Governor of American Samoa, and Nora Stewart Coleman, the former First Lady of American Samoa. Radewagen has twelve siblings. She attended school for girls in Honolulu (Sacred Hearts Academy) before she in 1975 received a bachelor’s in psychology from the University of Guam. She had classes at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles, California and at George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia.  She is married to Fred Radewagen, and they have three children (Erika, Mark, and Kirsten), and two grandchildren.  Radewagen holds the orator (talking chief) title of "Aumua" from the capital of Pago Pago, which is her hometown and where she is a registered voter.  From 1984–1997, Amata was the chief diplomatic correspondent for the "Washington Pacific Report".

Political career.

Aumua Amata has been an executive assistant to the first Delegate-at-Large from American Samoa.  From 1997 to 1999, Radewagen served on the staff of United States Representative Phil Crane of Illinois. She served on the staff of United States Representative J.C. Watts, Jr. of Oklahoma from 1999 to 2003. After that, she served on the staff of the House Republican Conference from 2003 to 2005. From 1999 to 2005, she served as staff on the House Republican Conference. Radewagen first ran for Congress in the 1994 elections against Democrat Eni F.H. Faleomavaega. She failed to gain the nomination of the Republican Party of American Samoa in 1996 and 2000, and she ran as an independent in the 1998 elections.  Radewagen was appointed in 2001, by President George W. Bush, as the White House Commissioner for Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPI); she chaired the Community Security Committee. Radewagen was the only Pacific Islander on the 15-member commission.  Since 1994, Radewagen has participated in every federal election. Since 1986, she represents the American Samoa Republican Party in the Republican National Committee. Radewagen is the most senior member.

United States House of Representatives.

2014 election.

Radewagen ran for American Samoa's at-large congressional district in the 2014 elections. She defeated the Democratic incumbent Delegate Eni Faleomavaega, 42% to 31%; former Democratic Governor Togiola Tulafono finished third at 11% in the nine-way contest.

2016 election.

Radewagen was re-elected in 2016, receiving the highest number of votes in American Samoa history for any elective office, winning 75.4% of the vote cast.

Tenure.

Radewagen assumed office on January 3, 2015. Upon taking office, she became the Republican Party's highest-ranking Asian Pacific federal officeholder in the United States.  Radewagen has a bipartisan track record, ranked the 28th and 14th most bipartisan Representative in the 114th and 115th United States Congresses, respectively, by The Lugar Center and McCourt School of Public Policy's Bipartisan Index.

Other activity.

Radewagen has been involved in helping build democratic institutions internationally. As a trainer since 1992, she has participated in missions to Kazakhstan, Cambodia, Kyrgyzstan, and Morocco for the International Republican Institute and the International Foundation for Electoral Systems, among other activities. She began advocating on behalf of breast cancer awareness after being diagnosed with breast cancer in 1993.  She is a founding member of the American Samoa Society and a life member of the Capitol Hill Club. She has also been a member of organizations such as Guam Society of America, Hawaii State Society, Women's Foreign Policy Group, and the Independent Women's Forum. She is a current member of the Pan Pacific and Southeast Asia Women’s Association. In 2003, Radewagen became the first Pacific Islander chosen as “Outstanding Woman of the Year” by the National Association of Professional Asian American Women (NAPAW). In 2008, she received the International Leadership Foundation’s Visionary Award. In 2013, she received both the Inspirational Speaker Award at the Samoan Athletes Heart of Champions Ceremony in La Mesa, CA, as well as the Trailblazer Award from the Republican National Convention. She is a current board member at the Field House 100 American Samoa.

Amata Catherine Coleman Radewagen (born December 29, 1947), commonly called Aumua Amata, is an American Samoan politician who is the current delegate for the United States House of Representatives from American Samoa. Radewagen, a Republican, was elected on November 4, 2014, after defeating Democratic incumbent Eni Faleomavaega. She began her tenure on January 3, 2015. She also serves as the National Committeewoman for the Republican Party of American Samoa. Amata is the first woman to represent American Samoa in the U.S. Congress.

Amata Coleman Radewagen, née le à Pago Pago, est une femme politique américaine. Membre du Parti démocrate, elle est élue déléguée du territoire américain des Samoa américaines à la Chambre des représentants des États-Unis.


History.

Although the song has long been associated with Gene Autry, the original version of "Back in the Saddle Again" was written by Ray Whitley for the film "Border G-Man" (RKO Pictures, June 24, 1938) starring George O'Brien, Laraine Day, and Ray Whitley in which Ray Whitley and his Six Bar Cowboys sang the song. With Ray Whitley's Rangers, Whitley recorded the song for Decca Records on 26 October 1938, matrix number 64701, issued as Decca 5628 backed with "On the Painted Desert", matrix number 64703.  Gene Autry liked the song and together with Whitley revised it and recorded it in April 1939, then performed "Back in the Saddle Again" on film in "Rovin' Tumbleweeds" (Republic Pictures, November 16, 1939), and introduced it as his theme song for "Gene Autry's Melody Ranch", which premiered over the CBS Radio Network on January 7, 1940, on which the show ran until 1956. The song also became the title song for the Autry film "Back in the Saddle" (Republic Pictures, March 14, 1941).  Gene Autry recorded "Back in the Saddle Again" for the first time on April 18, 1939, in Los Angeles for Columbia Record Corporation, matrix number LA 1865, which was originally issued on Vocalion 05080. LA 1865 also issued on the Conqueror, OKeh, and Columbia labels. Early Vocalion and Conqueror labels say "BACK TO THE SADDLE". Conqueror was a private label for Sears. In the U.K. markets LA 1865 issued on the EMI Regal Zonophone label. Gene Autry later made two additional commercial recordings of the song, both for Columbia. Matrix number HCO 1707 recorded on February 13, 1946, issued on the Columbia label. Matrix number RHCO 10195 recorded on June 19, 1952, also issued on Columbia. The matrix number is found in the run-out groove area of the record and is often also shown on the record label. The prefix indicates the facility where the recording was made. Often there are several takes for a recording. The matrix number in the run-out area may also include a suffix to identify the take used for the issue.  In addition to being used as the theme for Autry's radio program "Gene Autry's Melody Ranch", "Back in the Saddle Again" was also used for "The Gene Autry Show" on television as well as for personal appearances.  In 1971, the comedy group Firesign Theatre wrote lyrics to the parody song "Back From the Shadows Again" for their album "I Think We're All Bozos on This Bus". The song was sung by three computer-generated hologram characters when they appeared. The group reused the parody title in 1993 for and its live recording album.  The 1993 film "Sleepless in Seattle" included "Back in the Saddle Again" as one of "a number of standards" heard in its soundtrack.

Discography.

78rpm commercial phonograph recordings and issues of "Back in the Saddle Again"

"Back in the Saddle Again" was the signature song of American cowboy entertainer Gene Autry. It was co-written by Autry with Ray Whitley and first released in 1939. The song was associated with Autry throughout his career and was used as the name of Autry's autobiography in 1976. Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as fifth of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.

Back in the Saddle Again est la chanson phare de Gene Autry. La chanson a été écrite par Ray Whitley pour le film "Border G-Man", sorti en 1938. La même année il l'a enregistrée avec son groupe Six Bar Cowboys pour Decca Records, et elle est sortie en 78 tours.


History & Archaeological Excavations.

Lauriya has 15 Stupa mounds in three rows, each row upwards of 600 m; the first row begins near the pillar and goes E to W, while the other two are at right angles to it and parallel to each other.  Alexander Cunningham partially excavated one of them in 1862 and found a retaining wall of brick (size 51 X 20 cm). A few years later Henry Bailey Wade Garrick excavated several mounds with indifferent results. In 1905 T. Block excavated four mounds, two in each of the N to S rows. In two of them, he found at the center of each, at a depth of "1.8 m to 3.6 m" (probably meaning 1.8 m in one and 3.6 m in the other) a gold leaf with a female figurine standing in frontal pose and a small deposit of burnt human bones mixed with charcoal. The core of the mounds was, according to him, built of layers of yellow clay, a few centimeters in thickness, with grass leaves laid between. Further down in one of them he found the stump of a tree. His conclusions were that the earthen barrows had some connection with the funeral rites of the people who erected them, and he found an explanation of the phenomena encountered by him in the rites of cremation and post-cremation prescribed in the Vedas. On the basis of this hypothesis he identified the gold female figurine as the earth goddess Prithvi and ascribed the mounds to a pre-Mauryan age. After him the mounds came to be known loosely as "Vedic burial mounds". The locals call these mounds Bhisa, a word also recorded by Cunningham. Some believe that the 26-metre-high ancient brick sepulchral mound is the stupa where the ashes of Lord Buddha were enshrined.  In 1935-36, archaeologist Nani Gopal Majumdar re-examined the four mounds with important results. He found that all of them were earthen burial memorials with burnt brick revetments, two being faced with a brick lining in a double tier, so that there was no justification of regarding them as mere earthen barrows. He also pointed out that the golden leaves found by Block had their exact replica in the Stupa at Piprahwa which is definitely a Buddhist Stupa of 300 B.C. or earlier. The respective Lauriya Stupas might be of a comparable date and there is nothing to connect them with Vedic burial rites. The layers of yellow clay which had a share in the building up of the Vedic theory of Block, are according to observations of archaeologist Amalananda Ghosh, nothing but mud bricks, husk and straw being a common ingredient in ancient brick. Excavation of the Nandangarh site was started by Majumdar in 1935 and continued by Ghosh until 1939. Before excavation the mound had a height of 25 m and a circumference of about 460 m, standing at the East of a brick fortification about 1.6 km in perimeter and roughly oval of plan, no doubt enclosing a habitation area, perhaps the headquarters of a clan that was responsible for the erection of the Lauriya Stupas. Surface finds indicate that it was inhabited in Shunga (if not earlier) and Kushans times.  On excavation, Nandangarh turned out to be stupendous Stupa with a polygonal or cruciform base; with its missing dome which must have been proportionately tall, the Stupa must have been one of the highest in India.  The walls of the four cardinal directions at the base (only the W ones and partly the S ones were excavated) are each 32 m long and the wall between each has a zigzag course with 14 re-entrant and 13 outer angles. The walls flanking the first and second terraces following the polygonal plan of the base; those pertaining to the upper terraces were circular. An extensive later restoration hid the four upper walls and provided new circular ones; the polygonal plan of the walls of the base and the first terrace were left unaltered. The top of each terrace served as a pradakshina-path (South facing pathway), though no staircase to reach the top was found in the excavated portion.  The core of the stupa consists of a filling of earth with a large number of animal and human figurines in the Shunga and Kushana idiom, a few punch marked coins and cast copper coins, terracotta sealing of the 2nd and 1st century B.C. and iron objects. As the earth was brought from outside, obviously from a part of the habitation area to the south of the stupa where the resultant pond is still visible, the objects are understandably not stratified.  In a shaft dug into center of the mound an undisturbed filling was found at a depth of 4.3 m the remains of a brick altar 1 m high; it has previously been truncated, perhaps by one of the explorers of the 19th and the early 20th centuries. Further down at a depth of 4.6 m from the bottom of the altar the top of an intact, miniature stupa was found, complete with a surmounting square umbrella. This stupa is 3.6 m high and polygonal on plan. An examination of its interior yielded nothing meaningful, but beside there lay a tiny copper vessel with a lid fastened to it by a wire. Inside the vessel was a long strip of the birch leaf manuscript, which having been squeezed into it was so fragile that it was impossible to spread it out and examine thoroughly without damaging it. The bits that could be extricated showed Buddhist text (probably the Pratītyasamutpāda since the word nirodha could be read a few times) written in characters of the 4th century A.D. No excavations were made at a further depth.

Pillar of Ashoka.

Less than half a kilometer from the village and 2 km from the mound, stands the famous pillar of Ashoka. It is a single block of polished sandstone over 32 feet (10 m) high. The top is bell shaped with a circular abacus ornamented with Brahmi geese supporting the statue of a lion.  The pillar is inscribed with the edicts of Ashoka in clear and beautifully cut characters. The lion has been chipped in the mouth and the column bears the mark of time just below the top which has itself been slightly dislodged. Signs of vandalism over the years are clearly visible.

Lauria Nandangarh, also Lauriya Navandgarh, is a city or town about 14 km from Narkatiaganj (or Shikarpur) and 28 km from Bettiah in West Champaran district of Bihar state in northern India. It is situated near the banks of the Burhi Gandak River. The village draws its name from a pillar (laur) of Ashoka standing there and the stupa mound Nandangarh (variant Nanadgarh) about 2 km south-west of the pillar. Lauriya Nandangarh is a historical site located in West Champaran district of Bihar. Remains of Mauryan period have been found here.

Lauria Nandangarh, également Lauriya Navandgarh, est une ville située à environ 14 km de (ou Shikarpur) et à 28 km de Bettiah, dans le district du Champaran occidental, au Bihar, dans le nord de l'Inde.


Archery.

The Swedish women, despite not having a spectacular showing in the individual round, nearly knocked off the heavily favored Korean squad in the team round quarterfinals. The Swedes tied the Koreans at 240 in the 27-arrow match, forcing a shootout that the Koreans won to eliminate the Swedes from medal contention. No other team came within 12 points of the Koreans, and the Korean team's average margin against the three other nations it faced was nearly 20 points.  Women's Individual Competition:  Women's Team Competition:

Athletics.

Men's 400m Hurdles  Men's 5.000 metres  Men's 20 km Walk  Men's 50 km Walk  Men's Decathlon Men's Triple Jump  Men's Javelin Throw  Men's Hammer Throw  Men's Shot Put  Women's 400m Hurdles  Women's 10 km Walk

Cycling.

Nine cyclists, six men and three women, represented Sweden in 1992.

Diving.

Men's 3m Springboard

Fencing.

Six male fencers represented Sweden in 1992.

Modern pentathlon.

Three male pentathletes represented Sweden in 1992.

Sailing.

Men's Sailboard (Lechner A-390)  Women's Sailboard (Lechner A-390)

Swimming.

Men's 50m Freestyle  Men's 100m Freestyle  Men's 200m Freestyle  Men's 400m Freestyle  Men's 100m Backstroke  Men's 100m Butterfly  Men's 200m Individual Medley  Men's 400m Individual Medley  Men's 4 × 100 m Freestyle Relay  Men's 4 × 200 m Freestyle <br> Women's 50m Freestyle  Women's 100m Freestyle  Women's 200m Freestyle  Women's 400m Freestyle  Women's 100m Butterfly  Women's 200m Individual Medley  Women's 4 × 100 m Freestyle Relay

Tennis.

Men's Singles Competition:  Men's Doubles Competition:  Women's Singles Competition

Sweden competed at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain. 187 competitors, 143 men and 44 women, took part in 121 events in 22 sports.

La Suède participe aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 1992 à Barcelone en Espagne. 187 athlètes suédois, 143 hommes et 44 femmes, ont participé à 121 compétitions dans 22 sports. Ils y ont obtenu douze médailles : une d'or, sept d'argent et quatre de bronze.


Biography.

Shimizu Toyoko () was born on 11 January 1868 in Bizen, Okayama, Japan to Shimizu Sadamoto. Most of her childhood was spent in Kyoto, where her father worked as a government bureaucrat. She graduated from Kyoto Municipal Women’s Teacher Training School at the age of fourteen and was considered highly educated in a society which still believed education beyond primary school for women was not worthwhile. Unable to continue her education, Shimizu made use of her father’s library which contained western literary classics as well as works by Japanese intellectuals. In 1885, she married Okazaki Masaharu, who was involved with the Freedom and People's Rights Movement in Kyoto. Two years later they were divorced, most probably because Okazaki had a concubine, but through his contacts, she met Ueki Emori, Kageyama Hideko and others who were involved in social activism. Shimizu began lecturing on social issues throughout the country. She was one of the activists who presented a petition in 1888 hoping to reform the penal code, which among other things made adultery by women a punishable crime. She also spoke out against polygyny and its impact on women. That same year, she was one of the women who wrote essays for the preface of Ueki's "Tðyð no fujo" (Women of the Orient) (1889).  At 23, Shimizu moved to Tokyo to work at Iwamoto Zenji's journal "Jogaku zasshi" ( Magazine of Women's Learning), just a few months after a legislative act had been passed prohibiting women from political participation in assemblies. Opposed to the ban, she wrote essays in favor of women's inclusion, like her 1890 piece, "Tōkon jogakusei no kakugo wa ikan?" (How Determined Are Today's Women Students?). Within six months, she had become the journal's editor in chief. She began working simultaneously as the writing instructor at the Meiji Girls' School. Around this same time, Shimizu began an affair with Ôi Kengarô, common law husband of Kageyama Hideko, who had become her best friend. Shimizu became pregnant during the course of the relationship and took a leave of absence, returning home to Kyoto, where her father was gravely ill. She cared for him and gave birth to her son. Ôi, pressuring Shimizu to marry him, confused the addresses in letters he sent to the two women, and Hideko learned of the affair. The rift between her and Hideko never healed. Shimizu suffered a breakdown and was hospitalized in 1892 and her son was sent to live with family members.  Returning that same year to "Jogaku zasshi", her brother introduced her to Kozai Yoshinao, a faculty member at the Tokyo School of Agriculture and the couple began a correspondence. In spite of the era's low opinion of divorced women and single mothers, and Shimizu's confession of her past, the relationship flourished. They were married later that year and Shimizu had their first child the following year. In 1895, her husband went abroad to study in Germany, and Shimizu moved back to Kyoto, living with her mother-in-law and writing as a correspondent. Shimizu used a number of pseudonyms including Tsuyuko, Toyo and Fumiko, predominately using Shikin after 1896. She employed different names for different genres, such as using Tsuyuko for fiction. Her husband returned from his studies around 1900 and Shimizu's last known writings appeared the following year. She joined him in Tokyo, where he became the president of the Tokyo University of Agriculture and she retired from writing. While it was speculated that her husband forced her to stop writing, her nature conflicts with that conclusion. She raised six children and cared for her elderly father and brother after she stopped writing, maintaining a home and the social responsibilities of a university president. Shimizu died in 1933.  Shimizu was the first professional woman journalist in Japan, forced to turn to writing when public activism was barred. Though she experimented with style, employing "genbun itchi" (), a more colloquial, less narrative style of writing which more closely mimics speech, for a while before settling on the gesaku () style, Shimizu's writing is centered on social issues. She wrote about the right to equality, evaluating such themes as women's education, marriage, divorce, double standards towards men and women, and discrimination towards the Burakumin. She strove to impart her works with encouragement for women to seek their own emancipation and have the courage to express themselves.

Shimizu Shikin (; 1868–1933), pen name of Shimizu Toyoko, was a Japanese novelist and women's rights activist of the Meiji period in Japan. A lecturer on equality and social issues, she was forced to turn to writing when the law changed to bar women from political assembly. She became one of the first women professional journalists in Japan.

Shimizu Shikin (née Shimizu Toyoko le à Bizen, dans la préfecture d'Okayama, et morte le à Tokyo) était une romancière japonaise et activiste pour les droits des femmes ayant vécu durant l’ère Meiji. Conférencière sur l’égalité et les questions sociales, elle se tourna vers l’écriture lorsque la loi fut changée et interdit aux femmes l’accès aux assemblées politiques. Elle devint alors l’une des premières femmes à être journaliste professionnelle au Japon.


Academic background.

Sabar earned a bachelor's degree with distinction in Middle Eastern History and African History at Tel Aviv University in 1985. In 1982, while still an undergraduate, she traveled to Ethiopia to guide a group of American Jews who supported the clandestine Operation Moses (at the time not yet given that name). Between 1982 and 1984, she visited Ethiopia over 20 times, providing funds and information for Ethiopian Jews prior to their journey to Sudan. These two years in Ethiopia had a profound impact on her life, and since then she has continued to visit the continent, with the aim of conducting research as well as for purposes of social and public engagement. In 1987 she received a master's degree in African Studies from the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, which she completed summa cum laude. Her graduate dissertation, supervised by Professor Mordechai Abir, examined Ethiopia's post-revolution consolidation of national identity.  In 1989, Sabar moved with her family to Kenya, where she stayed for three years gathering data for her doctorate. Though the research commenced with the disciplines of history and political science in mind, it eventually shifted to anthropology. In 1993, Sabar received her doctorate in African Studies from Hebrew University. Her research focused on the complex relations between church, state, and society in Kenya, and was supervised by Professor Naomi Chazan and Professor Steven Kaplan. In 1994, she began lecturing at the Department of Middle Eastern and African History at Tel Aviv University. In 1996, she returned to Kenya, where she led an international research group that examined socio-political aspects of the AIDS epidemic in collaboration with Professor Sobbie Mulindi of Kenyatta National Hospital. Since 1998 Sabar has focused her research on African labor migrants and asylum seekers in Israel.  In May 2009, Sabar received the Unsung Heroes of Compassion Award, sponsored by the international organization Wisdom in Action and delivered by the Dalai Lama. The prize is awarded once in several years, and so far it has been given to 150 people worldwide. Sabar was awarded in appreciation of her long and dedicated involvement in both research and social activism in issues pertaining to Ethiopian Jewry as well as to African labor migrants in Israel, and for bringing these issues to the Israeli public eye. Sabar, together with Ms. Ibtisam Mahamid are the first Israelis to be awarded this prize. Sabar received the prize in a ceremony held in San Francisco in May 2009, along with 49 other activists worldwide.

Personal life.

Together with her partner, Ofer Shechter, Sabar is raising five children: Matan, Noam, Yuval, Or and Bar.

Social Involvement.

Sabar is a volunteer board member in four organizations: the Jerusalem AIDS Project (JAIP), IRAC - the Israel Religious Action Center of the Jewish Reform movement, the Hotline for Migrant Workers and NALA, an Israeli-based foundation providing consultation about and implementation of programs for infectious disease control in Africa. Since 2011, Sabar has co-organized, together with Dr. Shiri Tenenbaum, several different courses and workshops aimed at the promotion of health and human rights for African refugees and asylum seekers in Israel. Two of the courses addressed Israeli health workers and two addressed migrants and refugees themselves. All courses were held in collaboration with the "Social Clinic" at Sheba Hospital.

Research.

Christianity in Africa.

From 1987 to 1997, Sabar focused her research on relations between church, state, and society in Kenya. She spent four years in Nairobi, Kenya. Her research was based on thousands of local church documents and official British and Kenyan documents as well as extensive fieldwork conducted throughout the country, which included hundreds of interviews with church members and leaders, and long hours of participant observation in various religious activities.  In 2002 she published in England her book, "Church, State and Society in Kenya: From Mediation to Opposition, 1963-1993". The book traces the complex relations between religion, society and state in Kenya in the years 1963-1993. It emphasizes the centrality of religion in our contemporary modern world. It shows how Kenyan churches helped to shape the social, religious and political arenas in the country. Sabar claims that the churches created alternative politics and a new language with which to discuss human rights issues and the struggle for democracy. Concurrently, the book exposes the churches' widespread corruption and nepotism.

The AIDS epidemic in Africa.

Between 1995-1999, Sabar led an international team of experts which examined the spread of AIDS in Africa through examining the epidemic's socio-political aspects. An emphasis was put on tracing cultural components which make AIDS especially prevalent in some areas. Sabar, together with Prof. Mulindi of Kenyatta National Hospital and Prof. Allie Dubb from Israel, examined the processes which led churches to take key roles in the struggle against AIDS.  During her stay in Kenya in 1996-1997, Sabar broadened the scope of her research on churches to include their contributions to the effort to prevent the further spread of AIDS. She was one of the organizers of the 9th international conference on AIDS prevention, which was attended by renowned scholars on AIDS, including Professor Robert Gallo and Professor Jonathan Mann. From 1997 to 2002, she led an international team of experts which studied the economic, social, ethnic and religious elements which affect Kenyan teenagers in their engagement in sexual relations. AIDS Education Prevention in Multi-Cultural Societies  This book is a collection of essays edited by Sabar together with Inon Schenker and Francisco Sy. Published in 1996, the book brought together articles from various disciplines (e.g., women and AIDS, religion and AIDS, art and AIDS) and from various places, all of which dealt with AIDS prevention. This was the first book in the corpus of AIDS prevention research to tackle the disease from such a wide perspective. While today such an interdisciplinary approach is widely accepted, at the time of the book's publication, it was rather revolutionary.

"Modern Kenyan History: From a White Man’s Colony to an Independent Country".

Sabar, with Professor Mordechai Tamarkin, co-authored this book, which was published in 1997 by the Open University of Israel. It was the first Hebrew-language book to analyze the modern political history of Kenya from the early 1900s to 1992. The book's uniqueness is its attempt to link classical historical writing with writing from other perspectives, including that of gender, workers' unions and religious congregations. The book's main innovation is in its emphasis on the centrality of Christianity in shaping the Kenyan political arena.

African labor migrants.

Starting in 1998, Sabar embarked on a large-scale research project on African labor migrants in Israel. During eight years of extensive field research, she actively participated in their various social activities: churches, sports associations and educational initiatives, attempting to gain insights into their lives, modes of thought and worldviews. In her research, Sabar points at the labor migrants' double identity, as endorsed by the churches: on the one hand, a Christian-religious identity adjusted to life in Israel, and on the other hand, a trans-national modern identity, in line with the globalization process. The findings from her research were published in academic journals.  "We're Not Here to Stay: African Migrant Workers in Israel and Back in Africa". Tel Aviv University Press, 2008. Following massive deportation of non-documented African labor migrants from Israel, Sabar followed the migrants back to their home countries. In 2008, she published "We’re Not Here to Stay", a book that traces and analyzes the full circle of migration: leaving home, establishing life in Israel and returning home. The book analyzes the social, religious and political structures labor migrants established in Israel and their life histories once returning home. In a paper entitled " African-Israel-Africa. Return migration experiences of African Labor migrants", Sabar highlights the significance of the non-material assets returning migrants brought back with them as a key factor in determining the nature of their return experience.  Since 2007 Sabar has focused her research on African asylum seekers, mainly from Sudan and Eritrea, who have entered Israel through its penetrable Egyptian border. Sabar has focused her research on the asylum seekers’ social and cultural lives. In a comparative article entitled "Israel and the ‘Holy Land’: The Religio-Political Discourse of Rights among African Migrant Labourers and African Asylum Seekers, 1990-2008," she explores the religious arena of African Christians in Israel. In a joint research project with Rachel Posner, she highlights the cultural life of African asylum seekers with special emphasis on local restaurants as culinary safe havens.

Galia Sabar (, born 1963, Israel) is the President of Ruppin Academic Center, one of Israel leading public colleges. Prior, she was a Professor of African Studies at Tel Aviv University and the Chair of African Studies at the Department of Middle Eastern and African History at Tel Aviv University, where she also served as the Coordinator of African Studies at the S. Daniel Abraham Center for International and Regional Studies. Sabar has published seven books and dozens of articles in professional journals. In addition to her academic research, Sabar has been a leading social activist in Israel mainly in relation to Ethiopian immigrants as well as in partnership with various NGOs assisting African labor migrants and asylum seekers. In May 2009, in recognition of her work combining academic rigor with social activism, Sabar received the Unsung Heroes of Compassion Award, sponsored by the international organization Wisdom in Action and delivered by the 14th Dalai Lama.

Galia Sabar, née en 1963 en Israël est professeure d'études africaines à l'université de Tel Aviv. Elle est la responsable des études africaines du département d'histoire africaine et du Moyen-Orient de l'université de Tel Aviv où elle est également coordinatrice des études africaine au centre S. Daniem Abraham pour les études régionales et internationales. Sabar a déjà publié sept livres et plusieurs dizaines d'articles dans des journaux spécialisés. En plus de son activité de chercheuse, Sabar est une activiste en faveur des migrants éthiopiens et elle vient en aide aux ONG pour les migrants de travail africains et ceux en pleine demande d'asile. En mai 2009, en reconnaissance de son travail académique et ses implications en tant qu'activiste lui valent la réception du prix Unsung Heroes of Compassion, sponsorisé par l'organisation internationale Wisdom in Action. Elle reçoit son prix de la part du Dalaï-lama


Early life.

Palmer was born in Solihull, Warwickshire, one of seven children. Reportedly dyslexic, Palmer left school at 15 and joined his brother Malcolm in a roof tiling business and also sold paraffin from "the back of a lorry". He married Marnie J. A. Ryan in 1975 in Bristol.  He ran a gold and jewellery dealing company, Scadlynn Ltd, in Bedminster, Bristol with business partners Garth Victor Chappell and Terence Edward James Patch. Palmer and Chappell had been arrested in 1980 when they worked together selling furniture. The two men were charged with obtaining credit on furniture by providing false references, with Palmer receiving a six-month suspended prison sentence.

Brink's-Mat involvement and acquittal.

In 1985, following the November 1983 Brink's-Mat robbery, Chappell and Patch of Scadlynn Ltd were arrested for their involvement in melting down £26 million worth of gold from the robbery to try to pass it off as legitimate. Two days after armed robbers Brian Robinson and Micky McAvoy were jailed, Chappell withdrew £348,000 from the company's accounts. Throughout their trial, a total of £1.1 million had been withdrawn.  During the raids, one of the suspects refused to confirm what they had been melting that morning. It was revealed that the company had been processing millions of pounds' worth of gold, but claimed it was gold they had purchased themselves. The company's books stated that they were selling the melted gold for virtually the same amount as they had purchased it for—which didn't make sense, unless the records were false. Confiscated documents also showed that the company had been evading tax, and were ordered for pay £80,000 in unpaid tax.  Palmer evaded arrest at the time, after fleeing to Tenerife with his family only days prior to his company being raided and its directors arrested. His family returned to England, whilst he sold his remaining assets back home and set up a timeshare business at Island Village, near Playa de las Américas. He attempted to move to Brazil after Spain signed an extradition treaty with the UK, but he was arrested and his entry refused as he had travelled on an expired passport. Deported back to England, he was forced to face trial.  Despite Palmer admitting to melting down gold bars from the robbery in his garden, he was acquitted during the trial in 1987 after claiming that he wasn't aware they were stolen. Chappell was sentenced to ten years in the earlier trial.  He was reported by "The Independent" in 1993 as being subject to an asset-freezing Mareva Injunction gained by Brink's-Mat from the High Court of Justice, enabling investigators to track his substantial financial resources. He later paid out £360,000 to Lloyd's the insurers as a result of a civil action brought against him, but continued to plead his innocence in the 1987 robbery and in 1999 claimed the authorities were persecuting him. For his connection to the Brink's-Mat robbery, Palmer acquired the sobriquet of 'Goldfinger'.

Conviction for time-share fraud and later events.

In 2001, he defended himself after sacking his legal team in one of the longest fraud trials in British legal history. He was found guilty "of masterminding the largest timeshare fraud on record" and jailed for eight years. It is reported that he swindled 20,000 people out of £30 million, but attempts by the Crown to confiscate this profit were later stopped in a court hearing. Sentenced to 8 years, he served just over half of this term. His fortune at the time of his conviction was estimated at about £300 million, but Palmer was declared bankrupt in 2005 with debts of £3.9m.  In 2007, he was arrested on charges including fraud. Reportedly, he had been able to continue his criminal activities during his incarceration, following his 2001 conviction. In 2009, after two years without charge in a high security Spanish jail, he was released on bail, but was required to report to court authorities every two weeks.  In 2015, it was alleged by "The Times" from leaked Operation Tiberius files, that Palmer was protected from arrest and investigation by a clique of high-ranking corrupt Metropolitan Police officers. Palmer's companions were reportedly once detained in possession of a silenced Uzi submachine gun and 380 rounds of ammunition.

Death.

Palmer was murdered on 24 June 2015 at the age of 64 in his gated home of South Weald, near Brentwood, Essex by means of gunshot wounds to the chest. The fact he had been shot 6 times was only revealed during a post-mortem as he had undergone open-heart surgery for which the wounds were mistaken. It was later revealed that at the time of his death, Palmer faced charges in Spain for fraud, firearm possession and money laundering. It was only after his death that it was revealed that in addition to his activities in Spain, Palmer also opened the first Russian timeshare company in the 1990s. It was suggested that he had secret service connections, but lost the Russian business to rivals.  A special BBC documentary presented by broadcaster Roger Cook revealed that since 1999, police had run an intelligence operation on Palmer from the RAF Spadeadam base in Cumbria. Palmer was under electronic surveillance by a secret police intelligence unit for 16 years until his assassination by a hitman in 2015, according to the special BBC television investigation. The Serious and Organised Crime Agency (Soca), now the National Crime Agency had gathered intelligence on Palmer in an operation codenamed Alpine because of concerns of corruption in the Metropolitan police.  Following his death, it was revealed Palmer's partner Christina Ketley remained under police surveillance following reports from Spanish law enforcement agencies that she played a "predominant role" in his criminal empire. Ketley and fellow mistress Saskia Mundinger, who both had children with Palmer, demanded payouts from him in 2005 to "keep them in the lifestyle they became accustomed to". He also had two daughters with his wife Marnie.  On 4 February 2017, a 50-year-old man was questioned on suspicion of Palmer's murder. Police said they had questioned a man who was originally from Tyneside although currently living in southern Spain. The man was not arrested but volunteered to be interviewed at a police station in the UK. The force did not specify at which police station he was interviewed.

John Edward Palmer (September 1950 – 24 June 2015) was an English gangster, former market trader and gold dealer, involved in various criminal activities including mortgage and timeshare fraud.

John Edward Palmer ( - ) est un gangster anglais, ancien trader et courtier en or, impliqué dans diverses activités criminelles, dont la fraude hypothécaire et la fraude sur la location en temps partagé.


Design and development.

With the introduction of the North American Mustang Mk.I with the Royal Air Force's Army Co-operation Squadrons in February 1942, the new fighter began combat missions as a low-altitude reconnaissance and ground-support aircraft. Supplementing the Curtiss P-40 Tomahawks already in service, Mustang Mk Is were first supplied to No. 26 Squadron RAF, then rapidly deployed to 10 additional squadrons by June 1942. First used in combat over the Dieppe Raid on 19 August 1942, a Mustang of No. 414 (RCAF) Squadron downed one of the formidable Focke-Wulf Fw 190s, the first victory for a Mustang. Despite the limited high-altitude performance of the Allison V-1710 engine, the RAF was enthusiastic about its new mount, which "performed magnificently".  During the Mustang Mk. I's successful combat initiation, North American's president Howard "Dutch" Kindelberger pressed the newly redesignated U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) for a fighter contract for the essentially similar P-51, 93 of which had passed into the USAAF when the Lend-Lease contract with Britain ran out of funds. The Mustang Mk IA/P-51 used four 20 mm Hispano wing cannon in place of the original armament, a combination of four wing-mounted.30 caliber (7.62 mm) M1919 Browning machine guns and four.50 caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns, two of which were mounted in the wings, while the second pair was mounted in the "chin", or lower engine cowling, and synchronized to fire through the propeller. No funds were available for new fighter contracts in fiscal year 1942, but General Oliver P. Echols and Fighter Project Officer Benjamin S. Kelsey wanted to ensure that the P-51 remained in production.  Since appropriations were available for an attack aircraft, Echols specified modifications to the P-51 to turn it into a dive bomber. The contract for 500 A-36A aircraft fitted with bomb racks, dive brakes, and heavier-duty wing, was signed by Kelsey on 16 April 1942, even before the first flight of the first production P-51 in May 1942. With orders on the books, North American Aviation (NAA) began modifying the P-51 to accept the bomb shackles which had already been tested in a "long-range ferry" program that the RAF had stipulated. Engineering studies totaling 40,000 hours and wind tunnel testing with a 1⁄8-scale model were completed in June 1942. Utilizing the basic P-51 airframe and Allison engine, structural reinforcing "beefed up" several high stress areas and "a set of hydraulically operated dive brakes were installed in each main wing plane". Due to the slightly inboard placement of the bomb racks and unique installation of four cast aluminum dive brakes, a complete redesign of the P-51 wing was required. The first A-36A ("42-83663") was rolled out of the NAA Inglewood plant in September 1942, rapidly going through flight testing with the first flight in October, with deliveries commencing soon after of the first production machines. The A-36A continued the use of nose-mounted.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns along with wing armament of four.50 in (12.7 mm) caliber machine guns. The USAAF envisaged that the dive bomber would operate mainly at altitudes below 12,000 ft (3,658 m) and specified the use of a sea level-rated Allison V-1710-87, driving a 10 ft 9 in (3.28 m)-diameter three bladed Curtiss-Electric propeller and delivering 1,325 hp (988 kW) at 3,000 ft (914 m). The main air scoop inlet was redesigned to become a fixed unit with a larger opening, replacing the earlier scoop which could be lowered into the airstream. In addition the A-36 carburetor air intake was later fitted with a tropical air filter to stop sand and grit being ingested into the engine.  The USAAF later ordered 310 P-51As, which were essentially A-36s without the dive-brakes and nose-mounted weapons, leaving an armament of four wing-mounted 0.50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns. An Allison V-1710-81 1,200 hp (895 kW) was fitted and used the same radiator and air intake as the A-36A. The P-51A was still fitted with bomb racks although it was not intended to be used primarily as a fighter-bomber and the racks were mainly used to carry drop tanks.

Operational history.

The A-36A-1-NA "Apache" (although Apache was the A-36A's official name, it was rarely used) joined the 27th Fighter-Bomber Group (27th FBG) composed of four squadrons based at Ras el Ma Airfield in French Morocco in April 1943 during the campaign in North Africa. The 27th had a mixed component of Douglas A-20 Havocs and A-36As while the second operational unit, the 86th Fighter Bomber Group (Dive) arrived in March 1943 with the first pilots trained and qualified on the A-36A. On 6 June 1943, both of these A-36A units flew combat missions directed against the island of Pantelleria. The island fell to Allied attack and became the home base for the two A-36A groups during the Allied invasion of Sicily. The A-36A proved to be a potent weapon: it could be put into a vertical dive at 12,000 ft (3,658 m) with deployed dive brakes, thus limiting the dive speed to 390 mph (628 km/h) ("A36A-1 Flight Manual requires deployment before starting a dive"). Pilots soon recognized that extending the dive brakes after "peel-off" led to some unequal extension of the brakes due to varying hydraulic pressure, setting up an invariable slight roll, which impeded aiming. Proper technique soon cured this anomaly and, subsequently, pilots achieved extremely consistent results. Depending on the target and defenses, the bomb release took place between 2,000 ft and 4,000 ft (610 and 1,219 m), followed by an immediate sharp "pull up."  Dive brakes in the wings gave the A-36A greater stability in a dive; however, a myth has arisen that they were useless due to malfunctions or because of the danger of deploying them and that they should be wired closed. Capt. Charles E. Dills, 522d Fighter Squadron, 27th FBG, XIIth Air Force emphatically stated in a postwar interview: "I flew the A-36 for 39 of my 94 missions, from 11/43 to 3/44. They were never wired shut in Italy in combat. This 'wired shut' story apparently came from the training group at Harding Field, Baton Rouge, LA."  However, tactical reconnaissance training with P-51 and A-36 aircraft had delivered some disquieting accident rates. At one time, A-36 training had resulted in the type having "the highest accident rate per hour's flying time" of any USAAF aircraft. The most serious incident involved an A-36A shedding both wings when its pilot tried to pull out from a 450 mph (724 km/h) dive. Combat units flying the A-36A were ordered to restrict their approach to a 70° "glide" attack and refrain from using dive brakes. This order was generally ignored by experienced pilots, but some units did wire dive brakes shut until modifications made to the hydraulic actuators. Nevertheless, the A-36 was used with great success as a dive-bomber, acquiring a reputation for precision, sturdiness and silence.  By late May 1943, 300 A-36As had been deployed to the Mediterranean Theater, with many of the first batch sent to the 27th FBG to re-build the group following losses as well as completing the final transition to an all-A-36A unit. Both groups were actively involved in air support during the Sicilian campaign, becoming especially adept at "mopping up" enemy gun positions and other strong points as the Allies advanced. During this operation, the 27th FBG circulated a petition to adopt the name "Invader" for their rugged little bomber, receiving unofficial recognition of the more fitting name. Despite the name change, most combat reports preferred the name "Mustang" for all of the variants. Author William Hess claims that the Germans gave it a flattering, if fearsome, accolade, calling the A-36As: "screaming helldivers."  Besides dive bombing, the A-36A racked up aerial victories, totaling 84 enemy aircraft downed and creating an "ace", Lieutenant Michael T. Russo from the 27th FBG (ultimately, the only ace using the Allison-engined Mustang). As fighting intensified in all theaters where the A-36A operated, the dive bomber began to suffer an alarming loss rate with 177 falling to enemy action. The main reason for the attrition was the hazardous missions that placed the A-36A "on the deck" facing murderous ground fire. German defenses in southern Italy included placing cables across hill tops to snare the attacking A-36As. Despite establishing a reputation for reliability and performance, the one "Achilles' heel" of the A-36A (and the entire Mustang series) remained its ventral-fuselage location radiator/cooling system, leading to many of the losses. By June 1944, A-36As in Europe were replaced by Curtiss P-40s and Republic P-47 Thunderbolts.  A-36As also served with the 311th Fighter Bomber Group in the China-Burma-India theater. The 311th had arrived in Dinjan, India by late summer 1943 after being shipped across the Pacific via Australia. Two squadrons were equipped with the A-36A while the third flew P-51As. Tasked with reconnaissance, dive bombing, attack and fighter missions, the A-36A was outclassed by its main opposition, the Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar." The light and highly agile Japanese fighter could outmaneuver the A-36A at all altitudes but did have some weak points: it was lightly armed and offered little protection for pilot or fuel tanks. However, the A-36A fought at a significant disadvantage, having to carry out long-range missions often at altitudes above The Hump that meant its Allison engine was below peak performance. In a fighter escort mission over Burma, three A-36As were lost without scoring a single victory. The A-36A CBI missions continued throughout 1943–1944 with indifferent results. The A-36A remained in service in small numbers throughout the remaining year of the war, some being retained in the US as training aircraft.  "The type's relatively brief service life should not camouflage the fact that it made a major contribution to the Allied war effort" especially in the Mediterranean and it amounted to the first USAAF combat use of a Mustang variant. The effectiveness of the A-36 as a ground attack aircraft was demonstrated on 5 June 1944. In a well-planned attack on the large, well defended rail depot and ammunition dump at Orte, Italy, Lieutenant Ross C. Watson led a flight of four A-36s through a heavy overcast on the approach to the target. Watson's A-36s scored several hits under intense anti-aircraft fire although his aircraft was damaged by ground fire. Under continuing heavy ground fire, Watson pressed home his attack and destroyed the ammunition dump before making an emergency landing at an advanced Allied airfield.

Surviving aircraft.

Relatively few A-36As survived the war and the subsequent postwar retirement and scrapping of obsolete types. One A-36A, bearing race number #44, owned and flown by Kendall Everson, was entered in the 1947 Kendall Trophy Race. It was able to reach 377.926 mph, finishing second to the winning P-51D flown by Steve Beville.

The North American A-36 Apache (listed in some sources as "Invader", but also called Mustang) was the ground-attack/dive bomber version of the North American P-51 Mustang, from which it could be distinguished by the presence of rectangular, slatted dive brakes above and below the wings. A total of 500 A-36 dive bombers served in the Mediterranean and Southeast Asia theaters during World War II before being withdrawn from operational use in 1944.

Le North American A-36 "Apache" était un bombardier en piqué monoplace, fabriqué durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale aux États-Unis par North American Aviation. Il a eu une faible influence directe sur le déroulement du conflit, ayant été construit et employé en nombre restreint. En revanche, il est surtout connu comme le prédécesseur immédiat du P-51 "Mustang", un des chasseurs les plus mythiques de l'histoire de l'aviation.


Characteristics.

Barnard's Star b technically remains a planet candidate as it has been proposed with a confidence figure of 99%. The research team that made the announcement will continue observations to ensure that no improbable variations in brightness and motion in the star might account for the discovery. Direct imaging opportunities of the planet from large ground-based telescopes, or potentially the WFIRST telescope, are expected within ten years of 2018. There is an outside chance that a transit of the star might also allow for imaging.  The planet was proposed through the radial velocity method, the most common planet-hunting technique. A "wobble" observed in Barnard's Star's motion was confirmed to have a period of about 233 days, corresponding to a semi-major axis of 0.4 AU for a proposed companion. The mass of the likely planetary body was then deduced to be about 3.2 Earth mass. Analysis was careful and extensive. Lead astronomer Ignasi Ribas notes: "We used observations from seven different instruments, spanning 20 years of measurements, making this one of the largest and most extensive datasets ever used for precise radial-velocity studies."  Barnard's Star b is expected to be frigid, with an equilibrium temperature of around. Its orbital distance, though close to the star by solar system standards, is around the snow line for a dim red dwarf like Barnard's Star. This is the point where volatile compounds such as water condense to form ice and thus outside the assumed habitable zone where temperatures are right for surficial liquid water. However, new research suggests that heat generated by geothermal processes could warm pockets of water beneath the surface of the planet, potentially providing havens for life to evolve.  Astronomers expect to find more such "snow line" planets as proto-planetary accretion is favorable in this temperature range. A second planetary companion for Barnard's Star has been suggested based on unconfirmed "wobbles" in the current system.

Barnard's Star b (also designated GJ 699 b) is a candidate super-Earth-like exoplanet and ice planet that orbits Barnard's Star in the constellation of Ophiuchus. The exoplanet's discovery by an international team of astronomers – including the European Southern Observatory and Carnegie Institution for Science – was officially announced on 14 November 2018. It is the first confirmed planet orbiting Barnard's Star, which is six light-years away from Earth.

Étoile de Barnard b, ou simplement Barnard b (aussi appelée GJ 699 b), est une exoplanète candidate de types super-Terre et planète glacée qui orbite autour de l'étoile de Barnard dans la constellation d'Ophiuchus. La découverte de l'exoplanète par une équipe internationale d'astronomes, dont l'Observatoire européen austral et la "Carnegie Institution for Science", a été officiellement annoncée dans la revue scientifique "Nature" le 14 novembre 2018. C'est la première planète confirmée en orbite autour de l'étoile de Barnard, qui se trouve à juste un peu moins de six années-lumière de la Terre.


History.

The first official mention of the term was at the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China and it has gradually been developed since 2012 after Xi became General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (China's paramount leader). Some news sources have stated that Xi helped create this ideology together with his close advisor Wang Huning.  The 19th Congress affirmed the ideology as a guiding political and military ideology of the Communist Party of China (CCP) and approved the incorporation of the ideology into the Constitution of the Communist Party of China. The affirmation received unanimous support as every delegate voted to approve by raising hands when Xi asked their opinions on the Congress. The incorporation made Xi the third Chinese leader after Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping whose names appeared in the list of fundamental doctrines of the CCP, which raised Xi above his two most recent predecessors, former General Secretaries Hu Jintao and Jiang Zemin. In his report, Xi promised to make China strong, propelling the country into a "new era".  Xi first made mention of the "Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era" in the opening day speech delivered to the 19th Party Congress in October 2017. In reviews of Xi's keynote address at the Congress, Xi's Politburo Standing Committee (top decision-making body) colleagues prepended the description with "Xi Jinping".  Xi has described the thought as part of the broad framework created around socialism with Chinese characteristics, a term coined by Deng Xiaoping, which places China in the "primary stage of socialism". In official party documentation and pronouncements by Xi's colleagues, the thought is said to be a continuation of Marxism–Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, "the important thought of the Three Represents" and the scientific development perspective as part of a series of guiding ideologies that embody "Marxism adapted to Chinese conditions" and contemporary considerations.  Dozens of Chinese universities have established research institutes for Xi Jinping Thought after the Congress dedicated to advocating the incorporation of Xi Jinping Thought in all aspects of daily life. Academics such as Jiang Shigong have written expositions of Xi Jinping Thought.  The concepts behind Xi Jinping Thought are elaborated in Xi's "The Governance of China" book series, published by the Foreign Languages Press for an international audience. Volume one was published in September 2014, followed by volume two in November 2017.  On 27 November, more than 100 of China's top filmmakers, actors and pop stars were gathered for a day in Hangzhou to study the report of the 19th Party Congress featuring Xi Jinping Thought.  In July 2018, the carriages of a train in Changchun Metro were decked out in red and dozens of Xi's quotes to celebrate the 97th anniversary of Communist Party of China. The train was described as a "highly condensed spiritual manual" of Xi Jinping Thought by the local government.  In January 2019, Alibaba Group released an app called "Xuexi Qiangguo" about studying Xi Jinping Thought.  In December 2019, Fudan University added content concerning the inculcation of teachers and students in Xi Jinping Thought into its charter, leading to protests about academic freedom among the students.

Content.

The thought consists of a 14-point basic policy as follows:

Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, simply known as Xi Jinping Thought, is a set of policies and ideals derived from the Chinese Communist Party General Secretary Xi Jinping. It was first officially mentioned at the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, in which it was incorporated into its constitution.

La pensée de Xi Jinping, dénommée aussi la pensée de Xi Jinping, sur le socialisme à la chinoise de la nouvelle ère, présente les idéologies politiques et économiques développées par le Secrétaire général Xi Jinping. Le, la "pensée de Xi Jinping" est inscrite dans la charte du Parti communiste chinois au côté de la pensée de Mao Zedong et de la théorie de Deng Xiaoping.