History.

Mamluk period.

In the 13th century, when Ghazir was a small village, the Mamluk army invaded Keserwan and destroyed Ghazir among other villages of the district. However, at the time, the local Maronite militias were able to repel the Mamluks. The latter returned in 1305, launching a third surprise offensive against the Keserwani Maronites, massacring or exiling many of them. According to Lebanese historian Kamal Salibi, the Mamluks' target in the Keserwan campaigns were the Alawite and Shia Muslims who dominated the region. Afterward, the Mamluks garrisoned troops in Ghazir under the command of Suleiman Ibn 'Arab to guard the sea route between Tabarja and the Nahr al-Kalb river. The garrisoned force consisted of Sunni Muslim Turkmen tribesmen, who made Ghazir their headquarters in their ensuing feudal rivalry with the Druze Tanukh tribe that dominated southern Mount Lebanon.  Following its integration into the Mamluk Sultanate, Ghazir came under the jurisdiction of Wilayat Bayrut (Beirut District), part of the Safaqa al-Shamaliya (Northern Region) centered in Baalbek, which was part of the larger Mamlakat Dimashq (Damascus Province). The Turkmen emirs of Keserwan, like their Buhturid counterparts in southern Mount Lebanon, were able to hold onto their "iqta'at" (fiefs) in Keserwan and pass ownership to their descendants, which was atypical of "iqta"-holders under the Mamluks, who had to be frequently appointed by the authorities. The names of only four Turkmen emirs of Keserwan are known, a certain Sa'id, who was emir in 1361, his brother and successor 'Isa, and Ali ibn al-A'ma and his brother Umar ibn al-A'ma. The latter two were involved in the Mamluk rebellion led by Yalbugha an-Nasiri of Aleppo against the new sultan Barquq in 1389. Ali was killed when Barquq returned to power and sent an expedition against the Turkmens of Keserwan, while Umar was imprisoned and later released. Afterward, little information is known about the Turkmen, who continued to hold the Keserwan through the end of the Mamluk era in 1516.

Ottoman era.

'Assaf period.

The Ottoman Empire conquered the region after defeating the Mamluks in 1516. The Ottomans granted the 'Assaf clan control over Keserwan in addition to tax farms in the surrounding region. Moreover, the 'Assaf became the dominant political power in the Tripoli region. In 1517, Emir Assaf moved his family's headquarters from the Turkmen-dominated coastal villages and the Nahr al-Kalb ridge to Ghazir. The move to Ghazir likely contributed to the gradual deterioration of relations between the Assafs and the Turkmens, while at the same time bringing the Assafs socially and politically closer to the Maronites who lived in the interior of Keserwan.  Throughout the rule of Emir Mansur Assaf (r. 1528–1579), he eliminated his Sunni and Shia Muslim rivals in northern Mount Lebanon and the Tripoli region, including a massacre of several Bedouin tribesmen from the Ibn al-Hansh at a reception in his Ghazir headquarters. Emir Mansur maintained policies favorable to the Maronite clans of northern Mount Lebanon, who he did not view to be as dangerous of a threat to his power as his Muslim rivals, and encouraged their resettlement of Keserwan. Among these Maronite clans were the Khazens and Gemayels, but Mansur developed particularly strong ties with the Hubaysh family, who settled in Ghazir itself in 1517–1518 and served as the 'Assaf's chief political agents.  The 'Assaf emirs launched numerous building works in Ghazir, including the construction of a Serail on the site of the Convent of St. Francis, a mosque, bathhouses, hydraulic installations and gardens. Emir Mansur's successor, Emir Muhammad, returned to Mount Lebanon in 1585 after being exiled for his part in a rebellion against the authorities. Upon his return, he assigned members of the Shia Muslim Hamade clan as his deputies for the Byblos region and had them based in Ghazir. After Emir Muhammad's death without a male heir in 1591, Yusuf Pasha Sayfa married Muhammad's widow, confiscated 'Assaf properties in Ghazir and had the heads of the Hubaysh clan, Sheikh Yusuf Hubaysh and the latter's nephew Mansur executed. Also following Emir Muhammad's death, the Hamade succeeded the 'Assaf in northern Mount Lebanon. However, before the end of the 16th century, the Hamade relocated their headquarters from Ghazir to Tripoli.

Sayfa and Ma'an period.

In 1613, Yusuf Pasha Sayfa Ibn Kato installed his sons Husayn Pasha and Hasan Bey in Ghazir to maintain Sayfa control over Keserwan. The following year, however, the Ottoman authorities stripped Yusuf Pasha of control over Keserwan, but the Sayfas refused to withdraw. Consequently, the newly appointed governor of Sidon Sanjak, of which Keserwan was part, attempted to oust the Sayfas, but his forces were repelled. In January 1616, the imperial authorities once more ordered the Sayfas to withdraw from Ghazir to no avail. However, the Druze Ma'an dynasty gained state support for moving against the Sayfas, their longtime foes, and defeated the Sayfas in confrontations at the coastal villages of Damour and Na'ameh south of Beirut. As a result, Yusuf Pasha withdrew his sons and forces from Ghazir, which came under Maanid control. The Ma'ans restored Ghazir as the headquarters of the Hubaysh clan. In 1665 Sheikh Turabay Hubaysh commissioned the construction of the Mar Elias Monastery in Ghazir. Ahmad Ma'an, the ruler of the Mount Lebanon Emirate, appointed Talib and Turabay Hubaysh as the governors of Ghazir in 1670.

Shihab period.

In 1709, the Hubaysh clan provided safe haven for Emir Haydar Shihab, the Sunni Muslim head of the Druze Qaysi faction, in Ghazir after he was forced out of the Chouf by his rivals in the Druze Yamani faction. The commander of the latter, Mahmoud Abi Harmush, pursued Haydar to Ghazir, attacking and plundering the town with the assistance of the Ottoman troops of Sidon Eyalet's governor, Bashir Pasha al-Matarji. In 1711, Emir Haydar led the Qaysis to a decisive victory over the Banu Yaman tribe at the Battle of Ain Dara. That year, members of the Shihab clan settled in Ghazir, which became a refuge for Emir Yusuf Shihab in 1778 when his tax farms in the Chouf were transferred to his brothers Sayyid-Ahmad and Efendi by Sidon governor Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar. Emir Yusuf was restored to Chouf after paying a bribe to al-Jazzar later that year.  In 1767, Emir Bashir Shihab II was born in Ghazir, where he was also baptized by Capuchin friars based in the town. Emir Bashir would later succeed Emir Yusuf as the ruler of the Mount Lebanon Emirate. As part of Emir Bashir's centralization and reorganization efforts in Mount Lebanon following his destruction of his erstwhile Druze allies' feudal power, he appointed a Maronite bishop as "qadi" (chief judge) and based him in Ghazir. The bishop was one of Bashir's three chief judges, who were given the judicial authority traditionally held by the Druze feudal lords; the other two judges were a Maronite deacon based in Zgharta and a Druze sheikh based in Deir el-Qamar. Emir Bashir's brother, Emir Hasan, initiated the construction of a palace, a "qaysariyah" (silk market) and a "souk" (open-air market) in Ghazir in 1804.

Qaymaqamate and Mutasarrifate period.

In 1843, the Jesuits established the Jesuit College in Ghazir to teach the local Maronite clergy. The Jesuit College (also called the Ghazir Seminary) became the center of the Jesuits' missionary activity in Lebanon and their largest seminary in the Middle East. The seminary was an addition to a boys secondary school they built in Ghazir in the 1840s. The local artist Daoud Corm (1852–1930) was discovered by the friars of Ghazir, which was his mother's hometown, and they employed him as a painting instructor in the Ghazir Seminary in 1862. Ghazir became the canvas of Corm's early works. The Ghazir Seminary was also where historian Henri Lammens received an education, and, in 1861, was a literary retreat for French historian and philosopher Ernest Renan. The French writer and politician Édouard Lockroy spent a considerable amount of time in Ghazir where he befriended several of the town's residents. In 1875, the Ghazir Seminary was relocated to Beirut and renamed the Saint Joseph University or simply the "Jesuit College". In 1886, a municipality was established to administer the local affairs of Ghazir.

Modern era.

Ghazir remained a major political and economic center in Mount Lebanon until the end of the 19th century. In 1905, Muzaffar Pasha, the governor of the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, built a second serail in the town. However, during the early years of the 20th century, Ghazir's regional role declined as Mount Lebanon was politically reorganized. With the establishment of the modern Lebanese Republic in 1946, Ghazir did not see a political revival. However, the town and the Keserwan region in general saw an influx of Christians coming from other parts of Lebanon during the 1975–1990 Lebanese Civil War.  The significant boom in the population during the civil war put a burden on the Ghazir Municipality's capabilities and led to major changes to the town's traditional architectural heritage, which had remained largely undisturbed through the 1960s. Modern buildings were constructed and roads were built and widened in the old core of the town. To make way for the new infrastructure, a part of the old "souk" and several old houses were demolished. As of 2003, the Ghazir Municipality undertook efforts to preserve Ghazir's traditional architecture, particularly with regards to the old "souk", the 'Assaf Mosque and the old serail.

Geography.

Ghazir is situated in the region of Keserwan, overlooking the bay of Jounieh. The town is located 27 kilometers north of the Lebanese capital, Beirut. Its average elevation is 380 meters above sea level and its total land area consists of 542 hectares (5.42 square kilometers). The town rests on beds of limestone and marl.  Ghazir sees an average of 81 days of rain annually, with an average rainfall of 1.071 millimeters. The town is known for the numerous groundwater reserves that are present in its environs. However, Ghazir lacked a reservoir to store water, leading to significant losses of rainwater and limited access to water in Ghazir and the villages in its vicinity. In response, the Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development, with German and UN funding, built a reservoir in the town with a capacity of 1,000 cubed meters.

Demographics.

As of 2003, Ghazir had an estimated population of 27,000, of which about 9,000 were native to Ghazir. The inhabitants are predominantly Maronite Catholics, but there are also Christians from other denominations. Almost all churches in Ghazir (eleven out of twelve) are Maronite churches, and the remaining one located in lower Kfarhbab is Orthodox. Ghazir's major families are Chlela, Tayah, Haddad, Slaiby, Ghobeira, Zeinny, Frem, Ghazal, Zayek, Awaida, and many others.

Economy.

Ghazir's traditional economy during the Ottoman era centered on silk production, although that industry is now extinct in the town. However, other old traditional industries survive in Ghazir, including tapestry manufacturing, straw furniture-making, ironwork and wine and olive oil production. The town's modern economy is centered on small businesses and the town's role as a summertime resort. As of 2008, there were 32 companies with over five employees operating in Ghazir.

Ghazir () is a town and municipality in the Keserwan District of the Mount Lebanon Governorate of Lebanon. It is located north of Beirut. It has an average elevation of 380 meters above sea level and a total land area of. The town has four schools, two public and two private, with a total of 3,253 students as of 2008. Ghazir's name is derived from Arabic root words for "heavy rains", and the town is known for its numerous groundwater reserves. Ghazir is divided into three major parts: Ghazir el-Fawka, Central Ghazir, and Kfarhbab. The inhabitants of Ghazir are predominantly Maronite Catholics.

Ghazir ( ) est un village de montagne libanais situé à une trentaine de kilomètres au nord de Beyrouth dans le caza du Kesrouan au Mont-Liban (Liban). La population du village (et de toute la région) est très majoritairement chrétienne de rite Maronite.


Development.

Origins and acquisition.

The Su-30MKI was designed by Russia's Sukhoi Corporation beginning in 1995 and built under licence by India's Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). The Su-30MKI is derived from the Sukhoi Su-27 and has a fusion of technology from the Su-37 demonstrator and Su-30 program, being more advanced than the Su-30MK and the Chinese Su-30MKK/MK2. Russia's Defence Ministry was impressed with the type's performance envelope and ordered 30 Su-30SMs, a localised Su-30MKI, for the Russian Air Force. It features state of the art avionics developed by Russia, India and Israel for display, navigation, targeting and electronic warfare; France and South Africa provided other avionics.  After two years of evaluation and negotiations, on 30 November 1996, India signed a US$1.462 billion deal with Sukhoi for 50 Russian-produced Su-30MKIs in five batches. The first batch were eight Su-30MKs, the basic version of Su-30. The second batch were to be 10 Su-30Ks with French and Israeli avionics. The third batch were to be 10 Su-30MKIs featuring canard foreplanes. The fourth batch of 12 Su-30MKIs and final batch of 10 Su-30MKIs were to have the AL-31FP turbofans.  In October 2000, a memorandum of understanding (MoU) was signed for Indian licence-production of 140 Su-30MKIs; in December 2000, a deal was sealed at Russia's Irkutsk aircraft plant for full technology transfer. The first Nasik-built Su-30MKIs were to be delivered by 2004, with staggered production until 2017–18. In November 2002, the delivery schedule was expedited with production to be completed by 2015. An estimated 920 AL-31FP turbofans are to be manufactured at HAL's Koraput Division, while the mainframe and other accessories are to be manufactured at HAL's Lucknow and Hyderabad divisions. Final integration and test flights of the aircraft are carried out at HAL's Nasik Division. Four manufacturing phases were outlined with progressively increasing Indian content: Phase I, II, III and IV. In phase I, HAL manufactured the Su-30MKIs from knocked-down kits, transitioning to semi knocked-down kits in phase II and III; in phase IV, HAL produced aircraft from scratch from 2013 onwards. In 2007, another order of 40 Su-30MKIs was placed. In 2009, the planned fleet strength was to be 230 aircraft. In 2008, Samtel HAL Display Systems (SHDS), a joint venture between Samtel Display Systems and HAL, won a contract to develop and manufacture multi-function avionics displays for the MKI. A helmet mounted display, Topsight-I, based on technology from Thales and developed by SHDS will be integrated on the Su-30MKI in the next upgrade. In March 2010, it was reported that India and Russia were discussing a contract for 42 more Su-30MKIs. In June 2010, it was reported that the Cabinet Committee on Security had cleared the deal and that the 42 aircraft would be in service by 2018.  By August 2010, the cost increased to $4.3 billion or $102 million each. This increased unit cost compared to the previous unit cost of $40 million in 2007, has led to the rumours that these latest order of 42 Su-30MKIs are for the Strategic Forces Command (SFC) and these aircraft will be optimised and hardwired for nuclear weapons delivery. The SFC had previously submitted a proposal to the Indian Defence Ministry for setting up two dedicated squadrons of fighters consisting of 40 aircraft capable of delivering nuclear weapons.  HAL expected that indigenisation of the Su-30MKI programme would be completed by 2010; V. Balakrishnan, general manager of the Aircraft Manufacturing Division stated that "HAL will achieve 100 per cent indigenisation of the Sukhoi aircraft – from the production of raw materials to the final plane assembly". As of 2017, HAL manufactures more than 80% of the aircraft. On 11 October 2012, the Indian Government confirmed plans to buy another 42 Su-30MKI aircraft. On 24 December 2012, India ordered assembly kits for 42 Su-30MKIs by signing a deal during President Putin's visit to India. This increases India's order total to 272 Su-30MKIs.  In June 2018, India has reportedly decided not order any further Su-30s as they feel its cost of maintenance is very high compared to Western aircraft.

Upgrades.

In 2004, India signed a deal with Russia to domestically produce the Novator K-100 missile, designed to shoot down airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) and C4ISTAR aircraft, for the Su-30MKI. Although not initially designed to carry nuclear or strategic weapons, India has considered integrating an air-launched version of the nuclear-capable Nirbhay.  In May 2010, India Today reported that Russia had won a contract to upgrade 40 Su-30MKIs with new radars, onboard computers, electronic warfare systems and the ability to carry the BrahMos cruise missile. The first two prototypes with the "Super-30" upgrade will be delivered to the IAF in 2012, after which the upgrades will be performed on the last batch of 40 production aircraft. The Brahmos missile integrated on the Su-30MKI will provide the capability to attack ground targets from stand-off ranges of around 300 km. On 25 June 2016, HAL conducted the first test flight of a Su-30MKI fitted with a BrahMos-A missile from Nashik, India. The first air launch of BrahMos from a Su-30MKI was successfully carried out on 22 November 2017.  India is planning to upgrade its Su-30MKI fighters with Russian Phazotron Zhuk-AE Active electronically scanned array (AESA) radars. The X band radar can track 30 aerial targets in the track-while-scan mode and engage six targets simultaneously in attack mode. AESA technology offers improved performance and reliability compared with traditional mechanically scanned array radars. On 18 August 2010, India's Minister of Defence A K Antony stated the current estimated cost for the upgrade was and the aircraft are likely to be upgraded in phases beginning in 2012.  The Indian Defence Ministry proposed several upgrades for the Su-30MKI to the Indian Parliament, including the fitting of Russian Phazotron Zhuk-AE AESA radars starting in 2012. During MMRCA trials the Zhuk-AE AESA radar demonstrated significant capabilities, including ground-mapping modes and the ability to detect and track aerial targets. At the 2011 MAKS air-show, Irkut chairman Alexy Fedorov offered an upgrade package with an improved radar, and reduced radar signature to the Indian fleet to make them "Super Sukhois".  In 2012, upgrades of the earlier 80 Su-30MKIs involves equipping them with stand-off missiles with a range of 300 km; a request for information (ROI) was issued for such weapons. In 2011, India issued a request for information to MBDA for the integration of the Brimstone ground attack missile and the long-range Meteor air-to-air missile.  In February 2017, it was reported that the planes would be upgraded with AL-41F turbofan engines, same as the ones on Sukhoi Su-35. In August 2017, the Indian government cleared a proposal of Rs. 30,000 crore to equip the planes with new reconnaissance pods.  India is planning to increase Su-30MKIs BVR engagement capability by arming its entire fleet with the indigenous Astra BVR missile having a range of over 100 km and Israeli Derby after it was found that the R-77 active-radar homing BVR missile has inadequate performance. In September 2019, the Astra was in multiple user-trials by Indian Air Force to validate its lethality for the Su-30MKI.

Design.

Characteristics.

The Su-30MKI is a highly integrated twin-finned aircraft. The airframe is constructed of titanium and high-strength aluminium alloys. The engine intake ramps and nacelles are fitted with trouser fairings to provide a continuous streamlined profile between the nacelles and the tail beams. The fins and horizontal tail consoles are attached to tail beams. The central beam section between the engine nacelles consists of the equipment compartment, fuel tank and the brake parachute container. The fuselage head is of semi-monocoque construction and includes the cockpit, radar compartments and the avionics bay.  Su-30MKI aerodynamic configuration is a longitudinal triplane with relaxed stability. The canard increases the aircraft lift ability and deflects automatically to allow high angle of attack (AoA) flights allowing it to perform Pugachev's Cobra. The integral aerodynamic configuration combined with thrust vectoring results in extremely capable manoeuvrability, taking off and landing characteristics. This high agility allows rapid deployment of weapons in any direction as desired by the crew. The canard notably assists in controlling the aircraft at large angles-of-attack and bringing it to a level flight condition. The aircraft has a fly-by-wire (FBW) with quadruple redundancy. Dependent on flight conditions, signals from the control stick position transmitter or the FCS may be coupled to remote control amplifiers and combined with feedback signals from acceleration sensors and rate gyros. The resultant control signals are coupled to the high-speed electro-hydraulic actuators of the elevators, rudders and the canard. The output signals are compared and, if the difference is significant, the faulty channel is disconnected. FBW is based on a stall warning and barrier mechanism which prevents stalls through dramatic increases of control stick pressure, allowing a pilot to effectively control the aircraft without exceeding the angle of attack and acceleration limitations. Although the maximum angle of attack is limited by the canards, the FBW acts as an additional safety mechanism.  The Su-30MKI has a range of 3,000 km with internal fuel which ensures a 3.75 hour combat mission. Also, it has an in-flight refueling (IFR) probe that retracts beside the cockpit during normal operation. The air refueling system increases the flight duration up to 10 hours with a range of 8,000 km at a cruise height of 11 to 13 km. Su-30MKIs can also use the Cobham 754 buddy refueling pods.  The Su-30MKI's radar cross-section (RCS) is reportedly from 4 to 20 square metres.

Cockpit.

The displays include a customised version of the Israeli Elbit Su 967 head-up display (HUD) consisting of bi-cubic phase conjugated holographic displays and seven multifunction liquid-crystal displays, six 127 mm × 127 mm and one 152 mm × 152 mm. Flight information is displayed on four LCD displays which include one for piloting and navigation, a tactical situation indicator, and two for display systems information including operating modes and overall status. Variants of this HUD have also been chosen for the IAF's Mikoyan MiG-27 and SEPECAT Jaguar upgrades for standardisation. The rear cockpit has a larger monochrome display for air-to-surface missile guidance.  The Su-30MKI on-board health and usage monitoring system (HUMS) monitors almost every aircraft system and sub-system, and can also act as an engineering data recorder. From 2010, indigenously designed and built HUDs and Multi-Function Displays (MFD) were produced by the Delhi-based Samtel Group Display Systems.  The crew are provided with zero-zero NPP Zvezda K-36DM ejection seats. The rear seat is raised for better visibility. The cockpit is provided with containers to store food and water reserves, a waste disposal system and extra oxygen bottles. The K-36DM ejection seat is inclined at 30°, to help the pilot resist aircraft accelerations in air combat.

Avionics.

The forward-facing NIIP N011M Bars (Panther) is a powerful integrated passive electronically scanned array radar. The N011M is a digital multi-mode dual frequency band radar. The N011M can function in air-to-air and air-to-land/sea mode simultaneously while being tied into a high-precision laser-inertial or GPS navigation system. It is equipped with a modern digital weapons control system as well as anti-jamming features. N011M has a 400 km search range and a maximum 200 km tracking range, and 60 km in the rear hemisphere. The radar can track 15 air targets and engage 4 simultaneously. These targets can even include cruise missiles and motionless helicopters. The Su-30MKI can function as a "mini-AWACS" as a director or command post for other aircraft. The target co-ordinates can be transferred automatically to at least four other aircraft. The radar can detect ground targets such as tanks at 40–50 km. The Bars radar will be replaced by Zhuk-AESA in all Su-30MKI aircraft.  OLS-30 laser-optical Infra-red search and track includes a day and night FLIR capability and is used in conjunction with the helmet mounted sighting system. The OLS-30 is a combined IRST/LR device using a cooled, broad waveband sensor. Detection range is up to 90 km, while the laser ranger is effective to 3.5 km. Targets are displayed on the same LCD display as the radar. Israeli LITENING targeting pod is used to target laser guided munitions. The original Litening pod includes a long range FLIR, a TV camera, laser spot tracker to pick up target designated by other aircraft or ground forces, and an electro-optical point and inertial tracker, which enables engagement of the target even when partly obscured by clouds or countermeasures; it also integrates a laser range-finder and flash-lamp powered laser designator for the delivery of laser-guided bombs, cluster and general-purpose bomb.  The aircraft is fitted with a satellite navigation system (A-737 GPS compatible), which permits it to make flights in all weather, day and night. The navigation complex includes the high accuracy SAGEM Sigma-95 integrated global positioning system and ring laser gyroscope inertial navigation system. Phase 3 of further development of the MKI, will integrate avionic systems being developed for the Indo-Russian Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft programme.  Sukhoi Su-30MKI has electronic counter-measure systems. The RWR system is of Indian design, developed by India's DRDO, called "Tarang", ("Wave" in English). It has direction finding capability and is known to have a programmable threat library. The RWR is derived from work done on an earlier system for India's MiG-23BNs known as the Tranquil, which is now superseded by the more advanced Tarang series. Elta EL/M-8222 a self-protection jammer developed by Israel Aircraft Industries is the MKI's standard EW pod, which the Israeli Air Force uses on its F-15s. The ELTA El/M-8222 Self Protection Pod is a power-managed jammer, air-cooled system with an ESM receiver integrated into the pod. The pod contains an antenna on the forward and aft ends, which receive the hostile RF signal and after processing deliver the appropriate response.

Propulsion.

The Su-30MKI is powered by two Lyulka-Saturn AL-31FP turbofans, each rated at 12,500 kgf (27,550 lbf) of full after-burning thrust, which enable speeds of up to Mach 2 in horizontal flight and a rate of climb of 230 m/s. The mean time between overhaul is reportedly 1,000 hours with a full-life span of 3,000 hours; the titanium nozzle has a mean time between overhaul of 500 hours. In early 2015, Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar stated before Parliament that the AL-31FP had suffered numerous failures, between the end of 2012 and early 2015, a total of 69 Su-30MKI engine-related failures had occurred; commons causes were bearing failures due to metal fatigue and low oil pressure, in response several engine modifications were made to improve lubrication, as well as the use of higher quality oil and adjustments to the fitting of bearings.  The Su-30MKI's AL-31FP powerplant built on the earlier AL-31FU, adding two-plane thrust vectoring nozzles are mounted 32 degrees outward to longitudinal engine axis (i.e. in the horizontal plane) and can be deflected ±15 degrees in one plane. The canting allows the aircraft to produce both roll and yaw by vectoring each engine nozzle differently; this allows the aircraft to create thrust vectoring moments about all three rotational axes, pitch, yaw and roll. Engine thrust is adjusted via a conventional engine throttle lever as opposed to a strain-gauge engine control stick. The aircraft is controlled by a standard control stick. The pilot can activate a switch for performing difficult maneuvers; while this is enabled, the computer automatically determines the deflection angles of the swiveling nozzles and aerodynamic surfaces.

Operational history.

The Sukhoi Su-30MKI is the most potent fighter jet in service with the Indian Air Force in the late 2000s. The MKIs are often fielded by the IAF in bilateral and multilateral air exercises. India exercised its Su-30MKIs against the Royal Air Force's Tornado ADVs in October 2006. This was the first large-scale bilateral aerial exercise with any foreign air force during which the IAF used its Su-30MKIs extensively. This exercise was also the first in 43 years with the RAF. During the exercise, the RAF Air Chief Marshal Glenn Torpy was given permission by the IAF to fly the MKI. RAF's Air Vice Marshal, Christopher Harper, praised the MKI's dogfight ability, calling it "absolutely masterful in dogfights".  In July 2007, the Indian Air Force fielded the MKI during the "Indra-Dhanush" exercise with Royal Air Force's Eurofighter Typhoon. This was the first time that the two jets had taken part in such an exercise. The IAF did not allow their pilots to use the radar of the MKIs during the exercise so as to protect the highly classified N011M Bars. Also in the exercise were RAF Tornado F3s and a Hawk. RAF Tornado pilots were candid in their admission of the Su-30MKI's superior manoeuvring in the air, and the IAF pilots were impressed by the Typhoon's agility.  In 2004, India sent Su-30MKs, an earlier variant of the Su-30MKI, to take part in war games with the United States Air Force (USAF) during "Cope India 04". The results have been widely publicised, with the Indians winning "90% of the mock combat missions" against the USAF's F-15C. The parameters of the exercise heavily favored the IAF; none of the six 3rd Wing F-15Cs were equipped with the newer long-range, active electronically scanned array (AESA) radars and, at India's request, the U.S. agreed to mock combat at 3-to-1 odds and without the use of simulated long-range, radar-guided AIM-120 AMRAAMs for beyond-visual-range kills. In Cope India 05, the Su-30MKIs reportedly beat the USAF's F-16s.  In July 2008, the IAF sent 6 Su-30MKIs and 2 Il-78MKI aerial-refueling tankers, to participate in the Red Flag exercise. The IAF again did not allow their pilots to use the radar of the MKIs during the exercise so as to protect the highly classified N011M Bars. In October 2008, a video surfaced on the internet which featured a USAF colonel, Terrence Fornof, criticising Su-30MKI's performance against the F-15C, engine serviceability issues, and high friendly kill rate during the Red Flag exercise. Several of his claims were later rebutted by the Indian side and the USAF also distanced itself from his remarks.  In June 2010, India and France began the fourth round of their joint air exercises, "Garuda", at the Istres Air Base in France. During Garuda, the IAF and the French Air Force were engaged in various missions ranging from close combat engagement of large forces, slow mover protection, protecting and engaging high value aerial assets. This exercise marked the first time the Su-30MKI took part in a military exercise in France.  The Indian Air Force first took part in the United States Air Force's Red Flag exercise in 2008. Participating in Red Flag costs the IAF 100 crore (US$17.5 million) each time. To reduce costs, the IAF decided to take part once every five years. The IAF is taking part in the Red Flag exercise in July 2013, at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, United States. For the exercise, it is dispatching eight Su-30MKIs, two Lockheed C-130J Hercules tactical aircraft, two Ilyushin Il-78 (NATO reporting name "Midas") mid-air refueling tankers, one Ilyushin Il-76 (NATO reporting name "Candid") heavy-lift aircraft, and over 150 personnel.  The IAF again fielded its MKIs in the Garuda-V exercise with France in June 2014, where they manoeuvred in mixed groups with other IAF aircraft and French Rafales. On 21 July 2015, India and UK began the bilateral exercise named "Indradhanush" with aircraft operating from three Royal Air Force bases. The exercises included both Beyond Visual Range (BVR) and Within Visual Range (WVR) exercises between the Su-30MKI and Eurofighter Typhoon. Indian media reported the results were in favour of the IAF with a score of 12-0 at WVR engagements. They also claim that the IAF Su-30MKIs held an edge over the Typhoons in BVR engagements though not in as dominating a manner. The RAF issued a statement that the results being reported by the Indian media did not reflect the results of the exercise. According to Aviation International News "In close combat, thrust vector control on the Flankers more than compensated for the greater thrust-to-weight ratio of the Typhoon".  On 27 February 2019, next day after 2019 Balakot airstrike, two Su-30MKI on Combat air patrol were attacked by multiple Pakistani F-16 using AMRAAM missiles. All of the missiles were successfully evaded. In the aftermath, Pakistani Air Force stated that it had downed an Indian Sukhoi Su-30MKI in the aerial skirmish. The Indian Air Force said this statement was a cover up for the loss of a Pakistani F-16 fighter, stating that all dispatched Sukhoi aircraft returned safely. The only confirmed loss from the engagement was the MiG-21. On 8 October 2019, during the Indian Air Force Day celebrations, in a bid to prove its claim, IAF flew the same Su-30MKI that Pakistan claimed had been shot down.  On 4 March 2019, an Indian Su-30MKI shot down a Pakistani drone in Indian airspace, according to local media reports.

Accidents.

On 30 April 2009, a Su-30MKI crashed in the Pokhran region of Rajasthan, around 170 km from Jaisalmer, killing one of its two pilots. An investigation found that the crash was caused by inadvertent toggling of critical switches positioned behind the pilots and outside their field of view, which disabled the flight control system. Critical switches identified by investigators were inhibited.  On 30th November 2009,a Su-30MKI crashed during routine training sortie at Jetha Ki Dhani near Pokhran firing ranges in Rajasthan.The two pilots, Wing Commander Srivastava and Flight Lieutenant Arora, bailed out safely.  On 13 December 2011, a Su-30MKI crashed, with both the pilots ejecting safely. The aircraft had taken off from the Lohegaon Indian Air Force Base near Pune, crashing at Wade-Bholai village, 20 kilometres from Pune. Preliminary reports said that the crash was due to a malfunction in the fly-by-wire system. Wing Commander Gurkirat Singh Sohal, the pilot of the plane, was conferred with the Vayu Sena Medal (Gallantry).  On 19 February 2013, a Su-30MKI crashed in Rajasthan's Jaisalmer district and both pilots bailing out safely. There was no loss of life on ground.  On 14 October 2014, a Su-30MKI crashed in Theoor near Pune in a grassy patch of land. The pilot and co-pilot were safe and there was no deaths at ground.  On 19 May 2015, a Su-30MKI crashed at Assam's Nagaon district in Laokhowa. The aircraft developed a technical problem that forced the pilot to abandon the aircraft. The pilot and copilot ejected safely and the aircraft crashed in dense forest.

The Sukhoi Su-30MKI (NATO reporting name: Flanker-H) is a twinjet multirole air superiority fighter developed by Russia's Sukhoi and built under licence by India's Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for the Indian Air Force (IAF). A variant of the Sukhoi Su-30, it is a heavy, all-weather, long-range fighter.

Le Soukhoï Su-30MKI (code OTAN : « Flanker-H ») est un avion de chasse biréacteur multirôle spécialisé dans la supériorité aérienne développé par l'entreprise russe Soukhoï et construit sous licence par Hindustan Aeronautics (HAL) pour la force aérienne indienne. Dérivé du Soukhoï Su-30, c'est un chasseur lourd à long rayon d'action.


League changes.

Two teams returned to the ECHL after suspensions: the Texas Wildcatters and the Cincinnati Cyclones. The Wildcatters had to suspend operations for the 2005–06 season as a byproduct of damage to their home arena caused by Hurricane Rita. The Cyclones returned after ceasing operations following the 2003–04 season in trying to secure an American Hockey League franchise.  The Board of Governors revoked the Greenville Grrrowl franchise and the San Diego Gulls had returned its franchise.  The New Jersey Devils purchased the Trenton Titans and the team became the ECHL affiliate of the Devils. The Titans still maintained their affiliation with the Philadelphia Flyers for the season. After the purchased of the Titans, the New Jersey Devils renamed the franchise's operator Trenton Titans, LLC to Trenton Devils, LLC.

Realignment.

At the 2006 pre-season meeting of the ECHL Board of Governors, the ECHL announced the alignment of the 25 teams. The Las Vegas Wranglers were moved from the West to the Pacific Division to replace the departed San Diego Gulls, the returning Texas Wildcatters replaced the Grrrowl in the South Division, and the Cincinnati Cyclones were re-added to the North Division.

Regular season.

Final standings.

"Note: GP = Games played; W = Wins; L= Losses; OTL = Overtime Losses; SOL = Shootout Losses; GF = Goals for; GA = Goals against; Pts = Points; Green shade = Clinched playoff spot; Blue shade = Clinched division; (z) = Clinched home-ice advantage"

Scoring leaders.

"Note: GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; PIM = Penalty minutes" Data referenced from ECHL website

Leading goaltenders.

"Note: GP = Games played; Min = Minutes played; W = Wins; L = Losses; OTL = Overtime losses; SOL = Shootout losses; GA = Goals against; SO = Shutouts; SV% = Save percentage; GAA = Goals against average" Data referenced from ECHL website

Kelly Cup playoffs.

Format.

The two unbalanced conferences had separate playoff formats. The 10-team National Conference had the top eight teams advance to the playoffs with the division winners awarded the first and second seeds. The remaining six teams were seeded by points and the four highest seeds faced the lowest remaining seeds. The four remaining teams in the second round would be reseeded by regular season points and the winners would play for a conference championship. All playoff series were best-of-seven. The 15-team American Conference had 10 teams advance to the playoffs but kept an inter-divisional playoff structure. The fourth and fifth seeded teams in each division had a play-in best-of-three series before moving on to the divisional semifinals which were a best-of-five series. The divisional and conference finals were a best-of-seven series. The two conference champions then met in a best-of-seven Kelly Cup final series.

Kelly Cup finals.

Playoff tables referenced from ECHL website.

The 2006–07 ECHL season was the 19th season of the ECHL. The league had 25 teams for 2006–07. The Brabham Cup regular season champions were the Las Vegas Wranglers and the Kelly Cup playoff champions were the Idaho Steelheads.

La saison 2006-2007 est la dix-neuvième saison de l'ECHL au terme de laquelle les Steelheads de l'Idaho remportent la Coupe Kelly en battant en finale les Bombers de Dayton.


Campagne internationale pour l'interdiction des mines antipersonnel

Organizational structure.

In 2011, the International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) and Cluster Munition Coalition (CMC) merged into one unified structure, now known as the ICBL-CMC, in order to realize operational efficiencies and reinforce complementary work. The ICBL and the CMC campaigns remain separate and continue to remind governments of their commitments to implement and promote both treaties. Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor continues its unique civil society monitoring program on the humanitarian and developmental consequences of landmines, cluster munitions, and explosive remnants of war.  The activities of the ICBL-CMC are supported by a Governance Board representative of various elements of the ICBL that provides strategic, financial and human resources oversight. An Advisory Committee provides more regular input to staff and the working of the campaign. Four ambassadors serve as campaign representatives at speaking events and other conferences worldwide. They include Jody Williams, Tun Channareth (Cambodian landmine survivor), Song Kosal (Cambodian landmine survivor), and Margaret Arech Orech (Ugandan landmine survivor and founder of Ugandan Landmine Survivors Association). Currently, the ICBL has 14 staff members based in Geneva (the central office), Lyon, Paris, and Ottawa. Additionally, the ICBL-CMC hosts several interns each year.

Mine Ban Treaty.

The Mine Ban Treaty, or the Ottawa Treaty, is the international agreement that bans anti-personnel mines. Officially entitled "The Convention on the Prohibition, Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Antipersonnel Mines and on Their Destruction", the treaty is sometimes referred to as the Ottawa Convention. The Mine Ban Treaty was adopted in Oslo, Norway, in September 1997 and signed by 122 States in Ottawa, Canada, on 3 December 1997. As of March 2018, there were 164 States Parties to the Ottawa Treaty.  The mine ban treaty suggest several agendas to member states:

Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor.

Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor is the ICBL-CMC's research and monitoring arm. It is the "de facto" monitoring regime for the Mine Ban Treaty and the Convention on Cluster Munitions of 2008. It monitors and reports on States Parties' implementation of and compliance with the Mine Ban Treaty and the Convention on Cluster Munitions, and more generally, it assesses the problems caused by landmines, cluster munitions, and other explosive remnants of war (ERW). The Monitor represents the first time that NGOs have come together in a coordinated, systematic, and sustained way to monitor humanitarian law or disarmament treaties, and to regularly document progress and problems, thereby successfully putting into practice the concept of civil society-based verification. Since its creation in 1998, Monitor research has been carried out by a global network of primarily in-country researchers, most of them ICBL-CMC campaigners, and all content undergoes rigorous editing by the Monitor's Editorial Team prior to publication.

The International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) is a coalition of non-governmental organizations whose stated objective is a world free of anti-personnel mines and cluster munitions, where mine and cluster munitions survivors see their rights respected and can lead fulfilling lives.

La Campagne internationale pour interdire les mines (ICBL ou International Campaign to Ban Landmines) est un réseau global présent dans plus de 70 pays qui travaille pour l’éradication des mines antipersonnel et armes à sous-munitions. Fondée en 1992 par 6 organisations (', ', ', ','et '), elle a reçu le prix Nobel de la paix en 1997, conjointement avec sa coordonnatrice Jody Williams, en reconnaissance de son engagement pour l’adoption de la Convention sur l'interdiction des mines antipersonnel.


Legality of same-sex sexual activity.

Same-sex relationships and activities were largely accepted amongst pre-colonial Māori society. There were no legal or social punishments for engaging in same-sex sexual activity. Male homosexual intercourse was criminalised when New Zealand became part of the British Empire in 1840 and adopted British law making "buggery" a crime with a maximum sentence of death. (In practice, New Zealand used the death penalty only for offences of murder and once for treason before abolishment in 1961). In 1861, Britain replaced the death penalty for buggery with life imprisonment. New Zealand enacted similar legislation six years later. In 1893, the law in New Zealand was broadened to outlaw any sexual activity between men. Penalties included life imprisonment, hard labour and flogging. Sex between women has never been criminalised in New Zealand.  The Dorian Society (1962–88) was the first New Zealand organisation for homosexual men. The British Homosexual Law Reform Society provided legal assistance to the society. It drafted a petition calling for the decriminalisation of homosexual acts. Signed by 75 prominent citizens, a petition was presented to (and rejected by) Parliament in 1968.  In 1972, academic Ngahuia Te Awekotuku was denied a visitors permit to the United States on the grounds that she was a homosexual. Publicity around the incident was a catalyst in the formation of gay liberation groups in Wellington, Christchurch and Auckland. The 1970s saw the growth of the modern feminist and gay movements in New Zealand.  MP Venn Young introduced a bill, entitled the "Crimes Amendment Bill", in July 1974, which was the first bill to propose decriminalising homosexual acts between consenting adults. It was unsuccessful and was criticised by gay rights organisations for setting the age of consent at 21, as opposed to the age of 16 for heterosexual acts. Gay rights organisations refused to support bills which did not present an equal age of consent. A similar bill, introduced by MP Warren Freer in 1979, failed in its parliamentary reading in 1980, due to lack of support for the same reasons over the age disparity.  In 1985, Labour MP Fran Wilde consulted with gay rights groups to develop the "Homosexual Law Reform Bill", which she introduced to Parliament on 8 March. It proposed removing the offence of consensual sex between males over the age of sixteen. Over the course of 14 months, the bill attracted organised opposition outside Parliament, including an anti-reform petition (which was rejected by Parliament). Inside Parliament, multiple attempts to raise the age of consent to 18 were rejected. The bill passed its final reading on 9 July 1986, 49 votes in favour to 44 opposed. It achieved royal assent (becoming the "Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986") on 11 July 1986, and it came into effect on 8 August that year.  Discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and (implicitly) gender identity was outlawed several years later by the "Human Rights Act 1993".  Individuals convicted and imprisoned for homosexual offences prior to August 1986 were not automatically eligible to hide the offences under the "Criminal Records (Clean Slate) Act 2004", since the Act applies retrospectively to current and abolished offences equally. However, individuals with an otherwise clean criminal record could apply to a District Court to have the conviction disregarded. However, this process only concealed these convictions – it did not erase them altogether. On 28 June 2017, the Government introduced a bill which would allow men convicted for homosexual offences to apply to wipe out their convictions from the records. On 6 July, the bill had its first reading. Justice Minister Amy Adams moved a motion to apologise for convictions the same day, to which Parliament agreed unanimously. The bill was passed by Parliament on 3 April 2018 and received royal assent on 9 April 2018, becoming the "Criminal Records (Expungement of Convictions for Historical Homosexual Offences) Act 2018", and going into effect the following day.

Recognition of same-sex relationships.

The "Property (Relationships) Amendment Act 2001" gives "de facto" couples, whether opposite or same sex, the same property rights as existed since 1976 for married couples on the break-up of a relationship.  The "Civil Union Act 2004" established the institution of civil unions for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples. The Act is very similar to the "Marriage Act 1955" with "marriage" replaced by "civil union". The following year, the "Relationships (Statutory References) Act 2005" was passed to remove discriminatory provisions from most legislation.

Same-sex marriage.

Same-sex marriage in New Zealand was refused judicial approval by the Court of Appeal after "Quilter v Attorney-General" in 1994. However, unlike Australia and much of the United States, New Zealand refused to pre-emptively ban same-sex marriage in case a future parliament decided to approve it with an amended marriage act. In December 2005, an abortive member's bill failed at its first reading to do so. Until a marriage bill was passed in April 2013, same-sex marriage and adoption were the final barrier before full LGBT formal and substantive equality in New Zealand.  In July 2012, a member's bill by Labour MP Louisa Wall which proposed defining marriage to be inclusive regardless of gender was drawn from the ballot. The "Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Bill" passed its first reading on 29 August 2012, 80 votes in favour to 40 opposed (with one abstention). Preliminary reports evidenced widespread support for same-sex marriage both within Parliament (notably from Prime Minister John Key) and amongst the general public, with polls conducted in May 2012 indicating 63% support. In December 2012, former Governor-General Dame Catherine Tizard starred in an online video campaign supporting same-sex marriage, alongside New Zealand singers Anika Moa, Boh Runga and Hollie Smith, as well as Olympian Danyon Loader. The bill passed its second and third readings by 77–44, and became law on 19 April 2013. However, same-sex marriages were not conducted until August, when the law went into effect.

Adoption and parenting.

There are no specific barriers preventing an LGBT individual from adopting children, except that a male individual cannot adopt a female child. The same-sex marriage law became effective from 19 August 2013, and since then married same-sex couples have been able to adopt children jointly. Unmarried couples of any sex and couples in a civil union can jointly adopt children following a New Zealand High Court ruling in December 2015. The court ruled that the ban breached the "New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990". The minimum age to adopt in New Zealand is 20 years for a related child and 25 years or the child's age plus 20 years (whichever is greater) for an unrelated child.  On 21 May 2006, Green List MP Metiria Turei raised the issue of LGBT adoption, arguing that New Zealand's "Adoption Act 1955" did not meet the complexities of contemporary New Zealand society. She argued following the enactment of civil unions in particular that eligible lesbian and gay prospective parents should be enabled to legally adopt.  Many lesbian couples are now raising children in New Zealand. Where these children are conceived through donor (sperm) insemination, both partners are recognised on the children's birth certificates (the birth mother as "mother", the other mother as "other parent"). This is following the "Care of Children Act 2004", which replaced the "Status of Children Act 1969". Fostering and guardianship are also recognised under New Zealand law and regulation, and reproductive technology has been accessible since 1994.  The donor is not recognised as a legal parent in New Zealand law. However, parents and donors can make formal agreements as to how things will work but the courts do have flexibility as to whether they recognise these agreements or not, under section 41 of the "Care of Children Act 2004".  Lesbian women who have trouble conceiving using private donor insemination may be eligible, as other New Zealand women are, to help through publicly funded fertility treatment. However, there are conditions on this and every woman needing fertility treatment is scored as to her eligibility.  Now passed, the current "Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Act 2013" enables eligible married same-sex parents to adopt children as there is a clause to that effect contained therein. However, known-relative adoptions in New Zealand have outnumbered stranger adoptions since the mid-1970s; between 2007 and 2013, there were 18 known-relative and stepchild adoptions for every 10 stranger adoptions.

Discrimination protections.

The "Human Rights Act 1993" () outlaws discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation and, implicitly, gender identity/expression. Initially, this law temporarily exempted government activities until 1999. In 1998, an amendment bill was introduced making this exemption permanent; this was abandoned following a change of government in 1999. The new Labour Government instead passed another amendment to apply the Act to government activities, and also to create a new ability for the courts to "declare" legislation inconsistent with the Act. Article 27(2) of the Act reads as follows: The Royal New Zealand Navy and the New Zealand Police are amongst many government agencies to have adopted "gay-friendly" policies.  Some examples of discrimination sometimes still occur. In January 2006, news headlines were made by a sperm bank's policy of refusing donations from gay men. In March 2006, the policy was amended. Reportedly, some heterosexual male sperm donors had vetoed the use of their gametes for lesbian couples who seek artificial insemination.

Hate crime laws.

New Zealand has a hate crime clause which includes sexual orientation and gender identity/expression, Section 9(1)(h) of the "Sentencing and Parole Act 2002". More recently, New Zealand's LGBT community was concerned about the continued existence of the provocation defence (sections 169 and 170 of the "Crimes Act 1961") argument which they held had mitigated the seriousness of homophobic homicides through reducing probable, intentional murder convictions to the lesser charge and penalty of manslaughter (see "gay panic defence").  In 2009, the "Crimes (Provocation Repeal) Amendment Act 2009" was enacted to repeal sections 169 and 170. The bill was introduced to Parliament in August 2009 by Justice Minister Simon Power, although its introduction was largely stemmed from the trial for the murder of Sophie Elliott by her ex-boyfriend, rather than the LGBT community. The repeal bill received wide parliamentary and public support, and passed its third reading on 26 November 2009, 116 votes to 5 with only ACT New Zealand opposed, and became effective on 8 December 2009.

Gender identity and expression.

Sex reassignment surgery is legal in New Zealand. An individual is permitted to change their name and legal gender on official documents, including birth certificates, if they can provide medical evidence that they have "acquired a physical conformation that accords with their gender identity". Originally, this was only available to individuals who had undergone genital-reconstruction surgery. However, in June 2008, the Family Court ruled that full sex reassignment surgeries are not always necessary to meet this legal threshold.  Sex reassignment surgeries take place largely in private hospitals or overseas. In the 1990s, New Zealand was dubbed a "world leader" for such operations, with comparatively low cost and relaxed public attitudes. In 2014, however, the country's only specialist surgeon retired, leaving transgender people seeking such operations in a state of limbo. Several chose to join the waiting list for publicly funded surgeries, which are limited to only four every two years (three for male to female, and one for female to male), or to go abroad. In October 2018, the Government announced its intention to increase the number of publicly funded operations. At that time, there were 111 people on the waiting list, meaning some had to wait up to 50 years.  The New Zealand Human Rights Commission noted in its 2004 report on the status of human rights in New Zealand that transgender and non-binary people in New Zealand face discrimination in several aspects of their lives, however, the law is unclear on the legal status of discrimination based on gender identity. Currently, the "Human Rights Act 1993" does not explicitly prohibit discrimination on the basis of gender. Whilst it is believed that gender identity is protected under the laws preventing discrimination on the basis of either sex or sexual orientation, it is not known how this applies to those who have not had, or will not have, sex reassignment surgery. Some overseas courts have determined that transgender people are covered by prohibitions on discrimination based on sex, but there is also international case law suggesting it is not. Even if it is, it is unlikely to apply to transgender people who have not or will not have sex reassignment surgery. Likewise, placing gender identity under the prohibitions on the grounds of sexual orientation is problematic. While there is some inconsistent international case law, it has been noted that gender identification and sexual orientation are too unrelated for this to be suitable.  The International Commission of Jurists and the International Service for Human Rights in 2007 created the Yogyakarta Principles to apply international human rights law to gender identity and sexual orientation. The first and most arguably most important is that human rights are available to all humans, regardless of gender identity, and that states should amend legislation "to ensure its consistency with the universal enjoyment of all human rights."  This report suggested that transgender people were "one of the most marginalised groups" in New Zealand, leading the Human Rights Commission to publish a comprehensive inquiry entitled "To Be Who I Am" in 2008, which outlined some of the concerns listed below. These concerns are particularly important considering that discrimination and exclusion towards transgender, intersex and gender non-conforming persons has been shown to increase the risk of mental health issues and suicide.  On 10 August 2018, the Government Administration Select Committee discussed the "Births, Deaths, Marriages, and Relationships Registration Bill", which was introduced on 10 August 2017 and would amend New Zealand laws relating to legal sex changes. The committee recommended allowing adults to change sex by submitting a statutory declaration saying they intend to continue to identify as a person of the chosen sex and understand the consequences of the application. No medical evidence would be required. Minors aged 16 and 17 would be able to do this with the consent of their guardian, confirmation from a health professional that they understand the consequences of the application and that the change is in their interests. The committee also recommended including gender options such as intersex and X (unspecified).

Intersex rights.

New Zealand laws and policies that prohibit female genital mutilation explicitly permit "normalising" medical interventions on intersex infants and girls. Material presented by the Australasian Paediatric Endocrine Group to the Australian Senate in 2013 showed New Zealand to be a regional outlier in surgeries in cases of congenital adrenal hyperplasia, with genital surgical interventions favoured on infant girls aged less than 6 months. In October 2016, the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child issued observations on practices in New Zealand, including recommendations to ensure "that no one is subjected to unnecessary medical or surgical treatment during infancy or childhood, guaranteeing the rights of children to bodily integrity, autonomy and self-determination". A 2016 intersex round table by the Human Rights Commission on genital "normalising" surgeries found that there was a lack of political will to address surgeries, and concerns with service delivery to parents and families, the development of legislative safeguards and a need to test the right to bodily autonomy against the "New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990".  New Zealand passports are available with an "X" sex descriptor. These were originally introduced for people transitioning gender. Birth certificates are available at birth showing "indeterminate" sex if it is not possible to assign a sex.  In March 2017, representatives of Intersex Trust Aotearoa New Zealand participated in an Australian and Aotearoa/New Zealand consensus "Darlington Statement" by intersex community organizations and others. The statement calls for legal reform, including the criminalization of deferrable intersex medical interventions on children, an end to legal classification of sex, protections from discrimination and harmful practices and improved access to peer support.

Conversion therapy.

Conversion therapy has a negative effect on the lives of LGBT people, and can lead to low self-esteem, depression and suicide ideation.  On 10 July 2018, Health Minister David Clark called conversion therapy "abhorrent". In August 2018, Justice Minister Andrew Little announced that a conversion therapy ban could be considered as part of a reform to the "Human Rights Act 1993". The Green Party, the Human Rights Commission, the New Zealand Association of Counsellors and every medical organisation in New Zealand support banning the pseudoscientific practice. A petition to ban it was launched in mid-July, and had collected about 10,000 signatures within a week. In mid-August 2018, two petitions to ban conversion therapy were presented to Parliament, with a combined total of about 20,000 signatures. A bill to prohibit conversion therapy was introduced to Parliament in October 2018. It foresees 6–12 months imprisonment and a fine of between 5000 and 10,000 New Zealand dollars for offenders.  Recent reports have shown that conversion therapy is "widespread" in New Zealand, and includes electroshock therapy, forced chemical castration, exorcism, the administration of nausea-inducing drugs, and talk therapy where the individual is told that homosexuality is erroneously caused by "insufficient male affirmation in childhood" or "an uncaring father and an overbearing mother".

Blood donation.

The New Zealand Blood Service (NZBS), like many countries, controversially defers any man who has had oral or anal intercourse with another man, with or without protection, in the past twelve months from donating blood, which is taken to be discrimination against gay men. The restriction is on the basis that men who have sex with men in New Zealand are 44 times more likely to be infected with HIV/AIDS than the general population, and the HIV testing used is not specific enough (up to 1 in 1000 failure rate) to guarantee a 100 percent HIV-free blood supply.

Politics.

Gay rights were a major political issue during the Homosexual Law Reform debates, but have subsequently become much less so. The "Civil Union Act 2004" was opposed by nearly half of Parliament, but in tones much more restrained than that of the Homosexual Law Reform era. There has never been a specifically LGBT political party in New Zealand. There has been a succession of unsuccessful fundamentalist Christian political parties in New Zealand or socially conservative political parties less sympathetic to LGBT rights since the introduction of electoral reform in 1993 made proportional representation possible. The Destiny political party, founded to bring "Christian morality" into politics, received only 0.62% of the party vote in the 2005 general election. Christian Heritage New Zealand polled 4.4% as part of the Christian Coalition in 1996 but closed down in 2005 after its former leader Graham Capill was sentenced to nine years imprisonment after multiple cases of sexual assault against three female children. Future New Zealand, the Kiwi Party, the aforementioned Destiny New Zealand and the Family Party all succeeded it, but none lasted long. Currently, the officially secular Conservative Party of New Zealand, which has yet to gain parliamentary representation, appeals to voters in this area.  A number of openly gay or lesbian politicians have served in New Zealand's Parliament. The first to be elected was Chris Carter, who became the first openly gay MP when he came out shortly after the 1993 election. He lost his seat in the 1996 election, but won it again in the 1999 election and became New Zealand's first openly gay cabinet minister in 2002. Carter united in civil union to his long-time partner of thirty-three years, Peter Kaiser, on 10 February 2007, in the first civil union for a cabinet minister or member of parliament since civil unions in New Zealand were introduced after legislation was passed in December 2004. Tim Barnett was the first MP to be elected as an openly gay man, in the 1996 election. In 1997, Barnett and Carter started Rainbow Labour as a branch of the Labour Party to represent LGBT people.  Maryan Street was New Zealand's first openly lesbian MP, elected in the 2005 election. She served until 2014, and served as Minister for ACC and Minister for Housing between 2007 and 2008. She was also the President of the Labour Party between 1993 and 1995. However, the National Party's Marilyn Waring had preceded Street, and while she was outed at one point, Waring's strong pro-choice identification and vocal feminism overshadowed her lesbianism, which was then considered a private matter. Since she left Parliament in 1984, Waring has more openly acknowledged her sexual orientation. Chris Finlayson became the first openly gay National Party MP elected to Parliament on his party's MMP party list in the 2005 election. Finlayson was an MP between 2005 and 2019, and a former Minister for Treaty of Waitangi Negotiations between 2008 and 2017, and Minister for Arts, Culture and Heritage between 2008 and 2014, and served as Attorney-General from 2008 to 2017.  Current openly gay MPs include Grant Robertson, former Deputy Leader of the Labour Party between 2011 and 2013 and Minister of Finance and Minister for Sport and Recreation since 2017 and Minister Responsible for the Earthquake Commission since 2019, Labour MP Tamati Coffey, Labour MP Louisa Wall, Green Party MP Chlöe Swarbrick, and Green Party MP and Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Justice Jan Logie.  Charles Chauvel joined Grant Robertson as a gay Labour MP from 2006 to 2013. Darren Hughes resigned from the Labour Party caucus in 2011, and National MP Claudette Hauiti served in Parliament between 2013 and 2014. National MP Paul Foster-Bell, who served in Parliament from 2013 to 2017, came out as gay in 2016. Kevin Hague of the Green Party served as an MP between 2008 and 2016.  Georgina Beyer became the first transgender mayor in the world when she became the Mayor of Carterton in 1995. In the 1999 election, she became the world's first transgender MP. She retired from parliamentary politics on 14 February 2007.

Living conditions.

New Zealand is frequently referred to as one of the most LGBT-friendly countries in the world. New Zealand has a visible and open LGBT scene, though small by international standards. Auckland has multiple gay bars, restaurants, clubs, festivals and other venues. The magazine "Gay Times" has ranked Auckland the fifteenth "gayest city" in the world. Outside Auckland, there are also visible, albeit smaller, LGBT scenes in Wellington, Tauranga, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hamilton. Several organisations and publications in New Zealand cater to LGBT people.

Pride events.

Gay pride events are legal in New Zealand and were first held in the 1970s. The Hero Parade, the showpiece of the Hero Festival in Auckland, was held annually between 1992 and 2001. Parades were typically attended by more than one hundred thousand people (and at its height, by as many as two hundred thousand). The Hero Festival continues to this day, usually without a flagship parade. In February 2013, however, Auckland held a pride parade, called the Auckland Pride Festival.  Another event is the Big Gay Out, a family event held annually in Auckland at Pt Chevalier's Coyle Park. The numbers of attendees has risen steadily over the past few years and includes appearances from the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition and many other politicians from centre-left and centre-right parties alike, who show their support for the LGBT community.

In Tokelau, Niue and the Cook Islands.

Although anti-discrimination laws and laws regarding civil unions and same-sex marriage apply in New Zealand, these do not apply in the territories of Niue, Tokelau or the Cook Islands due to their separate legislatures. Homosexual acts are criminalised in the Cook Islands, although in Niue and Tokelau the sodomy laws were repealed in 2007, when sections that mention buggery were repealed.  F. V. (2014). "The health and well-being of transgender high school students: Results from the New

Bibliography.

Zealand Adolescent Health Survey (Youth’12)". Journal of Adolescent Health

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people have the same rights as other people in New Zealand. The protection of LGBT rights is advanced, relative to other countries in Oceania, and is one of the most liberal in the world, with the country being the first in the region and thirteenth in the world to enact same-sex marriage.

Les personnes lesbiennes, gays, bisexuelles et transgenres (LGBT) en Nouvelle-Zélande peuvent faire face à des difficultés légales que ne connaissent pas les résidents non-LGBT.


History.

Formation and "Hold On Tight".

Hey Monday was formed in March 2008 after Cassadee Pope and Mike Gentile's former band Blake broke up. Pope and Gentile wanted to continue playing music and began holding auditions for a new band around their local Florida music scene. Pope and Gentile quickly joined forces with drummer Elliot James who then recruited rhythm guitarist Alex Lipshaw. Soon afterward they enlisted bassist Michael "Jersey" Moriarty and Hey Monday was formed. They were discovered when Fall Out Boy's Pete Wentz heard one of their demos while he was in the Crush Management office. Wentz wanted to sign them to his label, Decaydance, but Columbia Records was also interested so the band ended up signing a joint deal with both labels. They recorded their debut album, "Hold On Tight", throughout the summer of 2008 and it released later that fall on October 7 to very minor commercial success; it charted on "Billboard" Heatseekers albums. Soon after their debut album dropped, Hey Monday began extensive touring with the likes of The Academy Is..., We The Kings, The Cab, This Providence, A Rocket To The Moon, VersaEmerge, and Cash Cash. That following year they supported Fall Out Boy on both their major U.S. and international tours. Their popularity grew and the band went on their first headlining tour with This Providence, The Friday Night Boys, Stereo Skyline, and The Bigger Lights as support. They also headlined a few dates in Europe. In the fall of 2009 they supported All Time Low on the Glamour Kills Tour.

Departure of Elliot James.

Following the band's headlining tour in the UK, James left the band. He went on tour performing with the group the Scene Aesthetic and reformed his former band Easton. At the beginning of 2012 Easton evolved into a new band, Break Blossom, which released a six-track EP, "Last Night of Your Life", in May 2012, but the band split up six months later. James later launched a solo career, firstly releasing two singles in 2015 under the alias Baallet. Since 2016 he has released music under his own name, beginning with the EPs "Soft Dreams Osaka" (2016) and "Favourite" (2017). His debut solo album "Always Lately" was released in August 2019.

"Beneath It All" (2010).

Hey Monday spent the beginning of 2010 finishing the writing and recording of "Beneath It All", which was originally going to be their second full-length studio album. After the writing and recording process, they went on the 2010 Alternative Press Tour with The Summer Set, Every Avenue, The Cab and NeverShoutNever. The band also played Bamboozle's Main Stage on Sunday, May 2. Hey Monday then played the entire Warped Tour 2010 on the Altec Lansing stage. The band performed two songs from "Beneath It All" on Jimmy Kimmel live on September 22, 2010, the lead single "I Don't Wanna Dance" and "Wish You Were Here". Although Cassadee Pope and Mike Gentile were the only official members of the band at the performance the fill-in musicians wore shirts with the absent band member's pictures on them. Hey Monday appeared in the fourth episode of the TV series Hellcats, called "Nobody Loves Me But My Mother".

Departure of Michael "Jersey" Moriarty.

Following the band's performance at Warped Tour, the group announced that Jersey would be leaving the band. Guitarist Mike Gentile's brother Chris Gentile has since then been filling in on bass. Jersey is now doing a solo project and has released an EP named "Oh Boy Here We Go".

Christmas EP and hiatus (2011–2018).

On February 8, 2011, Hey Monday re-released their second EP, "Candles", digitally and a music video for "Candles" on March 9. "Candles" was used for a duet on Glee's episode "Original Song" done by Kurt Hummel and Blaine Anderson for a Regionals performance. In the spring of 2011, Hey Monday toured with All Time Low, Yellowcard, and The Summer Set on The Dirty Work Tour. In May 2011, Hey Monday played in Indonesia and went on a South American tour with Nevershoutnever that following August. In the fall of 2011, Hey Monday departed from the record labels Decaydance and Columbia. The band self-released "The Christmas EP" digitally on December 6, 2011, to iTunes and other digital outlets; it peaked in the top 10 of iTunes's Albums. On December 16 the band announced they were going on a hiatus. Pope went on to win the third season of NBC's "The Voice". Mike and Chris Gentile also moved on to form Rescue Kid alongside Armando and Eddie.

Reunion show (2019).

On November 25, after an eight year hiatus, Hey Monday (as Cassadee, Mike and Alex), reunited and played an entire set as part of the “Hey, it’s Monday” Nashville pop punk show.

Musical style.

Hey Monday has been described as pop punk, emo pop pop rock, and power pop.

Band members.

Current members  Former members

Hey Monday is an American rock band from West Palm Beach, Florida, formed in 2008. The band is on a hiatus as of December 2011. They released their debut album "Hold On Tight" in 2008, which produced the singles "Homecoming" and "How You Love Me Now." The album was followed up with their 2010 EP "Beneath It All", which achieved moderate commercial success, and "Candles" EP in 2011. Their final release, "The Christmas EP", was released on December 6, 2011. Hey Monday is on hiatus and claims to not be "broken up". The lead singer Cassadee Pope is now a solo artist.

Hey Monday est un groupe de rock alternatif américain, originaire de West Palm Beach en Floride. Le groupe est composé de quatre membres. Leur premier album, "Hold on Tight", est publié le aux labels Decaydance et Columbia Records. L’album est produit par Sam Hollander et Sluggo (tous deux ont entre autres travaillé les artistes Gym Class Heroes et The Academy Is). Leur second album est annoncé, puis publié le, accompagné d'une chanson de l'album est déjà disponible sur leur site web. Le groupe annonce une pause en décembre 2011.


Early life.

Jahn was born on September 10, 1927 at Kassel, Germany to Ernst and Lilli Jahn, a couple of medical practitioners. Together with four younger siblings, he stayed with his mother after his parents divorced in 1942. His mother, a German Jew, had been banned from her medical occupation since the Nazi take-over, and lost her and the children's home during a bombing raid in 1943. The Nazis then subjected Lilli Jahn to forced labour, and sent her to Auschwitz in 1944, where she died in July after three months. After his mother was deported, Gerhard and his siblings lived with their father and his new wife.  Gerhard Jahn studied at a grammar school ("Humanistisches Gymnasium"), before the Second World War. During the war, he was drafted as an airforce auxiliary manning anti-aircraft guns in 1943–44, and later sent to the Reichsarbeitsdienst. After the war, he worked in a job in the food office of the local town hall.

Education and law career.

After graduating from school with Abitur in 1947, he studied law at the University of Marburg. In the same year, he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), and became an active member while at the university. He took multiple jobs to support himself. In 1949, he was elected leader of the student movement of the SPD, the Sozialistischer Deutscher Studentenbund (SDS). Since 1950, he held the office of a secretary of the local SPD group Marburg-Frankenberg. He graduated from Marburg University. In 1956 he qualified as a lawyer, and began practicing law.

Political offices.

Jahn was elected to the Federal German parliament, Bundestag, in 1957, where he was a member until 1990. He served on various parliamentary committees at the Bundestag. In 1960 he was elected to chair committee on restitution in the public service. Alfred Frenzel, who was Jahn's predecessor was exposed as a KGB spy. He represented the SPD in various legal cases.  In addition to his federal offices, he was chairmen of the SPD-fraction of the Marburg town parliament since 1962.  In 1963, while Jahn was a member of the parliamentary committee for defense, he involved himself in a scandal by handing over a confidential document to the press, which proved that the former minister for defense, Franz Josef Strauß, had knowingly made untrue statements.  Jahn was Parliamentary State Secretary to Minister for Foreign Affairs Willy Brandt from 1967–69. When Brandt became Chancellor of Germany in 1969, he selected Jahn as Federal Minister of Justice. While in this position, he initiated reforms of the laws on marriage and divorce as well as on abortion. On the latter issue, Jahn favoured a modified legalising abortion in several exceptional cases - the so-called "Indikationsregelung", but his cabinet colleagues insisted on a general legalisation during the first trimester. This "Fristenregelung" was passed by parliament but was later held up by the Constitutional Court, so that Jahn's position eventually prevailed. Jahn decided to withdraw from the office when chancellor Brandt resigned in 1974.

Other positions.

Jahn was founding chairman of the German-Israeli Society ("Deutsch-Israelische Gesellschaft") in 1966, and president of the German Lessee Union ("Deutscher Mieterbund") from 1979 to 1995.

Later life.

After Jahn left his position of Minister of Justice, he continued to work in the parliamentary committees, and became the managing director of the SPD-fraction. He served as West German representative to the United Nations Human Rights Commission twice (1975–77 and 1979–82).  Jahn died from cancer on 20 October 1998.

Gerhard Jahn (10 September 1927 – 20 October 1998) was a German politician and a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). He was Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Foreign Affairs from 1967 to 1969, and Federal Minister of Justice from 1969 to 1974.

Gerhard Jahn, né le à Cassel et décédé le à Marbourg, était un homme politique allemand membre du Parti social-démocrate d'Allemagne (SPD).


History.

It was the first commercially successful CVT (as opposed to shifting between separate gears). In theory, this always produces the optimum torque. The Variomatic was introduced by DAF in 1958, also putting an automatic gear box in the Netherlands for the first time. The variomatic was introduced on the DAF 600.

Efficiency.

Because the engine runs most of the time at its most economical speed, the fuel consumption of this car was acceptable, although the fuel efficiency of any mechanical CVT is about 70% (then) to 75% now (Bosch).

Reversing.

Because the system does not have separate gears, but one (continuously shifting) gear and a separate'reverse mode' (as opposed to a reverse gear), the transmission works in reverse as well, giving it the interesting side effect that one can drive backwards as fast as forwards. As a result, in the former Dutch annual backward driving world championship, the DAFs had to be put in a separate competition because no other car could keep up. Thus, these very cheap and simple cars were the 'formula one' in this competition.

Multitronic.

Manual transmission remains dominant in Europe. When DAF was acquired by Volvo, the Variomatic patents were transferred to a company called VDT (Van Doorne Transmissie), later acquired by Bosch. VDT continued development of the CVT and introduced a pushbelt system in the Ford Fiesta and Fiat Uno. Audi reintroduced an improved version of the variomatic in 2000 under the name multitronic. This system uses a metal belt and has an effectively unlimited number of gears, switching between them without noticeable shocks. These metal drive belts are the most important part of CVT. There are three factories producing these belts, the Bosch factories in Tilburg the Netherlands, Ho Chi Minh City Vietnam, and San Luis Potosí, Mexico. It is used in over 40 car models, even in expensive brands like Mercedes-Benz.

Operation.

Gear ratio.

The final drive has two pulleys with moveable conical drums. The distance between the drums is controlled by the engine vacuum in the inlet manifold and engine RPM, through centrifugal weights inside the drums. Between the two pulleys runs a drive belt. As a result of change in the distance of the conical drums in both pulleys, the diameters and so also the reduction ratio changes continuously.

Differential.

With the DAF 600 - 55 each rear wheel was propelled individually by a pair of conical drums and drive belt with the effect of a limited slip differential: if a drive wheel on slippery road revs up, the other wheel can still transfer the full torque. This results in unusually good traction characteristics, which were also a reason for successes of the DAFs in rallies. There were several disadvantages that accompanied the lack of a true differential gear. Although each belt could settle (independent of the other) into its optimum position, thus allowing for wheel speed variation, the system was slow to operate and depended on the pulleys being turned. This led to rapid tire wear and placed stress on other transmission components. Snapped drive shafts were common. Low speed handling in icy conditions was interesting as the system tended to drive the car forward against the influence of the steered wheels. Later cars, the 46, 66 and Volvo variants were fitted with a differentially geared axle. A version with a differential was developed by Williams in the 1993 Williams FW15C CVT Formula One car, but it was banned before being raced. In testing there were problems with the heat production.

Motorscooters.

The Variomatic is also used in today's motorscooters. It is a standard part of all common scooters since 1985, and several companies such as Malossi, Polini, Doppler and Stage6 are offering tuning clutches and variomatic for most common 50, 70 and 125 cc scooters.

Steel link belts.

The modern CVT works according to the same principle of split pulleys allowing infinitely variable gear ratios. Rather than the pulled rubber drive belts as originally used by DAF, the modern transmission is made more durable by the use of steel link belts that are pushed by their pulleys. This improvement was pioneered by Fiat, Ford and Van Doorne in the Netherlands from the late 1970s. The gearbox is also under electronic control.  One version that incorporates the switch from rubber to steel belts was called the Transmatic.

Availability.

DAF's Van Doorne's Transmissie is still operating (As of Nov 2015) in Tilburg, Netherlands. It changed affiliations from the DAF group to Bosch in 1995.  The CVT is available from brands such as Audi, Honda, BMW Mini, and Subaru. Tata Motors from India intended to use a Variomatic transmission in its $2500 Nano. Nissan Primera is offered with this transmission.

Variomatic is the continuously variable transmission (CVT) of the Dutch car manufacturer DAF, originally developed by Hub van Doorne: It is a stepless, fully automatic transmission consisting of a "V" shaped drive belt and two pulleys, each of two cones, whose effective diameter can be changed so that the "V" belt runs nearer the spindle or nearer the rim, depending on the separation of the cones. These are synchronized so that the belt always remains at the same optimal tension.

Variomatic est le nom donné par le constructeur automobile néerlandais DAF à son variateur de vitesse mécanique entièrement automatique, réglable en continu, aussi appelée CVT (de l'anglais: Continuously Variable Transmission) ou variateur de vitesse mécanique. Cette technologie faisait l'originalité de l'ensemble des automobiles produites par DAF.


Biography.

Rahder was born in Lubuk Begalung, the Dutch East Indies, now a subdistrict of Padang, where his father was governor of the west coast of Sumatra. The fact that he requested as a birthday present a library when he was five years old suggests that he was a precocious child.  He earned his doctorate at the University of Utrecht for an edition of the text of Daśabhûmikasûtra (1926). Because of his interest in Buddhism and linguistics, he not only studied Sanskrit and Pali, but also Chinese, Japanese and many other languages. After working for several years on the Buddhist Dictionary Hôbôgirin (published by the Maison Franco-Japonaise in Tokyo), he was appointed Professor of Sanskrit, Avestan, Old Persian and principles of Indo-Germanic linguistics at the University of Utrecht (1930).  In 1933, during one of his many visits to the Far East, Rahder shared a trip on the Trans-Siberian Railway with poet Langston Hughes who characterized Rahder as "a famous authority on obscure Oriental languages," who, having lost his luggage, "had nothing with him but paper and pencils, not even a change of clothing for the trip across the Soviet Union." ("I Wonder as I Wander," Langston Hughes, Hill and Wang Publishers,pages 233-4, 1956  Barely a year later, he exchanged the chair for that in Japanese language and literature at Leiden University. In 1946 he resigned from his post at Leiden, and joined the faculty at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, where he had been a visiting professor during 1937–1938. The following year he went to Yale University, where he was Professor of Japanese from 1947 until his retirement in 1965.

Johannes Rahder (December 27, 1898 – March 3, 1988), Dutch Orientalist, professor of Japanese at the University of Leiden (1931–1946) and Yale University (1947–1965).

Johannes Rahder ( - ), est un orientaliste néerlandais, professeur de japonais à l'université de Leyde (1931-1946) et l'université Yale (1947-1965).


History.

The Valdarno chicken takes its name from the Valdarno, the valley of the Arno river. It was in the past extensively raised in the lower part of the valley between Florence and the Tyrrhenian Sea and in the plains surrounding Pisa, in the areas of comuni such as Cerreto Guidi, Pontedera, Empoli, Poggibonsi and San Miniato.  The first description of the Valdarno chicken is that given by Pochini, who recommends it above all others as suitable for both small- and large-scale rearing, for its rapid growth and the maternal instinct of the hens, but who notes that it requires space and does not adapt well to close confinement. He illustrates four colour varieties, black, white, buff, and cuckoo, and notes that the black and the white are the most common. The first breed standard was presented by Maggi at a conference in Mantua in 1905; the author believed the breed to date from before 1848 and noted the predominance of the black variety, as evidenced by the local saying ""pollo nero, pollo vero"", or "black chicken, real chicken". The breed was described by both Pascal and Faelli in the same year.  In the following years the Valdarno then became the subject of extended and heated discussion of its authenticity, and of whether it should be considered a variety of the Livornese. Although its authenticity was eventually recognised, its numbers declined owing to competition from the White Leghorn, and despite various attempts by breeders to preserve it, continued to decline through most of the 20th century until it had virtually disappeared. Recent reconstitution and recovery of the breed was based on a small number of autochthonous birds found in the Sienese countryside, with out-crossing to Bresse and Castellana Negra. The first results were presented at Reggio Emilia in 1998, and were well received. Although numbers remain low, the Valdarno is bred to the 1905 standard, and is included in the official standard of the Federazione Italiana Associazioni Avicole, the federation of Italian poultry associations, which is the authority governing poultry breeding in Italy.  Breed numbers remain low. A study published in 2007 used a figure of approximately 200 for the total breeding stock, of which approximately 50 were cocks.

Characteristics.

The Valdarno is black, with dark green lights. The legs are a dark slate colour, and the beak is black. The skin is white. The comb is medium-large, with 5–6 points. The wattles are medium-long and red, the ear-lobes oval and porcelain white. Average weight is for cocks, for hens. The eggs are white and weigh at least 55 g. Ring size is 18 mm for cocks, 16 mm for hens.

The Valdarno is a breed of black dual-purpose chicken from the lower part of the Valdarno, the valley of the Arno river, in Tuscany, central Italy. It became virtually extinct in the 20th century, but the population is recovering. It is a quite different breed from the Valdarnese, which originates in the upper Valdarno, and is white.

La poule du Valdarno est une race de poule domestique d'origine italienne, plus précisément du Valdarno en Toscane. C'est une race fermière méditerranéenne, légère et rustique dont le plumage est noir. Elle ressemble à la leghorn noire, mais son tronc est plus long, large et compact.