Historical views.

Sanskrit literature identifies ten types of leaders. Defining characteristics of the ten types of leaders are explained with examples from history and mythology.  In the field of political leadership, the Chinese doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven postulated the need for rulers to govern justly and the right of subordinates to overthrow emperors who appeared to lack divine sanction.  Pro-aristocracy thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's "blue blood" or genes. Monarchy takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction (see the divine right of kings). On the other hand, more democratically inclined theorists have pointed to examples of meritocratic leaders, such as the Napoleonic marshals profiting from careers open to talent.  In the autocratic/paternalistic strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman "pater familias". Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may object to such models as patriarchal and posit against them emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with matriarchies.  Comparable to the Roman

Theories.

Early western history.

The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from Plato's "Republic" to Plutarch's "Lives" have explored the question "What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the "trait theory of leadership".  A number of works in the 19th century – when the traditional authority of monarchs, lords and bishops had begun to wane – explored the trait theory at length: note especially the writings of Thomas Carlyle and of Francis Galton, whose

Rise of alternative theories.

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a series of qualitative reviews of these studies (e.g., Bird, 1940; Stogdill, 1948; Mann, 1959) prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies,

Reemergence of trait theory.

New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements in researchers' use of the round robin research design methodology allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks. Additionally, during the

Attribute pattern approach.

Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers have begun to adopt a different perspective of leader individual differences—the leader attribute pattern approach. In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader attribute pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the

Behavioral and style theories.

In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors, evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles. David McClelland, for example, posited that leadership takes a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential. Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of group decision making, praise and criticism (feedback), and the management of the group tasks (project management) according to three styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.  In 1945, Ohio State University conducted a study which investigated

Positive reinforcement.

B. F. Skinner is the father of behavior modification and developed the concept of positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future. The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a business setting. Assume praise is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day. The manager of this employee decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day

Situational and contingency theories.

Situational theory also appeared as a reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) (and Karl Marx) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around. This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics; according to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which

Functional theory.

Functional leadership theory (Hackman & Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962; Adair, 1988; Kouzes & Posner, 1995) is a particularly useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviors expected to contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion (Fleishman et al., 1991; Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Hackman & Walton, 1986). While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001), it has also been effectively applied

Integrated psychological theory.

The Integrated Psychological theory of leadership is an attempt to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, introducing a new element – the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the philosophies of servant leadership and authentic leadership.  Integrated Psychological theory began to attract attention after the publication of James Scouller's Three Levels of Leadership model (2011). Scouller argued that the older theories offer only limited assistance in developing

Transactional and transformational theories.

Bernard Bass and colleagues developed the idea of two different types of leadership, transactional that involves exchange of labor for rewards and transformational which is based on concern for employees, intellectual stimulation, and providing a group vision.  The transactional leader (Burns, 1978) is given power

Leader–member exchange theory.

This LMX theory addresses a specific aspect of the leadership process is the leader–member exchange (LMX) theory, which evolved from an earlier theory called the vertical dyad linkage (VDL) model. Both of these models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to the transactional approach, this interaction is viewed as a fair exchange whereby the leader provides certain benefits such as task guidance, advice, support, and/or significant rewards and the followers reciprocate by giving the leader respect, cooperation, commitment to the task and good performance. However, LMX recognizes that leaders and individual followers will vary in the type of exchange that develops between them. LMX theorizes that the type of exchanges between the leader and specific followers can lead to the creation of "in-groups" and "out-groups". In-group members are said to have "high-quality exchanges" with the leader, while out-group members have "low-quality exchanges" with the leader.

In-group members.

In-group members are perceived by the leader as being more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility than other followers. The leader begins to rely on these individuals to help with especially challenging tasks. If the follower responds well, the leader rewards him/her with extra coaching,

Out-group members.

Out-group members often receive less time and more distant exchanges than their in-group counterparts. With out-group members, leaders expect no more than adequate job performance, good attendance, reasonable respect, and adherence to the job description in exchange for a fair wage and standard benefits. The leader spends less time with out-group members, they have fewer developmental experiences, and the leader tends to emphasize his/her formal authority to obtain compliance to leader requests. Research shows that out-group members are less satisfied with their job and organization, receive lower performance evaluations from the leader, see their leader as less fair, and are more likely to file grievances or leave the organization.

Emotions.

Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process. In an organization, the leader's mood has some effects on his/her group. These effects can be described in three levels: In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the leader improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings.

Neo-emergent theory.

The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford Strategic Leadership Programme) sees leadership as an impression formed through the communication of information by the leader or by other stakeholders, not through the true actions of the leader himself. In other words, the reproduction of information or stories form the basis of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known that the naval hero Lord Nelson often wrote his own versions of

Constructivist analysis.

Some constructivists question whether leadership exists, or suggest

Leadership emergence.

Many personality characteristics were found to be reliably associated with leadership emergence. The list includes, but is not limited to (following list organized in alphabetical order): assertiveness, authenticity, Big Five personality factors, birth order, character strengths, dominance, emotional intelligence, gender identity, intelligence, narcissism, self-efficacy for leadership, self-monitoring and social motivation. Leadership emergence is the idea that people born with specific characteristics become leaders, and those without these characteristics do not become leaders. People like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, and Nelson Mandela all share traits that an average person does not. This includes people who choose to participate in leadership roles, as opposed to those who do not. Research indicates that up to 30% of leader emergence has a genetic basis. There is no current research indicating that there is a “leadership gene”, instead we inherit certain traits that might influence our decision to seek leadership. Both anecdotal, and empirical evidence support a stable relationship between specific traits and leadership behavior. Using a large international sample researchers found that there are three factors that motivate leaders; affective identity (enjoyment of leading), non-calculative (leading earns reinforcement), and social-normative (sense of obligation).

Assertiveness.

The relationship between assertiveness and leadership emergence is curvilinear; individuals who are

Authenticity.

Individuals who are more aware of their personality qualities, including their values and beliefs, and are less biased when processing self-relevant information, are more

Big Five personality factors.

Those who emerge as leaders tend to be more (order in strength of relationship with leadership emergence): extroverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, and open

Birth order.

Those born first in their families and only children are hypothesized to be more driven to

Character strengths.

Those seeking leadership positions in a military organization had elevated scores

Dominance.

Individuals with dominant personalities – they describe themselves as high in the desire to control their environment

Emotional intelligence.

Individuals with high emotional intelligence have increased ability to understand and relate to people. They have skills in communicating and decoding emotions and they deal with others wisely and effectively. Such

Intelligence.

Individuals with higher intelligence exhibit superior judgement, higher verbal skills (both written and oral), quicker learning and acquisition of knowledge, and are more likely to emerge as leaders. Correlation between IQ

Narcissism.

Individuals who take on leadership roles in turbulent situations, such as groups facing a threat or

Self-efficacy for leadership.

Confidence in one's ability to lead is associated with

Self-monitoring.

High self-monitors are more likely to emerge as the leader of a group than are low

Social motivation.

Individuals who are both success-oriented and affiliation-oriented, as assessed by projective measures, are

Leadership styles.

A leadership style is a leader's style of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader. Rhetoric specialists have also developed models for understanding leadership (Robert Hariman, "Political Style", Philippe-Joseph Salazar, "L'Hyperpolitique. Technologies politiques De La Domination").  Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or Laissez-faire style may be more effective. The style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members. A field in which leadership style has gained strong attention is that of military science, recently expressing a holistic and integrated view of leadership, including how a leader's physical presence determines how others perceive that leader. The factors of physical presence are military bearing, physical fitness, confidence, and resilience. The leader's intellectual capacity helps to conceptualize solutions and acquire knowledge to do the job. A leader's conceptual abilities apply agility, judgment, innovation, interpersonal tact, and domain knowledge. Domain knowledge for leaders encompasses tactical and technical knowledge as well as cultural and geopolitical awareness.

Autocratic or authoritarian.

Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictators.  Autocratic leaders do not ask or entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. The

Participative or democratic.

The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making abilities with group

Laissez-faire or Free-rein.

In Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership, decision-making is passed on to the sub-ordinates. The

Task-oriented and relationship-oriented.

Task-oriented leadership is a style in which the leader is focused on the tasks that need to be performed in order to meet a certain production goal. Task-oriented leaders are generally more concerned with producing a step-by-step solution for given problem or goal, strictly making sure these deadlines are met, results and reaching target outcomes.  Relationship-oriented leadership is a contrasting style in which the leader is more focused on the relationships amongst the group and is generally more concerned with the overall well-being and satisfaction of group

Paternalism.

Paternalism leadership styles often reflect a father-figure mindset. The structure of team is organized hierarchically where the leader is viewed above the followers. The leader also provides both professional and personal direction in the lives of the

Leadership differences affected by gender.

Another factor that covaries with leadership style is whether the person is male or female. When men and women come together in groups, they tend to adopt different leadership styles. Men generally assume an :agentic leadership style. They are task-oriented, active, decision focused, independent and goal oriented. Women, on the other hand, are generally more communal when they assume a leadership position; they strive to be helpful towards others, warm in relation to others, understanding, and mindful of others' feelings. In general, when women are asked to describe themselves to others in newly formed groups, they emphasize their open, fair, responsible, and pleasant communal qualities. They give advice, offer assurances, and manage conflicts in an attempt to maintain positive relationships among group members. Women connect more positively to group members by smiling, maintaining eye contact and respond tactfully to others' comments. Men, conversely, describe themselves as influential, powerful and proficient at the task that needs to be done. They tend to place more focus on initiating structure within the group, setting standards and objectives, identifying roles, defining responsibilities and standard operating procedures, proposing solutions to problems, monitoring compliance with procedures, and finally, emphasizing the need for productivity and efficiency in the work that needs to be done. As leaders, men are primarily task-oriented, but women tend to be both task- and relationship-oriented. However, it is important to note that these sex differences are only tendencies, and do not manifest themselves within men and women across all groups and situations. Meta-analyses show that people associate masculinity and agency more strongly with leadership than femininity and communion. Such stereotypes may have an effect on leadership evaluations of men and women.

Barriers for non-western female leaders.

Many reasons can contribute to the barriers that specifically affect women's entrance into leadership. These barriers also change according to different cultures. Despite the increasing number of female leaders in the world, only a small fraction come from non-westernized cultures. It is important to note that although the barriers listed below may be more severe in non-western culture, it does not imply that westernized cultures do not have these barriers as well. This aims to compare the differences between the two.  Research and Literature Although there have been many studies done on leadership for women in the past decade, very little research has been done for women in paternalistic cultures. The literature and research done for women to emerge into a society that prefers males is lacking. This ultimately hinders women from knowing how to reach their individual leadership goals, and fails to educate the male counterparts in this disparity.  Maternity Leave Studies

Performance.

In the past, some researchers have argued that the actual influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders (Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987). Despite these assertions, however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes (Day & Lord, 1988; Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008). To facilitate successful performance it is important to understand and accurately measure leadership performance.  Job performance generally refers to behavior that is expected to contribute to organizational success (Campbell, 1990). Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of the dimensions that he identified. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance (Yukl, 2006). Many distinct conceptualizations

Traits.

Most theories in the 20th century argued that great leaders were born, not made. Current studies have indicated that leadership is much more complex and cannot be boiled down to a few key traits of an individual. Years of observation and study have indicated that one such trait or a set of traits does not make an extraordinary leader. What scholars have been able to arrive at is that leadership traits of an individual do not change from situation to situation; such traits include intelligence, assertiveness, or physical attractiveness. However, each key trait may be applied to situations differently, depending on the circumstances. The following summarizes the main leadership traits found in research by Jon P. Howell, business professor at New Mexico State University and author of the book "Snapshots of Great Leadership".  Determination and drive include traits such as initiative, energy, assertiveness, perseverance and sometimes dominance. People with these traits often tend to wholeheartedly pursue their goals, work long hours, are ambitious, and often are very competitive with others. Cognitive capacity includes intelligence, analytical and verbal

Ontological-phenomenological model.

One of the more recent definitions of leadership comes from Werner Erhard, Michael C. Jensen, Steve Zaffron, and Kari Granger who describe leadership as "an exercise in language that results in the realization of a future that wasn't going to happen anyway, which future fulfills (or contributes to fulfilling) the concerns of the relevant parties...". This definition ensures

Contexts.

Organizations.

An organization that is established as an instrument or means for achieving defined objectives has been referred to as a "formal organization". Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work structure. Thus, the formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's model, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Employees receive a salary and enjoy a degree of tenure that safeguards them from the arbitrary influence of superiors

Management.

Over the years the terms "management" and "leadership" have, in the organizational context, been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings. Debate is fairly common about

Group.

In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this so-called shared leadership, more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. It is furthermore characterized by shared responsibility, cooperation and mutual influence among team members. Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costing too much in team performance. In some

Self-leadership.

Self-leadership is a process that occurs within an individual, rather than an external act. It is an expression of who we are as people. Self-leadership is having a developed sense of

Biology and evolution of leadership.

Mark van Vugt and Anjana Ahuja in "Naturally Selected: The Evolutionary Science of Leadership" (2011) present cases of leadership in non-human animals, from ants and bees to baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans appear in other social species, too. They also suggest that the evolutionary origins of leadership differ from those of dominance. In a study, Mark van Vugt and his team looked at the relation between basal testosterone and leadership versus dominance. They found that testosterone correlates with dominance but not with leadership. This was replicated in a sample of managers in which there was no relation between hierarchical position and testosterone level. Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson, in "" (1996), present evidence that

Myths.

Leadership, although largely talked about, has been described as one of the least understood concepts across all cultures and civilizations. Over the years, many researchers have stressed the prevalence of this misunderstanding, stating that the existence of several flawed assumptions, or myths, concerning leadership often interferes with individuals' conception of what leadership is all about (Gardner, 1965; Bennis, 1975).

Leadership is innate.

According to some, leadership is determined by distinctive dispositional characteristics present at birth (e.g., extraversion; intelligence; ingenuity). However, according to Forsyth (2009)

Leadership is possessing power over others.

Although leadership is certainly a form of power, it is not demarcated by power "over" people – rather, it is a power "with" people that exists as a reciprocal relationship between a leader and

Leaders are positively influential.

The validity of the assertion that groups flourish when guided by effective leaders can be illustrated using several examples. For instance, according to Baumeister et al. (1988), the bystander effect (failure to respond or offer assistance) that tends to develop within groups faced with an emergency is significantly reduced in groups guided by a

Leaders entirely control group outcomes.

In Western cultures it is generally assumed that group leaders make "all" the difference when it comes to group influence and overall goal-attainment. Although common, this romanticized view of leadership (i.e., the tendency to overestimate the degree of control leaders have over their groups and

All groups have a designated leader.

Despite preconceived notions, not all groups need have a designated leader. Groups that are primarily composed of women, are limited in size, are free from stressful decision-making,

Group members resist leaders.

Although research has indicated that group members' dependence on group leaders can lead to reduced self-reliance and overall group strength, most people actually prefer to be led than to be without a leader (Berkowitz, 1953). This "need for a leader" becomes especially strong

Action-oriented environments.

In most cases, these teams are tasked to operate in remote and changeable environments with limited support or backup (action environments). Leadership of people in these environments requires a different set of skills to that of front line management. These leaders must effectively operate remotely and negotiate the needs of the individual, team, and task within a changeable environment. This has been termed action oriented leadership. Some examples of demonstrations of action oriented leadership include extinguishing a rural fire, locating a missing person, leading a

Critical thought.

Carlyle's 1840 "Great Man theory", which emphasized the role of leading individuals, met opposition in the 19th and 20th centuries.  Karl Popper noted in 1945 that leaders can mislead and make mistakes - he warns against deferring to "great men".  Noam Chomsky and others have subjected the concept of leadership to critical thinking and have provided an analysis that asserts that people abrogate their responsibility to think and will actions for themselves. While the conventional view of leadership may satisfy people who "want to be told

References.

Notes Books  Journal articles

Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill encompassing the ability of an individual or organization to "lead" or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. Specialist literature debates various viewpoints, contrasting Eastern and Western approaches to leadership, and also (within the West) United States versus European approaches. U.S. academic environments define leadership as "a process of social influence in which a person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task".

Le leadership est l' politique, psychologique, sociale, etc. d'un individu ou d'un groupe d'individus sur un groupe ou un autre groupe. Le leader a des compétences personnelles qui lui confèrent une différence et qui lui permettent d'être écouté et suivi par un groupe de personnes.


Title.

Creator Scott Peters has stated that the series was originally titled "A Light in the Sky", but looking for something unique he decided to "play around with numbers" instead and arrived at "4400" because it "just sounded cool" and "was a very round number with two 4s and two 0s".

Synopsis.

The National Threat Assessment Command (NTAC), a division of the Department of Homeland Security, is in charge of dealing with the return of the 4400. Dennis Ryland is the head of NTAC. Ryland assigns Tom Baldwin and Diana Skouris as the lead team to investigate the 4400. In season 2, Ryland goes to Washington and is replaced by Nina Jarvis. In Season 4 Meghan Doyle takes over as the head of NTAC.  Many of the returnees have trouble getting their lives back on track after being gone from the world for years. More significantly, a small number of the returnees begin to manifest paranormal abilities, such as telekinesis, telepathy and precognition, as well as other "gifts". For example, in the pilot, Shawn Farrell manifests an ability to heal the broken neck of a dead bird, bringing it back to life. In addition, one of the 4400, Lily Moore, has become pregnant between her disappearance and return.  The first-season finale, "White Light", reveals that the 4400 were abducted not by aliens, but by humans from the Earth's future, that Kyle Baldwin was to be their "messenger", and that they were returned to avert a catastrophe.  By the second season, it is revealed that all 4400 have a fictional neurotransmitter, promicin, in their brains, which gives them their powers. The government, afraid of what this large group would do with such power, had secretly been dosing all of the 4400 with a promicin inhibitor, which had worked on most, but not all, of the 4400. One of the inhibitor's side effects is a potentially fatal immune deficiency. The inhibitor is ultimately removed from the 4400 by a dose of promicin extracted by Kevin Burkhoff from the blood of the infant Isabelle, who was never given the inhibitor.  At the beginning of the third season, the Nova Group, a terrorist faction made up of 4400s, emerges. Originally formed as a "defensive" group in the aftermath of the promicin-inhibitor scandal, the Nova Group eventually carries out numerous terrorist attacks against the government and NTAC. The group is responsible for many terrorist attacks including the assassination of the men involved with the promicin-inhibitor conspiracy; the attempted assassination of Ryland; the framing of Baldwin for murder; and the driving of another person to insanity.  During the third and fourth season, it is revealed that only a certain faction from the future wants to see history changed. Another faction, which prefers the status quo, opposes the 4400, and has sent their own operatives, including Isabelle Tyler and "the Marked", into the past. The exact motives of both factions have not yet been revealed.  Eventually, Jordan Collier, a returnee who declares himself the savior of humanity, makes promicin shots available to the general public. However, only half of the human population can actually tolerate promicin, and thus develop superhuman abilities, while the other half die upon taking the shot. Although the government outlaws promicin use, thousands of previously ordinary people have developed superhuman abilities, severely complicating NTAC's task. Collier later annexes a part of Seattle and transforms it into "Promise City", a self-proclaimed paradise open to all people with superhuman abilities. The US government attempts to reclaim Promise City but meets with little success.  At the conclusion of the series, Danny Farell's uncontrolled ability exposed some of the residents of Seattle to promicin, resulting in about 9,000 deaths and as many newly empowered humans, while at the same time forcing the remains of NTAC (now themselves mostly promicin-positive) to ask Jordan Collier and his followers (as the only group immune to the 50% chance of death from exposure) to become the "de facto" government of Seattle. The series ended with a cliffhanger, with Collier pledging to build the future he had promised, while the government watches uneasily as Collier's militia remains in control of Seattle, now known as Promise City.

Promicin.

In the series, promicin is a fictional neurotransmitter the human body produces that controls and regulates bodily functions. In the 4400, it enables every member to use parts of the cerebellum no human has previously used. This is the cause of the new abilities in each returnee. Promicin's behavior and effects are unpredictable, potentially giving any ability. However, as part of a government conspiracy, every 4400 is regularly injected with a promicin-inhibitor, suppressing their potential new abilities.  Since the government ceases injecting promicin inhibitor, every 4400 develops an ability.  Dr. Kevin Burkhoff devises a way to artificially create 4400 abilities through a series of promicin injections, using himself as a test subject, giving him regenerative abilities. However, the government finds out about this breakthrough and builds up its own stockpile of a much purer promicin (extracted from Isabelle Tyler), which they in turn use to create at least one group of soldiers with 4400 abilities, as demonstrated by the government's attack on Promise City. Jordan Collier steals the government's supply, and begins distributing it via human couriers to anyone who wants the shot.  An injection of promicin has a 50% chance of either killing the person taking the injection (by way of an aneurysm) or giving them a 4400 ability. In the fourth season, Dr. Burkhoff claims to have discovered how promicin interacts with the body, thus being able to predict whether a person will survive the shot or not. It is explained that nine out of ten left-handed people who take the shot survive. In the brain there is a small part called the corpus callosum. It is essentially a bundle of neural fibres that connects the two hemispheres and it is usually slightly larger in left-handed people than it is in right-handed people. That is why left-handed people survive; the size of that part of the brain helps determine whether or not a person will be able to integrate a new neurotransmitter. With further research, Dr. Burkhoff believes a simple CAT scan will be able to tell how anyone's body will react to a promicin shot.  There exists a substance that can eliminate all traces of promicin in the human body, effectively robbing the injected individual of any 4400 powers and in addition making this person allergic to promicin. The identity and makeup of this substance is not stated, and the only known source of it so far is from the future. A second method also exists for removing promicin from non-4400 humans, through the promicin-neutralizing ability of Jordan Collier.  There also appears to be a substance that can counteract the anti-promicin's effects as Tom Baldwin, during his time as a member of the "Marked", uses this substance to help Isabelle Tyler regain her powers by removing her promicin allergy. Like the anti-promicin, this substance appears to be from the future.  As discovered by Marco in the episode The Starzl Mutation; Seattle Presbyterian Hospital started using a flawed radiation machine to treat their cancer patients in 1969. The microswitches that controlled the machine were not functioning properly, so the doses were incorrect. This went on for just under five years. Once the hospital figured out what they were doing they tested everyone who had ever been exposed to it and in some cases the radiation induced a small mutation. This mutation was a slight alteration of the eleventh chromosome, named the "Starzl mutation" after the manufacturer of the faulty machine.  The mutation is hereditary, meaning people that got it passed it onto their children. The Starzl mutation is both harmless and conserved in those offspring; they live normal healthy lives. While the offspring of a returnee normally do not retain the ability to generate promicin, a second-hand report from John Shaffner (an ex-special ops soldier) suggested that the offspring of a 4400 and a Starzl mutant will be "promicin-positive", meaning they will have abilities. This is believed by Tom Baldwin and Diana Skouris to be the reason why the abductees were returned to the Seattle area - it is the only place they are likely to encounter individuals who possess the Starzl mutation and therefore the only place they are likely to produce children with 4400 abilities.  The promicin-inhibitor "piggybacks on glucose", after entering the brain through facilitated diffusion. It is a binding protein; that is, it binds itself to promicin in the body and neutralizes it. However, if there is no promicin for it to bind to, it remains in the body. Eventually, it builds up to toxic levels in the lymph nodes, damaging the immune system. The result is a chemically induced immunodeficiency.  To counteract the promicin inhibitor, Dr. Burkhoff develops a serum containing Isabelle's pure promicin. This serum neutralizes the charge so the inhibitor is not able to cross membranes and can be flushed out of the body.

Setting.

"The 4400" is set in Seattle, Washington, United States, but actually filmed in the Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, area. Settings include:

Cast and characters.

Recurring guest stars.

In order of first appearance:

Episodes.

"The 4400" ran for four seasons. The first season is presented as a miniseries of five episodes, which aired weekly from July 11, 2004 to August 8, 2004, with a two-hour premier. Seasons two, three and four are each 13-episode seasons (counting the two hour premiers in seasons two and three as two episodes). A special episode, "The 4400: Unlocking the Secrets", aired between seasons two and three, on June 3, 2006, originally on NBC.  Production of the third season was shot in Vancouver until July 26, 2006. The third season premiered June 11, 2006, with 4.2million viewers tuning in. Executive Producer Ira Steven Behr described season three as "bigger and more mythic. It feels like 26 episodes instead of 13 because we're cramming so much stuff in". Billy Campbell, the actor who plays Collier, took most of season three off to sail around the world, returning in the final four episodes.  Production of the fourth and final season began in early 2007 for a mid-year premiere, returning with the episode "The Wrath of Graham".

Production.

On September 14, 2000, "Variety" reported that American Zoetrope, an independent film production company owned by the family of filmmaker Francis Ford Coppola, had made two television production deals; one of them being made with Viacom to produce full-length television series, having themselves been in the television production industry before with miniseries and made-for-television films like "Dark Angel" and "Moby Dick" and already produced their first full-length series "First Wave" for Space in Canada and the Sci-Fi Channel in the United States. "The 4400" was the only product to ever come out of the American Zoetrope/Viacom deal, as Viacom would split at the start of 2006 into CBS Corporation and a new Viacom, the former of which took over Viacom's place as co-producer of the series.  The theme song of the show is "A Place in Time", written by Robert Phillips and Tim Paruskewitz and performed by Amanda Abizaid. All seasons are filmed in high-definition with closed captioning. USA Network broadcast episodes after season one in fullscreen 480i; the DVD releases contain the episodes in their native widescreen format.  NBC/Universal created several sites targeted at fictional members of the 4400 universe:  Subsequent to the cancellation of the series, these web sites were allowed to lapse and none of them are active any further. Most of them have now been parked.

Cancellation.

Writer and co-creator Scott Peters announced on December 18, 2007, that due to the ongoing Writers Guild of America strike, budgetary problems, and lower-than-anticipated ratings, "The 4400" had been cancelled and would not be returning for a fifth season, despite the fourth season's cliffhanger ending.

Soundtrack.

The soundtrack to "The 4400" was released on May 8, 2007 by Milan Records and includes music from the first three seasons, as follows: "Note: The last track does not appear in the series. Although not included on the soundtrack, "Life for Rent" by Dido was used in the episode "The Gospel According to Collier". The song "Where Is My Mind?" by the Pixies was later used in the series finale."

Home media.

The first season was released on blu-ray in Germany during August 2017, with the remaining seasons releasing in the subsequent months.

Reception.

"The 4400" received positive reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 95% approval rating.

Reboot.

In November 2018, it was announced that a reboot of "The 4400" was in development at The CW. Taylor Elmore and Craig Sweeny, the latter having worked on the original series throughout its entire run as a writer and later as a supervising producer, will write and serve as executive producers of the "reimagined" series through their deals with the original series' producer, CBS Television Studios. Elmore will serve as showrunner should the project move forward. In February 2019, it was reported that the project would roll over to the next development cycle to allow Elmore and Sweeny to finish the pilot script.

The 4400 (pronounced "the forty-four hundred") is a science fiction television series produced by CBS Paramount Network Television in association with BSkyB, Renegade 83, and American Zoetrope for USA Network in the United States and Sky One in the United Kingdom. The show was created and written by Scott Peters and René Echevarria, and it starred Joel Gretsch and Jacqueline McKenzie. The series ran for four seasons from 2004 until its cancellation in 2007.

Les 4400 ("") est une série télévisée américaine en 45 épisodes de 42 minutes, créée par Scott Peters, produite par American Zoetrope (propriété de Francis Ford Coppola) et diffusée entre le et le sur.


Cervidae.

White-tailed deer.

The rut for white-tailed deer ("Odocoileus virginianus") usually lasts three weeks in the Northern Hemisphere and may occur most of the year in tropical zones. The rut is the time when white-tail deer, especially bucks, are more active and less cautious than usual. This makes them easier to hunt, as well as more susceptible to being hit by motor vehicles. The buck has one thing on his mind at this time of the year: to find as many does as he can. He will chase after many does for weeks, barely eating. The rut can take its toll on the bucks: they are usually quite worn out by the end of the breeding season.  Outdoors writer Charles Alsheimer has done research demonstrating the white-tailed deer rut is also controlled by the lunar phase and that the rut peaks seven days after the second full moon during October and November (the rutting moon), while elk begin rutting during the September equinox on 21 September.  A white-tail doe may be in estrus for up to 72 hours, and may come into estrus up to seven times if she does not mate. Cow may come into estrus up to four or more times if they do not mate.  The rut can start as early as the end of September, and can last all the way through the winter months. Bucks usually begin to start this process when the velvet is falling off their antlers, and it can last all the way until they start to shed their antlers. The peak of the rut, however, is right in the middle. The average peak day for the white-tail rut in the U.S. is November 13. Around this period of time, the bucks and does are very active, with the rut in full swing. For a hunter sitting in a tree stand at this time of the year, it is not uncommon to see many deer pass through his specific area, due to other deer chasing others.  There are many behaviors a buck will exhibit during the rut. During pre-rut, bucks will spar with each other. Sparring is low-intensity aggressive behavior, involving mostly pushing and shoving. Bucks of different sizes will do this to each other. After pre-rut is finished, a buck will rub his antlers on a tree (thus making a "rub"), and make scrapes on the ground with his hooves: both of these are ways a buck will mark its territory and proclaim his dominance for other bucks to see. These activities are usually done at night.  The most prominent behavior of all during the heat of the rut is fighting, where bucks show their true dominance to others. In fighting, bucks usually battle against similar sized deer, and small bucks do not normally challenge mature large ones: more often than not, smaller bucks fear the more mature bucks and leave or avoid the dominant deer’s territory. The fights can go on and on, with the winner getting the group of does. Some fights go on until death, and if not, it is not unusual to see one of them get injured.  The energy expenditure of chasing and fighting during the breeding season can result in a buck losing an immense amount of weight, with some research documenting losses of as much as 20% of body weight. On average, a buck before breeding season can weigh up to. After he has gone through the stages of rut, he can lose about of weight, which is quite large, especially for only a few months of time. In the post-rut, a buck will need to replenish his body and catch up on the weight and energy he has lost.  Sources have stated that after the rut, a buck will go to a bedding spot and will remain "motionless" for a large amount of time, even to the extent of about two days, as he is thoroughly exhausted. After he has rested, he will get up and start to feed extensively, trying to catch up on all the nutrients his body requires. Croplands have much high carbohydrate grain in them, and a buck can be found here often, eating and getting nutrients. When the climate is extremely cold, a buck will sometimes resort to swamps and bogs, because of the warmer temperatures these areas hold.

Elk (Wapiti).

The timing of the elk rut depends on where they live. In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs between mid-August and mid-October. In the Southern Hemisphere it occurs between mid-February and mid-April.  The rut tends to last somewhere between 20 and 45 days. This varies on latitude, which affects the timing of spring and autumn and which can give elk a longer calving season and a longer rut. During the rut, elk frequently use areas around fresh water, and tend to bed in heavy timber five to six hours per day. A cow elk will remain in estrus for 12 to 15 hours, if they are not bred during this time frame they will normally have another estrus cycle 18 to 28 days later.  Elk use several different vocalizations during the rut. Some are made only by a certain sex or age class, and each is used for a different reason. The first of which being the cohesion call which is made by both sexes of elk, and is used to locate one another. An alarm squeal is made by both sexes of elk when they are on alert, during the rut these are used frequently by young bulls (male elks) being run off by the herd bull. Satellite bulls frequently spar with one another during the rut, and in turn make sparring squeaks.

Bugling.

A bugle is a vocalization made exclusively by bulls. The typical bugle consists of three acoustic parts, a low frequency "on-glide" that sounds guttural in tone, which then ascends into the highest frequency part of the call termed the "whistle", and the last portion of the call, the "off-glide" that returns back to a low frequency tone. The function behind this acoustic structure of the bugle is directly correlated to the male's physiology and how different frequencies travel through varied environments. In terms of physiology, the larger an animal gets the lower frequency of sound it is able to produce. This is because with an increase in size comes an increase in vocal fold length, and longer vocal folds confer an increased ability to produce lower frequency sounds. Because of this relationship, a bugle can be directed toward other bulls or toward cows to demonstrate the size and thus fitness of the bull vocalizing. A bull will direct his bugle toward his cows while gathering them or while chasing an estrus cow. A herd bull will direct his bugle toward another bull to express his dominance over the herd, while a satellite bull may use his bugle to challenge the herd bull. The reason for the high frequency portion of the bugle is due to the propagative efficiency of differing frequencies through varying environments. Studies have shown that as a bull's harem increases in diameter, meaning the cows become more dispersed, he tends to vocalize more frequently than if they were within closer proximity. The higher-pitched section of the call propagates through the environment better which is why the bull uses it to congregate a harem that is becoming more spatially dispersed and thus harder to defend. Acoustic analyses comparing bull elk bugles with cow elk cohesion calls show a notable degree of acoustic similarity, indicating that both vocalizations may perform a congregating function, which is why the bugle is often used by the bull to condense his harem.

Bugling physiology.

The ability to produce such a high frequency vocalization by such a large animal is unusual. As explained above, this is because larger body mass positively correlates with longer vocal folds and thus lower frequency emission. Larger body size also corresponds with a decreased ability to emit high frequency vocalizations. Bull elk overcome this by a unique anatomical mechanism that produces sound using a different pathway than the vibrations of the vocal folds. Bull elk constrict their supra laryngeal vocal tract, specifically in the nasal cavity in order to create a smaller opening for exhaled air to pass through. As air moves through this opening it causes the tissues to vibrate and produce the high frequency sound waves which comprise the "whistle" portion of the bugle. This anatomical development for bioacoustics in elk was discovered upon sonographic analysis of bugle vocalizations which revealed a biophonetic (two simultaneous frequencies) display. One frequency was high (the result of the supra laryngeal constriction), and the other was low (the result of normal vocal fold oscillations).

Yelping.

Yelping also known as "grunting" is usually only made by herd bulls when they are excited. They are made more often while interacting with cows than with other bulls. "Yelping commonly was accompanied by contractions of the penile region with simultaneous emission of short spurts of urine."

Phases.

The rut has six phases: the pre-rut, the first breeding phase, the first rest phase, the second breeding phase, the second rest phase, and the third breeding phase.

Other deer species.

Fallow deer.

The fallow deer ("Dama dama)" is an ungulate which employs an unusual strategy for mating during the rut. This strategy is the creation of a lek, a display area presented to the females where the males gather and allow the females to choose a mate based upon their traits alone while reducing predation risk, disturbance to copulation, parasite transmission and the cost of looking for a mate. When females come to the lek they leave soon after mating but the males will tend to stay in the lek to court other females until the end of the rutting season. However, male fallow deer which are unsuccessful in mating will leave the lek sooner than other males and they will adopt other strategies to compensate for their lack of mating success in the lek. Furthermore, the duration spent in the lek is positively correlated with the behavioral traits of male display frequency and aggression, male hierarchical position and secondary sex characteristics such as antler size. Overall, lekking species such as the fallow deer have a short intense rutting season where the males face intrasexual competition, territory defense and management of females within their territory.

Elephants.

In elephants the breeding season is less pronounced than in other ungulates and it usually spikes when the rains season occurs or shortly thereafter. The rut is observed in both African and Asian elephants and it is referred to as musth. Its meaning is derived from the Urdu word "mast" meaning intoxication. The most prominent characteristics of an elephant in rut are heightened sexual and aggressive activity along with copious temporal gland secretion and continual urine discharge. Also it has been observed that males will have a higher concentration of testosterone and an increased likelihood of associating with female groups during musth. Similarly to deer or mountain goats, elephants will tusk the ground throwing vegetation, logs and objects into the air and occasionally at other subordinates.

Moose.

Moose have a series of rutting events which are similar to those seen in other deer species, however they have several characteristic behaviors which give them a distinct rut. The first of these behaviors is a challenger gait where the bull moose will sway back and forth and circle the rival bull while dipping his antlers down. Another typical behaviour seen in moose especially during the pre-rut stage is mock battling. This is a display meant to scare away other rival males where the bull moose will destroy trees and vegetation prior to engaging in a fight. Also, a behaviour known as displacement feeding is observed in male moose and it refers to the hasty movements made by the moose while it is feeding as it keeps an intense gaze upon rival bull moose. Furthermore, as seen in other deer species male moose will dig mud pits and soak them in urine and the females will fight over possession of these wallows. In North American variations of moose the pre-rutting season typically begins during August and is marked by bull moose leaving the younger satellite bulls. During this stage there is much mock fighting and the pre-rut ends in September when the bull moose emerge from the solidarity of heavily wooded areas. Then begins the searching stage of the rut where the male seeks the moose cow in estrus and the instances of displacement feeding and tension between rival males increases. Once a potential mate has been found the male enters the display stage of the stage which lasts one to three days. During this time he will court the female by standing sidewise three to five yards from the female moose to show himself as mate. If successful he will get to mate with her for several days and then move on to a new partner. This pattern of behaviours will then repeat with successive mates until late October or early November. Following the mating season bull moose spend long hours resting and feeding before forming their usual winter groupings.  Although the battle between males is the main contest, there is also a battle between females. Usually this occurs between an older cow moose and a younger female. The mature cow will attempt to stop the younger one from coming near to the wallow in a vicious attack with her forelegs and if the younger female gets to lie in the wallow the older female will drive her out of it only to return to lie in it and take up as much space as possible. During this event the bull moose will not interfere and he will just watch in plain sight.

The rut (from the Latin "rugire", meaning "to roar") is the mating season of certain mammals, which includes ruminants such as deer, sheep, camels, goats, pronghorns, bison, giraffes and antelopes, and extends to others such as skunks and elephants. The rut is characterized in males by an increase in testosterone, exaggerated sexual dimorphisms and increased aggression and interest in females. The males of the species may mark themselves with mud, undergo physiological changes or perform characteristic displays in order to make themselves more visually appealing to the females. Males also use olfaction to entice females to mate using secretions from glands and soaking in their own urine.

Le rut désigne le comportement et la période de l'année durant laquelle un certain nombre d'espèces de mammifères sont sexuellement réceptives et s'accouplent. Dans les régions tempérées et subarctiques de l'hémisphère nord, le rut se produit à l'automne pendant environ un mois autour de l'équinoxe d'automne septembre-(octobre).


Life.

Early years.

Gabriel Syveton was born on 21 February 1864 in Boën-sur-Lignon, Loire. He studied in Lyon and then in Paris, and passed his "agrégation" in history in 1888 as a doctor of letters and associate professor. He taught in turn at the "lycées" of Aix-en-Provence, Laon, Angoulême and Reims. From 1890 to 1892 the Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts assigned him to a study mission in Austria-Hungary. He resigned in 1898 so he could follow a career in politics.

Ligue de la patrie française.

The Ligue de la patrie française originated in 1898 with three young academics, Louis Dausset, Syveton and Henri Vaugeois, who wanted to show that support for Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jewish artillery officer who had been controversially convicted in 1894 on charges of treason, was not accepted by all university academics. The three circulated a manifesto that stated,  The manifesto attacked Émile Zola and what many saw as an internationalist, pacifist left-wing conspiracy. At first the manifesto was circulated only among lycée professors in Paris, but Maurice Barrès encouraged them to invite more professionals opposed to Dreyfus to sign, and to form the Ligue de la patrie française to implement the manifesto. After founding the League Syveton was asked to resume his university duties. Several days later he made a speech before the Academic Council of Paris that the League published as propaganda brochure under the title "The University and the Nation". Syveton was suspended for a year, and after this had elapsed he was dismissed when he refused the various positions that were offered to him.  At meetings of the League around France, Syveton and François Coppée also claimed that the French Masons were a subversive influence in France, directed by the supreme head of Freemasonry, Edward VII of England. The masons worked with Protestants and Jews not only to undermine the supporters of Boulanger but to undermine France itself. Some anti-Dreyfusard and Social Catholic members of the League could not accept this position and left the movement.

Deputy.

The League's candidates in the 1902 legislative elections did poorly outside of Paris. The League's treasurer Gabriel Syveton was elected deputy for the Seine. He ran in the legislative elections of 27 April 1902 for the 2nd arrondissement of Paris, and was elected in the first round. In the Chamber of Deputies he at once took an active part in creating the nationalist and republican group, of which he was appointed secretary. Others in the group were Godefroy Cavaignac and Albert Gauthier de Clagny.  On 6 December 1902 Syveton got into a heated exchange over the Humbert case with the Keeper of the Seals, and was temporarily excluded from the chamber until 29 January 1903. In February and March he spoke passionately against political interference in teacher appointments. His election to the 2nd arrondissement of Paris was invalidated on 7 April 1903 at the motion of Jean Jaurès, but he was reelected to this seat in the by-election of 21 June 1903.  During the 1904 municipal elections at a meeting of 5,000 nationalist members of the Ligue des Patriotes and the Ligue de la patrie française Syveton called on the audience to have nothing to do with the antisemitic Édouard Drumont or anyone else, such as Gaston Méry, connected to "La Libre Parole". In his view antisemitism was damaging to the Patrie Française, and the party's candidates in the council elections should avoid the subject. The slogan "Down with the Jews" should not be used at the election rallies.

Affair des Fiches.

General Louis André, the militantly anticlerical War Minister from 1900 to 1904, used reports by Freemasons to build a huge card index on public officials that detailed those who were Catholic and attended Mass, with a view to preventing their promotions. In 1904, Jean Bidegain, assistant Secretary of Grand Orient de France, sold a selection of the files to Gabriel Syveton for 40,000 francs. On 4 November 1904 Guyot de Villeneuve repeated the charge against André, for which he now had documentary proof, and made the issue a vote of confidence which the Combes government survived by just two votes. After the vote Syveton crossed the floor and slapped André in the face twice. He was at once thrown out of the Chamber and put under arrest. The case was referred to the Court of Assizes of the Seine.  Syveton was found dead in his office by his wife on 8 December 1904, the day before his trial. An inquiry found that he had died by asphyxiation from a malfunctioning gas heater in the room, but the press freely speculated over whether it was an accident, suicide or murder. It was said that his marriage was unhappy and he was well insured, so his wife would have had a motive. It might be connected with the loss of the League's financial records. The nationalists claimed that he had not committed suicide but had been assassinated by the Masons. They said he had been killed in revenge for exposing the card file. The "Affaire Des Fiches" scandal led directly to the resignation of prime minister Émile Combes.

Publications.

Publications included:

Gabriel Syveton (21 February 1864 – 8 December 1904) was a French historian and politician. He was one of the founding members of the patriotic and anti-Dreyfus Ligue de la patrie française. He was elected as deputy for the Seine in 1902. He was involved in scandal when he exposed the existence of a card file compiled from Freemason reports on public officials. It listed practicing Catholics, who should be passed over for promotion. He died, apparently from suicide, the day before being required to appear in court after physically attacking the Minister of War in the Chamber of Deputies.

Gabriel Syveton, né à Boën-sur-Lignon (Loire) le et mort à Neuilly-sur-Seine le 8 décembre 1904, est un homme politique et historien français. Il est un dirigeant de la droite nationaliste connu notamment pour son altercation avec le général Louis André lors de l'affaire des fiches.


Club career.

River Plate / Spartak.

Born in O'Brien, Buenos Aires Province, Cavenaghi made his professional debut for River Plate in the 2000–01 season in which he scored one goal in five appearances. In his first full season he scored 17 goals in 23 appearances, including a hat-trick against Estudiantes.  In July 2004, Cavenaghi moved abroad for the first time, joining Spartak Moscow for a fee of US$12 million, then a record for a Russian team. He failed to adapt to Russian football, and was frozen out of the team following the arrival of manager Vladimir Fedotov in April 2006, whom he publicly criticised for his tactics. He was put up for sale that December.

Bordeaux.

On 22 January 2007, Cavenaghi was sold to French club Bordeaux. He signed a four-and-a-half-year deal for a €7 million fee. Through an Italian passport earned by his ancestry, he could work freely in the European Union. On 3 February he played his first Ligue 1 match against Nice. In his first season, Bordeaux won the Coupe de la Ligue with a 1–0 win over Lyon in the final, with Cavenaghi an unused substitute. During the 2007–08 season he scored 22 goals in 35 appearances for Bordeaux.  In the 2008 Trophée des Champions, Cavenaghi came on as a 70th-minute substitute for Alou Diarra in a goalless draw against Lyon at the Stade Chaban-Delmas. Though both he and David Bellion had their attempts saved by Grégory Coupet in the penalty shootout, Bordeaux were victorious. In the 2008–09 Ligue 1 season Cavenaghi helped Bordeaux to its first league title in ten years, scoring 13 goals in 29 league matches. The team also won the Coupe de la Ligue in the same season, with Cavenaghi scoring in a 4–2 home win over Guingamp in the last 16. The "Girondins" won their third honour of the calendar year on 25 July 2009 as they retained the Trophée des Champions with a 2–0 win over Guingamp in Montreal, Cavaneghi scoring the opening goal for Laurent Blanc's team.  Cavenaghi signed for Spanish club Mallorca on 26 August 2010 a season-long loan with the option to purchase for €3.5 million. He scored six goals in 13 total games for the Balearic club, all in the form of braces against Real Sociedad in La Liga, and Sporting Gijón and Almería in the Copa del Rey.  In January 2011 Cavenaghi joined Brazil's Internacional on a year-long loan, with option to make it permanent for €2.5 million.

Return to River Plate / Villarreal.

In July 2011, after leaving his contract at Bordeaux a year early, Cavenaghi returned to River Plate. He was appointed captain of the club, who had been relegated. He scored 19 goals in 37 league matches that season, including a notable performance against Gimnasia de Jujuy where he scored four goals. In his one-season back he helped the club capture the 2011-12 Primera B Nacional and gain promotion back to the first division.  Cavenaghi returned to Spain in August 2012 by signing for Villarreal, who themselves had fallen into the Segunda División. On his debut on 17 August, he scored in each half of a 2–1 win over Real Madrid Castilla at the Estadio El Madrigal. He totalled 19 appearances and four goals for the "Yellow Submarine", but cut his stay short in January 2013 Cavenaghi when he signed for Pachuca of the Mexican Liga MX.  In early 2014, Cavenaghi joined River Plate for the third time. He would wear his number 9 throughout his 3rd stay. River Plate became Champion in Argentina's Primera División 2014, making them eligible to several continental/international tournaments in 2014-15.  As captain, Cavenaghi led River Plate to achieve a sweep of all three international championships: 2014 Copa Sudamericana, 2015 Recopa Sudamericana and the 2015 Copa Libertadores. Included in these campaigns were two eliminations of arch-rival Boca Juniors, first in the Sudamericana and later in Libertadores. Winning the Copa Libertadores would make River Plate eligible to play in the 2015 FIFA Club World Cup in Japan representing CONMEBOL. He was the second-highest scorer in Argentina's Primera División 2015 with 11 goals.

APOEL and retirement.

On 25 August 2015, Cavenaghi moved back to Europe signing a two-year contract with Cypriot First Division club APOEL FC. Five days later, he scored twice on his debut in a 6–2 home victory against Pafos FC for the Cypriot First Division. He scored in each of his first seven league appearances, totalling twelve goals in that sequence. He helped APOEL to win the Cypriot First Division title, and despite playing his last match on 10 February 2016, missing the last three months of the season due to his injury, he also won the top goalscorer award with 19 goals in only 18 league appearances.  Cavenaghi appeared in 26 matches and scored 23 goals in all competitions with APOEL, before a serious knee injury forced him to mutually terminate his contract with the club on 2 April 2016, as his recovery from the knee surgery was estimated to take more than eight months to complete. His serious knee injury eventually forced Cavenaghi to retire from the professional scene, making the official announcement through a YouTube video on 27 December 2016 at River Plate's El Monumental in Buenos Aires.

International career.

In December 2002, manager Hugo Tocalli named Cavenaghi in the Argentina under-20 team for the 2003 South American U-20 Championship in Uruguay. He was top scorer with eight goals – four in each stage – as the Argentines won the title, and scored the only one against Colombia on 28 January to seal the Championship.  In October, Cavenaghi was again called up by Tocalli for the squad at the 2003 FIFA U-20 World Cup in the United Arab Emirates. In the last 16 against Egypt in Dubai, he scored both goals, including the golden goal, in a 2–1 victory. He scored a golden goal again in the quarter-finals against the United States in Abu Dhabi. Argentina finished fourth, and Cavenaghi was one of four top scorers with four goals apiece, though the Golden Shoe award went only to the American Eddie Johnson.  In March 2008, Cavenaghi's form for Bordeaux earned him a first call up to the senior national side by Alfio Basile, ahead of a friendly against Egypt on 26 March. He made his debut in the 2–0 win at the Cairo International Stadium, as a 69th-minute substitute for Julio Cruz, and played three more friendlies that year.

Fernando Ezequiel Cavenaghi (; born 21 September 1983) is a retired Argentine professional footballer. He played as a striker who was efficient in front of goal with either foot and from any range.

Fernando Ezequiel Cavenaghi, né le à (Province de Buenos Aires) en Argentine, est un ancien footballeur international argentin. Il évolue au poste d'attaquant.


Career.

Hagans grew up in Dayton, Ohio. His early inspirations included Miles Davis, Freddie Hubbard, and Thad Jones, to whom he dedicated "For the Music Suite", a 40-minute piece for jazz orchestra composed on a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts. In 1974, Hagans joined the Stan Kenton band, with whom he played until 1977, when he toured with Woody Herman. He then left for Europe, where he lived in Malmö, Sweden, a hotbed of the European jazz scene. While in Europe, he toured extensively and played with Dexter Gordon, Kenny Drew, Horace Parlan, and Thad Jones. His first recorded composition, "I Hope This Time Isn't the Last," appears on the album "Thad Jones Live at Slukefter" (Metronome, 1980).  In 1987, he moved to New York City. He has performed with Maria Schneider, Yellowjackets, Steps Ahead, Secret Society, and Gary Peacock. Hagans has worked extensively with producer and saxophonist Bob Belden on a variety of recordings and live performances, including their ongoing "Animation/Imagination" project. Festivals at which he has performed include the Mount Fuji Festival in Japan, the Montreal Jazz Festival, the Berlin Jazz Tage, and the Montreux Jazz Festival in Switzerland.  Hagans has taught master classes at universities throughout the world.  He taught at the University of Cincinnati from 1982 to 1984 and at Berklee College of Music from 1984 to 1987. From 1996 to 2010, he was Artistic Director and Composer-in-Residence for the Norrbotten Big Band located in Luleå, Sweden. The Norrbotten is a 17-piece jazz orchestra for whom Hagans wrote and arranged original compositions with guest artists including Randy Brecker, Joe Lovano, Dave Liebman, Peter Erskine, and Rufus Reid, an enterprise culminating in the Grammy nominated album, "The Avatar Sessions: The Music of Tim Hagans", for which the Norbotten Big Band traveled to New York. His compositions are featured on numerous recordings with the Norrbotten Big Band, including "Future North" (Double-Time, 1998), "Future Miles" (ACT, 2002), and "Worth the Wait" (Fuzzy Music, 2007).  Hagans has been commissioned by several other European jazz orchestras, including the NDR Big Band in Hamburg, UMO in Helsinki, and he was Composer-in-Residence at the Jazz Baltica Festival in 2000. In 2008, he was awarded the ASCAP/IAJE Established Composer Award, and in 2009 he was commissioned by the Barents Composers Orchestra to write a piece for strings, woodwinds, and percussion: "Daytonality", a piece based on improvisational melodic language.  Hagans is the subject of the feature documentary "Boogaloo Road," directed by Runar Enberg and Marianne Soderberg. He is a featured soloist on Howard Shore's soundtrack for the feature film "The Score" starring Marlon Brando, Edward Norton, and Robert De Niro.  Following his interest in exploring theatrical venues for innovative jazz, he is Composer-in-Residence with the Michele Brangwen Dance Ensemble, a dance company located in Houston, Texas, and in New York City. In January 2012, his composition "Outside My Window" was performed with the MBDE at Dance Theatre of Harlem. He also performs with author-actor Peter Josyph in duets consisting of haiku texts and freely improvised trumpet, including Josyph's "the way of the trumpet", a haiku novel written for and dedicated to Hagans.  In June 2012, Hagans was awarded an honorary doctorate from the Sibelius Academy in Helsinki.

Discography.

As sideman.

With Stan Kenton  With Ernie Wilkins  With Joe Lovano  With Bob Belden  With Bob Mintzer  With Blue Wisp Big Band  With Bert Seager  With Maria Schneider  With Steve Slagle  With Vic Juris  With Mark Masters  With Marc Copland  With Andy LaVerne  With Ron McClure  With Jon Gordon  With John Fedchock  With others

Tim Hagans (born August 19, 1954) is a jazz trumpeter, arranger, and composer. He has been nominated for three Grammy Awards: Best Instrumental Composition for "Box of Cannoli" on "The Avatar Sessions" (Fuzzy Music, 2010); Best Contemporary Jazz Album for "Animation*Imagination" (Blue Note, 1999); and Best Contemporary Jazz Album for "Re-Animation" (Blue Note, 2000).

Tim Hagans (né le ) est un trompettiste et compositeur de jazz américain. Il a grandi à Dayton dans l'Ohio, jouant dans des orchestres scolaires. Il puisait son inspiration chez Miles Davis, Herb Alpert, Sly Stone et Blood, Sweat and Tears. Avant l'âge de 20 ans, Hagans rejoignit Woody Herman dans l' ""Isham Jones Band"".


Geology.

Fiji lies in a tectonically complex area between the Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate. The Fiji Platform lies in a zone bordered with active extension fault lines around which most of the shallow earthquakes were centered. These fault lines are the Fiji Fracture Zone (FFZ) to the north, the 176° Extension Zone (176°E EZ) to the west, and the Hunter Fracture Zone (HFZ) and Lau Ridge to the east.  The oldest rocks on the island consist of the Eocene to Lower Miocene Wainimala Group. The Lower portion of the Group are composed of volcanic flows and volcanoclastics, which grade from basalt to trachyte and rhyolite. Geographically, this group is found south of Nadi, including the peaks of Koromba (3528’) and Natambumgguto (1242’), down to Sigatoka. From Sigatoka, the Group extends almost all the way to Lodoni, and includes the peaks of Tuvutau (3060’) and Tikituru (3071’), while along the southern coast it extends almost to Nausori. The Group is intruded by the Tholo Plutonics consisting of similar age stocks of tonalite, granodiorite, gabbro and diorite. Mio-Pliocene sandstones and marl, grading into epiclastics and andesitic volcanics of the Suva Group are found mainly in the river valleys such as those formed by the Nadi River and Navua River. The Plio-Pleistocene Mba Grouop is found on the northern portion of the island and consists of porphyritic basalt flows and volcanoclastics grading into greywacke. Geographically it includes the peaks of Koroyanitu (3921’), Malua (3294’), Monavatu (3708’), Mount Tomanivi (4341’), and Ndelamendamu (2540’), and extends along the eastern coast almost to Nausori. It also includes the Emperor Mine near Vatukoula.

Geography and economy.

Viti Levu is the largest island in the nation, home to 70% of the population (about 600,000), and is the hub of the entire Fijian archipelago. It measures long and wide, and has an area of. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions account for the somewhat rugged terrain of the island, which is divided into roughly equal halves by a north-south mountain range. The centre of the island is forested and includes the nation's highest peak Mount Tomanivi (otherwise Mount Victoria) rising to.  The eastern side of the island experiences heavy rainfall, while the western side (colloquially called the "burning west") is noticeably drier in the range's rain shadow. Accordingly, sugar cane production thrives in the west, while a dairy industry is being built in the east. Fiji's biggest cattle ranch is at Yaqara, with 7000 head of cattle on its, located halfway between Tavua and Rakiraki. The island is the only known home of one of the world's largest insects, the Giant Fijian long-horned beetle.

Localities.

Viti Levu hosts the capital city of Suva, and is home to nearly three quarters of the population of the Republic (about 580,000). Other important towns, all around the coast, include Ba, Lautoka, Nadi, Nausori, Rakiraki, and Sigatoka. One major road has been built around the perimeter of Viti Levu. Well-known localities include Natadola Beach, Pacific Harbour (a resort center about 50 kilometers from Suva).

Politics.

Eight of Fiji's fourteen Provinces are in Viti Levu. The Provinces of Ba, Nadroga-Navosa, and Ra comprise the Western Division, while Naitasiri, Namosi, Rewa, Serua, and Tailevu form the Central Division. In part because of its high concentration of Indo-Fijians, whose ancestors came mostly as indentured workers from India between 1879 and 1916, the political dynamics of western Viti Levu are somewhat different from those of eastern Viti Levu, where, apart from the multi-racial urban areas, indigenous Fijians are more heavily concentrated.

History.

Viti Levu is believed to have been inhabited longer than the northern island of Vanua Levu. According to oral traditions, the first Melanesian settlers landed at Vuda Point and established Viseisei, believed to be Fiji's oldest settlement, although archaeologists refute this claim.

Other.

The Canadian entrepreneur Peter Munk named his Klosters house after the island, as Viti Levu was where he and David Gilmour started the Southern Pacific Hotel chain in the 1960s.

Viti Levu (pronounced ) is the largest island in the Republic of Fiji, the site of the nation's capital, Suva, and home to a large majority of Fiji's population.

Viti Levu, toponyme tongien signifiant littéralement en français « grande Viti », est la plus grande des îles des Fidji (dont le nom est la prononciation tongienne du mot '). Elle concentre environ 75 % de la population sur une superficie de, soit l'équivalent de la taille du Liban, et mesure d'est en ouest et du nord au sud. C'est par sa taille la troisième île de l'océan Pacifique après l'île d'Hawaï et Grande Terre (Nouvelle-Calédonie).


Distinction from other breathing terms.

Different sources produce different classifications for breathing terms.  Some describe tachypnea as any rapid breathing. Hyperventilation is then described as increased ventilation of the alveoli (which can occur through increased rate or depth of breathing, or both) where there is a smaller rise in metabolic carbon dioxide relative to this increase in ventilation. Hyperpnea, on the other hand, is defined as breathing an increased volume of air, with or without an increase in respiration rate.  Others give another classification: tachypnea is as any rapid breathing, hyperventilation is increased rate of breathing at rest, hyperpnea is an increase in breathing that is appropriately proportional to an increase in metabolic rate.  A third paradigm is: tachypnea is abnormally rapid respiration (though some may argue this is inaccurate as breathing differs from respiration), hyperventilation is increased rate or depth of respiration to abnormal levels causing decreased levels of blood carbon dioxide and hyperpnea is any increase in breathing rate or depth that is not normal.

Causes.

Tachypnea may have physiological or pathological causes. Both of these categories would include large lists of individual causes. For example, physiological causes of tachypnea include exercise. Amongst pathophysiological causes, tachypnea can be a symptom of sepsis, compensation for diabetic ketoacidosis or other metabolic acidosis, pneumonia, pleural effusion, carbon monoxide poisoning, pulmonary embolism, asthma, COPD, laryngospasm, allergic reaction causing airway edema, foreign body aspiration, tracheobronchomalacia, congestive heart failure, anxiety states, or many other medical issues.

Etymology and pronunciation.

The word "tachypnea" () uses combining forms of "tachy-" + "-pnea", yielding "fast breathing". See pronunciation information at "dyspnea".

Tachypnea is a respiration rate greater than normal, resulting in abnormally rapid breathing. In adult humans at rest, any respiratory rate between 12 and 20 breaths per minute is normal and tachypnea is indicated by a rate greater than 20 breaths per minute. Children have significantly higher resting ventilatory rates, which decline rapidly during the first three years of life and then steadily until around 18 years. Tachypnea can be an early medical sign of pneumonia in children.

La tachypnée, de "tachy-" (rapide) et "-pnée" (respiration), désigne une augmentation de la fréquence respiratoire à volume courant normal, la ventilation pulmonaire est accélérée. La respiration au repos est de 12 à 18 mouvements respiratoires par minute chez un adulte et de 35 à 50 mouvements par minute chez un nourrisson.


Background.

During the 1940s and 1950s, limited social services were available to residents of Quebec. Prior to the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, most of the social services available were provided through the Roman Catholic Church. Among their charges were people considered to be socially vulnerable: those living in poverty, alcoholics or other individuals deemed unable to retain work, unwed mothers, and orphans.  Consistent with the values of both the Church and the period, many children were admitted to orphanages despite not having been formally orphaned due to their "bastard" status (being born to unwed mothers). Some of these orphanages were operated by religious institutes, due to a lack of secular investment in social services; they encouraged unwed mothers to leave their children there, so that they might be raised in the Church. Despite the claims of supporting the children, many orphans born out of wedlock suffered from poor care in these facilities.  The "Loi sur les Asiles d'aliénés" (Lunatic Asylum Act) of 1909 governed mental institution admissions until 1950. The law stated the mentally ill could be committed for three reasons: to care for them, to help them, or as a measure to maintain social order in public and private life. However, the act did not define what a disruption of social order was, leaving the decision to admit patients up to psychiatrists.  The provincial government of Union Nationale Premier Maurice Duplessis received subsidies from the federal government for building hospitals, but received substantially fewer subsidies to support orphanages. Government contributions were only $1.25 a day for orphans, but $2.75 a day for psychiatric patients. This disparity in funding provided a strong financial incentive for reclassification. Under Duplessis, the provincial government was responsible for a significant number of healthy older children being deliberately misdiagnosed as mentally incompetent and sent to psychiatric hospitals, based on superficial diagnoses made for fiscal reasons. Duplessis also signed an order-in-council which changed the classification of orphanages into hospitals in order to provide them with federal subsidies.  A commission in the early 1960s investigating mental institutions after Duplessis' death revealed one-third of the 22,000 patients classified as "mentally incompetent" were classified as such for the province's financial benefit, and not due to any real psychiatric deficit. Following the publication of the Bédard report in 1962, the province ceased retaining the institutional notion of "asylum." When many of the orphans reached adulthood, in light of these institutional changes, they were permitted to leave the facilities.

Impacts on orphans.

Years later, long after these institutions were closed, survivors of the asylums began to speak out about child abuse which they endured at the hands of some staff and medical personnel. Many who have spoken publicly about their experiences claim that they had been abused physically and sexually, and were subjected to lobotomies, electroshock and straitjackets.  In a psychiatric study completed by one of the involved hospitals, middle-aged Duplessis Orphans reported more physical and mental impairments than the control group. In addition, the orphans were less likely to be married or to have a healthy social life. 80% reported they had suffered a traumatic experience between the ages of 7 to 18. Over 50% said they had undergone physical, mental, or sexual abuse. About 78% reported difficulty functioning socially or emotionally in their adult life.

Legal recourse in the 1990s.

By the 1990s, about 3,000 survivors and a large group supporters formed the Duplessis Orphans Committee, seeking damages from the Quebec provincial government. In March 1999, the provincial government made an offer of approximately CAD$15,000 as full compensation to each of the victims. The offer was rejected and the provincial government was harshly criticized, with Quebec's Ombudsman at the time, Daniel Jacoby, saying that the government's handling of the affair trivialized the abuse alleged by the victims. In 2001, the claimants received an increased offer from the provincial government for a flat payment of $10,000 per person, plus an additional $1,000 for each year of wrongful confinement to a mental institution. The offer amounted to approximately $25,000 per orphan, but did not include any compensation for alleged victims of sexual or other abuse.  After the offer was accepted by representatives of the Duplessis Orphans Committee, the result was bitterly contested by other members upon learning that under the terms of the settlement, the Committee's lawyer, president, and former public relations official would receive six- to seven-figure payments, in comparison with the paltry amount given to the actual victims. The Committee subsequently voted to replace both the president and the public relations official. Critics of the judgment pointed out that three of the bureaucrats running the government's compensation program were being paid over $1,000 per day for work, whereas the orphans themselves received the same amount of money for an entire year of their confinement.  Seven religious communities were involved in operating some of the facilities: the Sisters of Providence, the Sisters of Mercy, the Gray Nuns of Montreal, the Sisters of Charity of Quebec, the Little Franciscans of Mary, the Brothers of Notre-Dame-de-la-Misericorde, and the Brothers of Charity. When the settlement with the provincial government was reached, the orphans agreed to drop any further legal action against the Catholic Church. This offended some survivors; in 2006, one of the Orphans, Martin Lécuyer, stated, "It's important for me, that the Church, the priests, that they recognize they were responsible for the sexual abuse, and the aggression. It's not for the government to set that peace... It's an insult, and it's the biggest proof that the government is an accomplice of the Church."

Aftermath.

In 1999, researchers Léo-Paul Lauzon and Martin Poirier issued a report arguing that both the Quebec provincial government and the Catholic Church made substantial profits by falsely certifying thousands of Quebec orphans as mentally ill during Duplessis' premiership. The authors made a conservative estimate that religious groups received $70 million in subsidies (measured in 1999 dollars) by claiming the children as "mentally deficient," while the government saved $37 million simply by having one of its orphanages redesignated from an educational institution to a psychiatric hospital. A representative of a religious order involved with the orphanages accused the authors of making "false assertions." In 2010, it was estimated that approximately 300-400 of the original Duplessis orphans were still alive.

Fate of human remains.

In 2004, some Duplessis orphans asked the Quebec government to unearth an abandoned cemetery in the east end of Montreal, which they believed to have held the remains of orphans who may have been the subject of human experimentation. According to testimony by individuals who were at the Cité de St-Jean-de-Dieu insane asylum, the orphans in the asylum's care were routinely used as non-consensual experimental subjects, and many died as a consequence. The group wanted the government to exhume the bodies so that autopsies may be performed. In November 2010, the Duplessis orphans made their case before the United Nations Human Rights Council.

<section begin=Criticism of the historical Catholic Church transclusion/> The Duplessis Orphans () were 20,000 Canadian children who were wrongly certified as mentally ill by the provincial government of Quebec and confined to psychiatric institutions in the 1940s and 1950s. The children were deliberately wrongly certified in order to misappropriate additional subsidies from the federal government. They are named for Maurice Duplessis, who served as Premier of Quebec for five non-consecutive terms between 1936 and 1959. The controversies associated with Duplessis, and particularly the corruption and abuse concerning the Duplessis orphans, have led to the popular historic conception of his term as Premier as "La Grande Noirceur" ("The Great Darkness") by its critics.

Les orphelins de Duplessis est le nom donné à des milliers d'enfants orphelins qui ont faussement été déclarés malades mentaux par le gouvernement du Québec et confinés dans des institutions psychiatriques entre les années 1940 et 1960. On considère que c'est le cas le plus important de maltraitance d'enfants dans l'histoire du Canada. Tous ces orphelins seront baptisés "orphelins de Duplessis" car cela coïncide avec l'époque où Maurice Duplessis était premier ministre du Québec. À plusieurs reprises, des enfants enlevés à leur mère célibataire ont été battus, agressés sexuellement et même tués, à la suite d'un massacre.


Education.

Le Gros Clark was educated at Blundell's School and subsequently admitted as a medical student to St Thomas' Hospital Medical School in Lambeth.

Career.

After qualification he immediately joined the Royal Army Medical Corps as a medical officer and was sent to France early in 1918. He caught diphtheria and was sent back to England to recover, following which he spent the remainder of the war as a medical officer at '‘No. 8 Stationary Hospital'’ at Wimereux in northern France. Following a period in the Department of Anatomy at St Thomas' Hospital Medical School he was appointed as Principal Medical Officer to the Sarawak Government. He was subsequently appointed as Professor of Anatomy at St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical School, followed by a period as Professor of Anatomy at St Thomas' Hospital Medical School and finally, in 1934, he was invited to take over as the Dr. Lee's Professor of Anatomy (and effectively the Chair of the Anatomy Department) at the University of Oxford. The following year he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.  In 1953, Le Gros Clark was one of three men (the others being Joseph Weiner and Kenneth Oakley) who proved that the Piltdown Man was a forgery.  He was awarded the Royal Society's Royal Medal in 1961 and delivered their Ferrier Lecture in 1956. He was elected President of the Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland for 1951 to 1953.  Papers relating to Le Gros Clark, his grandfather the surgeon Frederick Le Gros Clark and his brother Cyril Le Gros Clark (former Chief Secretary of Sarawak, who was murdered by the Japanese in 1945 after a period of detention at Batu Lintang camp in Borneo) are held at the Bodleian Library (Special Collections and Western Manuscripts) at Oxford University. During his career Le Gros Clark published numerous papers on human evolution and palaeontology, and an autobiography.

Sir Wilfrid Edward Le Gros Clark (5 June 1895 – 28 June 1971) was a British anatomist, surgeon, primatologist and palaeoanthropologist, today best remembered for his contribution to the study of human evolution. He was Dr Lee's Professor of Anatomy at the University of Oxford.

Wilfrid Le Gros Clark ( - ) est un anatomiste et un chirurgien britannique qui s'est rendu notoire par sa contribution à la paléoprimatologie et à la paléoanthropologie.


Examples of volcanic plugs.

Africa.

Near the village of Rhumsiki in the Far North Province of Cameroon, Kapsiki Peak is an example of a volcanic plug and is one of the most photographed parts of the Mandara Mountains. Spectacular volcanic plugs are present in the center of La Gomera island in the Canary Islands archipelago, within the Garajonay National Park.

Europe.

Borgarvirki is a volcanic plug located in north Iceland.  A volcanic plug is situated in the town of Motta Sant'Anastasia in Italy.  Saint Michel d'Aiguilhe chapel, whose construction started in 969, near Le Puy-en-Velay in France. The volcanic plug rises about above the surroundings. Another building on a volcanic plug is the 14th century Trosky Castle in the Czech Republic.  Strombolicchio, the northernmost of the Aeolian Islands, and Rockall, a small, uninhabited, remote islet in the North Atlantic Ocean, are also volcanic plugs.  In the United Kingdom, two examples of a building on a volcanic plug are the Castle Rock in Edinburgh, Scotland, and Deganwy Castle, Wales. The Law, Dundee, Ailsa Craig, Bass Rock, North Berwick Law and Dumgoyne hill are other examples of volcanic plugs located in Scotland. There are over 30 volcanic plugs in Northern Ireland, including Slemish in Ballymena, Tievebulliagh, Scawt Hill, Carrickarede, Scrabo and Slieve Gallion.

North America and the Caribbean.

There are several volcanic plugs in the United States, including Morro Rock in California, Thumb Butte in the Sierra Prieta of Arizona, and Shiprock in New Mexico. Devils Tower in Wyoming and Little Devils Postpile in Yosemite National Park, California, are also believed to be volcanic plugs by many geologists.  In Canada, the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province gives rise to several confirmed and suspected plugs. Chief among these is Castle Rock, located in British Columbia, which last erupted during the Pleistocene.  The southern coast of Saint Lucia is dominated by the iconic Pitons, a UNESCO World Heritage site. The twin peaks, Gros Piton and Petit Piton, steeply rise more than above the Caribbean.

Oceania.

There are several volcanic plugs in the North Island of New Zealand, including:  In New Zealand's South Island, Ōnawe Peninsula on Banks Peninsula is a prominent volcanic plug, and erosion of Saddle Hill near Dunedin has also revealed a plug. Dunedin's Mount Cargill displays two plugs: its main summit and the subsidiary summit of Buttar's Peak.  In Australia, the Nut and Table Cape in Tasmania are further examples along with Mount Warning in New South Wales.

A volcanic plug, also called a volcanic neck or lava neck, is a volcanic object created when magma hardens within a vent on an active volcano. When present, a plug can cause an extreme build-up of pressure if rising volatile-charged magma is trapped beneath it, and this can sometimes lead to an explosive eruption. Glacial erosion can lead to exposure of the plug on one side, while a long slope of material remains on the opposite side. Such landforms are called crag and tail. If a plug is preserved, erosion may remove the surrounding rock while the erosion-resistant plug remains, producing a distinctive upstanding landform.

Un neck (terme anglais signifiant « cou »), ou nek, est un relief volcanique résiduel en forme de pointe de grande dimension. Il correspond à une ancienne cheminée volcanique qui s'est solidifiée (par remplissage ou comblement vertical de matériel intrusif ou bréchique) à la fin d'une éruption et qui a été ensuite dégagée par l'érosion. Cette structure de lave solidifiée résiste mieux à l'érosion que les matériaux d'éjection qui l'entourent. Une fois le cône érodé, il reste une aiguille qui est la relique d'un cône disparu.


Types and uses.

A modern crop usually consists of a long shaft of fiberglass or cane which is covered in leather, fabric, or similar material. The rod of a crop thickens at one end to form a handle, and terminates in a thin, flexible tress such as wound cord or a leather tongue, known as a keeper. The thin end is intended to make contact with the horse, whilst the keeper prevents the horse's skin from being marked. The handle may have a loop of leather to help secure the grip or a "mushroom" on the end to prevent it from slipping through the rider's hand.  The length of a crop is designed to allow enough leverage for it to be accelerated rapidly with a controlled flick of the wrist, without causing the rider balancing problems. Thus, a true crop is relatively short.  The term "whip" is a more common term that includes both riding crops as well as longer types of horse whips used for both riding and ground work. A whip is a little slower than a crop, mostly due to having slightly greater length and flexibility.

In equestrianism.

Crops are principally designed to back up the natural aids (leg, seat and voice) of a rider, but may also be used as a reprimand by more experienced riders, for example to discipline a horse for refusing a jump or other types of disobedience. However, care must be taken not to desensitize the animal to the stimulus.

A crop, sometimes called a riding crop or hunting crop, is a short type of whip without a lash, used in horse riding, part of the family of tools known as horse whips.

La cravache est un bâton utilisé par le cavalier en équitation en tant qu'aide artificielle ou instrument de punition. Les cravaches sont plus ou moins longues, plus ou moins épaisses, de couleurs différentes, voire décorées de façon originale. Elles ont aussi des formes variées de poignée et de claquette. Certaines cravaches sont munies d'une dragonne qui permet de ne pas les faire tomber, mais qui s'avère gênante pour les changements de main. Une bonne cravache standard est équilibrée, munie d'une poignée anti-dérapante qui tient bien en main, avec une tige flexible et dynamique et avec une claquette souple et large. En tenant très légèrement et à l'horizontale la cravache par la base de la poignée, celle-ci doit rester parfaitement en équilibre.