History.

Cultural history of Poland can be traced back to the Middle Ages. In its entirety, it can be divided into the following historical, philosophical and artistic periods: Culture of medieval Poland (from the late 10th to late 15th century), Renaissance (late 15th to the late 16th century), Baroque (late 16th to the mid-18th century), Enlightenment (second half of the 18th century), Romanticism (from around 1820 until the suppression of the 1863 January uprising against the Russian Empire), Positivism (lasting until the turn of the 20th century), Young Poland (between 1890 and 1918), Interbellum (1918–1939), World War II (1939–1945), People's Republic of Poland (until the 1989 Autumn of Nations), and Modern.

Language.

Polish ("język polski", "polszczyzna") is a language of the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages (also spelled Lechitic) composed of Polish, Kashubian, Silesian and its archaic variant Slovincian, and the extinct Polabian language. All these languages except Polish are sometimes classified as a Pomeranian subgroup. The West Slavic Languages are a subfamily of the Slavic Languages, a descendant of the Indo-European Languages. In the early Middle Ages, before their speakers had become Germanized, Pomeranian languages and dialects were spoken along the Baltic in an area extending from the lower Vistula River to the lower Oder River." used throughout Poland (being that country's official language) and by Polish minorities in other countries. Its written standard is the Polish alphabet, which corresponds to the Latin alphabet with several additions. Despite the pressure of non-Polish administrations in Poland, who have often attempted to suppress the Polish language, a rich literature has developed over the centuries. The language is currently the largest, in speakers, of the West Slavic group. It is the second most widely spoken Slavic language, after Russian and ahead of Ukrainian. Polish is mainly spoken in Poland. Poland is one of the most linguistically homogeneous European countries; nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their mother tongue.

Philosophy.

Polish philosophy drew upon the broader currents of European philosophy, and in turn contributed to their growth. Among the most momentous Polish contributions were made, in the thirteenth century, by the Scholastic philosopher and scientist Vitello, by Paweł Włodkowic - in early fifteen and, by the Renaissance polymath Nicolaus Copernicus in the sixteenth century.  Subsequently, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth partook in the intellectual ferment of the Enlightenment, which for the multi-ethnic Commonwealth ended not long after the partitions and political annihilation that would last for the next 123 years, until the collapse of the three partitioning empires in World War I.  The period of Messianism, between the November 1830 and January 1863 Uprisings, reflected European Romantic and Idealist trends, as well as a Polish yearning for political resurrection. It was a period of maximalist metaphysical systems.  The collapse of the January 1863 Uprising prompted an agonizing reappraisal of Poland's situation. Poles gave up their earlier practice of "measuring their goals by their aspirations" (Adam Mickiewicz) and buckled down to hard work and study. "[A] Positivist," wrote the novelist Bolesław Prus's friend, Julian Ochorowicz, was "anyone who bases assertions on verifiable evidence; who does not express himself categorically about doubtful things, and does not speak at all about those that are inaccessible."  The twentieth century brought a new quickening to Polish philosophy. There was growing interest in western philosophical currents. Rigorously trained Polish philosophers made substantial contributions to specialized fields—to psychology, the history of philosophy, the theory of knowledge, and especially mathematical logic. Jan Łukasiewicz gained world fame with his concept of many-valued logic and his "Polish notation." Alfred Tarski's work in truth theory won him world renown.  After World War II, for over four decades, world-class Polish philosophers and historians of philosophy such as Władysław Tatarkiewicz continued their work, often in the face of adversities occasioned by the dominance of a politically enforced official philosophy. The phenomenologist Roman Ingarden did influential work in esthetics and in a Husserl-style metaphysics; his student Karol Wojtyła acquired a unique influence on the world stage as Pope John Paul II.

Cuisine.

Polish foods include kiełbasa, pierogi (filled with meat, potatoes, cabbage, cheese or holiday fruits), pyzy (meat-filled dough balls), kopytka, gołąbki (meat and rice stuffed cabbage), śledzie (herring), bigos, schabowy, oscypek and much more. Traditionally, food such as soups flaki, rosół, zupa ogórkowa, zupa grzybowa (mushroom soup), żurek, zupa pomidorowa (tomato soup) have been prepared in large vessels intended for groups, often necessitating the use of devices such as oars in their preparation. Traditionally, hospitality is very important.  In the Middle Ages, as the cities of Poland grew larger in size and the food markets developed, the culinary exchange of ideas progressed & people got acquainted with new dishes and recipes. Some regions became well known for the type of sausage they made and many sausages of today still carry those original names. The peasants acknowledged their honorable judgment, allowing them to maintain nourished for longer periods of time.  The most important drink is vodka. The first known written mention of the drink was in 1405 in "Akta Grodzkie", the court documents from the Palatinate of Sandomierz in Poland. At the time, the word vodka (wódka), referred to chemical compounds such as medicines and cosmetics' cleansers, while the popular beverage was called "gorzałka" (from the Old Polish "gorzeć" meaning "to burn"), which is also the source of Ukrainian "horilka" (горілка). The word "vodka" written in Cyrillic appeared first in 1533, in relation to a medicinal drink brought from Poland to Russia by the merchants of Kievan Rus'.  According to a 2009 Ernst & Young report, Poland is Europe's third largest beer producer: Germany with 103 million hectolitres, UK with 49.5 million hl, Poland with 36.9 million hl. Following consecutive growth in the home market, Polish Union of the Brewing Industry Employers (Związek Pracodawców Przemysłu Piwowarskiego), which represents approximately 90% of the Polish beer market, announced during the annual brewing industry conference that consumption of beer in 2008 rose to 94 litres per capita, or 35,624 million hectolitres sold on domestic market. Statistically, a Polish consumer drinks some 92 litres of beer a year, which places it a third behind Germany. Drinking beer as a basic drink was typical during the Middle Ages. Wine is recently becoming more popular. In fact, Polish mead, a honey wine was a traditional drink dating back also to the Middle Ages.  Soft drinks include "napoje gazowane" (carbonated drinks), "napoje bezalkoholowe" (non-alcoholic drinks) like water, tea, juice, coffee or kompot. Kompot is a non-alcoholic beverage made of boiled fruit, optionally with sugar and spices (clove or cinnamon), served hot or cold. It can be made of one type of fruit or a mixture, including apples, peaches, pears, strawberries or sour cherries. Also, Susz is type of kompot made with dried fruits, most commonly apples, apricots, figs. Traditionally served on Christmas Eve.  Among holiday meals, there is a traditional Christmas Eve supper called Wigilia. Another special occasion is Fat Thursday ("Tłusty Czwartek"), a Catholic feast celebrated on the last Thursday before the Lent. Traditionally it is a day when people eat large amounts of sweets and cakes that are afterwards forbidden until Easter day (see also: the Polish traditional Easter Breakfast).

Architecture.

Polish cities and towns reflect the whole spectrum of European styles. Poland's (along with Hungary's) eastern frontiers used to mark the outermost boundary of the influences of Western architecture on the continent.  History has not been good to Poland's architectural monuments. However, ancient structures have survived: castles, churches, and stately buildings, often unique in the regional or European context. Some of them have been painstakingly restored, like Wawel Castle, or completely reconstructed after being destroyed in the Second World War, including the Old Town and Royal Castle in Warsaw, as well as the Old Towns of Gdańsk and Wrocław.  The architecture of Gdańsk is mostly Hanseatic, common in cities along the Baltic Sea and in the northern part of Central Europe. The architectural style of Wrocław is representative of German architecture, since it was a part of the German states for centuries. The center of Kazimierz Dolny on the Vistula is a good example of a well-preserved medieval town, also local variation of Renaissance architecture has been developed called Lublin Renaissance it has preserved in Lublin as Lublin Old Town and Old City of Zamość in Zamość. Poland's ancient capital, Kraków, ranks among the best-preserved Gothic and Renaissance urban complexes in Europe. Meanwhile, the legacy of the Kresy Marchlands of Poland's eastern regions with Wilno and Lwów (now Vilnius and Lviv) as two major centers for the arts played a special role in these developments with Roman-Catholic church architecture deserving special attention. In Vilnius (Lithuania) there are about 40 baroque and Renaissance churches. In Lviv (Ukraine) there are Gothic, Renaissance, and baroque urban churches with influences of the orthodox and Armenian church.  One of the best-preserved examples of the Modernist architecture in Europe is located in Katowice, Upper Silesia, designed and built in the 1930s. Interesting buildings were also constructed during the Communist era in the style of Socialist Realism; some remarkable examples of modern architecture were erected more recently.

Art.

Polish art has always reflected European trends while maintaining its unique character. The Kraków school of Historicist painting developed by Jan Matejko produced monumental portrayals of customs and significant events in Polish history. Stanisław Witkiewicz was an ardent supporter of Realism in Polish art, its main representative being Jozef Chełmoński. The Młoda Polska (Young Poland) movement witnessed the birth of modern Polish art and engaged in a great deal of formal experimentation led by Jacek Malczewski (Symbolism), Stanisław Wyspiański, Józef Mehoffer, and a group of Polish Impressionists. Artists of the twentieth-century Avant-Garde represented various schools and trends. The art of Tadeusz Makowski was influenced by Cubism; while Władysław Strzemiński and Henryk Stażewski worked within the Constructivist idiom. Distinguished contemporary artists include Monika Sosnowska, Roman Opałka, Leon Tarasewicz, Jerzy Nowosielski, Mirosław Bałka, and Katarzyna Kozyra and Zbigniew Wąsiel in the younger generation. The most celebrated Polish sculptors include Xawery Dunikowski, Katarzyna Kobro, Alina Szapocznikow and Magdalena Abakanowicz. Since the inter-war years, Polish art and documentary photography has enjoyed worldwide recognition. In the sixties the Polish Poster School was formed, with Henryk Tomaszewski and Waldemar Świerzy at its head.

Music.

Artists from Poland, including famous composers like Karol Lipiński, Frédéric Chopin or Witold Lutosławski and traditional, regionalized folk musicians, create a lively and diverse music scene, which even recognizes its own music genres, such as poezja śpiewana. Today in Poland you can find trance, techno, House music, and heavy metal.  The origin of Polish music can be traced as far back as the 13th century, from which manuscripts have been found in Stary Sącz, containing polyphonic compositions related to the Parisian Notre Dame School. Other early compositions, such as the melody of "Bogurodzica", may also date back to this period. The first known notable composer, however, Mikołaj z Radomia, lived in the 15th century. The melody of "Bóg się rodzi" by an unknown composer was a coronation polonaise for Polish kings.  During the 16th century, mostly two musical groups – both based in Kraków and belonging to the King and Archbishop of Wawel – led the rapid innovation of Polish music. Composers writing during this period include Wacław z Szamotuł, Mikołaj Zieleński, and Mikołaj Gomółka. Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian who lived in Kraków from about the age of five, became one of the most famous lutenists at the court of Sigismund III. He imported some of the musical styles from southern Europe and blended them with native folk music.  Among the best classical Modern Composers are Polish musicians Grażyna Bacewicz, Witold Lutosławski, Krzysztof Penderecki and Henryk Górecki. The Polish world renown virtuosos of classical music of all time include composers Karol Lipiński, Artur Rubinstein, Ignacy Paderewski, Mieczysław Horszowski, Grażyna Bacewicz, Wanda Wilkomirska and Krystian Zimerman.  Jazz musician Krzysztof Komeda was known after WWII especially for his movie soundtracks, including movies directed by Roman Polański, but also for his 1966 album "Astigmatic".  Poland has one of the strongest and best-respected electronic dance music (EDM) scenes in Europe. One of the biggest record labels of EDM in Poland is Empire Records. The Death Metal band Vader is considered the most successful Polish Metal act and have gained commercial and critical praise internationally. Their career spans more than three decades with many international tours. They are often seen as a huge inspiration on modern Death Metal. Behemoth and Decapitated have found significant success inside and outside Poland. Both have toured extensively across Europe, America and, in the case of Decapitated, have recently toured Australia and New Zealand. Recently Indukti, Hate, Trauma, Crionics, Lost Soul and Lux Occulta have started to become well known outside of Poland. There is also an active grindcore, and a healthy black metals scenes as well, the later led by Graveland, Darzamat, Kataxu, Infernal War and Vesania.

Literature.

Since the arrival of Christianity and the subsequent access to Western European civilization, Poles developed a significant literary production in Latin. Conspicuous authors of the Middle Ages are among others Gallus Anonymus, Wincenty Kadłubek and Jan Długosz, an author of the monumental work on the history of Poland. With the arrival of the Renaissance, Poles came under the influence of the artistic patterns of the humanistic style, actively participating in the European issues of that time with their Latin works. The origins of Polish literature written in Polish go back beyond the 14th century. In the 16th century the poetic works of Jan Kochanowski established him as a leading representative of European Renaissance literature. Baroque and Neo-Classicist belle letters made a significant contribution to the cementing of Poland's peoples of many cultural backgrounds. The early 19th century novel "Manuscrit trouvé à Saragosse" by Count Jan Potocki, which survived in its Polish translation after the loss of the original in French, became a world classic. Wojciech Has's film based on it, a favourite of Luis Buñuel, later became a cult film on university campuses. Poland's great Romantic literature flourished in the 19th century when the country had lost its independence. The poets Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki and Zygmunt Krasiński, the "Three Bards", became the spiritual leaders of a nation deprived of its sovereignty, and prophesied its revival. The novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, who won the Nobel Prize in 1905, eulogised the historical tradition. It is difficult to grasp fully the detailed tradition of Polish Romanticism and its consequences for Polish literature without a thorough knowledge of Polish history.  In the early 20th century many outstanding Polish literary works emerged from the new cultural exchange and Avant-Garde experimentation. The legacy of the Kresy marshlands of Poland's eastern regions with Wilno and Lwów (now Vilnius and Lviv) as two major centres for the arts, played a special role in these developments. This was also a region in which Jewish tradition and the mystic movement of Hasidism thrived. The Kresy were a cultural trysting-place for numerous ethnic and national groups whose achievements were inspiring each other. The works of Bruno Schulz, Bolesław Leśmian, and Józef Czechowicz were written there. In the south of Poland, Zakopane was the birthplace of the avant-garde works of Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz (Witkacy). And, last but not least, Władysław Reymont was awarded the 1924 Nobel prize in literature for his novel Chłopi (The Peasants).  After the Second World War many Polish writers found themselves in exile, with many of them clustered around the Paris-based "Kultura" publishing venture run by Jerzy Giedroyc. The group of emigre writers included Witold Gombrowicz, Gustaw Herling-Grudziński, Czesław Miłosz, and Sławomir Mrożek.  Zbigniew Herbert, Tadeusz Różewicz, Czesław Miłosz, and Wisława Szymborska are among the most outstanding 20th century Polish poets, including novelists and playwrights Witold Gombrowicz, Sławomir Mrożek, and Stanisław Lem (science fiction). The long list includes Hanna Krall whose work focuses mainly on the war-time Jewish experience, and Ryszard Kapuściński with books translated into many languages.

The culture of Poland () is the product of its geography and distinct historical evolution which is closely connected to its intricate thousand-year history. Polish culture forms an important part of western civilization and the western world, with significant contributions to art, music, philosophy, mathematics, science, politics and literature.

La culture de la Pologne, pays de l'Europe centrale, désigne d'abord les pratiques culturelles observables de ses habitants (38,4 millions selon une estimation de 2017).


Biography.

Early life.

Meltzer was born in Rochester, New York, the son of a cellist and a harpist. In 1940, the family moved to Brooklyn. At the age of 11, he wrote his first poem, on the topic of the New York City subway system. He performed on radio and TV in "The Horn and Hardart Children's Hour". The family moved once again to Rockville Centre. His parents separated, and he accompanied his father to Los Angeles in 1954. In 1957, he moved to San Francisco and became part of a circle of writers based around Jack Spicer and Robert Duncan.  In 1958, he recorded an album of his poems with a jazz combo featuring pianist Bob Dorough for Jim Dickson on Dickson's Vaja label. The album was not released but finally saw the light of day in 2006 on Sierra Records titled "David Meltzer: Poet w/ Jazz 1958." Jim Dickson had earlier recorded Lord Buckley, Lenny Bruce and the Page Cavanaugh Trio. Later Jim would be A&R producer for World Pacific and Elektra Records as well as discovering and producing the rock group, The Byrds.  In 1968, Meltzer signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War.

Work.

One of the key poets of the Beat generation, Meltzer was also a jazz guitarist, Kabbalist scholar, and the author of more than 50 books of poetry and prose. 2005 saw the publication of "David's Copy: The Selected Poems of David Meltzer" (edited by Michael Rothenberg and with an introduction by Jerome Rothenberg), which provides a current overview of Meltzer's work.  Meltzer's "Beat Thing" (La Alameda Press) is his epic poem on the Beat generation. Jack Hirschman said of it:  Meltzer's other books include, "No Eyes", poems on Lester Young, and a book of interviews, "San Francisco Beat: Talking with the Poets" (City Lights Books).  Meltzer taught at the New College of California in the Poetics Program, which was founded by Duncan McNaughton.  With his singer-musician wife Tina Meltzer, David recorded as a duo and then with their group, The Serpent Power. With his second wife, poet Julie Rogers, Meltzer frequently performed at poetry venues. The two produced a CD, "Two-Tone," in collaboration with tenor saxophonist, Zan Stewart.

Death.

He spent most of his life in the San Francisco Bay Area. Meltzer died on December 31, 2016, after suffering a stroke at his home in Oakland.

David Meltzer (February 17, 1937 – December 31, 2016) was an American poet and musician of the Beat Generation and San Francisco Renaissance. Lawrence Ferlinghetti described him as "one of the greats of post-World-War-Two San Francisco poets and musicians". Meltzer came to prominence with inclusion of his work in the anthology, "The New American Poetry 1945–1960".

David Meltzer, né le à Rochester dans l'État de New York et mort le à Oakland en Californie, est un écrivain, poète et musicien américain de la Beat Generation.


Parable.

Luke 16:19–31, New International Version:

Interpretations.

There are different views on the historicity and origin of the story of the Rich Man and Lazarus..  The story is unique to Luke and is not thought to come from the hypothetical Q document.

As a literal historical event.

Some Christians view the story not as a parable, but as an actual event which was related by Jesus to his followers. This was generally the view of the medieval Church.  Supporters of this view point to a key detail in the story: the use of a personal name (Lazarus) not found in any other parable. By contrast, in all of the other parables Jesus refers to a central character by a description, such as "a certain man", "a sower", and so forth..  Critics of this view point out that "The soul that sins, it shall die" (Ezekiel 18); "For dust you are and to dust you shall return" (Genesis 3:19). Paul (1 Thessalonians 4:13–18) describes death as sleep until the Day of the Lord, when the dead will receive glorified bodies upon the resurrection (1 Corinthians 15). No scripture, other than Philippians 1:23–25 (in which the apostle expresses the confidence that on departure from this life he would be with Christ), 2 Corinthians 12:2–4 (in which he affirms the possibility of being taken to paradise out of the body), 2 Corinthians 5:8, etc., accounts for a disembodied soul and its comfort or torture. Because this seems to raise the question of what kind of body is tortured in Hades as depicted in Luke, there are those who maintain that whilst the conversations took place as described, the language used in them, referring to body parts, etc., was figurative.

As a parable created by Jesus.

Other Christians consider that this is a parable created by Jesus and told to his followers. Tom Wright and Joachim Jeremias both treat it as a "parable". Proponents of this view argue that the story of Lazarus and the rich man has much in common with other stories which are agreed-upon parables, both in language and content (e.g. the reversal of fortunes, the use of antithesis, and concern for the poor).

Jesus using parable against the High Priest.

According to Josephus, Caiaphas was appointed High Priest in AD 18 by the Roman prefect who preceded Pontius Pilate, Valerius Gratus.  One identification is that the man in torment in the parable is Caiaphas the High Priest. Caiaphas met the criteria Jesus gives in the parable to the identity of the Rich Man. He was rich, and as the high priest was dressed in purple and fine linen, he had five brothers, and was well versed in Moses and the Prophets, but according to Jesus, were ignoring what they wrote.

Luther: a parable of the conscience.

Martin Luther taught that the story was a parable about rich and poor in this life and the details of the afterlife not to be taken literally:

Lightfoot: a parable against the Pharisees.

John Lightfoot (1602–1675) treated the parable as a parody of Pharisee belief concerning the Bosom of Abraham, and from the connection of Abraham saying the rich man's family would not believe even if the parable Lazarus was raised, to the priests' failure to believe in the resurrection of Christ:  E. W. Bullinger in the Companion Bible cited Lightfoot's comment, and expanded it to include coincidence to lack of belief in the resurrection of the historical Lazarus (John 12:10). Bullinger considered that Luke did not identify the passage as a "parable" because it contains a parody of the view of the afterlife:

Drioux: a parable against the Sadducees.

An alternative explanation of the parable is a satirical parable against the Sadducees. One writer to identify the Sadducees as the target was Johann Nepomuk Sepp. The arguments in favour of identification of the Rich Man as the Sadducees are (1) the wearing of purple and fine linen, priestly dress, (2) the reference to "five brothers in my father's house" as an allusion to Caiaphas' father-in-law Annas, and his five sons who also served as high priests according to Josephus, (3) Abraham's statement in the parable that they would not believe even if he raised Lazarus, and then the fulfillment that when Jesus did raise Lazarus of Bethany the Sadducees not only did not believe, but attempted to have Lazarus killed again: "So the chief priests made plans to put Lazarus to death as well" (John 12:10). This last interpretation had wide circulation in France during the 1860s–1890s as a result of having been included in the notes of the pictorial Bible of Abbé Drioux.

Perry: a parable of a new covenant.

Simon Perry has argued that the Lazarus of the parable (an abbreviated transcript of "Eleazer") refers to Eliezer of Damascus, Abraham's servant. In Genesis 15—a foundational covenant text familiar to any first century Jew—God says to Abraham "this man will not be your heir" (Gen 15:4). Perry argues that this is why Lazarus is outside the gates of Abraham's perceived descendant. By inviting Lazarus to Abraham's bosom, Jesus is redefining the nature of the covenant. It also explains why the rich man assumes Lazarus is Abraham's servant.

Afterlife doctrine.

Most Christians believe in the immortality of the soul and particular judgment and see the story as consistent with it, or even refer to it to establish these doctrines like St. Irenaeus did. Others believe that the main point of the parable was to warn the godless wealthy about their need for repentance in this life and Jesus did not intend to give a preview of life after death. The parable teaches in this particular case that both identity and memory remain after death for the soul of the one in a hell. Eastern Orthodox Christians and Latter-Day Saints see the story as consistent with their belief in Hades, where the righteous and unrighteous alike await the resurrection of the dead. Western Christians usually interpret Lazarus as being in Heaven or Paradise and the rich man in Hell. The belief in a state of Limbo is less common.  Some Christians believe in the mortality of the soul ("Christian mortalism" or "soul sleep") and general judgment ("Last Judgment") only. This view is held by some Anglicans such as E. W. Bullinger. Proponents of the mortality of the soul, and general judgment, for example Advent Christians, Conditionalists, Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Christadelphians, and Christian Universalists, argue that this is a parable using the framework of Jewish views of the Bosom of Abraham, and is metaphorical, and is not definitive teaching on the intermediate state for several reasons. In "hades" is itself thrown into the "lake of fire" after being emptied of the dead.

Literary provenance and legacy.

Jewish sources.

Some scholars—e.g., G. B. Caird, Joachim Jeremias, Marshall, Hugo Gressmann,—suggest the basic storyline of "The Rich Man and Lazarus" was derived from Jewish stories that had developed from an Egyptian folk tale about Si-Osiris. Richard Bauckham is less sure, adding: In any case, [Jesus] has used [motifs also found in the Egyptian and Jewish stories] to construct a new story, which as a whole is not the same as any other extant story....[Of course] comparison with the way they function in other stories can help to highlight their function in the parable. In this sense, the parallels and contrasts with the Egyptian and Jewish story of the rich and the poor man can be instructive... Steven Cox highlights other elements from Jewish myths that the parable could be mimicking.

Legacy in Early Christianity and Medieval tradition.

Hippolytus of Rome (ca. AD 200) describes Hades with similar details: the bosom of Abraham for the souls of the righteous, fiery torment for the souls of wicked, and a chasm between them. He equates the fires of Hades with the lake of fire described in the Book of Revelation, but specifies that no one will actually be cast into the fire until the end times.  In some European countries, the Latin description "dives" (Latin for "the rich man") is treated as his proper name: Dives. In Italy, the description "epulone" (Italian for "banquetter") is also used as a proper name. Both descriptions appear together, but not as a proper name, in Peter Chrysologus's sermon "De divite epulone" (Latin "On the Rich Banquetter"), corresponding to the verse, "There was a "rich man" who was clothed in purple and fine linen and who "feasted" sumptuously every day".  The story was frequently told in an elaborated form in the medieval period, treating it as factual rather than a parable. Lazarus was venerated as a patron saint of lepers. In the 12th century, crusaders in the Kingdom of Jerusalem founded the Order of Saint Lazarus.  The story was often shown in art, especially carved at the portals of churches, at the foot of which beggars would sit (for example at Moissac and Saint-Sernin, Toulouse), pleading their cause. There is a surviving stained-glass window at Bourges Cathedral.  In the Latin liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, the words of "In paradisum" are sometimes chanted as the deceased is taken from church to burial, including this supplication: "Chorus angelorum te suscipiat... et cum Lazaro quondam paupere aeternam habeas requiem" (May the ranks of angels receive you... and with Lazarus, who was once poor, may you have eternal rest").

Conflation with Lazarus of Bethany.

The name Lazarus, from the Hebrew: אלעזר, Elʿāzār, Eleazar—"God is my help", also belongs to the more famous biblical character Lazarus of Bethany, known as "Lazarus of the Four Days", who is the subject of a prominent miracle attributed to Jesus in the Gospel of John, in which Jesus resurrects him four days after his death.  Historically within Christianity, the begging Lazarus of the parable (feast day June 21) and Lazarus of Bethany (feast day December 17) have often been conflated, with some churches celebrating a blessing of dogs, associated with the beggar, on December 17, the date associated with Lazarus of Bethany.  Another example of this conflation can be found in Romanesque iconography carved on portals in Burgundy and Provence. For example, at the west portal of the Church of St. Trophime at Arles, the beggar Lazarus is enthroned as St. Lazarus. Similar examples are found at the church at Avallon, the central portal at Vézelay, and the portals of the cathedral of Autun.

In literature and poetry.

Geoffrey Chaucer's "Summoner" observes that "Dives and Lazarus lived differently, and their rewards were different."  In William Shakespeare's "Henry IV Part I", Sir John Falstaff alludes to the story while insulting his friend Bardolph about his face, comparing it to a memento mori: "I never see thy face," he says "but I think upon hell-fire and Dives that lived in purple; for there he is in his robes, burning, burning" (III, 3, 30–33). When recalling the death of Falstaff in "Henry V" the description of Lazarus in heaven ("into Abraham's bosom") is parodied as "He’s in Arthur’s bosom, if ever man went to Arthur’s bosom." (II. 3, 7–8)  References to Dives and Lazarus are a frequent image in socially conscious fiction of the Victorian period. For example: Although Dickens' "A Christmas Carol" and "The Chimes" do not make any direct reference to the story, the introduction to the Oxford edition of the "Christmas Books" does.  In Herman Melville's "Moby-Dick", Ishmael describes a windswept and cold night from the perspective of Lazarus ("Poor Lazarus, chattering his teeth against the curbstone...") and Dives ("...the privilege of making my own summer with my own coals").  The poem "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" by T. S. Eliot contains the lines: 'To say: "I am Lazarus, come from the dead,/Come back to tell you all, I shall tell you all"' in reference to Dives' request to have Beggar Lazarus return from the dead to tell his brothers of his fate.  Richard Crashaw wrote a metaphysical stanza for his "Steps to the Temple" in 1646 entitled, "Upon Lazarus His Tears": <poem>Rich Lazarus! richer in those gems, thy tears, Than Dives in the robes he wears: He scorns them now, but oh they'll suit full well With the purple he must wear in hell.</poem>  Dives and Lazarus appear in Edith Sitwell's poem "Still falls the Rain" from "The Canticle of the Rose", first published in 1941. It was written after The Blitz on London in 1940. The poem is dark, full of the disillusions of World War II. It speaks of the failure of man, but also of God's continuing involvement in the world through Christ: <poem> Still falls the Rain At the feet of the Starved Man hung upon the Cross. Christ that each day, each night, nails there, have mercy on us— On Dives and on Lazarus: Under the Rain the sore and the gold are as one.</poem>

In music and song.

"Vater Abraham, erbarme dich mein, SWV 477 (Dialogus divites Epulonis cum Abrahamo)", a work by Heinrich Schütz, is a setting of the dialog between Abraham and the rich man dating to the 1620s. It is notable for its virtuosic text-painting of the flames of hell, as well as being an important example of the "dialog" as a step towards the development of the oratorio.  "Dives Malus" (the wicked rich man) also known as "Historia Divitis" (c. 1640) by Giacomo Carissimi is a Latin paraphrase of the Luke text, set as an oratorio for 2 sopranos, tenor, bass; for private performance in the oratories of Rome in the 1640s. "Mensch, was du tust" a German sacred concerto by Johann Philipp Förtsch (1652–1732).  The story appeared as an English folk song whose oldest written documentation dates from 1557, with the depiction of the afterlife altered to fit Christian tradition. The song was also published as the Child ballad Dives and Lazarus in the 19th century. Ralph Vaughan Williams based his orchestral piece "Five Variants of Dives and Lazarus" (1939) on this folk song, and also used an arrangement as the hymn tune "Kingsfold". Benjamin Britten set Edith Sitwell's poem "Still Falls the Rain" (above) to music in his third Canticle in a series of five.  The traditional US gospel song "Dip Your Fingers In The Water" has been recorded in various versions by a number of artists, notably by folk singer and civil rights activist Josh White on his 1947 album "Josh White – Ballads And Blues Volume 2". The lyrics contain the recurring refrain "Dip your finger in the water, come and cool my tongue, cause I'm tormented in the flame".  Lazarus American soft rock band releasing their first, self-titled album in 1971. The trio of musical friends met as students in a Texas college, and are noted as early artists in the Contemporary Christian movement.  "No Second Chances" (1991) by Whitecross, a Christian band's musical interpretation of the parable.  "Diversus and Lazarus" (2004) by Steeleye Span on the album "They Called Her Babylon" is based on the Child Ballad.  "Crumbs from Your Table" (2004) by U2 on the album "How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb" references this passage.  "Chasm" (2009) was a music video performed by Flyleaf, a Christian band, referencing the parable.  "Lazarus" (2010) by Circa Survive on the album "Appendage (EP)" refers to this passage.  "Lazarus" (2016) was the last single that David Bowie released before his death.

The Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem.

The Military and Hospitaller Order of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem (OSLJ) is an order of chivalry which originated in a leper hospital founded by Knights Hospitaller in the 12th century by Crusaders of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Order of Saint Lazarus is one of the most ancient of the European orders of chivalry, yet is one of the less-known and less-documented orders. The first mention of the Order of Saint Lazarus in surviving sources dates to 1142.  The Order was originally established to treat the virulent disease of leprosy, its knights originally being lepers themselves. According to the Order's official international website, "From its foundation in the 12th century, the members of the Order were dedicated to two ideals: aid to those suffering from the dreadful disease of leprosy and the defense of the Christian faith." Sufferers of leprosy regarded the beggar Lazarus (of Luke 16:19–31) as their patron saint and usually dedicated their hospices to him.  The order was initially founded as a leper hospital outside the city walls of Jerusalem, but hospitals were established all across the Holy Land dependent on the Jerusalem hospital, notably in Acre. It is unknown when the order became militarised but militarisation occurred before the end of the 12th century due to the large numbers of Templars and Hospitallers sent to the leper hospitals to be treated. The order established ‘lazar houses’ across Europe to care for lepers, and was well supported by other military orders which compelled lazar brethren in their rule to join the order upon contracting leprosy.

The parable of the rich man and Lazarus (also called the Dives and Lazarus or Lazarus and Dives) is a well-known parable of Jesus appearing in the Gospel of Luke.

La parabole du riche et de Lazare est l'une des paraboles de Jésus de Nazareth. Elle est la seule dans laquelle l'auteur mentionne le nom de l'un de ses protagonistes.


Overview.

Ethernet Powerlink expands Ethernet with a mixed polling and timeslicing mechanism. This provides:  Modern implementations reach cycle-times of under 200 μs and a time-precision (jitter) of less than 1 μs.

Standardization.

Powerlink was standardized by the Ethernet Powerlink Standardization Group (EPSG) and founded in June 2003 as an independent association. Working groups focus on tasks like safety, technology, marketing, certification and end users. The EPSG cooperates with the standardization bodies and associations, like the CAN in Automation (CiA) Group and the IEC.

Physical layer.

The original physical layer specified was 100BASE-TX Fast Ethernet. Since the end of 2006, Ethernet Powerlink with Gigabit Ethernet supported a transmission rate ten times higher (1,000 Mbit/s).  Repeating hubs instead of switches within the Real-time domain is recommended to minimise delay and jitter. Ethernet Powerlink uses IAONA's Industrial Ethernet Planning and Installation Guide for clean cabling of industrial networks and both industrial Ethernet connectors 8P8C (commonly known as RJ45) and M12 are accepted.

Data link layer.

The standard Ethernet data link layer is extended by an additional bus scheduling mechanism, which secures that at a time only one node is accessing the network. The schedule is divided into an isochronous phase and an asynchronous phase. During the isochronous phase, time-critical data is transferred, while the asynchronous phase provides bandwidth for the transmission of non time-critical data. The Managing Node (MN) grants access to the physical medium via dedicated poll request messages. As a result, only one single node (CN) has access to the network at a time, which avoids collisions, present on older Ethernet hubs before switches. The CSMA/CD mechanism of non-switched Ethernet, which caused non-deterministic Ethernet behaviour, is avoided by the Ethernet Powerlink scheduling mechanism.

Basic cycle.

After system start-up is finished, the Real-Time domain is operating under Real-Time conditions. The scheduling of the basic cycle is controlled by the Managing Node (MN). The overall cycle time depends on the amount of isochronous data, asynchronous data and the number of nodes to be polled during each cycle.  The basic cycle consists of the following phases:  The time frame which includes Preq-n and Pres-n is called time slot for the addressed node.  The quality of the Real-Time behavior depends on the precision of the overall basic cycle time. The length of individual phases can vary as long as the total of all phases remain within the basic cycle time boundaries. Adherence to the basic cycle time is monitored by the Managing Node. The duration of the isochronous and the asynchronous phase can be configured.  Picture 1: Frames above the time line are sent by the MN, below the time line by different CNs.  Picture 2: Time slots for nodes and the asynchronous time slot  Multiplex for Bandwidth Optimization  In addition to transferring isochronous data during each basic cycle, some nodes are also able to share transfer slots for better bandwidth utilization. For that reason, the isochronous phase can distinguish between transfer slots dedicated to particular nodes, which have to send their data in every basic cycle, and slots shared by nodes to transfer their data one after the other in different cycles. Therefore, less important yet still time-critical data can be transferred in longer cycles than the basic cycle. Assigning the slots during each cycle is at the discretion of the Managing Node.  Picture 3: Time slots in EPL multiplexed mode.  Poll response chaining  Mode used mainly for robotics applications and large superstructures. Key is lower number of frames and better data distributions.

OpenSAFETY.

Today, machines, plants and safety systems are stuck in a rigid scheme made up of hardware-based safety functions. The consequences of this are cost-intensive cabling and limited diagnostic options. The solution is the integration of safety relevant application data into the standard serial control protocol. OpenSAFETY allows both publish/subscriber and client/server communication. Safety relevant data is transmitted via an embedded data frame inside of standard communication messages. Measures to avoid any undetected failures due to systematic or stochastic errors are an integral part of a functional safety protocol. OpenSAFETY is in conformance with IEC 61508. The protocol fulfills the requirements of SIL 3. Error detection techniques have no impact on existing transport layers.

External links.

Ethernet Powerlink and OpenSafety Forums on LinkedIn

Ethernet Powerlink is a real-time protocol for standard Ethernet. It is an open protocol managed by the Ethernet POWERLINK Standardization Group (EPSG). It was introduced by Austrian automation company B&R in 2001.

POWERLINK (anciennement, Ethernet PowerLink) est un protocole temps réel et déterministe pour Ethernet standard. Ce protocole ouvert et exempt de licence est régi par l'Ethernet Powerlink Standardization Group (EPSG). Il a été introduit pour la première fois sur le marché par la société B&R en 2001.


Plot introduction.

The novel is set in the land of Gwynedd, one of the fictional Eleven Kingdoms. Gwynedd itself is a medieval kingdom similar to the British Isles of the 12th century, with a powerful Holy Church (based on the Roman Catholic Church), and a feudal government ruled by a hereditary monarchy. The population of Gwynedd includes both humans and Deryni, a race of people with inherent physic and magical abilities who have been brutally persecuted and suppressed for over two centuries. The novel begins four months after the conclusion of "The Bishop's Heir", and the plot details the continuing efforts of King Kelson Haldane to defeat the combined forces of a political adversary and a fanatical religious enemy.

Plot summary.

The plot of "The King's Justice" spans a period of two months, from May 1124 to July 1124. The novel begins as King Kelson Haldane is making final preparations to launch a military campaign into the province of Meara. Although Meara has been a part of Gwynedd for over a century, a descendant of the ancient Mearan rulers, Caitrin Quinnell, has gathered an army and risen against Kelson to secure her place as queen of an independent and sovereign Meara. Additionally, Caitrin has allied herself with Edmund Loris, the rabidly anti-Deryni former-Archbishop who has managed to escape from his imprisonment.  Kelson plans to set the Haldane potential in his uncle, Prince Nigel Haldane, before his departure, ensuring that his family's legacy of magic will not perish if Kelson should not survive the war. However, Kelson's plan deeply concerns the Camberian Council, who has long believed that multiple Haldanes cannot wield the Haldane magic simultaneously. Further complicating matters is the ill-timed return of Kelson's mother, Queen Jehana, whose anti-Deryni sentiments cause considerable friction with her son. Nonetheless, Kelson carries through with his plan and sets the Haldane potential in his uncle. The following day, Kelson sends off the first half of his army, placing it under the command of Bishop Duncan McLain and Earl Dhugal MacArdry.  As Caitrin's forces prepare to do battle with Kelson's armies, Kelson receives the homage of King Liam Lajos II Furstán of Torenth, who travels to Rhemuth to acknowledge Kelson as Overlord of Torenth. However, Kelson decides to take both Liam and his mother as honorable hostages, ensuring that Torenth will make no aggressive move against Gwynedd while Kelson is occupied with the Mearan situation. Shortly thereafter, Kelson and Duke Alaric Morgan lead the second half of the royal army out from Rhemuth to meet the Mearan rebels.  Over the following weeks, the Gwyneddan armies attempt to hunt down and destroy the Mearan forces. In the north, Loris and Sicard MacArdry, Caitrin's husband, continually elude Duncan and Dhugal. Meanwhile, in the south, Kelson and Morgan chase after Caitrin's son, Prince Ithel, whose own acts of rape and destruction have fueled Kelson's anger. Kelson eventually succeeds in capturing Ithel, who is summarily executed for his crimes. On the same day, Sicard and Loris lure the northern Gwyneddan army into a trap. Realizing that Loris is determined to capture him, Duncan orders Dhugal to flee the battle, hoping that the rest of the army will survive. Dhugal manages to escape the battle, but Duncan is defeated and captured. In Rhemuth, Jehana suffers a crisis of conscience when her own Deryni powers enable her to discover a Torenthi plot to assassinate Nigel. Jehana finally decides to warn Nigel, and the assassination attempt is foiled.  Loris tortures Duncan horribly, mutilating the Deryni bishop in an attempt to force him to confess to charges of heresy. That night, Dhugal succeeds in contacting Kelson and informs the king of Duncan's plight. As Kelson's army marches through the night to rescue their comrades, Loris prepares to burn Duncan at the stake. However, Duncan's execution is interrupted by the arrival of Kelson's army. Both Kelson and Morgan use their Deryni powers to protect Duncan, but it is ultimately Dhugal who rescues the bishop. Kelson corners Sicard, but the Pretender's husband refuses to surrender. Unwilling to allow Sicard's defiance to cost additional lives, Kelson kills Sicard with a single arrow. The remaining Mearan soldiers throw down their arms, and the Gwyneddan army is victorious.  After several days of resting the army, Kelson leads his host to Laas, the Mearan city to which Caitrin has fled. Kelson demands the Pretender's surrender, and Dhugal convinces his aunt to accede to the king's terms. After Kelson's army takes possession of the city, Loris and his aide are executed for their crimes, and Kelson reluctantly orders the execution of the last member of Caitrin's family, Prince Judhael. With the Pretender's bloodline extinguished and her army defeated, Kelson secures his authority over the land of Meara.

Awards and nominations.

In 1986, "The King's Justice" was ranked 6th in an annual poll of fantasy novels by "Locus magazine" readers, placing it between Jack Vance's "The Green Pearl" and Guy Gavriel Kay's "The Summer Tree". The poll was won by Roger Zelazny for his novel, "Trumps of Doom". (Kurtz and Zelazny were also finalists for the 1971 and 1973 Mythopoeic Fantasy Awards.) This was the highest ranking for any of Kurtz' Deryni novels on the annual poll, matching the sixth-place ranking of Kurtz' "Camber the Heretic" in the 1982 poll.

The King's Justice is a historical fantasy novel by American-born author Katherine Kurtz. It was first published by Del Rey Books in 1985. It was the eighth of Kurtz' Deryni novels to be published, and the second book in her third Deryni trilogy, The Histories of King Kelson. Although The Legends of Camber of Culdi trilogy was published immediately prior to the "Histories" trilogy, the "Histories" trilogy is a direct sequel to Kurtz' first Deryni series, The Chronicles of the Deryni.

La Justice du roi (titre original : "The King's Justice") est un roman de fantasy appartenant au cycle des "Derynis" de Katherine Kurtz. Il fut publié en anglais américain en 1985 par Ballantine Books, et traduit en français par Michèle Zachayus. C'est le deuxième tome de la "Trilogie du roi Kelson". L'action se déroule entre mai et.


Early life.

Chapman was born in Holguín, Cuba, on February 28, 1988. He lived in a three-room house with his parents and two sisters. Chapman's father was a boxing trainer and then later worked for the city. His mother did not work outside the home. Chapman's paternal grandparents had emigrated from Jamaica to Cuba in order to get a better education, The Chapmans, whose last name can be traced to English settlers in Jamaica in the late 1600s, were not a prominent family.  A friend of Chapman invited him to join a local baseball team at the age of 15. He began playing as a first baseman until the coach noticed that Chapman could throw well enough to become a pitcher, which Chapman began in 2003.

Cuban career.

Chapman joined the Holguín Sabuesos of the Cuban National Series League in 2006. In 327 career innings, Chapman compiled a 24–19 win–loss record, a 3.74 earned run average (ERA), and 365 strikeouts. He was used mainly as a starting pitcher, although he made 11 relief appearances in the 2007 season.  Chapman was part of the Cuban national team at the 2007 Pan American Games and the 2009 World Baseball Classic.

American career.

Defection.

After a failed attempt to defect in the spring of 2008, Chapman reported to Havana to meet with Cuban president Raúl Castro who gave him a conditional reprieve, suspending him for the remainder of the National Series season and also keeping him off Cuba's national team for the 2008 Summer Olympics but allowing him to return to the National Series and play in the WBC in 2009.  Chapman successfully defected from Cuba while in Rotterdam, Netherlands where the Cuban national team was participating in the World Port Tournament on July 1, 2009; Chapman walked out the front door of the team hotel and entered into an automobile driven by an acquaintance. Gerardo Concepción defected from the Cuban national team in the same tournament. Chapman eventually established residency in Andorra and petitioned MLB to be granted free agent status.

Cincinnati Reds.

On January 10, 2010, Chapman agreed to a long-term contract with the Cincinnati Reds. The Reds announced that they had signed Chapman to a six-year contract, worth $30.25 million according to MLB sources. The Associated Press reported that the bonus totals $100.25 million, paid annually over 11 years, with an additional bonus if he became eligible for salary arbitration in 2012 or 2013.

2010 season.

Chapman began the 2010 season assigned to the Triple-A Louisville Bats, and made his professional debut with the Louisville Bats on Sunday, April 11, in Toledo against the Mud Hens, where he pitched innings, giving up 1 unearned run, while striking out 9. Chapman made 13 starts with Louisville, pitching to a 4.11 ERA, and pitched to a 2.40 ERA after the team used him as a relief pitcher.  Chapman made his Major League debut August 31, 2010, in the eighth inning against the Milwaukee Brewers; his first pitch was clocked at 98 mph (158 km/h) as a called strike (which was promptly tossed to the dugout by catcher Ryan Hanigan, to be saved). In nine pitches he retired the side. He recorded his first Major League win on September 1 after pitching an inning of relief against the Brewers. Chapman threw the fastest pitch recognized by MLB on September 24, 2010, at Petco Park in San Diego, California. It was clocked at 105.1 mph to Tony Gwynn Jr. in the eighth inning.  In Game 2 of the 2010 NLDS against the Philadelphia Phillies, Chapman allowed 3 runs (all unearned) due to miscues of the outfielders. He got his first career postseason loss and the Reds lost the division series to the Phillies in a three-game sweep.

2011 season.

Chapman served solely as a relief pitcher in 2011, appearing in 54 regular season games and finishing the season with a 3.60 ERA. He also struck out 71 batters in just 50 innings of work that season.

2012 season.

Chapman was due to be introduced as a starter for the 2012 season, but preseason injuries to closer Ryan Madson and middle relievers Bill Bray and Nick Masset led manager Dusty Baker to put Chapman in the setup role. Interim closer Sean Marshall struggled early in the season, and Chapman was given the closer role in late May.  On July 1, 2012, Chapman was named to his first All-Star Game. Chapman won the MLB Delivery Man of the Month Award for July 2012, in which he recorded 13 saves while not allowing a run in innings while striking out 31 batters—more than 60% of the batters he faced. It was the third month of the season in which he did not allow a single run. He was named the August Delivery Man of the Month. Chapman finished the 2012 season with a 1.51 ERA and 38 saves in 43 chances, recording 122 strikeouts and 23 walks in innings.

2013 season.

In March 2013, it was announced that Chapman would be the closer for the Cincinnati Reds. He was an All-Star selection for the second season in a row. He finished the 2013 year with 38 saves, a 4–5 record, 112 strikeouts, and a 2.54 ERA.

2014 season.

During a spring training game against the Kansas City Royals on March 19, 2014, Chapman was struck in the head by a line drive from Salvador Pérez. The spring-training game between the Reds and the Royals was ended at that point with Kansas City leading 8-3. Chapman underwent surgery to fix a skull fracture above his left eye. A metal plate was inserted into his head to stabilize the fracture.  Chapman began the 2014 season on the 15-day disabled list. On April 18, Chapman was cleared to begin throwing batting practice sessions. Reds manager Bryan Price said that he wasn't sure when Chapman would throw but said it likely would be during the team's 10-game trip that ended April 27. He was activated from the disabled list on May 10. Chapman recorded his 100th save against the Arizona Diamondbacks on July 29, 2014, becoming the eighth-fastest pitcher to reach the milestone. In the 20-pitch appearance, Chapman threw 15 fastballs, all of which were above 100 mph. In 54 appearances, Chapman produced 106 strikeouts with 36 saves going 0–3 with an ERA of exactly 2.00.

2015 season.

Chapman and the Reds agreed to a one-year, $8.05 million contract on February 13, 2015. Chapman was selected to the 2015 MLB All-Star Game. He pitched a scoreless ninth inning and struck out the side on 14 pitches, 12 of which were recorded at 100 mph or greater. His fastest pitch in 2016 was 103.9 mph, best in MLB. His four-seam fastball had the highest average speed of any MLB pitcher's pitches in 2015, at 100.0 mph. In the 2015 season, Chapman made 65 relief appearances with a 4–4 record, a 1.63 ERA, and 33 saves.

New York Yankees.

On December 28, 2015, Chapman was traded to the New York Yankees. Cincinnati received four minor league players including right-handed pitchers Caleb Cotham and Rookie Davis, and infielders Eric Jagielo and Tony Renda in the exchange. On January 11, 2016, manager Joe Girardi named Chapman the team's new closer. He avoided arbitration on February 12, 2016, by agreeing to a one-year contract worth $11.325 million. Chapman was suspended for the first 30 games of the season due to an off-season personal conduct policy violation related to domestic violence. He made his first appearance for the Yankees on May 9, 2016 striking out 2 and allowing a run as the Yankees won 6–3 over the Kansas City Royals. On July 18 against the Orioles, Chapman threw for 105 mph twice in the top of the ninth inning, averaging 103.2 mph with his fastball.

Chicago Cubs.

On July 25, 2016, the Yankees traded Chapman to the Chicago Cubs for Gleyber Torres, Billy McKinney, Adam Warren, and Rashad Crawford. In an interview with ESPN, Chapman stated he was thrilled that the Cubs went after him, especially considering the recent success of Héctor Rondón. Chapman made his first appearance as a member of the Cubs on July 27, pitching a 1–2–3 ninth and striking out two batters in a non-save situation. His fastest pitch in 2016 was 105.1 miles an hour, best in MLB. His four-seam fastball had the highest average speed of any MLB pitcher's pitches in 2016, at 100.9 mph, and his two-seam fastball had the third-highest average speed, at 100.4 mph.  Chapman made three saves in four opportunities in the 2016 National League Division Series against the San Francisco Giants to tie and set new Division Series records respectively; Wade Davis tied his record in the 2017 National League Division Series, but did it in each of his opportunities.  Chapman made four appearances during the 2016 National League Championship Series (NLCS) against the Los Angeles Dodgers. Chapman blew a save opportunity during the first game of the NLCS, but the Cubs rallied back and Chapman remained in the game to earn the win. He pitched the final innings of Game 6 to secure the Cubs' first pennant since 1945.  Chapman's workload in the 2016 World Series escalated with the Cubs facing elimination at the hands of the Cleveland Indians. Down 3–1 in the series, Chapman pitched through the seventh, eighth, and ninth innings of Game 5, allowing only one hit and preserving the Cubs' 3–2 lead. He was called upon again in the seventh and eighth innings of Game 6, where he allowed one hit and one run en route to a 9–3 victory. Chapman appeared the next day to close out Game 7 with a 6–3 lead in the bottom of the eighth inning, but blew the save opportunity, allowing Cleveland to tie the game on a two-run homer by Rajai Davis. Chapman pitched through the bottom of the ninth to send the game into extra innings. The Cubs tallied the game-winning run in the 10th inning, making Chapman the winning pitcher and giving him his first World Series title.

New York Yankees (second stint).

On December 15, 2016, Chapman signed a five-year, $86 million contract to return to the Yankees. This was the largest contract given to a relief pitcher as of 2017.  On May 14, 2017, Chapman was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to rotator cuff inflammation in his left shoulder. Although MRIs revealed no structure damage, Chapman was ruled out for at least two weeks. On June 18, the Yankees activated Chapman from the DL and he pitched that afternoon against the Oakland A's.  On August 13, Chapman gave up a home run to Rafael Devers of the Boston Red Sox. The pitch was clocked at 103 mph, making it the fastest pitch hit for a home run in the Statcast era (breaking Kurt Suzuki's home run off of a Chapman 102 mph pitch the previous year). It was also Chapman's first home run given up to a left-handed batter since Luke Scott of the Baltimore Orioles did so in 2011. Later that month, Chapman gave up only his third home run off a left-hander when Yonder Alonso of the Seattle Mariners hit one of his 101 mph fastballs out. His fastest pitch of 2017 was 104.3 miles an hour, best in MLB. His four-seam fastball had the highest average speed of any MLB pitcher's pitches in 2017, at 99.7 mph.  In 2018 Chapman was elected as an MLB All-Star, representing the American League. On July 13, 2018, he announced that he would skip the All Star Game to rest his knee due to tendinitis. On August 22, Chapman was placed on the 10-day disabled list due to left knee tendinitis. His fastest pitch of 2018 was 104.4 miles an hour, second-best in MLB only to pitches by Jordan Hicks. His sinker had the highest average speed of any MLB pitcher's pitches in 2018, at 100.9 mph. In 2018, he had the lowest swing rate for his in-strike-zone sliders of any pitcher in baseball (42.5%).  In 2019, he was 3-2 with 37 saves and a 2.21 ERA, as in 60 relief appearances he struck out 85 batters in 57.0 innings (13.4 per 9 innings). Chapman logged one save in the American League Division Series and one in the American League Championship Series but gave up a walk-off home run to José Altuve with two outs in the ninth inning of Game 6 of the ALCS, eliminating the Yankees from the playoffs.  Entrance from the Bullpen  Due to the high velocity of pitches that Chapman throws, before he comes in, the Yankees play a video on the scoreboards showing Chapman's name on fire, and fiery looking videos of him, as high velocity pitches are commonly called "heat."

Pitching style.

Repertoire.

With a three-quarters delivery, Chapman throws three pitches: a four-seam fastball averaging, a slider averaging, and a change-up. His fastball averaged in 2010, but that declined to in 2011 and through August 2012. This more modest speed might have been part of an attempt to better control his fastball. By 2015 Chapman's fastball averaged. That same year, Statcast revealed that Chapman threw the 62 fastest pitches of the season, topping out at.  Both pitches have extraordinarily high whiff rates—33% for the fastball and 58% for the slider. These have given Chapman a career strikeouts per nine innings rate of 14.66, second all-time to Craig Kimbrel, and the third-highest career percentage of pitches for swinging strikes (16.5%).  Scouts worried about his control issues and lack of a solid third pitch, noting that these issues could affect his ability to be a Major League starter, but Chapman's control seemed to improve. After issuing 41 walks in 50 innings the previous season, Chapman walked 23 batters in 2012 over innings.

Speed records.

On September 24, 2010, against the San Diego Padres, Chapman was clocked at 105.1 mph (169.1 km/h), according to PITCHf/x, the fastest pitch ever recorded in Major League Baseball. On July 19, 2016, Chapman matched his previous record of 105.1 mph with a ball to Baltimore's J. J. Hardy.  On April 18, 2011, Chapman threw a pitch to Pittsburgh's Andrew McCutchen that the scoreboard at Great American Ball Park clocked at 106 mph (170.6 km/h), but the box on Fox Sports Ohio's broadcast listed it at 105 mph (169 km/h) and the PITCHf/x system calculated a release speed of 102.4 mph (164.8 km/h). The disparity between these speeds has been widely discussed and questioned.

Mechanics.

"Sports Illustrated" writer Joe Posnanski wrote of Chapman, "There is no violence at all in his motion; he's like the anti-Bob Gibson in that way. Just a slow beginning, a fluid motion, and BLAMMO the ball just fires out like the Batmobile rolling out of the cave." A more technical analysis reveals that One scout noted that although "[t]here are no obvious flaws in Chapman's delivery... Chapman has to coordinate a lot of moving parts," which may limit his consistency. Chapman's extreme pitch speed may also pose an injury risk to his pitching arm over time.

Personal life.

When Chapman left Cuba, he left behind his father, mother, two sisters, girlfriend Raidelmis Mendosa Santiestelas, and newborn baby, Ashanty Brianna. He reunited with them when he helped them transfer to the U.S.A.; the details of how they transferred remain confidential. On June 30, 2014, his son, Atticus Gabriel Chapman, was born in Cincinnati. In May 2012, it was reported that Chapman was being sued for allegedly serving as "an informant for Cuban state authorities after a failed defection attempt and help[ing] turn in another man in order to get back on the country's national baseball team."  On December 7, 2015, news broke that he was involved in an alleged domestic violence incident with his girlfriend in Davie, Florida at his home on October 30, 2015. A pending trade with the Los Angeles Dodgers was put on hold as MLB announced it would investigate the incident as part of its personal conduct policy. In the incident, he was accused of choking his girlfriend and firing eight gunshots. No charges were filed by the police due to inconsistency in his girlfriend's reports and lack of physical evidence, and his attorney issued a statement denying the allegations. The trade to the Dodgers was canceled and the Reds traded Chapman to the Yankees three weeks later. Although he was not charged, MLB suspended him for 30 games as a result of Chapman's "use of a firearm and the impact of that behavior on his partner," ending May 9, 2016. He was the first player disciplined by the new personal conduct policy enacted in August 2015, which empowered MLB to suspend a player from games without a final sentence.  Chapman became an American citizen in April 2016.

Albertín Aroldis Chapman de la Cruz (; born February 28, 1988) is a Cuban-born American professional baseball pitcher for the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball (MLB). He previously played in MLB for the Cincinnati Reds and Chicago Cubs and in the Cuban National Series for Holguín. Chapman bats and throws left-handed, and is nicknamed the Cuban Missile or the Cuban Flame Thrower.

Albertin Aroldis Chapman De La Cruz (né le 28 février 1988 à Holguín, Cuba) est un lanceur de relève gaucher des Yankees de New York de la Ligue majeure de baseball.


Biography.

Dursun's father was a Ja'fari Muslim from the Twelver Shi'a madhab. From his childhood on, he was motivated by his father to be an Islamic scholar. With this purpose, he worked hard and mastered major Islamic texts.

Years as a mufti.

After passing the necessary exams to become a mufti, Dursun was unable to officially become one as he did not have a primary school diploma. He had to complete primary school exams without attending school and did so with understandable speed. He achieved mufti status in 1958.  Whilst the mufti of Sivas, Dursun began establishing himself as a mufti of a different kind. Using his position, he initiated a number of projects for the development of the area and its imams:  Dursun gained a lot of followers and enemies at Sivas and was threatened on numerous occasions. He was exiled to the city of Sinop and stayed in what he called a "broken down shack". He received help from Ali Şarapçı, a teacher who was tormented and falsely labeled as communist, as Dursun was. His mufti career ended in 1966.

First atheistic thoughts.

In an interview with Şule Perinçek, Dursun recounted one of the first instances, where he began doubting the existence of God. During a time when he was in love at the age of 11, Sabo, the older sister of the girl he loved, called Safi, was disabled. Dursun felt sorry for Sabo and one night during his sleep he saw God in his dream. After making him swear that he will not get angry, Dursun asked God why he created this Earth if he also created heaven and asked why Sabo was disabled and Safi was beautiful. In the same interview, Dursun states that:  Dursun discovered what he called "Muhammad's passings on" when he began learning about the holy books that existed prior to the Quran. He states: Dursun began researching into Christianity when it was planned that he would be proudly introduced to the Pope as an intellectual mufti. To prepare for this meeting and to "be able to talk with him "(the Pope)" with more strength", Dursun studied Christianity but "instantly" realized the "con" as he compared his already vast knowledge of Islam with Christian information.  After coming to negative conclusions about religion, Dursun became "angry" that Mohammed took away valuable years of childhood and youth. He said:  Dursun was an independent theist for a short period of time before he became an atheist. First, he pronounced to himself that  He undertook experiments to see if God existed or not during his mental battle with him. He began believing that humans evolved over millions of years and continued learning about anthropology. He stated that his independent theist period lasted "two or three years".

Life as a producer and an author.

Following his resignation as a mufti, Dursun struggled to earn a living in Istanbul and even became a binman. The decision to quit as a mufti was tough, but Dursun stated that his principle was always "never to have a contradiction between what I thought and what I did".  Due to a number of friends he made as a thinking mufti, he was able to get a foot in at the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation, (TRT), working firstly in basic administrative positions before taking and passing an exam to become involved in programme production.  Among his productions are, "Turks in history", "Mankind from the beginning" and "Towards the evening" (unofficially translated titles). There is also a production which has never been allowed to be broadcast, titled "Before and after the first Grand National Assembly". Dursun resigned from TRT in 1982, after 16 years of service.  In 1987, Dursun was introduced to Doğu Perinçek, a self-proclaimed socialist politician with heavy nationalist undertones, who was the editor of the magazine "2000'e Doğru" (Towards 2000). Dursun contributed to the magazine with a column titled "Din Bilgisi" (Knowledge of religion). He also wrote for other publications such as "Saçak", "Teori" and "Yüzyıl". He wrote countless books in the 1980s, including a Turkish translation of "Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah", collating his vast knowledge of Islam and languages of the Middle East, opening the religion to internal criticism through the mass media, perhaps for the first time in the religion's history.

Assassination.

On 4 September 1990, shortly after leaving his home in the Asian part of Istanbul on his way to work, Dursun was assassinated by two gunmen. He was hit by seven bullets.  As a result of the investigation, 15 suspects were arrested but they were immediately released after their first appearance in court. In 1996, İrfan Çağırıcı was arrested, suspected of being involved in the assassination of Dursun, as well as the killing of journalist Çetin Emeç in March 1990 and the kidnapping of Akbar Ghorbani (the People's Mujahedin of Iran's representative in Ankara). It was reported at Çağırıcı's trial that he had links with the Iranian government and was trained in Iranian camps. Çağırıcı (codenamed "Mesut") was a member of İslami Hareket Örgütü (English: "Islamic Movement Organisation" or "Islamic Action Group") and gave the order to murder Dursun for "humiliating the Quran". He was sentenced to death, and four co-defendants were imprisoned for life in July 2000; upon appeal, Çağırıcı's death penalty was also converted to life imprisonment in March 2002. However, the gunman who carried out the order, Muzaffer Dalmaz, is still at large abroad.

Turan Dursun (1934 – 4 September 1990) was a Turkish author and atheist who was a critic of Islam. A former Muslim cleric and scholar of Shia Islam, he became an atheist during his study of the history of monotheistic religions. Influenced by the 9th-century Iranian skeptic philosopher Ibn al-Rawandi, Dursun wrote a number of books about religion which included interpretations of Islamic texts, heavily criticizing Islam and the founders of its major branches.

L'immunoprécipitation (IP) est la technique qui permet la précipitation d'un antigène (protéine) en solution par un anticorps qui agglutine spécifiquement une protéine particulière. On l'utilise pour isoler et concentrer une protéine précise parmi des milliers d'autres. L'immunoprécipitation impose que l'anticorps soit lié à un substrat solide à certaines étapes du traitement.


Early success.

He was born in Hope, North Dakota in 1898 and originally worked as an assistant director during the silent era. In 1929 he directed his first film, the comedy "Three Live Ghosts". He enjoyed an early success with the Eddie Cantor Technicolor musical "Whoopie!" (1930) and much of his subsequent work was in musicals and comedies.  In 1933, he directed "Flying Down to Rio" which launched the screen partnership of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers although it had originally been designed as a starring vehicle for the Mexican actress Dolores del Río. The following year Freeland made a film version of the long-running Broadway revue "George White's Scandals".

Britain.

In 1935 Freeland went to London to make the musical comedy "Brewster's Millions" starring Jack Buchanan. He was to work in Britain for the remainder of the decade. In 1936 he made "Accused" at Isleworth Studios, which was produced by and starred his fellow American Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. who had also moved to Britain at the time. A Paris-set murder mystery, the film also featured Dolores Del Rio. He directed Fairbanks again in the costume drama "The Amateur Gentleman" the same year.  Britain was experiencing a major boom in filmmaking at the time, and many of Freeland's projects were made with an eye to the international market. However he also directed comedies with more local appeal such as "Skylarks" (1936) featuring Nervo and Knox and "Hold My Hand" (1938) with Stanley Lupino. During his time in England Freeland worked for a variety of companies, many of which were independents which had been established during the boom. Amongst these was Capitol Films for whom he made "Jericho", a drama with Paul Robeson. By 1937 the boom was over and his final films in England were made by better-established studios such as London Films and Associated British. His last film to be released in the decade was a Jack Buchanan comedy-thriller "The Gang's All Here".

Later career.

He returned to the United States during World War II, and made two films in Hollywood. In the late 1940s he returned to Britain to make a final three films. Following the release of the comedy "Dear Mr. Prohack" (1949) he retired from directing.  He was married to the American actress June Clyde. Like her husband Clyde spent much of the 1930s working in British films.

Thornton Freeland (February 10, 1898 – May 22, 1987) was an American film director who directed 26 British and American films in a career that lasted from 1924 to 1949.

Thornton Freeland est un réalisateur et scénariste américain, né à Hope (Dakota du Nord, États-Unis) le, mort à Fort Lauderdale (Floride, États-Unis) le.


Biography.

He was born into a family of scholars, who bore the hereditary title of which predated the Ritsuryō System and its ranking of members of the Court. His grandfather, Sugawara no Kiyotomo, served the court, teaching history in the national school for future bureaucrats and even attained the third rank. His father, Sugawara no Koreyoshi, began a private school in his mansion and taught students who prepared for the entrance examination to the national school or who had ambitions to be officers of the court, including his own son Michizane.  Michizane passed the entrance examination, and entered Daigaku, as the national academy was called at the time. After graduation he began his career in the court as a scholar as a relatively prestigious senior sixth rank upper in 870. His rank coincided with his role initially as a minor official in the Court bureaucracy under the Ministry of Civil Affairs. By 874 Michizane had reached the fifth rank (his father the fourth rank), and served briefly under the Ministry of War before being transferred to a more desirable role in the Ministry of Popular Affairs. His training and skill with Classical Chinese language and literature afforded him many opportunities to draft edicts and correspondences for officials in the Court in addition to his menial duties. Records show at this time he composed three petitions for Fujiwara no Yoshifusa as well as the Emperor. Michizane also took part in receiving delegations from the Kingdom of Parhae, where Michizane's skill with Chinese again proved useful in diplomatic exchanges and poetry exchange. In 877, he was assigned to the Ministry of the Ceremonial, which allowed him to manage educational and intellectual matters more than before.  In addition to his offices at the court he ran the school his father founded, the. In 877, he was also promoted to professor of literature at the academy, Later, he was also appointed the highest professorial office at Daigaku. This office was considered to be the highest honor a historian could achieve.  In 886, Sugawara was appointed to be governor of Sanuki Province. Modern research shows that many bureaucrats in the Court, if they lacked sufficient clout, were assigned at least one term in a remote province, and Michizane was no exception. During his four-year tenure in the province, Michizane's informal poetry increased, and up to 26% of his poetry still extant was composed in this narrow time. Among his duties, based on limited records, was to tour the province, recommend outstanding individuals to the Court, and to punish as needed. In 887, Michizane had to petition the Buddhas and the Shinto kami to help relieve a drought at the time. Records of the time imply that Michizane's time as governor had met with only middling success.  While serving as governor, a political conflict arose between Emperor Uda and Fujiwara no Mototsune called the in 888 over Mototsune's unclear role in the Court after Emperor Uda's ascension. Michizane, defending the court scholars sent a letter of censure to Mototsune, and gained the favor of Emperor Uda. With his term as governor completed in 890, Michizane returned to the Court in Kyoto. In Emperor Uda's struggles to restore power to the Imperial Family, away from the Fujiwara, a number of officials from non-Fujiwara families were promoted to key positions, including Imperial offshoots in the Minamoto family and Sugawara no Michizane. In a rapid series of promotions beginning in 891, Michizane rose to the senior third rank in 897. According to one document signed by Michizane in 894, he already held the following posts in the Court:  He was appointed ambassador to China in the 890s, but instead came out in support of abolition of the imperial embassies to China in 894, theoretically in consideration for the decline of the Tang Dynasty. A potential ulterior motive may have lain in Michizane's almost complete ignorance of spoken Chinese; most literate Japanese at the time only read Chinese, and knew little to nothing about the spoken language. Michizane, as the nominated ambassador to China, would have been presented with a potential loss of face had he been forced to depend on an interpreter.  Within the abdication of Emperor Uda, Michizane's position became increasingly vulnerable. In 901, through the political maneuverings of his rival, Fujiwara no Tokihira, Michizane was demoted from his aristocratic rank of junior second to a minor official post at Dazaifu, in Kyūshū's Chikuzen Province, and died in exile. After Michizane's death, plague and drought spread and sons of Emperor Daigo died in succession. The Imperial Palace's Great Audience Hall ("shishinden") was struck repeatedly by lightning, and the city experienced weeks of rainstorms and floods. Attributing this to the angry spirit of the exiled Sugawara, the imperial court built a Shinto shrine called Kitano Tenman-gū in Kyoto, and dedicated it to him. They posthumously restored his title and office, and struck from the record any mention of his exile. Even this was not enough, and 70 years later Sugawara was deified as Tenjin-sama, or "kami" of scholarship. Today many Shinto shrines in Japan are dedicated to him. He became the most notable example of a Japanese spirit, Goryo, which is a vengeful violent ghost, mostly of a former aristocrat martyred, seeking for revenge.  Emperor Uda stopped the practice of sending ambassadors to China. The emperor's decision-making was informed by what he understood as persuasive counsel from Sugawara Michizane.

Poetry.

Michizane had an exceptional talent in poetry both for "kanshi" (poetry in Chinese) and "waka" (poetry in Japanese).  His primary interest was "kanshi", because in those days the immersion in the Chinese culture was regarded as a proof of refinement and scholarship. Since his excellence in "kanshi" was well known throughout the Court, Emperor Daigo suggested him to compile his Chinese poems, and therefore he published and dedicated it to the emperor in 900. After his exile he continued to work on "kanshi" and compiled them into the. The work contained 46 "kanshi", was completed sometime before his death in 903. He sent it to right before his death.  One of his poems was included in Fujiwara no Teika's "Ogura Hyakunin Isshu": The poem was originally the 420th of the "Kokin Wakashū". Another of his famous waka is a poem written in 901 just before he left Kyoto for Daizaifu by demotion. He felt deep sorrow that he would never see his precious plum tree in his residence in Kyoto again, so he talked endearingly to it:  "Nioi okose yo" can be interpreted as "spread your scent" rather than "flourish in full bloom", although such a usage of the word "nioi" as "scent" or "smell" is relatively modern and rare in the classical period. The above is from the 1006th poem of the "Shūi Wakashū"; although this is the original form of this poem, when re-collected later in "Hōbutsushū", the last phrase was modified into "haru na wasure so" (meaning remains unchanged), which became its popular variation.  A romantic legend says the plum tree was so fond of its master that it finally flew to Dazaifu, and that tree became known as at Dazaifu Tenman-gū (a shrine dedicated to its master). A more realistic legend says Michizane or his friend transplanted its seedling to Dazaifu.  Michizane is traditionally credited with the "Shinsen Man'yōshū", but the attribution has been challenged.

Descendants.

The lineage of the Sugawara clan was divided into six families by the 18th century. Aside from these noble families, there are several (often self-proclaimed) branches in the samurai caste, including Maeda and Yagyū.

, also known as or, was a scholar, poet, and politician of the Heian Period of Japan. He is regarded as an excellent poet, particularly in Kanshi poetry, and is today revered in Shinto as the god of learning,.

Sugawara no Michizane (菅原道真 845 - ), connu également sous le nom de Kan Jōshō (菅丞相), Tenjin Sama (天神様) ou Tenmangū (天満宮), et petit-fils de Sugawara no Kiyotomo (770-842) (connu sous le nom de "Owari no suke" et "daigaku-no-kami"), est un lettré, poète et personnalité politique du Japon de l'époque de Heian. On le considère comme un excellent poète, en particulier dans le domaine de la poésie chinoise.


Construction.

In the following description, call the 3 containers: And three pipes:  It is okay if A is closed and airtight, but it doesn't need to. B and C, however, need to be airtight, and resistant to atmospheric pressure. Plastic bottles will do, but a glass container will do better; balloons will just not work. This is because the fountain works the following way:  These principles explain the construction:

Motion.

Heron's fountain is not a perpetual motion machine. If the nozzle of the spout is narrow, it may play for several minutes, but it eventually comes to a stop. The water coming out of the tube may go higher than the level in any container, but the net flow of water is downward. If, however, the volumes of the air supply and fountain supply containers are designed to be much larger than the volume of the basin, with the flow rate of water from the nozzle of the spout being held constant, the fountain could operate for a far greater time interval.  Its action may seem less paradoxical if considered as a siphon, but with the upper arch of the tube removed, and the air pressure between the two lower containers providing the positive pressure to lift the water over the arch. The device is also known as Heron's siphon.  The gravitational potential energy of the water which falls a long way from the basin into the lower container is transferred by pneumatic pressure tube (only air is moved upwards at this stage) to push the water from the upper container a short way above the basin.  The fountain can spout (almost) as high above the upper container as the water falls from the basin into the lower container. For maximum effect, place the upper container as closely beneath the basin as possible and place the lower container a long way beneath both.  As soon as the water level in the upper container has dropped so low that the water bearing tube no longer touches the water surface, the fountain stops. In order to make the fountain play again, the air supply container is emptied of water, and the fountain supply container and the basin are refilled. Lifting the water provides the energy required.

Reiterative motion and variants.

As previously mentioned, the fountain will stop working when water from B has dropped to C. There are ways, however, to make it work again, such as:  There also exist fountains with two liquids of different colors and density.

Geological phenomena.

It is possible that geysers operate via this mechanism, with the distinction that the spouting of the water at the surface occurs discontinuously. Furthermore, unlike Heron's fountain, which requires that the air supply container be manually emptied of water, geysers have an analogous "air supply container" that is steadily heated by geothermal energy. When the water level in the air supply container becomes too high, the geothermal heat flux causes the water to boil off and therefore naturally empty the container of water and replace it with water vapor instead of air.

In popular culture.

An example of Heron's fountain, built by Larry Fleinhardt, was featured in the 8th episode (titled "Tabu") of the 4th season of the television show "Numb3rs".  Heron's Fountain was featured in the first episode of "How Britain Worked" hosted by Guy Martin.

Heron's fountain is a hydraulic machine invented by the 1st century AD inventor, mathematician, and physicist Heron of Alexandria (also known as Hero of Alexandria).

La fontaine de Héron est une machine hydraulique en circuit fermé conçue par Héron d'Alexandrie. Il décrit cette application du principe des vases communicants dans les "Pneumatica".


Building.

Built between 1652 and 1681 for Etienne Lantin, councilor in the Accounts Chamber, the townhouse became the property of the Magnin family in the 19th century when Jean-Hugues Magnin (1791-1856) bought it in 1829. Without altering its historic flavor, the town house was redesigned in the 1930s by the Parisian architect Auguste Perret, to house the collection that Maurice Magnin, a year after the death of his sister Jeanne, willed to the State in 1938. In accordance with the donor's wishes, the museum has retained its characters as an amateur's cabinet and private dwelling.

Collection.

Maurice Magnin (1861-1939), referendum councilor in Accounts Court and art lover, and his sister Jeanne (1855-1937), painter and amateur art critic, randomly put together, through public auctions, a collection of major artists and little known minor masters. Brother and sister "looked less for the often illusionary spark of great names than for a chain of talent throughout the ages".

Paintings.

The collectors manifested a predilection for the French School from the 16th to the 19th centuries, especially well represented. Important 17th century works from Eustache Le Sueur, Laurent de La Hyre, Sébastien Bourdon and Jean Baptiste de Champaigne highlight this latter collection.  The museum visit begins with the galleries dedicated to the Northern Schools. Here one can admires, among many others works of Roelant Savery, Bartholomeus van der Helst and Gerard de Lairesse. The "Banquet of the Gods" by Jan van Bijlert was realized during the classical period of this Utrecht artist influenced by Caravaggio.  Italian art is equally well represented, especially by the Venetian Schools of the 16th century (among which "Christ and the Adultress" by Giovanni Cariani is one of the highlights) and the 18th century (Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini...). There are also examples from both the Lombardian and Neapolitan Schools (Giovanni Stefano Danedi called Montalto, Giovanni Battista Cerano, Gaspare Traversi..).  By choosing carefully, the Magnins accumulated an exceptional group of 17th French paintings. The two "Putti Musicians" by Laurent de La Hyre, "The dream of Poliphile" by Eustache Le Sueur and "The Holy Family" by Sébastien Bourdon all illustrate the Parisian Atticism of the years between 1640 and 1650.  The 18th century has not been neglected, but is more represented by drawings and paintings of minor masters (Hyacinthe Collin de Vermont, Michel-François Dandré-Bardon, Jean-Baptiste Marie Pierre), than the grand painters like Jean-Antoine Watteau and Jean-Honoré Fragonard whose works acquired by the Magnins are no longer attributed to them.  The 19th century collection confirms the definitive and original taste of the collectors. Here one finds fewer beacons of Neo-classicism, Romanticism or Realism than paintings of François-Xavier Fabre, Pauline Gauffier or for the Post-revolutionary period the subtle and extremely rare landscapes of Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson. Their appreciation of the intimist works of the 1830s is obvious in their choice of artists such as François Marius Granet, Étienne Bouhot or for the Romantic period, Paul Delaroche, Alexandre-Évariste Fragonard or Eugène Devéria.  The originality of this collection resides not only in the variety of artists represented but also in curiosity the Magnins had for the provincial schools. With Burgundian origins, Jeanne and Maurice involved themselves with art from their region as well as from Franche-Comté. Among some of the artists found at the museum, we can name Jean Bardin, Bénigne Gagneraux, Jean-François Gilles Colson and Jean-Claude Naigeon.

Works of art and graphic arts.

The Magnin Museum is not only dedicated to paintings. It brings together a wonderful body of drawing from French and foreign schools, and offers the visitor an ensemble of furniture, works of art and sculptures: in short, a choice of seductive works. One can stop to admire the "Secrétaire de dame à double pente" (Lady's secretary with double slope) with the stamp of Bon Durand (Master in 1761) or in front of the sober Commode of Courte, a cabinet-maker from Dijon. There are also a few sculptures in the collection such as Auguste Préault's "The Wave."

The Musée Magnin is a national museum in the French city of Dijon in Burgundy, with a collection of around 2,000 works of art collected by Maurice Magnin and his sister Jeanne and bequeathed to the state in 1938 along with the hôtel Lantin, a 17th-century hôtel particulier in the old-town quarter of Dijon where it is now displayed as an amateur collector's cabinet of curiosities and as the Magnin family home.

Le musée Magnin est un musée d'art et d'histoire national de Dijon, en Côte-d'Or en Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. Il présente une collection d'environ et objets d'art réunis au cours de leur vie par deux amateurs d'art, Maurice Magnin et sa sœur Jeanne, dans leur hôtel particulier de famille du, l'hôtel Lantin.