Name and differentiation.

In 2014, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration revealed that the official scientific name for the fish was changed from "Theragra chalcogramma" back to its original taxon "Gadus chalcogrammus", highlighting its close genetic relationship to the other species of the cod genus "Gadus". Alaska pollock was long put in its own genus, "Theragra" and classified as "Theragra chalcogramma", but more recent research has shown it is rather closely related to the Atlantic cod and should therefore be moved back to genus "Gadus", in which it was originally described. The change of the official scientific name was followed by a discussion to change the common name, too, to highlight the fish's belonging to the cod genus. The common names "Alaska pollock" and "walleye pollock", both used as trade names internationally, are discussed to be misleading by scientific and trade experts, as the names do not reflect the scientific classification: While belonging to the same family as the Atlantic pollock, Alaska pollock is not a member of the genus "Pollachius", but of the cod genus "Gadus". Nevertheless, alternative trade names highlighting its belonging to the cod genus such as "snow cod", "bigeye cod", or direct deductions from the scientific names such as "copperline cod" ("gadus" meaning cod, Latin "chalco-" from Greek "khalkós" meaning "copper", and Greek "grammí" meaning "line") or "lesser cod" (from the synonymous taxon "Gadus minor") could not find widespread acceptance yet. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration even states that ""[the common name] might never change, as common names are separate from scientific names.""  In addition, "Norwegian pollock" ("Theragra finnmarchica"), a rare fish of Norwegian waters, is likely the same species as the Alaska pollock.

Ecology.

The speckled coloring of Alaska pollock makes it more difficult for predators to see them when they are near sandy ocean floors. They are a relatively fast-growing and short-lived species, currently representing a major biological component of the Bering Sea ecosystem. It has been found that catches of Alaska pollock go up three years after stormy summers. The storms stir up nutrients, and this results in phytoplankton being plentiful for longer, which in turn allows more pollock hatchlings to survive. The Alaska pollock has well-developed drumming muscles that the fish use to produce sounds during courtship, like many other gadids.

Foraging behavior.

The primary factor in determining the foraging behavior of the Alaskan pollock is age. Young pollocks can be divided into two sub-groups, with lengths below or above 60 mm (2.4 inches). Both groups mainly feed on copepods. However, the latter group will also forage for euphausiids. Therefore, food depletion has a larger effect on smaller pollocks.  The variation in size of each subgroup also affects seasonal foraging behavior. During the winter, when food is scarce, foraging can be costly due to the fact that longer hunting time increases the risk of meeting a predator. The larger young pollocks have no need to hunt during the winter because they have a higher capacity for energy storage, while smaller fish do not, and have to continue foraging, putting them at greater risk. To maximize their chances of survival, large pollock increase their calorie intake in autumn to gain weight, while smaller ones focus solely on growing in size.  Alaskan pollock exhibit diel vertical migration, following the seasonal movement of their food. Although pollocks exhibit vertical movement during the day, their average depth changes with the seasons. Originally, the change in depth was attributed to the amount of light or water temperature, but in fact, it follows the movement of food species. In August, when food is abundantly available near the surface, pollocks will be found at lower depths. But in November, they are found deeper, along with their planktonic food source.

Distribution.

Alaska pollock in the Pacific Ocean.

The Alaska pollock's main habitat are the coastal areas of the Northern Pacific, especially the waters off Alaska (Eastern Bering Sea, Gulf of Alaska, Aleutian Islands) as well as off Russia, Japan and Korea (Western Bering Sea and Sea of Okhotsk). The largest concentrations of Alaska pollock are found in the eastern Bering Sea.

Small populations in the Arctic Ocean (Barents Sea).

Very small populations of fish genetically identical to "Gadus chalcogrammus" are found in the Barents Sea waters of northern Norway and Russia. This fish was initially described as an own species to science under the taxon "Theragra finnmarchica" by Norwegian zoologist Einar Koefoed in 1956. The common name used for the fish was "Norway pollock". Genetical analyses have shown that the fish is genetically not different from Alaska pollock ("Gadus chalcogrammus"). It is therefore considered to be conspecific with the Pacific species and is attributed to "Gadus chalcogrammus". The history of the species in the Barents Sea is unknown.  The initial specification as an own species by Koefoed was based on two specimens landed in Berlevåg, northern Norway, in 1932 (hence the Norwegian name, "Berlevågfisk"). Based on morphological differences, Koefoed considered "Theragra finnmarchica" a new species related to but separate from Alaska pollock ("Gadus chalcogrammus", formerly "Theragra chalcogramma"). Just seven specimens of the fish are known to have been caught between 1957 and early 2002 in the Arctic Ocean. In 2003–2004, 31 new specimens were caught. All specimens were large (465–687 mm in total length) and caught in the coastal waters between Vesterålen in the west and Varangerfjord in the east. By 2006, 54 individuals had been recorded. Sequencing of mitochondrial DNA of two specimens of "Theragra finnmarchica" and 10 "Theragra chalcogramma" (today: "Gadus chalcogrammus") revealed no significant genetic differences, leading Ursvik et al. to suggest that "T. finnmarchica" and "T. chalcogramma" are the same species. An analysis of a much larger material (44 "T. finnmarchica" and 20 "T. chalcogramma") using both genetic and morphological methods led to similar conclusions. While the putative species could not be separated genetically, they showed some consistent differences in morphological characters. Only one character showed no overlap. Byrkjedal et al. conclude that "T. finnmarchica" should be considered a junior synonym of "T. chalcogramma". These analyses also suggest that "T. finnmarchica" is a near relative of the Atlantic cod, and that both Alaska and Norway pollock should be moved to genus "Gadus".  Norway pollock (""Theragra finnmarchica"") was listed as Near Threatened in the 2010 Norwegian Red List for Species based on criteria D1: "Very small or geographically very restricted population: Number of mature individuals". It is currently not listed in the IUCN Red List.

Fisheries.

The Alaska pollock has been said to be "the largest remaining source of palatable fish in the world." Around 3 million tons of Alaska pollock are caught each year in the North Pacific from Alaska to northern Japan. Alaska pollock is the world's second most important fish species in terms of total catch.  The Alaska pollock landings are the largest of any single fish species in the U.S, the average annual Eastern Bering Sea catch between 1977 and 2014 being 1.174 million tons. Alaska pollock catches from U.S. fisheries have been quite consistent at about 1.5 million tons a year, almost all of it from the Bering Sea. Each year's quota is adjusted based on stock assessments conducted by the Alaska Fisheries Science Centre. For instance, stock declines in 2008 meant decreased allowable harvests for 2009 and 2010. This decline led some scientists to worry that Alaska pollock could be about to repeat the collapse of the Atlantic cod, which could have negative consequences for the world food supply and the Bering Sea ecosystem. Halibut, salmon, endangered Steller sea lions, fur seals, and humpback whales all eat pollock and rely on healthy populations to sustain themselves. Alaska pollock stocks (and catch levels) subsequently returned to above average in 2011 and remained so through to 2014. However, Greenpeace has long been critical of Alaska pollock management, placing the fish on its "red list" of species due to damage of the seabed from trawling.  Other groups have hailed the fishery as an example of good management, and the Marine Stewardship Council declared it "sustainable". The Marine Conservation Society rates Alaska pollock trawled from the Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, and Aleutian Islands as sustainable, but not those from the Western Bering Sea and Okhotsk Sea.

As food.

Compared to other cod species and pollock, Alaska pollock has a milder taste, whiter color and lower oil content.

Fillets.

High-quality, single-frozen whole Alaska pollock fillets may be layered into a block mold and deep-frozen to produce fish blocks that are used throughout Europe and North America as the raw material for high-quality breaded and battered fish products. Lower-quality, double-frozen fillets or minced trim pieces may also be frozen in block forms and used as raw material for lower-quality, low-cost breaded and battered fish sticks and portions.  Alaska pollock is commonly used in the fast food industry, in products such as McDonald's Filet-O-Fish sandwich and (now-discontinued) Fish McBites, Arby's Classic Fish sandwich, Long John Silver's Baja Fish Taco, Birds Eye's Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter. and Captain D's Seafood Kitchen.

Surimi.

Single-frozen Alaska pollock is considered to be the premier raw material for "surimi"; the most common use of surimi in the United States is imitation crabmeat (also known as crab stick).

Pollock roe.

Pollock roe is a popular culinary ingredient in Korea, Japan, and Russia. In Korea, the roe is called "myeongnan" (, literally "Alaska pollock's roe"), and the salted roe is called "myeongnan-jeot" (, literally "pollock roe "jeotgal""). The food was introduced to Japan after World War II, and since has been called "mentai-ko" () in Japanese. A milder, less spicy version is usually called "tarako" (, literally "cod's roe"), which is also the Japanese name for pollock roe itself. In Russia, pollock roe is consumed as a sandwich spread. The product, resembling liquid paste due to the small size of eggs and oil added, is sold canned.

Use as food in Korea.

Alaska pollock is considered the "national fish" of Korea. The Korean name of the fish, myeongtae (), has also spread to some neighbouring countries: It is called () in Russia and in Poland, and its roe is called "mentaiko" () in Japan although the Japanese name for the fish itself is "suketōdara" (). In Korea, "myeongtae" is called by thirty-odd names including: saengtae (, fresh), dongtae (, frozen), bugeo (, dried), hwangtae (, dried in winter with repeated freezing and thawing), nogari (, dried young), and kodari (, half-dried young).  Koreans have been enjoying Alaska pollock since the Joseon era. One of the earliest mentions are from "Seungjeongwon ilgi" ("Journal of the Royal Secretariat"), where a 1652 entry stated: "The management administration should be strictly interrogated for bringing in pollock roe instead of cod roe." Alaska pollocks were the most commonly caught fish in Korea in 1940, when more than 270,000 tonnes were caught from the Sea of Japan (East Sea). It outnumbers the current annual consumption of Alaska pollock in South Korea, estimated at about 260,000 tonnes in 2016. Nowadays, however, Alaska pollock consumption in South Korea rely heavily on import from Russia, due to rises in sea water temperatures.

The Alaska pollock or walleye pollock ("Gadus chalcogrammus") is a marine fish species of the cod genus Gadus and family Gadidae. It is a semi-pelagic schooling fish widely distributed in the North Pacific with largest concentrations found in the eastern Bering Sea.

Le Colin d'Alaska (Theragra chalcogramma) ou lieu d'Alaska, Goberge de l'Alaska (Canada) est une espèce de poissons marins de la famille des Gadidae qui se rencontre dans le nord de l'océan Pacifique.


Geography.

Located south-east of Beirut, the region comprises a narrow coastal strip notable for the Christian town of Damour, and the valleys and mountains of the western slopes of Jabal Barouk, the name of the local Mount Lebanon massif, on which the largest forest of Cedars of Lebanon is found.

History.

The Emirs of Lebanon used to have their residence in Chouf, most notably Bachir Chehab II, who built the magnificent palace of Beiteddine during the first half of the 19th century. Another historical town, just facing Beiteddine, is Deir al Qamar (the monastery of the Moon).  Chouf is the heartland of the Lebanese Druze community, with Druze leader Walid Jumblatt residing at the Jumblatt palace in the town of Moukhtara. Several violent clashes have occurred between Druze and Christians, as in 1848, 1860 and most recently 1983-1984, during the Lebanese Civil War (Mountain War, Arabic: "Harb el-Jabal"). Reconciliation between the Druze and Christian communities came to fruition on August 8, 2001, when the Maronite Patriarch of Antioch, Cardinal Mar Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir made a historic visit to the Chouf and met with the Druze and Chouf leader, Walid Jumblatt.  The Chouf is one of the best-preserved Lebanese districts and its nature has been generally spared from the intense building of neighboring Metn and Kesrouan.

Demographics.

Despite the historical feuds between Christian Maronites and Druze, the Chouf district is still one of the most religiously diverse regions in Lebanon. Currently the region hosts equal proportions of Druze, Sunni Muslims, and Christians (Maronite and Greek Catholic) populations. The Druze and Sunnis each make up 30% of the population, and the remaining 40% is Christian.

Chouf (also spelled Shouf, Shuf or Chuf, in "Jabal ash-Shouf") (French: La Montagne du Chouf) is a historic region of Lebanon, as well as an administrative district in the governorate (muhafazat) of Mount Lebanon.

Le Caza du Chouf (en langue Arabeقضاء الشوف "Caza' el-Chouf") est un caza de la Mohafaza du Mont Liban. C'est aussi le cœur du Chouf, une région montagneuse qui porte le même nom. Le chef-lieu du caza du chouf est Beiteddine.


American television version.

Jack Palance portrays Harlan "Mountain" McClintock, a once-promising but now washed-up boxer who faces the end of his career after he is savagely defeated by a younger boxer. Keenan Wynn portrays McClintock's manager Maish; Keenan's father Ed plays McClintock's cut man, Army.  McClintock is suffering from Dementia pugilistica or "punch drunk syndrome"—brain damage caused by his career. A fight doctor refuses to certify McClintock for further boxing, saying that another rough match could blind or even kill him. Boxing is all McClintock has ever known, and he's both terrified of trying something new, and intensely loyal to Maish, who has nurtured him from his youth. Maish has troubles of his own, however: he owes money to the Mafia and tried to raise funds by betting that McClintock would be knocked out early (instead, by gamely and bravely taking a beating and refusing to go down, McClintock cost Maish a fortune).  Kim Hunter portrayed Grace Carney, an employment agency worker who tries to help the boxer make a transition to a new career. Maish persuades the boxer to turn to professional wrestling, though McClintock is proud that he never had a fixed fight and is uncomfortable with the staged, predetermined wrestling match.  Army disapproves of Maish's plans and refuses to be a part of them. Just before he is scheduled to go into the wrestling ring in a humiliating mountain man costume, McClintock learns of Maish's betting against him, and parts ways with his manager and mentor. Though he feels that boxing can ruin men's lives, Maish finds another promising young boxer to train. McClintock takes a chance on working with children at summer camp.  Because Serling and Palance were both experienced boxers, they brought a level of authenticity to "Requiem for a Heavyweight", although there was very little boxing depicted in the broadcast. "Requiem for a Heavyweight" was the beginning of what became one of the new medium's most successful creative teams, writer Rod Serling and director Ralph Nelson.

British television version.

BBC Television in the United Kingdom screened a version of the play, retitled "Blood Money", in their regular "Sunday Night Theatre" anthology strand on March 31, 1957. Sean Connery, five years before portraying James Bond, starred as McClintock, while Alvin Rakoff produced and, with Serling's approval, also wrote some new material to cover costume changes that took place during commercial breaks on US television, but could not do so on the non-commercial BBC. Co-starring with Connery were Warren Mitchell and Rakoff's future wife Jacqueline Hill, who had recommended Connery for the leading part. Michael Caine was featured in a small role in a new scene written by Rakoff.  This production was reviewed in "The Times" newspaper the following day, which gave it a generally positive assessment, with some reservations. "It is unfortunate that Mr. Serling has allowed a saccharine romance to intrude into this self-sufficient and wholly masculine situation. Otherwise his touch is sure. Although physically miscast as the fighter, Mr. Sean Connery played with a shambling and inarticulate charm that almost made the love affair credible." This version has not survived, although the discovery of a complete recording of the soundtrack was announced in 2014. It had been in possession of Rakoff, who had made a recording at the time of transmission for posterity.

Dutch television version.

In 1959 Dutch television adapted the story as "Requiem voor een zwaargewicht".

Yugoslav television version.

In 1974 Radio Television Belgrade adapted the story as "Rekvijem za teškaša".

Film version.

Ralph Nelson also directed a film version in 1962 with Anthony Quinn in the role originated by Jack Palance, Jackie Gleason and Mickey Rooney in the parts portrayed on television by Keenan Wynn and his father Ed Wynn, and social worker Grace Miller was portrayed by Julie Harris.  Cassius Clay, later known as Muhammad Ali, appears as Quinn's opponent in a boxing match at the beginning of the movie, a memorable sequence filmed with the camera providing Quinn's point of view as the unstoppable Clay rapidly punches directly at the movie audience. Afterward, Maish (Gleason) is confronted by bookies who threaten his life if he fails to repay the bet he just lost on the fight.  The film version is somewhat darker in its plotline than the original teleplay. Mountain Rivera (Quinn) is to interview for a counselor position at a children's camp, arranged by Grace Miller, but Maish, hoping that Mountain will forget about the job interview, takes him to a bar, where they both get drunk. Army (Rooney) arrives at the bar to remind Mountain about the appointment, but Rivera embarrasses himself at the hotel where the interview is to take place, behaving drunkenly in plain sight of the camp owners. After this episode, Grace confronts Maish in tears, condemning him for controlling Mountain and ruining his chance to make a new life for himself.  In the film version, Maish responds forcefully and eloquently to Grace Miller's accusation that he's been over-controlling of Rivera, cares nothing for him, for his best interest or for his future. He tells Grace that she must stop daydreaming and recognize that her idealized conception of Louis Rivera is as false and damaging to Rivera as is Maish's alleged mediocre management of Rivera's pro boxing career, and that her so-called "vision" for Rivera's post-boxing future as a counselor at a children's summer camp is as naïve and pathetic as it is improbable.  To pay off Maish's gambling debts, Mountain agrees to perform as Native American wrestling persona "Big Chief Mountain Rivera." Just prior to entering the ring for his first match, an overwhelming tide of humiliation sweeps over Mountain, causing him to change his mind. Maish blurts out that he bet against Mountain in the fight against Clay, and as Rivera attempts to leave the locker room, "Ma" Greeny and her thugs enter, threatening Maish. However, Mountain changes his mind and agrees to wrestle, thereby allowing "Ma" to be paid and saving Maish's life. In the epic final scene of the film, Mountain enters the ring amidst jeering ridicule to face "Haystacks Calhoun," a grappler from Arkansas billed at 601 lbs.

Broadway version.

In 1985, it was adapted into a short-lived Broadway version at the Martin Beck Theatre starring John Lithgow as Harlan and George Segal as Maish.

"The Man in the Funny Suit".

In 1960, Ralph Nelson wrote and directed "The Man in the Funny Suit", a dramatic account of Keenan Wynn's travails in helping his father, comedian Ed Wynn, play such a serious role on live television in "Requiem for a Heavyweight".

Requiem for a Heavyweight was a teleplay written by Rod Serling and produced for the live television show "Playhouse 90" on 11 October 1956. Six years later, it was adapted as a 1962 feature film starring Anthony Quinn, Jackie Gleason and Mickey Rooney.

Requiem pour un champion était une dramatique télévisée en direct écrite par Rod Serling et produite dans le cadre de l'anthologie "Playhouse 90". Elle fut diffusée le sur CBS. Six ans plus tard, une adaptation fut réalisée en 1962 sous la forme d'un film avec Anthony Quinn, Jackie Gleason, et Mickey Rooney dans les rôles principaux.


History.

The first written mention of Bratslav dates back to 1362. City status was granted Magdeburg Rights in 1564. Bratslav belonged to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania until the Lublin Union of 1569, when it became a voivodeship center in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland as part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.  In the early 16th century, the Starosta of Bratslav and Vinnytsia (Winnica) was Hetman Kostiantyn Ostrozky, who commanded Polish-Lithuanian army in the Battle of Orsha. Nevertheless, Ostrozky was unable to protect Bratslav and its castle from destruction in 1497, when the town was raided by Crimean Tatars. The castle was rebuilt and reinforced by order of Polish King Alexander I Jagiellon, but it was destroyed once again, in 1551, during a Tatar raid commanded by Khan Devlet I Giray, after which Bratslav turned into a desert.  In 1564, Bratslav was granted Magdeburg rights, and five years later, following the Union of Lublin, it was annexed by the Kingdom of Poland, becoming capital of the Bratslav Voivodeship, which existed for over 200 years. During this time, Bratslav (then named Bracław in Polish) by the authorities, was property of Polish kings, and was ruled by the starostas.  In 1570, a special commission of the Polish Sejm marked boundaries of the Bratslav Voivodeship. In the west, it reached the Dniestr and the Murachwa rivers, in the north it went along the so-called Black Tatar Trail. With top-quality soil, the so-called chernozem, Bracław Voivodeship was the most fertile region of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1589 in Warsaw, the Sejm granted coat of arms to the town: a cross in red field, with blue shield in the middle. In 1598, Polish Parliamend decided to move the seat of local courts and sejmiks from Bratslav to Vinnytsia, and as a result, Winnica became a de facto capital of the voivodeship, even though it was still named after Bracław.  On October 5, 1594, Zaporozhian Cossacks under Severyn Nalyvaiko murdered near Bratslav Castle a tabor of the local Polish nobility, who tried to escape the Nalyvaiko Uprising. In 1648, during the Bohdan Khmelnytsky rebellion, Bracław became a Cossack regimental city, part of the Ukrainian Hetman state, which was later assimilated by the Duchy of Muscovy. In 1667, under the Treaty of Andrusiv, Muscovy returned the city to Poland. The city was ruled by Ottoman Empire between 1672-1699, returning then to Poland once more. It became part of the Russian Empire (the new name of Muscovy since 1708) after the Second Partition of Poland in 1793, along with the rest of the formerly Polish Right-bank Ukraine. Under Russia, Bratslav was an "uyezd" (district) center in the Podolia governorate. As the city had no access to a railroad, its importance and population gradually declined.  Bratslav is famous in Judaism as the place where Rabbi Nachman lived and taught between 1802 and 1810. Rabbi Nachman was the founder of one of the major branches of Hasidism, Breslover Hasidism, and an author of Jewish mystical works. After the 1917 revolution Judaism had been strongly persecuted. The history of this persecution is well illustrated by the life of Bratslav rabbi Moishe Yankel Rabinovich who served as a rabbi from 1919 to 1968.  In 1926 Bratslav had a population of 7,842 (Source=Columbia-Lippincott Gazetteer).  During World War II, Bratslav was occupied by German and Romanian armies on July 22, 1941, and was made into a ghetto for Jews of Bratslav and its vicinities. According to Romanian reports, there were 747 Jews in Bratslav in the end of December 1941. On January 1, 1942, most Jews were transferred to an extermination camp, and 50 people were drowned in the South Bug river. Two labor camps for German construction companies Todt-Dorman and Horst und Jessen were opened in August 1942. They hosted about 1,200 Jews deported from Romania, as well as about 300 Ukrainian Jews. The labor schedule was designed to exhaust all prisoners: work in masonry, without days off, from dawn till dusk, with a 30-minute lunch break. On September 23, 1942, all elderly and children were shot in a neighboring forest. The executions continued regularly after that date. In April 1943, Todt-Dorman camp was closed, and the prisoners were transferred to Horst und Jessen. Bratslav was part of Transnistria Governorate in Kingdom of Romania till its liberation in 17 March 1944 by Red Army.

Bratslav (; ;, "Broslev", today also pronounced Breslev or "Breslov" as the name of a Hasidic group, which originated from this town) is an urban-type settlement in Ukraine, located in Nemyriv Raion of Vinnytsia Oblast, by the Southern Bug river. It is a medieval European city and a regional center of the Eastern Podolia region (see Bratslav Voivodeship) founded by government of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, which dramatically lost its importance during the 19th-20th centuries. Population:

Bratslav (en ukrainien, ; ; et en ) est une commune urbaine de l'oblast de Vinnytsia, en Ukraine. Sa population s'élevait à habitants en 2014.


Biography.

He was educated at the University of Szczecin, graduating in 1998 in Political Science from the Faculty of Humanities. From 1997 to 1998 he was employed as a lecturer at the Institute of Philosophy and Political Science at the University of Szczecin.  From 1998 to 1999 he was manager of the Koszalin voivodeship Governor’s office, and in 1999 - 2002 sat on the Board of the Kruszywa Koszalin PLC mines. He spent the following three years running his own business.  From 1998 to 2002 he was a Solidarity Election Action (AWS) councillor in the Western Pomeranian voivodeship sejmik. He was elected a Civic Platform (PO) MP for Szczecin in the 2005 getting 14238 votes in 41 Szczecin district and 2007 parliamentary elections, gaining 65,993 votes in 2007 (the highest individual number of votes in the constituency since 1989). During both terms in office he was a member of the Treasury Committee and in his second term he was also a member of the Economy Committee and the Accessible Government Extraordinary Committee.  He was elected to the European Parliament in 2009 for the Gorzów constituency, with 107,413 votes. He sits with the Group of the European People’s Party (Christian Democrats) and is also a member of the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs and of the delegation to the EU-Russia Parliamentary Cooperation Committee. In 2014 won't seek re-election. 2 December in this same year became main adviser in political cabinet of Prime Minister Ewa Kopacz In parliamentary election in 2015 he became Member of Polish Parliament by 20 930 votes. He is the chairman of the delegation of the Sejm and Senate of Poland to the Parliamentary Assembly of the OSCE.  From 1991 to 1993 he was a member of the Real Politics Union, and from 1996 to 2001 belonged to the Conservative People’s Party. Since 2001 he has been a member of Civic Platform (PO) and is a member of the National Executive. Since 2003 he has been the leader of PO in Szczecin, and since 2006 Vice-Chairman of the PO Regional Executive in Western Pomerania.

Personal life.

He is married to Irmina and has two daughters, Natalia and Kornelia.

Sławomir Witold Nitras (born 26 April 1973 in Połczyn-Zdrój) is a Polish politician, political scientist, member of Civic Platform (PO), an MP in the lower house of Parliament from 2015 Member of the Sejm.

Sławomir Witold Nitras (né le à Połczyn-Zdrój) est un homme politique polonais, politologue, membre de la Plate-forme civique. Il est député député européen de 2009 à 2014 et député à la Diète de la république de Pologne de 2005 à 2009 et de nouveau à partir de 2015.


Early life.

Rogers was the son of German immigrant parents. Rogers was athletic, and took up wrestling at age nine at the local YMCA. Rogers joined the Camden YMCA Wrestling League and won its heavyweight championship. He also excelled in football, boxing, track and swimming. In 1937, he won the YMCA's three-mile swimming championship. Rogers joined the Dale Brothers Circus as a wrestler at age 17. Rogers later worked at a shipyard, and became a police officer.

Professional wrestling career.

Early career and National Wrestling Alliance (1939–1963).

Rogers visited the offices of professional wrestling promoters Ray and Frank Hanley, who gave him his first match on July 4, 1939 against Moe Brazen, which he won. Rogers soon became a top professional wrestler using his real name around his hometown where he gained his first major win over Ed "Strangler" Lewis. He continued his career in Houston, where he assumed the name Buddy Rogers. Rogers would get his first title during his tenure there, winning the NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship four times, once from Lou Thesz, beginning a long feud both in and out of the ring.  After leaving the Texas territory for Columbus, Ohio, Rogers bleached his hair, and was given the moniker "Natural Guy" by promoter Jack Pfefer. The moniker later evolved to "Nature Boy". In the early 1950s, Lillian Ellison (under the moniker Slave Girl Moolah) worked as his valet. Ellison claims that the partnership ended after Rogers pushed for a sexual relationship, which Ellison refused. With the advent of television, Rogers' flashy look, great physique and bombastic personality instantly caught the ire of audiences. The first sign of Rogers' impact was his involvement in Sam Muchnick's opposition promotion in St. Louis, Missouri, a major professional wrestling market at the time. He was pitted against Lou Thesz as a draw. In the end, Muchnick's promotion was powerful enough with Rogers as its main star that the two promotions merged. Rogers continued control of the Midwest as a booker and professional wrestler, most notably in Chicago, frequently selling out the 11,000-seat arena. In the 1950s, Rogers expanded into Vince McMahon, Sr.'s Capitol Wrestling Corporation (CWC). He also wrestled in the Al Haft promotion out of Columbus, Ohio in the 1950s and through 1963.  In 1961, the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) voted him into an NWA World Heavyweight Championship match. On June 30, 1961, Rogers took the title from Pat O'Connor in front of 38,622 fans at Comiskey Park, which set a new North American professional wrestling attendance record that stood until the David Von Erich Memorial Parade of Champions in 1984. In addition, the $148,000 gate in ticket sales was a professional wrestling record for almost twenty years. The contest, which was a two out of three falls match, was billed as the "Match of the Century", during which both men had gained a pinfall. However, when O'Connor missed a dropkick and hit his head, Rogers pinned him to win the match and being recognized as the new NWA World Heavyweight Champion. At the time, Rogers was working at two different jobs in Chicago, but he never walked into work again according to his autobiography.  Many promoters felt that Rogers favored northeastern promoters over other territories. Promoters and noted shooters Bill Miller and Karl Gotch confronted Rogers in Columbus and broke his hand. Rogers sustained another injury in Montreal against Killer Kowalski, which kept Rogers on the sidelines. Upon his return, the NWA voted to switch the title back over to Lou Thesz, who publicly disliked Rogers. On January 24, 1963, the match took place in Toronto. Rogers was hesitant about dropping the title, so promoter Sam Muchnick put three safeguards in place to guarantee Rogers' cooperation. The first safeguard was formatting the match as a one fall finish, rather than the traditional best two out of three falls. The second safeguard was his threat to give Rogers' bond away to charity, rather than returning the deposit to the dethroned Rogers. Every NWA World Heavyweight Champion was required to pay a $25,000 deposit to the NWA Board of Directors, before winning the championship belt. The deposit was held by the NWA for the duration of the champion's reign. The third safeguard was Thesz, who could "take" the title if necessary. Ultimately, Thesz won the match and the title.  Rogers was a co-holder of the NWA United States Tag Team Championship with tag team partner "Handsome" Johnny Barend. They won the championship on July 5, 1962 from Johnny Valentine and “Cowboy” Bob Ellis on Capitol Wrestling's regular Thursday night Washington, D.C. television show. Arnold Skaaland was a last minute replacement for Ellis whose flight was delayed and unable to get to the arena. With the championship on the line, Rogers and Barend isolated Skaaland whom Rogers forced to submit with his figure-four leglock to win the first fall. After Skaaland was carried from the ring on a stretcher, Valentine continued to fight alone in the second fall. Valentine fought valiantly, but was worn down by Rogers and Barend. Just when it looked like Valentine was going to succumb to the vicious attack of the heels the crowd erupted. The television cameras swung from a view of the ring to "Cowboy" Bob Ellis running down the aisle in street clothes and carrying a travel suitcase. Ellis jumped into the ring, applied multiple bulldog headlocks and pinned Barend to win the second fall for his team. The third fall featured everyone fighting inside and outside the ring. Finally, Ellis and Barend collided in the corner and knocked each other out. The referee was distracted by Valentine trying to get into the ring as Rogers grabbed an unconscious Barend by his hair and back of his trunks and threw him on top of Ellis for the victory.  Rogers and Barend defeated Valentine and Ellis in a title rematch at Madison Square Garden on July 13, 1962. They defended the championship until March 7, 1963 when they lost to Killer Buddy Austin and The Great Scott on Capitol Wrestling's regular Thursday night television broadcast. Rogers and Barend split briefly and feuded, but they reunited that summer to defeat Bobo Brazil and Bruno Sammartino in a best two out of three falls tag team match. During the Rogers-Barend feud, Rogers regularly teamed with a masked wrestler, The Shadow. Prior to his title reign with Barend, Rogers frequently teamed with the "Big O" Bob Orton. During the 1950s, Rogers' main tag team partner was The Great Scott.

World Wide Wrestling Federation and semi-retirement (1963–1969).

After Thesz defeated Rogers for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship, Northeast promoters Toots Mondt and Vince McMahon, Sr. withdrew their membership from the NWA and formed the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF, now WWE). The promoters felt that Thesz was not a strong draw in their territory, therefore the WWWF billed Rogers as their world champion as did Fred Kohler's Chicago promotion from January 25.  Rogers was formally recognized as the first ever WWWF World Heavyweight Champion on April 11, 1963 when promoter and first WWWF President Willie Gilzenberg handed Rogers the WWWF World Heavyweight Championship belt on Washington D.C. television. Gilzenberg explained that Rogers won a wrestling tournament in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, although it was fictional. WWE.com currently cites April 25, 1963 as the beginning of Rogers' reign. Rogers was a top draw, but his reign was ultimately cut short by a mild heart attack which greatly hindered his endurance and in-ring performance. Vince McMahon, Sr. and Toots Mondt were in a panic and hid Rogers' medical problems. In an emergency title switch, Rogers put over Bruno Sammartino in a quick 48 second match on May 17, 1963 in Madison Square Garden. The match had to be kept short for fear of Rogers having a major heart attack and dying in the ring.  After putting over Sammartino, his health problems forced Rogers to wrestle in only a limited number of short singles matches that lasted a minute or two. He participated in a few tag team matches with partner Handsome Johnny Barend where he spent almost the entire match in his corner on the ring apron while Barend did the wrestling. Rogers defeated Hans "The Great" Mortier in less than a minute with the figure-four leglock in Madison Square Garden and teamed with Handsome Johnny Barend to take two out of three falls via pin from Sammartino and Bobo Brazil, with Rogers pinning Sammartino for the final fall. The big rematch was to be held October 4, 1963 at Roosevelt Stadium in Jersey City, New Jersey. The tickets were printed with Rogers–Sammartino on them. However, it was announced that Rogers was retiring and Gorilla Monsoon, who had won a tournament, got the title shot that night. In 1966-1967, Rogers wrestled in 18 short matches in Canada. In 1969, Rogers appeared in 19 quick matches in an Ohio-based promotion called Wrestling Show Classics before he realized his health was not getting better to the point where he could wrestle. He spent time on television talking with his former manager Bobby Davis. A decade later, Rogers would try to make a legitimate comeback.

Jim Crockett Promotions and return to WWF (1978–1992).

In 1979, Rogers returned to wrestling as a fan favorite in Florida, although he was in his late 50s. He later moved up to Jim Crockett Promotions (JCP) in the Carolinas as a villain manager managing professional wrestlers like Jimmy Snuka, Ken Patera, Gene Anderson, Dewey Robertson and Big John Studd. His most notable moment during his run in the Carolinas was his feud with the new "Nature Boy" Ric Flair, before Rogers put over Flair on July 9, 1978.  After his time in Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling (MACW), he moved back into WWF where he was a fan favorite manager and part-time professional wrestler who also hosted the interview segment "Rogers' Corner" until 1983. Rogers was instrumental in helping turn Jimmy Snuka into a fan favorite, leading to Rogers managing Snuka for his feud with Lou Albano and Ray Stevens. During the feud, Rogers broke his hip and retired from professional wrestling for good. His show was replaced by "Victory Corner", which would later be replaced by "Piper's Pit". He would continue to make sporadic appearances in the WWF until 1984, right before the beginning of the Rock 'n' Wrestling era.

End of career and death.

He was set to wrestle yet another "Nature Boy", this time Buddy Landel, in a comeback match for the Tri-State Wrestling Alliance (TWA, a predecessor of Extreme Championship Wrestling – ECW) in early 1992, but the promotion went out of business and the match never occurred. Later in the year, Rogers was weakened by a severe broken arm and suffered three strokes, two on the same day. He was not put on life support (as per request) and died a short time afterward on June 26, 1992.

Legacy.

Lou Thesz, Rogers' long-time colleague and frequent opponent, described Rogers' early impact in his memoir, "Hooker": "Rogers is remembered by fans and performers alike as one of the top all-time stars in the business, but it's probably not common knowledge just how influential he was... he broke into the business somewhere around 1941 as a hero-type personality, with little more going for him than a good body and natural charisma in the ring – which is actually a pretty good beginning – and he was a hit almost from the start. He had that indefinable something fans responded to, and he was sharp enough to build upon what he had, paying attention to what got a reaction from the fans. What evolved over several years was the 'Nature Boy', the prototype of the cocky, strutting, sneering, arrogant peroxide blond villain that is almost a tired wrestling cliché today. Rogers invented the character, and I believe he did it better than anyone". Thesz continued, "He was also one of the first guys to rely a lot on what we called 'flying' moves in the ring – body slams, dropkicks, piledrivers, ricochets off the ropes into his opponent, action moves that are commonplace today. All of those moves were in use before Rogers came along, but they were used sparingly; most of the wrestling prior to Rogers' emergence was done on the mat. Rogers was the first to use flying moves in quantity, staying off the mat, and the style was so popular with the fans that other wrestlers, including me, followed his lead".  Another Rogers contribution to modern professional wrestling was his bombastic interviewing style. Professional wrestlers might talk and converse with interviewers, but Rogers bragged and boasted about how great he was and how pathetic his opponents were. After winning the NWA World Heavyweight Championship from Pat O'Connor in Chicago in 1961, Rogers accepted the title belt and then took the microphone and shouted, "To a nicer guy it couldn't happen!". This type of bombastic style went over well with the fans and has been followed ever since. However, Rogers was not well liked during his prime years because he had a habit of taking advantage of opponents in the ring. During his prime years, he was known as much for his distinctive peacock-like strut as for his wrestling performance. He was also very skilled at drawing heat during interviews, with a smug "to a nicer guy, it couldn't have happened" being his catchphrase of sorts whenever he was victorious. He may have been the first authentic "charismatic" professional wrestler, who, along with almost equally charismatic Bobby Davis, would use cruel, yet hilarious, put-downs of his opponents, such as: "After I get through with him, he'll be back driving a garbage truck where he belongs". Almost like a tag team of pseudo-arrogance, Davis would incredulously say of Roger's opponents that they did not even deserve to be in the same ring as Rogers, bemoaning the fact that "this is a sport of kings!". Although he was viewed as a villain in most areas during most of his career, Rogers was always a fan favorite in cities throughout Ohio. This was probably due to his appearances for many years with the Al Haft Promotion who had their offices in Columbus.  According to Thesz, Rogers, although admittedly an excellent professional wrestler and a superb showman, was a manipulative schemer behind the scenes and was fond of saying in private: "Screw your friends and be nice to your enemies, so your enemies will become your friends, and then you can screw them too". With age, however, Rogers mellowed and became a very respected veteran and spokesman for professional wrestling. Rogers had one of the longest consistent top drawing periods of any main eventer (15 years) and the ability to draw in several different territories successfully. In 1994, he was posthumously inducted into the World Wrestling Federation Hall of Fame class of 1994. Fellow professional wrestler Ric Flair from early in his career to the present day, adopted the "Nature Boy" gimmick from Rogers as a tribute to him. Even using Rogers' own signature move the figure-four leglock as his own, Flair even went as far as doing his own variation of the Rogers strut as well.

Herman Gustav Rohde Jr. (February 20, 1921 – June 26, 1992), better known by the ring name Buddy Rogers, was an American professional wrestler.

Herman Gustav Rohde, Jr. (né le à Camden et mort le à Fort Lauderdale), est un catcheur (lutteur professionnel) américain connu sous le nom de ring de Buddy Rogers.


Competitive record.

FIBA South American Championship.

Uruguay was the host and champion of the first major international basketball championship, the South American Basketball Championship 1930. The event was held in Montevideo and featured four South American national basketball teams. Teams played each of the other three teams twice each; Uruguay won all six of its games. In 1932, Uruguay lost its first game of the South American Basketball Championship series when it was defeated by Chile in one of the two matches it played against the Chileans in the preliminary round. When each team finished at 3–1 (each having defeated Argentina twice), the two countries played a third match to determine the champion, which Uruguay won.  The 1934 and 1935 competitions did not end so happily for the Uruguay team, as they finished in last place each year. With the larger fields of 5 teams each year in 1937, 1938, and 1939, Uruguay fared somewhat better. They took second place in 1937 and 1939, and third in 1938.  Uruguay won their third championship in 1940, which saw the return of the series to Montevideo. There were a record six teams in competition that year; Uruguay beat each of the other five in turn to finish undefeated. 1941 resulted in a bronze medal for Uruguay. The team played in their second tie-breaker final in 1942, this time losing to Argentina to take second place in the tournament. Uruguay advanced to the final round in the first two-round tournament, in 1943, finishing in second place overall.  Uruguay has won the South American Championship 11 times, the last two in 1995 and 1997. The team ranked in the top four in all editions as of 2016.

Team.

Current roster.

The roster for the 2017 FIBA AmeriCup.

Kit.

Manufacturer.

2017: Spalding

Sponsor.

2017: antel

The Uruguay national basketball team (Spanish: Selección de baloncesto de Uruguay) represents Uruguay in men's international basketball competitions and it is governed by Federación Uruguaya de basketball, The team has made seven appearances in the FIBA World Cup and the team represents FIBA and FIBA Americas.

L'équipe d'Uruguay de basket-ball est la sélection des meilleurs joueurs uruguayens de basket-ball. Elle est placée sous l'égide de la Fédération uruguayenne de basket-ball.


Geography.

Radevormwald is located about 50 km east of Cologne. At 421 metres above sea level, it was the highest-situated town in the administrative region of Düsseldorf; it is now in the administrative region of Cologne.

Division of the municipality.

Places submerged by the Wuppertal dam

Wupper villages.

The river Wupper flows through part of the town lands. In the villages Dahlerau, Vogelsmühle and Dahlhausen – which are located in the Wupper valley and so are known as the "Wupper villages" – this led to the establishment of textile works. These settlements used the water for the production of energy, at first by means of the water wheel and later through hydroelectric power plants. With the establishment of working-class dwellings by the textile companies the population of the Wupper villages increased. The middle classes also settled here, above all in Dahlerau where there were many single trading ventures. However, at the end of the 20th century the combination of the decline of the textile industry and increased mobility brought about the closure of most businesses in the Wupper villages; today, many former business premises are used as houses.

History.

The first documentary reference and municipal rights.

The first known reference in writing to the town was in the year 1050. Klaus Pampus writes in his book "Urkundliche Erstnennungen oberbergischen Orte" ("Earliest Documentary References to Places in Oberberg") that Radevormwald came into the possession of the imperial abbey of Werden and at the time was called "Rotha".  Radevormwald was situated in the County, later Duchy, of Berg. Between 1309 and 1316 Count Adolf VI von Berg conferred municipal rights on the town. The settlement ""vor dem walde"" (""before the wood"") is described in 1363 in a lease of Count Wilhelm II von Jülich-Berg (Duke Wilhelm I) as a walled town. Radevormwald served the Counts von Berg as a border stronghold against Sauerland in the County of Mark.  The especial significance of Radevormwald in the Middle Ages can be seen from the fact that it paid 166.5 guilders for the redemption of pledged lands of the Duchy of Berg, while for example Solingen, Elberfeld and Hückeswagen raised only 88, 84.5 and 34.5 guilders respectively.

15th century.

The town prospered. Walls, towers and gates protected the settled trades of the smiths, wool weavers and garment makers.

16th century.

In the 16th century there were two big town fires. The first took place on 17 July 1525. The second devastated the town in 1571.  In 1540, the parish and clergy of the town converted to the Reformed Church.

17th century.

In 1620 Radevormwald was conquered by the Protestant Hessians under Philip the Magnanimous. During the Thirty Years' War (1618–48) it was used as the occasional headquarters and supply depot of the Spaniards and Austrians, under the command of Ottavio Piccolomini (one of Wallenstein's generals). In 1635 and 1636 Dutch troops, and in 1638 Westphalian troops, occupied the place, before it fell once again to Hesse in 1639. These military occupations were accompanied by murder, looting, arson and rape of the civil population, which was decimated.  After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the Catholic Duke of Berg, Philipp Wilhelm von Pfalz-Neuburg (reigned 1652–1690) persecuted Anabaptists and Mennonites in his territory, so that many of them fled. One such refugee was Adolf von der Leyen of Radevormwald, who in 1656 (or perhaps 1650) brought the new skill of silk weaving to Krefeld.

18th century.

In 1742 there was famine in Radevormwald.

19th century.

On 24 August 1802 the last great town fire in Radevormwald occurred. In 1833, a local mail coach service to the surrounding towns was established for the first time, and a post office opened. Towards the end of the century, the railway followed. On 1 March 1886 Radevormwald celebrated the opening of the Remscheid–Lennep–Krebsöge–Dahlerau–Wuppertal–Oberbarmen railway line. Four years later, on 3 February 1890 a branch line from Krebsöge to Radevormwald was opened. All railway lines near the town were typical of the Prussian branch lines which were built throughout Germany as part of an ambitious development program from 1885 onwards.  Radevormwald was a station on the needle telegraph line (1833 to 1849) from Berlin to Aachen. The location of the telegraph was in the modern street "Am Telegraf".  In 1884 the municipal gasworks opened for business with the production of town gas.

The 20th century up to the First World War.

In 1910 there were two important events. With the opening of a railway line to Halver the railway network around Radevormwald was completed, and on 1 July the second youth hostel in the world, and the first in the Rhineland, celebrated its inauguration.

The 20th century from the First World War to 1945.

Radevormwald developed into an industrial location. Local businesses included lock-, file-, bicycle-, paper-, ice-skate- and building component factories, motor and textile industries, yarn-spinning and cloth mills.  At 8:15 on the morning of 26 May 1928 a Deutsche Luft Hansa Junkers F13 airplane crashed in Hahnenberg on the "Schlegel meadow" ("Schlegelsche Wiese"), killing three people. In November 1934, the connection of a gas pipeline caused the gasworks to moderate its production of town gas.

The 20th century from 1945.

Bismarck motorcycles.

In 1957, Bismarck motorcycle production ended in Bergerhof.

The Dahlerau train disaster.

On the evening of 27 May 1971, a Deutsche Bundesbahn railbus ran as a special service on the Wuppertal—Radevormwald line. The train was full of schoolchildren on a school outing and was about 30 minutes behind schedule. An oncoming freight train failed to stop for reasons unclear, and collided with the railbus. 46 passengers died in the accident, including 41 schoolchildren. 25 passengers were injured, most of them seriously. The exact cause of the accident could not be determined, because the station controller died in a car accident shortly after the event. The surviving driver of the goods train stated at the inquest that the train controller had signalled green with his flashlight, indicating a free passage. None of the railway stations on this local branch line had a proper station exit signal.  Almost all of the dead schoolchildren were buried at the municipal cemetery in Radevormwald in a common enclosure with a stone monument inscribed: "Come spirit of the four winds and breathe on these dead, that they may come alive" ("Komme Geist von den vier Winden herbei und hauche diese Toten an, damit sie lebendig werden"). This accident was the worst rail disaster in West Germany until the Eschede train disaster in 1998.

From 1975 - Radevormwald in the Oberbergischer district.

On 1 January 1975 the Rhein-Wupper and Rheinisch-Bergisch districts were merged and Radevormwald became part of the resulting Oberbergischer district. A year later, on 28 May 1976 regular passenger traffic on the railway to Radevormwald ended.  Since the 1950s construction of the Wuppertal dam had been planned. In the mid-1980s the many years of preparation concluded, and construction began. Numerous places had to be demolished, so that in 1987 the Krebsöge dam could be inaugurated. In the same year the B 237 bypass was opened.  In 1990 Radevormwald tried to live up to its reputation as a sports town with the inauguration of the stadium in the Kollenberg and the indoor swimming pool "Aquafun". However, these efforts suffered a setback in 2004 when the State sports school closed down.

Coat of arms.

The coat of arms was granted on 7 November 1934. It consists of a lion grasping a key.  The oldest seal of the city, dating from the 14th century, already shows the lion with a key. All later seals show the same image, the lion in the arms being that of the Counts von Berg. The origin of the key is not clear. It may have had a religious meaning, but it has also been speculated that it symbolises the iron industry (particularly locksmithing) in the town.  (In the early 20th century the arms were shown in the Kaffee Hag albums [a standard reference for German civic arms] with the same composition, but in different colours).

General description.

Origin of the name.

"Radevormwald" means "clearing in front of the wood". The town's older name, "Rotha", also means "clearing". The clearing, at an altitude of more than 400 metres, is thought to have been made to help defend against raiding Saxons in prehistoric times.

Character.

Radevormwald is characterised by its small and medium-sized businesses, predominantly in the service industries. With regard to the rail connections to Cologne and Düsseldorf to the west and to transport connections generally the town is in a marginal position. This leaves scope for the exploitation of resources for leisure and the enjoyment of nature, and gives the town a relatively high quality of life.  Older historical buildings, as in many other places in the Bergischen country, have not survived. An exception is the historical garden house in the town park which survived the last big town fire in the year 1802.

Culture.

Places To Go.

In the area are many different dams and reservoirs, among them: Wuppertal dam, Bevertal dam, Neyetal dam (Wipperfürth), Ennepe dam (Breckerfeld), Heilenbecker dam and Schevelinger dam.

Churches.

Radevormwald has a distinctive skyline with four churches close together:  Other churches are to be found in Remlingrade (Protestant Church), in Wallenberg (Protestant Church) and in Dahlerau (both a Protestant and a Catholic church).

Health services.

The Johanniter ("Knights Hospitaller") Hospital provides health services for the resident population.

International relations.

Radevormwald is twinned with:

Radevormwald is a municipality in the Oberbergischer Kreis, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is one of the oldest towns in the Bergischen Land, formerly the County and Duchy of Berg.

Radevormwald est une ville dans le Bergisches Land en Rhénanie-du-Nord-Westphalie en Allemagne. Elle fait aujourd'hui partie de l'Arrondissement du Haut-Berg. La ville est une des plus anciennes dans la région et considérée comme un centre religieux à cause des nombreuses paroisses et églises qui s'y trouvent. Par contre, de nombreux feux ont détruit la plupart du noyau historique de la ville. La ville est entourée de nature à l'exception de la ville voisine de Remscheid. personnes y résident.


History.

Plans for the construction of a railway between Cologne and the Belgian border began in December 1833 with the issue of concession to the Cologne Railway Committee, which was to develop a line under the direction of Cologne Lord Mayor Johann Adolph Steinberger and the entrepreneur Ludolf Camphausen. The Cologne Railway Committee presented a draft route that would bypass Aachen to reduce costs: the line would run from Eschweiler to Kornelimünster along the Inde and from there to the Belgian border. Düren would also not have been connected to the railway. The Aachen merchants resisted this proposal and they founded the Aachen Railway Committee under the direction of David Hansemann and Philipp Heinrich Pastor. This was the beginning of the so-called "Eisenbahnstreites zwischen Köln und Aachen" (railway dispute between Cologne and Aachen). In October, the Aachen Railway Committee presented an alternative proposal for the route that ran from Cologne via Düren and Aachen to the Belgian border. On 6 April 1836, a conference of representatives of the traders of Aachen and Cologne in Jülich, chaired by the Oberpräsident of the Rhine Province Ernst von Bodelschwingh, could not resolve to the railway dispute. Hansemann and the Aachen cloth manufacturer Joseph van Gülpen then travelled to Berlin and lodged an application for a line running through Aachen. In Berlin, lengthy negotiations took place between representatives of Aachen and Cologne. Prussian king Frederick William III decided on 12 February 1837 that the line would run through Aachen and thus ended the railway dispute.  In June 1837, the Aachen and Cologne representatives agreed to the merger of the two committees of their cities and founded the Rhenish Railway Company ("Rheinische Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft"), which received a concession to build the line from Cologne to the Belgian border in Herbesthal. Construction of the line began on 11 April 1838. The proposal to develop a direct line from Düren to Aachen was discarded due to the geological conditions of the northern Eifel and a curve to the north was adopted between Düren and Aachen that is still used by the line. The share capital of 9 million marks was raised to enable the Rhenish Railway to build the line by the issuing of shares. But due to the difficult route, construction costs increased to 21 million marks. The additional costs of 12 million marks were raised by issuing additional shares worth 4.5 million marks and bonds worth 7.5 million marks. The Belgian government alone acquired bonds for 3 million marks. The first section from Cologne to Müngersdorf was opened on 2 August 1839, less than four years after the Nuremberg–Fürth railway, the first German railway, and was the seventh railway on German territory. To this end, open and closed carriages and wagons were delivered by Waggonfabrik Talbot of Aachen using road transport at the beginning of the year. Another section from Müngersdorf to Lövenich was opened on 2 July 1840. The last section from Lövenich to Aachen was opened on 1 September 1841 with an inaugural trip from Cologne to Aachen and back, during which a banquet for 360 invited guests was held. Regular passenger services on the whole route commenced on 6 September 1841. A panel on the east side of Düren station still marks this event. With the connection of the line from Belgium, a special train ran from Antwerp to Cologne on 15 October 1843. This made the line between Cologne and Aachen part of the world's first cross-border railway. The Belgian railways were connected to the French railway network in 1845, so the Cologne-Aachen line handled traffic to and from France.

Route description.

Cologne Hauptbahnhof.

The original starting point of the Cologne–Aachen railway was a terminal station of the Rhenish Railway Company ("Rheinische Eisenbahn"). When the Cathedral Bridge made it possible for trains to cross the Rhine in 1859, the line ran to the "Centralbahnhof" (central station). This was a combined terminus and through station. The trains of the Rhenish Railway Company from Aachen ended at four terminal tracks. Two thoroughfares mainly served

Köln Hansaring station.

The halt ("Haltepunkt", technically a station without points) of Köln Hansaring, which is named after the ring road it lies above, was opened at line-km 0.8 (on this line, distance from Cologne Hauptbahnhof) at the same time as the construction of two additional S-Bahn tracks at Cologne Hauptbahnhof and on the Hohenzollern Bridge in 1990. It is connected to the Cologne Stadtbahn station of the same name, which was opened in 1974, and

Köln-Ehrenfeld station.

Köln-Ehrenfeld station was built at line-km 3.7 between Cologne and Müngersdorf with the construction of the first section in 1839. Köln-Ehrenfeld station has two platforms with four platform tracks, to the north of which there are two tracks without a platform for through passenger and freight trains. Tracks 1 and 2 are used for S-Bahn traffic, tracks 3 and 4 for regional traffic. Cologne-Ehrenfeld is a scheduled stop for all

Köln-Müngersdorf Technologiepark station.

The halt of Köln-Müngersdorf Technologiepark is located in the east of Cologne's Müngersdorf district at line-km 5.9. It was established with the construction of the S-Bahn

Belvedere station.

The first section of the Cologne–Aachen line, which was opened on 2 August 1839, ran to Müngersdorf, with the terminus of the line at Belvedere station (line-km 7.0) until the opening of Lövenich station. For excursion guests from downtown Cologne, a small station building that housed a restaurant was built on a hill north

Lövenich station.

Köln-Lövenich station was opened on 2 July 1840 with the second phase of construction of the line at line-km 9.0 and was the western terminus of the line for about

Köln-Weiden West station.

The halt of Köln-Weiden West was built in 2006 in the run-up to the 2006 FIFA World Cup at line-km 11.1. At the same time, line 1 of the Cologne

Frechen-Königsdorf station.

With the extension of the line to Aachen in 1841, "Großkönigsdorf" station was established at line-km 13.8 km. In 2000 the station was renamed "Frechen-Königsdorf" and in 2002 it was converted into an

Königsdorf Tunnel.

Königsdorf Tunnel was a 1623 metre-long tunnel between Großkönigsdorf and Horrem at line-km 15.0. Construction began in 1837 and was completed in 1841. Up to 2,000 workers were employed in its construction. When it opened, the tunnel was the longest railway tunnel in Europe. The maximum coverage of the tunnel was 35 metres. Chimneys were built at this height to remove the smoke caused by steam locomotives. The masonry was continuously damaged by seepage and exhaust gases from the steam locomotives, so that the tunnel was in great need of restoration at the beginning of the 1930s. The tunnel was not exactly straight when built, so over time work was carried out to straighten it, which further reduced its stability. Refurbishment began in 1937, but

Horrem station.

Horrem station was opened in 1841 at line-km 18.7. It was converted into an S-Bahn station in 2002. The Erft Railway branches off from the Cologne-Aachen high-speed line at the station. It has two island platform tracks for operations on the Erft Railway and four platform tracks and three through tracks for operations on the high-speed line. Until 2001, Horrem station had a freight yard to its

Sindorf station.

Sindorf station was opened at line-km 22.4 between Dorsfeld and Horrem in 1912. The station had a platform north and south of the old line. The former Dorsfeld station was abandoned at the same time. Dorsfeld was a junction for sidings to the nearby gravel pits. Dorsfeld station became the location of overtaking loops for freight traffic with the

Buir station.

Buir station had two platform tracks at an island platform and a passing track from its construction at line-km 30.3 in 1841 to the reconstruction of the line in 2002. Since the upgrade of the line, the tracks used by timetable route 480 and two S-Bahn lines have run through the station. A malt factory located next to

Merzenich station.

There was a station in the Merzenich area from 1841 to 1880 at line-km 35.0 at the site of the former junction of the Düren–Neuss railway. This was never served by trains on the Cologne–Aachen line. The new Merzenich station opened on 29 April

Düren station.

Düren station was opened in 1841 at line-km 39.2 and soon developed into a hub for rail transport. By 1900, the Düren–Heimbach, Jülich–Düren, Düren–Neuss and Düren–Euskirchen lines had been established with Düren as the starting point. From 1933 to 1986 there was a motive power depot (Bahnbetriebswerk) in Düren. The entrance building was opened in 1874 and, unlike the city centre of Düren, was not destroyed in the air raid of 16

Triangular Truss bridge.

The Cologne–Aachen line crosses the Rur river over the Triangular Truss bridge ("Dreigurtbrücke") at line-km 39.8. The bridge has a span of 78 metres and was

Hubertushof and Gürzenich.

The Hubertushof connection point as required ("Bedarfsanschlussstelle") is located at line-km 41.3. This junction served the Bundeswehr (federal defence forces) for its premises in the Hürtgenwald ("Gürzenicher Bruch"). The Gürzenich block post was also located there from 1925 to 1952. About a kilometre south of the village, but still part of Gürzenich, there is a Bundeswehr depot where weapons and material were stored mainly for

Derichsweiler and Merode.

Until November 2002, the Derichsweiler overtaking loops were located at line-km 44.3. It was a halt for passenger traffic from 1843 to 1928. When this section of the line was converted to computer-based interlocking technology, the Derichsweiler overtaking loops were abandoned

Langerwehe station.

Langerwehe station (line-km 48.9) has two platform tracks on the Cologne–Aachen line with side platforms north and south of the two through line tracks. The Eschweiler-Weisweiler Langerwehe line, built in 2009, ends in Langerwehe. Euregiobahn trains from Eschweiler-Weisweiler arrive at a third platform built in 2009. The through platform tracks

Nothberg station.

The halt of Nothberg was built in 1905 at the southern end of the Eschweiler district of Nothberg at line-km 54.1. It had two side platforms and a small building with a ticket office until the 1970s. A road underpass west of the halt had to be used to connect the platforms. Recently, Nothberg station was only served by the Rhein-Sieg-Express every hour. When the new Eschweiler-Weisweiler Langerwehe line went into operation in

Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof.

Since 1841, Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof has been located at line-km 56.9 in the Röthgen district of Eschweiler and has four tracks, three of which are platform tracks with the house platform (next to the entrance building) as a side platform and an island platform. The station is served by the NRW-Express and the Rhein-Sieg-Express. The Euregiobahn service stops instead at the Eschweiler Talbahnhof (valley station) on

Ichenberg Tunnel.

The Ichenberg tunnel is located at line-km 57.0 immediately west of Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof and is now 95 metres long. During the Second World War, it was blown up

Three Arch bridge.

The railway line crosses the Inde river and the Mönchengladbach–Stolberg railway over the Three Arch bridge ("Dreibogenbrücke") (line-km 57.9). The bridge is built of brick and

Stolberg Hauptbahnhof.

Due to the changes in the route as a result of the railway dispute, Stolberg Hauptbahnhof was built in 1841, not in the centre of the city of Stolberg, but three kilometres north of Stolberg in what was then part of Eschweiler. Due to the location outside the centre of the town at line-km 60.3, there were large open areas that made it possible to develop Stolberg Hauptbahnhof into a railway junction. The Mönchengladbach–Stolberg, Stolberg–Walheim, Stolberg–Herzogenrath lines and the now closed Stolberg–Münsterbusch and Stolberg–Kohlscheid lines were built by 1900, all starting from Stolberg Hauptbahnhof. The entrance building was completed in 1888. Due

Eilendorf Tunnel and Nirm Tunnel.

A 727 metre-long tunnel called the "Nirmer Tunnel" (Nirm Tunnel) was built between Stolberg and the location of modern Eilendorf at line-km 63.6 during the construction of the line and completed in 1841. Both miners from Eschweiler and workers from the Leipzig–Dresden railway were employed in the construction of the tunnel, using a method known as core construction ("Kernbauweise"—using three narrow tunnels to build the walls of the final tunnel before the tunnel core was removed). There were eight chimneys above the tunnel for the extraction of smoke produced by the steam

Eilendorf station.

The halt of Eilendorf was opened at line-km 64.9 as Nirm halt along with the line on 1 September 1841. It later closed but reopened in 1897. In 1920, an entrance building was built, which was demolished in the 1980s. By 1963, Nirm had an island platform and a passing track. During the electrification of the line, the halt was renamed Eilendorf, the passing track was dismantled and two side platforms, which

Aachen-Rothe Erde station.

Aachen-Rothe Erde station was built in 1875 as an interchange station for the Haaren–Aachen-Rothe Erde railway at line-km 68.2. From 1880 it was also used in passenger transport. The Vennbahn, which branched off the Cologne–Aachen railway in Rothe Erde was opened in 1885. The station received a locomotive depot and the freight yard was expanded. The current

Aachen freight yard.

Aachen freight yard, also known as the "Moltkebahnhof" (Moltke station) due to its location on "Moltkestrasse" (Moltke street), was a freight yard in the south of the city of Aachen, which was

Burtscheid Viaduct.

Burtscheid Viaduct was built from 1838 to 1840 according to plans by engineers Wittfeld and Pickel. The originally 277 metre-long viaduct was partially blown up during the Second

Aachen Hauptbahnhof.

The Rhenish Railway Company opened the "Rheinischen Bahnhof" (Rhenish station) as the terminus of the Cologne–Aachen railway (line-km 70.2) in 1841. The current entrance building and the station concourse date from 1905 when the station was rebuilt as part of its merger with "Aachen Marschierthor" station, the terminus of the Aachen–Mönchengladbach railway. In the run-up to the electrification of the station, the tracks within the station hall were rearranged in 1966. Since then,

Rolling stock and operations.

The Rhenish Railway Company started operations on the section to Müngersdorf with four steam locomotives, three of which were manufactured in England. The "Carolus Magnus" was built by the newly founded Dobbs & Poensgen locomotive factory in Aachen, but it was prone to failure and had to be rebuilt. It was only used to haul work trains and was sold early. The 10 locomotives were estimated to have operated a total at 5361 Prussian miles () in 1841. After the opening of the whole line, the number of locomotives used grew to a total of 21. The original timetable provided three passenger trains (morning, noon and evening) between Cologne and Aachen per day and direction. Due to the line being single-track initially, trains were scheduled to cross in Düren. The two morning trains started or ended in Herbesthal. Passenger trains initially served all stops on the way until a pair of express trains was introduced between Cologne and Herbesthal in 1857. The first night train ran on the railway in May 1859. The first trains from Cologne to Paris were initially unlit, but lamps were eventually attached to the locomotives after an accident at a level crossing.

Prussian state railways.

Under the nationalisation policy of Otto von Bismarck, the Cologne–Aachen railway became part of the Prussian state railways ("Preußische Staatseisenbahnen"). This greatly expanded the connections operated on the line. In 1913, there were also direct through coachs from Aachen via the line to Cologne, Berlin, Bremen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hanover, Kiel, Munich and Wiesbaden. The Ostend–Vienna Express started as a luxury train in 1894 and later operated as an international express. It included coaches that were attached/detached to the Orient-Express and was one of the most important connections between Western Europe and the Balkans. The service only ended in 1993.

Deutsche Bundesbahn.

After the Second World War, Deutsche Bundesbahn took over the line that had been operated by Deutsche Reichsbahn from 1920 to 1945. In the first few years, steam locomotives from the Reichsbahn era were predominantly used: class 01 and class 03 locomotives in front of express trains and class 38.10 locomotives in front of other passenger trains. Class 50 and class 55.25 locomotives hauled most freight trains. Individual trains were operated with VT 36.5 diesel railcars. In addition, the line was used by international express trains such as the Ostend–Vienna Express, which took only 1:03 hours from Cologne to Aachen. In the 1960s and 1970s, several Trans Europ Express train pairs ran on the Cologne–Aachen line. Diesel railcars of class VT 11.5 (e.g Hamburg–Paris) and trains with French TEE coaches were used. The VT 08 class was used for long-distance express (F) trains. In addition, international expresses hauled by Belgian steam locomotives ran to Cologne. Electrification was completed in 1966, and from then on electric locomotives were mostly used for passenger transport. Mainly class 110 and Belgian multi-system locomotives of class 16 and later also class 18 ran in long-distance transport and initially class 141 were operated in local transport. The new class 184 multi-system locomotives delivered in the autumn of 1966 (also marketed as "Europalokomotiven"—"European locomotives") were extensively tested in Germany–Belgium traffic, but were only rarely used later because the locomotives often failed due to frequent strong voltage fluctuations in the Belgian overhead line, so from 1971 they were no longer used for passenger services to Belgium and were relocated to the Saarland in 1979. The international daytime passenger services were therefore largely operated from the 1970s to the 1990s with Belgian multi-system locomotives. Locomotives for freight transport were changed in Aachen-West and locomotives for overnight express trains were changed in Aachen Hbf.

Current operations.

Passenger services.

In long-distance traffic, the Cologne–Aachen high-speed line is operated with ICE International services using class 406 sets and Thalys services using PBKA sets. This offer is supplemented by individual Intercity and Intercity Express services that run once a week and thus create direct connections to/from other regions in Germany at the weekend. The Regional-Express services RE 1 (NRW-Express) and RE 9 (Rhein-Sieg-Express) serve the entire length of the line hourly and together provide an approximately 30-minute cycle. The NRW-Express is operated with push–pull trains composed of double-deck carriages from Bombardier and class 146.0 locomotives. The Rhein-Sieg-Express is operated with locomotives of class

Freight transport.

The Cologne–Aachen high-speed line is used by numerous freight trains due to its location between the Köln-Eifeltor freight yard on the West Rhine railway and Aachen West, the eastern end of the Aachen–Tongeren railway. Much of the freight traffic is carried by DB Cargo and "Cobra" (Corridor Operations Belgium Rail), a subsidiary of Deutsche Bahn, and SNCB. Other regular services are a SBB Cargo Combined transport train hauled by TRAXX locomotives and freight trains operated by Crossrail (now part of Cargologic) and RTB Cargo, which uses diesel-hauled goods exchange trains (Übergabegüterzuge) from Düren to Stolberg and back. The line is also used by freight trains to and from Mönchengladbach on the section between the Cologne-Ehrenfeld and Köln-Müngersdorf Technologiepark stations.

The Cologne–Aachen high-speed line is the German part of the Trans-European transport networks project "high-speed line Paris–Brussels–Cologne". It is not a newly built railway line, but a project to upgrade the existing railway line which was opened in 1841 by the Rhenish Railway Company. When it was continued into Belgium in 1843, it became the world's first international railway line.

La LGV Cologne - Aix-la-Chapelle est la partie allemande du projet trans-européen de ligne à grande vitesse Paris-Bruxelles-Cologne. Il ne s'agit pas d'une ligne nouvelle, mais d'une rénovation de la ligne classique ouverte en 1841 par la Rheinische Eisenbahn. Une fois prolongée vers la Belgique en 1843, cette ligne fut la première ligne de chemin de fer internationale au monde.


Plot summary.

William Mandella is a physics student conscripted for an elite task force in the United Nations Exploratory Force being assembled for a war against the Taurans, an alien species discovered when they apparently attacked human colonists' ships. The UNEF ground troops are sent out for reconnaissance and revenge.  The elite recruits have IQs of 150 and above, are highly educated, healthy, and fit. Training is gruelingfirst on Earth and later on a planet called "Charon" beyond Pluto (written before the discovery of the actual planetoid). Several of the recruits die during training due to the extreme environments and the use of live weapons. The new soldiers complete training and immediately depart for action via interconnected "collapsars" that allow ships to cover thousands of light-years in a split second. Traveling to collapsars at near-lightspeed has enormous relativistic time effects.  Their first encounter with Taurans, on a planet orbiting Epsilon Aurigae, triggers their post-hypnotic training, which causes them to massacre the Taurans despite their lack of resistance. This first expedition, beginning in 1997, lasts only two years from the soldiers' point of view, but due to time dilation, they return to Earth in 2024. During the expedition's second battle, the soldiers experience future shock first-hand, as the Taurans have much more advanced weaponry.  Mandella, with fellow soldier and lover Marygay Potter, returns to civilian life, only to find humanity drastically changed. He and the other discharged soldiers have difficulty fitting into a society that has altered almost beyond their comprehension. The veterans learn that, to curb overpopulation, which led to worldwide class wars caused by inequitable rationing, homosexuality has become officially encouraged by many of the world's nations. The world has become a very dangerous place due to widespread unemployment and the easy availability of deadly weapons. Alienated, Mandella and many other veterans re-enlist, despite the extremely high casualty rate and their recognition that the military is a soulless construct. Mandella and Potter receive promised postings as instructors on Luna, but upon arrival are immediately reassigned to a combat command.  Almost entirely through luck, Mandella survives four years of military service, while several centuries elapse in real time. He soon becomes the objectively oldest surviving soldier in the war, attaining high rank through seniority rather than ambition. He and Potter (who has remained his last link with the Earth of his youth) are eventually given different assignments, meaning that even if they both survive the war they will likely never meet again due to time dilation. After briefly contemplating suicide, Mandella assumes the post of commanding officer of a "strike force", commanding soldiers who speak a language largely unrecognizable to him, whose ethnicity is now nearly uniform ('vaguely Polynesian' in appearance) and who are exclusively homosexual. He is disliked by his soldiers because they have to learn 21st century English to communicate with him and other senior staff and because he is heterosexual.  Engaging in combat thousands of light years away from Earth, Mandella and his soldiers need to resort to medieval weapons to fight inside a stasis field which neutralizes all electromagnetic radiation in anything not covered with a protective coating. Upon return, the strike force learns this is the last battle of the war. Humanity has begun to clone itself, resulting in a new, collective species calling itself simply "Man". "Man" is able to communicate with the Taurans, who are also clones. It is discovered that the war started due to a misunderstanding; the colony ships were lost to accidents and those on Earth with a vested interest in a new war used these disappearances as an excuse to begin the conflict. The futile, meaningless war, which had lasted for more than a thousand years, ends.  "Man" has established several colonies of old-style, heterosexual humans, just in case the evolutionary change proves to be a mistake. Mandella travels to one of these colonies (named "Middle Finger" in the definitive version of the novel) where he is reunited with Marygay, who had been discharged much earlier and had taken trips in space to use time dilation to age at a much slower rate, hoping for Mandella's return. The epilogue is a news item from the year 3143 announcing the birth of a "fine baby boy" to Marygay Potter-Mandella.

Reception and interpretation.

The novel is widely perceived to be a portrayal of the author's military service during the Vietnam War, and has been called an account of his war experiences written through a space opera filter. Other hints of the autobiographical nature of the work are the protagonist's surname, Mandella, which is a near-anagram of the author's surname; Mandella being a physics student, like Haldeman, as well as the name of the lead female character, Marygay Potter, which is nearly identical to Haldeman's wife's maiden name. If one accepts this reading of the book, the alienation experienced by the soldiers on returning to Earthhere caused by the time dilation effectbecomes a clear metaphor for the reception given to US troops returning to America from Vietnam, including the way in which the war ultimately proves useless and its result meaningless. He also subverts typical space opera clichés (such as the heroic soldier influencing battles through individual acts) and "demonstrates how absurd many of the old clichés look to someone who had seen real combat duty".  "The Forever War" is popularly thought to be a direct reply to Hugo award-winning future war novel "Starship Troopers" by Robert Heinlein. While Haldeman has stated that "The Forever War" is actually a result of his experiences in the Vietnam War, he has admitted to being influenced by Heinlein's work. Haldeman said that he disagreed with "Starship Troopers" because it "glorifies war" but added that "it's a very well-crafted novel and I believe Heinlein was honest with it". "The Forever War" contains several parallels to "Starship Troopers", including its setting and the powered armor that Heinlein's novel first popularized. Commentators have described it as a reaction to Heinlein's novel, a suggestion Haldeman denies; the two novels are very different in terms of their attitude towards the military. "The Forever War" does not depict war as a noble pursuit, with the sides clearly defined as good and evil; instead, the novel explores the dehumanizing effect of war, influenced by the real world context of the Vietnam War.  Heinlein wrote a letter to Haldeman, congratulating Haldeman on his Nebula Award; Haldeman has said that Heinlein's letter "meant more than the award itself". According to author Spider Robinson, Heinlein approached Haldeman at the awards banquet and said the book "may be the best future war story I've ever read!"

Editions.

"The Forever War" was originally written as Haldeman's MFA thesis for the Iowa Writer's Workshop. It was first published as a serial in "Analog Magazine" before its first book publication in 1974. Since then, many editions of "The Forever War" have been published. Editions published prior to 1991 were abridged for space by the original editor (omitting the middle section, a novella titled "You Can Never Go Back"). These early paperback editions have "a white cover showing a man in a spacesuit with a sword, with symbolic clocks all around," according to the author, with alternatively the first hardcover edition featuring a large hourglass with planets falling through it.  The 1991 edition restored many expurgated sections, primarily dealing with the changes that befall human civilization over the course of William Mandella's life. This version's cover "has a futuristic soldier who looks like Robin Williams in a funny hat," as Haldeman notes, "But alas, not all of the changes got in, and the book has some internal contradictions because of things left over from the [earlier version]."  In 1997, Avon published the version that Haldeman called "definitive", with "everything restored" and "a less funny cover illustration." This version was republished twice, first in October 2001 as a hardback with a cover showing spaceships in battle over a planet, and again in September 2003, with the cover art depicting a device worn over the eye of a soldier.  In 1999, it was republished by Millennium, an imprint of the Orion Publishing Group, as part of the SF Masterworks series. It featured as the first novel re-printed in the series, and the cover shows a close-up of Marygay Potter with soldiers and spaceships in the background. This is the same version as the 1997 Avon publication and has the same Author's Note.  In 1999, Haldeman, at the request of Robert Silverberg, wrote Marygay's first-person account of her time of separation from Mandella. It included not only the military details but also the difficulty of coping as a lone heterosexual woman with a society where same-sex relations are the inflexible norm. The story was included in Silverberg's anthology "Far Horizons" (1999), and later was the title story in the collection of Haldeman stories "A Separate War and Other Stories" (2006). In his "Notes on the Stories" for that collection, Haldeman commented that "it was fun to write her story, both as a bridge to the sequel ("Forever Free") and as an oblique commentary on "The Forever War", twenty years later."  In 2006, an omnibus edition containing the books "Forever War", "Forever Free", and "Forever Peace" (under the title "Peace and War") was published by Gollancz. The cover depicts a futuristic gun barrel stuck into the ground with a smashed spacesuit helmet placed on top. The author's note at the start of the book describes the edition as containing the definitive versions.  The most recent print edition was released in 2009 with an additional foreword by John Scalzi. The cover art depicts a soldier in a spacesuit in a jungle environment.  An ebook version was released in July 2011 by Ridan Publishing and also contained the foreword by John Scalzi and introductions by Haldeman and Robin Sullivan (President of Ridan Publishing). The cover art depicts a soldier in a war torn setting looking down at the helmet of a fallen comrade.

Adaptations.

Stage play.

Stuart Gordon adapted the novel for Chicago's Organic Theater Company in 1983, in part as a reaction to what Gordon considered the "ultra-sanitized video game" style "Star Wars" brought to science fiction. The play starred Bruce A. Young as William Mandella.

Game.

Mayfair Games published a board game based on the novel in 1983.

Graphic novel.

Belgian comic writer Marvano has, in cooperation with Haldeman, created a graphic novel trilogy of "The Forever War". With some very minor changes and omissions to storyline and setting, it faithfully adapts the same themes in visual style. The series was translated into various languages, and had a follow-up trilogy connected to "Forever Free".

Film.

In 1988, Richard Edlund (won Visual Effects Oscars for Star Wars, Empire, Raiders, Jedi) began to option the rights to the Forever War. In October 1994, he bought the rights to the property. In 2008 he optioned the rights to Ridley Scott who announced that, after a 25-year wait for the rights to become available, he was making a return to science fiction with a film adaptation of "The Forever War". In March 2009, Scott stated that the film would be in 3D, citing James Cameron's "Avatar" as an inspiration for doing so. In the summer of 2010, Scott revealed that "State of Play" writer Matthew Michael Carnahan was currently on the fourth draft of a screenplay originally written by David Peoples. As of May 2014, Haldeman stated he believed the project was on its seventh draft of the script. In May 2015, following the apparent expiration of a development agreement with 20th Century Fox and Scott Free, Warner Bros. won the rights to the novel and planned to develop the project with writer Jon Spaihts and with Channing Tatum in a starring role.

The Forever War (1974) is a military science fiction novel by American author Joe Haldeman, telling the contemplative story about human soldiers fighting an interstellar war against an alien civilization known as the Taurans. It won the Nebula Award in 1975 and the Hugo and Locus awards in 1976. "Forever Free" (1999) and "Forever Peace" (1997) are respectively, direct and thematic sequel novels. The novella "A Separate War" (1999) is another sequel of sorts, occurring simultaneously with the final portion of "The Forever War". Informally, the novels comprise The Forever War series; the novel also inspired a comic book and a board game. "The Forever War" is the first title in the SF Masterworks series.

La Guerre éternelle (titre original en anglais : "") est un roman de science-fiction de l'écrivain américain Joe Haldeman paru en 1974 en langue originale puis publié en France en 1976.


Production and style.

The piece has been described as "burlesque vamp", and compared to the cabaret music of Jacques Brel and Bertolt Brecht/Kurt Weill. Keyboardist Mike Garson said that he employed "the old stride piano style from the 20s and I mixed it up with avant-garde jazz styles plus it had the element of show music, plus it was very European." Co-producer Ken Scott took credit for the idea of mixing the sound of Bowie's breathing right up front when the music paused, just before guitarist Mick Ronson launched into his cacophonous solo.  The song's best-known couplet is "Time – he flexes like a whore / Falls wanking to the floor"; RCA allowed it to remain in the US single edit, being unfamiliar with the meaning of the British term "wanking". However, when Bowie came to perform the song on the U.S. television special "The 1980 Floor Show" in August 1973, he slurred the line in such a way as to render it "Falls "swanking" to the floor." Conversely, RCA cut the line "In quaaludes and red wine" from the single, while Bowie retained it for "The 1980 Floor Show". The phrase "Billy Dolls" refers to Billy Murcia, late drummer for the New York Dolls.

Reception.

Like its parent album, "Time" has divided critical opinion. Biographer David Buckley calls the full-length version "five minutes of wired perfection" and the lyrics "poetic and succinct", while "NME" critics Roy Carr and Charles Shaar Murray have described the words as sounding "strained and incomplete", concluding that "with such a weak lyric, the overly melodramatic music sounds faintly absurd".

Track listing.

All tracks written by David Bowie.  The Japanese release featured "Panic in Detroit" on the B-side.

"Time" is a song by English singer-songwriter David Bowie. Written in New Orleans in November 1972 during the American leg of the Ziggy Stardust Tour, it was recorded in London in January 1973 and released as the opening track on side two of the album "Aladdin Sane" that April. An edited version of the song supplanted the release of the single "Drive-In Saturday" in the United States, Canada and Japan. It was also released in France and South Africa, while early Spanish copies of David Live included a free copy of the single.

Comme les autres chansons de l'album, " est composée par Bowie durant sa tournée américaine de 1972, plus précisément à La Nouvelle-Orléans. Sur un accompagnement au piano inspiré du jazz des années 1920, ses paroles dépeignent le passage inexorable du temps.