History.

Optical music recognition of printed sheet music started in the late 1960s at MIT when the first image scanners became affordable for research institutes. Due to the limited memory of early computers, the first attempts were limited to only a few measures of music.  In 1984, a Japanese research group from Waseda University developed a specialized robot, called WABOT (WAseda roBOT), which was capable of reading the music sheet in front of it and accompanying a singer on an electric organ.  Early research in OMR was conducted by Ichiro Fujinaga, Nicholas Carter, Kia Ng, David Bainbridge, and Tim Bell. These researchers developed many of the techniques that are still being used today.  The first commercial OMR application, MIDISCAN (now SmartScore), was released in 1991 by Musitek Corporation.  The availability of smartphones with good cameras and sufficient computational power, paved the way to mobile solutions where the user takes a picture with the smartphone and the device directly processes the image.

Relation to other fields.

Optical music recognition relates to other fields of research, including computer vision, document analysis, and music information retrieval. It is relevant for practicing musicians and composers that could use OMR systems as a means to enter music into the computer and thus ease the process of composing, transcribing, and editing music. In a library, an OMR system could make music scores searchable and for musicologists it would allow to conduct quantitative musicological studies at scale.

OMR vs. OCR.

Optical music recognition has frequently been compared to Optical character recognition. The biggest difference is that music notation is a featural writing system. This means that while the alphabet consists of well-defined primitives (e.g., stems, noteheads, or flags), it is their configuration – how they are placed and arranged on the staff – that determines the semantics and how it should be interpreted.  The second major distinction is the fact that while an OCR system does not go beyond recognizing letters and words, an OMR system is expected to also recover the semantics of music: The user expects that the vertical position of a note (graphical concept) is being translated into the pitch (musical concept) by applying the rules of music notation. Notice that there is no proper equivalent in text recognition. By analogy, recovering the music from an image of a music sheet can be as challenging as recovering the HTML source code from the screenshot of a website.  The third difference comes from the used character set. Although writing systems like Chinese have extraordinarily complex character sets, the character set of primitives for OMR spans a much greater range of sizes, ranging from tiny elements such as a dot to big elements that potentially span an entire page such as a brace. Some symbols have a nearly unrestricted appearance like slurs, that are only defined as more-or-less smooth curves that may be interrupted anywhere.  Finally, music notation involves ubiquitous two-dimensional spatial relationships, whereas text can be read as a one-dimensional stream of information, once the baseline is established.

Approaches to OMR.

The process of recognizing music scores is typically broken down into smaller steps that are handled with specialized pattern recognition algorithms.  Many competing approaches have been proposed with most of them sharing a pipeline architecture, where each step in this pipeline performs a certain operation, such as detecting and removing staff lines before moving on to the next stage. A common problem with that approach is that errors and artifacts that were made in one stage are propagated through the system and can heavily affect the performance. For example, if the staff line detection stage fails to correctly identify the existence of the music staffs, subsequent steps will probably ignore that region of the image, leading to missing information in the output.  Optical music recognition is frequently underestimated due to the seemingly easy nature of the problem: If provided with a perfect scan of typeset music, the visual recognition can be solved with a sequence of fairly simple algorithms, such as projections and template matching. However, the process gets significantly harder for poor scans or handwritten music, which many systems fail to recognize altogether. And even if all symbols would have been detected perfectly, it is still challenging to recover the musical semantics due to ambiguities and frequent violations of the rules of music notation (see the example of Chopin’s Nocturne). Donald Byrd and Jakob Simonsen argue that OMR is difficult because modern music notation is extremely complex.  Donald Byrd also collected a number of interesting examples as well as extreme examples of music notation that demonstrate the sheer complexity of music notation.

Outputs of OMR systems.

Typical applications for OMR systems include the creation of an audible version of the music score (referred to as replayability). A common way to create such a version is by generating a MIDI file, which can be synthesised into an audio file. MIDI files, though, are not capable of storing engraving information (how the notes were laid out) or enharmonic spelling.  If the music scores are recognized with the goal of human readability (referred to as reprintability), the structured encoding has to be recovered, which includes precise information on the layout and engraving. Suitable formats to store this information include MEI and MusicXML.  Apart from those two applications, it might also be interesting to just extract metadata from the image or enable searching. In contrast to the first two applications, a lower level of comprehension of the music score might be sufficient to perform these tasks.

General framework (2001).

In 2001, David Bainbridge and Tim Bell published their work on the challenges of OMR, where they reviewed previous research and extracted a general framework for OMR. Their framework has been used by many systems developed after 2001. The framework has four distinct stages with a heavy emphasis on the visual detection of objects. They noticed that the reconstruction of the musical semantics was often omitted from published articles because the used operations were specific to the output format.

Refined framework (2012).

In 2012, Ana Rebelo et al. surveyed techniques for optical music recognition. They categorized the published research and refined the OMR pipeline into the four stages: Preprocessing, Music symbols recognition, Musical notation reconstruction and Final representation construction. This framework became the de-facto standard for OMR and is still being used today (although sometimes with slightly different terminology). For each block, they give an overview of techniques that are used to tackle that problem. This publication is the most cited paper on OMR research as of 2019.

Deep learning (since 2016).

With the advent of deep learning, many computer vision problems have shifted from imperative programming with hand-crafted heuristics and feature engineering towards machine learning. In optical music recognition, the staff processing stage, the music object detection stage, as well as the music notation reconstruction stage have seen successful attempts to solve them with deep learning.  Even completely new approaches have been proposed, including solving OMR in an end-to-end fashion with sequence-to-sequence models, that take an image of music scores and directly produce the recognized music in a simplified format.

Notable scientific projects.

Staff removal challenge.

For systems that were developed before 2016, staff detection and removal posed a significant obstacle. A scientific competition was organized to improve the state of the art and advance the field. Due to excellent results and modern techniques that made the staff removal stage obsolete, this competition was discontinued.  However, the freely available CVC-MUSCIMA dataset that was developed for this challenge is still highly relevant for OMR research as it contains 1000 high-quality images of handwritten music scores, transcribed by 50 different musicians. It has been further extended into the MUSCIMA++ dataset, which contains detailed annotations for 140 out of 1000 pages.

SIMSSA.

The Single Interface for Music Score Searching and Analysis project (SIMSSA) is probably the largest project that attempts to teach computers to recognize musical scores and make them accessible. Several sub-projects have already been successfully completed, including the Liber Usualis and Cantus Ultimus.

TROMPA.

Towards Richer Online Music Public-domain Archives (TROMPA) is an international research project, sponsored by the European Union that investigates how to make public-domain digital music resources more accessible.

Datasets.

The development of OMR systems benefits from test datasets of sufficient size and diversity to ensure the system being developed works under various conditions. However, due to legal reasons and potential copyright violations, it is challenging to compile and publish such a dataset. The most notable datasets for OMR are referenced and summarized by the OMR Datasets project and include the CVC-MUSCIMA, MUSCIMA++, DeepScores, PrIMuS, HOMUS, and SEILS dataset, as well as the Universal Music Symbol Collection.

Software.

Academic and open-source software.

Many OMR projects have been realized in academia, but only a few of them reached a mature state and were successfully deployed to users. These systems are:

Commercial software.

Most of the commercial desktop applications that were developed in the last 20 years have been shut down again due to the lack of commercial success, leaving only a few vendors that are still developing, maintaining, and selling OMR products. Some of these products claim extremely high recognition rates with up to 100% accuracy but fail to disclose how those numbers were obtained, making it nearly impossible to verify them and compare different OMR systems. Apart from the desktop applications, a range of mobile applications have emerged as well, but received mixed reviews on the Google Play store and were probably discontinued (or at least did not receive any update since 2017). A range of OMR apps can also be found for iPhone and iPad devices in the Apple Store.

Optical Music Recognition (OMR) is a field of research that investigates how to computationally read music notation in documents. The goal of OMR is to teach the computer to read and interpret sheet music and produce a machine-readable version of the written music score. Once captured digitally, the music can be saved in commonly used file formats, e.g. MIDI (for playback) and MusicXML (for page layout).

La reconnaissance optique de musique (ou ROM), et en anglais "Optical Music Recognition" (ou OMR) est l'application de techniques de reconnaissance optique de caractères (OCR) aux partitions musicales imprimées, afin de les transformer en fichiers informatiques éditables ou jouables. Une fois capturée sous une forme interne, la musique peut être enregistrée dans les formats de fichiers couramment utilisés, comme MusicXML pour la partition et MIDI pour la lecture.


Premise.

"The Orville" is set on the titular USS "Orville" (ECV-197), a mid-level exploratory space vessel in the Planetary Union, a 25th-century interstellar alliance of Earth and many other planets.

History.

New episodes aired Thursdays on Fox during the 2017–18 season. On November 2, 2017, Fox renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on December 30, 2018. Fox renewed the series for a third season that is scheduled to air on Hulu late in 2020, as the series would have not been ready for a mid-season premiere on Fox.

Production.

Development.

MacFarlane originally wrote "The Orville" as a spec script, which was given a 13-episode order by Fox on May 4, 2016, making it the first live-action television series created by MacFarlane. Following the project's greenlight, MacFarlane stated, "I've wanted to do something like this show ever since I was a kid, and the timing finally feels right. [...] I think this is gonna be something special." According to MacFarlane, "The Orville" was inspired by "The Twilight Zone" and "". He was also encouraged to sell the series due to the success of "Guardians of the Galaxy" and "Deadpool".  On November 2, 2017, Fox renewed the series for a second season. On November 15, it was reported that one of the thirteen episodes for season one would be held back and instead air during the second season due to a gap in broadcast dates caused by the broadcaster's lengthy Christmas programming. The episode, "Primal Urges", was a sequel to "About a Girl".  On December 10, 2018, it was reported that the California Film Commission had approved $15.8 million of tax credits for a potential third season.

Casting.

On July 29, 2016, MacFarlane's role was revealed to be Ed Mercer, the captain of the "Orville", while Adrianne Palicki had been cast as Kelly Grayson, Ed's ex-wife and the newly appointed first officer of the "Orville", and Scott Grimes, who voices Steve Smith on "American Dad!" (another show created by MacFarlane), was cast as Gordon Malloy, Ed's best friend whom he has assigned to pilot the "Orville". On August 19, Peter Macon and J Lee were cast as series regulars. On October 31, Halston Sage and Penny Johnson Jerald joined the cast. On December 8, Mark Jackson was cast. On April 3, 2017, Chad L. Coleman was added as a series regular and Larry Joe Campbell was cast in a recurring role.  At San Diego Comic-Con in July 2017, MacFarlane said that Charlize Theron would guest-star in an episode. The two had previously co-starred in "A Million Ways to Die in the West". Theron appeared in the series' fifth episode, "Pria".  On February 12, 2018, Jessica Szohr was cast as a regular for season two. On February 21, Chris Johnson was cast in a recurring role.

Filming.

On August 24, 2016, Jon Favreau signed on to direct the pilot. Production on the pilot episode began in late 2016, and the rest of the episodes began filming on March 27, 2017. Production wrapped on August 23, 2017, with a total of $56.2 million spent in California. "Star Trek" veterans Jonathan Frakes and Robert Duncan McNeill, who have directed episodes within the "Star Trek" franchise, have each directed an episode of "The Orville". Four episodes were directed by Brannon Braga, a long-time "Star Trek" alum who began as an intern on "", was producer of "", and co-created "."  Filming for the second season began on February 26, 2018, and Frakes and McNeill each returned to direct another episode. Production for the second season concluded on October 16, 2018, having spent $69.2 million.  On March 15, 2020, production on the series was shut down during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.  Seth MacFarlane and Jon Cassar are the directors of season three.

Visual effects.

Studios hired to work on the visual effects of the show include Tippett Studio, CoSA VFX, Pixomondo, Crafty Apes, Fuse FX, Eight VFX and Zoic Studios.

Music.

The show uses a 75-piece orchestra for the music in each episode, written by several different composers, such as John Debney, Joel McNeely and Bruce Broughton, who wrote the show's theme and composed the score for the pilot. MacFarlane said "We score it like a movie" and "We really put as much into that as we do into the effects." A soundtrack album for season 1 was released by La-La Land Records on January 22, 2019.

Marketing.

On May 15, 2017, the Fox Broadcasting Company released the first trailer of "The Orville" as part of their upcoming slate of television series including the "X-Men" series "The Gifted" and the supernatural sitcom "Ghosted". To promote the series, Fox organized a panel at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con on July 22 featuring cast members Seth MacFarlane, Adrianne Palicki, Scott Grimes, Penny Johnson Jerald, Peter Macon, Halston Sage, J. Lee, Mark Jackson and Chad Coleman, and producers David A. Goodman and Brannon Braga. In addition, Fox established an Orville Space Training Station at the Hilton San Diego Bayfront Law with a "Cryopreservation program" for fans.  On July 22, 2018, Fox released the trailer for the second season of "The Orville" at the 2018 San Diego Comic-Con. To promote the series, Fox sponsored a series of "Orville"-themed pedi-cabs for people attending the San Diego Comic Con. In addition, Goodman moderated a Q&A panel on July 21 at the Comic Con alongside cast members MacFarlane, Palicki, Jerald, Scott Grimes, Braga and Jon Cassar.

Release.

"The Orville" is available in the United States on the Fox website as well as the Hulu, Amazon Prime, and iTunes streaming platforms. In Canada, "The Orville" airs on Citytv (former home of "Star Trek" series "" to ""). In the United Kingdom, the series is available on Fox UK's streaming service. In Australia, "The Orville" is available on the television channel SBS Viceland and streams on SBS on Demand. In New Zealand, the series is available on the free TVNZ OnDemand streaming service.

Reception.

Critical response.

Season 1.

On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 30%, with an average rating of 5.22/10 based on 53 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "An odd jumble of campiness and sincerity, homage, and satire, "The Orville" never quite achieves liftoff." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 36 out of 100, based on 21 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".  Liz Miller writing for IndieWire compared the series to "Star Trek", calling it a rip-off and "bankrupt: creatively, morally, and ethically." She criticized the lack of creativity, the blatant imitation, and was surprised that the show is "uninterested in being a comedy".  Kevin Yeoman of "Screen Rant" suggested, "The show might have stood a better chance with a different actor in the captain's chair, one better suited to navigating the inexplicable tonal shifts and maybe earn the audience's patience and empathy in the process."  Tim Surette at "TV Guide" says, "The truth is, "The Orville" was never going to win over critics because it's a throwback and goes against everything modern television is. It's not that "The Orville" doesn't know what it wants it to be, as critics assume, it's that it wants to be a little bit of everything".

Season 2.

On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 100%, with an average rating of 7.6/10 based on 14 reviews. The website's critic consensus states: "Fun, focused, and surprisingly thoughtful, "The Orville"'s second season makes good use of its talented crew."  Nick Wanserki of The A.V. Club praised the season's first episode "Ja'loja" for its character-driven drama and focus on low-stakes plots which built upon the first season's efforts to develop the crew of the "Orville" into a group of people that the audience cared about. Liz Miller of IndieWire awarded "The Orville" a B rating, expressing hope that the series could evolve into a character-driven "dramedy" set in space, which she described as something unique that could make the show worth watching. Ryan Britt of "Den of Geek" praised the second season for playing to its strengths as a sitcom and addressing the "wonkiness" of the first season.  Kevin Yeoman of Screen Rant opined that the series "had found its footing and maybe its identity in telling smaller, more character-driven stories, that better serve its sometimes confounding mix of sincerity and irreverence."  Will Harris of "The Verge" similarly noted that the two-part episode "Identity" demonstrated the series' ability to downplay its humor and "hold its own with any of the more traditional science fiction properties out there."

Audience response.

In the October 15, 2017 episode of "The Angry Joe Show", "The Orville Mid-Season Angry Review", host Joe Vargas noted the gulf between the response to the series among critics and viewers, contrasting the Rotten Tomatoes' 19% approval rating from professional critics to the 91% viewer approval rating. Vargas compared this to "", which received an 83% rating from critics but a fairly low audience score of 54%, and stated ""Star Trek" fans—at least the ones that watch my show—like "The Orville" way more than they like "Star Trek: Discovery". Tim Surette of "TV Guide" also wrote about the critic-to-viewer Rotten Tomatoes rating, noting the balance had shifted to 21/93, and that its Metacritic score was 36% approval from critics, and 82% from viewers. As a critic himself, Surette notes that, as a throwback, "The Orville" is an anomaly in modern television, and found showrunner David A. Goodman's admission that MacFarlane wants to vary between serious or dramatic and lighter or comedic episodes a potentially dangerous or risky strategy, but concedes that the show's viewers appear to like it for that reason.

Ratings.

After its premiere on Sunday, September 10, 2017, the show moved to Thursday nights at 9 p.m. In its first broadcast in the new time slot, "The Orville" became Fox's highest rated Thursday 9 p.m. broadcast in two years. After taking into account DVR and VOD, "The Orville" was Fox's most-viewed drama debut since the premiere of "Empire" in 2015.

Home media.

Season 1 of "The Orville" was released on DVD on December 11, 2018. Season 2 was released on December 10, 2019.

Other media.

Comics.

In 2019, Dark Horse Comics released a pair of two-issue comic book miniseries set between the first and second seasons of "The Orville", collected as "The Orville: Season 1.5". Both miniseries were written by television series executive producer and writer David A. Goodman, illustrated by David Cabeza, and colored by Michael Atiyeh. The first storyline "New Beginnings" deals with Captain Mercer and Lieutenant Gordon responding to a distress call from a lost Union ship while Commander Grayson has to contend with a domestic dispute between Bortus and his spouse over their son's education. The second storyline "The Word of Avis" deals with the "Orville" crew investigating a Union ship heading into Krill space.  In 2020, Dark Horse Comics reunited the same creative team for "The Orville: Season 2.5", beginning with the two-issue miniseries "Launch Day".

The Orville is an American science fiction comedy-drama television series created by and starring Seth MacFarlane as series protagonist Ed Mercer, an officer in the Planetary Union's line of exploratory space vessels in the 25th century.

En France et en Suisse, la série est diffusée à partir du sur Warner TV. Elle reste inédite dans les autres pays francophones.


Personal life.

Mchangama's mother, Ulla Danstrøm, is Danish, and his father, Said Mchangama, is from Comoros. In 2016 he married his long-time partner, Sarah Hammeken. They have two children, Leopold and Norma.

Education and career.

In 2003, Mchangama received a law degree from the University of Copenhagen. In 2004, after studying in Venice and Strasbourg, he received an additional degree from the European Inter-University Centre for Human Rights and Democratisation.  He was an assistant professor in International Human Rights at the University of Copenhagen from 2005 to 2007, and an adjunct professor there from 2007 to 2012.  From 2004 to 2007 he was a paralegal at Eversheds Sutherland. From 2007 to 2008 he was an attorney at Plesner (law firm). From 2008 to 2014 he was a chief legal counsel at CEPOS. He founded Justitia in 2014, and has been its director since then.

Writings and speeches.

Mchangama's writings have appeared in many publications, including the Danish newspapers Dagbladet Information and Berlingske, Minerva (Norwegian periodical), and the American journals National Review and Foreign Affairs. He has written on such subjects as the oppression of women in Islam, the 2015–16 New Year's Eve sexual assaults in Germany, and the danger of laws against “hate speech,” blasphemy, and Quran-burning.  In August 2011, he contended that the European left was using the recent mass murder in Norway “to argue for limiting free speech” on the grounds that certain speech “can lead to murder.” Mchangama strongly challenged this premise.  In a February 2012 article, he maintained that “the combination of a debt crisis, an aging population addicted to public welfare benefits, one and a half decades of low growth rates, and increasing competition...is revealing the dark underbelly of welfarism” in Denmark. “It is not an overstatement,” he claimed, “to say that the balance between the state and the individual has been shifted decisively in favor of the state.” Because of a growing need for higher tax income, the Danish government was now harassing citizens in ways that violated their rights, and was dangerously skewing “the balance between public welfare and the free market...in favour of the former,” thus revealing the tendency of the welfare state to eat away at “the capitalist foundation which sustains it” and the fact that welfare ultimately “comes not only at the expense of economic freedom but also individual freedom and choice.”  In March 2013 Mchangama dismissed the “putative consensus” around UN Human Rights Council Resolution 16/18, which was seen as resolving divisions between free-speech advocates and those who would criminalize defamation of religion, as a “charade.” While the US saw the resolution as affirming First Amendment-style speech rights, Pakistan saw it as permitting “advocacy of religious hatred.” In the middle sat Europeans, who, Mchangama noted, were often eager to defend Islam from criticism. While praising the US for “standing firm on the need to counter intolerance and hatred through debate rather than censorship,” Mchangama called on the US to vigorously confront other interpretations of R 16/18.  A February 2015 essay on the 26th anniversary of the fatwa against Salman Rushdie criticized the widespread notion that “free speech should not be 'abused' to insult the religious convictions of minorities,” and cited a recent declaration by President Barack Obama that when “we defend the legal right of a person to insult another’s religion, we’re equally obligated to use our free speech to condemn such insults.” Mchangama challenged this view, pointing to a recent London protest by Muslims who “were perfectly happy to exercise their right to free speech and association” but whose “core message was that those very rights should be denied to those with whom they disagree, and that insult to religious feelings is a kind of extremism not too dissimilar from that of the murder of cartoonists.”  In a March 2, 2015, Wall Street Journal op-ed, Mchangama lamented the “long-running pattern” in Europe “of bending to Islamist 'outrage' instead of defending free speech for all.” He noted with dismay that Denmark's current prime minister, Helle Thorning Schmidt, had demanded in 2006 that then-Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen distance himself from the Jyllands-Posten cartoons, that the Danish newspaper Politiken had agreed to a 2010 settlement in which it apologized for offending Muslims by reprinting Muhammad cartoons, and that Denmark’s former minister of foreign affairs, Uffe Ellemann Jensen, had expressed no sympathy for cartoonist Lars Vilks after an attempt on his life, even saying that Vilks “had asked and begged to be attacked.” Mchangama warned against the rise of “offense creep,” whereby jihadists were being permitted to limit debate, and urged the democratic Western world to push back.  In April 2017, writing for The Washington Post, Mchangama called for Denmark to end its law banning blasphemy. He noted that, while Denmark ranked first in the 2016 "Rule of Law Index," the country shared a ban on blasphemy similar to that of countries like Iran and Pakistan.  Index on Censorship's publication featured a guest commentary by Mchangama in 2017. He criticized Denmark's blasphemy law, noting that "Denmark is turning towards a model of militant democracy where free speech is often seen as the problem rather than the solution, and as a hindrance rather than the foundation of social peace."  In October 2018, Quillette published a Mchangama article about the decline of free speech in cyberspace, pointing to recent policies changes by Facebook and Twitter, which had previously been strong advocates of free speech. He noted that these companies had previously adopted the American model 'viewpoint diversity' but then switched to the European model of "'balancing' free speech against competing interests". He noted the various inconsistencies in the application of such rules, such as the ban on denying the Holocaust while denying the Armenian genocide remains tolerated.  In December 2018, Mchangama wrote with alarm about the proposal by President Donald Trump that news and entertainment critical of him "should be tested in the courts." Mchangama wrote that "Trump’s constant attacks against the media may be eroding the very popular support" for the legal protection of free speech.  In support of his views, Mchangama has made numerous speeches and public appearances and given many interviews.  At the 2011 Oslo Freedom Forum Mchangama gave an address titled "The West's attack on free speech"."  In 2018, he was a guest on the podcast "The Fifth Column".  In October 2018, Spiked (magazine) interviewed Mchangama as his organization was instrumental in having the blasphemy law of the Republic of Ireland abolished by public referendum. Mchangama explained his motivation for focusing on freedom of speech: I grew up in one of the most liberal, tolerant societies in the world: Denmark. No one ever thought about free speech because it was just as natural as breathing the air. And then we had the cartoon crisis, which was the wake-up call for me. It has shaped both my interest in and understanding of free speech, not only because it was such a dramatic event but also because it dawned on me how vulnerable free speech is.  In 2019, he participated in a panel discussion at New York University titled "Hate speech on social media: is there a way to a more civil discussion".  Also that year, he delivered a presentation in London on the history of free speech at Living Freedom, sponsored by Battle of Ideas.

Clear and Present Danger podcast.

From February 2018 to February 2020, Mchangama wrote and narrated a serial podcast, "Clear and Present Danger: A History of Free Speech". Among those lauding the podcast is psychologist Steven Pinker, who wrote, "We mustn't allow free speech to fade into a feel-good slogan. It is an unintuitive principle with a rationale that many don't appreciate and a history that many don't know. Mchangama's lucid history of free speech fills that gap and deepens our understanding of this precious concept." Author Jonathan Rauch has said, "Free speech is the most successful social policy ever — and also the most counterintuitive. Jacob Mchangama's delightful podcast series paints vidid portraits of the lives, ideas, and struggles of the people who brought this improbable principle to life." In a review, podcast critic Elena Fernández Collins wrote approvingly: "Mchangama is an excellent historical guide, clear and precise, and with the right sense of drama when needed even though the episode has a practical focus rather than a theological or philosophical one. Interspersed throughout are expert opinion episodes, where Mchangama’s talent at guiding questions leads to a vibrant, insightful talk on a particular aspect of free speech."

Honors and awards.

Mchangama received the 2013 Freedom Prize from the political party Venstre (Denmark) for his involvement in the public debate about rights in Denmark and abroad. In his acceptance speech, Mchangama underscored that freedom and democracy do not come naturally, they need to be fought for as hard in a country like Denmark as in any other part of the world. “No one has won freedom by being silent,” he declared. He has also received the 2015 Jyllands-Posten Free Speech Award, and the 2017 Blixen Award for contributing to freedom of expression.In 2019 he received the Hoerups Debatpris from Politikken.

Jacob Mchangama (born 15 February 1978) is a Danish lawyer, human-rights advocate, and social commentator. He is the founder and director of Justitia, a Copenhagen-based think tank focusing on human rights, freedom of speech, and the rule of law. For six years he served as chief legal counsel at CEPOS.

Jacob Mchangama (né en 1978) est un avocat danois, expert des droits de l'homme et un commentateur de la société. Il est le fondateur et directeur de Justitia, un cercle de réflexion portant sur les droits humains et la primauté du basé à Copenhague. Pendant six ans, il a servi comme chef des affaires juridiques au "CEPOS (Center for Political Studies)".


All Our Yesterdays (Star Trek: The Original Series)

Plot.

The Federation starship "Enterprise" arrives at the planet Sarpeidon, whose star is soon to go nova. Surprised to find the surface devoid of humanoid life, Kirk, Dr. McCoy and Spock beam down to investigate. They encounter one last remaining resident, a librarian named Mr. Atoz who scolds them for being very late. Aware of the imminent destruction, Mr. Atoz tells the perplexed landing party that he will soon escape to rejoin his own family. Mr. Atoz shows them the Atavachron, a machine with a time portal that connects to Sarpeidon's past. Suddenly, they hear a woman scream. Kirk instinctively runs through the portal and McCoy and Spock follow. Mr. Atoz tries to warn them all that they were not "prepared".  Kirk finds himself alone and in the midst of a duel in a period similar to England in Earth's 17th century while McCoy and Spock travel back 5,000 years to Sarpeidon's ice age. They cannot locate the portal's entrance to return but the three are able to speak to each other. Spock correctly surmises that the Sarpeidons have all escaped to their planet's past.  As McCoy and Spock search for shelter from a severe blizzard, Kirk tries to bring the woman who screamed back through the portal but is unable to find it. The woman is a thief, and the policemen who soon come to arrest her also arrest Kirk. They hear Kirk speaking to his friends and suspect him of being a witch. In the jail, Kirk mentions the Atavachron to the interrogating prosecutor. This visibly startles him, and Kirk suspects he is also from the future. As Kirk later attempts an escape, the prosecutor returns and confirms Kirk's suspicions but explains that returning to the future would be fatal. Kirk mentions Atoz's warning that they had not been "prepared" before going through the portal. At that, the prosecutor insists that Kirk must return, because an "unprepared" person cannot survive in the past for more than a few hours. The prosecutor quickly leads Kirk to the portal, and Kirk returns to the present.  McCoy and Spock are saved by Zarabeth (Mariette Hartley), a beautiful woman who takes them to a sheltering cave. As McCoy recovers from severe exposure, Zarabeth explains to Spock that she too is from Sarpeidon's future, but a tyrant banished her to this era. She also explains that the Atavachron is a one-way trip. Spock uncharacteristically accepts this and becomes increasingly hostile to McCoy's continued desire to return to the present. Spock also begins to fall in love with Zarabeth, and physically attacks McCoy when he accuses Zarabeth of not telling the full truth. McCoy realizes that Spock is reverting to the barbarism of the ancient Vulcans, and this shocks Spock into controlling his emotions.  Back in the library, Kirk attempts to enlist Mr. Atoz in the search for his friends. Despite Kirk's explaining that they are not from this planet, Atoz stuns him and tries to force him back into the portal. Kirk awakens just in time, overpowers Atoz and forces him to help find McCoy and Spock. Eventually Kirk is able to talk with the two, and with the portal reopened, Spock and Zarabeth bid a tearful farewell. Upon their return, Atoz places his own data disc in the Atavachron and hurries through the portal to his chosen era. Back in the present, Spock quickly reverts to his normal self, and with little time to spare they are beamed back to the "Enterprise".

Reception.

In 2015, SyFy ranked this episode as one of the top ten essential "Star Trek" original series episodes.  In 2016, "The Hollywood Reporter" rated "All Our Yesterdays" the 39th best episode of all "Star Trek" episodes.  In 2016, SyFy ranked "All Our Yesterdays" as the 12th best time-travel plot of all episodes of the "Star Trek" franchise. They point out the episode offered fresh perspective on time travel by exploring the past of an alien world, as well as an interesting exploration of the characters Kirk, Spock, and McCoy.  A 2018 "Star Trek" binge-watching guide by "Den of Geek", recommended this episode for featuring the trio of characters Kirk, Spock, and Bones of the original series.  In 2019, "Nerdist" included this episode on their "Best of Spock" binge-watching guide. They also ranked it the tenth best time travel episode of the "Star Trek" franchise, including the later 750+ episodes. They note this episode for featuring Spock's travels to an ancient ice age of an alien world, and at that time his emotions are triggered by a woman and the effects of time travel. In the series, they remarked that normally the character does not have much emotion, so seeing the character deal with emotions provides a change of pace for the character's presentation.

Sequels.

Author Ann C. Crispin wrote two non-canon novel sequels to this episode, titled "Yesterday's Son", and "Time for Yesterday".

"All Our Yesterdays" is the twenty-third and penultimate episode of the of the American science fiction television series "". Written by Jean Lisette Aroeste and directed by Marvin Chomsky, it was first broadcast March 14, 1969.

Le Passé ("All Our Yesterdays") est le vingt-troisième épisode de la troisième saison de la série télévisée "Star Trek". Il fut diffusé pour la première fois le sur la chaîne américaine NBC.


Genesis.

In 1926, Cadillac began the development of a new, "multi-cylinder" car. A customer requirement was seen for a car powered by an engine simultaneously more powerful and smoother than any other available. Development proceeded in great secrecy over the next few years; a number of prototype cars were built and tested as the new engine was developed, while at the same time Cadillac chief Larry Fisher and GM's stylist Harley Earl toured Europe in search of inspiration from Europe's finest coachbuilders. Unlike many builders of luxury cars, who sold bare chassis to be clothed by outside coachbuilding firms, General Motors had purchased the coachbuilders Fleetwood Metal Body and Fisher Body to keep all the business in-house. Bare Cadillac chassis could be purchased if a buyer insisted, but the intention was that few would need to do so. One Cadillac dealer in England, namely Lendrum & Hartman, ordered at least two such chassis in even rarer right hand drive (RHD) configuration and had Vanden Plas (Belgium) build first an elegant limousine-landaulet (engine #702297), then a sports sedan with unusual cycle fenders and retractable step plates in lieu of running boards (engine #702298, which was successfully shown in various Concours d'Elegance events in Europe before being bought by the young Nawab of Bahawalpur); both these cars have survived. A third RHD chassis was ordered by the Indian Maharaja of Orccha (Bhopal) and sent to Farina in Italy, in July 1931, for a boat tail body (engine between #703136 and #703152).  It was not until after the stock market crash of 1929 that Cadillac announced to the world the availability of the costliest Cadillac yet, the new V-16 Series 452. The new vehicle was first displayed at New York City's automobile show on January 4, 1930. Despite the bad timing and high retail price, and although sales would later drop off considerably, the launch "exceeded Cadillac’s fondest aspirations."

1930–1937.

The Cadillac V-16 was distinguished by its pioneering V-16 engine, a narrow 45° V angle OHV Series 452 displacing.  Upon its introduction the new car attracted rave reviews from the press and huge public attention. January production averaged a couple of cars per day, then ramped up to twenty-two. By April, 1,000 units had been built, and by June, 2,000 cars. These could be ordered with a wide variety of bodywork. The Fleetwood catalog for the 1930 V-16 included 10 basic body styles; there was also an envelope containing some 30 additional designer's drawings. Research by the Cadillac-La Salle Club, Inc. puts at 70 the number of different job/style numbers built by Fisher and Fleetwood on the Sixteen chassis.  Beginning in June 1930, five new V-16s participated in a promotional tour of major European cities including Paris, Antwerp, Brussels, Amsterdam, Utrecht, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Berlin, Cologne, Dresden, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Nuremberg, Vienna (where they won prizes), Berne, Geneva, Lausanne, Zürich, Madrid, San Sebastian, La Baule and Angers. On the return journey from Spain, the V16 caravan stopped also in the town of Cadillac, in south-western France, although that city bears no relationship to the marque, other than its name.  After the peak in V-16 orders in mid-1930, production fell precipitously. During October 1930, only 54 cars were built. The lowest figures for the 452/452A cars of 1930–31 were August 1931 (seven units) and November 1931 (six units). Minimum production continued throughout the rest of the decade with a mere 50 units being built both in 1935 and in 1937. 1940 was only marginally better with a total of 51 units. Not surprisingly, Cadillac later estimated that they lost money on every single V-16 they sold.  Production of the original V-16 continued under various model names through 1937. The body was redesigned in 1933 as the model 452C. Innovations included Fisher no draft individually controlled ventilation (I.C.V. or vent windows).  For 1934, the body was redesigned again and denoted as 452D, and as 452E in 1935. The V-16 now featured the Fisher Turret Top all-steel roof, though the cars were still built by Fleetwood. This same basic design would remain virtually unchanged through 1937. With a wheelbase of and a curb weight of up to these are perhaps the largest standard production cars ever produced in the United States. Combined production for the 1934 and 1935 model years was 150. It was redesignated the Series 90 in 1936 as Cadillac reorganized their model names. Fifty-two units were sold that year, with nearly half ordered as limousines. Hydraulic brakes were added for 1937, the last year of production. Fifty vehicles were produced.

Production / Sales.

1930 2,500
 1931 750
 1932 300
 1935 to 1937 49 each year

1938–1940.

The V-16 "Series 90" and V-12 "Series 80 and 85", were essentially merged for 1938 with the introduction of the new L-head V-16. The engine was an in-block valve (i.e. flathead) design, and featured a wider 135° V-angle, twin carburetors, twin fuel pumps, twin distributors, twin water pumps, and a nine main bearing crankshaft (compared to the OHV V-16's five bearing crank) and produced the same as later versions of the original V-16 with even greater smoothness and endowed the '38–'40 Sixteens with the swiftest acceleration of any car in the world at the time regardless of weight as well as slightly improved fuel economy over the OHV V-16 cars. This engine was nearly silent at idle and exceptionally smooth in operation. The wheelbase was reduced to, the body remained in overall length. The "Sixteens" (as Cadillac referred to them) were basically series 75 cars with the new V-16 engine although they differed from the firewall forward from the V-8 cars and had several other trim differences. The instrument panels were identical to and changed yearly with the V-8 cars from 1938 to 1940. Only the '38 Sixteens had a horn button which had "Sixteen" in art deco script; the '39 and '40 models, like the V-8, had the Cadillac crest on the button. Three hundred fifteen were sold in the first year, 138 in the next. The production of the 1940 models ended in December 1939.

Today.

The Cadillac V-16 is today recognized as one of the finest automobiles of the prewar era by many authorities. The Classic Car Club of America rates all V-16s as CCCA Full Classics, a rating reserved for only the finest automobiles of the 1925–1948 period. Values reflect these opinions; particularly fine examples of the 1930 production can change hands for more than US$500,000. As always, convertibles are the most valued, and the earlier cars more so than the 1938–40 vehicles. A good condition 1938 sedan can sell for under US$80,000. Certain custom-bodied vehicles have sold for even more.

Concept car.

In 2003, Cadillac created a concept car called the Sixteen, which used a 13.6 litre V-16 engine that developed. Even though it used the current "A&S" (Art & Science) style of design that is Cadillac's stylistic hallmark, it shared many small details from the classic V-16. The Sixteen is also known to have the steering wheel logo carved out of solid crystal and a Bulgari clock.

The Cadillac V-16 (also known as the Cadillac Sixteen) was Cadillac's top-of-the-line model from its January 1930 launch until 1940. The V16 powered car was a first in the United States, both extremely expensive and exclusive, with all chassis finished to custom order. Only 4076 were constructed in its 11-year run, with the majority built in its debut year before the Great Depression took strong hold. The onset of World War II reduced the sales, resulting in its demise.

La Cadillac V-16 (parfois appelée Cadillac Sixteen) est l'automobile haut-de-gamme de la marque Cadillac depuis son lancement en janvier 1930 jusqu'à ce que sa production ne s'arrête en 1940 à cause de la guerre en Europe. Toutes les voitures produites ont été commandées personnellement par les clients et ainsi seulement ont été vendus. La majorité de ceux-ci ont été construits dans la seule année 1930, avant que la Grande Dépression ne prenne le pas sur les ventes. C'est la première voiture fonctionnant en V16 produite aux États-Unis. Elle a été dessinée par Harley J. Earl.


Early life.

Coverdell was born in Des Moines, Iowa in 1939 and lived much of his childhood in the Midwest. Coverdell graduated from Lee's Summit High School in Lees Summit, Missouri. and went on to graduate from the University of Missouri in 1961 with a degree in journalism. While in college, Coverdell was a member of Phi Kappa Psi fraternity.  Coverdell joined the Army in 1962 and served as a captain in Okinawa, Taiwan, and Korea. After completing his service Coverdell settled in Atlanta with his wife, Nancy. Coverdell began a career in insurance, founding the firm Coverdell & Co. Inc. with his father and becoming president of the family business in 1965.

Georgia State Senate (1970 to 1989).

Coverdell was unsuccessful in his first attempt to win election to the state senate in 1968 but he ran again and won in 1970 representing north Fulton County. Coverdell began serving as Senate Minority Leader in 1974, a position he held until he left the Georgia Senate in 1989. Coverdell worked with Democrats to accomplish his goals. Roy Barnes, a Democrat who would later be elected Governor of Georgia, said that when he joined the Georgia State Senate, Republican Coverdell took him under his political wing. "He showed that people of different parties could discuss their personal strengths and weaknesses," Barnes said. "I never worried that Paul would disclose anything I said." During Coverdell's time as Minority Leader he worked for pension reform, supported DUI legislation, and raising the legal drinking age in Georgia.  In 1977 Coverdell lost a special election for Andrew Young's congressional seat to Wyche Fowler. After Coverdell's loss in 1977, he began working to develop a base for national Republican candidates and a viable statewide Republican Party organization. In 1985 Coverdell was elected Chairman of the Georgia GOP.  In 1978, Coverdell was vacationing in Maine and decided to look up former Chairman of the Republican National Committee George H. W. Bush. Coverdell found Bush's address in a phone book, went to his home, knocked on the door and introduced himself to the future president. Bush and Coverdell became close friends and over the next fourteen years Bush and Coverdell would help each other on a number of occasions. In 1980, Coverdell was finance chairman in Georgia when Bush first ran for the Republican nomination for president. In 1988, Coverdell was the Southern steering committee chairman for the Bush campaign. Coverdell's efforts paid off in 1988 when Bush carried Georgia's twelve electoral votes. When Bush was elected president, Coverdell sent a letter. "If I can help, I'd like to help," Coverdell wrote. Bush appointed Coverdell to head the Peace Corps.

Peace Corps Director (1989 to 1991).

Coverdell was sworn in as Director of the Peace Corps on May 2, 1989 in a ceremony in the Oval Office. At the same time Coverdell stepped down from the Georgia State Senate, a post he had held for 15 years and resigned as president of Coverdell and Co. Inc to devote his time to the Peace Corps. Coverdell's primary initiative as Peace Corps Director was the creation of the "World Wise Schools" program. The program linked students in the United States with Peace Corps volunteers serving around the world. During the time Coverdell was in office, the World Wise Schools program connected volunteers with 5,000 classrooms in the United States. Coverdell was well regarded among the Peace Corps community. In the fall of 2000, after his death, a tribute was held in his honor at the Peace Corps Headquarters to honor his life and legacy.

Peace Corps enters Eastern Europe.

Coverdell sent the first Peace Corps volunteers to Eastern Europe after the fall of the Berlin Wall. On June 15, 1990, President George H. W. Bush hosted a send off for volunteers headed for Poland and Hungary. "The key you carry with you will be the English language—what Paul calls the language of commerce and understanding. And just as national literacy has long been the key to power, so today English literacy has become the key to progress. Like your liberty, your language came to you as a birthright and a credit to the dreams and sacrifices of those who came before. And today you're investing that birthright in the ancient dreams and the new ideas of faraway peoples and their own nations reborn. Your investment is America's investment in the consolidation of democracy and independence in Central and Eastern Europe. Peace Corps programs in Poland and Hungary, and then soon in Czechoslovakia, are another tangible element of America's sustained commitment to Central and Eastern Europe's democratic transformation toward a Europe whole and free."

Coverdell's support for the Peace Corps.

After Coverdell was elected to the Senate he continued his support for the Peace Corps and supported legislation to expand it. In testimony before the International Relations Committee in the House of Representatives on March 18, 1998 Coverdell testified in support of expansion. "I want to point out that the goal of increasing the number of Peace Corps volunteers spans three Presidencies. Under the distinguished leadership of former Director, the late Director Ruppe, the concept of moving toward 10,000 American volunteers throughout the world began to be articulated by the Reagan Administration. During my directorship we continued the pursuit of expanding the volunteer corps. We were there at a rather unique moment in world history, and the emphasis necessarily began to shift to responding to a host of nations experiencing freedom for the first time in nearly half a century, many more years, and so the emphasis began to move toward the opening, as the chairman alluded to, of new country programs. These new countries can be the beneficiary of our activities if we pursue expanding the volunteer corps."

Controversy over trips to Georgia.

Meanwhile, Coverdell had his eye on the Senate seat held by Wyche Fowler, the man who defeated him in the special election for Congress in 1977. The New York Times reported on September 4, 1991 that Coverdell had resigned as director of the Peace Corps and was considering a run for the Senate. There is some controversy over Coverdell's use of the office of Peace Corps Director and his subsequent run for the Senate. The New York Times reported on September 27, 1992 that Coverdell's tenure as head of the Peace Corps was likely to be one of the issues in the 1992 Senate race in Georgia and that Coverdell had been "accused of using the office to plot his political future in Georgia." In 2001, Barbara Ferris, a returned Peace Corps Volunteer and President of the International Women's Democracy Center (and later a candidate for the Democratic Congressional nomination in Ohio's 10th district in 2006), wrote that Coverdell had traveled nearly 30 times to Georgia in less than one year saying he was "trying to increase the number of recruits from there" and said that it looked like Coverdell was running his Senate campaign from the Peace Corps. However Charlton Heston, who came to Georgia to campaign on Coverdell's behalf in the Senate election, said in 1992, "He served (as Peace Corps director) effectively, but it hardly seemed an ideal launching pad for national elective office."

United States Senator (1993 to 2000).

Election to the Senate.

Coverdell faced an uphill fight to win a U.S. Senate seat and had to campaign in four separate elections (all-candidate primary, primary runoff, all-party general, and general runoff). Coverdell was not a natural campaigner. Senator Phil Gramm, then chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee, said he was appalled the first time he saw Coverdell speak during the 1992 election. "Paul got up and spoke in that squeaky voice and he sort of had a way of jumping up and down when he was speaking and waving his hands," Gramm said. "But little did I know... that this man had the heart of a lion."  Facing four other candidates in the Republican primary, Coverdell failed to win 50% of the vote and was forced into a runoff against Bob Barr that he won by only 1,600 votes. The general election also proved difficult. Democratic incumbent Wyche Fowler beat Coverdell by 30,000 votes on election day, but because the Libertarian candidate, Jim Hudson, had won 3 percent of the vote another runoff election was required. Coverdell won the runoff by 20,000 votes, aided by an endorsement from Hudson, who was no longer in the race; he became only the second Republican Georgia sent to the Senate since Reconstruction. President Bush showed his support for Coverdell and Barbara Bush campaigned for Coverdell during the Senate race.  Coverdell was also aided by a memorable ad campaign, highlighted by the "Jingle" television and radio spots featuring a ditty written and sung by senior citizen Margie Lopp.

Service in the Senate.

Coverdell served on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Agriculture Committee, and Small Business Committee. After the death of Senator John Chafee on October 24, 1999, a seat opened up on the Senate Finance Committee and Coverdell relinquished his seat on the Foreign Relations Committee to fill the seat. Coverdell sponsored legislation used by millions of Americans to fund college educations for their children originally called Education IRAs but now known as Coverdell Education Savings Accounts (CESAs) or Coverdell Plans for short. Coverdell ESAs allow money to grow tax deferred and proceeds to be withdrawn tax free for qualified education expenses at a qualified institution.  Coverdell sponsored the Volunteer Protection Act, a complex law that, in general, protects volunteers who serve nonprofit organizations and governmental entities from legal liability for tort claims based on simple negligence, provided that certain conditions are met. However critics of the law say that providing immunity to a volunteer who has injured someone as a consequence of his carelessness clashes with the charitable goal of helping others, that nonprofits should be held to the same standard of care as for-profit organizations, and that the Act would not be necessary at all if nonprofits carried adequate general liability insurance. Coverdell also worked against tax increases, to protect federal lands in national parks, and for humanitarian concerns.  In 1998, Coverdell, running with the slogan "Coverdell Works," made history by becoming the first Republican from Georgia ever to be re-elected to the U.S. Senate. In 1999 before an exploratory committee was formed, Coverdell took on the job of liaison between then Governor George W. Bush's campaign and the Senate. Early in the campaign, Coverdell's job was to line up Republican senators to endorse Governor Bush instead of Senator John McCain and he succeeded in getting the endorsement of almost every Senate Republican. After Bush locked up the nomination, Coverdell dealt with requests from senators who wanted to talk to Bush. "We don't want black holes," Coverdell said. "We want people feeling they are part of the effort. We want to create good will."

Death in office.

On a trip to Georgia for a weekend of speaking engagements and constituency services, Coverdell complained of a severe headache. Diagnosed with a cerebral hemorrhage, Coverdell underwent surgery at Piedmont Hospital in Atlanta on July 17, 2000. He never regained consciousness and died early in the evening of July 18, 2000.  More than 50 senators and representatives from both parties joined 900 other mourners at Coverdell's funeral at the Peachtree United Methodist Church in Atlanta. Then-Texas Governor George W. Bush took time from the 2000 presidential campaign to attend the services with his wife Laura. President Clinton also released a statement expressing his condolences to the Coverdell family. Former President George H. W. Bush, a close friend of Coverdell, did not attend, but a family friend read his tribute. Bush wrote:

Legacy and honors.

Coverdell was often described as a quiet, soft-spoken man, but he left profound marks on the governments of both the state of Georgia and the nation in a relatively brief period of time through the Coverdell Education Savings Accounts, which are used by millions of Americans to fund college educations for their children, and the establishment of a strong Republican Party in Georgia.  Coverdell left a legacy of civility in government. Political columnist David Broder wrote that Coverdell's "name rarely appeared in the headlines, and his face was not seen on magazine covers or the Sunday TV shows" but that he was admired and cherished by his colleagues. Democratic Senator Dianne Feinstein remembered that "(Coverdell) was not only a good senator, he was a good and decent man... a very nice man." Senator Olympia Snowe said "People like Paul Coverdell exist in the world — good, honorable, trustworthy people who call us to our better nature." George H. W. Bush honored Coverdell at the inauguration of the University of Georgia's Coverdell Center for Biomedical and Health Sciences on April 6, 2006: "In the Washington world of bitter partisanship, Paul was the voice of reason."  George W. Bush said "Paul Coverdell was a man of unusual abilities and striking character. He spoke with candor when others might hide the unpleasant truth. He was wise and reasonable in a city that often lacks both virtues. He was a man of principle who understood our political system's essential need for compromise. He was respected by both allies and adversaries."  Coverdell's state Senate papers are held by Georgia State University, while his papers from the Peace Corps and United States Senate are housed at the Ina Dillard Russell Library of Georgia College & State University in Milledgeville, which also has a public policy institute named in his honor.  The Peace Corps' headquarters in Washington, D.C., was named for Coverdell. The World Wise School program that he started was rebranded with his name in his honor as well as the renaming of the Fellows/USA program, a graduate school benefit program for returned Peace Corps Volunteers, to bear his name. He was an esteemed Director of the agency and many programs were rebranded to bear his name in recognition of the work he provided to create them.  Coverdell was also honored by the Georgia General Assembly in 2005 with a resolution to rename the Legislative Office Building the "Paul Coverdell Legislative Office Building." The move came under some criticism as, ironically, Paul Coverdell had opposed the funding for the building while he was serving in the Georgia Senate.  Coverdell was survived by his wife Nancy, who later became a presidential elector in 2000 on the Bush-Cheney ticket.

Paul Douglas Coverdell (January 20, 1939 – July 18, 2000) was a United States Senator from Georgia, elected for the first time in 1992 and re-elected in 1998, and director of the Peace Corps from 1989 until 1991. Coverdell died from a cerebral hemorrhage in Atlanta, Georgia in 2000 while serving in the United States Senate. He was a member of the Republican Party.

Paul Douglas Coverdell est un homme politique américain né le à Des Moines (Iowa) et mort le à Atlanta. Membre du Parti républicain, il est notamment sénateur des États-Unis pour la Géorgie de 1993 à sa mort.


Plot.

Elderly divorcé Anthony 'Tony' Webster runs a London camera shop and lives quietly. He receives a letter from the estate of Sarah Ford, the mother of his 1960s university girlfriend Veronica. To his surprise she has left him £500 and a diary, which is still with Veronica.  In flashback, we see that Tony's Sixth Form classmate, Robson, died from what many believed to be suicide after his girlfriend became pregnant. Tony's friend, the highly intelligent Adrian Finn, told their history teacher that in the absence of documentary evidence nobody will ever know the true reason for his suicide. Later, at the University of Bristol, Tony met Veronica, who introduced him to photography as a hobby. On a visit to her family, Veronica's attractive mother Sarah flirted with him but warned him "not to let Veronica get away with too much". As Tony left, Sarah gave him a horizontal wave at waist level. Tony was unsure if it was a flirtatious goodbye or a warning signal.  Veronica later broke up with Tony, having never had full sexual intercourse with him - until after their breakup. He received a letter from Adrian requesting his blessing for his new relationship with Veronica. At first he decided to respond positively, but then wrote an angry reply, writing of her being damaged and how even her mother had warned him about her, and wishing they would have a child which would pay for its parents' sins. He never heard back from either of them. Tony's two best friends from Sixth Form later informed him that Adrian, who had seemed happy and in love at first, had committed suicide. Tony believed that Veronica could have met Adrian through her brother Jack, who like Adrian studied at the University of Cambridge (but had previously told Tony he did not know Adrian), but they pointed out that Adrian and Veronica met through Tony.  In the present day, Tony tells his ex-wife Margaret about his relationship with Veronica for the first time. Tony reconnects with his two Sixth Form friends and they help him locate Veronica online. She is still angry at him, has burned Adrian's diary, which might have explained why he committed suicide, but hands him the angry letter he wrote to her and Adrian. Spying on Veronica, Tony sees her with an intellectually disabled middle-aged man who bears a striking resemblance to, and is called, Adrian. Tony learns that Adrian Jr. is not Veronica's son but her younger half-brother, and guesses he is the son of Adrian Sr and Sarah.  Tony's daughter Susie, whose pregnancy has been a subplot throughout the film, gives birth to a healthy boy. Tony writes to Veronica, apologising to her for what he did.

Production.

On 8 February 2015, it was announced that Ritesh Batra would next direct a drama for Origin Pictures and BBC Films, based on the Julian Barnes' novel "The Sense of an Ending", and scripted by Nick Payne. On 11 May 2015, Jim Broadbent was cast in the film for the lead role, which BBC Films and FilmNation Entertainment would be financing, and FilmNation also handling the international sales. David M. Thompson and Ed Rubin of Origin Pictures would finance the film. On 6 August 2015, an ensemble cast was announced including Charlotte Rampling, Harriet Walter, Emily Mortimer, Michelle Dockery, Billy Howle, Freya Mavor, and Joe Alwyn. Lipsync Productions would also co-finance the film along with BBC Films and FilmNation Entertainment. On 8 September 2015 CBS Films acquired the US distribution rights to the film.

Filming.

Principal photography on the film began on 8 September 2015 in London and Bristol. Filming lasted for seven weeks.

Release.

It had its world premiere at the Palm Springs International Film Festival on 2 January 2017. The film was released in the United States on 10 March 2017 and in the United Kingdom on 14 April 2017.

Reception.

Box office.

"The Sense of an Ending" grossed $1.3 million in the United States and Canada and $3.2 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $4.5 million.

Critical response.

On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 76% based on 119 reviews, with an average rating of 6.42/10. The site's critical consensus states, "Anchored by a strong starring performance by Jim Broadbent, "The Sense of an Ending" proves consistently gripping even as it skims the narrative surface of its literary source material." On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 61 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

The Sense of an Ending is a 2017 British-American mystery drama film directed by Ritesh Batra and written by Nick Payne, based on the novel of the same name by Julian Barnes. The film stars Jim Broadbent, Charlotte Rampling, Harriet Walter, Billy Howle, Emily Mortimer and Michelle Dockery.

À l'heure des souvenirs ("The Sense of an Ending") est un drame britannique réalisé par Ritesh Batra, sorti en 2017.


History.

Abraham Geiger, who had been active in establishing Reform Judaism, wanted a university for Jewish studies in Berlin. Unable to become part of the University of Berlin, he was involved in 1870 in creating a separate institution. Also involved were David Cassel, Israel Lewy and Heymann Steinthal, the Jewish "intellectuals" and professors at the University of Berlin.  Geiger's "General Introduction to the Science of Judaism," "Introduction to the Biblical Writings" and "Lectures on Pirḳe Abot" were originally delivered as lectures at the seminary. Some of the best German-Jewish teachers taught there in the spirit of the "Wissenschaft des Judentums" movement: Hanoch Albeck, Ismar Elbogen, Julius Grünthal, Julius Guttmann, Franz Rosenthal, Harry Torczyner, and Leo Baeck.  Moritz Steinschneider referred to the "Hochschule" as a "new ghetto of Jewish learning," which he felt could ultimately not produce the standards of scholarship achieved in the university setting.  Officially the institution was not affiliated with a movement or denomination. It sought free inquiry and research without any restrictions. It stood for a conservative Judaism, but its main object was the scientific study of things Jewish, freed as far as possible from denominational disputes. There was no religious test for professors but it was assumed that all of the faculty lived according to the Jewish tradition and were fluent in Hebrew. As the school was never dependent on any religious or public organization, the board was constantly engaged in raising money from wealthy contributors, sponsors of scholarly "chairs" and scholarships.  In 1872, the first year, there were only 12 students, including four women. In 1921, there were 63 full-time and 45 part-time students enrolled in the "Hochschule". Many of the students came from Eastern European countries, notably Poland, as graduates of Orthodox Yeshivot. By 1930–33 the school had achieved so great a reputation that many non-Jews, especially Christian clergy, enrolled.

Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums, or Higher Institute for Jewish Studies, was a rabbinical seminary, established in Berlin in 1872 and closed down by the Nazi government of Germany in 1942. Upon the order of the government, the name was officially changed (1883–1923 and 1933–42) to Lehranstalt für die Wissenschaft des Judentums.

La Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums (en français, Académie pour l'étude du judaïsme) était un établissement d'enseignement et de recherche de la Wissenschaft des Judentums à Berlin de 1872 à 1942.


Education.

Tlou graduated from Dillard University in 1974. In 2014 she was awarded an Honorary degree by her alma mater. Tlou studied at Teachers College, Columbia University, U.S., obtaining an M.A. in Education (concentrating in Curriculum and Instruction in the Health Sciences). She took her PhD in community health nursing and a diploma in gender issues, at the University of Illinois at Chicago in 1990.

Career.

Tlou has taught at the University of Botswana from 1980. From 1994 to 1996 she was head of Nursing Education, becoming an associate professor in 1999, and 2002–04 she was the university's HIV/AIDS coordinator.  Tlou represented Botswana at the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. In 2002 she was appointed to a special UN task force on girls, women, and HIV/AIDS in southern Africa. she has also provided consultancy to UNAIDS, the UN Commission on the Status of Women and the World Health Organization. She took part in the international community educator meetings for the HIV Vaccine Trials Network.  She has portrayed Precious Ramotswe, the heroine of Alexander McCall Smith's #1 Ladies' Detective Agency book series, in amateur theater productions, and at one time was mentioned in media reports as a possible choice to portray Mma Ramotswe in the Hollywood film adaptation currently in production.  Tlou is married to Botswana historian Professor Thomas Tlou.

Positions Held.

Following the October 2004 general election, Tlou was appointed as Minister of Health on November 9, 2004. After being defeated in primary elections of the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP) in Palapye, Tlou was dismissed from the Cabinet on April 1, 2008, when Ian Khama took office as President.

HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment.

Much of Tlou's work focuses on gender issues and HIV/AIDS in southern Africa. Enabling women, particularly married women, in a patriarchal society to negotiate with their partner for safe sex has major consequences for HIV transmission. Tlou has worked with grassroots women's organisations and national campaigns to increase AIDS awareness in Botswana. She has also done a great deal of work in reducing the stigma of AIDS and helping HIV positive people cope with their lives.

Works.

Tlou is a co-editor of the comprehensive reference book for people working in the field of HIV/AIDS in Africa:  Selected other works:

Sheila Dinotshe Tlou is a Botswana nurse, specialist in HIV/AIDS and women's health, and a nursing educator. She was Minister of Health from 2004 to 2008.

Sheila Dinotshe Tlou, née vers 1953, est une spécialiste botswanaise du VIH/SIDA et de la santé des femmes, et une éducatrice. Elle est également ministre botswanaise de la Santé de 2004 à 2008.


Club career.

Real Madrid.

Born in Madrid, Hermoso joined Real Madrid's youth setup in 2005, aged ten, after starting out at EF Concepción. On 28 September 2012, while still a youth, he appeared with the first team in that year's Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu, coming on as a second-half substitute in an 8–0 rout of Millonarios FC.  In summer 2014, Hermoso was promoted to the C-side in Tercera División, playing 34 matches and scoring two goals. On 16 July 2015, shortly after being assigned to the reserves, he was loaned to Segunda División club Real Valladolid in a season-long deal.  Hermoso made his professional debut on 22 August 2015, starting in a 0–1 away loss against Córdoba CF. Upon returning, he was again assigned to Real's reserves in Segunda División B.

Espanyol.

On 12 July 2017, Hermoso signed a three-year deal with RCD Espanyol. His maiden appearance in La Liga took place on 9 September, playing the full 90 minutes in a 0–5 away loss to FC Barcelona. He scored his first goal in the competition the following 28 January, but also put two past his own net in a 2–3 defeat at CD Leganés.

Atlético Madrid.

On 18 July 2019, with only one year left in his contract, Hermoso agreed to a five-year contract with Atlético Madrid for €25 million plus €4 million in add-ons. Espanyol also retained 20% of any future sale of the player, with half of the fee being paid to Real Madrid. He made his league debut on 18 August, playing 28 minutes in the 1–0 home win against Getafe CF.

International career.

After playing for Spain at under-19 level, Hermoso was first called by the full side on 8 November 2018, for matches against Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. He made his debut in the latter fixture, featuring the full 90 minutes in the 1–0 friendly win in Las Palmas.

Mario Hermoso Canseco (; born 18 June 1995) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays for Atlético Madrid. Mainly a central defender, he can also operate as a left back.

Mario Hermoso Canseco, né le à Madrid (Espagne), est un footballeur international espagnol évoluant au poste de défenseur au sein du club espagnol de l'Atletico de Madrid.


Biography.

Poletti was born in Ravenna. In 1908 she attended the First National Congress of Women (Primo Congresso Femminile Nazionale) in Rome, where she met Sibilla Aleramo. The two women wshared the same feminist views and soon became involved in a passionate relationship. Excerpts of the topics discussed between them can be found in the edited letters and diary entries of Aleramo, who would go on to be one of Italy's leading feminists. Aleramo's writings to Poletti have, in more recent years, been studied due to their open-minded views toward same-sex relationships. While Aleramo was involved with Poletti she was also in love with a man, Giovanni Cena. Aleramo expressed in her letters to Poletti that she never felt guilt for having loved both of them at the same time. Poletti on her part had written to Giovanni saying that, by this passionate mélange, they were threatening Sibilla's mental health. Eventually Poletti was unable to persuade Aleramo to leave Cena and they ended their relationship after little more than a year.  In 1909 Poletti met and became involved with Eleonora Duse, at the time a popular stage actress. The two moved in together in a house located in Florence, Italy, where Poletti started working on a number of plays for Duse. Their affair was passionate but volatile, and after about two years Poletti ended the relationship. Duse was depressed for a time afterward.  Towards the end of her life, Poletti lived with the Countess Eugenia Rasponi, a noblewoman and ardent fellow feminist. Their relationship continued until the death of Rasponi in 1958. Poletti continued her literary and feminist activity until she passed away in 1971.

Lina Poletti (born Cordula Poletti, Ravenna, 27 August 1885 – Sanremo, 1971), was an Italian writer, poet, playwright and feminist. Often described as beautiful and rebellious, she was prone to wear men's clothing and is considered one of the first women in Italy to openly declare her lesbianism.

Lina Poletti (Ravenne, – Sanremo, ), née Cordula Poletti, est une féministe italienne, s'habillant souvent avec des vêtements pour hommes, et qui est surtout connue aujourd'hui pour ses liaisons avec l"écrivaine Sibilla Aleramo et l'actrice Eleonora Duse. Dans le livre "" (Lesbiennes en Italie au début du XXe siècle), Poletti est souvent décrite comme l'une des premières femmes en Italie à déclarer ouvertement son lesbianisme, sans regret.


History.

Early years.

Built by Sefton Henry Parry as the Royal Avenue Theatre, it opened on 11 March 1882 with 1200 seats. The first production at the theatre was Jacques Offenbach's "Madame Favart". In its early seasons, the theatre hosted comic operas, burlesques and farces for several years. For much of this time, the low comedian Arthur Roberts, a popular star of the music halls, starred at the theatre. By the 1890s, the theatre was presenting drama, and in 1894 Annie Horniman, the tea heiress, anonymously sponsored the actress Florence Farr in a season of plays at the theatre. Farr's first production was unsuccessful, and so she prevailed upon her friend, George Bernard Shaw, to hurry and make his West End début at the theatre with "Arms and the Man" in 1894. It was successful enough to allow him to discontinue music criticism to focus full-time on play writing. The actress Gladys Cooper managed the theatre for some years.  The theatre was rebuilt in 1905 to the designs of Blow and Billerey. During the work, part of the roof of the adjacent Charing Cross railway station collapsed. The roof and girders fell across the train lines but part of the station's western wall also fell and crashed through the roof and wall of the theatre. This resulted in the deaths of three people in the station, and three workmen on the theatre site and injuries to many more. The theatre was repaired and re-opened as The Playhouse on 28 January 1907 with a one-act play called "The Drums of Oudh" and a play called "Toddles", by Tristan Bernard and Andre Godferneaux. Shaw wrote a sketch entitled "The Interlude at the Playhouse" for the occasion.  The new theatre had a smaller seating capacity of 679. W. Somerset Maugham's "Home and Beauty" premièred at the Playhouse on 30 August 1919, running for 235 performances, and Henry Daniell appeared here in February 1926 as the Prince of Karaslavia in "Mr. Abdulla". Nigel Bruce appeared in February 1927 as Robert Crosbie in Somerset Maugham's "The Letter", and again in May 1930 as Robert Brennan in "Dishonoured Lady". Alec Guinness made his stage début here in Ward Dorane's play "Libel!" on 2 April 1934. Daniell returned in November that year as Paul Miller in "Hurricane".

BBC studio.

In 1951 it was taken over by the BBC as a recording studio for live performances. "The Goon Show" and the radio versions of "Hancock's Half Hour" and "Steptoe and Son" were recorded here, although at least the first two shows were also recorded at other venues during their runs. The stage also hosted live performances by KISS, Queen, Led Zeppelin, The Who, The Beatles and The Rolling Stones. On 3 April 1967, a live Pink Floyd concert was broadcast from the theatre.  When the BBC left around 1976, the theatre went dark and was in danger of demolition.

Other Uses.

In 1986, Rock band Queen used the Playhouse Theatre as the set for their A Kind Of Magic music video

1987 return to theatre usage.

The theatre was restored to its 1907 design by impresario Robin Gonshaw, opening again in October 1987 with the musical "Girlfriends". A commercial building, Aria House, was erected above the theatre.  In 1988, novelist and politician Jeffrey Archer bought the Playhouse for just over £1 million. The following year, the theatre was offered commercial sponsorship by a financial services' company, and for a while it was known as the MI Group Playhouse. In 1991, the Playhouse became home to the Peter Hall Company, and a number of critically and commercially successful plays were performed there, including Tennessee Williams' "The Rose Tattoo" (1991), starring Julie Walters and Moliere's "Tartuffe" (1991), starring Paul Eddington and Felicity Kendal. Around this time the basement bar area of the theatre was converted into a private restaurant, Shaws, but the enterprise was unsuccessful and the space was later converted back into a bar/cafe.  In 1992, Archer sold the Playhouse to the writer and impresario Ray Cooney for just over £2 million. That year Cooney staged the West End premiere of his latest farce "It Runs in the Family" at the Playhouse. This was followed by "Jane Eyre" (1993), adapted by Fay Weldon and starring Tim Pigott-Smith; Frederick Lonsdale's "On Approval", (1994), starring Simon Ward, Martin Jarvis and Anna Carteret; and Ray Cooney's "Funny Money" in 1995.  In 1996, Cooney sold the Playhouse to American investment banker Patrick Sulaiman Cole, whose first production was a critically acclaimed revival of Henrik Ibsen's "A Doll's House" in 1996, directed by Anthony Page and starring Janet McTeer. Later that year, the theatre was closed for complete refurbishment under the direction of English Heritage, with the auditorium luxuriously decorated, with grandiose murals, caryatids, golden pillars, carved balustrades, and shining gold decoration. It reopened in 1997 with Sulaiman Cole's production and the West End première of Anton Chekhov's "The Wood Demon". This was followed by Sulaiman Cole's production of a first ever West End Snoo Wilson premiere, "HRH", directed by Simon Callow, about the British Royal Family's Duke and Duchess of Windsor, which opened the day after the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. The play was harshly reviewed as anti-Royal. The theatre returned to life as a commercial receiving house with several seasons of Almeida Theatre and Cheek by Jowl productions, including the popular but critically panned premiere of David Hare's "The Judas Kiss".  Successes at the Playhouse since the late 1990s have included "Naked" (1998); J. B. Priestley's "An Inspector Calls" (2001) and "Journey's End", directed by David Grindley.  American theatrical producers Ted and Norman Tulchin's Maidstone Productions purchased the theatre at the end of 2002, with the venue managed by the Ambassador Theatre Group. The Playhouse hosted Richard Eyre's 2003 Olivier Award-winning production of "Vincent in Brixton", starring Clare Higgins; Eyre's 2005 production of "Hedda Gabler", starring Eve Best; and Megan Dodds in a transfer of "My Name Is Rachel Corrie" by Alan Rickman and Katharine Viner in 2006.  More recent successes include the musical "Dancing in the Streets", "The Adventures of Tintin" based on the famous comic-book detective, "The Harder They Come", and "La Cage Aux Folles".  In December 2013, ATG had acquired 100 percent ownership of the Playhouse.

The Playhouse Theatre is a West End theatre in the City of Westminster, located in Northumberland Avenue, near Trafalgar Square. The Theatre was built by F. H. Fowler and Hill with a seating capacity of 1,200. It was rebuilt in 1907 and still retains its original substage machinery. Its current seating capacity is 786.

Le est un théâtre situé à Londres Northumberland Avenue, à West End dans la Cité de Westminster, à proximité de Trafalgar Square et inauguré en 1882.


History.

Origins.

The 6th Operations Group's origins begin on 30 September 1919 as the United States Army Panama Canal Department 3d Observation Group, being stationed at France Field in the Panama Canal Zone. The unit controlled numerous miscellaneous Air Service light observation squadrons to provide protection for the Panama Canal area.  In 1921 the group was redesignated the 6th Group (Observation) and in 1922, the 6th Group (Composite). The 6th flew such aircraft at the Curtiss R-4, DeHavilland 4-B, SE-5A, MG-3A, Piper L-4, P-12B and Martin B-10 and Douglas B-18 Bolo aircraft.  Throughout the 1920s and 1930 the group participated in maneuvers, flying patrol missions, photographing the canal area, staging aerial reviews and making good-will flights to Central and South America. In 1933, the group became part of the larger 19th Composite Wing, which provided a central command and control organization for the Air Service units. In 1937, as the mission of the 6th moved toward bombardment, the War Department renamed it the 6th Bombardment Group. They continued to operate in the Canal Zone under the VI Bomber Command of the Sixth Air Force at Rio Hato AB, Albrook Field and Howard Field.

World War II.

As events in Europe and the Far East unfolded, the 6th Bomb Group and its units moved towards a war footing. Starting in May 1940, ground training for junior officers, newly arrived at France Field, became of major importance. Local courses on armament, use of flares and the delicate and seldom practiced fusing of bombs were made practically daily matters of practical application. Communications were also being stressed, as qualified radio operators were in short supply, while the squadrons rotated in and out of Rio Hato Army Air Base on "live" bombing practice.  On 4 June 1941, the first four-engine Boeing B-17B Flying Fortress was assigned to the Group. By November, all four of the B-17Bs had been assigned to the 7th Reconnaissance Squadron.  Many alerts and false alarms of enemy aircraft were recorded in the first three months after the Japanese Pearl Harbor Attack, although, of course, these proved to be false alarms. As the early months of the war swept by, and as VI Bomber Command struggled to apportion its scarce resources to best advantage.  In 1941 it was assigned to the new VI Bomber Command of Sixth Air Force with an antisubmarine mission on both the Caribbean and Pacific approaches to the Panama Canal. By 1943, the antisubmarine mission was taken over by the United States Navy, and the group was disbanded in November 1943.  Author James Rusbridger examined the records of the 6th Heavy Bomber Group operations while in Panama. The records show the sinking of a large submarine the morning of 19 February 1942. Since no German submarine was lost in the area on that date, it is assumed the large submarine was the Free-French "Surcouf", which was the largest submarine in the world at the time. Rusbridger suggested that a collision reported by the American freighter Thompson Lykes on the night of 18 February, sustained damaged to the submarine's radio antenna with the stricken vessel limping towards Panama.  On 19 April 1944, the 6th Bombardment Group was reactivated at Dalhart Army Air Field, Texas, being formed as a B-29 Superfortress Very Heavy bombardment Group. The reactivated group was initially assigned four newly constituted bomb squadrons, the 24th, 39th, 40th and 41st as its operational components.  Due to a shortage of B-29s, the group was equipped with former II Bomber Command B-17 Flying Fortresses previously used for training heavy bomber replacement personnel. In May shortages in aircraft and equipment led to the 41st Bomb Squadron being inactivated, with its personnel being consolidated into other group squadrons and the 6th becoming a three squadron group (the 41st would be reactivated a month later as part of the 501st Bombardment Group, but was inactivated a second time, finally being deployed into combat with the 448th Bombardment Group). The 6th was eventually equipped with newly manufactured B-29 Superfortresses at Grand Island Army Airfield, Nebraska during the summer of 1944.  In November the group was deployed to the Asiatic-Pacific Theater, being assigned to the XXI Bomber Command 313th Bombardment Wing, being stationed at North Field, Tinian, The group entered combat by flying navigational escort for a major attack force bound for Iwo Jima. The 6th then began engaging in very long range bombardment missions over the Japanese Home Islands, striking Tokyo and other major Japanese cities and facilities during daylight high-altitude bombing raids, with crippling, non-stop incendiary raids which destroyed lines of communication, supply, and numerous kamikaze bases.  On 25 May 1945, the 6th flew a low-altitude night mission through alerted enemy defenses to drop incendiary bombs on Tokyo, for which they received their first Distinguished Unit Citation. In addition to incendiary raids, the 6th also participated in mining operations. By mining harbors in Japan and Korea in July 1945, the group contributed to the blockade of the Japanese Empire earning their second Distinguished Unit Citation. The 6th's final World War II mission came on 14 August 1945, with the dropping of 500-pound general-purpose bombs on the Marifu railroad yards at Iwakuni.

Postwar era.

With the war over, the 6th dropped food and supplies to Allied prisoners of war and took part in show-of-force flights over Japan. The unit remained on Tinian until February 1946 during which time the group largely demobilized as part of the "Sunset Project", with some aircraft being sent as reclamation on Tinian; others being returned to the United States for storage at aircraft depots in the southwest. By Christmas, the group fleet was reduced to 30 or fewer planes. Many of the remaining veterans signed for "any conditions of travel" to get home, arriving three weeks later in Oakland, California, where troop trains scattered them for points of discharge close to their homes.  The unit moved to Clark Field in the Philippines where it was reassigned to the postwar Far East Air Forces 1st Air Division. At Clark its remaining aircraft and personnel were consolidated into other units. It was again reassigned in June 1947 to Kadena Air Base, Okinawa as a paper unit where it was inactivated in 1948.  In January 1951, the group was activated as the operational component of the new 6th Bombardment Wing at Walker AFB, New Mexico as part of Strategic Air Command's Fifteenth Air Force. However all of the group's B-29 Superfortress were attached directly to the Wing organization, with the group having only one officer and one airman officially assigned to group headquarters. It was inactivated in June 1952 as part of the implementation of the postwar Tri-Deputate organization, as all operational flying squadrons were assigned directly to the 6th Bombardment Wing.

Reactivation, from the 1990s.

Activated on 1 October 1996 with an air refueling mission as part of the Objective Wing structure of the 6th Air Refueling Wing.  Elements deployed to Southwest Asia in July 1998 to refuel aircraft engaged in no-fly operations over northern Iraq. After January 2001, the group also provided airlift for the commanders of U.S. Central Command and U.S. Special Operations Command. It also refueled fighters providing security over the southeastern United States as part of homeland security after terrorist attacks against the United States in September 2001. MacDill KC-135’s have supported US military operations all over the world including refueling coalition aircraft during the war in Bosnia. Since 2001, personnel and aircraft deployed around the world to fulfill air refueling and aeromedical missions.  The 6th has twice won the Air Mobility Rodeo Best Air Mobility Wing Award; in 2000 and 2005.  The group's squadrons in the late 2010s include: All three Air Refuelling Squadrons operate the KC-135R Stratotanker, a long-range tanker aircraft capable of refueling a variety of other aircraft in mid-air, anywhere in the world and under any weather condition.

Heraldry.

The group's emblem, approved in 1924, reflects its Panama Canal Zone origins with a ship sailing through the Gaillard Cut and an airplane flying overhead.

The 6th Operations Group (6 OG) is the operational flying component of the 6th Air Refueling Wing, stationed at MacDill Air Force Base, Florida.

Le (« groupe d'opérations ») ou 6 OG est la composante volante opérationnelle de la, stationnée à la base aérienne MacDill, en Floride.


Background.

Martin Meredith states, "In the decade between 1791 and 1800, British ships made about 1,340 voyages across the Atlantic, landing nearly 400,000 slaves. Between 1801 and 1807, they took a further 266,000. The slave trade remained one of Britain's most profitable businesses."  The Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade was formed in 1787 by a group of Evangelical English Protestants allied with Quakers, to unite in their shared opposition to slavery and the slave trade. The Quakers had long viewed slavery as immoral, a blight upon humanity. By 1807 the abolitionist groups had a very sizable faction of like-minded members in the British Parliament. At their height they controlled 35–40 seats. Known as the "Saints", the alliance was led by the best known of the anti-slave trade campaigners, William Wilberforce, who had taken on the cause of abolition in 1787 after having read the evidence that Thomas Clarkson had amassed against the trade. These dedicated Parliamentarians had access to the legal draughtsmanship of James Stephen, Wilberforce's brother-in-law. They often saw their personal battle against slavery as a divinely ordained crusade. On Sunday, 28 October 1787, Wilberforce wrote in his diary: "God Almighty has set before me two great objects, the suppression of the slave trade and the reformation of manners."  Their numbers were magnified by the precarious position of the government under Lord Grenville, whose short term as Prime Minister was known as the Ministry of All the Talents. Grenville himself led the fight to pass the bill in the House of Lords, while in the Commons the bill was led by the Foreign Secretary, Lord Howick (Charles Grey, later Earl Grey). Other events also played a part; the Acts of Union 1800 brought 100 Irish MPs into Parliament, most of whom supported abolition. The Bill was first introduced to Parliament in January 1807. It went to the House of Commons on 10 February 1807. On 23 February 1807, twenty years after he first began his crusade, Wilberforce and his team were rewarded with victory. After a debate lasting ten hours, the House agreed to the second reading of the bill to abolish the Atlantic slave trade by an overwhelming 283 votes for to 16. The Bill received Royal Assent on 25 March 1807.  The Act took effect on 1 May 1807. However, had received clearance to sail 27 April, before the deadline. Thus, when she sailed on 27 July, she did so legally. This was the last legal slave voyage for an English vessel.  Although the Act abolished the slave trade in the British Empire, slavery itself continued for another generation. It was the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 that finally abolished slavery within the British Empire.

Other nations.

By its Act Against Slavery of 1793, the Parliament of Upper Canada in British North America had abolished the slave trade, and in 1805 a British Order-in-Council had restricted the importation of slaves into colonies that had been captured from France and the Netherlands. Following adoption of the 1807 Act, Britain used its influence to pressure other nations to end their own slave trades. By the 1810 Anglo-Portuguese treaty Portugal agreed to restrict its trade into its colonies; in the 1813 Anglo-Swedish treaty Sweden outlawed its slave trade; and in the 1814 Treaty of Paris whereby France agreed with Britain that the slave trade was "repugnant to the principles of natural justice" and agreed to abolish the slave trade in five years. In the 1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty the Netherlands outlawed its slave trade, and the 1817 Anglo-Spanish treaty called for Spain to suppress its trade by 1820.  The United States adopted its Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves on 2 March 1807, the same month and year as the British action. It provided for the abolition of its Atlantic slave trade but did not alter its internal trade in slaves. Article 1, Section 9, Clause 1 of the United States Constitution forbade the closing of the slave trade for twenty years, until 1808. The long-planned law was passed a year earlier, and with the economic incentives of the slave trade coming to an end, there was both a spike number of slaves being traded and a unification of political factions against the trade.  The UK pressured the Sultan of Zanzibar to close down the large slave market, the last of its kind in the world, on which was built an Anglican Cathedral. Although this was done through diplomacy, it was backed up with nine warships just off the island's coast.

Enforcement.

The Act created fines for captains who continued with the trade. These fines could be up to £100 per enslaved person found on a ship. Captains would sometimes dump captives overboard when they saw Navy ships coming in order to avoid these fines. The Royal Navy, which then controlled the world's seas, established the West Africa Squadron in 1808 to patrol the coast of West Africa, and between 1808 and 1860 they seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard. The Royal Navy declared that ships transporting slaves were the same as pirates. Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, such as "the usurping King of Lagos", who was deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.  In the 1860s, David Livingstone's reports of atrocities within the Arab slave trade in Africa stirred up the interest of the British public, reviving the flagging abolitionist movement. The Royal Navy throughout the 1870s attempted to suppress "this abominable Eastern trade", at Zanzibar in particular. In 1890 Britain handed control of the strategically important island of Heligoland in the North Sea to Germany in return for control of Zanzibar, in part to help enforce the ban on slave trading.

The Slave Trade Act 1807, officially An Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom prohibiting the slave trade in the British Empire. Although it did not abolish the practice of slavery, it did encourage British action to press other nation states to abolish their own slave trades.

Le Slave Trade Act 1807, officiellement Abolition of the Slave Trade Act 1807, est une loi du Parlement du Royaume-Uni adoptée le, sur l'abolition de la traite des esclaves. L'acte original est conservé aux.