History.

The Venice Film Festival in Italy began in 1932 and is the oldest film festival still running. Raindance Film Festival is the UK's largest celebration of independent filmmaking and takes place in London in October.  Mainland Europe's biggest independent film festival is ÉCU The European Independent Film Festival, which started in 2006 and takes place every spring in Paris, France. Edinburgh International Film Festival is the longest-running festival in Great Britain as well as the longest continually running film festival in the world.  Australia's first and longest-running film festival is the Melbourne International Film Festival (1952), followed by the Sydney Film Festival (1954).  North America's first and longest running short film festival is the Yorkton Film Festival, established in 1947. The first film festival in the United States was the Columbus International Film & Video Festival, also known as The Chris Awards, held in 1953. According to the Film Arts Foundation in San Francisco, ""The Chris Awards" (is) one of the most prestigious documentary, educational, business and informational competitions in the U.S; (it is) the oldest of its kind in North America and celebrating its 54th year". It was followed four years later by the San Francisco International Film Festival, held in March 1957, which emphasized feature-length dramatic films. The festival played a major role in introducing foreign films to American audiences. Films in the first year included Akira Kurosawa's "Throne of Blood" and Satyajit Ray's "Pather Panchali".  Today, thousands of film festivals take place around the world—from high-profile festivals such as Sundance Film Festival and Slamdance Film Festival (Park City, Utah), to horror festivals such as Terror Film Festival (Philadelphia), and the Park City Film Music Festival, the first U.S. film festival dedicated to honoring music in film.  Film Funding competitions such as Writers and Filmmakers were introduced when the cost of production could be lowered significantly and internet technology allowed for the collaboration of film production.

Festival administration.

Business model.

Although there are notable for-profit festivals such as SXSW, most festivals operate on a nonprofit membership-based model, with a combination of ticket sales, membership fees, and corporate sponsorship constituting the majority of revenue. Unlike other arts nonprofits (performing arts, museums, etc.), film festivals typically receive few donations from the general public and are occasionally organized as nonprofit business associations instead of public charities. Film industry members often have significant curatorial input, and corporate sponsors are given opportunities to promote their brand to festival audiences in exchange for cash contributions. Private parties, often to raise investments for film projects, constitute significant "fringe" events. Larger festivals maintain year-round staffs often engaging in community and charitable projects outside the festival season.

Entry fee.

While entries from established filmmakers are usually considered pluses by the organizers, most festivals require new or relatively unknown filmmakers to pay an entry fee to have their works considered for screening. This is especially so in larger film festivals, such as the Cannes Film Festival, Jaipur International Film Festival in Jaipur India, [Toronto International Film Festival]], Sundance Film Festival, South by Southwest, Montreal World Film Festival, and even smaller "boutique" festivals such as the Miami International Film Festival, British Urban Film Festival in London and Mumbai Women's International Film Festival in India.  On the other hand, some festivals—usually those accepting fewer films, and perhaps not attracting as many "big names" in their audiences as do Sundance and Telluride—require no entry fee. Rotterdam Film Festival, Mumbai Film Festival, and many smaller film festivals in the United States (the Stony Brook Film Festival on Long Island, the Northwest Filmmakers' Festival, and the Sicilian Film Festival in Miami), are examples. The Portland International Film Festival charges an entry fee, but waives it for filmmakers from the Northwestern United States, and some others with regional focuses have similar approaches.  Several film festival submission portal websites exist to streamline filmmakers' entries into multiple festivals. They provide databases of festival calls for entry and offer filmmakers a convenient "describe once, submit many" service.

Screening out of competition.

The core tradition of film festivals is competition, that is, the consideration of films with the intention of judging which are most deserving of various forms of recognition. In contrast to those films, some festivals may screen (i.e., project onto a movie screen before an audience) some films without treating them as part of the competition; the films are said to be "screened out..." (or "outside...") "of competition".

Notable festivals.

The three major film festivals in Europe are considered to be Cannes, Venice, and Berlin, and have been celebrated by the Three Colours trilogy (Blue for Venice, White for Berlin, and Red for Cannes). The most prestigious film festivals in north America are Sundance and Toronto.  In North America, the Toronto International Film Festival is North America's most popular festival. "Time" wrote it had "grown from its place as the most influential fall film festival to the most influential film festival, period". The Seattle International Film Festival is credited as being the largest film festival in the US, regularly showing over 400 films in a month across the city. The Tribeca Film Festival, South by Southwest, New York Film Festival, Woodstock Film Festival, Montreal World Film Festival, and Vancouver International Film Festival are also major North American festivals.

Competitive feature films.

The festivals in Berlin, Cairo, Cannes, Goa, Karlovy Vary, Locarno, Mar del Plata, Montreal, Moscow, San Sebastián, Shanghai, Tallinn, Tokyo, Venice, and Warsaw are accredited by the International Federation of Film Producers Associations (FIAPF) in the category of competitive feature films. As a rule for films to compete, they must first be released during the festivals and not in any other previous venue beforehand.

Experimental films.

Ann Arbor Film Festival started in 1963. It is the oldest continually operated experimental film festival in North America, and has become one of the premiere film festivals for independent and, primarily, experimental filmmakers to showcase work.

Independent films.

In the U.S., Telluride Film Festival, Sundance Film Festival, Austin Film Festival, Austin's South by Southwest, New York City's Tribeca Film Festival, London's London Eco-Film Festival and Slamdance Film Festival are all considered significant festivals for independent film. The Zero Film Festival is significant as the first and only festival exclusive to self-financed filmmakers. The biggest independent film festival in the UK is Raindance Film Festival. The British Urban Film Festival (which specifically caters for Black and minority interests) was officially recognized in the 2020 New Year Honours list.

Subject specific films.

A few film festivals have focused on highlighting specific issues/ subjects. These festivals have included both mainstream and independent films. Some examples include military films, health-related film festivals and human rights films festivals.  There are festivals, especially in the US< that highlight and promote films made by or are about various ethnic groups and nationalities or feature the cinema from a specific foreign country. These include,, Latino-Americans, Arabs, Italian, German, French, Palestinian and. The Deauville American Film Festival in France is devoted to the cinema of the United States.  LGBTQ and are also popular.

North american film festivals.

The San Francisco International Film Festival, founded by Irving "Bud" Levin started in 1957, is the oldest continuously annual film festival in the United States. It highlights current trends in international filmmaking and video production with an emphasis on work that has not yet secured U.S. distribution.  The Toronto International Film Festival, founded by Bill Marshall, Henk Van der Kolk and Dusty Cohl, is regarded as North America's most major and most prestigious film festival, and is the most widely attended.  The Sundance film festival founded by Sterling Van Wagenen (then head of Wildwood, Robert Redford's company), John Earle, and Cirina Hampton Catania (both serving on the Utah Film Commission at the time) is a major festival for independent film.  The Woodstock Film Festival was launched in 2000 by filmmakers Meira Blaustein and Laurent Rejto with the goal to bring high quality independent film to the Hudson Valley region of New York. Indiewire has named the Woodstock Film Festival among the top 50 independent film festivals worldwide.  The Regina International Film Festival and awards (RIFFA) founded by John Thimothy, one of the top leading international film festivals in western Canada (Regina, Saskatchewan) represented 35 countries in 2018 festival. RIFFA annual Award show and red carpet arrival event is getting noticed in the contemporary film and fashion industries in Western Canada.  Toronto's Hot Docs founded by filmmaker Paul Jay, is the leading North American documentary film festival. Toronto has the largest number of film festivals in the world, ranging from cultural, independent, and historic films.  The Seattle International Film Festival, which screens 270 features and approximately 150 short films, is the largest American film festival in terms of the number of feature productions.

Latin American.

The Cartagena Film Festival, founded by Victor Nieto in 1960, is the oldest film festival in Latin America. The Festival de Gramado (or Gramado Film Festival) Gramado, Brazil, along with the Guadalajara International Film Festival in Guadalajara, the Morelia International Film Festival in Morelia, Michoacan Mexico, and the Los Cabos International Film Festival founded by Scott Cross (film director), Sean Cross, and Eduardo Sanchez Navarro, in Los Cabos Baja Sur Mexico are considered the most important film festivals of Latin America. In 2015, Variety called the Los Cabos International Film Festival the "Cannes of Latin America". The Huelva Ibero-American Film Festival has been held since 1975 in that Spanish city.  The Expresión en Corto International Film Festival is the largest competitive film festival in Mexico. It specializes in emerging talent, and is held in the last week of each July in the two colonial cities of San Miguel de Allende and Guanajuato. Oaxaca Film Fest. For Spanish-speaking countries, the Dominican International Film Festival takes place annually in Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic. The Valdivia International Film Festival is held annually in the city of Valdivia. It is arguable the most important film festival in Chile. There is also Filmambiente, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, an international festival on environmental films and videos.

The Caribbean.

The Havana Film Festival was founded in 1979 and is the oldest continuous annual film festival in the Caribbean. Its focus is on Latin American cinema.  The Trinidad and Tobago Film Festival, founded in 2006, is dedicated to screening the newest films from the English-, Spanish, French- and Dutch-speaking Caribbean, as well as the region's diaspora. It also seeks to facilitate the growth of Caribbean cinema by offering a wide-ranging industry programme and networking opportunities.  The Lusca Fantastic Film Fest (formerly Puerto Rico Horror Film Fest) was also founded in 2006 and is the first and only international fantastic film festival in the Caribbean devoted to Sci-Fi, Thriller, Fantasy, Dark Humor, Bizarre, Horror, Anime, Adventure, Virtual Reality and Animation in Short and Feature Films.

Animation.

Many film festivals are dedicated exclusively to animation.  A variety of regional festivals happen in various countries. Austin Film Festival is accredited by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences, which makes all their jury award-winning narrative short and animated short films eligible for an Academy Award.

Asian film festivals.

India.

The International Film Festival of India, organized by the government of India, was founded in 1952. The Kolkata International Film Festival, founded in 1995, is the third oldest international film festival in India. The International Film Festival of Kerala organised by Government of Kerala held annually at Thiruvananthapuram is acknowledged as one of the leading cultural events in Indian.  The International Documentary and Short Film Festival of Kerala (IDSFFK), hosted by the Kerala State Chalachitra Academy, is a major documentary and short film festival.  Other notable festivals in India include the Osian's-Cinefan: Festival of Asian Cinema at New Delhi, which recently expanded to include Arab Cinema, Chennai Women's International Film Festival (CWIFF), the Annual Mumbai Film Festival in India, with its US$200,000 cash prize (www.mumbaifilmfest.com), and Mumbai Women's International Film Festival (MWIFF), an annual film festival in Mumbai featuring films made by women directors and women technicians.

Others.

Notable festivals include the Hong Kong International Film Festival (HKIFF), Busan International Film Festival (BIFF), and Kathmandu International Mountain Film Festival.

African festivals.

There are several significant film festivals held regularly in Africa. The biannual Panafrican Film and Television Festival of Ouagadougou (FESPACO) in Burkina Faso was established in 1969 and accepts for competition only films by African filmmakers and chiefly produced in Africa. The annual Durban International Film Festival in South Africa and Zanzibar International Film Festival in Tanzania have grown in importance for the film and entertainment industry, as they often screen the African premieres of many international films.  The Sahara International Film Festival, held annually in the Sahrawi refugee camps in western Algeria near the border of Western Sahara, is notable as the only film festival in the world to take place in a refugee camp. The festival has the two-fold aim of providing cultural entertainment and educational opportunities to refugees, and of raising awareness of the plight of the Sahrawi people, who have been exiled from their native Western Sahara for more than three decades.

European festivals.

The most important European film festivals are Venice Film Festival (late summer to early autumn), Cannes Film Festival (late spring to early summer) and Berlin International Film Festival (late winter to early spring), founded in 1932, 1946 and 1951 respectively.

A film festival is an organized, extended presentation of films in one or more cinemas or screening venues, usually in a single city or region. Increasingly, film festivals show some films outdoors. Films may be of recent date and, depending upon the festival's focus, can include international and domestic releases. Some festivals focus on a specific film-maker or genre (e.g. film noir) or subject matter (e.g. horror film festivals). A number of film festivals specialise in short films of a defined maximum length. Film festivals are typically annual events. Some film historians, including Jerry Beck, do not consider film festivals official releases of film.

Un festival de cinéma est un évènement annuel au cours duquel sont présentés des films dans des cinémas ou lors de projections publiques, en général dans un lieu donné et pour une durée limitée dans le temps. Le festival peut être consacré à un genre cinématographique spécifique (fantastique, horreur, animation, film noir, etc.), à une catégorie (cinéma indépendant, film documentaire) ou un format (court métrage) en particulier. La sélection peut concerner des films locaux, nationaux ou internationaux. Les festivals de cinéma sont l'occasion pour des réalisateurs et des producteurs de présenter leur film en avant-première.


Architecture.

Audio path.

Oscillators.

The MS-20 has two VCOs. The output of VCO1 can be set to triangle, sawtooth, adjustable-width pulse or white noise. The output of VCO2 can be set to sawtooth, square, rectangle or "ring mod" which is in fact an exclusive-OR between the pulse output of VCO1 and the square wave output of VCO2. Although the pulse width of VCO1 is adjustable, there is no voltage control for this parameter and as a result pulse width modulation is not possible although mods have successfully achieved this. The VCOs have Hz/V voltage control inputs but note that oct/V scaling is available via judicious use of the "total" CV input socket.

Filters.

There are two VCFs in series. The first is a 6 dB/oct high-pass, the second a 12 dB/oct low-pass. Resonance ("peak" in Korg parlance) is adjustable but not voltage-controlled.  Originally, the filters used Korg's proprietary KORG-35 thick film IC. Later, the filters were redesigned to use off-the-shelf LM13600 OTAs. MS-20 units fitted with LM13600 filters have a small daughter board; the front panel on such units "often" has a tell-tale mounting screw whose head is visible in the vicinity of the VCA block diagram. However, a report to the Analogue Heaven email list in January 2010 identified an MS-20 with the front panel screw but containing the Korg 35 filter thick film circuit rather than the expected LM13600 circuit.  A useful illustration of the Korg-35 filter in-circuit is shown here and some photographs illustrating the later LM13600 filter daughterboard are shown here. The tonal difference between the two is that the original Korg-35 filter has a slight amount of hiss which overdrives into the sound at high resonant settings. This causes the filter to have more of a "screaming" effect similar to it being used with a distortion pedal. The revised filter has most of this noise cleared up and is less aggressive sounding.

Output.

The final component in the audio path is a VCA. It is a single-transistor design, based on a selected 2SC945 which is an NPN silicon device (equivalenced by 2N2222A according to the Towers' International Transistor Selector book, update 5 (, 90100)).

Modulation.

Modulation generator.

The MS-20 has a low frequency oscillator, labelled "modulation generator". It has two controls ("rate" and "shape") and two outputs (pulse and sloped).  The shape control was a rather unusual feature for the time. It affects the duty cycle of the pulse output and the shape of the sloped output. When the control is at the anticlockwise end, the pulse width is very high (pulse output stays high for most of the cycle) and the sloped output is an upward sawtooth wave. At the clockwise end, the pulse width is very low (pulse output stays low for most of the cycle) and the sloped output is a downward sawtooth wave. At midway, the pulse width is 50% (pulse output is a square wave) and the sloped output is a triangle wave.  The pulse output is available through the patch panel. It is unipolar (0 or +5V) and suitable for triggering the S&H or the envelope generators.  The sloped output is bipolar (-2.5V to +2.5V). Like the pulse output, it is available through a dedicated jack on the patch panel. It also feeds the top modulation bus and so can be used to modulate the frequency of the VCOs and the cutoff frequency of either or both VCF without patching.

Envelopes.

There are two envelope generators. EG1 has Delay, Attack, and Release parameters, whilst EG2 has Hold, Attack, Decay, Sustain and Release. The envelope generators have S-trig trigger inputs.

Other sources and options.

The MS-20 also includes a noise source (pink and white), a separate vactrol-based modulation VCA, a wheel controller, and a trigger button. It is possible to connect the MS-20 to a step sequencer like the SQ-10 (another product by Korg). This involves making use of the CV input and the trigger input which connects straight to the SQ-10, this means that the synthesizer and the step sequencer can work in synchronisation to play the notes when the next step of the sequencers pattern is triggered. In theory it is possible to connect any analogue sequencer to the MS-20 providing it has a trigger and CV output.

External signal processor.

The MS-20 includes a frequency-voltage converter, envelope follower and gate extractor which can be used to drive it with an external signal. By connecting the output of the F-V converter to the CV input of the VCOs (VCO 1+2 CV IN) and the output of the gate extractor to the trigger input of the envelope generators (TRIG IN), the operator can play the MS-20 through his/her voice or another instrument.  Instead of triggering the envelope generators, one can connect the output of the envelope follower to the main VCA's INITIAL GAIN input. In that mode of operation, the envelope generators are not used and the envelope of the MS-20's output is simply that of the external signal.

"MS-20" reissues.

In January, 2013, Korg announced at NAMM that the company would release the Korg MS-20 mini. It is 86% the size of the Korg MS-20. The mini was designed by the engineers who developed the original MS-20. It aims to be a faithful re-release of the original electronic circuits of the MS-20. The MS-20 mini features 1/8-inch input and output jacks, a MIDI IN jack as well as USB MIDI (input and output).  In January, 2014, Korg announced that they would release a limited edition full-size unassembled MS-20. Like the MS-20 Mini, this kit adds MIDI and USB connectivity. The MS-20 Kit also includes both MS-20 filter revisions, selectable by the user.  In January, 2015, Korg announced at the 2015 NAMM show they would release an unassembled desktop module kit called the "MS-20M Kit." The module kit does not include a keyboard and was sold as a bundle with the Korg SQ-1 step sequencer. This version features self-oscillating high-pass/low-pass filters with distinctive distortion, toggle switches for VCO 1 to 2 sync / VCO 1 to 2 FM, a toggle to switch between rev 1 and rev 2 filter designs, PWM IN jack allows pulse width modulation, supports all CV/GATE specifications: Hz/V and V/Oct, S-Trig and V-Trig, a MIDI IN connector and USB MIDI connector, and adds a junction patching bay for integration with SQ-1.  In September of 2019, Behringer announced their low-cost clone of the MS-20, the K-2.  At NAMM 2020, Korg announced a full size reissue of the MS-20, the MS-20 FS.

Software emulations.

There is a software emulator of the MS-20 included in the KORG legacy Collection. As well as a standalone emulator, the Legacy Collection provides the MS-20 as a virtual instrument (VST). The external signal processor is implemented separately as a VST effect called MS-20EX. This same software emulated MS-20 was also part of the LAC-1 expansion for the Korg OASYS and is one of the Korg Kronos sound engines.  KORG DS-10 is a music creation program for the Nintendo DS that emulates the Korg MS range of synthesizers.  KORG iMS-20 is an MS-20 emulator for the iPad.

References.

The Korg MS-20 is a patchable semi-modular monophonic analog synthesizer which Korg released in 1978 and which was in production until 1983. It was part of Korg's MS series of instruments, which also included the single oscillator MS-10, the keyboardless MS-50 module, the SQ-10 sequencer, and the VC-10 Vocoder. Additional devices included the MS-01 Foot Controller, MS-02 Interface, MS-03 Signal Processor, and MS-04 Modulation Pedal.

Le Korg MS-20 est un synthétiseur analogique monophonique semi-modulaire, commercialisé initialement en 1978 par Korg, et qui fut en production jusqu'en 1983. Il faisait partie de la série MS d'instruments de Korg, dont faisaient aussi partie le MS-10, synthétiseur à un seul oscillateur, le module sans clavier MS-50, le séquenceur SQ-10, ainsi que le vocodeur VC-10. Les ingénieurs de la société japonaise ont décidé de re-commercialiser, depuis 2013, le MS-20 en deux versions, le MS-20 Mini, qui est une copie exacte du MS-20 original, mais fabriqué à 86 % de la taille du synthétiseur authentique, et le MS-20 Kit, une version à taille réelle en kit (à monter soi-même).


Etymology.

Bandar Abbas has always been a port, and as such its various names have all addressed this function. The most common name over time (Gameroon) has traditionally been said to derive from Persian "gümrük", customhouse (from Late Greek "kommerkion", from Latin "commercium", "commerce"), but is now speculated to be from Persian "kamrūn", shrimp (which in Portuguese is "camarão", similar to the former Portuguese name). Its current name is derived from that of Shah Abbas I paired with 'port.'  Bandar Abbas has been romanized as Bandar ‘Abbās and Bandar ‘Abbāsī. It has also been referred to as Jaroon to the Arabs and Cameron to the English. Bandar Abbas was formerly known as Cambarão and Porto Comorão to Portuguese traders, as Gombroon to English traders and as Gamrun or Gumrun to Dutch merchants.

History.

Pre-Islamic history.

The earliest record of Bandar Abbas is during the reign of Darius the Great (between 522 and 486 BCE). Darius's commander, Silacus, embarked from Bandar Abbas to India and the Red Sea. During Alexander's conquest of the Persian Empire, Bandar Abbas was known under the name of Hormirzad.  In the year 630 CE, Maharaja Derbar Raja of Gemeron was defeated in battle and escaped to Ceylon, and he was later blown off course by a storm to the remote shores of Kuala Sungai Qilah, Kedah (now Malaysia). The inhabitants of Kedah found him to be a valiant and intelligent person, and they made him the king of Kedah. In the year 634 CE, a new kingdom was formed in Kedah consisting of Persian royalty and native Malay of Hindu faith, the capital was Langkasuka (see Kedah Sultanate and Early history of Kedah).

Portuguese period.

By the 16th century, Bandar Abbas was known as Gamrūn to the Persians. In 1565, a European navigator called it Bamdel Gombruc (that is, "Bandar Gümrük", or "Customhouse Port"), citing this as the Persian and Turkish name. Bandar Abbas was conquered by the Portuguese in 1514, and was an important location to protect their commerce in the Persian Gulf and India. They named the city Comorão, due to the presence of lobsters and crabs on its shores.  In 1614, Comorão was taken by ‘Abbās the Great from the Portuguese and renamed Bandar-e ‘Abbās ("Port of ‘Abbās"). Backed by the English navy, ‘Abbās developed the city (known to the English-speaking world as Gombraun) into a major port. By 1622, the Portuguese and English names had been officially combined to form Combrù or Combu, although the inhabitants still called it Bandar-e ‘Abbās. Sir Thomas Herbert said the official English name was Gumbrown, but pronounced [gŏmrōōn]. He wrote in 1630 that "some (but I commend them not) write it Gamrou, others Gomrow, and othersome Cummeroon." By the 1670s, the city was known as Gameroon.  In 1622 CE Shah Abbas defeated Portuguese troops with the help of British troops and Iranian commander Imam Quli Khan. In honor of this victory Gumbroon was renamed Bandar Abbas Port. In the current division of Bandar Abbas in Hormozgan province and one of the most important strategic and commercial center is in the vicinity of the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea.

Omani period.

Between 1794 and 1868, Bandar Abbas was under the control of the Sultanate of Oman and Zanzibar through a lease agreement with Persia. The details of the original lease apparently differed between the Arabic and Persian versions. The Omanis controlled the coastal stretch of some 100 miles from Sadij to Khamir, and inland about 30 miles, as far as Shamil. They also controlled the islands of Hormuz and Qeshm. In 1823, the Persians attempted to oust the Omanis, but the sultan managed to keep his hold on Bandar through bribery and tribute of the governor of Shiraz. In 1845–46, an army under the governor general of Fars menaced Bandar to extort tribute, while another army under the governor of Kerman besieged Minab. The Omanis threatened to blockade Persia, but the British resident at Bushir convinced them to back down.  The Persians recovered the city in 1854, while the sultan was in Zanzibar. Under British pressure following the Anglo-Persian War in 1856, Persia renewed Oman's lease on favourable terms. It was clarified that the leased territory belonged to the province of Fars and that the Persian flag would fly over Bandar Abbas. The rental rate was also increased. Under British pressure the agreement was renewed in 1868, but at a higher rate of rent and for a shorter duration. Two months after its renewal, the lease was cancelled by the Persian government, citing a clause which permitted its termination if the sultan of Oman were overthrown.

Contemporary history.

An earthquake in July 1902 damaged parts of the city, including the governor's house and the customs office, and nearby Kishm island.  Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi paid particular attention to Bandar Abbas as a strategic port and during his time the government invested huge amounts of capital in the infrastructure.  Bandar Abbas serves as a major shipping point, mostly for imports, and has a long history of trade with India, particularly the port of Surat. Thousands of tourists visit the city and nearby islands including Qeshm and Hormuz every year.  Bandar Abbas was a small fishing port of about 17,000 people in 1955, prior to initial plans to develop it as a major harbor. By 2001, it had grown into a major city. It has a population of 450,000 (2011 estimate).

Geography.

Bandar Abbas is situated on flat ground with an average altitude of above sea level. The nearest elevated areas are Mt. Geno, to the north, and Mt. Pooladi, to the northwest of the city. The closest river to Bandar Abbas is the River Shoor, which rises on Mt. Geno and flows into the Persian Gulf, east of the city. South of the city is the island of Qeshm.

Climate.

Bandar Abbas has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification "BWh"). Maximum temperature in summers can reach while in winters the minimum temperature may drop to. The annual rainfall is around and the average relative humidity is 65%.  In the summer, Bandar Abbas sees some of the highest average dew points of any city in the world, averaging and frequently exceeding. As a result, heat indices generally top for most days during the summer. This immense humidity causes summer diurnal ranges to be lower than in most desert climates, and is a result of air flow from the warm waters of the Persian Gulf.

Transportation.

Air.

Bandar Abbas International Airport has capacity and facilities for landing large transport airplanes.

Roads.

Bandar Abbas is accessible via the following highways:

Rail.

Since 1993, Bandar Abbas has been the southern terminus of Islamic Republic of Iran Railways' main North–South corridor that links it to Yazd, Qom, Tehran and Qazvin to the north.

Language.

Original Bandaris (residents of Bandar Abbas) speak Bandari (بندری), a dialect of Persian. Bandari has loanwords from various European languages (e.g. "tawāl", "towel") and some from Arabic (e.g. "atā" [اتى], "to come"), Persian and Balochi.

Sports.

Aluminium Hormozgan is Bander Abbas's main football (soccer) team. The team was founded in 2006. In 2012 they were promoted to the Iran Pro League but after their first season there they were relegated back to the Azadegan League where they currently play. Bander Abbas also has a second less supported team, Shahrdari Bandar Abbas, which was founded in 2005 and is the municipality's team.

Bandar Abbas or Bandar-e ‘Abbās () (Arabic: بندر عباس) is a port city and capital of Hormozgān Province on the southern coast of Iran, on the Persian Gulf. The city occupies a strategic position on the narrow Strait of Hormuz, and it is the location of the main base of the Iranian Navy. Bandar Abbas is also the capital and largest city of Bandar Abbas County. At the 2016 census, its population was 526,648.

Bandar Abbas est une ville portuaire iranienne située au bord du golfe Persique et est la capitale de la province de Hormozgan. Elle occupe une position stratégique sur le détroit d'Ormuz.


Major League career.

Born in St. Louis, Missouri, Ruel began his professional baseball career at the age of 19 with his hometown team, the St. Louis Browns, appearing in 10 games during the 1915 season. He then played in the minor leagues for two seasons with the Memphis Chickasaws before joining the New York Yankees in. With the Yankees, Ruel shared catching duties with Truck Hannah from 1918 to 1920. He was the Yankees catcher on August 16, when a Carl Mays' pitch hit Ray Chapman on the head, resulting in Chapman's death the next day. He later defended Mays and said that he was innocent of any wrongdoing.  Ruel would be traded to the Boston Red Sox in 1921, where he played for two seasons before being traded to the Washington Senators in. In the 1923 season, he posted a career-high batting average of.316 along with 54 runs batted in. He led American League catchers in assists and putouts, and finished 11th in the American League Most Valuable Player Award ballot. He had another solid year in 1924, playing in 149 games and once again leading the American League catchers in assists and putouts. With Ruel calling the pitches, Walter Johnson's career was revitalized, as he led the league with 23 victories and a 2.72 earned run average. The Senators clinched the American League pennant, finishing the season two games ahead of the New York Yankees. The Senators would face John McGraw's heavily favored New York Giants in the 1924 World Series. The two teams traded wins back and forth until the series reached the seventh and deciding game. The Senators trailed the Giants 3 to 1 in the eighth inning of Game 7, when they rallied and tied the score. Ruel hit a single, then scored the tying run during the rally, to send the game into extra innings with the score tied at three runs apeice. In the bottom of the twelfth inning with Ruel at bat, he hit a high, foul ball directly over home plate. The Giants' catcher, Hank Gowdy, dropped his protective mask to field the ball but, failing to toss the mask aside, stumbled over it and dropped the ball, thus giving Ruel another chance to bat. On the next pitch, Ruel hit a double and, then proceeded to score the winning run when Earl McNeely hit a ground ball that took a bad hop over third baseman Freddie Lindstrom's head.  Ruel had another good season in 1925, producing a.310 batting average along with 54 runs batted in and, for the third consecutive year, he led American League catchers in assists and putouts. The Senators would win the American League pennant for the second year in a row, however they were defeated by the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1925 World Series. Ruel hit for a.299 batting average in 1926 and led the American League catchers with a.989 fielding percentage, as the Senators slipped to a fourth-place finish. He had one more good season in 1927, posting a.310 batting average and finishing second among catchers in fielding percentage, putouts, assists and baserunners caught stealing. Ruel finished sixth in the American League Most Valuable Player Award balloting. After the 1927 season, his offensive production began to diminish, and by 1929, Bennie Tate had begun to take over as the Senators' main catcher. In December 1930, Ruel's contract was purchased from the Senators by the Boston Red Sox, who then traded him to the Detroit Tigers in August 1931. With the Tigers, he served as a reserve catcher in 1932 working behind Ray Hayworth. He returned to the St. Louis Browns in 1933 before ending his playing career with the Chicago White Sox in 1934 at the age of 38.

Career statistics.

In a nineteen-year major league career, Ruel played in 1,468 games, accumulating 1,242 hits in 4,514 at bats for a.275 career batting average along with 4 home runs, 534 runs batted in and a.365 on-base percentage. He possessed strong defensive skills, leading American League catchers in fielding percentage three consecutive years (1926–28), finishing with a.982 career fielding percentage. Ruel also led American League catchers three times in putouts and assists and twice in range factor and in baserunners caught stealing. He made 23 double plays in 1924, the seventh highest season total for catchers in major league history. His reputation as a defensive stand out is enhanced because of the era in which he played. In the Deadball Era, catchers played a huge defensive role, given the large number of bunts and stolen base attempts, as well as the difficulty of handling the spitball pitchers who dominated pitching staffs. Richard Kendall of the Society for American Baseball Research devised an unscientific study that ranked Ruel as the fifth most dominating fielding catcher in major league history.

Post-playing career.

After retiring as a player, Ruel spent a decade as a coach with the Chicago White Sox from 1935 to 1945. He then became an assistant to Commissioner of Baseball Happy Chandler in. He worked with Chandler for only one year before accepting his only managerial job with the St. Louis Browns, where he led the 1947 team to a dismal 59–95 record, good for the American League cellar. Ruel then coached for the Cleveland Indians from 1948 to 1950, winning another world championship as a coach with the Indians in the 1948 World Series. He was later named as the director of the Detroit Tigers' farm system before taking on the role as the Tigers' general manager from 1954 to 1956.  Ruel was one of the few major leaguers to hold a law degree. He earned his degree from Washington University in St. Louis and was admitted to practice before the U.S. Supreme Court. Ruel is credited for being the first to label the catcher's protective equipment as the "tools of ignorance". This was a self deprecating reference to the harsh, physical demands of the catcher's position due to the exposure to the errant balls, foul tips and collisions at home plate. He is buried at Alta Mesa Memorial Park in Palo Alto, California.

Herold Dominic "Muddy" Ruel (February 20, 1896 – November 13, 1963) was an American professional baseball player, coach, manager and general manager. He played as a catcher in Major League Baseball from 1915 to 1934. One of the top defensive catchers of his era, Ruel was notable for being the personal catcher for Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher, Walter Johnson and for scoring the winning run for the Washington Senators in Game 7 of the 1924 World Series. He also played for the St. Louis Browns, New York Yankees, Boston Red Sox, Detroit Tigers, and the Chicago White Sox during a career that lasted 19 seasons. After his playing career, Ruel served as a coach and a baseball executive.

Herold D. Ruel, dit Muddy Ruel, né le et décédé le, était un joueur de baseball américain. Il joua 19 saisons au sein des ligues professionnelles pour un total de 1470 matchs avec une moyenne au bâton de.275


Early life.

Hubbs was born in Riverside, California, on December 23, 1941, the son of Eulis and Dorothy Hubbs. The family resided in nearby Colton, California. Ken was the second oldest of five boys, raised with brothers Keith, Gary, and twins Kirk and Kraig.  When he was a few months old, in the spring of 1942, Hubbs suffered a ruptured hernia, and wore a truss for five years until it healed while he was in kindergarten. A doctor had told the family that Hubbs "will never be able to do things other kids can do in sports."  Hubbs played in the 1954 Little League World Series, as his Colton little league team advanced and represented California. California beat Virginia in the first round and Illinois in the second. In the final game of the Series, the team from Schenectady, New York beat California 5-3. Two future big league players played on the Schenectady team: Jim Barbieri and Billy Connors. Connors and Hubbs would become minor league teammates. Highlights of Hubbs playing defense at shortstop were captured on film. The video includes a play where Hubbs ran from the shortstop position to back up the second baseman and caught a bloop fly into short right field. Hubbs had stepped in a hole during a picnic, just before Colton's trip to the Little League World Series, breaking his toe. Hubbs played the entire tournament with the injury, hobbling around the bases when he hit a home run.

High School career.

At Colton High School, Hubbs was a four sport athlete. He excelled in three sports, baseball, basketball and football at a national level and also competed in track as a high jumper. Honored by the California Interscholastic Federation in all three sports, Hubbs was an All-Southern Section for two years in football, basketball and baseball, an achievement matched at the time, 1959, by only three others: Glenn Davis, Bill McColl and Marty Keough.  A gifted athlete, Hubbs could pitch with either arm and at 6'2", could stand flat-footed under a basket, jump and dunk a basketball behind his head with both hands. In 1958-1959, he was a high school All-American in two sports, football (quarterback) and basketball. He was recruited by the University of Notre Dame to play quarterback and offered a scholarship by UCLA's John Wooden to play basketball.  In 1958, in a well-publicized basketball game at Long Beach City College against Santa Maria High School, Hubbs made a half-court shot to end the first half. He followed up by scoring five points in the last 23 seconds of regulation, including a jumper at the buzzer to send the game into overtime, scoring 23 points in a Colton 53-49 win.  After breaking his foot before a football game, Hubbs put his foot with a cast inside a size-14 shoe and played that Friday night.  "Ken was undoubtedly the best football player I ever coached," said Joe Lash, his football coach at Colton High School. His basketball coach, Tom Morrow, said, "Kenny Hubbs was the best all-around basketball player I ever saw for a boy his age."  After high school graduation in 1959, Hubbs was weighing attending college at either the University of Southern California or Brigham Young University. However, Cubs scout Gene Handley signed Hubbs to a contract that came with a $50,000 signing bonus.

Baseball career.

Minor leagues.

Hubbs signed as an amateur free agent with the Chicago Cubs prior to the 1959 season. In 1959, Hubbs played for the Morristown Cubs of the Class D Appalachian League. Playing outfield and shortstop in the all-rookie competition, Hubbs appeared in 59 games, had 198 at-bats and a batting average of.298. His 50 runs batted in and 8 home runs were enough to earn a nomination for player of the year.  On July 18, 1959, he led Morristown to a 20-0 victory over the first place Salem Pirates. Hubbs hit 2 home runs and a double and scored 5 runs. Morristown continued the offensive barrage five days later against Wytheville. Hubbs started a 7-run first inning with a home run, and his team won the slugfest, 9-7.  Organized baseball initiated a player draft in 1959, in an attempt to cut down on large signing bonuses given to young players. The Cubs' AAA club, the Fort Worth Cats of the American Association, recalled Hubbs in October and then purchased his contract outright in November. Hubbs appeared in nine games for Fort Worth, with two hits in nine at bats. This maneuvering protected Hubbs from being drafted by another club, and was a sign that the Cubs clearly expected Hubbs to make the major league team in the near future.  Hubbs attended the Cubs' rookie camp in 1960 as a shortstop/outfielder, however with Ernie Banks established at shortstop, Hubbs moved to second base in 1961.  In 1960, Hubbs began the season with the Class A Lancaster Red Roses of the Eastern League, where he hit.216 with 6 home runs and 47 RBI in 97 games and 366 at bats playing under manager Phil Cavarretta. He finished 1960 by playing 38 games with the Class AA San Antonio Missions of the Texas League, hitting.220 with one home run and 9 RBI.  Coach Bobby Adams was instrumental in Hubbs transition to second base. "He had me work on the pivot 100 times a day. I was doing it in my sleep." Hubbs said of Adams. "Every day, Lou Klein and Bobby Adams would have me out there practicing the double play, thousands of times, I was almost ready to quit and go home. I don't know what kept me going, but I'm glad I didn’t quit. I've decided this is where I want to be."  Hubbs played in 1961 for the Class AA Wenatchee Chiefs of the Northwest League. With Wenatchee, Hubbs played 138 games, hitting.286 with nine home runs and 68 RBI, along with 20 doubles, six triples and nine stolen bases. Hubbs was then called up to the Chicago Cubs in September, 1961. Hubbs also committed only eight errors all season.

Major league career.

During the 1961 season, the Cubs played both Don Zimmer and Jerry Kindall at second base. Zimmer made the National League All-Star team that year, and hit.252, while Kindall hit.242. Hubbs made his major league debut on September 10, 1961 against the Philadelphia Phillies, with three at-bats, two hits and one run batted in in a 12-5 Cub loss. Outfielder Lou Brock also made his debut that day for the Cubs. Overall, Hubbs played in ten games in September 1961, with five hits in 26 at-bats and one home run, at age 19.  Prior to the 1962 season, the expansion New York Mets drafted Don Zimmer in the 1961 expansion draft and the Cubs subsequently traded Kindall. Their departures opened the door for the 20-year-old Hubbs to become the starting second baseman for the eventual ninth-place Cubs in. Hubbs played in 160 games in 1962 hitting.260, with 172 hits with five home runs and 49 runs batted in. He led all National League rookies in games, hits, doubles, triples, runs and batting average. On April 17, 1962, Hubbs went 5-for-5 with two runs in a 10-6 loss to the Pittsburgh Pirates. "Better learn how to pitch to this boy, he'll be around a long time," said Pirates manager Danny Murtaugh.  Hubbs was named the 1962 Rookie of the Year, earning 19 out of 20 votes. He was also named the Rookie of the year by "The Sporting News", receiving 120 votes. Hubbs became the second consecutive Cubs player to win the award, after Billy Williams had won the award in 1961. The next Cub to win the award was Jerome Walton in.  In the field, Hubbs was outstanding. As a rookie, he set major league records with 78 consecutive games and 418 total chances without an error, breaking Bobby Doerr's Major League records in both categories. In post season awards, Hubbs became the first rookie to win a Gold Glove Award. He also led the league in two less desirable categories that season by striking out 129 times and grounding into 20 double plays. On September 30, he started a triple play in the final game of the season against the Mets. His glove from 1962 is on display at the Baseball Hall of Fame.  Partway through the 1962 season, Cubs owner Philip Wrigley called Hubbs into his office, tore up his existing contract and doubled his salary.  Hubbs was well liked by his teammates, who included future Hall of Famers Billy Williams, Ernie Banks, Ron Santo and Lou Brock. Banks remembered, "Lots of young players do something special and you can't talk to them any more. Not Ken. One day, he got seven hits in a doubleheader. Pretty good for a rookie. But he didn't talk or act any differently than when he didn't get a hit." Hubbs was known for his faith. Reporters often noted that he did not smoke or drink alcohol, and that he attended church services while on the road with the team. With Hubbs's encouragement, Ron Santo quit smoking.  "He was a Mormon, deeply religious, never swore, never drank, played hard, played the game," reflected Santo. "He was talented. You knew this guy was going to be great. He would always go out with us. He wouldn't drink, but he'd have as much fun as we did."  In Hubbs played in 155 games and batted.235 with eight home runs and 47 runs batted in and his superior fielding helped the Cubs finish over.500 at 82-80.

Death.

Hubbs decided to challenge a fear of flying head-on by taking flying lessons in the winter between 1963 and 1964, and received his pilot's license in January 1964. On February 12, Hubbs flew from California to Provo, Utah with his friend Denny Doyle to surprise Doyle's wife, who had recently given birth to the couple's child. That night, Hubbs played in a charity basketball game sponsored by Brigham Young University.  A snow storm developed in the Utah Valley the morning of February 13. Hubbs attempted to beat the storm, and he and Doyle took off in a red and white Cessna 172 from Provo Airport. Hubbs had not filed a flight plan but told airport staff that the pair were heading for Morrow Field near Colton, California. Euliss Hubbs, Ken's father, reported that they had not arrived in Colton by Friday the 14th, prompting a search in areas of Utah, Nevada and California along the possible flight path.  There was no radio contact with Hubbs after takeoff, prompting Utah's civil aeronautics director, Harlon Bement, to suspect "the plane could be fairly close [by]." The wreckage was found a quarter mile south of Bird Island in Utah Lake. Both Hubbs and Doyle died in the crash. The air temperature was estimated as -1 °F, and it had been snowing heavily.  Hubbs's funeral was held several days later in his hometown of Colton. Services were held in the Colton High School Whitmer Auditorium because of the huge crowd., and the automobile procession to his burial was two miles long. Fellow Cubs Ron Santo, Ernie Banks, Glen Hobbie and Don Elston were among the pallbearers. He was buried at Montecito Memorial Park, in Colton.  Santo had visited his friend and teammate in California two days before the crash and had gone up in Hubbs' plane during the visit. After parting, Santo went home to Seattle, while Hubbs headed to Provo. Santo recalled Hubbs saying, "When I get up there, Ron, and I fly, it's like being next to God. It's like I’m next to God."  Ernie Banks said, "Any athlete who ever played with Hubbs will dedicate the rest of his career to Ken because he was the zenith in inspiration and enthusiasm as well as desire and determination."  Jim Murray of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "Kenneth Douglass Hubbs was more than just another baseball player. He was the kind of athlete all games need. A devout Mormon, a cheerful leader, a picture-book player, blond-haired, healthy, generous with his time for young boys; he was the kind of youth in short supply in these selfish times."  "There isn't a man in Chicago who wouldn't have been proud to have him as a son," said Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley.  "Ken and I were both religious, we were always joking – trying to convert each other. I'm Catholic, he was a Mormon. But after he died, I had to see a priest," said Ron Santo. "I couldn’t understand it. I mean, he loved life. He was a great human being. This was a kid who didn't even smoke or drink. Why him?"  Lou Boudreau, who then was a Cubs' radio announcer, said, "At the time he died, I felt he was on his way to a Hall of Fame career. His bat hadn't come around, but it would have."  "Kenny would have been one of the all-time greats," said Don Elston. "Kenny was one of the to-be all-stars, Hall of Famers."  Billy Connors, Hubbs' Little League world series rival, became a teammate and friend in the minor leagues. Connors eventually became a long time major league pitching coach. He said of Hubbs, "I've seen a lot of professional players through the years, but I would describe Kenny as a perfect player. He had great talent, great makeup, an amazing will to win."

Personal.

Hubbs came from a devout Mormon family and often visited children in hospitals and spoke to church groups.  Ken's older brother, Keith Hubbs, played football at Brigham Young University. Later, Keith served as President of the Ken Hubbs Foundation for 38 years and oversaw the annual selection process for the Ken Hubbs Award until his death in 2018 at age 80. Keith named his first son after his late brother and his son, Ken, threw out a first pitch at Wrigley Field in 2003.  The Ken Hubbs Foundation was established shortly after his death. Los Angeles Dodgers owner Walter O'Malley donated gate receipts and other monies from a May 4, 1964 Cubs-Dodgers game to the foundation. The Ken Hubbs Foundation also received many donations from fans.

Honors.

Hubbs was awarded the 1959 Los Angeles Examiner Trophy as the “Best All-Around Athlete in Southern California”.  After his death, the Ken Hubbs Foundation was established in his honor.  Hubbs' glove used in the errorless streak in 1962 is on display at the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York.  Since 1964, the Ken Hubbs Award has been given to the best high school male athletes in the greater San Bernardino, California area. Beginning in 2012, a female athlete is also honored. Beginning in 2019, an athlete of high character is also honored. Pro Football Hall of Fame player Ronnie Lott was a recipient in 1977. Other recipients include MLB player Greg Colbrunn (1987), Olympic runner Ryan Hall (2001) and Green Bay Packers 1st round pick Kenny Clark (2013).  Colton High School named their gymnasium the "Ken Hubbs Gymnasium". A collection of trophies and other memorabilia are on site.  Hubbs's uniform number 16 was never retired by the Cubs, but was kept out of circulation for about three years before being issued to another player.  In 1964, Topps issued a special card for Hubbs with a black band and reverse white text reading, "In Memoriam" on the card face. The card was numbered 550.  On June 26, 2002, the Chicago Cubs honored Hubbs' memory, with “Ken Hubbs Memorial” day at Wrigley Field. Fans in attendance received a replica of his 1962 Topps Rookie Baseball card.

Kenneth Douglass Hubbs (December 23, 1941 – February 13, 1964) was an American professional baseball player. He played in Major League Baseball as a second baseman for the Chicago Cubs from to.

Ken Hubbs, né le et décédé le, était un joueur de baseball américain. Il évolua au deuxième but pour les Cubs de Chicago de 1962 à 1964.


Development.

After the end of World War I, the French Army sought to replace the problematic "Fusil-mitrailleur mle 1915 CSRG" light machine rifle (better known as the Chauchat). French commanders considered standardizing on the American Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR), but eventually required the development of a locally built weapon. MAS (an abbreviation of Manufacture d'Armes de St. Etienne - one of several government-owned arms factories in France) proposed a direct derivative of the BAR, but the Manufacture d'Armes de Châtellerault (MAC) won the bid with its weapon, which was partly derived from the BAR action. It had been formulated and designed by a Lieutenant Colonel Reibel assisted by Chief Armorer Chosse.  The FM Mle 1924 entered production in late July 1925 and saw first operational use in Morocco in May 1926. It was immediately well-received and even favorably compared in performance with the much heavier Hotchkiss machine gun. However, problems created by the new 7.5mm ammunition did appear. In particular, 8×57mm Mauser ammunition which was used in captured Mauser rifles carried by auxiliaries in Morocco during the Rif War from 1920–26, could be chambered and fired with disastrous results. This situation led to the development of a slightly shorter 7.5×54mm round, which was retained in 1929 as the standard ammunition for all future rifles and light machine guns in French service. The modified "fusil-mitrailleur modèle 1924 modifié 1929" (FM Mle 1924 M29) was mass-manufactured (187,412), beginning in 1930. In addition to these newly manufactured guns some 45,530 older FM Mle 1924s, already in service after phasing out the notoriously unreliable Chauchat, were rebarreled in order to accept the newer 7.5×54mm ammunition.  Both the original "fusil-mitrailleur Mle 1924" ("automatic rifle, model of 1924") as well as the modified Mle 1924 M29 have the same overall features: a folding bipod, an in-line stock, a pistol grip, a top-mounted 25-round detachable magazine and a bolt hold-open after the magazine's last round had been fired. There are two separate triggers: the trigger in front for using semi-automatic fire only and the rear trigger for firing on full automatic. Protection of all the openings against mud and dust proved excellent. The cyclic rate was controlled at 450 rounds per minute, thus allowing more continuous firing without overheating. In general, this new weapon was accurate and highly reliable but the barrel was screwed well into the receiver, as in the Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR), and thus it could not be separated quickly and easily in the field as for the British Bren gun. The French Army instruction manual (July 1925) recommends not to go beyond 400 rounds of uninterrupted firing since at that point the gun needs to be given a pause of ten to fifteen minutes in order to cool off. But instead, the French instruction manual recommends the following routine for the FM 1924 : fire 4 to 5 detachable magazines (100 to 125 rounds), take a short pause, then keep repeating that same restrained fire plus short pause routine which permits steady performance and very extensive firing periods.

Operational use.

The FM 24/29 was the standard squad-level automatic weapon of the French infantry and cavalry at the start of World War II. After the French surrender in World War II, the Germans captured large quantities of this weapon, which they used operationally until the end of the war.  From 1943 on, as the French army was re-equipped and reorganized in North Africa with Allied support, the FM 24/29 was kept in service, as French troops considered it superior to the Browning Automatic Rifle.  The FM 24/29 was the workhorse in the First Indochina War and served in the armed forces until after the end of the war in Algeria. It was replaced by the AA-52 general-purpose machine gun in the 1960s, but it was still in use with National Gendarmerie regional brigades until 2000-2006.

Variants.

Model 1924/1929D machine gun.

The Model 1924/1929D machine gun was a variant of the MAC 24/29, adapted to firing from interior firing ports in the bunkers of the Maginot Line.

M1931.

A derivative of the gun, the "MAC Modèle 1931", with a heavier barrel and 150-round side-mounted pan magazine, was produced as a heavy machine gun for installation in tanks and fortified emplacements, particularly the Maginot Line.

The Fusil-mitrailleur Modèle 1924 M29 was the standard light machine gun of the French Army from 1925 until the 1960s and was in use until 2000-2006 with the National Gendarmerie. It fires the French 7.5×54mm round which is equivalent in ballistics and striking power to the later 7.62×51mm NATO (.308 Winchester) and 7.62×54mmR round. A robust and reliable weapon partly derived from the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR) action, the FM 1924 M29 soldiered on, practically without interruptions, for more than 50 years.

Le MAC 24/29 est un fusil-mitrailleur français conçu en 1924 par la Manufacture d'armes de Châtellerault. Modifié en 1929 afin de tirer la nouvelle cartouche de, il équipa l'armée française durant une bonne partie du et avait la réputation d'être une arme fiable et de qualité.


History.

Origin.

Although the first club tournament to be billed as the ’Football World Championship’ was held in 1887, in which Scottish Cup champions Hibernian defeated English FA Cup semi-finalists Preston North End, the first attempt at creating a global club football tournament, according to FIFA, was in 1909, 21 years before the first FIFA World Cup. The Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy was held in Italy in 1909 and 1911, and contested by English, Italian, German and Swiss clubs. English amateur team West Auckland won on both occasions. The idea that FIFA should organise international club competitions dates from the beginning of the 1950s. In 1951, FIFA President Jules Rimet was asked about FIFA's involvement in the "Copa Rio", and he stated that it was not under FIFA's jurisdiction since it was organised and sponsored by the Brazilian Football Confederation ("Confederação Brasileira de Futebol"; CBF). The competition was succeeded by another tournament, the "Torneio Octogonal Rivadavia Corrêa Meyer", which was won by Vasco da Gama. This tournament had five Brazilian sides and

Obstacles to creation.

The "Tournoi de Paris" was a competition initially meant to bring together the top teams from Europe and South America to determine a "de facto" "best club in the world"; it was first disputed in 1957 when Vasco da Gama, the Rio de Janeiro champions, beat host club Racing Paris in the semi-finals and beat two-time European champions Real Madrid 4–3 in the final at the Parc des Princes, the venue of Real Madrid's inaugural triumph in the European Cup. The victory was lauded in Europe and South America as it was Real Madrid's first international competition as European champions that they had not managed to win. Afterwards, Real Madrid secluded themselves from the competition and argued that it should be seen as a friendly tournament from then on. Real Madrid recovered from this defeat to win the first Intercontinental Cup.  The Spaniards titled themselves "world champions" until FIFA stepped in and objected,

Inauguration (2000–2001).

The framework of the 2000 FIFA Club World Championship was laid years in advance. According to Sepp Blatter, the idea of the tournament was presented to the Executive Committee in December 1993 in Las Vegas, United States by Silvio Berlusconi, AC Milan's president. Since every confederation had, by then, a stable, continental championship, FIFA felt it was prudent and relevant to have a Club World Championship tournament. Initially, there were nine candidates to host the competition: China, Brazil, Mexico, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Tahiti, Turkey, the United States and

Play-off tournaments (2005–2020).

The 2005 version was shorter than the previous World Championship, reducing the problem of scheduling the tournament around the different club seasons across each continent. It contained just the six reigning continental champions, with the CONMEBOL and UEFA representatives receiving byes to the semi-finals. A new trophy was introduced replacing the Intercontinental trophy, the Toyota trophy and the trophy of 2000. The draw for the 2005 edition of the competition took place in Tokyo on 30 July 2005 at The Westin Tokyo. The 2005 edition saw São Paulo pushed to the limit by Saudi side Al-Ittihad to reach the final. In the final, one goal from Mineiro was enough to dispatch English club Liverpool; Mineiro became the first player to score in a Club World Cup final.  Internacional defeated defending World and South American champions São Paulo in the 2006 Copa Libertadores finals in order to qualify for the 2006 tournament. At the semi-finals, Internacional beat Egyptian side Al Ahly in order to meet Barcelona in the final. One late

Expansion (from 2021).

In late 2016, FIFA President Gianni Infantino suggested an expansion of the Club World Cup to 32 teams beginning in 2019 and the reschedule to June to be more balanced and more attractive to broadcasters and sponsors. In late 2017, FIFA discussed proposals to expand the competition to 24 teams and have it be played every four years by 2021, replacing the FIFA Confederations Cup.  The

Results.

Performances by confederation.

Africa's best representatives are TP Mazembe from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Moroccan club Raja Casablanca, both finishing in second place in 2010 and 2013 respectively. Kashima Antlers from Japan and Al-Ain from United Arab Emirates are Asia's best representatives, finishing second

Format and rules.

As of 2012, most teams qualify to the FIFA Club World Cup by winning their continental competitions, be it the Asian AFC Champions League, African CAF Champions League, North American CONCACAF Champions League, South American Copa Libertadores, Oceanian OFC Champions League or European UEFA Champions League. Aside from these, the host nation's national league champions qualify as well.  The maiden edition of this competition was separated into two rounds. The eight participants were split into two groups of four teams. The winner of each group met in the final while the runners-up played for third place. The competition changed its format during the 2005 relaunch into a single-elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one-off matches, with extra time and penalty shoot-outs used to decide the winner if necessary. It featured six clubs competing over

Trophy.

The trophy used during the inaugural competition was called the "FIFA Club World Championship" Cup. The original laurel was created by Sawaya & Moroni, an Italian designer company that produces contemporary designs with cultural backgrounds and design concepts. The designing firm is based in Milan. The fully silver-coloured trophy had a weight of and a height of. Its base and widest points are long. The trophy had a base of two pedestals which had four rectangular pillars. Two of the four pillars had inscriptions on them; one contained the phrase, "FIFA Club World Championship" imprinted across. The other had the letters "FIFA" inscribed on it. On top, a football based on the 1998 FIFA World Cup ball, the Adidas Tricolore, can be seen. The production costs of the laurel was US$25,000. It was presented for the first time at Sheraton Hotels and Resorts in Rio de Janeiro on 4 January 2000.

Awards.

At the end of each Club World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. There are currently four awards: The winners of the competition are also entitled to receive the FIFA Champions Badge; it features an image of the trophy, which the reigning

Prize money.

The 2000 FIFA Club World Championship was the inaugural edition of this competition; it provided US$28 million in prize money for its participants. The prize money received by the clubs participating was divided into fixed payments based on participation and results. Clubs finishing the tournament from fifth to eighth place received US$2.5 million. The club who would eventually finish in fourth place received US$3 million while the third-place team received US$4 million. The runner-up earned US$5 million while the eventual champions would gain US$6 million.

Sponsorship.

Like the FIFA World Cup, the FIFA Club World Cup is sponsored by a group of multinational corporations. Toyota Motor Corporation, a Japanese multinational automaker headquartered in Toyota, Aichi, Japan, was the Presenting Partner of the FIFA Club World Cup until its sponsorship agreement expired at the end of December 2014 and was not renewed. Because Toyota was an automobile manufacturer and the main sponsor of the tournament, Hyundai-Kia's status as a FIFA partner was not active with respect to the Club World Cup prior to 2015. However, the other FIFA partners – Adidas, Coca-Cola and Visa – retained full sponsorship rights. From 2015 to 2022, the tournament will be presented by Alibaba Cloud of the Alibaba Group.  The inaugural

Reception.

Since its inception in 2000, the competition, despite its name and the contestants' achievements, has received differing reception. In most of Europe it struggles to find broad media attention compared to the UEFA Champions League and commonly lacks recognition as a high-ranking contest. In South America, however, it is widely considered the highest point in the career of a footballer, coach and/or team at international club level. In Brazil and Argentina, the tournament is seen as a continuity of the Intercontinental Cup, creating a tension point around the year when both cups were held, 2000. It is hotly debated whether the title of "2000 World Champion" is rightly Corinthians' (Brazil) or Boca Juniors' (Argentina). The debate is further fuelled by the rivalry between the two countries and club rivalry within each of two South American nations.  The competition is also criticised, mainly by the European press and fans among others, for its format, which favours the UEFA and CONMEBOL teams, since their representatives start in the semi-finals and can only meet each other in the final match. In Europe the tournament is almost ignored by the mass media, although it is considered superior to the old Intercontinental Cup as all of the worlds six continents are represented rather than just two, indeed when the sides used to meet in a one-off game in Japan (and even before), this was considered unfair and a true world champion was never realized. The opening up of the global market in football has changed the balance. These days the best South Americans (and the stars from all the other continents) are usually playing for the European teams. It is also criticised for its poor organisation, the poor reception among the local fans for the matches not featuring any European or South American team, FIFA's decision to select the competition's host based on economic deals and not on their footballing merit on the international stage (with the exception of Brazil which hosted the first edition) such as Japan, Morocco, the United Arab Emirates and Qatar (the latter two also causing concern for non-sport related reasons, such as human rights records), and the poor economic benefits for the winning team, regarded as inferior than any Super Cup prizes.

The FIFA Club World Cup is an interleague men's association football competition organised by the "Fédération Internationale de Football Association" (FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament officially assigns the world title. The competition was first contested in 2000 as the FIFA Club World Championship. It was not held between 2001 and 2004 due to a combination of factors, most importantly the collapse of FIFA's marketing partner International Sport and Leisure. Since 2005, the competition has been held every year, and has been hosted by Brazil, Japan, the United Arab Emirates, Morocco, and Qatar. Views differ as to the cup's prestige: it struggles to attract interest in most of Europe, and is the object of heated debate in Brazil and Argentina.

La Coupe du monde des clubs de la FIFA (CMC) est une compétition de football créée en 2000 s'adressant aux clubs de football masculin, organisée par la fédération internationale de football association (FIFA). Outre le club champion du pays hôte du tournoi, les clubs champions continentaux des six confédérations de football participent à la compétition. Il s'agit des vainqueurs de la Ligue des champions de l'UEFA, de la Copa Libertadores, de la Ligue des champions de la CAF, de la Ligue des champions de l'AFC, de la Ligue des champions de la CONCACAF et de la Ligue des champions de l'OFC. Le tournoi attribue officiellement (de jure) le titre de champion du monde.


Biography.

Early life.

Born in Kelvedon, Essex, he moved to Colchester at 10 months old. Spurgeon's conversion from nominal Congregationalism came on 6 January 1850, at age 15. On his way to a scheduled appointment, a snow storm forced him to cut short his intended journey and to turn into a Primitive Methodist chapel in Artillery Street, Newtown, Colchester where God opened his heart to the salvation message. The text that moved him was Isaiah 45:22 – "Look unto me, and be ye saved, all the ends of the earth, for I am God, and there is none else." Later that year on 4 April 1850, he was admitted to the church at Newmarket.  His baptism followed on 3 May in the river Lark, at Isleham. Later that same year he moved to Cambridge, where he later became a Sunday school teacher. Spurgeon preached his first sermon in the winter of 1850–51 in a cottage at Teversham while filling in for a friend. From the beginning of Spurgeon's ministry, his style and ability were considered to be far above average. In the same year, he was installed as pastor of the small Baptist church at Waterbeach, Cambridgeshire, where he published his first literary work, a Gospel tract written in 1853.

New Park Street Chapel.

In April 1854, after preaching three months on probation and just four years after his conversion, Spurgeon, then only 19, was called to the pastorate of London's famed New Park Street Chapel, Southwark (formerly pastored by the Particular Baptists Benjamin Keach, theologian John Gill and John Rippon). This was the largest Baptist congregation in London at the time, although it had dwindled in numbers for several years. Spurgeon found friends in London among his fellow pastors, such as William Garrett Lewis of Westbourne Grove Church, an older man who along with Spurgeon went on to found the London Baptist Association.  Within a few months of Spurgeon's arrival at Park Street, his ability as a preacher made him famous. The following year the first of his sermons in the "New Park Street Pulpit" was published. Spurgeon's sermons were published in printed form every week and had a high circulation. By the time of his death in 1892, he had preached nearly 3,600 sermons and published 49 volumes of commentaries, sayings, anecdotes, illustrations and devotions.  Immediately following his fame was criticism. The first attack in the press appeared in the "Earthen Vessel" in January 1855. His preaching, although not revolutionary in substance, was a plain-spoken and direct appeal to the people, using the Bible to provoke them to consider the teachings of Jesus Christ. Critical attacks from the media persisted throughout his life. The congregation quickly outgrew their building, and moved to Exeter Hall, then to Surrey Music Hall. In these venues Spurgeon frequently preached to audiences numbering more than 10,000. At 22, Spurgeon was the most popular preacher of the day. On 8 January 1856, Spurgeon married Susannah, daughter of Robert Thompson of Falcon Square, London, by whom he had twin sons, Charles and Thomas born on 20 September 1857. At the end of that year, tragedy struck on 19 October 1856, as Spurgeon was preaching at the Surrey Gardens Music Hall for the first time. Someone in the crowd yelled, "Fire!" The ensuing panic and stampede left several dead. Spurgeon was emotionally devastated by the event and it had a sobering influence on his life. For many years he spoke of being moved to tears for no reason known to himself. Walter Thornbury later wrote in "Old and New London" (1897) describing a subsequent meeting at Surrey:  a congregation consisting of 10,000 souls, streaming into the hall, mounting the galleries, humming, buzzing, and swarming – a mighty hive of bees – eager to secure at first the best places, and, at last, any place at all. After waiting more than half an hour – for if you wish to have a seat you must be there at least that space of time in advance... Mr. Spurgeon ascended his tribune. To the hum, and rush, and trampling of men, succeeded a low, concentrated thrill and murmur of devotion, which seemed to run at once, like an electric current, through the breast of everyone present, and by this magnetic chain the preacher held us fast bound for about two hours. It is not my purpose to give a summary of his discourse. It is enough to say of his voice, that its power and volume are sufficient to reach every one in that vast assembly; of his language that it is neither high-flown nor homely; of his style, that it is at times familiar, at times declamatory, but always happy, and often eloquent; of his doctrine, that neither the 'Calvinist' nor the 'Baptist' appears in the forefront of the battle which is waged by Mr. Spurgeon with relentless animosity, and with Gospel weapons, against irreligion, cant, hypocrisy, pride, and those secret bosom-sins which so easily beset a man in daily life; and to sum up all in a word, it is enough to say, of the man himself, that he impresses you with a perfect conviction of his sincerity.  Spurgeon's work went on. A Pastors' College was founded in 1857 by Spurgeon and was renamed Spurgeon's College in 1923, when it moved to its present building in South Norwood Hill, London. At the Fast Day, 7 October 1857, he preached to the largest crowd ever – 23,654 people – at The Crystal Palace in London. Spurgeon noted: In 1857, a day or two before preaching at the Crystal Palace, I went to decide where the platform should be fixed; and, in order to test the acoustic properties of the building, cried in a loud voice, "Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world." In one of the galleries, a workman, who knew nothing of what was being done, heard the words, and they came like a message from heaven to his soul. He was smitten with conviction on account of sin, put down his tools, went home, and there, after a season of spiritual struggling, found peace and life by beholding the Lamb of God. Years after, he told this story to one who visited him on his death-bed.

Metropolitan Tabernacle.

On 18 March 1861, the congregation moved permanently to the newly constructed purpose-built Metropolitan Tabernacle at Elephant and Castle, Southwark, seating 5000 people with standing room for another 1000. The Metropolitan Tabernacle was the largest church edifice of its day. Spurgeon continued to preach there several times per week until his death 31 years later. He never gave altar calls at the conclusion of his sermons, but he always extended the invitation that if anyone was moved to seek an interest in Christ by his preaching on a Sunday, they could meet with him at his vestry on Monday morning. Without fail, there was always someone at his door the next day.  He wrote his sermons out fully before he preached, but what he carried up to the pulpit was a note card with an outline sketch. Stenographers would take down the sermon as it was delivered and Spurgeon would then have opportunity to make revisions to the transcripts the following day for immediate publication. His weekly sermons, which sold for a penny each, were widely circulated and still remain one of the all-time best selling series of writings published in history. I would propose that the subject of the ministry of this house, as long as this platform shall stand, and as long as this house shall be frequented by worshippers, shall be the person of Jesus Christ. I am never ashamed to avow myself a Calvinist, although I claim to be rather a Calvinist according to Calvin, than after the modern debased fashion. I do not hesitate to take the name of Baptist. You have there (pointing to the baptistry) substantial evidence that I am not ashamed of that ordinance of our Lord Jesus Christ; but if I am asked to say what is my creed, I think I must reply: "It is Jesus Christ." My venerable predecessor, Dr. Gill, has left a body of divinity admirable and excellent in its way; but the body of divinity to which I would pin and bind myself for ever, God helping me, is not his system of divinity or any other human treatise, but Christ Jesus, who is the sum and substance of the gospel; who is in himself all theology, the incarnation of every precious truth, the all-glorious personal embodiment of the way, the truth, and the life.  – The kernel of Spurgeon's first sermon at the Tabernacle  Besides sermons, Spurgeon also wrote several hymns and published a new collection of worship songs in 1866 called "Our Own Hymn Book". It was mostly a compilation of Isaac Watts's Psalms and Hymns that had been originally selected by John Rippon, a Baptist predecessor to Spurgeon. Singing in the congregation was exclusively a cappella under his pastorate. Thousands heard the preaching and were led in the singing without any amplification of sound that exists today. Hymns were a subject that he took seriously. While Spurgeon was still preaching at New Park Street, a hymn book called "The Rivulet" was published. Spurgeon aroused controversy because of his critique of its theology, which was largely deistic. At the end of his review, Spurgeon warned:  We shall soon have to handle truth, not with kid gloves, but with gauntlets, – the gauntlets of holy courage and integrity. Go on, ye warriors of the cross, for the King is at the head of you.  On 5 June 1862, Spurgeon challenged the Church of England when he preached against baptismal regeneration. However, Spurgeon taught across denominational lines as well: for example, in 1877 he was the preacher at the opening of a new Free Church of Scotland church building in Dingwall. It was during this period at the new Tabernacle that Spurgeon found a friend in James Hudson Taylor, the founder of the inter-denominational China Inland Mission. Spurgeon supported the work of the mission financially and directed many missionary candidates to apply for service with Taylor. He also aided in the work of cross-cultural evangelism by promoting "The Wordless Book", a teaching tool that he described in a message given on 11 January 1866, regarding Psalm 51:7: "Wash me, and I shall be whiter than snow." The book has been and is still used to teach people without reading skills and people of other cultures and languages – young and old – around the globe about the Gospel message.  Following the example of George Müller, Spurgeon founded the Stockwell Orphanage, which opened for boys in 1867 and for girls in 1879, and which continued in London until it was bombed in the Second World War. The orphanage became Spurgeon's Child Care which still exists today. On the death of missionary David Livingstone in 1873, a discolored and much-used copy of one of Spurgeon's printed sermons, "Accidents, Not Punishments," was found among his few possessions much later, along with the handwritten comment at the top of the first page: "Very good, D.L." He had carried it with him throughout his travels in Africa. It was sent to Spurgeon and treasured by him.

Downgrade Controversy.

A controversy among the Baptists flared in 1887 with Spurgeon's first "Down-grade" article, published in "The Sword & the Trowel". In the ensuing "Downgrade Controversy," the Metropolitan Tabernacle disaffiliated from the Baptist Union, effectuating Spurgeon's congregation as the world's largest self-standing church. Spurgeon framed the controversy in this way: Believers in Christ's atonement are now in declared union with those who make light of it; believers in Holy Scripture are in confederacy with those who deny plenary inspiration; those who hold evangelical doctrine are in open alliance with those who call the fall a fable, who deny the personality of the Holy Ghost, who call justification by faith immoral, and hold that there is another probation after death... It is our solemn conviction that there should be no pretence of fellowship. Fellowship with known and vital error is participation in sin.  The Controversy took its name from Spurgeon's use of the term "Downgrade" to describe certain other Baptists' outlook toward the Bible ("i.e.", they had "downgraded" the Bible and the principle of "sola scriptura"). Spurgeon alleged that an incremental creeping of the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, and other concepts were weakening the Baptist Union. Spurgeon emphatically decried the doctrine that resulted: Assuredly the New Theology can do no good towards God or man; it, has no adaptation for it. If it were preached for a thousand years by all the most earnest men of the school, it would never renew a soul, nor overcome pride in a single human heart.  The standoff caused division amongst the Baptists and other non-conformists, and is regarded by many as an important paradigm.

Opposition to slavery.

Spurgeon strongly opposed the owning of slaves. He lost support from the Southern Baptists, sales of his sermons dropped to a few, and he received scores of threatening and insulting letters as a consequence. Not so very long ago our nation tolerated slavery in our colonies. Philanthropists endeavored to destroy slavery; but when was it utterly abolished? It was when Wilberforce roused the church of God, and when the church of God addressed herself to the conflict, then she tore the evil thing to pieces. I have been amused with what Wilberforce said the day after they passed the Act of Emancipation. He merrily said to a friend when it was all done, "Is there not something else we can abolish?" That was said playfully, but it shows the spirit of the church of God. She lives in conflict and victory; her mission is to destroy everything that is bad in the land. "The Best Warcry", March 4th, 1883'  In a letter to the "Christian Watchman and Reflector" (Boston), Spurgeon declared:  I do from my inmost soul detest slavery... and although I commune at the Lord's table with men of all creeds, yet with a slave-holder I have no fellowship of any sort or kind. Whenever [a slave-holder] has called upon me, I have considered it my duty to express my detestation of his wickedness, and I would as soon think of receiving a murderer into my church... as a man stealer.

Restorationism.

Like other Baptists of his time, despite opposing Dispensationalism, Spurgeon anticipated the restoration of the Jews to inhabit the Promised Land. We look forward, then, for these two things. I am not going to theorize upon which of them will come first – whether they shall be restored first, and converted afterwards – or converted first and then restored. They are to be restored and they are to be converted, too. "The Restoration And Conversion of the Jews." Ezekiel 37.1–10, June 16th, 1864

Final years and death.

Spurgeon's wife was often too ill to leave home to hear him preach. Spurgeon also suffered ill health toward the end of his life, afflicted by a combination of rheumatism, gout and Bright's disease. He often recuperated at Menton, near Nice, France, where he died on 31 January 1892. He enjoyed cigars and smoked a "F. P Del Rio y Ca." in his last days according to his grandson. Spurgeon was survived by his wife and sons. His remains were buried at West Norwood Cemetery in London, where the tomb is still visited by admirers. His son Tom became the pastor of the Metropolitan Tabernacle after his father died.

Library.

William Jewell College in Liberty, Missouri purchased Spurgeon's 5,103-volume library collection for £500 ($2500) in 1906. The collection was purchased by Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary in Kansas City, Missouri in 2006 for $400,000 and can be seen on display at the Spurgeon Center on the campus of Midwestern Seminary. A special collection of Spurgeon's handwritten sermon notes and galley proofs from 1879–91 resides at Samford University in Birmingham, Alabama. Spurgeon's College in London also has a small number of notes and proofs. Spurgeon's personal Bible, with his handwritten notes is on display in the library of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville, KY  Spurgeon's works have been translated into many languages and Moon's and Braille type for the blind. He also wrote many volumes of commentaries and other types of literature.

Charles Haddon Spurgeon (19 June 1834 – 31 January 1892) was an English Particular Baptist preacher. Spurgeon remains highly influential among Christians of various denominations, among whom he is known as the "Prince of Preachers". He was a strong figure in the Reformed Baptist tradition, defending the Church in agreement with the 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith understanding, and opposing the liberal and pragmatic theological tendencies in the Church of his day.

Charles-Haddon Spurgeon (Kelvedon, Essex, 19 juin 1834 - Menton, 31 janvier 1892) est un prédicateur baptiste réformé britannique de la deuxième moitié du.


History.

They were founded in 1970 as a rugby sector in the Vitellianense Cebogas Multisports Club by some ex Rugby Parma F.C. players. They started in the lowest possible league, Serie D.  In 1980–81 Viadana won Serie B but after three years the team were relegated back to Serie C. But they bounced back the following year and won promotion back to Serie B. 1986–87 they won promotion to Serie A2 and finished sixth in their first year. However they were relegated back the following year and didn't return for three years.  They finally won promotion to Serie A in 1998–99. In their first season Arix Viadana won the Coppa Italia and made it to the semifinal of the playoffs. In 2000–01 they finished third in the league but again lost in the semifinal playoffs to Benetton Treviso.  In 2002 the Italian championship was reformed with the birth of Super 10 (now Top12). During this season Arix Viadana finished first and beat favourites Benetton Treviso, in the playoffs, and Calvisano, in the final, to win the title of Italian champion for the first time. They were the first team from outside a provincial capital to do so. They won the Coppa Italia a second time in 2003.  In 2004 they became the first Italian team to have made the final of a European competition when they lost the European Shield final 19-25 to Montpellier. In 2007 they defeated Cammi Calvisano to win their third Coppa Italia. In 2008, despite their relatively experienced team, Viadana were beaten in the semifinals by Benetton Treviso and subsequently lost out on a lucrative Heineken Cup place. In the 2008–09 and 2009–10 Super 10 seasons Montepaschi Viadana reaches the final championship, losing both times against Benetton Treviso.  Viadana were the largest shareholders in Aironi, a new team that competed in the 2010–11 and 2012–12 Celtic League. Many of the club's top players joined Aironi on its formation. As of June 2010 it was announced that will the impending establishment of Aironi the club would no longer compete as a professional club. The Senior and Under 20 teams would be merged with GranDucato Parma Rugby. Viadana would continue as an independent club but only below Under 20 level.  At the end of the 2012 Aironi's licence to play in the Pro12 was withdrawn by the FIR. Aironi's place in the Pro12 was taken by newly formed Zebre, a team based in Parma. Many Aironi players joined Zebre on its formation.  Viadana was then reformed as a semi-professional team for the 2012–13 season of the National championship of Excellence, the reformed Italian championship from 2010, with a number of Aironi's players joining them, as well as the head coach Rowland Phillips. They won three titles of the Excellence Trophy in the 2012–13, 2015–16 and 2016–17 seasons.  The 2012–13 was the last season of Silvano Melegari, and of the Arix Group, as president of the club, after 20 years of history. In the summer of 2014, a new company is at the helm of the team, the Rugby Viadana 1970 S.r.l., founded to keep the club at the highest national level, despite economic difficulties. They currently compete in Top12.

Current squad.

The Viadana squad for 2019–20:

Selected former players.

Italian players.

Former players who have played for Viadana and have caps for Italy:

Overseas players.

Former players who have played for Viadana and have caps for their respective country:

Rugby Viadana 1970 is an Italian rugby union club based in Viadana (province of Mantua, Lombardy). The club was established in 1970, and has since won the Italian championship in 2002, and the Coppa Italia three times. They also compete in European rugby competitions and were runners-up in the European Shield in 2004. Viadana plays in yellow and black. The club did not compete professionally between 2010 and 2012 as they focused their efforts on Aironi. Aironi was based at Viadana's home ground and represented a number of regional teams in the multi-national Celtic League. The FIR withdrew Aironi's licence to play at the end of the 2012, so Viadana reformed as a professional team will play in Italy's top division, the National championship of Excellence, from the 2012–13 season and currently in the Top12.

Rugby Viadana 1970 est un club de rugby à XV italien basé à Viadana, dans la province de Mantoue, fondé en 1970 participant au Top12.