Revolutionary ideology.

In Peter Lavrov's view, socialism was the natural outcome of Western European historical development. He believed that the bourgeois mode of production planted the seeds of its own destruction. "Lavrov began his revolutionary career with the assumption that the future belonged to West European scientific socialism, as created by material conditions of West European civilization." Lavrov recognized that Russia's historical development was significantly different from that of Western Europe, though he still maintained hope that Russia might join in the greater European socialist movement.  In Lavrov's analysis of Russia's historical development, he concluded that the essence of Russia's peculiarity rested on the fact that they had not experienced feudalism and all of its progressive features. Russia had been isolated from European development by the Mongol conquest in the thirteenth century. In 1870, Lavrov published a comparison of the levels of economic, political and social development of several Western European nations and Russia, noting the relatively backward and poor condition of Russia.  Despite Lavrov's historical analysis, he still believed a socialist revolution was possible in Russia. One of his contemporaries, Georgi Plekhanov, believed that a socialist revolution would only come with the development of a revolutionary workers’ party. In other words, he believed that Russia would have to wait for the same historical development experienced by the West. Lavrov rejected this outlook, believing it possible to create socialism by basing revolutionary tactics on Russia's individual history. Almost 90 percent of Russia's population were peasants, and there was also the intelligentsia: a unique bunch of people without any class affiliations, who, "unlike other elements of Russian society, were unflawed by the past."  Thus, Lavrov felt that a true socialist revolution would have to integrate the rural population in order to succeed. Lavrov considered the intelligentsia the only portion of society capable of preparing Russia for participation in a worldwide socialist revolution. He gave them the task of compensating for the shortfalls of Russian historical development by organizing the people, teaching them scientific socialism, and finally, preparing to take up arms with the people when the time would come.

Lavrov on Social Solidarity.

In his “Historical Letters” Lavrov accentuated the indissoluble connection between sociology as a science and basic principles of individual morality. According to him, sociological knowledge always depends upon scholars’ consciously chosen ideals. The majority of researchers stress the heterogeneity of Lavrov's ideas as well as the fact that a considerable impact was made upon him both by the leaders of the positivist tradition and by Marx. All those impacts were in some way synthesized in Lavrov's idea of solidarity as the key issue of sociological research. Lavrov defined sociology as a science dealing with forms of social solidarity, which he subdivided into three major types: - unconscious solidarity of custom; - purely emotional solidarity, based on impulses not controlled by critical reflection; - “conscious historical solidarity” resulting from a common effort to attain a consciously selected and rationally justified goal. The latter represented the highest and the most significant type of human solidarity. It developed later than the first two types and proclaimed the conversion of the static “culture” into the dynamic “civilization.” To sum it up, social solidarity in Lavrov's view is “the consciousness that personal interest coincides with social interest, that personal dignity is maintained only by upholding the dignity of all who share in this solidarity”. Otherwise it is a mere community of habits, interests, affects, or convictions. Thus solidarity is an essential premise of the existence of society. Solidary interaction distinguishes society from a simple gathering of individuals, the latter phenomenon constituting no sociological object. Moreover, the condition of individuals being conscious creatures excludes from the field of sociology forms of solidarity / solidary interaction performed by unconscious organisms, or, in other words, marks the borderline between social and biological phenomena.

Pyotr Lavrovich Lavrov (; alias Mirtov (); (June 2 (June 14 N.S.), 1823 – January 25 (February 6 N.S.), 1900) was a prominent Russian theorist of narodism, philosopher, publicist, revolutionary and sociologist.

Cauchemar virtuel (titre original : "") est le quatrième tome de la série à succès "Bobby Pendragon" écrite par D. J. MacHale.


History.

3sat was established to broadcast cultural programmes, originally by satellite. The network was founded as a cooperative network by Germany's ZDF, Austria's ORF and Switzerland's SRG SSR (formerly SRG SSR idée suisse). 3sat began broadcasting on 1 December 1984. ZDF leads the cooperative, though decisions are reached through consensus of the cooperative's partners.  In 1990, DFF, television broadcaster of the German Democratic Republic became a cooperative member of 3sat, and a name change to 4sat was considered. Eventually it was decided to keep the original 3sat name. DFF's membership of 3sat was dissolved on 31 December 1991, as DFF itself ceased to exist, in accordance with Germany's Unification Treaty.  On 1 December 1993, ARD joined 3sat as a cooperative member. This followed ARD's creation of its own satellite channel, Eins Plus. 3sat is available on the European Astra satellites at 19.2° east, on cable television, and in Austria and Germany on digital terrestrial television.  In 2003, 3sat was available in 40 million households in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and 85.5 million households across Europe. Since June 2003 3sat has been using a new on-air look and logo. The logo has a red rectangle surrounding a number three.  In 2005, 3sat and n-tv were criticised for broadcasting TV shows which were funded by relief organizations such as "World Vision Deutschland" and Christoffel Blindenmission.  In 2008, the programs "nano" and "Kulturzeit" received a new on-air look and a new studios. At the "Eyes & Ears of Europe Awards", the design of "Kulturzeit"'s studio was awarded first prize in the category "Best Study Design" at Medientage München in 2008.  In 2009 3sat had a market share of 1.1% in Germany, 1.9% in Austria and 1.2% in Switzerland.  As a result of ZDF's spending for the then-new ZDFkultur, 2011 saw the end of many long-term 3sat broadcasts such as "3satbörse", "Foyer", the computer and internet magazine "neues", the animal show "Arche Noah", the legal magazine "Recht brisant", "Vivo" and others.  On 1 April 2017, the "Direktion Europäische Satellitenprogramme", which was responsible for 3sat and Arte programs, was dissolved. It was replaced by joint editorial teams with the other ZDF channels.

3sat is a free-to-air German-language public service television channel. It is a generalist channel with a cultural focus and is jointly operated by public broadcasters from Germany (ZDF, ARD), Austria (ORF) and Switzerland (SRG SSR). The coordinating broadcaster is ZDF, at whose Mainz facility the broadcasting centre with studios for in-house productions is located.

3sat est une chaîne de télévision généraliste internationale publique germanophone et sans publicité des groupes de télévision publique allemands (ZDF et ARD), autrichien (ORF), et suisse (SRG SSR via la SRF).


Life and career.

Early life.

Chakiris was born in Norwood, Ohio, to Steven and Zoe (née Anastasiadou) Chakiris, immigrants from Greece. He attended high school in Tucson, Arizona and Long Beach.  Chakiris did one year of college, but he wanted to dance, so he dropped out and moved to Hollywood. He worked in the advertising branch of a department store and began to study dancing at night.

Early films.

Chakiris made his film debut in 1947, in the chorus of "Song of Love".  For several years he appeared in small roles, usually as a dancer or a member of the chorus in various musical films, including "The Great Caruso" (1951), "Stars and Stripes Forever" (1952), "Call Me Madam" (1953), "Second Chance" (1953) and "The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T." (1953).  He was one of the dancers in Marilyn Monroe's "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend" number in "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes" (1953), and was also in "Give a Girl a Break" (1953).  He can be seen in the funeral dance in the MGM musical film "Brigadoon" (1954) and was in "There's No Business Like Show Business' (1954).

Paramount.

Chakiris appeared as a dancer in "White Christmas" (1954). A publicity photo of Chakiris with Rosemary Clooney from her "Love, You Didn't Do Right By Me" scene generated fan mail, and Paramount signed him to a movie contract. "I got lucky with the close-up with Rosemary," said Chakiris.  Chakiris was in "The Country Girl" (1954), and "The Girl Rush" (1955), dancing with Rosalind Russell in the latter. He received a positive notice from Hedda Hopper.  MGM borrowed him for "Meet Me in Las Vegas" (1956) and he did dancing in Las Vegas.  Chakiris had a small non-dancing part in "Under Fire" (1957).

"West Side Story".

Frustrated with the progress of his career, Chakiris left Hollywood for New York. "West Side Story" had been running for a year on Broadway, and Chakiris auditioned for Jerome Robbins. He was cast in the London production as "Riff", leader of the Jets. The musical launched on the West End in late 1958 and Chakiris received excellent reviews, playing it for almost 22 months.  The Mirisch Brothers bought the film rights to "West Side Story" and tested Chakiris. They ended up feeling his dark complexion made him more ideal for the role of Bernardo, leader of the Sharks, and cast Russ Tamblyn as Riff. Filming took seven months.  The film of "West Side Story" (1961) was hugely successful and Chakiris won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance. This led him to be contracted by the Mirisch Company to a long-term contract.  Chakiris played the lead role in a British film, "Two and Two Make Six" (1962), directed by Freddie Francis. He was announced for "Day of the Damned" with Montgomery Clift but it was not made.  He starred as a doctor in the film "Diamond Head" (1963) opposite Charlton Heston and Yvette Mimieux, which was popular.  In the early 1960s, he embarked on a career as a pop singer, resulting in a couple of minor hit songs. In 1960, he recorded one single with noted producer Joe Meek.

3-picture deal with Mirisch Brothers.

Chakiris' fee around this time was a reported $100,000 per movie. His first new film for the Mirishes was "Flight from Ashiya" (1964), shot in Japan with Yul Brynner and Richard Widmark.  The Mirisches announced him for "Young Lucifer", with Tuesday Weld and directed by Irvin Kershner, but it was not made. Neither was a film version of "Carnival!" which Arthur Freed wanted to make with Chakiris, Yvette Mimieux, and Robert Goulet.  Instead the Mirisches reunited Chakiris with Brynner in "Kings of the Sun" (1963), an epic about the Mayans which was a box office flop. Chakiris went to Italy to make "Bebo's Girl" (1964) with Claudia Cardinale.  He did "633 Squadron" (1964), a popular war movie with Cliff Robertson, the last movie he made for the Mirisches. Chakiris later said he made a mistake with his Hollywood films by looking at the "potential" of them instead of the quality of the roles.

Europe.

Chakiris played a Greek terrorist in Cyprus in a British film"The High Bright Sun" (1965) with Dirk Bogarde for which he was paid $100,000. He went to Italy for "The Mona Lisa Has Been Stolen " (1965) and France for "Is Paris Burning?" (1966).  He acted along with Catherine Deneuve and Gene Kelly in Jacques Demy's French musical "Les Demoiselles de Rochefort" (1967). Around this time his manager cancelled his contract with Capitol Records. However he enjoyed his time in Europe saying he had time to "experiment and refine my craft." He also did a nightclub act at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, his first stage work since "West Side Story".  The show was successful and led to Chakiris receiving an offer to appear alongside Jose Ferrer in a TV production of "Kismet" (1967). He did "The Day the Hot Line Got Hot" (1968) in France and "The Big Cube" (1969) with Lana Turner in America. He made "Sharon vestida de rojo" (1970) in Spain.

1970s and 1980s.

In 1969 Chakiris did a stage production of "The Corn Is Green" in Chicago with Eileen Herlie. He enjoyed the experience and it revived his confidence as an actor. He said all the films he made after "West Side Story" had been "a waste of time... it was difficult to take them seriously... It was my fault and no one else's".  Chakiris accepted a dramatic role on "Medical Center" to change his image.  He starred in the first national tour of the Stephen Sondheim musical, "Company", touring as Bobby in 1971-72.  Chakiris worked heavily on TV in the 1970s and 1980s in Britain and America, guest starring on shows like "Hawaii Five-O", "Police Surgeon", "Thriller", "Notorious Woman", "Wonder Woman", "Fantasy Island", "CHiPs", "Matt Houston", "Scarecrow and Mrs. King", "Poor Little Rich Girls", "Hell Town" and "Murder, She Wrote".  He appeared in the final episode of "The Partridge Family" as an old high school boyfriend to Shirley Partridge (Shirley Jones, also a musical theater veteran and the person who just happened to have presented him with his Academy Award). Their kiss goodbye was the final scene in the program's run. He also starred in the film "Why Not Stay for Breakfast?" (1979).  Chakiris appeared in several episodes of "Dallas" and had a role on "Santa Barbara".

Later career.

Chakiris had a recurring role on the TV show "Superboy" as Professor Peterson during the first two seasons from 1988–1990.  He was top billed in the film "Pale Blood" (1990) and guest starred on "Human Target" and "The Girls of Lido". He played "The King And I" on stage in 1995 in Los Angeles.  Chakiris' last role to date was in a 1996 episode of the British sitcom "Last of the Summer Wine".  He has given occasional television interviews since then, but is mostly retired. His hobby of making sterling silver jewelry has turned into a new occupation, working as a jewelry designer for his own brand, George Chakiris Collections, consisting of handmade original sterling silver jewelry.  A vegetarian, in 2012 he presented a musical about veganism titled "Loving the Silent Tears".

George Chakiris (born September 16, 1934) is a retired American dancer, singer, and actor. He is best known for his appearance in the film version of "West Side Story" as Bernardo, the leader of the Sharks gang, for which he won both the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture.

George Chakiris, parfois appelé George Kerris, est un acteur, danseur et chanteur américain, né le à Norwood (Ohio). Ses films les plus notables sont "West Side Story" (1961) et "Les Demoiselles de Rochefort" (1967).


History.

Paradinas was born in Charing Cross and began playing keyboards during the early 1980s, and listened to new wave music such as Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, Heaven 17 and early Human League. He joined a few bands in the mid-1980s, then spent eight years on keyboards for the group Blue Innocence.  During this period, Paradinas had been recording on his own as well with synthesizers and a four-track recorder. In 1995, following a performance at "The Orange" in London, Blue Innocence broke up. Paradinas and the bass player, Francis Naughton, bought sequencing software and re-recorded some of Paradinas's older tracks. After the material was played for Mark Pritchard and Tom Middleton — the duo behind Global Communication and the heads of Evolution Records — it was to be released; however, recording commitments later forced Pritchard and Middleton to withdraw their agreement. Fortunately for Paradinas, Richard D. James (a.k.a. Aphex Twin) had also heard the tracks and agreed to release their music on Rephlex Records under the alias μ-Ziq.  Naughton then left μ-Ziq to start Rocket Goldstar. A second album "Bluff Limbo" was scheduled to be released in mid-1994, though only 1000 copies were published. It was re-issued by Rephlex in 1996 after Paradinas served papers on the label. Paradinas's first major-label release came later in 1994, after he undertook a remix project for Virgin Records: the remix EP "The Auteurs Vs μ-Ziq" for the britpop band the Auteurs. The remixes Paradinas offered sounded nothing like the original song, a familiar practice for many experimental electronic musicians in those times.  Even though the EP was hardly a high sales success, Virgin signed up Paradinas and gave him his own sublabel, Planet Mu, to release his own work and to develop similar-minded artists. (Paradinas later broke with Virgin and in 1998 established Planet Mu as his own independent label.) Written into his own contract was a provision for unlimited recording under different names, and during 1995 Paradinas unveiled three aliases and released many albums within less than a year. The neo-electro music label Clear released his debut single under the alias Tusken Raiders (named after the Star Wars species) early in the year. Clear Records also released the first Paradinas alias full-length album, "Jake Slazenger MakesARacket", later in 1995. Although they were still audible, the LP ignored the electro influences in favour of some synthesizer figures and the previously unheard influence of jazz-funk. Paradinas continued to release solo albums under the above-mentioned names as well as Gary Moscheles, and a one-time collaboration with Aphex Twin under the Mike & Rich moniker.  In 1997 Paradinas made a style change again, mixing experimental electronic music with drum'n'bass, a similar aesthetic path taken by Squarepusher and Aphex Twin. During this year he was also touring with popular musician Björk. Björk inspired the 1999 album Royal Astronomy, with its mixture of unusual vocals, strings and breakbeat. All of his albums until 2003 were released in the USA on the more mainstream label, Astralwerks.  Paradinas is the owner of the Planet Mu label, which hosts electronic musicians such as Venetian Snares, Capitol K, and Luke Vibert.

Discography.

Solo projects.

As μ-Ziq.

Studio Albums.

<nowiki>*</nowiki> Denotes an archival release, not a new studio effort.

Michael Paradinas (born 26 September 1971), better known by his stage name μ-Ziq (pronounced "music" or mu-zik), is an English electronic musician from Wimbledon, London. He was associated with the electronic style intelligent dance music (IDM) during the 1990s, and recorded on Rephlex Records and Reflective Records. His critically acclaimed 1997 album, "Lunatic Harness", helped define the drill 'n' bass subgenre and was also his most successful release, selling over 100,000 copies. He is also founder of the record label Planet Mu, begun in 1995, where he has championed genres such as juke and footwork.

Michael Paradinas (né à Londres le ), dit μ-Ziq, est un compositeur, producteur et occasionnellement DJ de musique électronique, particulièrement d'IDM, de drill and bass et d'ambient. μ-Ziq se prononce comme le terme anglais "music" ().


Pun-based jokes.

Some jokes use a mathematical term with a second non-technical meaning as the punchline of a joke.  Occasionally, multiple mathematical puns appear in the same jest:  This invokes four double meanings: adder (snake) vs. addition (algebraic operation); multiplication (biological reproduction) vs. multiplication (algebraic operation); log (a cut tree trunk) vs. log (logarithm); and table (set of facts) vs. table (piece of furniture).  Other jokes create a double meaning from a direct calculation involving facetious variable names, such as this retold from "Gravity's Rainbow":  The first part of this joke relies on the fact that the primitive (formed when finding the antiderivative) of the function 1/"x" is log("x"). The second part is then based on the fact that the antiderivative is actually a class of functions, requiring the inclusion of a constant of integration, usually denoted as "C"—something which calculus students may forget. Thus, the indefinite integral of 1/cabin is "log(cabin) + "C"", or "A log cabin plus the sea", i.e., "A houseboat".

Jokes with numeral bases.

Some jokes depend on ambiguity of numeral bases.  This joke subverts the trope of phrases that begin with "there are two types of people in the world..." and relies on an ambiguous meaning of the expression 10, which in the binary numeral system is equal to the decimal number 2. There are many alternative versions of the joke, such as "There are two types of people in this world. Those who can extrapolate from incomplete information."  Another pun using different radices, asks:  The play on words lies in the similarity of the abbreviation for October/Octal and December/Decimal, and the coincidence that both equal the same amount (formula_1).

Imaginary numbers.

Some jokes are based on imaginary number, treating it as if it is a real number. A telephone intercept message of "you have dialed an imaginary number, please rotate your handset ninety degrees and try again" is a typical example. Another popular example is: "What did say to? Get real. What did say to? Be rational."

Stereotypes of mathematicians.

Some jokes are based on stereotypes of mathematicians tending to think in complicated, abstract terms, causing them to lose touch with the "real world". These compare mathematicians to physicists, engineers, or the "soft" sciences in a form similar to an Englishman, an Irishman and a Scotsman, showing the other scientist doing something practical, while the mathematician proposes a theoretically valid but physically nonsensical solution.  Mathematicians are also shown as averse to making hasty generalizations from a small amount of data, even if some form of generalization seems plausible:  A classic joke involving stereotypes is the "Dictionary of Definitions of Terms Commonly Used in Math Lectures". Examples include "Trivial: If I have to show you how to do this, you're in the wrong class" and "Similarly: At least one line of the proof of this case is the same as before."

Non-mathematician's math.

This category of jokes comprises those that exploit common misunderstandings of mathematics, or the expectation that most people have only a basic mathematical education, if any.  The joke is that the employee fails to understand the scientist's implication of the uncertainty in the age of the fossil and uses false precision.

Mock mathematics.

A form of mathematical humor comes from using mathematical tools (both abstract symbols and physical objects such as calculators) in various ways which transgress their intended scope. These constructions are generally devoid of any substantial mathematical content, besides some basic arithmetic.

Mock mathematical reasoning.

A set of equivocal jokes applies mathematical reasoning to situations where it is not entirely valid. Many of these are based on a combination of well-known quotes and basic logical constructs such as syllogisms:  Another set of jokes relate to the absence of mathematical reasoning, or misinterpretation of conventional notation:  formula_2  That is, the limit as "x" goes to 8 from above is a sideways 8 or the infinity sign, in the same way that the limit as "x" goes to three from above is a sideways 3 or the Greek letter omega (conventionally used to notate the smallest infinite ordinal number).  An anomalous cancellation is a kind of arithmetic procedural error that gives a numerically correct answer:

Mathematical fallacies.

A number of mathematical fallacies are part of mathematical humorous folklore. For example:  formula_5  This appears to prove that, but uses division by zero to produce the result.  Some jokes attempt a seemingly plausible, but in fact impossible, mathematical operation. For example: Pi goes on and on and on...
 And e is just as cursed.
 I wonder: Which is larger
 When their digits are reversed? To reverse the digits of a number's decimal expansion, we have to start at the last digit and work backwards. However, that's not possible if the expansion never ends, as for formula_6 and formula_7.

Humorous numbers.

Many numbers have been given humorous names, either as pure numbers or as units of measurement. Some examples:  Sagan has been defined as "billions and billions", a metric of the number of stars in the observable universe.  "Jenny's constant" has been defined as formula_8, from the pop song 867-5309/Jenny, which concerns the telephone number 867-5309.  The mathematical constant 42 appears throughout the Douglas Adams trilogy "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy", where it is portrayed as "the answer to the ultimate question of life, the universe and everything". This number appears as a fixed value in the TIFF image file format and its derivatives (including for example the ISO standard TIFF/EP) where the content of bytes 2–3 is defined as 42: "An arbitrary but carefully chosen number that further identifies the file as a TIFF file".

Calculator spelling.

Calculator spelling is the formation of words and phrases by displaying a number and turning the calculator upside down. The jest may be formulated as a mathematical problem where the result, when read upside down, appears to be an identifiable phrase like "ShELL OIL" or "Esso" using seven-segment display character representations where the open-top "4" is an inverted 'h' and '5' looks like 'S'. Other letters can be used as numbers too with 8 and 9 representing B and G, respectively.

Limericks.

A mathematical limerick is an expression which, when read aloud, matches the form of a limerick. The following example is attributed to Leigh Mercer: formula_9 This is read as follows:

Doughnut and coffee mug topology joke.

An oft-repeated joke is that topologists cannot tell a coffee cup from a doughnut, since a sufficiently pliable doughnut could be reshaped (by a homeomorphism) to the form of a cup by creating a dimple and progressively enlarging it, while shrinking the hole into a handle.

A mathematical joke is a form of humor which relies on aspects of mathematics or a stereotype of mathematicians. The humor may come from a pun, or from a double meaning of a mathematical term, or from a lay person's misunderstanding of a mathematical concept. Mathematician and author John Allen Paulos in his book "Mathematics and Humor" described several ways that mathematics, generally considered a dry, formal activity, overlaps with humor, a loose, irreverent activity: both are forms of "intellectual play"; both have "logic, pattern, rules, structure"; and both are "economical and explicit".

L'humour mathématique rassemble la collection d'effets humoristiques en rapport avec les mathématiques. Pour Marc Lapprand,, en effet, l'humour repose souvent sur la logique, comme les mathématiques, mais une logique biaisée, décalée de la réalité telle qu'elle est habituellement perçue.


History.

By 1932 Salazar had become Portugal's Prime Minister ("primeiro-ministro"). After consolidating his power, he declared the Estado Novo ("New State") in 1933. It was a government modeled on the Fascist State in Italy ruled by Benito Mussolini. Trade unions and political parties were banned (except for Salazar's own National Union). In response, many left-wing organizations began campaigns against the right-wing regime. Arrests soon led to a rise in Portugal's prison population.  Against this backdrop, the Estado Novo, under the guise of reorganization of the country's prisons, decided to build an overseas penal colony for exiling political opponents. Several locations throughout the Portuguese colonies were considered. Eventually, Chão Bom (which means good earth and soil) was chosen on Santiago Island in the Cape Verde archipelago. The site was approved because it was best suited to "hygiene, surveillance, and natural resources"; all ideal properties that a prison colony should have according to Portuguese penal experts.  Ideologically Tarrafal was created for two purposes. First, it would be used to remove and isolate political prisoners who disrupted mainland goals through protests and sit-ins. Second, the camp would have harsh conditions in order to send a clear message to the opposition in Portugal that Salazar's authoritarian regime would not tolerate any kind of political dissent. These objectives were clearly defined in the opening paragraphs of Decree-Law No. 26539 ("Decreto-Lei n.o 26 539"), the law that was enacted to build the Tarrafal Prison. It stated that the camp - which would be under the control of the PVDE (Polícia de Vigilância e de Defesa do Estado: Portugal's Secret Police) - was only for the exiling of political and social prisoners who had disrupted other prisons and were considered a "harmful element" to other inmates.  However, the law was eventually extended to include anyone who committed a crime for political purposes, was on remand for political crimes, or had been arrested for a political crime.

First period.

On 18 October 1936, the first ship set sail from Lisbon carrying 152 political prisoners. While en route the basic camp was completed on 29 October 1936. Among the first group of inmates were trade unionists and anarchists who had taken over Marinha Grande on 18 January 1934 in protest against the Estado Novo regime. The bloodless coup was put down harshly by the right-wing government. António Guerra, who led the occupation of the Marinha Grande Post Office was sentenced to 20 years in exile; he died in Tarrafal in 1948. Other prisoners included sailors from two Portuguese naval vessels, the "Afonso de Albuquerque" and the "Dão", that mutinied on 8 September 1936 where 10 sailors died.  In the first two years of the camp, prisoners slept in canvas tents that lacked electricity and ventilation. Old fuel cans were used to bring in brackish water from a source about 2km away from the camp. Due to the heavy and prolonged rainy season in Cape Verde, the tents rotted, forcing prisoners to sleep in makeshift shelters. Malaria was also prevalent.  By 1940 the camp had been rebuilt in brick. The enlarged site, which could accommodate up to 4,000 inmates, had cells blocks built around a parade quadrangle, a health center, a reading room, PVDE guard towers and barracks, and administrative facilities. The camp would also operate a small railway in order to transport supplies and fuel.  The PVDE modeled its camp regime on the Nazi concentration camps. Prisoners were subjected to brutal authority. Strict regulations were enforced and outside information was forbidden. The PVDE used physical and psychological violence against the prisoners, this included sleep deprivation, beatings, and humiliation. Men and women were tortured for information on their organizations and networks in Portugal. The most severe punishment was conducted in a concrete cell called the "frigideira" (English: "frying pan"). Inside this windowless 6m x3m building, daytime temperatures could reach up to 60° Celsius. Prisoners could be held inside these blocks for days, weeks or months. When used elsewhere, being held in cells of this kind had resulted in extreme dehydration, heat exhaustion, and death.  The camp was closed in 1954 due to national and international pressure.

Victims.

A total of 32 political prisoners died in Tarrafal; their remains were not returned to Portugal until after the Carnation Revolution ("25 de Abril" in Portuguese) in 1974:

Second period.

The site was reopened in 1961 on the orders of Adriano Moreira, the Minister of the Overseas Provinces. It would now be used as a forced labor camp for African leaders and militants that were fighting Portuguese colonialism. Prisoners came from Cape Verde, Angola, and Guinea-Bissau. The "frigideira" was replaced with "hollandinha". Despite the conditions, the prisoners tried to help each other and improve their education and knowledge. They gave classes to one another and trained themselves as translators and clerks.  The prison was closed for the second, and final, the time following the Carnation Revolution on 25 April 1974 which ended Portugal's 50-year-old authoritarian regime. The next evening at about 11.30pm, a lieutenant arrived from Lisbon with orders to release all political prisoners.  The Portuguese government handed the site over to Cape Verde after it achieved independence in 1975.

Legacy.

Since its closure as a prison, the site has been used as a military base, a refugee camp, a storage facility, and a school. However, these roles have changed and altered the features of the historic site. Buildings have been left badly damaged, many have missing roofs, windows, and doors.  Tarrafal is now a museum. The "Museu da Resistência" displays photos, plaques, and artifacts. It is part of a project to preserve and record the history of the camp. The long-term aim of the project is to become a World Heritage site.  In 2006, the World Monument Fund named Tarrafal one of its 100 watched monuments.  In 2009 an international symposium on the former Tarrafal concentration camp took place in Praia, Cape Verde, on the 35th anniversary of the camp’s closing. The symposium was attended by former political prisoners and specialists from the countries of Cape Verde, Angola, Guinea Bissau and Portugal.

Tarrafal (also known as "Campo da Morte Lenta" in Portuguese ["Camp of the Slow Death"]) was a prison camp in the Portuguese colony of Cape Verde. The penal colony was established by the Portuguese dictator António de Oliveira Salazar following the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936. It housed opponents to Portugal's right-wing authoritarian regime. Due to the harsh conditions, at least 32 political prisoners died in the camp.

Le camp de concentration de Tarrafal – ou pénitencier de Chão Bom –, situé au nord de l'île Santiago, la plus grande île du Cap-Vert, fut ouvert sous le régime salazariste, en 1936, juste après le début de la guerre d'Espagne. Le camp à peine achevé était destiné aux opposants politiques et syndicaux (Républicains, socialistes, et surtout les plus actifs, anarchistes et communistes...).


History.

Background.

In 1876, Ferrocarril Central Norte started services from Córdoba to Tucumán. It was the first metre gauge in Argentina, mainly due to economic reasons. It had been built by the Argentine State to expand Central Argentine Railway network (Rosario-Córdoba), a British-owned company by then.  By the beginning of the 20th century, the national government had built several metre gauge railway lines, most of them in the North of Argentina. The Argentine State Railway owned a 3,490 km length network. The most important were the Central Norte and Argentino del Norte, apart of other lines in Patagonia and Littoral regions.  In 1905 the Congress of Argentina authorised the construction of a line from Cerrillos to Rosario de Lerma in Salta Province as a railway projected to get access to the Puna de Atacama. One year after other project proposed to get access through Quebrada de Humahuaca was suggested, but works were not carried out.  Projects were revived several times but it was not until 1921 when the Argentine State Railway company started the construction of a line. Works -directed by American engineer Richard Maury- continued until 1930 when the overthrow of Hipólito Yrigoyen caused their interruption with only a few kilometers built, while Maury was fired by the de facto government. Works resumed in 1936, reaching the cities of Olacapato (1941), Unquillal (1944) and Tolar Grande (1945). President Juan Perón encouraged works to continue after he became president that same year.  In January 1948 works were finished at last and the line was opened, joining Argentina and Chile in Socompa. Trains ran along 29 bridges, 21 tunnels, 13 viaducts, 2 zig-zags and 2 spirals. In 1972 the line started to operate as a touristic service, under the commercial name ""Tren a las Nubes" (Train to the Clouds)"

Nationalisation.

After the World War II finished, British and French-owned railway companies in Argentina began proceedings with the purpose of selling their railways due to financial problems to operate those services. Finally on March 1, 1948, all the foreign railway companies in Argentina were nationalised under the Juan Perón's administration, creating the State-owned company "Empresa de Ferrocarriles del Estado Argentino (EFEA)", then renamed to Ferrocarriles Argentinos, taking over all the railway lines of Argentina, including passenger and freight services.  From then on, a restructuring of the entire Argentine rail network was carried out, given the lines local heroes' names. As a result, several former British and French companies, such as Compañía Gral. de Buenos Aires, Central Norte, Argentino del Norte, Mildland and Provincial de Santa Fe became part of the same network, renamed "Ferrocarril General Manuel Belgrano" to honor Manuel Belgrano, hero of War of independence and mostly notable for having been the creator of the National flag.  The Patagonian railway owned by state became part of General Roca Railway and the Littoral lines were added to General Urquiza Railway. On the other side, the Provincial de Buenos Aires railway remained managed in an autonomous way until 1953 when it was also added to Ferrocarril Belgrano.  The six companies were managed by Ferrocarriles Argentinos which was later broken up during the process of railway privatisation beginning in 1991 during Carlos Menem's presidency.  The following metre gauge railway companies were added to Ferrocarril Belgrano network after the 1948 nationalisation:  Note:

Eastern Bolivia's line.

In 1937, while the Chaco War happened, governments of Argentina and Brazil had competed to extend their railway lines to Bolivia. The branch projected would run from Yacuiba to Santa Cruz de la Sierra but part of the path was being occupied by the Paraguayan Army. On February 25, 1938, governments of Bolivia and Brazil signed an agreement to build a railway line from Santa Cruz to Brazilian city Corumbá, which would allow Bolivia to have access to Atlantic Ocean. As for Brazil, the railway would facilitate an access to the oil-rich Eastern Bolivia region. On March 15 Bolivia ratified that agreement, declaring null the other contract signed with Argentina in November 1937.  Nevertheless, the Congresses of Argentina and Bolivia ratified the agreement. On the other hand, Brazil started to work in Bolivia in 1948, having finished the 625-km length Santa Cruz - Corumbá railway line in 1955.  In 1949 Argentina financed and built the railway to Santa Cruz, crossing Eastern Bolivian. That line connected Amazonas and de la Plata drainage basins as a natural extension of the Yacuiba branch. That also joined Argentine railways other railroad lines of the regions, such as Brazil, Chilean and Bolivian networks. The Yacuiba - Santa Cruz de la Sierra branch was opened in 1958.

Rosario railways.

Once the metre gauge railways became part of Ferrocarril Belgrano, the government ordered the closure of Córdoba Central Railway, Provincial de Santa Fe and Compañía Gral. de Buenos Aires terminal stations in the city of Rosario for passenger services. In the case of the CGBA (that joined Buenos Aires Province with Rosario through a branch from Pergamino) the closure was definite and the building would be later occupied by the National Gendarmerie. Passenger services were moved to Rosario Oeste station.  Likewise, the Ferrocarril Provincial de Santa Fe terminus was remodeled and re-opened in the late 1950s as a bus terminus, renaming it "Coronel Juan D. Perón" to honor former President of Argentina. The station was renamed later as "Mariano Moreno".

Tucumán railways.

Belgrano Railway operated two stations from Córdoba Central, the original built by the Argentine North Western Railway (ANWR, also named "El Provincial" due to its line extended within Tucumán Province and acquired in 1899) and the other station built by the CC itself, Tucumán Belgrano railway station. The Provincial station operated passenger and freight services until the late 1960s, when the passenger traffic was moved to Central Northern Railway station, also known as "El Bajo".  After the entire railway network was nationalised during Juan Perón's administration, the Córdoba Central station started to be operated by recently formed Ferrocarriles Argentinos. The station remained active as an intermediate stop for trains run by Belgrano Railway to La Quiaca in Jujuy Province. The ANWR station would be finally closed in 1978.  In the early 1990s, when the Carlos Menem's administration privatised all the railway services, the Belgrano Railway freight service remained under the control of the state due to lack of interest from private inversors. On the other hand, all the long-distance passenger services were closed in March 1993 so the station has remained active for freight trains exclusively since then. The Córdoba Central is currently operated by state-owned Trenes Argentinos Cargas y Logística.

Ex-Midland evolution.

This railway extended along Buenos Aires Province from its terminus of Puente Alsina in Lanús Partido to Carhué, an important tourist centre by then.  After the nationalisation several improvements were carried out in the line, such as the addition of a rail track between Aldo Bonzi and Libertad to increase frequency of the services. The modernisation included the purchase of brand-new diesel locomotives by American company Whitcomb in 1951 (with the addition of 15 new ones by Werkspoor in 1955) and the construction of a junction in the Tapiales and Aldo Bonzi stations that allowed ex-Midland connecting its line with Ferrocarril Sarmiento railway near Haedo in Greater Buenos Aires.  By December 1955 the Ferrocarril Belgrano ran more than 40 services per day in the Puente Alsina−Aldo Bonzi section.  Railcars acquired to Birmingham Railway Carriage and Wagon Company in 1939 that were still running passenger services on the line were put out of service in 1971, replacing them with the Ganz Works previously used by the Argentine State Railway since 1936. The Ganz railcars ran services until 1977 when the line was definitely closed.  When the Libertad−Plomer section was closed, Buenos Aires station of ex-CGBA was set as terminus. Trains ran without passengers from Puenta Alsina to Aldo Bonzi, running back to Tapiales junction where they departed to Buenos Aires station. Passengers waited and took the train in Buenos Aires, being carried to Carhué via Plomer. The lack of maintenance caused a progressive deterioration in the rolling stock and stations of the line, therefore the line was closed in September 1977. Workshops at Libertad were demolished. Nevertheless, the closure of the region did not make a negative impact in the economy of the Province due to rail tracks crossed along low-populated regions. Besides, most of that regions were already served by other railway lines with better access to the city of Buenos Aires.

Ex-Compañía General evolution.

That railway line operated services from Buenos Aires station in Parque Patricios to cities at the East of Buenos Aires Province and ports of La Plata and Rosario. When the company was added to Ferrocarril Belgrano, its network was significantly restructured.  In Rosario, the CGBA terminal station was closed and all its branches put out of service. In Buenos Aires, the CGBA workshops in Riachuelo were closed so all the rolling stock was moved to Libertad workshops of Midland Railway. In La Plata, a joint with ex-Ferrocarril Provincial (FPBA) was built in Etcheverry station, using that line for all the freight trains that served the port in La Plata. The line that belonged to CGBA was abandoned and its rail tracks removed in the most part of the path.  Finally in 1961, branches from Patricios to General Villegas and Victorino de la Plaza and Vedia to Pergamino were closed. Likewise, the "milk train" (that served the region bringing fresh milk from local dairy farms) was definitely suspended when the government banned the commercialization of bulk products in the city of Buenos Aires.  In August 1977, National Decree N° 2294 stated the closure of the 225-km length line between Patricios and Victorino de la Plaza. Since then, stations and rail tracks had been suffered progressive deterioration, with no plans from the government to re-activate the CGBA lines.

Ex-F.C. Provincial evolution.

The Ferrocarril Provincial was the last to become part of Ferrocarril Belgrano network. As the CGBA rail tracks from Port of La Plata to the crossing with FC Provincial (near Etcheverry) had been removed in the 1950s, therefore a joint was built to allow trains from González Catán to run on ex-FCPBA tracks to La Plata.  In October 1961 the Etcheverry−Mira Pampa and Carlos Beguerie−Azul−Olavarría branches were closed by the national government. Three years later the Olavarría−La Plata section was partially re-opened only for freight services, but this line would be definitely deactivated in 1968.  One year later a joint between former Midland, Provincial and the Port of Buenos Aires was built to reach Avellaneda. In 1974 rail tracks from Carlos Beguerie to Mira Pampa were removed. On July 5, 1977, this line was definitely closed for passenger services, running freight trains until one of the bridges was broken by a truck near Gobernador Monteverde, leaving the line inactive. Years later Avellaneda station (terminus of the line) would be re-opened as a railway museum.

Ex-FC Provincial de Santa Fe evolution.

The Ferrocarril Provincial de Santa Fe had been a French-owned company operating trains in the provinces of Santa Fe, Chaco and Córdoba that became part of the Ferrocarril Belgrano after nationalisation of the entire network in 1948.  In the city of Rosario the terminal stations of former French-owned companies, Córdoba Central, Compañía General de Buenos Aires and Provincial de Santa Fe, were closed for passenger services. From then on, the traffic of passenger would be moved to Rosario Oeste station.  The Rosario terminus of ex-Provincial de Santa Fe was remodeled and re-opened at late 1950s as a bus terminus, renaming it "Coronel Perón" although it would be changed to Mariano Moreno to honor one of the most notable personalities of the 1810 Revolution. After becoming a bus station the warehouses remained active for freight services until they were definitely closed in 1987. The rail tracks were also removed while the Municipality of Rosario made a Convention Center ("Patrio de la Madera") on that place.  FCPSF's Central Station (terminus of the line located in the city of Santa Fe) was demolished in 1962 to build a new bus terminus, which was inaugurated in 1968.  After the privatisation of all the Argentine railways in early 1990 during Carlos Menem's administration, several railway lines were closed and many cities of the region lost their only public transport that connected them with the main cities of Santa Fe and Chaco.  In the case of Chaco, the government of the province created a state-owned company, named "Servicios Ferroviarios del Chaco (SEFECHA)" to operate regional services on the Ferrocarril Belgrano tracks, using small railcars. The national government took over the services in May 2010, and has been operating them since then, through state-owned company Trenes Argentinos.

Privatisation.

By the beginning of the 1990s Ferrocarriles Argentinos's financial situation was catastrophic so the national government led by Carlos Menem decided to restructure the company. A new company, named "Ferrocarriles Metropolitanos S.A. (FEMESA)" was created to manage and operate passenger services in the urban area of Buenos Aires, leaving FA the operation of long-distance passenger trains and freight services. Nevertheless, passenger trains served by FA would be interrupted by a National Decree on March 10, 1993. Only a few lines (operated by the provincial governments) continued to operate outside Buenos Aires Province.  Under FEMESA administration, the urban services of Ferrocarril Belgrano were divided into two lines, Belgrano Norte (Retiro–Villa Rosa) and Belgrano Sur (Buenos Aires–González Catán–Marinos del Crucero General Belgrano and Puente Alsina–Aldo Bonzi). Both lines had a low passenger traffic compared with other lines such as Sarmiento or Mitre.  Belgrano Sur line that ran trains on ex-Compañía General and Midland railways was granted in concession to Private company Metropolitano (through its TMB division) in 1994. In 1999 the company tried to run a special service with railcars from González Catán to Villars but it was soon abandoned.  The Belgrano Norte line was granted in concession to Ferrovías, a company that owned EMEPA, a hugh railway workshop near Chascomús. By 1994 (first year of the concession) the number of passengers carried had increased to 14,800,000. The company also made investments, acquiring new diesel locomotives and coaches, upgrading infrastructure (renewing rail tracks and signalling and replacing the old bridges) along the entire line. Because of the improvements, the Belgrano Norte Line increased the number of passengers to 36 million.  10,800 of 14,000-km length run by Ferrocarriles Argentinos for freight services were taken over by State company Ferrocarril General Belgrano S.A., established in 1993 because of no one private company had made an offer to operate the line. Belgrano S.A. continued operating until 1997 when it was given to Unión Ferroviaria, the railway syndicate of Argentina. The company transported about 1,500,000 tons (a very low volume compared with the 4,000,000 tons transported in the 1970s). Most of the cargo was oil and fuel, although other products transported included grains, minerals and construction materials.  In November 1999 the company was given in concession to Ferrocarril Belgrano Cargas S.A., formed by the Unión Ferroviaria and local cooperative "Laguna Paiva". The government of Argentina owned 1% with the attribution to choose the Director. In 2004 the company was re-privatised, keeping the national government 1% of the company.

State interventions.

As part of railway privatization, carried out during the presidency of Carlos Menem, a concession to operate the services was granted to the government of Chaco Province in 1992, so the State-owned company "Servicios Ferroviarios del Chaco" (SEFECHA) was created in August 1999.  Through its intervention, the government of Chaco reestablished many passenger services in the Province, connecting its main cities such as Resistencia or Sáenz Peña with the rest of the region.  In May 2010, the government of Argentina took over services previously operated by SEFECHA, which was dissolved. Nowadays those services, together with those of Tren de las Sierras in Córdoba Province, are the only ex-FCGB passenger services in the interior of the country that are still in operation.

Suburban services.

Belgrano Norte.

In the metropolitan sector of the City of Buenos Aires there is a diesel commuter line that operates from the Retiro terminus in the city-centre to the town of Villa Rosa in Pilar Partido of Buenos Aires Province. The service is operated by private company Ferrovías since 1994.  The line increased the number of passengers carried notably, from 11,8 million in 1993 to about 30,5 million passengers during 2012.

Belgrano Sur.

On the southern sector of the City of Buenos Aires two diesel commuter lines operate to the southern suburbs of Buenos Aires. The Buenos Aires station-González Catán line was part of French-owned company Compañía General de Ferrocarriles en la Provincia de Buenos Aires (CGBA) that extended its network to the south-west of Buenos Aires Province, reaching cities such as General Villegas and Victorino de la Plaza. Other lines connected Buenos Aires with the port of La Plata and Rosario.  The other two branches were originally part of British-owned Buenos Aires Midland Railway that began its operations in 1906, extending its network to the city of Carhué in the south-west of the Province. From Puente Alsina station (Midland terminus) it runs to Aldo Bonzi. The other branch (15-km length) departs from Tapiales station, extending to Marinos del Crucero Gral. Belgrano in Merlo Partido.

The General Manuel Belgrano Railway (FCGMB) (Spanish: Ferrocarril General Manuel Belgrano), named after the Argentine politician and military leader Manuel Belgrano, is a railway and the longest of the Argentine system. It was one of the six State-owned Argentine railway companies formed after President Juan Perón's nationalisation of the railway network in 1948.

Le Ferrocarril General Manuel Belgrano ou Chemin de fer General Manuel Belgrano (FCGMB), est appelé ainsi en l'honneur du héros argentin Manuel Belgrano. C'est le chemin de fer le plus étendu du réseau ferroviaire argentin. D'écartement métrique des rails (1.000 millimètres), il a été créé en 1949 afin d'incorporer toutes les branches à voie étroite du réseau, gérées jusque-là par "Ferrocarriles del Estado" au moment de l'étatisation du réseau ferroviaire.


Rules.

The NLL plays four 15-minute quarters with 2-minute breaks between quarters and a 16-minute half-time. If a game is tied after regulation, the two teams play sudden

Season and playoffs.

Each team in the NLL plays 18 games during the regular season, nine at home and nine away. The teams are divided into three divisions: the 4-team East and North Divisions and the 5-team West Division. Each team plays at least 9 of its 18 regular season games against division opponents, and each team plays each of the teams in other divisions once. NLL games are played on Friday

Players.

The NLL adopted a soft salary cap of US$ 400,000 per team for the 2013 season. The average base salary as of the 2013 season was $19,135. The maximum salary for a franchise player is approximately

Teams.

Current teams.

An asterisk (*) denotes the franchise moved to its

History.

Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League.

The rebirth of major professional box lacrosse in the United States came on March 13, 1986, with the formation of the Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League (EPBLL), which was incorporated by Russ Cline and Chris Fritz. Previously, in 1985 box lacrosse sponsored an event played at the Spectrum in Philadelphia. The USA/Canada Superseries was an eight-game series seen as a precursor to the Major Indoor Lacrosse League.  The league opened play for the 1987 season with two games on January 10, 1987: the Philadelphia Wings at the New Jersey Saints (Philadelphia

Major Indoor Lacrosse League.

1988.

The league began its second season with each of the four teams playing an eight-game schedule. The league became known as the Major Indoor Lacrosse League (MILL).  The New Jersey Saints became the second league champions by defeating the Washington Wave, 17–16 before 8,125 fans at the Capital Centre. For the Wave, it was the second time in as many years they reached the championship game, only to come away on the short end of a one-goal

1989.

The league prepared to open its third season with six teams: the Baltimore Thunder, the Detroit Turbos, the New England Blazers, the New York Saints, the Philadelphia Wings, and the Washington Wave. Each of the six teams played an eight-game schedule in 1989, with an even four home and road games. In its first ever regular season game, 12,171 Detroit fans watched the expansion Turbos defeat the Washington Wave, 11–9, in the debut of the 1989 season.

1990.

In 1990, the MILL prepared to open its fourth season with six teams: the Baltimore Thunder, Detroit Turbos, New England Blazers, New York Saints, Philadelphia Wings, and Pittsburgh Bulls. Each of the six teams played an eight-game schedule over the 1990 season. During the near of the end of the season, the New York Saints defeated the Philadelphia Wings, 8–5, before the first sellout and the largest crowd in league history: 17,177 at the Spectrum in Philadelphia. The

1991.

The league prepared to open season five with the same six teams. However, this season schedule increased from 8 to 10 games with each team playing five games at home and five games on the road.  In the first game of the regular season, the debut of Detroit rookie twin brothers Paul and Gary Gait was successful, as they paced the Turbos to a 20–16 victory over the Baltimore Thunder.  The 1991 season was definitely a record-breaking year, especially in Detroit. Rookie twin Turbos, Paul and Gary Gait, set new standards in most offensive categories. Paul scored a record 47 goals, while

1992.

The league opened the sixth season with seven teams with the expansion Buffalo Bandits joining the league. Each of the seven teams played an eight-game schedule with four home games and four road games.  The Buffalo Bandits defeated the Philadelphia Wings, 20–11, in their first ever sellout of 16,325 in Memorial Auditorium. It marked the second sellout in league history. The Buffalo Bandits defeated

1993.

Buffalo won their second consecutive League Championship with a 13–12 comeback victory over the Philadelphia Wings before 16,325 in the sold-out Memorial Auditorium. The Bandits kept their 18-game winning

1994.

ESPN2's first Monday night broadcast featured the Detroit Turbos against the Baltimore Thunder.  The Philadelphia Wings denied the Buffalo Bandits a third consecutive World Championship by defeating the Bandits, 26–15, in front of a sellout crowd of

1995.

The expansion Rochester Knighthawks won their inaugural game, 12–8, against the New York Saints in the War Memorial.  Philadelphia broke the league's attendance record as 17,380 fans witnessed the Wings defeat of the Baltimore Thunder in the

1996.

Before the beginning of the 1996 season, the second-to-last season that the NLL would be known as the Major Indoor Lacrosse League, it was announced that the season would be expanded to 10 games. In addition, the Boston Blazers announced their new home in the Fleet Center for 1996. Another big crowd of 16,818, the fourth largest in league history, watched the Wings defeat the

1997.

The 11th season opened with three games, including Rochester playing Buffalo at the Bandits' new home, the Marine Midland Arena, in front of a new league record crowd of 18,595 fans. The Knighthawks of Rochester, coached by Barry Powless, later claimed their first MILL championship title in 1997, in front of the second largest crowd in MILL history, 18,055, also played at the Marine Midland Arena.

National Lacrosse League.

In 1997, the Major Indoor Lacrosse League was reconstituted with a new name, the National Lacrosse League. Two expansion teams, the Syracuse Smash and Ontario Raiders, joined the previous MILL teams. John Livsey, Jr. was named as the first Commissioner of the National Lacrosse League.

1998.

The 1998 regular season schedule was announced with teams now playing 12 games (six at home and six on the road) and facing their six opponents twice during the regular season (once at home and once on the road). In addition, the playoff format saw a best-of-three championship series with semifinal playoff action still taking place in a single-game elimination format, though sites of all post-season games

1999.

The Toronto Rock finished the season with a perfect home record, going a combined 8–0 (regular season and playoffs) after a 13–10 win

2000.

18,911 fans packed the First Union Center in Philadelphia to watch the Philadelphia Wings battle the Pittsburgh CrosseFire. Pittsburgh won the game, 14–8. At the time, this was the largest single-game crowd to ever see a professional box lacrosse game.  Kaleb Toth beat K-Hawks goaltender Pat O'Toole with 1.1 seconds remaining in regulation time to give the Toronto Rock a 14–13 victory, and their second straight championship. Considered

2001.

In front of the league's largest crowd in history, the Philadelphia Wings won their sixth League Championship Title with a 9–8 win over the Toronto Rock

2002.

The Vancouver Ravens played their inaugural home game at General Motors Place in Vancouver. The Ravens gave the crowd of 13,772 much to cheer about, beating the Toronto Rock 13–12. The crowd made history as the largest ever to attend the first home game of an expansion franchise.  The Albany Attack hosted the Toronto Rock in the 2002 Final. The Rock defeated the Attack by a score of

2003.

The Colorado Mammoth played their inaugural home game at Pepsi Center in Denver. The Mammoth treated the home crowd of 16,121 fans to a thrilling 13–12 win in double overtime against the Toronto Rock. The crowd broke the previous record for an inaugural home game attendance, previously held by the Vancouver Ravens (13,772 in 2001).  In front of a sellout crowd of

2004.

A new divisional format was announced for the regular season. The first-ever Western Division consisted of Anaheim, Arizona, Calgary, Colorado, San Jose, and Vancouver. The East consisted of Buffalo, Philadelphia, Rochester, and Toronto. The top three teams in each division would earn playoff berths with the division champions receiving byes. The second and third-place finishers would face each other in the opening round with the winners facing their respective division champions in the semi-final round. The semi-final winners (East vs. West) would meet in the 2004 Champions' Cup Final with the higher seed hosting.  Fox Sports Net became the league's new national broadcast partner in the United States. Fox Sports Net carried nine regular-season game broadcasts spread across the schedule to over 50

2005.

The National Lacrosse League reached a new 3-year Collective Bargaining Agreement with the Professional Lacrosse Player's Association (PLPA). The agreement covers the league's 2005, 2006, and 2007 seasons.  The league announced the placement of a franchise in Minnesota. The new team would be owned and operated by Minnesota Sports and Entertainment, owners of the Minnesota Wild of the National Hockey League. The Minnesota team entered the league for the 2005 season and played its home games at the Xcel Energy Center in St. Paul.  A new preseason attendance record was set as 14,084 fans come to the Xcel Energy Center in

2006.

The Edmonton Rush played their inaugural game and home opener in front of 11,385 fans at Rexall Place in Edmonton, Alberta. The Rush lost 10–9 in overtime to the San Jose Stealth. The game was only the second time in league history that an expansion team forced overtime in their inaugural game.  The 2006 National Lacrosse League All-Star Game was held at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto, Ontario, home of the Toronto Rock. The West Division (Arizona Sting, Calgary Roughnecks, Colorado Mammoth, Edmonton Rush, Portland LumberJax, and San Jose Stealth) defeated the East Division (Buffalo Bandits, Minnesota Swarm, Philadelphia Wings, Rochester Knighthawks, and Toronto Rock) by a score of 14–13 in front of 15,924 fans. Calgary Roughnecks forward Lewis Ratcliff scored the

2007.

The expansion New York Titans played their home opener at Madison Square Garden in the first ever professional lacrosse game at the "World's Most Famous Arena". The Titans defeated the expansion Chicago Shamrox 11–9 in front of 13,127 fans.  The Eastern Division defeated the Western Division 20–16 in front of 12,856 fans at Rose Garden in Portland, Oregon, home of the Portland LumberJax, in the 2007 National Lacrosse League All-Star Game. Buffalo Bandits forward Mark Steenhuis was named the game's Most

2008.

The league announced the divisional alignments for the 2008 regular season. The expansion Boston franchise would join the Eastern Division, expanding to eight teams: Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Minnesota, New York, Philadelphia, Rochester, and Toronto. The Western Division composed of six teams remained unchanged: Arizona, Calgary, Colorado, Edmonton, Portland, and San Jose.  John Tavares broke Gary Gait's all-time goal scoring record. Tavares, who had already

2009.

The league announced the addition of instant replay for officials to review disputed goals and crease violations during games. George Daniel was appointed Commissioner of

2010.

Washington Stealth won its first championship, defeating Toronto Rock 15–11 in

2011.

Toronto Rock won its sixth championship record, along with Philadelphia Wings, defeating Washington

2012.

Rochester Knighthawks won its third championship, defeating Edmonton Rush 9–6 in

2013.

Rochester Knighthawks won its fourth championship, defeating Washington Stealth 11–10 in

2014.

Rochester Knighthawks won its fifth championship, defeating Calgary Roughnecks 2–1. In game 1, 7–11 in front of a crowd of

2015.

Edmonton Rush won its first championship, defeating Toronto Rock 2–0. In game 1, 15–9 in front of a

2016.

Nick Sakiewicz was appointed 5th Commissioner of the National Lacrosse League.  Saskatchewan Rush won its second championship, defeating Buffalo Bandits 2–0. In

2017.

Georgia Swarm won its first championship, defeating Saskatchewan Rush 2–0. In game 1, 18–14 in front of a

2019.

Before the season, the league announced that Rochester Knighthawks owner Curt Styres would be moving the team to Halifax, Nova Scotia for the 2019-2020 season. Four hours later, it was announced that Rochester would be awarded an expansion franchise under the ownership of Terry and Kim Pegula, who also own the Buffalo Bandits, to begin play next season as well.  The 2019 NLL season was delayed when the Professional Lacrosse Players Association went on strike shortly before training camp was to begin. On November 15, 2018 the league announced that a counter-proposal submitted by the Professional Lacrosse Players Association was rejected. This came after the league suspended their Wednesday November 14 deadline to review

2020.

On March 13, 2020, league play was indefinitely suspended due to the Coronavirus pandemic. On June 4, 2020, the league announced that the 2020 playoffs were cancelled due to the pandemic. Even though there were scenarios to have a shortened playoff tournament, the league decided to focus on the 2021 season instead.

Expansion and relocation.

In July 2007, the Vancouver Ravens were conditionally approved for a 2008 return; the conditions included selling at least 2,500 season tickets and finding a suitable arena lease by July 19, 2007. On July 16, 2007, the Vancouver Ravens announced an agreement with Orca Bay Sports and Entertainment to make GM Place (now Rogers Arena) the home venue of the Ravens, if they were able to meet the season ticket sales requirement. However, just a few days later, announced that the Ravens would not play in the 2008 season. Although a local tabloid made mention of a potential return in 2011 for the team, Commissioner Daniel announced that there would be no expansion in 2011.  A number of cities and potential ownership groups have expressed interest in expansion franchises:  After high attendance of over 20,000 fans at the 2007 World Indoor Lacrosse Championship in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Jennings says that the league will "definitely consider expanding to Halifax, for sure." On June 17, 2009, the San Jose Stealth announced their relocation to Everett, Washington, north of Seattle, for the 2010 season. The newly renamed Washington Stealth played their home games at the Comcast Arena at Everett. In their first season in Everett, the Stealth won the league title.  On August 10, 2009, the New York Titans announced the team's move to Orlando, Florida, to become the Orlando Titans.  Commissioner George Daniel announced on March 31, 2010, that there would be no expansion for the 2011 season.  In July 2010, the Orlando Titans announced that they would not participate in the 2011 season due to ownership restructuring.  In late summer 2011, the Boston Blazers suspended operations for the 2012 season. However, as of May 31, 2012, GM and team president Doug Reffue stated that the Blazers ownership is in negotiations with a

Professional Lacrosse Players' Association.

The Professional Lacrosse Players' Association (PLPA) is the trade union of players in the NLL. The PLPA was founded in 1991 by Dave Succamore (a former Detroit Turbos player), Peter Schmitz (a former Boston Blazers player and president) and four other players from other teams with assistance by labor attorney Ronald L.

Media coverage.

National coverage.

In the early 2000s, CNN Sports Illustrated aired NLL games regularly. The NLL had had its All-Star Games and Championship games on NBC in 2005 and ESPN2 in 2006.  In 2007, the NLL had a regularly scheduled "Game of the Week" on Versus, the network now known as NBC Sports Network and home of the Indycar Series, NHL, Tour de France, and PBR. For the 2008 season, due to dispute between the Professional Lacrosse Players' Association and the NLL owners in completing the collective bargaining agreement, the "Game of the Week" on Versus was cancelled.  Also in 2007, the NLL signed an agreement with Sirius Satellite Radio, who were the "Official Satellite Radio Partner". The pact included a "Game of the Week" as well as a weekly highlight show.  For the 2011 season, the NLL returned to Versus, beginning with coverage of the 2011 All-Star Game, followed

Local coverage.

Some teams broadcast home games and select road games on television.  WPHL-TV will broadcast all Wings home games and select

Video games.

In May 2001, "Blast Lacrosse", a video game based on the NLL, was released. It was the first lacrosse video game and included all nine teams from the NLL's 15th season (2001).  On February 15, 2005, the NLL announced that Activision would produce a new video game. The game was slated to be released for the 2007 season. In an online chat held on NLL.com with commissioner Jim Jennings, it was noted that the game would be out in 2009, but the game was never released.  On March 31, 2010, the NLL announced it had partnered with Crosse Studio and Triple B Games to develop "NLL Lacrosse 2010" presented by Reebok Lacrosse. The game was released exclusively on the Xbox 360 as an Indie Game on April 23, 2010. Crosse Studio and Triple B Games developed "Inside Lacrosse's College Lacrosse 2010" in 2009 before approaching the NLL to license their next game. The NLL game won Kotaku's Indie Sports video game of the year for 2010.

The National Lacrosse League (NLL) is a men's professional box lacrosse league in North America. Headquartered in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the NLL currently has thirteen teams: eight in the United States and five in Canada. The NLL ranks third in average attendance for pro indoor sports worldwide, behind only the NHL and NBA. Unlike other box lacrosse leagues which play in the summer, the NLL plays its games in the winter and spring, from December to June. Each year, the playoff teams battle for the National Lacrosse League Cup. The NLL has averaged between 8,900 and 10,700 spectators per game each year since 2004.

La National Lacrosse League (ou NLL) est une ligue professionnelle nord-américaine de crosse en enclos créée en 1986, ayant porté les noms d’Eagle Pro Box Lacrosse League puis de Major Indoor Lacrosse League (MILL). En 1997, la ligue est renommée NLL. La ligue compte actuellement 9 équipes dont 5 aux États-Unis et 4 au Canada, elles sont réparties en deux Divisions (Est et Ouest). Contrairement à d'autres ligues de crosse qui jouent en été, la NLL joue ses matchs en hiver. Chaque année, les équipes qualifiées pour les séries éliminatoires se battent pour la Champion's Cup.


Writing and recording.

The song is written by Roger Waters. It begins with an iterative bass line before the vocals start. The first, gentler vocals are performed by Rick Wright with Waters whispering, and the following, harder refrain is sung by David Gilmour. The last two minutes of the song mark the first appearance of a guitar solo by Gilmour on a Pink Floyd album.

Lyrical themes.

"Let There Be More Light" describes the imagined descent of a fantastical spacecraft at RAF Mildenhall, north-east of Waters' hometown of Cambridge. From 1950, RAF Mildenhall primarily supported US Air Force operations, including the Strategic Air Command.  The song shares the theme of benevolent extraterrestrial intervention in human affairs with the 1951 film "The Day the Earth Stood Still" and Arthur C. Clarke's 1953 novel "Childhood's End." Along with "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" and 1969's "Cirrus Minor", it is one of only three Waters-penned lyrics to feature science fiction themes prior to his 1992 solo album "Amused to Death".  "Let There Be More Light" includes cryptic references to science fiction stories, the 11th century rebel Hereward the Wake, The Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" and one of Pink Floyd's early light show operators. While the oblique lyrics contrast with the more direct style that Waters would later adopt, the historical and popular culture references tentatively pre-figure the overt political sentiments of later Pink Floyd and Waters solo releases.  The first verse relates the realisation of an apparent prophecy that "something will be done" when a "mighty ship / Descending on a point of flame / Made contact with the human race at Mildenhall". The second verse opens with the repeated refrain "Now... is the time to be aware", before referring to "Carter's father". While some fans have speculated that Waters is describing John Carter of Mars, a character appearing in science fiction novels of Edgar Rice Burroughs, according to Nick Mason the lyric refers to Cambridge local, band associate and sometime lighting operator, Ian 'Pip' Carter. Carter's father, seeing the spacecraft, "knew the Rull revealed to him / The living soul of Hereward the Wake", a phrase which appears to reference both science fiction writer A. E. van Vogt's 1948 short story "The Rull" (which tells of psychological battle of wits between a human and a hostile alien with hypnotic powers) and a legendary 11th century leader of resistance to the Norman invasion of England who is believed to have roamed The Fens of Cambridgeshire. In the third verse, the "outer lock" of the spacecraft opens to reveal "in flowing robes... Lucy In The Sky", causing the servicemen to sigh in wonder. The fourth and final verse begins with the question "Did... you ever know... / Never, ever will they ascend?" before Lucy In The Sky, toes glowing, summons "his cosmic powers" and lets the "psychic emanations" flow.

Release and live.

A rare US-only single release (Tower 440) contains edited mono versions of this song and "Remember a Day". The single did not chart. Pink Floyd performed the song live from 1968–69, often as an encore. The song was played by Nick Mason's Saucerful of Secrets in 2018 and 2019.

Planned B-side.

This song was planned as a B-side to an edit of one of Pink Floyd's later songs, "Money", for 7 December 1981, but for unknown reasons, the release was cancelled by EMI.

"Let There Be More Light" is the opening track on Pink Floyd's second album "A Saucerful of Secrets". It was also released in edited form as the fourth American single by the group.

Le morceau débute avec son riff de basse en ostinato. Le chant principal est partagé entre Rick Wright et David Gilmour.


Definitions.

Theoretical perspectives.

A definition of the three ways of thinking about a declaration of war was developed by Saikrishna Prakash. He argues that a declaration of war can be seen from three perspectives:

History.

The practice of declaring war has a long history. The ancient Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh gives an account of it, as does the Old Testament.  However, the practice of declaring war was not always strictly followed. In his study "Hostilities without Declaration of War" (1883), the British scholar John Frederick Maurice showed that between 1700 and 1870 war was declared in only 10 cases, while in another 107 cases war was waged without such declaration (these figures include only wars waged in Europe and between European states and the United States, not including colonial wars in Africa and Asia).  In modern public international law, a declaration of war entails the recognition between countries of a state of hostilities between these countries, and such declaration has acted to regulate the conduct between the military engagements between the forces of the respective countries. The primary multilateral treaties governing such declarations are the Hague Conventions.  The League of Nations, formed in 1919 in the wake of the First World War, and the General Treaty for the Renunciation of War of 1928 signed in Paris, France, demonstrated that world powers were seriously seeking a means to prevent the carnage of another world war. Nevertheless, these powers were unable to stop the outbreak of the Second World War, so the United Nations (UN) was established following that war in a renewed attempt to prevent international aggression through declarations of war.

Denigration of formal declarations of war before WWII.

In classical times, Thucydides condemned the Thebans, allies of Sparta, for launching a surprise attack without a declaration of war against Plataea, Athens' ally – an event that began the Peloponnesian War.  The utility of formal declarations of war has always been questioned, either as sentimental remnants of a long-gone age of chivalry or as imprudent warnings to the enemy. For example, writing in 1737, Cornelius van Bynkershoek judged that "nations and princes endowed with some pride are not generally willing to wage war without a previous declaration, for they wish by an open attack to render victory more honourable and glorious." Writing in 1880, William Edward Hall judged that "any sort of previous declaration therefore is an empty formality unless the enemy must be given time and opportunity to put himself in a state of defence, and it is needless to say that no one asserts such a quixotism to be obligatory."

Agreed Procedure for the Opening of Hostilities according to the Hague Convention.

In the first Hague Convention of 1899, the signatory states agreed that at least one other nation be used to mediate disputes between states before engaging in hostilities:

Title II, Article 2.

In case of serious disagreement or conflict, before an appeal to arms, the signatory Powers agree to have recourse, as far as circumstances allow, to the good offices or mediation of one or more friendly Powers.  The Hague Convention (III) of 1907 called "Convention Relative to the Opening of Hostilities" gives the international actions a country should perform when opening hostilities. The first two Articles say:

After World War II.

In 1989, Panama declared itself to be in a state of war with the United States. On 13 May 1998, at the outbreak of the Eritrean–Ethiopian War, Ethiopia, in what Eritrean radio described as a "total war" policy, mobilized its forces for a full assault against Eritrea. The Claims Commission found that this was in essence an affirmation of the existence of a state of war between belligerents, not a declaration of war, and that Ethiopia also notified the United Nations Security Council, as required under Article 51 of the UN Charter.  In December 2005, the government of Chad declared that a state of war existed with Sudan, after Sudan hosted Chadian rebel groups that were behind fatal cross border raids.  In 2008, after armed clashes broke out during the Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict, Djibouti's President Guelleh, when asked if his country was at war with Eritrea, replied with "absolutely".  On 11 April 2012, Sudan declared war on South Sudan after weeks of border clashes.

Declared wars since 1945.

Declarations of war, while uncommon in the traditional sense, have mainly been limited to the conflict areas of the Western Asia and East Africa since 1945. Additionally, some small states have unilaterally declared war on major world powers such as the United States, United Kingdom, or Russia when faced with a hostile invasion and/or occupation.  This is a list of declarations of war (or the existence of war) by one sovereign state against another since the end of World War II in 1945. Only declarations that occurred in the context of a direct military conflict are included.

Legality of declarations of war since 1945.

The United Nations Charter is the foundation of modern international law. The UN Charter is a treaty ratified by members of the UN, which are therefore legally bound by its terms. Article 2(4) of the UN Charter generally bans the use of force by states except when carefully circumscribed conditions are met, stating:  All members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations. This rule was "enshrined in the United Nations Charter in 1945 for a good reason: to prevent states from using force as they felt so inclined", said Louise Doswald-Beck, Secretary-General International Commission of Jurists.  Therefore, in the absence of an armed attack against a country or its allies, any legal use of force, or any legal threat of the use of force, has to be supported by a United Nations Security Council resolution authorizing member states to use force.

United Nations and war.

In an effort to force nations to resolve issues without warfare, framers of the United Nations Charter attempted to commit member nations to using warfare only under limited circumstances, particularly for defensive purposes.  The UN became a combatant itself after North Korea invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950, which begun the Korean War. The UN Security Council condemned the North Korean action by a 9–0 resolution (with the Soviet Union absent) and called upon its member nations to come to the aid of South Korea. The United States and 15 other nations formed a "UN force" to pursue this action. In a press conference on 29 June 1950, U.S. President Harry S. Truman characterized these hostilities as not being a "war" but a "police action".  The United Nations has issued Security Council Resolutions that declared some wars to be legal actions under international law, most notably Resolution 678, authorizing the 1991 Gulf War which was triggered by Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. UN Resolutions authorise the use of "force" or "all necessary means".

Requirements by country.

Commonwealth realms.

Throughout the Commonwealth realms (the UK, Australia, Canada, "et al".) the formal right to declare war rests with the monarch, currently Elizabeth II, or their representative (the governor-general), as part of the royal prerogative and exercised by the Prime Minister (for example in the UK) or that realm's written constitution. In the United Kingdom parliamentary approval is often sought to deploy combat forces overseas, for example in the Iraq War and airstrikes on Daesh (ISIL), but this is not a legal requirement.

Brazil.

According to article 84 of Brazilian constitution the President of Brazil has the power to declare war, in the event of foreign aggression, when authorized by the National Congress or, upon its ratification if the aggression occurs between legislative sessions, and decree full or partial national mobilization under the same conditions.

Finland.

According to article 93 of the Finnish constitution, the President of Finland may declare war, or declare peace, with permission from the Parliament of Finland.

France.

According to Article 35 of the French constitution, the French Parliament has the authority to declare war.

Germany.

Article 115a says that unless attacked by an opposing military force, Germany must vote a two-thirds majority vote in the Bundestag if the federal republic is under the threat of war.

Ireland.

Article 28.3.1° of the Constitution of Ireland states that "war shall not be declared and the State shall not participate in any war save with the assent of Dáil Éireann." Ireland has taken a policy of non-alignment (what many confuse with neutrality see: Irish Neutrality) in military terms and is thus not a member of NATO.

Italy.

According to the 11° article of the Italian Constitution, Italy rejects war as an instrument of aggression. Parliament has the power to declare war if it is necessary to create an order that ensures peace and justice among Nations; the most reliable authors exclude that among the circumstances in which it can be declared the state of war under Article 78 of the Constitution may be included also the state of internal civil war.

Mexico.

According to Article 89 § VIII of the Mexican Constitution the President may declare war in the name of the United Mexican States after the correspondent law is enacted by the Congress of the Union.

Spain.

According to the Spanish constitution of 1978, Art. 63, the King, with prior authorization by the Parliament, has the power to declare war and make peace.

Sweden.

According to 2010:1408 15 kap. 14 § entitled "Krigsförklaring" (declaration of war) the Swedish cabinet (regeringen) may not declare Sweden to be at war without the parliaments (riksdagen) consent unless Sweden is first attacked.

United States.

In the United States, Congress, which makes the rules for the military, has the power under the constitution to "declare war". However neither the U.S. Constitution nor any Act of Congress stipulate what format a declaration of war must take. War declarations have the force of law and are intended to be executed by the President as "commander in chief" of the armed forces. The last time Congress passed joint resolutions saying that a "state of war" existed was on June 5, 1942, when the U.S. declared war on Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania. Since then, the US has used the term "authorization to use military force," as in the case against Iraq in 2003.  Sometimes decisions for military engagements were made by US presidents, without formal approval by Congress, based on UN Security Council resolutions that do not expressly declare the UN or its members to be at war. Part of the justification for the United States invasion of Panama was to capture Manuel Noriega (as a prisoner of war) because he was declared a criminal rather than a belligerent.  In response to the September 11 attacks, the United States Congress passed the joint resolution Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists on September 14, 2001, which authorized the US President to fight the War on Terror.

A declaration of war is a formal act by which one state goes to war against another. The declaration is a performative speech act (or the signing of a document) by an authorized party of a national government, in order to create a state of war between two or more states.

Une déclaration de guerre est une déclaration formelle d'un gouvernement national pour signifier l'état de guerre entre cette nation et une ou plusieurs autres.


The protest.

The student protests of 1999 began on July 7 with peaceful demonstrations in Tehran against the closure of the reformist newspaper, "Salam". This was followed by an attack on a student dormitory that night by vigilantes and riot police in which a student was killed. This in turn sparked six days of demonstrations and rioting in which at least three more people were killed and more than 200 injured.  A photojournalist for "Jame'e" newspaper, Jamshid Bayrami, took the "Economist" cover photo at that time. In the photograph, Batebi waves a bloody T-shirt above his head.  The shirt belonged to the student standing next to Batebi, who had been shot. "The bullet hit the wall and ricocheted back into my friend's shoulder. I heard the bullet go by my face," Batebi recalled. "It sounded like a bumblebee going by my ear."  In order to staunch the bleeding, Batebi removed his friend's shirt to put pressure on the wound. He then helped transport his friend to a medical facility. Returning to the protest with the bloody shirt, he displayed it to the protesters to warn them of the shooting.

Trial and prison life.

Batebi was initially arrested in connection with the protests, several days after the publication of the Economist photograph. He was held without charges for about seven months, when he was brought to trial. At the trial, the judge showed Batebi the Economist photograph. It was the first time he had seen it.  "With this picture, you have signed your own death sentence," Batebi recalls the judge told him. Batebi describes the trial as follows: "[The judge] said, 'You have defaced the face of the Islamic Republic that is a representative of God on earth. You have defaced it around the world. And therefore you have to be sentenced to death.' It took less than three minutes." He and many others protesters were brutally tortured. In prison Batebi wrote of beatings by guards:  I resisted and punched one of them in the face. At this point, they took me and ducked my head into a closed drain full of excrement. They held me under for so long, I was unable to hold my breath any longer, and excrement was inhaled through my nose and seeped into my mouth.During the interrogations, they threatened several times to execute me and to torture and rape my family members as well as imprison them for long terms. He was one of four people who received a death sentence in a closed-door trial by a Revolutionary Court on charges relating to "creating street unrest" and "agitating people to create unrest," and "endangering national security" following the demonstrations. Batebi, in an open letter addressed to the judiciary, wrote that he had been beaten in his "testicles, legs, and abdominal area. When I protested, they answered that this is the land of the and that I should be blinded and not live here."  Following an outcry from Iranians and international human rights groups, his death sentence was commuted to a 15-year prison term by Iran's Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Khamenei. Upon appeal in early 2000, the sentence was further reduced to 10 years.  Around March 2005, Batebi was temporarily released from Evin Prison in order to get married. He failed to report back to prison. On June 23, 2005, a newspaper interview reported him "currently on the run, avoiding the authorities in Iran". Batebi was re-arrested on July 27, 2006, and re-imprisoned. He continued to serve his sentence. However, his family was not told where he was detained until August 12, 2006, when he was permitted to telephone his wife.  He was held in Section 209 of Evin Prison which is run by the Ministry of Intelligence.  During a hunger strike in August 2006 "his doctor wrote an open letter to the prison authorities" stating that Batebi "required specialist care", and that "there was a risk he could die if he was not released." Also adding to the fears for his life was the fate of another July 1999 protester, Akbar Mohammadi, who died in custody under suspicious circumstances in July 2006.  By September 20, 2006, his relatives were permitted to visit him in prison three times. During their first two visits, Batebi's family was accompanied by four prison guards, although their third visit, on September 18, was reportedly less heavily supervised. Batebi was not permitted to see his lawyer.  Amnesty International reported Batebi's physical and mental health was poor and deteriorating further. "He suffers from a number of medical problems as a result of being tortured and ill-treated during his previous period of detention, including stomach and kidney problems. He has lost some of his teeth, and has permanent hearing problems and poor vision."  Despite the seriousness of his medical condition, prison authorities are allegedly not permitting Ahmad Batebi to receive any medical treatment beyond a few pain killers. According to a press report, Dr Hesam Firouzi, Ahmad Batebi's doctor, wrote to the authorities on 6 August stating that his patient was at risk of paralysis or heart attack, and needed to receive specialist treatment outside prison.  Psychological abuse is reported to include denying Batebi "the opportunity to see daylight", forcing him "to wear a blindfold during exercise sessions in the prison yard."  In February 2007, Batebi was reported to have suffered two brain strokes over the course of a few days, having several seizures on February 16 spending "three hours in a coma" and suffering another two days later after being released from hospital. He was returned to the prison following his second stroke over the reported objections of hospital doctors who are said to have told prison officials that he requires follow up care in a hospital. Following the strokes, Batebi reportedly told his father in a telephone call on February 22 that the prison authorities do not care about him and that if he dies, his father should "hold a celebration of my life, rather than a funeral".  Somaye Bayanat, Batebi's wife, was detained at her house outside Tehran on February 21, 2007. "Her whereabouts are not known to Amnesty International. Amnesty International fears that she may be at risk of intimidation, harassment or ill-treatment because of her connection to Ahmad Batebi."

Escape.

While being temporarily released from Evin Prison to receive medical attention, Batebi fled the country into Iraq. Batebi's escape from Iran and eventual transfer to the United States began when he contacted internationally recognized immigration and human rights lawyer and activist, Lily Mazahery, on March 13, 2008, on the then existing Yahoo 360 social media site. He was further assisted by the KDPI and the Kurdish underground network who moved him to the northwestern border with Iraq and then to Arbil. Batebi's lawyer, Lily Mazahery, reported his critical situation in Arbil to the United States government, which provided Humanitarian Parole for his entrance to the U.S. Although Sweden had granted him asylum through UNHCR, after consulting his friends and lawyer in the U.S., Batebi preferred to reside there. On June 23, 2008, Batebi left Iraq for the United States. After a short airport transit through Austria, he arrived in Washington Dulles International Airport on June 24, 2008, where he was escorted by officials from the National Security Council from his plane to the international section of the airport, where the White House officials transferred his custody to his then lawyer, Lily Mazahery.

Aftermath.

Following his escape to the U.S., Batebi appeared in an interview with Voice of America (VOA) Persian TV in which he explained the story of his escape. He announced that he intended to be a representative of Iran's human rights activists in the U.S. Some also criticized him for his frequent presence on VOA programs. Batebi was eventually hired by Voice of America Persian TV.

References and notes.

Specific references:  General references:

Ahmad Batebi (; born July 25, 1977) is an Iranian activist who was designated a prisoner of conscience by Amnesty International. During his studies at the University of Tehran he gained international fame for his appearance on the July 17, 1999, cover of "The Economist" magazine, holding up a shirt splattered with the blood of a fellow protester.

Ahmad Batebi (né en 1977 à Shiraz, Iran) est un étudiant et militant politique iranien, porte-parole du mouvement étudiant pour la démocratie en Iran. Il fit la une du magazine The Economist en juillet 1999, lors de protestations étudiantes très importantes.