Belgique dans la guerre franco-prussienne

Belgium and the Crisis of 1870.

The Treaty of London in 1839 had recognized Belgium as a sovereign state but committed it to a policy of perpetual neutrality. Its independence was intended to be guaranteed by the Belgian Army and the military intervention of the Treaty's signatory powers. However, there were doubts that the Treaty would be honoured in Belgium was attacked especially in the aftermath of the Luxembourg Crisis of 1867.  The outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War led King Leopold II and the government of Jules d'Anethan, installed only two weeks before the war's outbreak, to fear that Belgium would be invaded. A career staff officer, Major General Guillaume, was appointed as a non-partisan expert Minister of War in the new cabinet. The gold reserves of the National Bank were hurried to the National Redoubt at Antwerp before the news became public. When this leaked out, it caused panic.  The Belgian Army was called up on the 15 July, the same day that both French and German armies mobilised. The Belgian troops were divided into two armies; the Army of Antwerp (15,000 men) was tasked with guarding the fortresses at Antwerp and across Belgium while the Army of Observation (55,000 men) was tasked with defending the national borders.  Many military leaders feared that, even after the outbreak of hostilities, as both French and Prussian armies manoeuvred on the Belgian border, one of them would seek a strategic advantage by an outflanking attack through Belgium, and most believed the army incapable of fending off any such attack. Indeed, in the early part of the war, French Marshal Canrobert brought an entire Army Corps (4 infantry divisions) to Châlons-sur-Marne in northern France as a reserve and to guard against any Prussian advance through Belgium. Despite key battles taking place very close to Belgian territory, including the Battle of Sedan just a few miles from the border, Belgium was never actually attacked.  In order to avoid giving the impression of belligerence in the conflict, Leopold requested that the French not commit Belgian members of the French Foreign Legion during the conflict. The French agreed and Belgian legionnaires remained in their base in French Algeria while their comrades were deployed to the front. The decision outraged the other legionaries and the Legion's march, "Le Boudin", makes repeated reference to the fact that the Belgians "[only] shoot from their rear-end" (""tireurs au cul"") because of it.

Legacy.

The Franco–Prussian War made Belgians acutely aware of the precarious situation of their country in the event of another war between the two powers. In the years following the conflict, there was widespread modernisation of the military. The system of "Remplacement" (whereby wealthy Belgians conscripted into the military could pay for a "replacement" to do their military service instead), which had been viewed as a crucial personal liberty by many Belgians was abolished, and an improved system of conscription implemented. These reforms, led by d'Anethan and under pressure from Leopold II, divided Belgian politics. The Catholics united with the Liberals under Frère-Orban to oppose them, and the reforms were finally defeated when d'Anethan's government fell during an unrelated scandal.  Eventually, the military was reformed. The 1909 System abolished the inefficient system of "Remplacement", instituting compulsory military service of eight years' service in the front lines and five years in the reserves. This swelled the size of the Belgian army to over 100,000 well-trained men. Construction of a chain of forts along Belgium's borders was intensified, and led to a series of very modern fortifications, including the so-called "National redoubt" at Antwerp, at Liège and Namur, many of them designed by the great Belgian fortress architect, Henri Alexis Brialmont.  A commemorative medal, the 1870–71 Commemorative Medal, was inaugurated to the veterans of the conflict in 1911.

Belgium was not a belligerent in the Franco–Prussian War (1870–71) but was heavily influenced by the social and political effects of the conflict. An invasion of Belgian territory by either side was widely feared in 1870 and the Belgian Army was mobilised. The inadequacies which this revealed in Belgium's military and defensive preparations led to calls to reform the system of conscription and for a programme of fortification-building which would greatly influence the early phases of World War I.

Les Belges ne participèrent pas en tant que belligérant à la guerre franco-prussienne de 1870-1871, mais la société et la vie politique belges furent fortement affectées, en particulier par la crainte d'une invasion de chacun des belligérants. Cette paranoïa mena à une réforme de la conscription et à un programme de fortification qui influença grandement les premiers jours de la Première Guerre mondiale.


Plot summary.

In their last semester at Harvard, Sam Thatcher and his roommate, who is nicknamed "The Lippencott", have grand ideas of seeing the remote corners of the world, they having booked passage on a freighter from New York to Siberia, the trip immediately after they graduate. They plan to live and observe the economic life there for two years before they settle down. They've had such plans since they were freshmen, not wanting to be tied down to the American rat race immediately following graduation. Sam, however, has not mentioned any of these plans to his girlfriend, Alex Benson, also a student in her final semester at the New England College for Women.  Alex wants Sam to attend the college's spring dance with her to be able to show him off to the other girls, the dance a rite of passage to a serious commitment. Sam doesn't want to lead Alex on by attending but also doesn't want to miss one last opportunity to see her. His plan to graduate and attend the dance hits a snag when the sailing is moved up by two weeks, it now at the end of the weekend of the dance. Lipp, who has a mole in a mutual friend named Hat who goes to the college every weekend to visit with his girl, Frances, a friend of Alex's, doesn't trust Sam, who he feels may leave him in the lurch by not going on the trip to Siberia. Knowing that Sam, against his word, will be going to the college to see Alex anyway, Lipp decides to ambush him at the college to make sure he says his goodbyes and heads to New York for the sailing. The weekend thus becomes a race between Alex's friends, who, without Alex's knowledge, do whatever they can to ensure Sam doesn't want to make that ship, and Lipp who knows there's something afoot behind all those feminine curls. Added to the fray is the fact that the dance is being attended by boys from all the Ivy League schools, who have a friendly or not so friendly rivalry with Harvard.

Spring Madness is a 1938 American romantic comedy film based on the play of the same title by Philip Barry. It was directed by S. Sylvan Simon for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and stars Maureen O'Sullivan, Lew Ayres, Ruth Hussey and Burgess Meredith.

Cinq jeunes filles endiablées (titre original : ") est un film américain réalisé par S. Sylvan Simon, sorti en 1938.


Career.

Of these inscriptions found in Taurinorum, two provide the details of his "cursus honorum" up to his first consulship. His first documented service was as "sevir equitum Romanorum" at the annual review of the equites, which was followed as one of the "decemviri stlitibus judicandus", one of the magistracies that comprised the "vigintiviri". Agricola then served as military tribune in Legio I Italica. Under the emperor Vespasian he was quaestor, which could have been as late as the year 78. Since Roman senators commonly held the office of quaestor at the age of 25, this suggests Agricola was born in the year 53, at the latest.  Following this he was curule aedile, then praetor, an office commonly held at the age of 30. Both inscriptions include a term as governor of Hispania Citerior, although Werner Eck does not mention this office in his "fasti" of governors for this period. Then Agricola received a commission and was commander, or "legatus" of Legio VI Ferrata. During the reign of the emperor Nerva he was governor of the imperial province of Gallia Belgica from 94 to 97; Agricola may have been picked by Nerva for the office. After holding the fasces for the first time he was governor of Pannonia from 100, when he replaced Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus, to the end of 102. Between the end of his service in Pannonia and returning to Rome, Agricola participated in the Dacian Wars, where he earned a set of "dona militaria", or military decorations, appropriate to an ex-consul.  Following his second consulship, Agricola was urban prefect of Rome. He was also recorded as a member of at least two priestly "collegia", first as one of the "septemviri epulonum", then afterwards he was admitted to the "sodales Augustales".

Quintus Glitius Atilius Agricola was a Roman senator and general who held several posts in the emperor's service. He was twice suffect consul: for the first time in AD 97 with Lucius Pomponius Sura as his colleague, and the second time in 103 when he replaced the emperor Trajan. He is the last known person to have held two suffect consulates. Agricola is known only through a large number of fragmentary inscriptions from Augusta Taurinorum, which appears to be his home town.

Quintus Glitius Atilius Agricola est un sénateur et général romain, consul "suffect" en 97 et en 103, gouverneur de Pannonie en 101-102 puis préfet de Rome sous Trajan.


Construction.

"Fitzgerald"s keel was laid down by Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine, 9 February 1993; launched 29 January 1994; sponsored by Betty A. Fitzgerald, widow of the late Lt. Fitzgerald; and commissioned 14 October 1995, in Newport, Rhode Island. The ship was then homeported in Naval Base San Diego, California.

Operational history.

In early April 2004, Navy officials announced plans to deploy "Fitzgerald," 14 other destroyers, and three cruisers to counter ballistic missile threats worldwide. The next month, she took part in a personnel exchange known as "Super Swap", taking aboard 141 sailors from the destroyer and transferring 95 to join the soon-to-be-decommissioned ship's decommissioning unit. "Fitzgerald" sailed to Yokosuka Naval Base in Yokosuka, Japan, arriving on 30 September 2004, and joining the U.S. 7th Fleet's Destroyer Squadron 15.  In March 2011, in company with the aircraft carrier, "Fitzgerald" was deployed off northeastern Honshu, Japan, to assist with relief efforts after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.  On 16 November 2011, while docked in Manila, Philippines, "Fitzgerald" hosted US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and Philippine Foreign Affairs Secretary Albert del Rosario to sign the Manila Declaration, which called for multilateral talks to resolve maritime disputes and to mark the 60th anniversary of the American–Philippine Mutual Defense Treaty.  On 1 June 2017, "Fitzgerald", operating out of Yokosuka Naval Base, was noted for participating in routine exercises with Japan that were described in the media as a show of force to North Korea. She sailed with the aircraft carrier "Ronald Reagan", the cruiser, and the destroyers,, and, joined by the aircraft carrier, cruiser, and destroyers and, and Japanese ships and.

2017 collision.

About 1:30 a.m. on 17 June 2017, "Fitzgerald" collided with, a Philippine-flagged container ship measured at 29,060 gross tons and almost 40,000 tons deadweight. Most of "Fitzgerald"s crew of about 300 were asleep at the time. The collision occurred about southwest of her homeport of Yokosuka, Japan.  The starboard side of "Fitzgerald" was seriously damaged. The container ship's bulbous bow penetrated the destroyer's hull below the waterline, flooding a machinery space, the radio room, and two crew berthing spaces. The captain's cabin was crushed. Seven crewmen were reported missing after the collision, but their bodies were found the next day after rescue workers gained access to flooded compartments. The injured include the ship's commanding officer and two sailors.  Within a day of the collision, investigations were begun by the United States Navy, U.S. Coast Guard, Japanese Coast Guard, Japan Transport Safety Board, and the insurers of the "Crystal". The U.S. Navy's Manual of the Judge Advocate General (JAGMAN) investigation concerns the crew's operations, and is led by Rear Adm. Brian Fort, a former commander of USS "Gonzalez", who now commands Navy Region Hawaii and Naval Surface Group Middle Pacific. The U.S. and Japanese coast guards are investigating the cause of the accident. Steffan Watkins, a Canada-based security analyst, created a google maps overlay for the broadcast AIS data points.  Including costs for planned service life extension and other upgrades, repairs for the damage to "Fitzgerald" are expected to run about $367 million, exceeding the cost for repairs to inflicted in the 2000 bombing by more than double, and will take over a year. Repairs on the ship will overlap with planned service life extension and electronics upgrade, but despite the need to replace portions of the ship's AEGIS system the ship will remain in "a legacy configuration instead of upgrading to Baseline 9".  On 17 August 2017, the two senior officers and the senior enlisted sailor in charge of the naval vessel were relieved of their duties. The Navy planned to discipline up to a dozen sailors, including the commanding officer, for watchstanding failures that allowed the fatal collision. In late August 2017, it was reported that the destroyer will be transported by the Dockwise heavy-lift ship MV "Transshelf" to Huntington Ingalls Industries’ shipyard in Pascagoula.  It was announced in October that the vessel would not be upgraded to the latest version of the Aegis system.  On 28 November 2017, the destroyer was further damaged by two punctures to her hull during the loading process to MV "Transshelf", compelling her to return to Yokosuka for the punctures to be repaired.  "Fitzgerald" arrived at the Port of Pascagoula in Mississippi on 19 January 2018, aboard the heavy-lift transport MV "Transshelf", after a two month journey from Japan. She was expected to spend a few days in the port, being lifted off the transport and readied for her trip to the Huntington Ingalls Industries shipyard, where she was expected to commence an estimated two year repair.  In August 2019, the Japan Transport Safety Board's final report concluded distraction and incomplete radar information aboard the US Navy vessel caused the accident.  On 3 February 2020, USS Fitzgerald exited the Pascagoula shipyard for sea trials aimed at testing all shipboard systems. Following these sea trials, "Fitzgerald" plans to return to the shipyard to correct any remaining issues and then commence crew training in preparation for its return to active duty. On 13 February 2020 she departed Pascagoula to return to her home port in San Diego.

Awards.

USS "Fitzgerald" earned the 2012 Captain Edward F. Ney Memorial Award for outstanding food service.

USS "Fitzgerald" (DDG-62), named for United States Navy officer Lieutenant William Charles Fitzgerald, is an in the US Navy. In the early morning hours of 17 June 2017, the ship was involved in a collision with the container ship, seriously damaging the destroyer. Seven of her crew were killed. Several others were injured, including her commanding officer, Commander Bryce Benson.

L’USS "Fitzgerald" (DDG-62) est un destroyer américain de la classe Arleigh Burke, nommé d'après l'officier de marine William Charles Fitzgerald. Il a été construit au chantier naval Bath Iron Works dans le Maine et son port d’attache était la base navale de San Diego.


Statement.

A perfect graph is a graph in which, for every induced subgraph, the size of the maximum clique equals the minimum number of colors in a coloring of the graph; perfect graphs include many well-known graph classes including the bipartite graphs, chordal graphs, and comparability graphs. In his 1961 and 1963 works defining for the first time this class of graphs, Claude Berge observed that it is impossible for a perfect graph to contain an odd hole, an induced subgraph in the form of an odd-length cycle graph of length five or more, because odd holes have clique number two and chromatic number three. Similarly, he observed that perfect graphs cannot contain odd antiholes, induced subgraphs complementary to odd holes: an odd antihole with 2"k" + 1 vertices has clique number "k" and chromatic number "k" + 1, which is again impossible for perfect graphs. The graphs having neither odd holes nor odd antiholes became known as the Berge graphs.  Berge conjectured that every Berge graph is perfect, or equivalently that the perfect graphs and the Berge graphs define the same class of graphs. This became known as the strong perfect graph conjecture, until its proof in 2002, when it was renamed the strong perfect graph theorem.

Relation to the weak perfect graph theorem.

Another conjecture of Berge, proved in 1972 by László Lovász, is that the complement of every perfect graph is also perfect. This became known as the perfect graph theorem, or (to distinguish it from the strong perfect graph conjecture/theorem) the weak perfect graph theorem. Because Berge's forbidden graph characterization is self-complementary, the weak perfect graph theorem follows immediately from the strong perfect graph theorem.

Proof ideas.

The proof of the strong perfect graph theorem by Chudnovsky et al. follows an outline conjectured in 2001 by Conforti, Cornuéjols, Robertson, Seymour, and Thomas, according to which every Berge graph either forms one of five types of basic building block (special classes of perfect graphs) or it has one of four different types of structural decomposition into simpler graphs. A minimally imperfect Berge graph cannot have any of these decompositions, from which it follows that no counterexample to the theorem can exist. This idea was based on previous conjectured structural decompositions of similar type that would have implied the strong perfect graph conjecture but turned out to be false.  The five basic classes of perfect graphs that form the base case of this structural decomposition are the bipartite graphs, line graphs of bipartite graphs, complementary graphs of bipartite graphs, complements of line graphs of bipartite graphs, and double split graphs. It is easy to see that bipartite graphs are perfect: in any nontrivial induced subgraph, the clique number and chromatic number are both two and therefore both equal. The perfection of complements of bipartite graphs, and of complements of line graphs of bipartite graphs, are both equivalent to Kőnig's theorem relating the sizes of maximum matchings, maximum independent sets, and minimum vertex covers in bipartite graphs. The perfection of line graphs of bipartite graphs can be stated equivalently as the fact that bipartite graphs have chromatic index equal to their maximum degree, proven by. Thus, all four of these basic classes are perfect. The double split graphs are a relative of the split graphs that can also be shown to be perfect.  The four types of decompositions considered in this proof are 2-joins, complements of 2-joins, balanced skew partitions, and homogeneous pairs.  A 2-join is a partition of the vertices of a graph into two subsets, with the property that the edges spanning the cut between these two subsets form two vertex-disjoint complete bipartite graphs. When a graph has a 2-join, it may be decomposed into induced subgraphs called "blocks", by replacing one of the two subsets of vertices by a shortest path within that subset that connects one of the two complete bipartite graphs to the other; when no such path exists, the block is formed instead by replacing one of the two subsets of vertices by two vertices, one for each complete bipartite subgraph. A 2-join is perfect if and only if its two blocks are both perfect. Therefore, if a minimally imperfect graph has a 2-join, it must equal one of its blocks, from which it follows that it must be an odd cycle and not Berge. For the same reason, a minimally imperfect graph whose complement has a 2-join cannot be Berge.  A skew partition is a partition of a graph's vertices into two subsets, one of which induces a disconnected subgraph and the other of which has a disconnected complement; had conjectured that no minimal counterexample to the strong perfect graph conjecture could have a skew partition. Chudnovsky et al. introduced some technical constraints on skew partitions, and were able to show that Chvátal's conjecture is true for the resulting "balanced skew partitions". The full conjecture is a corollary of the strong perfect graph theorem.  A homogeneous pair is related to a modular decomposition of a graph. It is a partition of the graph into three subsets "V", "V", and "V" such that "V" and "V" together contain at least three vertices, "V" contains at least two vertices, and for each vertex "v" in "V" and each "i" in {1,2} either "v" is adjacent to all vertices in "V" or to none of them. It is not possible for a minimally imperfect graph to have a homogeneous pair. Subsequent to the proof of the strong perfect graph conjecture, simplified it by showing that homogeneous pairs could be eliminated from the set of decompositions used in the proof.  The proof that every Berge graph falls into one of the five basic classes or has one of the four types of decomposition follows a case analysis, according to whether certain configurations exist within the graph: a "stretcher", a subgraph that can be decomposed into three induced paths subject to certain additional constraints, the complement of a stretcher, and a "proper wheel", a configuration related to a wheel graph, consisting of an induced cycle together with a hub vertex adjacent to at least three cycle vertices and obeying several additional constraints. For each possible choice of whether a stretcher or its complement or a proper wheel exists within the given Berge graph, the graph can be shown to be in one of the basic classes or to be decomposable. This case analysis completes the proof.

In graph theory, the strong perfect graph theorem is a forbidden graph characterization of the perfect graphs as being exactly the graphs that have neither odd holes (odd-length induced cycles) nor odd antiholes (complements of odd holes). It was conjectured by Claude Berge in 1961. A proof by Maria Chudnovsky, Neil Robertson, Paul Seymour, and Robin Thomas was announced in 2002 and published by them in 2006.

En mathématiques, et plus précisément en théorie des graphes, le théorème des graphes parfaits (parfois appelé théorème "fort" des graphes parfaits) est une caractérisation des graphes parfaits par certains sous-graphes, conjecturée par Claude Berge en 1961. Maria Chudnovsky, Neil Robertson, Paul Seymour, et Robin Thomas en annoncèrent la démonstration en 2002, et la publièrent en 2006. Elle valut à leurs auteurs le prix Fulkerson de 2009.


History.

Penguin Random House was founded in 2013, by Markus Dohle upon the completion of a £2.4 billion transaction between Bertelsmann and Pearson to merge their respective trade publishing companies, Random House and Penguin Group. Bertelsmann and Pearson, the parent companies, initially owned 53% and 47%, respectively. Jane Ciabattari of "Library Journal" has referred to this merger as the publishing industry's response to the increasing dominance of Amazon.com in the book market. Markus Dohle was named CEO of the new company, which had more than 10,000 employees worldwide with 250 imprints and publishing houses and a publishing list of more than 15,000 new titles a year.  PRH relaunched "Book Country", Penguin's online writing community, in July 2013.  In September 2014, Random House Studio signed a first-look production deal with Universal Pictures, under which Random House would be the producer of films based on Penguin Random House books. The Universal subsidiary Focus Features has frequently collaborated with Random House Films. Having previously created "Puffin Rock" animation, Richard Haines was chosen to head PRH Children's TV development strategy with the assistance of licensing, publishing, and TV development executive Emily Campan.  In November 2015, Pearson announced it would rebrand to focus on its education division. In July 2017, Pearson sold a 22% stake in the business to Bertelsmann, thereby retaining a 25% holding.  On December 18, 2019, Bertelsmann agreed to acquire Pearson's 25% stake in PRH, making it a wholly owned subsidiary of Bertelsmann. The sale was completed on April 2, 2020.  In June 2020, Penguin Random House was one of a group of publishers who sued the Internet Archive, arguing that its collection of e-books was denying authors and publishers revenue and accusing the library of "willful mass copyright infringement".

Branding.

In June 2014, Penguin Random House unveiled a new logo designed by Michael Bierut of Pentagram. For all PRH imprints, this design would display the company's traditional logo image to the left of the Penguin Random House wordmark.

Divisions and imprints.

DK.

DK (Dorling Kindersley) was founded in London in 1974 and is a reference publisher focusing on non-fiction for adults and children.  As of 2015, DK also has official publishing relationships with Angry Birds, Lego, Marvel, "Star Wars", and Disney.

Crown Publishing Group.

Crown Publishing was founded in 1933 as the Outlet Book Company, a remainder house, and is now a publisher of fiction and narrative non-fiction.

Penguin Young Readers Group.

Penguin Young Readers Group is a division devoted to books for young readers and young adults.

PRH Publisher Services.

Handling distribution and marketing for Shambhala Publications, National Geographic Books, Wizards of the Coast, Kodansha USA (including Vertical Inc.), New York Review Books, Titan Books, Other Press, North Atlantic Books, DC Comics, and Dark Horse Comics among others.

Subsidiaries.

Book Country.

Book Country was a subsidiary online writing and publishing community. Book Country was launched in April 2011 with a focus on romance, mystery, science fiction, fantasy.  In July 2013, Book Country relaunched with online writing workshops in over sixty literary categories, including literary fiction, memoir, and women's fiction. As of September 2013, the site had over 10,000 members.

Penguin Random House (PRH) is a multinational conglomerate publishing company formed in 2013 from the merger of Random House, owned by German media conglomerate Bertelsmann, and Penguin Group, owned by British publishing company Pearson plc. As of 2013, Penguin Random House employed about 10,000 people globally and published 15,000 titles annually under its 250 divisions and imprints. These titles include fiction and nonfiction for adults and children in both print and digital.

Penguin Random House est une maison d'édition résultant de la fusion de Penguin Group et Random House achevée le, les deux maisons d'édition les plus importantes au niveau des États-Unis et de l'Angleterre. Elle est détenue à 53% par le groupe allemand Bertelsmann et 47% par le groupe britannique Pearson.


Preparation.

Dioxygen difluoride can be obtained by subjecting a 1:1 mixture of gaseous fluorine and oxygen at low pressure (7–17 mmHg (0.9–2.3 kPa) is optimal) to an electric discharge of 25–30 mA at 2.1–2.4 kV. A similar method was used for the first synthesis by Otto Ruff in 1933. Another synthesis involves mixing and in a stainless steel vessel cooled to, followed by exposing the elements to bremsstrahlung for several hours. A third method requires heating a mix of fluorine and oxygen to, and then rapidly cooling it using liquid oxygen. All of these methods involve synthesis according to the equation:  It also arises from the thermal decomposition of ozone difluoride:

Structure and properties.

In, oxygen is assigned the unusual oxidation state of +1. In most of its other compounds, oxygen has an oxidation state of −2.  The structure of dioxygen difluoride resembles that of hydrogen peroxide,, in its large dihedral angle, which approaches 90° and C symmetry. This geometry conforms with the predictions of VSEPR theory.  The bonding within dioxygen difluoride has been the subject of considerable speculation, particularly because of the very short O−O distance and the long O−F distances. The O−O bond length is within 2 pm of the 120.7 pm distance for the O=O double bond in the dioxygen molecule,. Several bonding systems have been proposed to explain this, including an O−O "triple" bond with O−F single bonds which are destabilised and lengthened by repulsion between the lone pairs on the fluorine atoms and the π-orbitals of the O−O bond. Repulsion involving the fluorine lone pairs is also responsible for the long and weak covalent bonding in the fluorine molecule. Computational chemistry indicates that dioxygen difluoride has an exceedingly high barrier to rotation of 81.17 kJ/mol around the O−O bond (in hydrogen peroxide the barrier is 29.45 kJ/mol), this is close to the O−F bond disassociation energy of 81.59 kJ/mol.  The F NMR chemical shift of dioxygen difluoride is 865 ppm, which is by far the highest chemical shift recorded for a fluorine nucleus, thus underlining the extraordinary electronic properties of this compound. Despite its instability, thermochemical data for have been compiled.

Reactivity.

The compound readily decomposes into oxygen and fluorine. Even at a temperature of, 4% decomposes each day by this process:  The other main property of this unstable compound is its oxidizing power, although most experimental reactions have been conducted near. Several series of experiments with the compound resulted in a series of fires and explosions. Some of the compounds that produced violent reactions with include ethyl alcohol, methane, ammonia, and even water ice.  With and, it gives the corresponding dioxygenyl salts:

Uses.

The compound currently has no practical applications, but has been of theoretical interest. One laboratory used it to synthesize plutonium hexafluoride at unprecedentedly low temperatures, which was significant because previous methods for preparation needed temperatures so high that the plutonium hexafluoride created would rapidly decompose.

Dioxygen difluoride is a compound of fluorine and oxygen with the molecular formula. It can exist as an orange-colored solid which melts into a red liquid at. It is an extremely strong oxidant and decomposes into oxygen and fluorine even at at a rate of 4% per day: its lifetime at room temperature is thus extremely short. Dioxygen difluoride reacts vigorously with nearly every chemical it encounters – even ordinary ice – leading to its onomatopoeic nickname "FOOF" (a play on its chemical structure and its explosive tendencies).

Le difluorure de dioxygène est le composé du fluor de formule. Sous sa forme solide, il est de couleur orange et fond à en un liquide rouge. C'est un puissant oxydant qui se décompose en difluorure d'oxygène et oxygène même à (4 % par jour).


Geography.

Belknap Crater lies to the north of the Three Sisters, in the U.S. state of Oregon. Located within Linn County, it is part of the central Oregon segment of the Cascade Range. L. A. McArthur and L. L. McArthur (1984) described Belknap as "one of the important features of the Cascade Range." It lies to the north of McKenzie Pass and can be seen from McKenzie Highway.  Hildreth (2007) lists Belknap Crater's summit elevation at. McArthur and McArthur (1984) list its elevation at, while according to the U.S. National Geodetic Survey, Belknap reaches an elevation of, and has a "bald" appearance. The central Belknap shield volcano has a diameter of and a volume of, with a maximum thickness of. The shield has proximal and draping reliefs of and, which are the "difference between summit elevation and that of highest exposure of older rocks overlain by the edifice" and the "difference between summit elevation and that of lowest distal lavas of the edifice (not including distal pyroclastic or debris flows)," respectively. According to Hildreth (2007), Belknap Crater is a broad, low-angled shield volcano compared to other mafic (rich in magnesium and iron) volcanic cones. Belknap's summit cone rises about above the base shield volcano, and the volcano itself rises about above its surroundings.  Oregon Route 242, which follows the course of the McKenzie River, passes through the lava fields produced by Belknap Crater, the Yapoah cinder cone volcano, and a number of other volcanic vents. These fields consist of black, basaltic lava and encompass an area of.

Ecology.

Belknap forms part of the Mount Washington Wilderness, which encompasses of lava and plains. Lodgepole pine trees are common, and there are 28 lakes within the wilderness area. Belknap itself is not forested and its lava flows are generally not vegetated, though there were trees growing on its lava flow deposits in the 1960s according to Taylor (1965). He observed only sparse growth of trees on lava flows from Little Belknap in a report published in the 1980s, noting that soil from Belknap was about thick and made up of lapilli and volcanic ash, which came mostly from Belknap Crater. Along the trail to Little Belknap Crater, there is a tree island with lodgepole pine, mountain hemlock, and true fir. There are also ground squirrels running around on lava flows from Belknap. Along the Oregon Skyline Trail, which passes west of Belknap, there are black-tailed and mule deer as well as lakes stocked with Eastern brook trout  Along the western flows produced by Belknap, there are several dozen tree molds, which range from in diameter and in depth. Some fell into the lava, forming hemi-cylinder-shaped trenches up to in length. Taylor (1965) identified a system of radial roots that were charred from the lava under soil at one of the molds. The material underwent radiocarbon dating to determine an age of 360 ± 160 years A.D.

Geology.

The Cascade Range resulted from the subduction of the Juan de Fuca tectonic plate under the North American tectonic plate, with the High Cascade subprovince in central Oregon forming about east of the margin of convergence. The High Cascade platform of the Cascade Volcanic Arc consists of overlapping layers of lava flows produced by shield volcanoes within the past 2 million years. The Cascade shields are steeper and smaller than Hawaiian shield volcanoes, often featuring cinder cones at their summit.  Belknap is the youngest shield volcano in the Cascade arc by far, with rugged, barren lava fields that contrast with the forested fields of older Cascade shields. It lies within the central Oregon segment of the Cascades near the Three Sisters area, which is marked by closely clustered volcanic centers that include, from south to north, Mount Bachelor, the Three Sisters, and Belknap.  Known as the Sisters Reach, the cluster abruptly broadens first to a width of then to as it approaches its southern end, running for about in length. There are at least 466 Quaternary volcanoes in the Sisters Reach, including several aligned segments of volcanic vents and rare eruptive units of rhyolite (uncommon elsewhere in the Cascade arc). Between the North Sister and Three Fingered Jack volcanoes, Holocene volcanism has been intense, with at least 125 volcanic centers becoming active between 4,000 and 1,300 years ago. Belknap was the last volcano to erupt in the Three Sisters area. Basaltic andesite dominates the eruptive material in the local mafic volcanoes, which range from early Pleistocene to Holocene age.  Belknap is one of the larger mafic volcanoes in the Sisters Reach, more than 30 of which run continuously along the segment. As with other mafic volcanic fields in and next to the Cascades, it does not exhibit a distinct pattern for compositional evolution over time like at the Hawaii hotspot. The area by Belknap and Mount Bachelor is marked by extensional tectonics, with a high density of mafic (rich in magnesium and iron) volcanic vents. There are clear trends among volcanic centers in the area including at Sand Mountain and Inaccessible Cone, suggesting underlying faults; according to Taylor (1965), Belknap's alignment with the Spatter Cone Chain and Blue Lake Crater might similarly indicate underlying faults or fractures connecting the vents at depth, though there are some irregularities. One important distinction is that almost all vent patterns in the area except the supposed Belknap–Blue Lake alignment individually trend north–south, no matter the alignment of the aggregate trend.  Belknap formed on the lower slopes of Mount Washington, a highly eroded volcano; Mount Washington's pinnacle lies about from Belknap. Dissolved magmatic carbon dioxide flux at Mount Washington and Belknap Crater was calculated by James et al. (1999) to be per year. Belknap consists of a shield volcano and pyroclastic cone, which form a late Holocene shield volcano complex. It is made up of basaltic and basaltic andesite lava, which is sub-alkaline. Mafic in composition, it is characteristic of High Cascade volcanism. In addition to its shield volcano vents, the Belknap complex also consists of lava flows and tephra deposits erupted from one central vent and several other flank vents. Its lava flows encompass about. It has a pyroclastic core. The more southern of the two craters on Belknap's summit cone has a depth of and width of more than at its rim.  Belknap is one of three major lava fields in its area with Sand Mountain and Yapoah–Four-in-One–Collier. Of these, Belknap is the largest, encompassing Belknap Crater's shield, Little Belknap, and South Belknap cone. Lava flows in the area have a black and glassy appearance with a vesicular texture. The basalt and basaltic andesite lava flows from Belknap include small plagioclase and olivine phenocrysts, which run for across, as well as glomerocrysts, which are sparse and run up to across. Some of the lava flows encased charcoal. Lava flows range from olivine basalt to basaltic andesite and generally show few signs of weathering or mineral alteration, with solid cores and outer surfaces with jagged volcanic blocks and flow breccia. The cores of lava deposits are inaccessible, except at lava tubes, lava gutters, road cuts, and quarries.  Belknap is well-preserved and serves as a good example of Holocene-era activity in the High Cascades. Its core consists of cinder, which is surrounded by a broad shield. It marks an intermediate scale between cinder cones that produced small lava flows such as Twin Craters or Yapoah and larger volcanoes like Mount Washington or Three Fingered Jack. Along with lava flows from the Sand Mountain Volcanic field and other young volcanic centers in the Santiam and McKenzie Pass area, many of the lavas produced by Belknap have crusts with slag or volcanic blocks, with a smaller number having surfaces with ropy, pāhoehoe appearances. The deposits consist of piles of basaltic andesite shards arranged in piles as a result of collapsed lava tubes and breakage of lava crusts and interior lava flows that continued moving while their exteriors cooled; Taylor (1965) wrote that Belknap "is only a pile of cinders on the summit of a vast shield of recent lava." The estimated volume of cinders at Belknap Crater is.  Belknap's volcanic deposits have well-preserved pressure ridges (tumuli) and levees on their surfaces, and they were emplaced between 7,000 and 1,300 years ago. Tephra erupted from Sand Mountain Volcanic Field and Belknap forms a thick blanket across Santiam Pass and near McKEnzie Pass, with radiocarbon dating ages of 3,440 ± 250 to 1,600 years B.P. for deposits from source vents, making them younger than Mazama Ash deposits. Cinder cones near Inaccessible Cone have been nearly buried to completion by basalt and basaltic andesite erupted from Belknap. Belknap's ash deposits are recognizable by their dark color among road cuts and at near the base of lava flow margins.

Notable vents and subfeatures.

Little Belknap shield, formed about 3,000 years ago, sits to the right of a high scoria cone of the main Belknap Crater vent, with Mount Washington located to the right of both cones. It is about east of Belknap shield's summit craters. Erupted on the flank of the much more extensive Belknap Crater, which also has its own secondary eruptive vents, Little Belknap lacks scoria cones, potentially because it was fed by magma that was degassed prior to its eruption.  Eruptions at Little Belknap were "quiet", but voluminous, creating the separate shield, which is topped with cinders and lava blocks with collapsed lava tubes radiating outward. A western tube forms a confluence with a vertical conduit that has a diameter of about. Little Belknap's lava flows extended to within of Windy Point to the east and McKenzie Pass to the southeast, forming deposits over ash from Belknap Crater and covered by lava flows from Yapoah Cone. Along the Skyline Trail, one of the lava flows from Little Belknap peeled back on itself as it cooled, creating overturned slabs of hardened lava with widths up to and lengths up to. The blocks are often parallel to the lava's flow direction; Taylor (1965) called them "lava curls".  There is a small lava cave system near the summit of Little Belknap, which has spatter material for a roof. The cave system is short with a number of lava tubes. At the bottom of the conduit lies another system of lava tubes, which served as a drain to create a lava tube system with two levels that are connected by this open conduit, which C. E. Skinner (1982) calls "quite unusual." The open vertical conduit cave has a diameter of, dropping between the upper and lower cave systems. It has an ovular shape and a remelted lining with stalactites made from lava.  South Belknap is a small volcano to the south of Belknap, which was breached on its southwestern side by lava flows that also extended over Belknap Crater's southern base. Early lava flows near South Belknap were covered by a later lava flow, which was produced by a vent located about northwestward. This lava flow also overlapped with the western part of Belknap Crater's lava, and then it reached Lake Valley, where it formed the northern shore of the local Hand Lake. A deposit of alluvium abuts the margin of South Belknap's lava deposits.  On top of Belknap Crater, there is a high cinder cone, which may be the surface extension of the inner pyroclastic core. Within it are three craters, all of different size, which align along a north–northwestern trend. The southern crater is large and produced most of the tephra that covers the surrounding area; the northernmost crater is smaller and erupted ash and a lava flow, which breached the rim of the crater. The Little Belknap volcano erupted lava flows that formed steptoes out of two hills by surrounding them with black, basalt. Its most recent eruptions filled its crater and created a mound of red rock with clinkers; there are a number of collapsed lava tubes diverging radially from the crater.  Besides the volcanic vents related to Belknap Crater, there are two volcanoes south of Belknap which were also recently active: Four-in-One Cone and Collier Cone. Another, unnamed cone at the northern end of Inaccessible Cone's alignment, which rises to a height of, was breached on its western and southwestern sides by gray basalt lava, which is older than Sand Mountain Volcanic Field and Belknap. There may have been a large lava field in the glacier valley north of the Twin Craters cone, but any evidence is now buried under the Belknap shield. There is a glaciated steptoe (island) in the western part of the Belknap lava field. Deposits from Belknap buried older lava flows from the Sand Mountain Volcanic Field as well as a series of four cinder cones located about to the southwest of Mount Washington. There are also deposits from Belknap in the Lake Valley region between Belknap and both Sims Butte and Mount Mazama.  There are hot springs, known as the Belknap Hot Springs, on the northern bank of the McKenzie River. Located in Lane County, they were discovered by R. S. Belknap in November of 1869. They lie to the southwest of the wilderness area, ejecting water at a rate of per minute with a temperature of. The hot springs are indicative of a fault that underlies the Cascade Volcanoes, onto which the east side dropped down and lava intrusions formed volcanic centers.

Eruptive history.

Eruptions at Belknap Crater built up the main shield volcano over repeated activity from vents surrounding a composite summit cone. The lava had a fluid character, leading to inundation of an area that encompassed more than. Rather than forming extensive streams, the lava settled into shorter channels that intersected, leaving complicated drainage patterns. The volcano sits on top of the thick and extensive lava deposits left behind. Belknap Crater has been the focal point for Holocene volcanism producing basaltic and basaltic andesitic lava in its vicinity, which was complex and sustained over a long period of time.  According to the Global Volcanism Program, Belknap Crater had four Holocene eruptive periods confirmed by geological evidence including corrected radiocarbon dating and magnetism; their durations are not known. The first took place in 5050 BCE, producing the Tamolitch lava flow. The next eruptive event, which took place in 1030 BCE ± 300 years, had a VEI of 0 and took place at Little Belknap. The subsequent eruption at South Belknap and Twin Craters occurred in 800 BCE ± 300 years and had a VEI of 2 (Strombolian/Vulcanian); it was followed by the most recent identified event at Belknap Crater in 480, which also had a VEI of 2. According to the Global Volcanism Program, these four eruptions took place during the Holocene:  A precise determination for Belknap's age has not been made, as its early history remains obscure, though it is likely that Belknap has been built up by eruptive activity over a long period of time. Belknap's oldest exposed lava deposits are located on the eastern flanks of the volcano, produced by vents that may have been buried by later activity. They coursed mostly to the northeast and split into two lobes on both sides of the Dugout Butte ridge, extending about from their source vent, along the eastern edges of the Deschutes National Forest.  Between 3,000 and 1,500 years ago during the late Holocene epoch, the Belknap shield volcano as well as the Belknap Crater cone and Little Belknap shield volcano erupted, generating lava flows that spread throughout the McKenzie Pass area. Belknap Crater's lava flows were produced from its northeastern base and extended to the west, reaching the McKenzie River valley. These events represent one of the largest periods of recent volcanism in the Cascade Range, and were comparable in terms of effusion rates to the formation of Mount Bachelor.  The initial eruptions generated tephra, which covered an extensive area to the northeast and southeast, as well as basaltic lava flows that extended from the burgeoning shield volcano edifice to the east. Thin scoria deposits occur west of Belknap; on the eastern slopes, lava deposits are covered with black ash and fine cinders. There is also an ash blanketing an expansive area from Dry Creek to the north to Black Crater to the south, with ash deposits as far as eastward. These eruptions were produced from two, deep craters on top of Belknap's cone, forming lapilli tuff on their eastern rim walls. There are also thick rocks in the walls of the more southern crater, as well as some lava that breached the southwestern rim, which has been obscured by spatter. The northern crater contains spindle volcanic bombs at its western rim, which reach up to in length. A broad pit formed at the northern base of Belknap's cone, running for in length, and was likely blasted through a bocca. According to Taylor (1965), a strong prevailing wind moving east influenced the distribution of ash and cinders on Belknap's rim.  Eruptions during a subsequent phase about 2,900 years ago built a smaller shield volcano, Little Belknap. According to Sherrod et al. (2004), lava from Little Belknap formed a tree mold in the southern part of the Sand Mountain volcanic field, which was dated to 2,883 ± 175 years Before Present (B.P.) via radiocarbon dating. Sherrod et al. (2004) also describe charcoal detected under a lava flow that coursed down Belknap Crater's western flank, which yielded two radiocarbon dating ages: 1,590 ± 160 years B.P. and 1,400 ± 100 years B.P. These ages have overlap at the level of statistical certainty, indicating that they could have been erupted nearly simultaneously or as far apart as 800 years. Both flows came from the shield volcano's summit vent. Early lava flows at Belknap were erupted from actively erupting volcanic vents before Little Belknap formed, as demonstrated by stratigraphy.  A third eruptive period constructed the bulk of the volcanic complex with basaltic andesite lava from Belknap Crater's central vent about 1,500 years ago. This cone-building phase was also fed by eruptions about 1,700 years ago at a vent about to the south, South Belknap. According to Sherrod et al. (2004), South Belknap formed charred roots at a tree mold with a radiocarbon dating age of 2,635 ± 50 years B.P., the same site that Taylor used to determine an age of 1,775 ± 400 years B.P. Taylor also argues that the cone was breached about 1,800 years ago before it was surrounded by basaltic andesite lava flows from another vent about 1,500 years ago. Sherrod et al. argue that the older date (2,635 ± 50 years B.P.) is more accurate because the deposit contains concentrated amounts of the cosmogenic nuclide isotope He, which would require a longer surface exposure than Taylor's calculation would allow, at least 2,000 years B.P.  A final eruptive phase produced lava flows that extended to the west into the McKenzie River valley, also coursing to the north and south. These lava deposits have ropy surfaces and feature squeeze-ups between broken platforms of crust. The lava that moved south crossed over more ancient lava from Twin Craters, while the lava that ran to the west covered lava and cinder cones within the Inaccessible Cone lineament. The west-moving lavas also moved over Sand Mountain lava flows (erupted from the southern group of vents and the southern vent of Sand Mountain itself), entering the McKenzie Canyon. The lava from this eruption significantly influenced the McKenzie River, creating the upstream swamp known as Beaver Marsh, with the remnants of these lava streams now forming permeable sediment talus for the McKenzie River, which disappears into them before re-emerging at Tamolitch Falls. Erosion has altered the area downstream from these falls to a lateral terrace on the wall of the McKenzie Canyon, above the river water level.  In total, the Belknap shield and its multiple vents were formed in less than 1,500 years, which was a comparable effusion rate to the Nash Crater scoria cone, the Sand Mountain Volcanic Field, and the Mount Bachelor chain. Eruption rates for Belknap were high, at per 1,000 years, similar to the buildup of rhyodacite before the climactic eruption at Mount Mazama. Within the last 15,000 years, Cascades volcanoes have erupted about of material excluding rear-arc volcanoes. Of this, about (21 percent) came from 63 distributed or peripheral cones, shields, or mafic and intermediate composition chains, with Belknap and Mount Bachelor contributing 71 percent of that material. Over the course of its eruptive history, Belknap erupted of material with several eruptive pulses.

Recent activity and potential hazards.

Postglacial, mafic eruptions are more common in the Sisters Reach — which includes Belknap — than anywhere in the Cascade volcanic arc. A lava flow lies next to South Cinder Peak, the Nash Crater–Lost Lake cone cluster, Sand Mountain Volcanic Field, Inaccessible Cone chain, Blue Lake Crater, and a number of monogenetic scoria cones and chains. The McKenzie and Santiam Pass area saw more than a dozen distinct mafic eruptions between 4,500 and 1,100 years ago according to radiocarbon dating, which corresponded to a pulse of mafic eruptions in the late Holocene epoch. Other nearby mafic eruptive units occur at Sims Butte, Cayuse Crater, LeConte Crater, Mount Bachelor, the Egan Cone cluster, and the Katsuk-Talapus chain, which likely were all emplaced between 18,00 and 8,000 years ago. At the south of Sisters Reach, there is a postglacial, basalt lava flow that lies on the eastern flank of Sitkum Butte (a cone that is older than this lava flow). The recent eruptive activity at Belknap Crater means that it is one of the youngest mafic volcanoes in the Oregon Cascades.  There are about 6,500 people living within of Belknap Crater, with a population of about 362,000 within. However, most eruption hazards from basaltic volcanoes are generally restricted to within of the vent, with some exceptions. According to the Volcano Hazards Program of the United States Geological Survey's Cascades Volcano Observatory, the threat potential from Belknap is "Low/Very Low". It does not seem likely that Belknap Crater will erupt again, though eruptions with similar characteristics to its past eruptions might occur in the surrounding area, disrupting transportation on major highways in the vicinity including U.S. Route 20, Oregon Route 22, and Oregon Route 242. The eruption of tephra could pose a threat to surrounding communities, particularly within central Oregon to the east. High-volume lahars (mudflows or debris flows composed of a mix of pyroclastic material, rocky debris, and water) would travel far to the west. Moreover, low-volume lahars from eruptions would likely enter the McKenzie River valley, which is broad and fairly gently sloped, where they might move downstream through flood plains or small channels. Near Belknap Springs and McKenzie Bridge, deposits from the eruption could also block off water upstream, leading to downstream lahars and floods.

Human history.

Belknap was named for J. H. Belknap, who lived along the McKenzie River and was the son of R. S. Belknap, responsible for developing Belknap Springs. J. H. Belknap had an interest in the toll road constructed over McKenzie Pass during the early 1870s. The Belknap family came to the state of Oregon in 1847 with the Orem family, followed by G. Belknap and J. Belknap in 1848. The Belknap Springs in Lane County were found by R. S. Belknap in November of 1869 and developed them, and he became the postmaster for the Salt Springs post office, which was established in October of 1874. The name for the Salt Springs office changed to Belknaps Springs in June of 1875, then Belknap Springs in 1891.  During the days of the American pioneer, the Santiam and McKenzie passes were the two major routes through the Deschutes Forest area, eventually transforming into highways for Oregon's interior. The Willamette Pass to the south was used as a route by travelers as early as 1853, noting its difficult as the "route was far from a road." Still, the road was heavily used in spite of its poor conditions, later becoming the Willamette Pass Highway, better known as Oregon Route 58. In 1862, the Scott brothers and colleagues formed the McKenzie Fork Wagon Road Company to create a better road passing over lava fields in the area, then later the McKenzie River Wagon Road Company, which had as its objective a road that crossed the Cascade Range near the Three Sisters volcano complex at the Deschutes River. A third group followed that aimed to forge a road across the Deschutes north of the Sisters. The original route pursued by the Scott brothers reached the Belknap hot springs.  In the early 20th century, herds of sheep were moved to the two steptoes that lie among the Little Belknap lava flows to graze. The Oregon Skyline Trail, which runs to the west of Belknap's lava flows, follows paths used by Native American populations, who harvested huckleberries in the area.

Recreation.

The Dee Wright Observatory was built with lava blocks from the lava fields produced by Belknap, Yapoah cinder cone, and other volcanoes. It offers views of local volcanoes; Belknap lies to the north. Little Belknap Crater can be reached by the Lava River Trail, which runs west from the observatory for and meets a path on the Pacific Crest Trail. The round trip is about and ranges in elevation from, with an easy to moderate difficulty level.  The trail offers views of nearby Mount Washington, Black Crater, and the Three Sisters, as well as lava features. Trees and other forms of wildlife are rare along the trail. There is also a trail that extends to Belknap Crater, which runs about, with an intermediate difficulty level. It can also be skied. The Oregon Skyline Trail, part of which runs for through the Deschutes National Forest, passes westward of the Belknap lava fields. It has been recognized as a major scenic route since 1920.

Belknap Crater is a shield volcano in the Cascade Range in the U.S. state of Oregon. Located in Linn County, it is associated with lava fields and numerous subfeatures including the Little Belknap and South Belknap volcanic cones. It lies north of McKenzie Pass and forms part of the Mount Washington Wilderness. Belknap is not forested and most of its lava flows are not vegetated, though there is some wildlife in the area around the volcano, as well as a number of tree molds formed by its eruptive activity.

Le cratère Belknap, en, est un volcan bouclier culminant à d'altitude dans le centre de l'Oregon, au Nord-Ouest des États-Unis. Il fait partie de la chaîne des Cascades. Il est protégé au sein de la réserve intégrale du Mont Washington et, pour la plus grande partie, de la forêt nationale de Willamette.


Design.

In the lead-up to the Pacific War the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) attempted to build a large number of fleet carriers. For them to be built quickly, the design for these ships was based on the aircraft carrier rather than the newer and more sophisticated or the.  The "Unryū"-class aircraft carrier design was very similar to that of "Hiryū". The ships were lightly built, and the main difference from "Hiryū" was that the carriers' island was placed on the starboard side of the ships. The carriers were capable of carrying 63 aircraft in two hangars, and were fitted with two elevators. The "Unryū" class carried a smaller quantity of aviation fuel than "Hiryū" with fuel tanks protected by concrete. The ships were fitted with the same propulsion system used in the aircraft carrier to reach, though was instead fitted with two turbines of the same type used in destroyers and had a maximum speed of. The carriers also had a similar armament as "Hiryū" and were equipped with two Type 21 radars and two Type 13 radars.

Construction.

The first three "Unryū"-class aircraft carriers were laid down in 1942 and construction of a further three began the next year. Eventually, only three (,, and ) were completed and construction of the other three carriers (, and ) was abandoned in 1945.

Ships in classes.

"Unryū" class.

Project number was G16. General production model of the "Unryū" class. 3 carriers were completed. The IJN unofficial designation for "Unryū" and "Amagi" were, "Ship Number 5002–5006" were also.

"Ikoma" class.

Simplified and sped-up construction model of the "Unryū" class. They fitted shift-arrangement machinery (four sets of parallel two boilers and one turbine). Therefore, as for their chimneys/funnels/smokepipes/uptakes, those were intended to be spaced out. The IJN unofficial designation for this class was.

The were World War II Japanese aircraft carriers. Sixteen ships of the class were planned under the Maru Kyū Programme (Ship #302 in 1941) and the Kai-Maru 5 Programme (#5001–5015 in 1942). However, only three of the "Unryū"-class carriers were completed.

La est une classe de porte-avions construits pour la marine impériale japonaise durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Seize navires étaient prévus à l'origine, mais seulement trois seront finis : le "Unryū", l', et le.


Development of bitcoin.

Nakamoto has stated that work on the writing of the code for bitcoin began in 2007. On 18 August 2008 he or a colleague registered the domain name bitcoin.org, and created a web site at that address. On 31 October 2008, he published a paper on the cryptography mailing list at metzdowd.com describing a digital cryptocurrency, titled "Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System". On 9 January 2009, he released version 0.1 of the bitcoin software on Sourceforge, and launched the network by mining the "genesis block of bitcoin" (block number 0), which had a reward of 50 bitcoins. Embedded in the coinbase transaction of this block was the text: "codice_1", referring to a headline in the UK newspaper "The Times" published on that date. This note has been interpreted as both a timestamp of the genesis date and a derisive comment on the instability caused by fractional-reserve banking.  Nakamoto continued to collaborate with other developers on the bitcoin software until mid-2010, making all modifications to the source code himself. He then handed over control of the source code repository and network alert key to Gavin Andresen, transferred several related domains to various prominent members of the bitcoin community, and stopped his recognized involvement in the project. Except for test transactions,, Nakamoto's coins remain unspent since mid January 2009. At bitcoin's peak in December 2017, these were worth over US$19 billion, making Nakamoto possibly the 44th richest person in the world at the time.

Characteristics and identity.

Nakamoto has not disclosed any personal information when discussing technical matters. He provided some commentary on banking and fractional-reserve banking. On his P2P Foundation profile as of 2012, Nakamoto claimed to be a 37-year-old male who lived in Japan, but some speculated he was unlikely to be Japanese due to his native-level use of English and his bitcoin software not being documented or labelled in Japanese. Some have considered that Nakamoto might be a team of people: Dan Kaminsky, a security researcher who read the bitcoin code, said that Nakamoto could either be a "team of people" or a "genius"; Laszlo Hanyecz, a developer who had emailed Nakamoto, had the feeling the code was too well designed for one person. Gavin Andresen has said of Nakamoto's code: "He was a brilliant coder, but it was quirky."  The use of British English in both source code comments and forum postings – such as the expression "bloody hard", terms such as "flat" and "maths", and the spellings "grey" and "colour" – led to speculation that Nakamoto, or at least one individual in the consortium claiming to be him, was of Commonwealth origin. The reference to London's "The Times" newspaper in the first bitcoin block mined by Nakamoto suggested to some a particular interest in the British government.  Stefan Thomas, a Swiss coder and active community member, graphed the time stamps for each of Nakamoto's bitcoin forum posts (more than 500); the resulting chart showed a steep decline to almost no posts between the hours of 5 a.m. and 11 a.m. Greenwich Mean Time. This was between 2 p.m. and 8 p.m. Japanese time, suggesting an unusual sleep pattern for someone presumably living in Japan. As this pattern held true even on Saturdays and Sundays, it suggested that Nakamoto was asleep at this time.

Possible identities.

There is still doubt about the real identity of Satoshi Nakamoto. Speculation about his true identity has mostly focused on a number of cryptography and computer science experts of non-Japanese descent, living in the United States and various European countries.

Hal Finney.

Hal Finney (4 May 1956 – 28 August 2014) was a pre-bitcoin cryptographic pioneer and the first person (other than Nakamoto himself) to use the software, file bug reports, and make improvements. He also lived a few blocks from a man named "Dorian Nakamoto", according to "Forbes" journalist Andy Greenberg. Greenberg asked the writing analysis consultancy Juola & Associates to compare a sample of Finney's writing to Satoshi Nakamoto's, and they found that it was the closest resemblance they had yet come across (including the candidates suggested by "Newsweek", "Fast Company", "The New Yorker", Ted Nelson and Skye Grey). Greenberg theorized that Finney may have been a ghostwriter on behalf of Nakamoto, or that he simply used his neighbor Dorian's identity as a "drop" or "patsy whose personal information is used to hide online exploits". However, after meeting Finney, seeing the emails between him and Nakamoto and his bitcoin wallet's history (including the very first bitcoin transaction from Nakamoto to him, which he forgot to pay back) and hearing his denial, Greenberg concluded that Finney was telling the truth. Juola & Associates also found that Nakamoto's emails to Finney more closely resemble Nakamoto's other writings than Finney's do. Finney's fellow extropian and sometimes co-blogger Robin Hanson assigned a subjective probability of "at least" 15% that "Hal was more involved than he's said", before further evidence suggested that was not the case.

Nick Szabo.

In December 2013, a blogger named Skye Grey linked Nick Szabo to the bitcoin whitepaper using an approach he described as stylometric analysis. Szabo is a decentralized currency enthusiast and published a paper on "bit gold", which was one of the precursors of bitcoin. He is known to have been interested in using pseudonyms in the 1990s. In a May 2011 article, Szabo stated about the bitcoin creator: "Myself, Wei Dai, and Hal Finney were the only people I know of who liked the idea (or in Dai's case his related idea) enough to pursue it to any significant extent until Nakamoto (assuming Nakamoto is not really Finney or Dai)."  Financial author Dominic Frisby provides much circumstantial evidence but, as he admits, no proof that Nakamoto is Szabo. However, Szabo has denied being Nakamoto. In a July 2014 email to Frisby, he said: "Thanks for letting me know. I'm afraid you got it wrong doxing me as Satoshi, but I'm used to it." Nathaniel Popper wrote in the "New York Times" that "the most convincing evidence pointed to a reclusive American man of Hungarian descent named Nick Szabo."

Dorian Nakamoto.

In a high-profile 6 March 2014 article in the magazine "Newsweek", journalist Leah McGrath Goodman identified Dorian Prentice Satoshi Nakamoto, a Japanese American man living in California, whose birth name is Satoshi Nakamoto, as the Nakamoto in question. Besides his name, Goodman pointed to a number of facts that circumstantially suggested he was the bitcoin inventor. Trained as a physicist at Cal Poly University in Pomona, Nakamoto worked as a systems engineer on classified defense projects and computer engineer for technology and financial information services companies. Nakamoto was laid off twice in the early 1990s and turned libertarian, according to his daughter, and encouraged her to start her own business "not under the government's thumb." In the article's seemingly biggest piece of evidence, Goodman wrote that when she asked him about bitcoin during a brief in-person interview, Nakamoto seemed to confirm his identity as the bitcoin founder by stating: "I am no longer involved in that and I cannot discuss it. It's been turned over to other people. They are in charge of it now. I no longer have any connection." The article's publication led to a flurry of media interest, including reporters camping out near Dorian Nakamoto's house and subtly chasing him by car when he drove to do an interview. However, during the subsequent full-length interview, Dorian Nakamoto denied all connection to bitcoin, saying he had never heard of the currency before, and that he had misinterpreted Goodman's question as being about his previous work for military contractors, much of which was classified. In a Reddit "ask-me-anything" interview, he claimed he had misinterpreted Goodman's question as being related to his work for Citibank. Later that day, the pseudonymous Nakamoto's P2P Foundation account posted its first message in five years, stating: "I am not Dorian Nakamoto." However, it is generally believed that Nakamoto's P2P Foundation account had been hacked, and the message was not sent by him.

Craig Wright.

On 8 December 2015, "Wired" wrote that Craig Steven Wright, an Australian academic, "either invented bitcoin or is a brilliant hoaxer who very badly wants us to believe he did". Craig Wright took down his Twitter account and neither he nor his ex-wife responded to press inquiries. The same day, Gizmodo published a story with evidence supposedly obtained by a hacker who broke into Wright's email accounts, claiming that Satoshi Nakamoto was a joint pseudonym for Craig Steven Wright and computer forensics analyst David Kleiman, who died in 2013. Wright's claim was supported by Jon Matonis (former director of the Bitcoin Foundation) and bitcoin developer Gavin Andresen as well as cryptographer Ian Grigg.  A number of prominent bitcoin promoters remained unconvinced by the reports. Subsequent reports also raised the possibility that the evidence provided was an elaborate hoax, which "Wired" acknowledged "cast doubt" on their suggestion that Wright was Nakamoto. Bitcoin developer Peter Todd said that Wright's blog post, which appeared to contain cryptographic proof, actually contained nothing of the sort. Bitcoin developer Jeff Garzik agreed that evidence publicly provided by Wright does not prove anything, and security researcher Dan Kaminsky concluded Wright's claim was "intentional scammery".  In May 2019, Wright started using UK libel law to sue people who denied he was the inventor of bitcoin, and who called him a fraud.  In 2019 Wright registered US copyright for the bitcoin white paper and the code for Bitcoin 0.1. Wright's team claimed this was "government agency recognition of Craig Wright as Satoshi Nakamoto"; the United States Copyright Office issued a press release clarifying that this was not the case.

Other claimed candidates.

In a 2011 article in "The New Yorker", Joshua Davis claimed to have narrowed down the identity of Nakamoto to a number of possible individuals, including the Finnish economic sociologist Dr. Vili Lehdonvirta and Irish student Michael Clear, who was in 2008 an undergraduate student in cryptography at Trinity College Dublin. Clear strongly denied he was Nakamoto, as did Lehdonvirta.  In October 2011, writing for "Fast Company", investigative journalist Adam Penenberg cited circumstantial evidence suggesting Neal King, Vladimir Oksman and Charles Bry could be Nakamoto. They jointly filed a patent application that contained the phrase "computationally impractical to reverse" in 2008, which was also used in the bitcoin white paper by Nakamoto. The domain name bitcoin.org was registered three days after the patent was filed. All three men denied being Nakamoto when contacted by Penenberg.  In May 2013, Ted Nelson speculated that Nakamoto is really Japanese mathematician Shinichi Mochizuki. Later, an article was published in "The Age" newspaper that claimed that Mochizuki denied these speculations, but without attributing a source for the denial.  A 2013 article in "Vice" listed Gavin Andresen, Jed McCaleb, or a government agency as possible candidates to be Nakamoto.  In 2013, two Israeli mathematicians, Dorit Ron and Adi Shamir, published a paper claiming a link between Nakamoto and Ross Ulbricht. The two based their suspicion on an analysis of the network of bitcoin transactions, but later retracted their claim.  In 2016, Financial Times said that Nakamoto might have been a group of people mentioning Hal Finney, Nick Szabo and Adam Back as potential members. In 2020, a YouTube channel called BarelySociable claimed that Adam Back, inventor of bitcoin predecessor Hashcash, was Nakamoto. Back subsequently denied this.  A 2017 article published by Sahil Gupta espoused the possibility of Elon Musk being the real Satoshi Nakamoto, based on Musk's technical expertise with financial software and history of publishing whitepapers. However, in a tweet dated 28 November 2017, Musk denied the claim.  In 2019 journalist Evan Ratliff claimed drug dealer Paul Le Roux could be Nakamoto.

Satoshi Nakamoto is the name used by the presumed pseudonymous person or persons who developed bitcoin, authored the bitcoin white paper, and created and deployed bitcoin's original reference implementation. As part of the implementation, Nakamoto also devised the first blockchain database. In the process, Nakamoto was the first to solve the double-spending problem for digital currency using a peer-to-peer network. Nakamoto was active in the development of bitcoin up until December 2010. Many people have claimed, or have been claimed, to be Satoshi Nakamoto.

Satoshi Nakamoto est le pseudonyme utilisé par la ou les personne(s) qui ont développé le bitcoin. Satoshi Nakamoto a d'abord rédigé un livre blanc décrivant comment créer le bitcoin, puis il a déployé et diffusé l'implémentation de référence du bitcoin.


Local economic activity.

The agricultural sector consists mainly of subsistence gardening, although some cash crops are grown for export. Industry consists primarily of small factories to process passion fruit, lime oil, honey, and coconut cream. The sale of postage stamps to foreign collectors is an important source of revenue.  The island in recent years has suffered a serious loss of population because of migration of Niueans to New Zealand. Efforts to increase GDP include the promotion of tourism. An initiative into the financial services industry was dropped under pressure from the US Treasury. More recently the sale of Internet domain names under the NU top level domain has brought in some income. These domains are particularly popular in Scandinavia, Belgium and the Netherlands, since "nu" means "now" in Dutch and the Scandinavian languages.

Economic statistics.

GDP: USD$24.938 million (2016)  GDP: purchasing power parity – $10 million (2003),  GDP – real growth rate: 6.2% (2003 est.)  GDP – per capita: nominal - USD$15,586 (2016)  purchasing power parity – $5,800 (2003), $15,066 (2011)  GDP – composition by sector:
"agriculture:" 23% (2003)
"industry:" 27% (2003)
"services:" 50% (2003)  Population below poverty line: 13%  Household income or consumption by percentage share:
"lowest 10%:" NA%
"highest 10%:" NA%  Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (1995)  Labor force: 450 (1992 est.) 663 (2001 est.)  Labor force – by occupation: Most people work on family plantations; paid work exists only in government service, small industry, and on the Niue Development Board  Unemployment rate: 12% (2001)  Budget:
"revenues:" $15.07 million (FY 04-05) $26 million (FY 18-19)
"expenditures:" $16.33 million  Industries: tourism, handicrafts, food processing  Industrial production growth rate: NA%  Electricity – production: 3 GWh (1998)  Electricity – production by source:
"fossil fuel:" 100%
"hydro:" 0% (2010)
"nuclear:" 0% (2010)
"other:" 0% (1998)  Electricity – consumption: 3 GWh (1998)  Electricity – exports: 0 kWh (1998)  Electricity – imports: 0 kWh (1998)  Agriculture – products: coconuts, passion fruit, honey, limes, taro, yams, cassava (tapioca), sweet potatoes; pigs, poultry, beef cattle  Exports: $3.52 million 2014, USD$1.391 million (2016)  Exports – commodities: canned coconut cream, copra, honey, passion fruit products, pawpaws, root crops, limes, footballs, stamps, handicrafts  In 2014:  Exports – partners: New Zealand 89%, Fiji, Cook Islands, Australia.  In 2014:  Imports: $9 million (2003), $19 million (2014), USD$14.95 million (2016), NZD$21.5 million (2018)  Imports – commodities: food, live animals, manufactured goods, machinery, fuels, lubricants, chemicals, drugs  In 2014: Special Purpose Ships ($5.48M), Refined Petroleum ($2.93M), Large Construction Vehicles ($403k), Prefabricated Buildings ($402k) and Cars ($312k).  Imports – partners: New Zealand 59%, Fiji 20%, Japan 13%, Samoa, Australia, United States  In 2014:  Debt – external: $NA  Economic aid – recipient: $8.3 million (1995), $5.7 million (FY 08-09)  Currency: 1 New Zealand dollar (NZ$) = 100 cents  Exchange rates: New Zealand dollars (NZ$) per US$1 – 1.9451 (January 2000), 1.8889 (1999), 1.8629 (1998), 1.5082 (1997), 1.4543 (1996), 1.5235 (1995)  Fiscal year: 1 April – 31 March

The economy of Niue is heavily dependent upon aid from New Zealand. Government expenditures regularly exceed revenues, and grants from New Zealand make up the shortfall and are used to pay wages to public employees. Niue has cut government expenditures by reducing the public service by almost half.

Cet article traite de différents aspects de l'économie de Niue, un pays insulaire de l’océan Pacifique sud situé à au nord-est de la Nouvelle-Zélande. Le pays comptait habitants en 2010.


Biography.

Early career and "To the Gory End" (1988–1990).

Cancer was formed one night in 1988 in the Tontine public house in Ironbridge, Telford by drummer Carl Stokes, guitarist John Walker and bassist Ian Buchanan. The band quickly put together their first two-track demo, "No Fuckin' Cover", at the Pits studio in Birmingham, owned by ex-Starfighters vocalist Steve Burton. The demo was produced by Stevie Young (nephew of AC/DC's Angus Young) and engineered by "Big" Mick Hughes (live sound engineer for Metallica). The band also began playing live, starting with their first gig in Birmingham opening for Bomb Disneyland, and including shows with the likes of Bolt Thrower, Cerebral Fix and GBH.  A second demo session was recorded in 1989, and was followed shortly by the bootleg live album "Bloodbath in the Acid", recorded at Wrexham Memorial Hall and pressed on the Headache label. However, "No Fuckin' Cover" had secured Cancer a deal with Vinyl Solution and in Winter 1989 the band recorded their debut album, "To the Gory End", over four days at Loco Studios in Usk. The record was then mixed by Scott Burns (record producer) at Morrisound Studios, with backing vocals from John Tardy (of Obituary) added to the track "Die, Die", and released in April 1990. The band followed it up with tours with Obituary and Deicide.

"Death Shall Rise" and "The Sins of Mankind" (1991–1993).

Cancer started preparing material for their second album at Reel to Reel Studios in Telford with engineer Tony Higley, and in February 1991 flew out to Florida to begin recording "Death Shall Rise" with Scott Burns at Morrisound. They enlisted the skills of James Murphy (of Agent Steel and Obituary) on lead guitar, and Deicide's Glen Benton to provide backing vocals for lead track "Hung, Drawn and Quartered". Released in April 1991, the album would go on to gain a certain amount of notoriety owing to being banned in Germany, whose state body for censorship of works likely to be dangerous to youth considered that the cover art would incite youngsters to incite violence upon each other. The album would also subsequently go on to be placed No. 27 in "Terrorizer"'s Top 40 Death Metal Albums. Throughout May, Cancer toured throughout the UK supported by Unleashed and Desecrator, then returned to USA for an appearance at the 1991 Milwaukee Metal Festival and further touring in support of Deicide and Obituary.  James Murphy left the band in December 1991 to form Disincarnate and was replaced by Barry Savage. This was followed by further touring throughout the USA, Mexico, Israel and Europe. The band recorded their third album, "The Sins of Mankind", with Simon Efemey at the Windings in Wrexham in December 1992. Following its release through Vinyl Solution in June 1993, Cancer embarked on a European tour with openers Cerebral Fix. Problems arose when drummer Stokes was involved in an accident when his motorbike collided with a British Telecom van, leading to the band enlisting Nicholas Barker (later of Cradle of Filth and Dimmu Borgir) for further live shows.

"Black Faith" and split (1994–1996).

In 1994, Cancer left Vinyl Solution to sign to major label East West for worldwide distribution, one of the first death metal bands to do so. They entered Great Linford Studios in Milton Keynes, again with Simon Efemey at the helm, to record their fourth effort, "Black Faith"; the record was later mixed at Pink Floyd's Brittania Row Studios. Despite Stokes allegedly using a human thigh bone for percussion on "Temple Song", the record received decidedly mixed reviews; some compared the "Black Faith" material to mid-period Metallica, whilst others considered it a "poor man's "Heartwork"". Following a short European tour with support act Meshuggah, Cancer decided to call it a day, citing "a lack of faith from certain key individuals in the industry and Major Label Bullshit".

Reunion (2013–present).

On 12 September 2013, it was announced that the original lineup of Cancer was reuniting to promote their first three albums ("To the Gory End", "Death Shall Rise" and "The Sins of Mankind") which are being re-released by Cyclone Empire Records later this year. They were also planning to make a number of festival appearances, where they would only play songs from the aforementioned albums.  On 22 September 2015, Cancer revealed on their Facebook page that they have been working on new material. In July 2018, they signed to Peaceville Records and would release their new album, tentatively titled "Shadow Gripped", late in the year. In August 2018, "Shadow Gripped" was confirmed as the title of the band's next album, which was released on 2 November 2018.

Cancer are a British extreme metal band formed in Ironbridge, Telford, Shropshire in 1988. Over the course of their career, they released six full-length albums, including one for the major label East West, and broke up twice (in 1996 and 2006). The band reformed once again in 2013.

Cancer est un groupe de death metal britannique, originaire de Telford, en Angleterre. Formé en 1987, il comprend trois membres, John Walker à la guitare et au chant, Carl Strokes à la batterie, et Ian Buchanan à la basse.


Teams.

The AFC laid out the procedure for deciding the participating associations, with the final decision to be made by the AFC in November 2012. The following changes to the list of participating associations may be made from the 2012 AFC President's Cup if the AFC approved the following applications made by any association:  The following changes in the participating associations were made compared to the previous year:  Each participating association was given one entry. The following teams entered the competition.

Schedule.

The schedule of the competition was as follows.

Group stage.

The draw for the group stage was held on 19 March 2013, 15:00, at the AFC House in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The twelve teams were drawn into three groups of four. Each group was played on a single round-robin basis at a centralized venue, with Cambodia, Nepal, and the Philippines selected by the AFC to host the groups. The winners and runners-up of each group advanced to the final stage.  The teams are ranked according to points (3 points for a win, 1 point for a tie, 0 points for a loss). If tied on points, tiebreakers are applied in the following order:

Group A.

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Group B.

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Group C.

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Final stage.

The final stage was played at a centralized venue. The matches were played at Malacca, Malaysia, from 23 to 29 September 2013 (all times ).  The draw for the final stage was held on 31 July 2013, 15:00, at the AFC House in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The six teams were drawn into two groups of three. Each group was played on a single round-robin basis, with the same ranking rules as the group stage. The winners of each group advanced to the final. The final was played as a single match, with extra time and penalty shoot-out used to decide the winner if necessary.

Group A.

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Group B.

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The 2013 AFC President's Cup was the ninth edition of the AFC President's Cup, a football competition organized by the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) for clubs from "emerging countries" in Asia. Istiqlol were the defending champions, but did not enter the tournament as teams from Tajikistan no longer entered the AFC President's Cup.

La Coupe du président de l'AFC 2013 est la neuvième édition de la Coupe du président de l'AFC, se jouant entre des clubs de nations membres de la Confédération asiatique de football (AFC).


History.

Dziatlava (Zdzięcioł) was first referenced in documents from 1498, when it was granted by the King of Poland John I Albert to Prince Konstanty Ostrogski of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, who later built a wooden castle there. In the 17th century the settlement was owned by Lew Sapieha, who ordered a Catholic church to be erected on the main city square. The church was consecrated in 1646, renovated after a fire in 1743 and still stands. During the Great Northern War of the anti-Swedish alliance, Peter I of Russia visited Dzyatlava and stayed there for a week in January 1708. In the 18th century, the town was owned by Polish magnate Stanisław Sołtyk, who built a Baroque residence there in 1751. After the partitioning of Poland, until the aftermath of World War I, the town was within the Russian Empire, in the Province of Grodno, district of Slonim.  Between World War I and World War II, Zdzięcioł (now Dziatlava) belonged to the eastern part of the Second Polish Republic. It was the seat of Gmina Zdzięcioł in Nowogródek Voivodeship. The population was composed predominantly of Polish Jews. The Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland on September 17, 1939, and stationed in the Voivodeship area until the outbreak of their own war with Germany in June 1941. After the Soviet rapid retreat, and several months of Nazi ad hoc persecution, on February 22, 1942 the new German authorities officially created Zdzięcioł Ghetto.  During the Holocaust, about 3,000–5,000 Zdzięcioł Jews were killed near the town during the Zdzięcioł massacres of 1942 by a German death squad aided by the Lithuanian and the Belarusian Auxiliary Police battalions. The old Jewish cemetery is considered a minor landmark.

Lithuanian heritage.

Being 80 kilometers south of present-day Lithuania, environs of Dzyatlava had been known by linguists as the outermost indigenous Lithuanian speaking "island" apart from the contiguous Lithuanian language territory. The Lithuanian-speakers spoke a unique dialect, known as the "Zietela dialect"; it has been speculated that the ancestors of its speakers might have been Lithuanized Jotvingians. It drew the attention by many prominent linguists, such as Christian Schweigaard Stang, Vladimir Toporov, Kazimieras Būga and Juozas Balčikonis. In 1886, 1156 people in nearby villages declared themselves Lithuanians, however the real number might have been much greater. At present the Lithuanian population is virtually extinct.

Dziatlava (,,,, "Zhetl") is a town in Belarus in the Hrodna voblast, about 165 km southeast of Hrodna. The population was 7,700 in 2016.

Dziatlava (en ; en łacinka : Dziatłava) ou Diatlovo (en ; en ; en, "Zhetl") est une ville de la voblast de Hrodna ou oblast de Grodno, en Biélorussie, et le centre administratif du raïon de Dziatlava. Sa population s'élevait à habitants en 2015.


History.

Be'lakor formed as a band in 2004, but didn't start playing live shows until 2005. In 2007, the band self-released their debut album, "The Frail Tide", which received generally positive reviews. In 2008, Be'lakor signed with Descent Productions, and re-released "The Frail Tide" in digipack form. In 2009, Be'lakor embarked on a national tour, and signed with Prime Cuts Music. Their second album, "Stone's Reach", was released on 20 June 2009 and received much praise by reviewers. In November 2009, Be'lakor signed with Kolony Records.  In March 2010, Be'lakor's album "Stone's Reach" took first place in Metal Storm's "Best Melodeath/Gothenburg Metal Album" for 2009. Be'lakor also supported Turisas on their national tour of Australia in May. They were the opening act for Alestorm in Melbourne for their "PLUNDER DOWNUNDER” tour in June 2010. The band also performed at the Summer Breeze Open Air Festival in Germany in August 2010.  Be'lakor released their third album "Of Breath and Bone" in June 2012. They began touring Europe, playing Brutal Assault in the Czech Republic. They also performed at the Summer Breeze Open Air Festival in Germany during August 2012. They supported Apocalyptica in Melbourne during their 2012 Australia tour in September, and At the Gates in Melbourne during their tour in November.  In August 2015, the band returned to Europe and played Brutal Assault in Czechia, Rockstadt Open Air in Romania and Summer Breeze. Matt Dodds of Arbrynth took over lead guitar duties for Shaun due to illness.  On 21 September 2015 the band announced that their fourth album would be released in March 2016. Later, on 29 December, drummer Jimmy Vanden Broeck left the band to pursue other musical ventures. He was replaced by Elliott Sansom, who previously worked with Melbourne-based bands Future Corpse, Okera and The Seaford Monster. On 24 June 2016 Be'lakor released "Vessels", the band's fourth album.

Be'lakor is an Australian melodic death metal band from Melbourne, Victoria. The band's name originates from the character "Bel'akor the Dark Master", in the Warhammer Fantasy game setting.

Be'lakor est un groupe de death metal mélodique australien, originaire de Melbourne. Formé en 2004, le groupe publie un premier album studio, ', en 2007, suivi de'en 2009, de'en 2012 et de'en 2016.


History.

Background.

Amsterdam north of the IJ originally consisted of the Volewijck peninsula, which the city was given control over in 1393 (right of craftsmanship; Dutch: "recht van ambachtsheerlijkheid"). Until 1795, Amsterdam-Noord was used as a gallows field, where the corpses of convicts were hung after the execution as a frightening example. In 1660, the digging of the Buikslotertrekvaart (literal translation: Buiksloter waterway) began just to the east of the Galgenveld, from the IJ north through Volewijck to Buiksloot, Broek in Waterland, Monnickendam, Edam and Hoorn. In order to complete this project securely, several areas of Amsterdam-Noord were surrounded by dams from 1662 onwards. To finance those works, a toll house was built, to which a small outlet was connected at the end of the 18th century.  The area that now forms Amsterdam-Noord has been intersected by the Noordhollandsch Kanaal since its competition in 1824, which on the south side via the Willemssluizen is connected to the IJ. The canal flows under the A10 motorway coming from Den Helder, and then goes through the Noorderpark (east of Buiksloot and west of Buikslotermeer) and Overhoeks. It was not until the 19th century that this area was urbanised; before construction began, the filling up of marshes with port sludge was necessary. That is how the Buiksloterham (1832–1851) and Nieuwendammerham (1879) came into existence.

Industrial period.

After the opening of the North Sea Canal in 1876, the port of Amsterdam became accessible to steamers. The municipality of Amsterdam voted to begin converting northern rural areas into industry fields, a policy which was started by the establishment of the Stoomvaartmaatschappij Nederland, Koninklijke Nederlandse Stoomboot-Maatschappij (KNSM) and others. The Amsterdam Drydock Company, founded on their initiative, built a ship repair yard on the north bank, and the Nederlandsche Dok en Scheepsbouw Maatschappij (NDSM) established a new shipyard. In 1900, the municipal council decided to move the sulfuric acid plant of Ketjen, which caused a great deal of disruption in Overtoom (Amsterdam-Zuid), to a new facility in Amsterdam-Noord. In 1908, the Kromhout shipbuilding factory also moved north of the IJ. In 1910, descendants of the Zaanstad manufacturing families Duijvis and Verkade founded the Drakafabriek for low-voltage cables, necessary for the electrification of the Netherlands. Many ferry services were needed to serve the staff of these companies on a daily basis, and a need arose for housing over the IJ. Due to a border change in 1877, Amsterdam's control was extended over the northern IJ bank to the Waterlandse Zeedijk. In 1900, Johan van Hasselt, the new director of the municipal Public Works Department, made a design for the development of Amsterdam-Noord. There was a lot of room for living and working in this design.  It provided space for heavy industry and port-related activity. The construction of a new main canal even required clearing the way for the construction of a bridge over the IJ connecting the area with the inner city. Van Hasselt was not aware of modern insights in public housing, and this led to various conflicts with the management of the municipal Building and Housing Service. They wanted to break with existing practices in Amsterdam, such as high-rise buildings of four or five storeys to accommodate workers.  The plan was considerably changed for residential construction in Amsterdam-Noord, but the area already attracted many companies. Those policies and Amsterdam-Noord's geographical situation attracted Anthony Fokker to establish his aircraft factory after the First World War. In the Nieuwendammerham, the way had already been cleared during this period for the construction of the Vogelbuurt by housing associations. A few years later, the new Municipal Housing Service in Amsterdam took over the construction of the neighbourhood in the Buiksloterham.

Recent years.

In the Second World War the industry fields in Amsterdam-Noord were the target of British bombing. The Fokker factories were the 17 July 1943 bombings' goal, but the bombs fell on the surrounding residential areas, causing 158 deaths and 119 seriously injured as a result. This was the heaviest bombardment that hit Amsterdam. 106 houses were destroyed, 206 houses heavily damaged and 676 houses suffered glass and roof damage. Every year a memorial ceremony takes place on 17 July at De Nieuwe Noorder cemetery.  In December 1981, Amsterdam-Noord and Osdorp became the first two districts of the municipality of Amsterdam to have their own elected district council and executive board. In April 2012, the EYE Film Institute Netherlands was officially transferred from the Vondelparkpaviljoen, Vondelpark to Overhoeks, Amsterdam-Noord following an inauguration by Queen Beatrix. This made the borough more culturally attractive, since the museum's new location is only two minutes away from the Centrum borough by ferry.

Geography.

Neighbourhoods.

Amsterdam-Noord comprises the following neighbourhoods: Banne Buiksloot, Buiksloot, Buikslotermeer, Floradorp, Kadoelen, Molenwijk, Nieuwendam, Nieuwendammerdijk en Buiksloterdijk, Oostzanerwerf, Overhoeks, Tuindorp Nieuwendam and Tuindorp Oostzaan.  The special district of Landelijk Noord, which was established to ensure that the residents of the rural eastern part of Amsterdam-Noord received the same quality of service as those in the rest of the city, also comprises the Durgerdam, Holysloot, 't Nopeind, Ransdorp, Schellingwoude and Zunderdorp neighbourhoods. They are all former villages that are now part of the Amsterdam metropolitan area or villages that decided to merged with Amsterdam at the beginning of the 20th century to have more financial resources, but are still geographically separated from the city.  There are thus eighteen neighbourhoods in Amsterdam-Noord. Former neighbourhoods that merged into the current ones include Buiksloterham, IJplein en Vogelbuurt, Nieuwendammerham, Tuindorp Buiksloot, Van der Pekbuurt, Volewijck, Waterland and Waterlandpleinbuurt.

Parks.

The Vliegenbos (literal translation: fly forest), Amsterdam-Noord's main urban park, is known to locals as a place of relax and jog. Other parks in the borough include the Baanakkerspark, Schellingwouderpark, Florapark and Volewijkspark. The two latter parks (located on both sides of the Noordhollandsch Kanaal) merged in 2014 to become the Noorderpark.

Transport.

Amsterdam-Noord is connected by one road bridge, the Schellingwouderbrug, and three road tunnels, the Coentunnel (west), IJtunnel (centre) and Zeeburgertunnel (east), to other parts of Amsterdam. Furthermore, there are five ferry lines for pedestrians and bicycles operated by the Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf (GVB) to cross the IJ. They are operational 24 hours a day. They depart every two minutes for the Centraal station–Buiksloterweg connection (two boats at a time for this short distance) to every half hour for the Centraal station–NDSM-werf connection (one boat at a time for this long distance), with Centraal Station directly accessible due its waterside location on the other side of the IJ. There are several bus connections with the centre and other parts of Amsterdam and with Purmerend, Volendam and Zaandam. Because the area is physically separated from the rest of the Amsterdam conurbation, it is not served by trams. The area is however served by the Amsterdam Metro and its Route 52, which opened on 22 July 2018.

Government.

Like other boroughs in the city (with the notable exception of Westpoort), Amsterdam-Noord has an elected borough committee (Dutch: "stadsdeelcommissie") that in turn elects an executive board ("bestuurscommissie"). Until 2014, the committee had 29 seats; it currently has 12.  During the Dutch municipal elections, 2018, the Labour Party (PvdA) and GroenLinks (GL) won three seats each, the Democrats 66 (D66) and Socialist Party two each and the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) and Party for the Elderly (PvdO) one each, making Amsterdam-Noord's borough council one of the most left-wing in the city.  The "voorzitter bestuurscommissie" (literal translation: executive committee chair) presides over the borough executive committee. The following chairs have presided over Amsterdam-Noord since it became a borough with elected officials:

Amsterdam-Noord () is a borough of Amsterdam, Netherlands with a population of about 90,000. The IJ, the body of water which separates it from Amsterdam-Centrum and the rest of the city, is situated southwest of Amsterdam-Noord. The borough, which has an area of 49.01 km (18.92 square miles), borders the municipalities of Zaanstad, Oostzaan, Landsmeer and Waterland to the north, all part of the province of North Holland like Amsterdam. It borders the Markermeer to the east.

Amsterdam-Nord (en néerlandais : "Amsterdam-Noord") est l'un des huit "stadsdelen" (arrondissements) d'Amsterdam. Il existe sous sa forme actuelle depuis 1981, ce qui en fait le plus ancien des arrondissements amstellodamois, Zuidoost étant établi en 1987 et Westpoort en 1990.