Background.

Battle of France.

Army Group A ( Gerd von Rundstedt) defeated the French at the Battle of Sedan from 12 to 15 May and crossed the Meuse. A French counter-attack at the Battle of Montcornet on 17 May by the (4e DCr, Colonel Charles de Gaulle), from Montcornet to the south, was defeated by an improvised defence and the 10th Panzer Division, which was rushed forward on the French flank. The German counter-attacks were supported by VIII ( Wolfram von Richthofen) and the French lost and armoured vehicles. On 19 May, after receiving reinforcements, the 4e DCr attacked again and was repulsed with the loss of of its vehicles, much of the loss being caused by the aircraft of VIII, which attacked French units as they massed to attack the flanks of German units. By the end of the Battle of Montcornet, much of the French Ninth Army on the Meuse had disintegrated under the attacks of VIII.  German spearheads broke through the Peronne–Cambrai gap and threatened Boulogne and Calais, cutting the lines of communication of the Allied armies of 1 (General Gaston Billotte) in the North-East Theatre of Operations ( Alphonse Joseph Georges), separating them from the main French armies south of the Somme. On 19 May, General Edmund Ironside, the British Chief of the Imperial General Staff, conferred with Lord Gort, commander of the BEF, at his headquarters near Lens and urged Gort to save the BEF, by attacking towards Amiens to the south-west but Gort had only two divisions available for an attack. Ironside met Billotte, finding him apparently incapable of taking action. Ironside returned to Britain and ordered urgent anti-invasion measures.  On the morning of 20 May, General Maurice Gamelin, the Commander-in-chief of the French armed forces, ordered the armies trapped in Belgium and northern France to fight their way south, to link up with French forces attacking northwards from the Somme river. On the evening of 19 May, the French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud had sacked Gamelin and replaced him with General Maxime Weygand. Weygand cancelled the orders and after a delay, ordered a similar counter-offensive from the north and south against the German "corridor", to break the encircled armies out of the pocket. Frankforce was to hold the line of the river Scarpe to the east of Arras with the 5th Infantry Division, while the rest of the force attacked to the south of Arras and the new French 3 ( Antoine-Marie-Benoît Besson) attacked north from the Somme.  King Leopold III of Belgium told Gort that he did not expect the BEF to risk itself to keep contact with the Belgian army but warned the British that if they persisted with the southern offensive, the Belgians would be overstretched and collapse. Leopold suggested that the Allies should establish a beachhead covering Dunkirk and the Belgian channel ports instead. The BEF reinforced Arras despite Gort having doubts about the French plan. (Billotte took part in a meeting in Ypres from 19 to 21 May. Driving back after this meeting, he had a road accident, fell into a coma and died soon afterwards, leaving the Allied 1 (1st Army Group) leaderless for three days; around that time, the British decided to evacuate from the Channel ports.

Prelude.

German advance.

The 7th Panzer Division had captured Cambrai and advanced to the area south of Arras. For 21 May, the division was ordered to wheel west around Arras and attack to the north, capturing crossings over the Scarpe at Acq, a risky manoeuvre since the right flank would be vulnerable to a counter-attack from Arras. The 5th Panzer Division (Lieutenant-General Max von Hartlieb-Walsporn) was to attack so as to relieve pressure on the 7th Panzer Division (the division was delayed and never managed to fulfil its orders). Rommel ordered to probe towards Acq forward with two motorised infantry regiments to follow later, which left most of the division without tanks. Rommel led the advance but returned around when the infantry failed to arrive and at the positions of (Fusilier or Rifle Regiment), found himself under attack by tanks and infantry.

Allied offensive preparations.

Georges ordered General d'Astier de la Vigerie, commander of of the to support the British attack but sent no details of the attack front, no targets and no zero hour for the attack. D'Astier was also unable to contact the First Army headquarters or the HQ of the Air Component RAF of the BEF, which was out of action, as it was moving back to bases in England. French reconnaissance aircraft were shot down or chased away until when aircraft got through to Arras and found no activity around Cambrai. Major-General Harold Franklyn, commander of the British 5th Infantry Division was put in charge of Frankforce, improvised from his division, the 50th (Northumbrian) Motor Division (Major-General Giffard Martel) and the of the 1st Army Tank Brigade. Frankforce had moved to the vicinity of Vimy, north of Arras to reinforce the Allied garrison at Arras, for a counter-attack to the south, to cut German communications in the vicinity. Franklyn had detached a brigade each from the 5th Infantry Division and the 50th Motor Division, which had only two instead of the usual three brigades each. Franklyn was not aware of a French push northwards toward Cambrai and the French were ignorant of a British attack south toward Arras.  Franklyn had support from the French (Lieutenant-General René Prioux) of the French First Army, which had fought at the Battle of Hannut with its SOMUA S35 cavalry tanks. Many of the tanks of the (1ère DLM) had been destroyed in the earlier battles and the rest had been distributed among infantry divisions and could not be reassembled in time, despite threats to court-martial officers who refused to release the tanks. By 21 May, Prioux could only contribute a few tanks of the (3e DLM). The attack had been intended to be made by two French and two British infantry divisions but Frankforce comprised only about after the detachment of brigades to the defence of Arras, the river to the east and into reserve. The defensive deployments left only the 6th and 8th battalions of the Durham Light Infantry (DLI), of 151st Brigade and one in reserve as well as the 13th Infantry Brigade, supporting the 4th Royal Tank Regiment (4th RTR) and the 7th Royal Tank Regiment (7th RTR), a force of about and The tanks were, thickly armoured but equipped only with a machine gun and tanks, very well armoured and carrying a 2-pounder gun and a machine-gun.

Allied plan.

The original instructions given to Franklyn had been to plan a limited attack south of Arras, to relieve the garrison. Changes made by Ironside for a more ambitious combined attack with the French, were not communicated to Franklyn, who used most of Frankforce defensively, to reinforce Arras and relieve the French Cavalry Corps to the east of the town. Martel was ordered to plan an attack to  an area of over. A force based on the 151st Infantry Brigade (Brigadier J. A. Churchill), was to advance from the west of Arras and move round to the Cojeul river; the 13th Infantry Brigade (Brigadier M. C. Dempsey) of the 5th Infantry Division was then to cross the river and advance southwards from the east side of Arras, to meet the 151st Infantry Brigade. A "Right Column" of the 7th RTR, 8th DLI, 365th Battery, 92nd Field Regiment RA, 260th Battery, 65th (Norfolk Yeomanry) Anti-Tank Regiment RA, a platoon of the 151st Brigade Anti-Tank Company and a motor-cycle scout platoon of the 4th Battalion, Northumberland Fusiliers and a "Left Column" of the 4th RTR, 6th DLI, 368th Battery, 92nd Field Regiment RA, 206th Battery, 52nd Anti-Tank Regiment RA, a platoon of the 151st Brigade Anti-Tank Company, one company and a scout platoon of the 4th Northumberland Fusiliers, were to cross the Arras–Doullens road at which meant that the infantry would have to make an approach march to reach the jumping-off point, over roads filled with traffic and refugees.

Battle.

3e DLM.

An advance by the 3e DLM, to screen the right flank of the British force was also poorly prepared with insufficient liaison, the French not being told of the timing and direction of the British attack. In the confusion an exchange of fire occurred between the French SOMUA S35s and British anti-tank guns near Warlus. An anti-tank gun was knocked out, British soldiers were killed and several French tanks hit before the mistake was discovered. During the evening, the French force, with about six SOMUAs, engaged south of Duisans. British troops were retreating and by the time the German tanks broke through, the British had escaped.

Right Column.

The time taken by the infantry to reach the assembly points for the attack, through the refugee traffic on the roads, left little time to study their orders or reconnoitre. Marœuil was being bombarded when 50th (Northumbrian) Motor Division began the advance. The Right Column advanced at and received small-arms fire from a wood. The column had to fight through Duisans, which was occupied by German infantry and French tanks on the right, reported tanks of of the 7th Panzer Division to the west. Two companies of the 8th DLI and two troops of the 260th Anti-Tank Battery were left to garrison the village and then the depleted column captured Warlus against stronger opposition and had to leave another garrison behind. Berneville to the south was also captured and a party of the 7th RTR and 8th DLI pressed on to the Arras–Doullens road, where they met part of and troops of the SS-"Totenkopf" Division.  The British were forced under cover by machine-gun and mortar fire and the attacked the Right Column for twenty minutes. Junkers Ju 87 belonging to I, and III, Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 dive-bombed British forces at Arras. I Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 is known to have bombed infantry positions north of Arras. The tanks kept going and then reached Wailly, where they met troops of the Division. The advanced guard suffered many casualties, retreated to Warlus and German tanks counter-attacked Warlus and Duisans. The German attacks were repulsed but managed to cut the road between the villages and the Right Column was unable to advance further.

Left Column.

The Left Column also met resistance as soon as it advanced and fought its way through at Dainville. Another further on at Achicourt, six Matildas overran a line of anti-tank guns and then the column kept going to Agny and Beaurains, before a party reached Wancourt on the Cojeul. Infantry garrisoned Agny and Beaurains and the 4th RTR repulsed German counter-attacks by tanks and, on the right flank of the 7th Panzer Division; the British then took ground south of Beaurains. Fighting went on all afternoon between Mercatel and Tilloy, where the tanks ran into a line of anti-aircraft guns and artillery, including 88 mm Flak guns and many of the tanks were knocked out. Individual tanks kept going but there were no reserves to consolidate and exploit the success and the advance was stopped in mutually-costly fighting. To the east of Arras, the 150th Infantry Brigade attacked across the Scarpe towards Tilloy and the 13th Infantry Brigade captured a bridgehead further east, ready for the second phase of the attack by Frankforce.

7th Panzer Division.

was attacked while advancing towards Agny by a British column advancing from Dainville, which knocked out several vehicles; more British tanks attacked from the north and caught the regimental convoys strung out along the road on their right flank. (42nd Anti-Tank Battalion) was rushed up to the area between Agny and Beaurains, but was overrun by the British tanks. After breaking through, they attacked the transport of between Mercatel and Ficheux and then pressed on, throwing the motorised Division into confusion and almost overrunning its headquarters. When the British tanks broke through the German anti-tank screen, the infantry stood their ground, encouraged by Rommel, even after the British tanks had rolled over their anti-tank guns.  At around (German time) II Battalion, was attacked by about 40 British tanks, which were engaged by artillery on Hill 111, roughly north-west of Wailly. German guns knocked out several Matilda I tanks. Some larger Matilda II tanks among the Matilda Is advanced through the artillery and anti-tank fire unscathed, German shells bouncing off their armour. The tanks destroyed the German anti-tank guns with return fire and rolled over them, killing the crews. The British tanks were eventually stopped short of Hill 111 by fire from another artillery battery but other tanks bypassed the area on both sides. On the southern flank of the 7th Panzer Division, the Division was attacked and some SS troops fled in panic.

Allied retirement.

The maximum depth of the British advance was ; had been taken, many tanks and much equipment had been destroyed but two Matilda IIs had been knocked out. Only were still operational and both tank battalion commanders had been killed; during the evening, Franklyn ordered both columns to withdraw. French cavalry remained near Warlus, was surrounded during the night and only a few tanks managed to break out. The infantry of the Right Column in Warlus were rescued, because six French tanks arrived with two armoured infantry vehicles and broke out through the German position on the Warlus–Duisans road. The garrison in Duisans also retired after dark, in the Bren carriers of the 9th DLI, covered by the anti-tank guns of the brigade reserve in Marœuil. The Left Column troops in Agny and Beaurains were bombed and then attacked by tanks as they retreated, one party missing the road (and eventually reaching Boulogne). The 7th Panzer Division laagered overnight south of Dainville, with advanced parties of infantry close to the south bank of the Scarpe.

Aftermath.

Analysis.

In 1953, Lionel Ellis, the British official historian wrote that the attack at Arras succeeded in easing German pressure round Arras and delaying the encirclement of the BEF. The ground between Arras and the Cojeul was re-occupied and there was no serious German attack on the town, Rommel making the alarmist claim that the attack was made by five divisions. Beyond the delay imposed on German moves and the many casualties inflicted on the Germans, the attack was bound to fail without a force sufficiently powerful to follow up and consolidate the captured ground. Rundstedt, the commander of Army Group A, had intended that the panzer divisions should rest after the exertions on 20 May. In 1978, Cooper wrote that the attack at Arras led to the German higher commanders to continue to attack northwards, to capture the channel ports.  Attacking to the south-west was rejected and OKH ordered to capture Boulogne and Calais, about away. Apprehension of another Allied attack caused Rundstedt to order to remain in position, the XLI Corps (Reinhardt) sent a division eastwards as a precaution and Kleist diverted the 10th Panzer Division and parts of the 1st Panzer Division and the 2nd Panzer Division from the XIX Corps (Guderian) to hold the bridgehead over the Somme, which slowed the advance to Dunkirk from the beginning. The XIX Corps attacked again at on 22 May but was still hampered by a "near paralysis" in the German command, Rundstedt ordering that the instructions from OKH were to be ignored and the advance on Boulogne and Calais would have to wait. At Rundstedt countermanded his own order but for five hours, the panzers had waited on the Amache river. In 2005, Frieser wrote that Allied planning was notable for its failure to cut the panzer corridor when there were insufficient German motorised divisions to consolidate behind the panzer divisions and the non-motorised divisions were several days' march away. The corridor was only wide at Arras and vulnerable to a pincer movement; The Allies could have achieved a Clausewitzian counter-encirclement and cut off the panzers on the channel coast. Halder had been willing to run the risk, because of the incapacity of the Allies to achieve a fast tempo of operations. The Allied attack was contained because Rommel improvised a gun line of anti-tank guns and anti-aircraft guns, that managed to stop some of the lighter British tanks; the infantry tanks, particularly the Matilda IIs, proved very difficult to knock out with the standard 37 mm anti tank gun.  Rommel also used wireless to order another gun line quickly to be set up with artillery and several anti-aircraft guns much further back, which knocked out 24 tanks in a few minutes on the flat ground between Mercatel and Tilloy. Just after Junkers Ju 87 of I and VIII arrived and made on the retiring tanks by Rommel ordered Panzer-Regiment 25 to return and cut off the British tanks but south of Duisans it met French tanks covering the British right flank and only pushed through after a long and costly engagement. When the German tanks had broken through a British anti-tank gun line, between Duisans and Warlus, the British tanks had already returned; the British attack had turned into a disaster and only 28 of the 88 tanks committed returned to their start line. The 6th Panzer Division signalled that "a strong enemy force was making a breakthrough" which caused alarm. Kleist ordered the 6th Panzer Division and 8th Panzer Division eastwards to counter the Allied breakthrough. In the aftermath the Germans treated the Battle of Arras as a minor defeat for the Allies.

Casualties.

Rommel noted in his diary that his division had lost killed, and missing and captured, as many as the first four days of operations, which included the Meuse crossing, although 90 of the missing returned to their units. In 1953, Lionel Ellis, the British official historian, quoted the 7th Panzer Division war diary, which recorded the loss of nine medium and several light tanks, killed or wounded and British records noted some taken prisoner. The British lost around killed or wounded in the attack, it is unknown how many French soldiers became casualties in the engagement. Frankforce lost sixty of the in the attack.

Subsequent operations.

The main French attack on Cambrai took place on 22 May and like the attack on 21 May, the force involved was much smaller than intended. The Tenth Army commander, General Robert Altmayer, should have attacked with the V Corps and tanks of the Prioux Cavalry Corps but only an infantry regiment and two depleted tank battalions could be assembled in time. The panzer divisions had moved on, only small detachments having been left in Cambrai and the marching infantry divisions were not due until later in the day. The French attack reached the fringe of Cambrai only to be stopped by the and forced to retreat.

Halt orders.

Frieser wrote that the Franco-British counter-attack at Arras, had a disproportionate effect on the Germans because the higher commanders were apprehensive about flank security. Ewald von Kleist, the commander of perceived a "serious threat" and informed Colonel-General Franz Halder (Chief of the General Staff of OKH), that he had to wait until the crisis was resolved before continuing. Colonel-General Günther von Kluge, the 4th Army commander ordered the tanks to halt, with the support of Rundstedt. On 22 May, when the attack had been repulsed, Rundstedt ordered that the situation at Arras must be restored before moved on Boulogne and Calais. At OKW the panic was worse and Hitler contacted Army Group A on 22 May, to order that all mobile units were to operate either side of Arras and infantry units were to operate to the east.  The crisis among the higher staffs of the German army was not apparent at the front and Halder formed the same conclusion as Guderian; that the real threat was that the Allies would retreat to the channel coast too quickly and a race for the channel ports began. Guderian ordered the 2nd Panzer Division to capture Boulogne, the 1st Panzer Division to take Calais and the 10th Panzer division to seize Dunkirk. Most of the BEF and the French First Army were still from the coast but despite delays, British troops were sent from England to Boulogne and Calais just in time to forestall the XIX Corps panzer divisions on 22 May. Frieser wrote that had the panzers advanced at the same speed on 21 May as they had on 20 May, before the halt order stopped their advance for, Boulogne and Calais would have fallen. Without a halt at Montcornet on 15 May and the second halt on 21 May after the Battle of Arras, the final halt order of 24 May would have been irrelevant, because Dunkirk would have already been captured by the 10th Panzer Division.

Commemoration.

The battle honour "Defence of Arras" was awarded to the British units involved in the counter-attack.

The Battle of Arras took place on 21 May 1940, during the Battle of France in the Second World War. Following the German invasion of the Low Countries on 10 May, French and British forces advanced into Belgium. The German campaign plan (Case Yellow) had evolved into a decoy operation in the Netherlands and Belgium, with the main effort through the Ardennes. German units crossed the Meuse without waiting for reinforcements at the Battle of Sedan. Instead of consolidating bridgeheads on the west bank of the Meuse, the Germans began an advance down the Somme river valley towards the English Channel.

La bataille d'Arras s'est déroulée le durant la bataille de France entre les armées franco-britanniques et la Wehrmacht. Les Alliés rencontrèrent un succès mitigé.


Hinduism.

In Hinduism's sacred literature, the "great" or "gross" elements ("mahābhūta") are fivefold: space (or "ether"), air, fire, water and earth.  For instance, the describes the five "sheaths" of a person (Sanskrit: "purua"), starting with the grossest level of the five evolving great elements:  In the, God is identified as the source of the great elements:  The same Upanishad also mentions, "When earth, water fire, air and akasa arise, when the five attributes of the elements, mentioned in the books on yoga, become manifest then the yogi's body becomes purified by the fire of yoga and he is free from illness, old age and death." (Verse 2.12).

Buddhism.

In Buddhism, the four Great Elements (Pali: "cattāro mahābhūtāni") are earth, water, fire and air. Mahābhūta is generally synonymous with catudhātu, which is Pāli for the "Four Elements." In early Buddhism, the Four Elements are a basis for understanding that leads one through unbinding of 'Rupa' or materiality to the supreme state of pure 'Emptiness' or Nirvana.

Definitions.

In the Pali canon, the most basic elements are usually identified as four in number but, on occasion, a fifth and, to an even lesser extent, a sixth element may also be identified.

Four primary elements.

In canonical texts, the four Great Elements refer to elements that are both "external" (that is, outside the body, such as a river) and "internal" (that is, of the body, such as blood). These elements are described as follows:  Any entity that carry one or more of these qualities (attractive forces, repulsive forces, energy and relative motion) are called matter ("rupa"). The material world is considered to be nothing but a combination of these qualities arranged in space ("akasa"). The result of these qualities are the inputs to our five senses, color ("warna"), smell ("ghandda"), taste ("rasa") and sensation of body ("ojha"). The matter that we perceive in our mind are just a mental interpretation of these qualities.

Fifth and sixth elements.

In addition to the above four elements of underived matter, two other elements are occasionally found in the Pali Canon:  According to the Abhidhamma Pitaka, the "space element" is identified as "secondary" or "derived" ("upādā").

Sensory qualities, not substances.

While in the Theravada tradition, as well as in the earliest texts, the Pali Canon, matter is delineated as something external, that actually exists, in the later schools, like the Yogacara school, Rūpa (matter) means both materiality and sensibility—it signifies, for example, a tactile object both insofar as that object is tactile and that it can be sensed. Rūpa is never a materiality which can be separated or isolated from cognizance; such a non-empirical category is incongruous in the context of early Buddhism. Rūpa is not a substratum or substance which has sensibility as a property. It functions in early Buddhist thought as perceivable physicality. Matter, or rūpa, is defined in its function; what it does, not what it is. As such, the four great elements are conceptual abstractions drawn from the sensorium. They are sensorial typologies, and are not metaphysically materialistic. They are not meant to give an account of matter as constitutive of external, mind-independent reality.<br>

As Four Fundamental Aspects, Not Rigidly Four Elements.

Very few scholars of (virtual) meta-analysis (of Theravada Buddhism and science) adopt a broader view of the rest of Buddha's concepts about the four mahābhūtas, which leads to an idea that they should not be rigidly translated to earth or solid, water or liquid, air or gas, and fire or plasma. Such speculation considers them as fundamental "aspects" of any physical object, definitely not very "parts" of a touchable object.<br>

Soteriological uses.

The Four Elements are used in Buddhist texts to both elucidate the concept of suffering ("dukkha") and as an object of meditation. The earliest Buddhist texts explain that the four primary material elements are the sensory qualities solidity, fluidity, temperature, and mobility; their characterisation as earth, water, fire, and air, respectively, is declared an abstraction – instead of concentrating on the fact of material existence, one observes how a physical thing is sensed, felt, perceived.

Understanding suffering.

The Four Elements pertinence to the Buddhist notion of suffering comes about due to:  Schematically, this can be represented in reverse order as:  Thus, to deeply understand the Buddha's Four Noble Truths, it is beneficial to have an understanding of the Great Elements.

Meditation object.

In the Mahasatipatthana Sutta ("The Greater Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness," DN 22), in listing various bodily meditation techniques, the Buddha instructs:  In the Visuddhimagga's well-known list of forty meditation objects ("kammahāna"), the great elements are listed as the first four objects.  B. Alan Wallace compares the Theravada meditative practice of "attending to the emblem of consciousness" to the practice in Mahamudra and Dzogchen of "maintaining the mind upon non-conceptuality", which is also aimed at focusing on the nature of consciousness.

Buddhist sources.

In the Pali canon, the Four Elements are described in detail in the following discourses ("sutta"):  The Four Elements are also referenced in:  In addition, the Visuddhimagga XI.27"ff" has an extensive discussion of the Four Elements.

Mahābhūta is Sanskrit and Pāli for "great element". However, very few scholars define the four mahābhūtas in a broader sense as the four fundamental aspects of physical reality.

Bhūta (en sanskrit IAST ; devanāgarī : भूत) ou mahābhūta (महाभूत) désigne dans la philosophie du Sāṃkhya l'un des cinq éléments grossiers ("pañca-mahābhūta" ou "pañcabhūta"). Il y a cinq éléments grossiers qui sont: l'Espace, l'Air, le Feu, l'Eau et la Terre. Ceux-ci sont en correspondance avec les cinq éléments subtils (tanmātra) qui les ont produits. Les "bhūta" font partie des vingt-cinq principes (tattva) énumérés et exposés dans la Sāṃkhya Kārikā composée par Īśvarakṛṣṇa.


Club athlétique de Saint-Étienne Loire sud rugby

History.

The club was founded in 1908 under the name "Stade Forézien Universitaire". They went through a difficult time in the 1960s, and had to merge with the CASE omnisport structure in 1975 at the request of the municipality. It did not help turn back the tide, however, and poor results and fewer and fewer licensed players forced the club to withdraw its senior team from all competitions in 1991. The next year, the club was restarted in 4ème Série, the lowest French rugby division, and was able to climb the ladder, gaining promotion to Fédérale 3 in 2004, one year after merging with the neighbouring club SEMUR and adopting its current name. In 2007, Saint-Etienne were promoted to Fédérale 2. A mere two years later, they finished 13th overall in the championship, with the top 12 clubs being promoted to Fédérale 1. However, Lombez-Samatan declined their promotion, sending Saint-Étienne to the top amateur division for the first time.  For their first season in Fédérale 1, Saint-Étienne signed the coach Jean-Sébastien Bignat from Arras, and the international fullback Alexandre Péclier from Lyon. They had an impressive start with two away wins in their first two games, and on November 7, they took on Béziers in Andrézieux-Bouthéon's Stade Roger-Baudras. The 3,000 people in the stadium were not the only ones to witness the locals' 15–9 victory though, as the match was broadcast live on Eurosport, a first for a Fédérale 1 game. This run of good form allowed them to clinch the fourth place in their group and thus to qualify for the Trophée Jean Prat. In the second phase, they finished second behind Tyrosse and qualified for the Round of 16 where they faced Nice. They prevailed 19–18 thanks to a last-second drop-goal by Péclier and faced Chalon-sur-Saône, one of the favorites for promotion, in the quarters. Saint-Étienne stunned them by winning both legs (12–3 at home, 24–20 away), inflicting them their only home defeat of the season in the process. In the semis, they took on Bourg-en-Bresse. The popular support for the team was such that the municipality allowed the first leg to be played in Stade Geoffroy-Guichard. Over 16,000 people came to see the locals take the slenderest of leads into the second leg with a 23–22 victory. Another shock 19–16 win in Bourg-en-Bresse sent Saint-Étienne in the Jean Prat Trophy final, but much more importantly gave them a ticket to professional rugby and the Pro D2, after only one year spent in Fédérale 1, and perhaps more impressively only three years after leaving Fédérale 3. They fell in the final to Carcassonne 16–3.

Club Athlétique de Saint-Étienne Loire Sud Rugby, CASE Loire Sud Rugby, or simply CASE, is a French rugby union club from Saint-Étienne in the Loire "département". They are currently competing in Fédérale 1, having been relegated from Rugby Pro D2 at the end of the 2010–11 season.

Le est un club français de rugby à XV basé à Saint-Étienne, faisant partie du club omnisports Club athlétique de Saint-Étienne.


History.

Red Oak derives its name from Red Oak Creek which flows through the community and was noted for the red oaks on its banks. The first settlers arrived there in the 1850s. In 1865 it became the official county seat of Montgomery County and the courthouse which had been in the middle of the county seven miles east in Frankfort, Iowa was towed to the community during a snow storm. That courthouse remained in place until the current Montgomery County Courthouse was built in 1891. It is on the National Register of Historic Places.  In 1869 the community was officially founded when the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad (called the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad at the time) arrived. The community was named Red Oak Junction by the railroad on March 20, 1876. The junction was a line off the main Chicago to Council Bluffs, Iowa line that went to Nebraska City, Nebraska and on to Lincoln, Nebraska. The Junction name was dropped in 1901 although the community continues to celebrate its history each summer in Junction Days. In 1903 a new depot was opened by the railroad. It today serves as a museum celebrating the community's significant military heritage and its disproportionate number of casualties in various wars and most famously in World War II. The depot is one of nine places in Montgomery County on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Montgomery County, Iowa.  Darwin R. Merritt, born in Red Oak on April 12, 1872, graduated third in his class from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland on July 1, 1897. On February 15, 1898, he perished in the explosion that sank the in the harbor of Havana, Cuba. His body was later recovered and interred in Evergreen Cemetery in Red Oak.  The community has had a disproportionate number of casualties in the Civil War and World War II.  In the American Civil War, the area provided more Union troops per capita than any other in the state. Company M (which also included residents from Montgomery County) had 160 casualties among its 250 members; 52 men were killed in action.  Early World War II battles claimed a disproportionate number of soldiers from Red Oak (although the final casualty statistics tend to disprove the oft-repeated statement that Red Oak suffered more losses per capita than any other American community). In the Battle of the Kasserine Pass in February 1943, forty-five soldiers from Red Oak alone were captured or killed. At the time more than 100 telegrams arrived in Red Oak saying that its soldiers were missing in action. In recognition of Red Oak's extraordinary sacrifice, the city's name was given to a "victory ship". The SS "Red Oak Victory" has become a floating museum in the shipyard where it was built, in Richmond, California.  The old Burlington Northern depot has been transformed into a museum telling this history.  The Red Oak School District was established in 1870, while Webster Eaton first published the Red Oak Express newspaper in 1868.

Geography.

Red Oak is located at (41.011681, -95.227227).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water.

Demographics.

2010 census.

At the 2010 census there were 5,742 people in 2,481 households, including 1,475 families, in the city. The population density was. There were 2,887 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 96.3% White, 0.3% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 1.4% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.2%.  Of the 2,481 households 28.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.7% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.5% were non-families. 34.9% of households were one person and 16.8% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.90.  The median age was 42.2 years. 24.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.2% were from 25 to 44; 26.6% were from 45 to 64; and 20.1% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.6% male and 52.4% female.

2000 census.

At the 2000 census there were 6,197 people in 2,670 households, including 1,650 families, in the city. The population density was 1,684.7 people per square mile (650.2/km2). There were 2,985 housing units at an average density of 811.5 per square mile (313.2/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 97.42% Caucasian, African American African American (U.S. Census), 0.11% Asian (U.S. Census), 0.50% Native American, 0.37% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.11% from other races, and 0.47% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.15%.  Of the 2,670 households 28.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.6% were married couples living together, 10.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.2% were non-families. 33.8% of households were one person and 16.8% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.89.  Age spread: 24.6% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 25.7% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 20.8% 65 or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 83.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.9 males.  The median household income was $30,098 and the median family income was $37,007. Males had a median income of $28,942 versus $20,047 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,793. About 7.9% of families and 10.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.8% of those under age 18 and 6.2% of those age 65 or over.

Health care.

The Montgomery County Memorial Hospital (MCMH) is located in Red Oak. MCMH is a modern 25-bed facility with birth to hospice capabilities. MCMH management puts an emphasis on health care for the local community inside the hospital and with programs outside of the hospital. It began as Red Oak Hospital when Dr. B.F. Gillmor opened a 15-bed hospital in 1920. In 1931 it was renamed the Murphy Memorial Hospital in honor of a bequest of $40,000 from Thomas D. and Ina C. Murphy. In 1941 a 26-bed hospital was built in a new location, with an addition in 1951. In 1961 a long-term care unit, named Highland Acres, was constructed. In 1978 in a special election voters approved of Montgomery County taking ownership of Murphy Memorial Hospital. The facility then became known as Montgomery County Memorial Hospital. In 1989 a new hospital was built and in 1993 a Physicians Center was added.

Red Oak is a city in, and the county seat of, Montgomery County, Iowa, United States, located along the East Nishnabotna River. The population was 5,742 in the 2010 census, a decline from the 6,197 population in 2000.

La ville de Red Oak est le siège du comté de Montgomery, dans l’État de l’Iowa, aux États-Unis. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


Life.

Rombout Verhulst was born in Mechelen, where he studied with the sculptors Rombout Verstappen en Frans van Loo and possibly also Lucas Faydherbe. It is assumed that between 1646 and 1654 he made a trip to Italy.  In 1646 he moved to Amsterdam, where he worked under the Flemish sculptor Artus Quellinus on the decoration of the new town hall. His independent position among Quellinus' co-workers is apparent from the fact that he was the only one to individually sign works in this project. At the Amsterdam town hall, he is known to have executed the reliefs of "Venus", "Fidelity" and "Silence" for the galleries and terracotta studies for the bronze doors of the "Vierschaar". During the 1660s, Verhulst was able to rely on a network of private patrons in which the van Reygersbergh family played a pivotal role. In 1663 Verhulst completed a funeral monument for Maria van Reygersbergh in the church of Katwijk-Binnen. This was the first private commission for this type of work in the second half of the 17th century. His patronage shifted gradually from Amsterdam to The Hague.  Around 1658 he moved to Leiden where he produced various sculptures for urban buildings and for tomb monuments. In 1663 he established himself in the Hague, where in 1668 he became a member of a guild. He died, aged 74, in The Hague.  He was the teacher of Jan Blommendael and Jan Ebbelaer.

Work.

Rombout Verhulst is best known for his many tomb monuments, but he made also portrait busts, garden sculptures and small-scale works in ivory.  His portrait oeuvre is rather small, which demonstrates that there was only a limited market for portrait sculptures in the Dutch Republic. One of his best-known portraits is the marble bust of Jacob van Reygersbergh dated 1671, now in the Getty Museum in Los Angeles. A terracotta study for this work is in the Rijksmuseum and it differs from the marble version only in details. This portrait bust shows Verhulst's virtuosity and the naturalism of his style. He removed any tendency to idealize the sitter in this work. In his terracotta portraits he was able to create a living presence through his sensitive handling of the physiognomy and a correct evocation of the sitter's personality.  Verhulst is mainly remembered for this many tomb monuments for private and public patrons. His funeral monument for Maria van Reygersbergh of 1663 established his reputation in this area with its new and imposing style. He made many church monuments erected to commemorate Dutch naval heroes. His chief work in this area (though possibly not his most successful creation) is the decorated tomb of the Dutch naval hero Michiel de Ruyter in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam.  In addition to the monumental commissions he completed, Verhulst made small-scale ivory carvings, a specialty for which his home town Mechelen was particularly known. A small ivory "Virgin and Child" held in the Rijksmuseum shows his skill in this regard. He has carved the thick, wavy locks of hair of the chubby Christ Child and the heavy drapery with such realism that they appear almost tangible.  Although his style was indebted to Artus Quellinus, he did not completely adopt Quellinus' classicist tendencies. Verhulst's work is warmer in conception and executed with greater refinement and therein resembles more that of the Antwerp sculptors from the circle of Peter Paul Rubens, including Hans van Mildert and Lucas Faydherbe. His work was usually more realistic than that of Quellinus and is less dramatic.

Rombout Verhulst (15 January 1624 – buried 27 November 1698) was a Flemish sculptor and draughtsman who spent most of his career in the Dutch Republic. There he helped introduce the Baroque style in sculpture while becoming the leading sculptor of marble monuments, including funerary monuments, garden figures and portraits.

Rombout Verhulst est un sculpteur hollandais né le à Malines et décédé en (enterré le 27 novembre) à La Haye. Il est l'un des représentants de la sculpture hollandaise baroque.


History.

Northwood was laid out in 1857 and platted in 1858.

Geography.

Northwood's longitude and latitude coordinates<br>in decimal form are 43.445783, -93.219123.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 1,989 people, 885 households, and 530 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 1,004 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 97.3% White, 0.5% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.9% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.3% of the population.  There were 885 households of which 25.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.5% were married couples living together, 9.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.1% were non-families. 35.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.80.  The median age in the city was 44.2 years. 21.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.4% were from 25 to 44; 27.2% were from 45 to 64; and 21.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.1% male and 51.9% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,050 people, 914 households, and 549 families living in the city. The population density was 542.2 people per square mile (209.4/km2). There were 982 housing units at an average density of 259.7 per square mile (100.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 98.24% White, 0.10% African American, 0.10% Native American, 0.20% Asian, 0.44% from other races, and 0.93% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.39% of the population.  There were 914 households out of which 25.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.9% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.9% were non-families. 36.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 20.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.76.  20.5% are under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 23.9% from 25 to 44, 22.4% from 45 to 64, and 26.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.8 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $33,030, and the median income for a family was $41,445. Males had a median income of $27,589 versus $20,637 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,167. About 6.4% of families and 7.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.8% of those under age 18 and 11.6% of those age 65 or over.

Climate.

Humid continental climate is a climatic designation typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa" (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

Northwood is a city in Worth County, Iowa, United States, along the Shell Rock River. The population was 1,989 at the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Worth County.

La ville américaine de Northwood est le siège du comté de Worth, dans l’État de l’Iowa. Elle comptait habitants lors du recensement de 2000.


Presidential election of 1836.

Van Buren had emerged as President Andrew Jackson's preferred successor during the Petticoat affair, and Van Buren won election as vice president in 1832. The two men –charismatic "Old Hickory" and the super-efficient "Sly Fox"—had entirely different personalities but had become an effective team in eight years in office together. Jackson declined to seek another term in the 1836 presidential election, but he remained influential within the Democratic Party, and he strongly supported Van Buren's candidacy in the 1836 election. With Jackson's support, Van Buren won the presidential nomination of the 1835 Democratic National Convention without opposition. Two names were put forward for the vice-presidential nomination: Representative Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky, and former senator William Cabell Rives of Virginia. Though most Southern Democrats favored Rives, Jackson preferred Johnson, and his influence helped lead to Johnson's nomination for the vice presidency.  The newly-established Whig Party, a loose coalition bound by mutual opposition to Jackson, sought to prevent Van Buren's victory in the election of 1836. Lacking the party unity or organizational strength to field a single ticket or define a single platform, the Whigs fielded multiple candidates in the hope of forcing a contingent election in the House of Representatives. Senator Hugh Lawson White of Tennessee, a former Jackson ally, emerged as the major Whig candidate in the South, touting himself as the only Southerner in the race. William Henry Harrison, who had gained notoriety for his service in the Battle of Tippecanoe, edged out Senator Daniel Webster to become the main Whig candidate in the North. The Whig Party campaigned on the themes of Jackson's alleged executive tyranny, and attacked Van Buren as an untrustworthy career politician.  Van Buren had to articulate a position on slavery that could win full-throated approval in both the pro-slavery South and the Northern states where slavery was illegal and unpopular. The biggest challenge came in the South, were all

Inauguration.

Van Buren was sworn in as president by Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger Taney on March 4, 1837, in a ceremony held on the East Portico of the United States Capitol. At age 54, he was the youngest person at the time to assume the presidency. Taking the oath as the eighth president, Van Buren defined his role as one of preservation: "sacredly to uphold those political institutions" created by the Founders

Administration.

Cabinet.

Van Buren retained much of Jackson's cabinet and lower-level appointees, as he hoped that the retention of Jackson's appointees would halt Whig momentum in the South and restore confidence in the Democrats as a party of sectional unity. The cabinet holdovers represented the different regions of the country: Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury came from New England, Attorney General Benjamin F. Butler and Secretary of the Navy Mahlon Dickerson hailed from the mid-Atlantic states, Secretary of State John Forsyth represented the South, and Postmaster General Amos Kendall of Kentucky represented the West. For the position of Secretary of War, the lone unfilled post in the cabinet, Van Buren first approached William Cabell Rives, who had sought the vice presidency in 1836. After Rives declined to join the cabinet, Van Buren appointed Joel Roberts Poinsett, a South Carolinian who had opposed secession during the Nullification Crisis.  Van Buren's cabinet choices were criticized by Pennsylvanians such as James Buchanan, who argued that their state deserved a cabinet

White House hostess.

For the first half of his presidency, Van Buren, who had been a widower for many years, did not have a specific person fill the role of White House hostess, instead assuming such duties himself. When his eldest son Abraham Van Buren married Angelica Singleton in 1838, the president quickly acted to install his daughter-in-law as his hostess. She solicited the advice of her distant relative, Dolley Madison, who had moved back to Washington after her husband's death, and soon

Judicial appointments.

Van Buren appointed two associate justices of the Supreme Court. Congress had added two new seats on the Supreme Court with the Eighth and Ninth Circuits Act of 1837, but President Jackson had filled only one of those positions. To fill the

Domestic affairs.

Panic of 1837 and treasury system.

Panic of 1837.

On May 10, 1837, some important state banks in New York, running out of hard currency reserves, suddenly refused to convert paper money into gold or silver. Other financial institutions throughout the nation quickly followed suit, marking the start of a financial crisis that would become known as the Panic of 1837. The panic was followed by a five-year depression in which numerous banks failed and unemployment reached record highs.  Van Buren blamed the economic collapse on greedy business and

Independent Treasury.

While Whig leader Henry Clay promoted his own American System as the best means for economic recovery, Van Buren's response to the panic focused on the practice of "strict economy and frugality." The potential repeal of the Specie Circular policy split the Democratic Party, with prominent Democrats like William Cabell Rives and Nathaniel Tallmadge urging it as part of a move away from Jackson's hard currency policies. After a long period of consideration, Van Buren announced in May 1837 that he would not revoke the Specie Circular. Van Buren feared that revoking the Specie Circular would hurt western banks, and was reluctant to depart from a Jacksonian policy so quickly after taking office.  Van Buren's decision to uphold the Specie Circular represented the first step in his commitment to the separation of the government from all banking operations, a policy that would become the central economic policy of his tenure. During Jackson's presidency, the federal government had moved its funds from the Second Bank of the United States to so-called "pet banks." Both the Second Bank of the United States and the pet banks had used those federal deposits to engage in regular banking activities, specifically the extension of loans. Van Buren sought to fully divorce the federal government from banking operations by establishing the Independent Treasury system, essentially a series of vaults, to hold government funds. The Independent Treasury took its name from its supposed independence from banks and British creditors, as British creditors had made large investments in the Second Bank of the United

Indian removal.

Federal policy under Jackson had sought, through the Indian Removal Act of 1830, to move all indigenous peoples to lands west of the Mississippi River. Continuing this policy, the federal government negotiated 19 treaties with Indian nations in the course of Van Buren's presidency. By the time Van Buren took office, the Muscogee, Chickasaw, and Choctaw had been removed to lands west of the Mississippi River, but a large number of Cherokee were still in Georgia and the Seminole remained in Florida. An 1835 treaty signed by U.S. government officials and representatives of the Cherokee Nation had established terms under which the entire nation

Slavery.

Slavery policy.

The abolitionist movement had gained in popularity during the 1830s, and the activism of abolitionist groups like the American Anti-Slavery Society prompted denunciations from Southern leaders like John C. Calhoun. Van Buren viewed abolitionism as the greatest threat to the nation's unity. He opposed any attempt on the part of Congress to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia against the wishes of the slave-holding states, and to resist the slightest interference with it in the states where it existed. Reflecting the increasing importance of slavery as a topic of national debate, Van Buren was the first president to make use of the word "slavery" in an inaugural address, and his stances

Amistad case.

Like the British and Americans, the Spanish had outlawed the importation of slaves from Africa, but high slave mortality rates encouraged smugglers to smuggle captured slaves from Africa into Spanish colony of Cuba. In June 1839, several recently-kidnapped Africans took control of "La Amistad," a slave ship headed to Cuba. The Africans attempted to sail home, but were tricked by one of the crew members into heading towards the United States, where the Africans were apprehended and brought before the federal court of Judge Andrew T. Judson. The Spanish government demanded that the ship and its cargo (including the Africans) be turned over to them. The Van Buren administration, hoping to

Mormons.

In 1839, Joseph Smith, Jr., the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, visited Van Buren to plead for the U.S. to help the roughly 20,000 Mormon settlers of Independence, Missouri, who had been forced from the state during the 1838 Mormon War. The Governor of Missouri, Lilburn Boggs, had issued an executive order on

Foreign affairs.

Texas.

The Republic of Texas had gained de facto independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution, and Texans had subsequently voted overwhelmingly in favor of annexation by the United States. Just before leaving office in March 1837, Andrew Jackson had extended diplomatic recognition to the Republic of Texas, and the possibility of annexation heightened sectional tensions at home while also presenting the possibility of war with Mexico. New England abolitionists charged that there was a "slaveholding conspiracy to acquire Texas", and Daniel Webster eloquently denounced annexation. Many Southern leaders, meanwhile, strongly desired the expansion of slave-holding

Relations with Britain.

Canadian rebellions.

British subjects in Lower Canada and Upper Canada rose in rebellion in 1837 and 1838, protesting their lack of responsible government. While the initial insurrection in Upper Canada ended with the December 1837 Battle of Montgomery's Tavern, many of the rebels fled across the Niagara River into New York, and Canadian leader William Lyon Mackenzie began recruiting volunteers in Buffalo. Mackenzie declared the establishment of the Republic of Canada and put into motion a plan whereby volunteers would invade Upper Canada from Navy Island on the Canadian side of the Niagara River. Several hundred volunteers traveled to Navy Island in the weeks that followed, procuring the steamboat "Caroline" to deliver supplies to Navy Island. Seeking to deter an imminent invasion, British forces crossed to the American bank of the river in late December 1837, and they burned and sank the "Caroline". In the melee, one American was killed and others were wounded. Considerable sentiment arose within the United States to

Aroostook conflict.

A new crisis between Britain and the United States surfaced in late 1838 in disputed territory on the Maine–New Brunswick frontier. Jackson had been willing to drop American claims to the region in return for other concessions, but Maine was unwilling to drop its claims to the disputed territory. For their part, the British considered possession of the area vital to the defense of Canada. Both American and New Brunswick lumberjacks cut timber in the disputed territory during the winter of 1838–39. On December 29, New Brunswick lumbermen were spotted cutting down trees on an American estate near the Aroostook River. After American woodcutters rushed to stand guard, a shouting match, known as the Battle of Caribou, ensued. Tensions quickly boiled over into a near war with both Maine and New Brunswick arresting

Presidential election of 1840.

Van Buren paid close attention to party organization, and support for the communication media such as newspapers and magazines. They receive subsidies in the form of government printing contracts. At an intellectual level, his administration was strongly supported by the monthly "The United States Magazine and Democratic Review", based in Washington and edited by John L. O'Sullivan. IIts editorials and articles provided the arguments that partisan needed to discuss Democratic Party positions on the Mexican War, slavery, states' rights, and Indian removal.  Though he faced no serious opposition for the presidential nomination at the 1840 Democratic National Convention, Van Buren and his party faced a difficult election in 1840. Van Buren's term had been a difficult affair, with the U.S. economy mired in a severe downturn, and other divisive issues, such as slavery, western expansion, and tensions with Great Britain provided numerous for opportunities for Van Buren's political opponents to criticize his actions. Although Van Buren's renomination was never in doubt, Democratic strategists began to question the wisdom of keeping Johnson on the ticket. Even former president Jackson conceded that Johnson was a liability and insisted on former House Speaker James K. Polk of Tennessee as Van Buren's new running mate. Van Buren was reluctant to drop Johnson, who was popular with workers and radicals in the North and added military experience to the ticket, which might prove important if the Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison. Rather than re-nominating Johnson, the Democratic convention decided to allow state Democratic Party leaders to select the vice-presidential candidates for their states. The convention drafted the first party platform in U.S. history, fully endorsing Van Buren's views on economic policy and other matters.

Historical reputation.

According to historian Robert Remini:  Van Buren's presidency is considered average, at best, by historians. His time in office was dominated by the economic disaster of the Panic of 1837, and historians have split on the adequacy of the Independent Treasury as a response to that issue. Van Buren's most lasting achievement was as a political organizer who built the Democratic Party and guided it to dominance in the Second Party System, and historians have come to regard Van Buren as integral to the development of the American political system.  A 2017 C-SPAN survey has Martin Van Buren ranked among the bottom third of presidents of all-time, right below George W. Bush and above Chester A. Arthur. The survey asked 91 presidential historians to rank the 43 former presidents (including then-out-going president Barack Obama) in various categories to come up with a composite score, resulting in an overall ranking. Van Buren was ranked 34th among all former presidents (down from 31st in 2009, and 30th in 2000). His rankings in the various categories of this most recent poll were as follows: public persuasion (30), crisis leadership (35), economic management (40), moral authority (33), international relations (26), administrative skills (26), relations with congress (28), vision/setting an agenda (33), pursued equal justice for all (30), performance with context of times (33). A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Van Buren as the 27th best president.  Several writers have portrayed Van Buren as among the nation's most obscure presidents. As noted in a 2014 Time Magazine article on the "Top 10 Forgettable Presidents":

The presidency of Martin Van Buren began on March 4, 1837, when Martin Van Buren was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on March 4, 1841. Van Buren, the incumbent Vice President and chosen successor of President Andrew Jackson, took office as the eighth United States president after defeating multiple Whig Party candidates in the 1836 presidential election. A member of the Democratic Party, Van Buren's presidency ended following his defeat by Whig candidate William Henry Harrison in the 1840 presidential election.

La présidence de Martin Van Buren débuta le, date de l'investiture de Martin Van Buren en tant que président des États-Unis, et prit fin le. Membre du Parti démocrate et vice-président d'Andrew Jackson, Van Buren entra en fonction après avoir remporté l'élection présidentielle de 1836 face au général William Henry Harrison, candidat du Parti whig. Il fut candidat pour un second mandat à l'élection présidentielle de 1840 mais fut battu cette fois par Harrison.


History.

Jasper was founded in 1818. The Enlow family were the first settlers of the town. Jasper was originally going to be called Eleanor, the wife of settler Joseph Enlow, but she opted to suggest a name herself, and named the city after a passage in the Bible (Revelation 21:19).  Jasper was not officially platted until 1830. That year, the community became the new county seat of Dubois County, succeeding Portersville.  The Jasper post office has been in operation since 1832. During the New Deal era, Jessie Hull Mayer won a federal commission to paint a mural as part of the Section of Painting and Sculpture′s projects, later called the Section of Fine Arts, of the Treasury Department. "Indiana Farming Scene in Late Autumn" depicts a harvest scene on a farmstead, with no indication of the town. In 1975, the painting was featured as part of a film, "Art for Main Street: The Indiana Post Office Murals", produced by the Indiana Historical Society.  Jasper was incorporated as a town in 1866, and was incorporated into a city in 1915.

Economy.

The largest industry sectors by employment in Jasper are manufacturing, retail, and health care & social services.

Top employers.

According to the Jasper Chamber of Commerce

Geography.

Jasper is located at (38.391439, -86.930772), and is roughly:  According to the 2010 census, Jasper has a total area of, of which (or 99.31%) is land and (or 0.69%) is water. The city is mainly in Bainbridge Township, although city limits also extend into Madison and Boone Townships.

Demographics.

Jasper is the principal city of the Jasper Micropolitan Statistical Area, a micropolitan area that covers Dubois and Pike counties and had a combined population of 54,734 at the 2010 census.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, the population of Jasper was 15,038 and there were 5,994 households. The gender makeup of the city is 49.2% male and 50.8% female.

Ethnicities.

The racial makeup of the city was:

Age.

Of the total Jasper population:

Sister city.

Jasper participates in the sister cities program, as designated by Sister Cities International, Inc. (SCI).

Arts and culture.

The Jasper Strassenfest is a four-day event held annually during the first weekend in August. The "Fest" is a celebration between Jasper and its German sister-city Pfaffenweiler, a small village in southwest Germany. Many citizens of Pfaffenweiler travel to Jasper around this time of year. The street festival encompasses the entire city square, complete with numerous food stands, rides, and a very large Biergarten. On average, over 1,300 pounds of bratwurst are consumed during the four-day event. The Strassenfest culminates in a Sunday parade and evening fireworks. The festival also incorporates a golf tournament, beauty pageant (Miss Strassenfest), box parade, fishing tournament, and a network of German "Polka Masses" at the three Roman Catholic parishes: St. Joseph's, Holy Family, and Precious Blood.  The fictional town of Orson, Indiana, from the TV series The Middle is based on Jasper.

Media.

Newspapers.

Jasper has had several newspapers during its history.  Other newspapers published in Jasper included the "Democrat" (1857), the "Times" (1865), and another "Times" (1879–1891).

Radio.

The following stations are licensed in the city of Jasper

National Register of Historic Places.

Jasper is home to 5 of 12 locations or buildings in Dubois County listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Education.

In 1970, the school system of Ireland, an unincorporated town west of Jasper along State Route 56, was consolidated into that of Jasper.  The city has a free lending library, the Jasper-Dubois County Public Library.

Jasper is a city in, and the county seat of Dubois County, Indiana, United States, located along the Patoka River. The population was 15,038 at the 2010 census making it the 48th largest city in Indiana. On November 4, 2007, Dubois County returned to the Eastern Time Zone, after having moved to the Central Time Zone the previous year. Land use in the area is primarily agricultural.

La ville de Jasper est le siège du comté de Dubois, situé dans l’État de l’Indiana, aux États-Unis. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


Rills created by erosion.

Rills are narrow and shallow channels which are eroded into unprotected soil by hillslope runoff. Since soil is regularly left bare during agricultural operations, rills may form on farmland during these vulnerable periods. Rills may also form when bare soil is left exposed following deforestation, or during construction activities.  Rills are fairly easily visible when first incised, so they are often the first indication of an ongoing erosion problem. Unless soil conservation measures are put into place, rills on regularly eroding areas may eventually develop into larger erosional features such as gullies or even (in semi-arid regions) into badlands.

Rill initiation.

Rills are created when water erodes the topsoil on hillsides, and so are significantly affected by seasonal weather patterns. They tend to appear more often in rainier months. Rills begin to form when the runoff shear stress, the ability of surface runoff to detach soil particles, overcomes the soil’s shear strength, the ability of soil to resist force working parallel to the soil’s surface. This begins the erosion process as water breaks soil particles free and carries them down the slope. These forces explain why sandy, loamy soils are especially susceptible to the formation of rills, whereas dense clays tend to resist rill formation.  Rills cannot form on every surface, and their formation is intrinsically connected to the steepness of the hillside slope. Gravity determines the force of the water, which provides the power required to start the erosional environment necessary to create rills. Therefore, the formation of rills is primarily controlled by the slope of the hillside. Slope controls the depth of the rills, while the length of the slope and the soil’s permeability control the number of incisions in an area. Each type of soil has a threshold value, a slope angle below which water velocity cannot produce sufficient force to dislodge enough soil particles for rills to form. For instance, on many non-cohesive slopes, this threshold value hovers around an angle of 2 degrees with a shear velocity between 3 and 3.5 cm/s.  After rills begin forming, they are subjected to variety of other erosional forces which may increase their size and output volume. Up to 37% of erosion in a rill-ridden area may derive from mass movement, or collapse, of rill sidewalls. As water flows through a rill, it will undercut into the walls, triggering collapse. Also, as water seeps into the soil of the walls, they weaken, amplifying the chance of wall collapse. The erosion created by these forces increases the size of the rill while also swelling its output volume.  Less commonly, dissolution of limestone and other soluble rocks by slightly acidic rainfall and runoff also results in the formation of rill-like features on the surface of the rock.

Significance of rill erosion.

Although rills are small, they transport significant amounts of soil each year. Some estimates claim rill flow has a carrying capacity of nearly ten times that of non-rill, or interrill, areas. In a moderate rainfall, rill flow can carry rock fragments up to 9 cm in diameter downslope. In 1987, scientist J. Poesen conducted an experiment on the Huldenberg field in Belgium which revealed that during a moderate rainfall, rill erosion removed as much as 200 kg (in submerged weight) of rock.  Unfortunately, the considerable effect rills have on landscapes often negatively impact human activity. Rills have been observed washing away archaeological sites. They are also very common in agricultural areas because sustained agriculture depletes the soil of much of its organic content, increasing the erodibility of the soil. Agricultural machines, such as tractors, compact the soil to the point where water flows over the surface rather than seeping into the soil. Tractor wheel impressions often channel water, providing a perfect environment for the generation of rills. If left alone, these rills may erode considerable amounts of arable soil.  Under proper field management rills are small and are easily repaired by contour tilling the soil. This will prevent, for a time at least, the rills from growing and eroding the landscape more rapidly with time.

In hillslope geomorphology, a rill is a shallow channel (no more than a few tens of centimetres deep) cut into soil by the erosive action of flowing water. Similar but smaller incised channels are known as microrills; larger incised channels are known as gullies.

Un rill est une incision étroite et superficielle du sol qui est provoquée par l'érosion consécutive au ruissellement concentrée sur une petite portion de terrain, notamment sur un talus ou un glacis. Ce phénomène est commun sur les terrains cultivées ou sans végétation, en pente assez forte (sur pente plus faible s'esquisse plus souvent une organisation en badlands. Elles ne peuvent prendre une grande extension que si les précipitations dépassent 500 mm par an, et à condition que la roche tendre ne présente qu'un pourcentage réduit de bancs durs contre lesquels l'érosion régressive viendrait buter.


History.

The town was founded in 1860 as "Kent", though this name was soon lengthened to Kentland. The name honors Alexander J. Kent, who acquired the then marshy plat and prepared it for development. The town is the county seat of Newton County.  Kentland is the birthplace of famous turn-of-the-century humorist George Ade, author of such plays as "The College Widow", "Artie", and "The Sultan of Sulu". Purdue University's Ross–Ade Stadium, home of the Boilermakers football team, is named for him and fellow Purdue benefactor David Ross. Disgraced Indiana governor Warren McCray, convicted of mail fraud and forced to resign in 1924, also hailed from Kentland.  The Newton County Courthouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008.

Geography.

According to the 2010 census, Kentland has a total area of, all land.  The Kentland crater, a probable meteorite impact crater, is located between Kentland and Goodland.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 1,748 people, 695 households, and 450 families living in the town. The population density was. There were 782 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the town was 94.2% White, 0.8% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 2.6% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.0% of the population.  There were 695 households of which 30.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.9% were married couples living together, 11.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.3% were non-families. 30.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.02.  The median age in the town was 40.9 years. 24.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.4% were from 25 to 44; 30.3% were from 45 to 64; and 15.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 1,822 people, 733 households, and 477 families living in the town. The population density was 1,250.5 people per square mile (481.8/km2). There were 793 housing units at an average density of 544.3 per square mile (209.7/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.30% White, 0.11% African American, 0.27% Asian, 0.82% from other races, and 0.49% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.96% of the population.  There were 733 households out of which 29.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.3% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.9% were non-families. 30.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.03.  In the town, the population was spread out with 24.7% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 27.2% from 25 to 44, 22.1% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 96.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.3 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $34,732, and the median income for a family was $45,043. Males had a median income of $32,734 versus $20,714 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,797. About 4.7% of families and 7.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.6% of those under age 18 and 13.8% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

The town has a lending library, the Kentland-Jefferson Township Public Library.

Kentland is a town in Jefferson Township, Newton County, in the U.S. state of Indiana. The population was 1,748 at the 2010 census.

La ville de Kentland est le siège du comté de Newton, situé dans l’Indiana, aux États-Unis. Elle a donné son nom au cratère de Kentland situé à proximité.


History.

Spencer was platted in 1820, and named for Captain Spier Spencer, who fell at the Battle of Tippecanoe, after whom Spencer County is also named. A post office has been in operation at Spencer since 1821.  The Allison-Robinson House, David Enoch Beem House, Owen County Courthouse, Spencer Public Library, and Spencer Town Hall and Fire Station are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.  Downtown events include Christmas at the Square, Spencer Pride Festival, and the Rev20 Christian Music Festival.

Geography.

According to the 2010 census, Spencer has a total area of, all land.

Climate.

The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Spencer has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 2,217 people, 1,008 households, and 554 families living in the town. The population density was. There were 1,123 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the town was 98.1% White, 0.1% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.2% from other races, and 0.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.1% of the population.  There were 1,008 households of which 24.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.4% were married couples living together, 12.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 45.0% were non-families. 40.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.81.  The median age in the town was 41.8 years. 20.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.2% were from 25 to 44; 26.3% were from 45 to 64; and 19.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 47.2% male and 52.8% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,508 people, 1,090 households, and 659 families living in the town. The population density was 1,984.6 people per square mile (768.5/km2). There were 1,193 housing units at an average density of 944.0 per square mile (365.6/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.52% White, 0.20% African American, 0.40% Asian, 0.24% from other races, and 0.64% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.60% of the population.  There were 1,090 households out of which 27.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.1% were married couples living together, 12.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% were non-families. 35.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.88.  In the town, the population was spread out with 23.0% under the age of 18, 10.1% from 18 to 24, 26.7% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 20.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 83.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.9 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $28,664, and the median income for a family was $36,921. Males had a median income of $29,679 versus $21,531 for females. The per capita income for the town was $15,843. About 8.4% of families and 9.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.2% of those under age 18 and 8.8% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Owen Valley Community High School (OVHS) is located in Spencer with 980 students and more than 100 faculty members. Built in 1971, OVHS is the result of a consolidation of several smaller schools located within Owen County. Owen Valley's mascot is the Patriot, and the school's colors are red, white and blue. The school's yearbook is the "Triad", Tri- representing the three schools that were merged to create Owen Valley High School.  The town has a lending library, the Owen County Public Library.

Notable people.

Artie Tarleton Belles (1856–1937) Mother of Harold MacMillan, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1963

Spencer is a town in Washington Township, Owen County, in the U.S. state of Indiana. The population was 2,217 at the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Owen County.

La ville de Spencer est le siège du comté d'Owen, situé dans l'Indiana, aux États-Unis. Sa population était de lors du recensement de 2010.


History.

Petersburg was laid out in 1817. The city was named for Peter Brenton, an original owner of the town site. A post office has been in operation at Petersburg since 1823.

Geography.

Petersburg is located at (38.491653, -87.280372).  According to the 2010 census, Petersburg has a total area of, of which (or 99.73%) is land and (or 0.27%) is water. The lower portion of the White River runs through the city.

Climate.

The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Petersburg has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As the 2010 census, there were 2,383 people, 1,025 households and 592 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 1,134 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 97.7% White, 0.5% African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.2% from other races, and 0.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.9% of the population.  There were 1,025 households of which 25.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.5% were married couples living together, 10.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 42.2% were non-families. 37.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the average family size was 2.89.  The median age was 43.8 years. 20% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.9% were from 25 to 44; 27.6% were from 45 to 64; and 21.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup was 48.6% male and 51.4% female.

2000 census.

At the 2000 census, there were 2,570 people, 1,092 households and 670 families living in the city. The population density was 1,755.3 per square mile (679.6/km2). There were 1,228 housing units at an average density of 838.7 per square mile (324.7/km2). The racial makeup was 99.07% White, 0.19% African American, 0.04% Native American, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.08% from other races, and 0.58% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.39% of the population.  There were 1,092 households of which 24.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.1% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.6% were non-families. 35.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.88.  21.6% of the population were under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 26.7% from 25 to 44, 23.4% from 45 to 64, and 20.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.4 males.  The median household income was $27,054 and the median family income was $37,460. Males had a median income of $31,510 and females $21,042. The per capita income was $15,158. About 6.7% of families and 11.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.9% of those under age 18 and 16.7% of those age 65 or over.

Industry.

One coal-fired power-plant: Indianapolis Power & Light (IPL)'s Petersburg Generating Station, is within two miles of Petersburg. There are also at least two coal mines within ten miles of Petersburg. Hoosier Energy's Frank E. Ratts Generating Station was torn down during late 2016 and early 2017 and the site has been graded and seeded.

Education.

Petersburg has a public library, a branch of the Pike County Public Library.

Petersburg is a city in Washington Township, Pike County, in the U.S. state of Indiana. The population was 2,383 at the 2010 census. The city is the county seat of Pike County.

La ville de Petersburg est le siège du comté de Pike, situé dans l’État de l’Indiana, aux États-Unis. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.