History.

Following the creation of Williamson County out of the south half of Franklin County by the Illinois General Assembly, three commissioners appointed by the lawmakers met at Bainbridge, Illinois, on August 19, 1839, for the purpose of locating a new county seat as close to the center of the county as possible. The next day, August 20, they laid out a town of with a public square about one-quarter of a mile east of the county's center, but a point on top of a slight hill of above sea level. The site sat in a small open grassland known as Poor Prairie. For a name, they chose Marion to honor American Revolutionary War hero General Francis "Swamp Fox" Marion.  William and Bethany Benson had entered the quarter-quarter section of land that contained the future site of Marion just the previous year on September 8, 1838. He had lived in the county at least since 1817, and was the first settler to enter land in Poor Prairie. At the time the commissioners platted Marion, he had a small crop of corn and wheat growing over what became the public square.  The Williamson County Court organized in Marion on October 7, 1839, at the Benson log cabin. Overflow crowds had to use pumpkins for stools. The federal government established a post office at Marion on January 30, 1840, and the legislature incorporated the community as a city on February 24, 1841.

1982 Tornado.

On May 29, 1982, one of the larger tornadoes in Illinois history, rated F4, hit the city of Marion, Illinois and Williamson County. Ten people died and 200 people were injured after this tornado ripped across a stretch. The Shawnee Village apartment complex was destroyed, and the Marion Ford-Mercury dealership sustained heavy damage. This tornado caused between $85 million and $100 million in damages. A memorial to the ten people who perished that day was later erected on the Tower Square.

Geography.

Marion is in central Williamson County, with a narrow strip of city limits extending south beyond Creal Springs to the valley of Sugar Creek in Johnson County. Marion is south of Mount Vernon, Illinois, and north of Paducah, Kentucky. Carbondale is to the west, and Harrisburg is to the east.  According to the 2010 census, Marion has a total area of, of which (or 98.6%) is land and (or 1.4%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 16,035 people, 6,902 households, and 4,341 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,250.2 people per square mile (482.6/km2). There were 7,555 housing units at an average density of 589.0 per square mile (227.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 92.89% White, 4.34% African American, 0.24% Native American, 0.83% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 0.44% from other races, and 1.21% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.60% of the population.  There were 6,902 households out of which 28.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.0% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.1% were non-families. 33.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.86.  In the city the population was spread out with 22.8% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 26.5% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 20.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.4 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $30,364, and the median income for a family was $39,275. Males had a median income of $31,520 versus $22,609 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,073. About 11.2% of families and 14.9% of the population were living below the poverty line, including 22.9% of those under the age of 18 and 10.6% of those 65 and older.

Economy.

The recent Great Recession impacted Marion in lower sales tax revenues for the city as well as the loss of a Circuit City distribution center, and a proposed second distribution center for another major big box retailer that had never formally been named.  Retail sales also suffered as the recession dragged out. Collected sales tax grew 2.9 percent in 2008 compared with the year before, but growth slowed in 2009 with only a 0.7 percent increase. By 2010 the forward momentum ceased and sales tax collections actually dropped 1/10th of a percent. So far in 2011, January collections (representing December sales) grew by 3/10ths of a percent and February improved by 2.4 percent.  New building permits show evidence for an economic recovery. So far in 2011 builders have started four new homes, three triplex apartments, a $500,000 expansion at Timberline Fisheries, $600,000 for the new Speakeasy Liquors, a $560,000 new office and mechanical building for Clearwave Communications and the $4.7 million Holiday Inn Express. In addition, a new 4-story, 65-unit Comfort Inn broke ground in September.  Marion's location, at the crossroads of Illinois Route 13 and Interstate 57 make it a prime candidate for future growth. One of the largest Wal-Mart Supercenter Stores in the country opened on September 20, 2006. It measures in area, with 36 separate departments and over 500 employees. An equally large Menards store opened on "The Hill" in November 2006, adding to further development of Marion's newest commercial district. Other restaurants, such as McAlister's Deli, Thai-D Classic, Sao Asian Bistro and 17th Street Bar And Grill are also located here, as well as banks, hotels and stores.  Developed industrial parks include the REDCO Industrial Park adjacent to the airport and home to three Aisin plants: AISIN Mfg. Illinois, AISIN Light Metals and AISIN Electronics; and the Robert L. Butler Industrial park, home of the failed Circuit City Warehouse now vacant since 2009, as well as Blue Cross/Blue Shield Insurance Data Center, Frito Lay Distribution Center and Illinois Tool Works. Both parks also have additional acreage available. Other industrial areas available for development are the Airport Industrial Park between the Williamson County Regional Airport and Illinois Route 148 immediately northwest of the city, and the undeveloped county-owned Williamson County Industrial Park six miles (10 km) east of the city one mile north of Illinois Route 13.  Federal facilities in the city include the Marion Veterans Affairs Medical Center on Main Street and the United States Penitentiary, Marion located southwest of the city.  The newest major attraction is Rent One Park, which opened in May 2007, home to the Frontier League's Southern Illinois Miners.  Marion is also the home of the first and only all-female roller derby league in Southern Illinois, the Southern Illinois Roller Girls.  Popular local restaurants in Marion include Walt's, Bennie's, 17th Street Bar and Grill, La Fiesta and Tequilas, among many others. Easy access to I-57 has made Marion a market of choice for several popular chain restaurants like Applebee's, Red Lobster and Cracker Barrel.  Marion was selected for Illinois' first STAR Bonds District for the Boulder Creek at The Hill development, however this project has failed to attract any new business development, and the project was abandoned.

Major employers.

As of March 30, 2009, the largest employers located inside the city limits were as follows:  Other major nearby employers include:

Arts and culture.

Downtown Marion is home to the Little Egypt Arts Gallery operated by the Little Egypt Arts Association as well as the Williamson County Historical Society museum and the Marion Carnegie Library. The major arts and culture institution though is the Marion Cultural and Civic Center.

Marion Cultural and Civic Center.

In 2004, the Marion Civic Center was awarded the Frank Lloyd Wright Award - Special Recognition from the American Institute of Architects, Illinois Chapter, at the organization's annual ceremony. The facility, designed by White and Borgognoni Architects, was completed in June 2004. After a 1997 fire destroyed the city's former civic center, the new facility was crafted using parts of the old Orpheum Theater building.  The grand opening of the Orpheum Theatre was on January 2, 1922. Built in the southwest corner of the downtown square, she was the flagship of a chain of vaudeville and moving picture theaters constructed to tap into the wealth generated by agriculture and mining in Southern Illinois. The Orpheum Theatre sat over 900, and was ornately decorated in a mix of Renaissance and Neoclassical styles, complete with gold leaf, elaborate plasterwork, and a multicolored terra-cotta facade.  The Orpheum was quite successful until the advent of television. Decreasing profits forced the Orpheum to exclusively be a motion picture theater in the mid-1950s and to close in 1971. The City of Marion purchased the building in 1973 with the intent of constructing a parking lot. The Mayor and the City Council reconsidered their plan when they found that their citizenry was in favor of restoring the old theater for use by the community as a cultural and entertainment center.  During the early morning hours, of March 10, 1997, a blaze quickly raced through the Civic Center, and totally gutted the theater, leaving it a smoldering shell after the blaze was put out. The facade of the Orpheum was salvaged, but the remainder of the theater was razed, and in 2000, it was decided that a new Cultural and Civic Center would be built on the site of the old Orpheum and a couple of other demolished neighboring structures.

Sister City.

Marion became a sister city to Kanie, Japan on March 26, 2010.

Tourism.

Tourism promotion and marketing in Marion is conducted at the county level with a county bed tax of five percent. Forty percent of that amount goes to the Williamson County Tourism Bureau and the remaining 60 percent to the Williamson County Events Commission for debt service on the bonds used to build the Williamson County Pavilion, a multi-use meeting and convention center immediately north of the Illinois Centre Mall in Marion. That building also houses the tourism bureau.  Over the last decade Marion lodging operators generated on average 97.4 percent of the lodging revenue for the county. Tourists spent $9.1 million in Marion for overnight stays in 2000. That figure has grown steadily to $15.4 million in short-term rentals in 2009. (Long-term rentals of more than 30 days are not taxed, nor included in these figures). Currently, there are 14 hotels and motels inside the city limits as of July 2010. Since 2000, one hotel has closed - the original Holiday Inn closed in January 2004 having last operated as the Executive Inn - and two new hotels opened, Fairfield Inn in August 2004, and Country Inn & Suites in December 2008. Those two and five other hotels together generate nearly 80 percent of the business in the city. The five are Comfort Suites, Drury Inn, Hampton Inn, Holiday Inn Express (originally Budgetel Inn), and Quality Inn (formerly Comfort Inn).  Overall there are 1050 rooms inside the city limits. In addition, there are two additional motels and three small specialty lodging facilities outside the city limits but within the Marion zip code.  In the fall of 2010, a new bed and breakfast Jasones opened in the historic Queen Anne-style Aikman mansion at the corner of Main and Russell Streets. Prior to the current recession, a new Holiday Inn Express had been planned and semi-announced for The Hill, according to the site map on the developer's website. Site work began early in 2011 and the developer took out a building permit with the city on April 11, 2011. A second new hotel, this one a new 65-unit Comfort Inn, broke ground in September 2011. Both new hotels are located off of the new Morgan Avenue interchange at I-57.  Besides the announced Millennium Development, other tourism projects in the works include a new visitors center currently in the planning stages that would be located next to the Marion Chamber of Commerce near the Main Street (Exit 53) interchange just off of Interstate 57.  Marion's first motel was the World War II era Motel Marion on the western edge of the city limits on what was then Illinois Route 13, now Old Route 13 or West Main Street. Later it was joined by the Courts Motel on South Court Street (since torn down for an auto parts store), and the Uptown Motel just off the public square (also torn down and now a parking lot and part of the new Marion Civic and Cultural Center). For a while after World War II, Marion's major hotel was the Hotel State in the former five-story Marion State & Savings Bank building on the west side of the square. That building still stands and is being renovated for offices and residences. An earlier three story hotel, the Williams Hotel on North Market Street is also undergoing restoration as of the summer of 2010.  Marion's modern history as a tourism center began with the development of Interstate 57 in the 1960s and the creation of three hotels and one motel in short order. They were the Egyptian Sands Motor Lodge (later a Travelodge and finally the Heritage Motel before finally closing) located next to the city's first strip shopping center Westmore Plaza (now the Marion Centre), the Ramada Inn (now the Days Inn), and the Holiday Inn (later a Travelodge and the Executive Inn before finally closing). The fourth facility, the 20-unit Gray Plaza Motel, remains open and still operating under the same name.  The Regal 8 (now the Motel 6), Best Inns (now America's Best Inn) and Super 8 were the next three motels to locate in the city in the late 1970s and early 1980s. All were along Route 13 on the west side of Exit 54. Next came Shoney's Inn (now the Econo Lodge) on the east side. Around the same time as the announcement of the Illinois Centre Mall and the city's first use of tax increment financing districts, Drury Inn built a large modern facility on the north side of Route 13. A few years and another TIF district later, developers built the Hampton Inn immediately west of the Drury. A local developer, Henry Mitchell built the first of three hotels on the west side of Exit 53, around the same time as the mall development, starting with a Comfort Inn (now the Quality Inn), then a Budgetel (now the Holiday Inn Express) and finally a Comfort Suites.  Camping facilities in the city include the Motel Marion and the new Marion Campground & RV Park, both located off of Exit 53 on the east side of the interstate.  Major attractions that fill Marion hotels include Southern Illinois Miners' games at Rent One Park, events at Southern Illinois University-Carbondale, The Southern Illinois Roller Girls bouts at the Williamson Co Pavilion, the two dozen wineries within a radius of the city including those on the Shawnee Hills Wine Trail and the Southern Illinois Wine Trail, Crab Orchard National Wildlife Refuge adjacent to the city, Lake of Egypt immediately to the south and the Shawnee National Forest and various state parks that stretch along the Shawnee Hills from river to river.

Government.

Marion's city government is led by Mayor Mike Absher who assumed office on April 22, 2019 after defeating Incumbent Anthony Rinella who was appointed after longtime mayor Robert L. Butler resigned. The city operates on a city commission system of government with the mayor and four city commissioners, each elected for four-year terms.  The council calendar calls for meetings on the 2nd and 4th Mondays of the month. However, the council generally extends those meetings, and with the exception of major holidays, usually ends up meeting every Monday evening at City Hall.  The city is also a home rule community, a status that gives the council greater flexibility to act than a typical city commission form of government.  The Marion Park District is independent of city government. It operates the parks system under a separately elected five-member board. The library board though is appointed by the mayor and city council.

Media.

"The Daily Republican", a newspaper, is based in Marion.

Education.

Marion Community Unit School District 2 operates public schools, including Marion High School.

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Highways.

Illinois Route 13, originally along Main Street, and Illinois Route 37 (Court Street) both opened up in the first round of the hard roads highway system in the 1920s. The state altered 13 with a new four-lane route along DeYoung Street in the late 1950s. Interstate 57 first opened in 1961 and runs through the western portion of the city. It connects with Interstate 24 a few miles south of town.  The Illinois Department of Transportation has started widening Route 13 to six lanes from I-57 west to Carterville. Bids are set to go out this fall to start work on 6-lanes from the interstate east to Route 37. Also, plans are being made to re-place the existing interstate overpass over 13, and completely re-do Exit 54 changing it from a cloverleaf to a single-point interchange.  In addition to the two existing interchanges, a new southbound off-ramp at Morgan Avenue on the north side of the city will be expanded later in 2011 with a new northbound on-ramp from Morgan onto the interstate. When the rest of Exit 54 is reconstructed, two flyover lanes will connect northbound interstate traffic to Morgan as well as southbound traffic from Morgan to the interstate.  The Illinois Department of Transportation is making plans to widen Interstate 57 from four to six lanes from Interstate 24 south of Marion north to the interchanges with Interstate 64 at Mount Vernon. The first work on the project is scheduled at the north end along the stretch that hosts traffic from both interstates.  The Average Daily Traffic Count as of February 2011 for Illinois Route 13 is 15,300 on the east edge of town. It picks up to 22,500 on the east side of the intersection with Illinois Route 37; 25,000 by the intersection with North Carbon Street; 31,100 by the east side of the interstate. Once west of the interstate the count drops to 30,700, then 28,800 in front of Heartland Medical Center and down to 26,400 in front of the Williamson County Regional Airport. Interstate 57 sees an average of 33,700 vehicles making up the traffic county north of Exit 54 at Marion and 26,900 vehicles a day south of Exit 53.  Other major street projects underway at the present time is the extension of Champions Drive south to Halfway Road which will connect Kokopelli Golf Course with Rent One Park and the city's major hotel district; as well as engineering work for widening Morgan Drive, Carbon and Russell Streets to handle traffic expected to be generated in a few years by the Millennium Development.

Air service.

Veterans Airport of Southern Illinois, formerly Williamson County Regional Airport, serves the area and is located at the extreme western edge of the city. Cape Air provides daily passenger flights to St. Louis-Lambert International Airport.

Rail service.

Both the Union Pacific and Burlington Northern railroads have lines running through the city. Local service from those lines is provided by the Crab Orchard and Egyptian Railroad headquartered in Marion. Amtrak passenger rail service is available at Carbondale, west of Marion.

Marion is a city in and the county seat of Williamson County, Illinois, United States. The population was 17,193 at the 2010 census. It is part of a dispersed urban area that developed out of the early 20th-century coal fields.

Marion est une ville du comté de Williamson, dans l'Illinois, aux États-Unis. Sa population était de au recensement de 2010. C'est le siège du comté de Williamson.


Biography.

Kramer was born on September 28, 1897 in Zhashkiv near Uman in the Kiev Governorate, Russian Empire (modern day Ukraine), the son of Benjamin and Yetta Kramer. In 1905, as a result of the anti-Semitic pogroms under Czar Nicholas II of Russia, his family emigrated to Philadelphia, where his father established a Hebrew school. After graduating from South Philadelphia High School, obtaining an Academic Diploma, Kramer tried a variety of occupations, including teaching in his father's school, becoming a writer and becoming a businessman.  Concerning the time when he began to approach the age of thirty, still without a career, he later stated in his autobiography, "In the World of Sumer": "Finally it came to me that I might well go back to my beginnings and try to utilize the Hebrew learning on which I had spent so much of my youth, and relate it in some way to an academic future".  He enrolled at Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning in Philadelphia, and became passionately interested in Egyptology. He then transferred to the Oriental Studies Department of the University of Pennsylvania, working with the "brilliant young Ephraim Avigdor Speiser, who was to become one of the world's leading figures in Near Eastern Studies". Speiser was trying to decipher cuneiform tablets of the Late Bronze Age dating from about 1300 BC; it was now that Kramer began his lifelong work in understanding the cuneiform writing system.  Kramer earned his PhD in 1929, and was famous for assembling tablets recounting single stories that had become distributed among different institutions around the world. He retired from formal academic life in 1968, but remained very active throughout his post-retirement years.  In his autobiography published in 1986, he sums up his accomplishments: "First, and most important, is the role I played in the recovery, restoration, and resurrection of Sumerian literature, or at least of a representative cross section... Through my efforts several thousand Sumerian literary tablets and fragments have been made available to cuneiformists, a basic reservoir of unadulterated data that will endure for many decades to come. Second, I endeavored... to make available reasonably reliable translations of many of these documents to the academic community, and especially to the anthropologist, historian, and humanist. Third, I have helped to spread the name of Sumer to the world at large, and to make people aware of the crucial role the Sumerians played in the ascent of civilized man".  Kramer died of throat cancer at age 93 on November 26, 1990 in Philadelphia.

Samuel Noah Kramer (September 28, 1897 – November 26, 1990) was one of the world's leading Assyriologists and a world-renowned expert in Sumerian history and Sumerian language. After high school he attended Temple University before Dropsie and Penn.

Samuel Noah Kramer, né à Jachkov dans l'Empire russe (actuellement Ukraine), le, et mort à Philadelphie aux États-Unis le, est un assyriologue américain, spécialiste de Sumer et de la langue sumérienne.


History.

The Lakeshore West line is the oldest of GO's services, opening as part of the then-unified Lakeshore line on GO Transit's first day of operations on May 23, 1967. The first train, numbered 946 left at 5:50 am from Oakville bound for Toronto, ten minutes before service began out of Pickering. During the three-year experiment, all day GO Train service ran hourly from Oakville to Pickering with limited rush hour train service to Hamilton. The experiment proved to be extremely popular; GO Transit carried its first million riders during its first four months, and averaged 15,000 per day soon after.  Service began running west from Union, stopping at Mimico, Long Branch, Port Credit, Lorne Park, Clarkson, and Oakville. Rush-hour trains ran to Bronte, Burlington and Hamilton, at the former CN railway station at James Street.  GO trains started serving the Canadian National Exhibition in August 1967 from an older platform just west of the Dufferin Street bridge over the Lakeshore West line and the Queen Elizabeth Way. For the 1968 Exhibition season, temporary booths were set up to handle passengers, which topped 24,000 on the season's busiest day. This prompted the need for a proper station with additional capacity, and by the 1968 Royal Agricultural Winter Fair, the current Exhibition GO Station was built and put in service.  Lorne Park Station closed within the first year of the line's operation. Burlington was re-located approximately 750 metres eastward in March 1980. Appleby GO Station opened on September 19, 1988, followed by Aldershot on May 25, 1992. The opening of Aldershot coincided with the extension of all day and weekend service from Oakville to Burlington, however, this was reversed due to budget cuts on July 3, 1993.  Service to Hamilton was re-routed from the James Street station to downtown, at the current Hamilton GO Centre on April 29, 1996. All day service to Burlington was restored on May 1, 2000, and extended to Aldershot on September 7, 2007. On June 29, 2013, all day service was increased to operate trains every 30 minutes.  A third track was added between Sixteen Mile creek and the Port Credit station. Combined with additional work undertaken since the early 1990s, this gives the Lakeshore West line at least three tracks from Union Station through to Bayview Junction.  In 2009 as a pilot project, GO began operating express trains to St. Catharines and Niagara Falls on weekends and holidays during Niagara Region's busy summer tourist season. The service was provided again during the 2010 season, and was officially made permanently recurring starting in 2011. In 2019, the weekend express service began operating year-round.  West Harbour GO Station opened in July 2015, serving as a second Hamilton terminus for rush-hour train service. This new station was built adjacent to the former CNR James Street station used by GO until 1996.  On January 7, 2019 one weekday round-trip was extended beyond West Harbour station to Niagara Falls.

Service.

On weekdays, trains run on the Lakeshore West line every 30 minutes or better between approximately 5 a.m. and 10 p.m. eastbound from Aldershot, and between approximately 6 a.m. and midnight westbound from Union. Service starts an hour or two later on weekends and holidays. On weekdays, eight trains serve Hamilton directly in the morning and the evening rush hour, four at Hamilton GO Centre and four at West Harbour GO Station. At other times, buses connect Hamilton GO Centre to Aldershot and to Union Station. One of the weekday trips to West Harbour station also continues to Niagara Falls.  On weekends, local service operates every 30 minutes between Aldershot and Union, and additional express trains operate between Toronto and Niagara Falls stopping only at Exhibition, Port Credit, Oakville, Burlington and St. Catharines.  All off-peak trains, as well as some peak trains, are through-routed with the Lakeshore East line to Oshawa.

Future.

As part of the 2008 Metrolinx regional transportation plan entitled "The Big Move", the agency identified an express all-day service between Hamilton and Oshawa (via Toronto Union) as one of its top 15 priorities. Metrolinx has also committed to eventually providing service every 15 minutes on the line, as well as electrifying railways. This project, dubbed Regional Express Rail, is expected to reduce some trip times by 20%.  Metrolinx is currently planning to significantly expand regular service between Burlington and Niagara Falls, with new stations to be built in Stoney Creek and Grimsby, in addition to the existing stations in St. Catharines and Hamilton.  Construction began in 2017 on the new Confederation GO Station in Stoney Creek, with completion expected in 2019. In June 2016, Ontario Minister of Transportation Steven Del Duca announced that regular service would be extended to Grimsby, with the Grimsby GO Station expected to open in 2021. In 2023, enhanced service is expected to begin to the St. Catharines and Niagara Falls Via Rail stations which will be upgraded to support increased GO service. In addition to station upgrades, the extension project would include more than 25 kilometres of new track.  In November 2018, Metrolinx halted the delivery process for the stations in the Niagara extension because the newly-elected Government of Ontario rescinded its funding for their construction. In order to be constructed, the stations would instead be dependent on private financing.  In early 2019, Niagara Falls, New York officials expressed interest in having GO Transit expand rail service over the border to the Niagara Falls station in New York. Metrolinx stated that there are specific restrictions when a train leaves Ontario, or any province in Canada, that require a different set of inspection criteria and standards in order to legally enter the United States which would make a stop at the station difficult.

Ownership.

In order to facilitate service expansions, GO Transit's parent agency Metrolinx has gradually acquired portions of the Lakeshore West corridor from the freight railway companies Canadian National Railway (CN) and Canadian Pacific Railway (CP). Most of the Lakeshore West line operates along the Oakville subdivision, which was entirely owned by CN prior to 1998.  On March 31, 2010, GO acquired its first segment of the Oakville subdivision, between Union Station and 30th Street in Etobicoke (just west of GO's Willowbrook yard). On March 27, 2012, GO purchased a second segment immediately to the west, extending its ownership to a point just west of Fourth Line in Oakville. On March 22, 2013, Metrolinx purchased a third segment extending its ownership westward to a point just west of Burlington station, where the CN Halton Subdivision joins the line.  In addition to the Union Station Rail Corridor, these three segments represent Metrolinx's current ownership of the line. CN continues to own the tracks between Burlington and the Desjardins Canal, as well as the Grimsby subdivision that carries trains into Niagara Region. CP owns the tracks between the Desjardins Canal and the Hamilton GO Centre.

Station list.

Most off-peak trains, as well as some peak trains, continue as part of the Lakeshore East line after stopping at Union Station, with no train change required.

Lakeshore West is one of the seven train lines of the GO Transit system in the Greater Toronto Area, Ontario, Canada. It extends from Union Station in Toronto to Burlington, with occasional trips extending to Hamilton, St. Catharines, and Niagara Falls.

La ligne de Lakeshore West est une des sept lignes de train de banlieue du réseau GO Transit à Toronto en Ontario. Son terminus est est la Gare Union de Toronto, et son terminus ouest se trouve à Hamilton.


Biography.

Born in 1944 in Saint Thomas Parish, Jamaica, Reid graduated from Dinthill Technical College before starting his musical career via his Soul Bunny sound system in 1968, running it on Victoria Pier on Wednesday afternoons, while working during the day as a government accountant. He went on to work on the Spanish Town-based Son's Junior sound system, where he was spotted by producer Harry Mudie, who renamed him 'I-Roy'.  Deriving his name, and to some extent his style, from U-Roy, Reid was also heavily influenced in his early career by Dennis Alcapone. In 1971 he recorded four tracks for Mudie, all releases as singles, "The Drifter" and "Heart Don't Leap" (both in combination with Dennis Walks), "Let Me Tell You Boy" (over the Ebony Sisters recording), and "Musical Pleasure". Reid and Mudie fell out over the details of a proposed European tour, and he went on to work on sound systems such as King Tubby's Home Town Hi-Fi, and recorded more material with many of the Island's top producers including Lloyd Campbell, Bunny Lee, Derrick Harriott, Lee "Scratch" Perry, Glen Brown, Rupie Edwards, Byron Lee, and Keith Hudson. One of I-Roy's hits was "Sidewalk Killer" (1972), a take on Tommy McCook's original "Sidewalk Doctor", produced by Ruddy Redwood. One of his most productive partnerships was with Gussie Clarke, who produced most of the tracks on his debut album, "Presenting I Roy" (1973), containing several hit singles recorded for the producer.  I-Roy's lyrics were often humorous, incorporating elements of songs and nursery rhymes.  Hit singles with "Buck and the Preacher" and "Monkey Fashion" were followed by a second album, the mainly self-produced "Hell and Sorrow", which was sufficiently popular in the UK that Reid relocated there to promote his third album, "The Many Moods of I-Roy" (1974), performing regularly at the Roaring 20s club with Sir Coxsone's sound system, and playing live shows backed by Matumbi. He returned to Jamaica, where, with the popularity of DJ records waning, he worked as house producer at Channel One Studios, although his work was generally credited to the studio owners.  In 1975 he returned with several Channel One-produced singles, before working again with Bunny Lee in what would be one of the most successful periods of his career. For several years from 1975, I-Roy engaged in an on-record slanging match with fellow DJ Prince Jazzbo, the two trading insults on successive singles, starting with I-Roy's "Straight to Jazzbo's Head", although in reality they were good friends. In 1976, I-Roy signed to Virgin Records with whom he released five albums. Later in 1975 he released the "Truth & Rights" album, compiling many of his hits from that year.  In 1976, he was signed by Virgin Records, who went on to release eight albums via various subsidiary labels, mainly utilising backing tracks played by the Revolutionaries. He also released other material in Jamaica, including the Alvin Ranglin-produced "Best of I-Roy" album in 1977.  Reggae's move to the dancehall era in the 1980s saw I-Roy's popularity decline, along with the quality of his output. This decline in popularity and recurring health problems led to financial problems and periods of homelessness during the later period of his life. In the early 1990s he started building his own studio in Spanish Town, but it was never completed.  In October 1999 one of his two sons was killed in prison. On 27 November 1999 Reid died from heart failure in a Spanish Town hospital, at the age of 55.  Dub poet Linton Kwesi Johnson referred to I-Roy as "the mighty poet" in the track "Street 66" on the 1980 album "Bass Culture".

Roy Samuel Reid (28 June 1944 – 27 November 1999), better known as I-Roy, was a Jamaican DJ who had a very prolific career during the 1970s.

I Roy, né Roy Samuel Reid le à Saint Thomas en Jamaïque et mort le à Kingston, fut un des plus importants deejay jamaïcain de reggae.


History.

The club was founded on 12 April 1963 by the late Samuel Wamala who was head of the Council's Sewage Works section in the City Engineering Department. The club initially was dominated by casual workers in the sewage section but subsequently expanded to cover all departments within Kampala City Council.  In 1965 KCC joined the Kampala and District Football League (KDFL) Third Division "(which was split into two sections)" and under the guidance of Bidandi Ssali (Head Coach) and Samuel Wamala (Chairman) the club soon progressed. After finishing in sixth place in their first season, in 1966 they gained promotion from the Third Division South after finishing in second place.  By 1968 KCC were playing teams like Express FC, Army FC, KDS "(Kampala District Bus Services)", Railways, UEB and Nsambya in Division One of the KDFL but in 1971 they were relegated back to the Second Division. By this time the KDFL was being run concurrently with the National Football League and subsequently was scrapped to allow room to a wider national competition with several divisions. KCC became a member of the newly formed second division of the National League along with Nsambya and NIC.<that was the lead>  By 1974 KCC had gained promotion to the National League and finished in second position in both their first and second seasons in the top tier just one point behind champions Express FC on each occasion. The following season in 1976 KCC won their first championship title finishing one point ahead of Express. They also won the title in 1977 in a more emphatic manner although during this season Express were banned for allegedly being involving in anti-government activities.  Simba FC (the Army side) finished as champions in 1978 with KCC taking second place but the Council side won the CECAFA Clubs Cup, the regional club championships in Kampala, becoming the first Ugandan side to take the regional title. The trophy was presented to the KCC skipper, Sam Musenze, by President Idi Amin. Players representing KCC included Phillip Omondi, Jimmy Kirunda, Jamil Kasirye, Hussein Matovu, Tom Lwanga, Sam Musenze, Yusuf Toyota, Peter Mazinga, Apolo Lumu, Billy Kizito, Hussein Matovu, Chris Dungu, Gerald Kabaireho, Ashe Muksa, Rashid Mudin, Moses Sentamu, Timothy Ayeieko, Angelo Dotte and Hassan Biruma, Peter Wandyette.  Unfortunately the 1978 team broke up with some senior players turning semi-professional and moving to the United Arab Emirates. However, following the recruitment of youthful players such as Godfrey Kateregga, Sam Mugambe and top-scorer Davis Kamoga the club made an impact on the Ugandan Cup winning the competition in 1979 having been awarded a walk-over for their match against Uganda Commercial Bank FC in the final.  The club enjoyed their halcyon days in the 1980s by winning the Uganda Cup in 1980, 1982, 1984 and 1987 and the league championship in the intervening years in 1981, 1983 and 1985. The goal scoring exploits of Davis Kamoga, with 21 goals in 1980, and Frank Kyazze, with 18 goals in 1984 and 28 goals in 1985, made a major contribution to the club's success.  A less successful period followed although KCC did take the Super League title in 1991 and 1997 and the Uganda Cup in 1990 and 1993. After the 1997 championship success there followed a period of administrative problems and upheaval including the appointment and sacking of a succession of coaches.  In 2007–08 KCC won the league championship for the first time in over a decade with a rising star in striker Brian Umony who netted 15 goals and subsequently moved on to professional ranks with Supersport United of South Africa. In 2012–13 the club repeated the feat by finishing 7 points ahead of Uganda Revenue Authority SC. The other success in the last decade was a Uganda Cup title in 2004 2017 and 2018  On the international club football front KCC reached the quarter-finals of the African Cup of Champions Clubs in 1978 and 1982 and made second round appearances in 1977, 1984, 1986 and 1992. In addition they have made three appearances in the CAF Champions League in 1998, 2009 and 2018; four appearances in the CAF Cup in 1995, 1997, 2001 and 2002; three appearances in the CAF Confederation Cup in 2005, 2009 and 2017; and finally seven appearances in the CAF Cup Winners' Cup in 1980, 1981, 1983, 1985, 1988, 1991 and 1994.  In total KCC (now known as KCCA FC) have won 13 Uganda league championship titles, the last one being in 2019 and 10 Ugandan Cup titles, along with 2 CECAFA Clubs Cup in 1978 and 2019 wins at the regional level.

Players.

Former players.

For a complete list of existing and former Kampala City Council FC players with Wikipedia articles, see.

Non-playing staff.

Corporate hierarchy.

Position Name

Management Staff.

Position Name

Technical Team hierarchy.

Position Name

Ownership and finances.

Kampala Capital City Authority Football Club Limited, is a private company limited by guarantee. The club is solely owned by Kampala Capital City Authority, a government entity. The club derives its finances from Grants, sponsors and other activities ranging from stadium hire, selling of merchandise, players and prize money. The major Sponsors include; KCCA (Owner / Mother Company), StarTimes (Broadcasting Company), Prime Media Network (Advertising Company), Vivo Energy (Fuel Sponsor), Britam (Insurance Company), Highland water (Official drinking water partner ), MTN Uganda (Telecom company).

Stadium.

The home of KCCA FC in Lugogo, Kampala, is known as the StarTimes Stadium since 2017 for sponsorship reasons. The stadium was formerly named Phillip Omondi Stadium after a club Legend- Phillip Omondi. The plan to expand the stadium is underway and was included in the club's 5-year strategic plan. The stadium capacity is 10000

Kampala Capital City Authority Football Club, abbreviated as KCCA FC, is a Ugandan football club from Kampala, the largest city and capital of Uganda. Kampala City Council was rebranded to Kampala Capital City Authority and the club title has been changed accordingly. Many sources and news reports still refer to the club's traditional title, Kampala City Council Football Club, abbreviated as KCC.

Le Kampala Capital City Authority Football Club est un club ougandais de football basé à Kampala, la capitale du pays.


History.

The Phantoms played their first game on June 5, 1994. Their opponent was the New England Stingers whom they beat 10-5 in front of a crowd announced as 2,467 at the Cumberland County Civic Center; the first goal in franchise history was scored by Trevor Buchanan. Later that season they would move to the Civic Centre Arena to play, beating the Atlanta Fire Ants 10-9 in their first game in the arena.  The team also was part of the first professional hockey game that included two professional women's players. In July 1994, Erin Whitten for the Phantoms faced off against goaltender Manon Rhéaume who played for the New Jersey Rockin' Rollers. Whitten was also part of a game with the Toledo Storm when they beat Dayton, 6-5, on October 30, 1993 marking the first win by female professional player.  On August 25, 1994, the Civic Arena opened their roof when the Phantoms hosted the Minnesota Arctic Blast. It marked the first time the roof was opened for a professional hockey game. The team played the theme song from while the roof opened.  The team later folded a few months later.

Jerseys.

The white style jersey was originally intended to be the road jersey with "PITTSBURGH" above the Phantoms's logo. However, a last-minute decision by equipment manager Steve Latin made the white version as the home jersey, therefore the purple jersey was made the road jersey. Each jersey consisted of mesh material and was made by CCM. The logos on the shoulders and the front of the jersey were dyed into the material. The jersey numbers and player's names consisted of heat-sealed vinyl material. The CCM Roller Hockey International patch on rear hem and the KOHO patch on the front are fully embroidered patches. The jerseys did not have fightstraps and should have a hand-written number on the inside tag of the jersey. The captain and alternate captain designations were worn on the upper left front of the jersey.

The Pittsburgh Phantoms were a professional roller hockey team based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States that played in Roller Hockey International. The team got its name from the "Steel Phantom" rollercoaster, located at Kennywood Park, a theme park located in the suburb of West Mifflin, Pennsylvania. At the time of the team's inception the Phantom was the tallest and fastest steel rollercoaster in the world. The logo was heavily inspired by the roller coaster's logo seen at the entrance to the ride.

L'équipe des Phantoms de Pittsburgh (en anglais : "Pittsburgh Phantoms") était une franchise de roller in line hockey, basée à Pittsburgh en Pennsylvanie aux États-Unis. L'équipe n'a joué que pendant la saison 1994 de la ". Ils jouaient leurs matchs à domicile dans le Civic Arena, patinoire habituelle des Penguins.


Indigenous languages.

North America is home to many language families and some language isolates. In the Arctic north, the Eskimo–Aleut languages are spoken from Alaska to Greenland. This group includes the Aleut language of the Aleutian Islands, the Yupik languages of Alaska and the Russian Far East, and the Inuit languages of Alaska, Yukon, the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Greenland.  The Na-Dené languages, of which the most numerous and widespread are the Athabaskan languages, include the languages of central and eastern Alaska and northwestern Canada, as well as the Apachean languages of the Southwestern United States. The Algic languages, including the large Algonquian branch, are widespread across Canada and the United States; they include Cree, Anishinaabe (Ojibwe), Mi'kmaq, and Blackfoot. The Iroquoian languages dominate the area around the Saint Lawrence River and the eastern Great Lakes, but also include Cherokee. The Siouan–Catawban languages, including Crow and Sioux, dominate the Great Plains. Many small language families are spoken in the Pacific Northwest from British Columbia to California.  The Uto-Aztecan languages are found throughout the Western United States, northern and central Mexico, and as far south as El Salvador; they include Hopi, O'odham, and Nahuatl (descended from Aztec). Other large families in Mexico include the Mayan languages (also spoken in Belize and Guatemala), the Mixe–Zoque languages, and the Oto-Manguean languages. In the Caribbean, the Arawakan languages were formerly widespread, but are now limited to Garifuna on the Central American mainland; the family is still well represented in South America, however. The Chibchan languages are spoken in Costa Rica and Panama as well as South America.

Introduced languages.

The most widely spoken language in North America is English, followed in prevalence by Spanish and French. These three languages were brought to North America as a result of colonization of practically the entire continent by settlers from Europe.  English is the predominant language of Canada, the United States, Bermuda, and the Cayman Islands, and is spoken alongside English-based creole languages in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and the Virgin Islands. It is also the official language of Dominica and Saint Lucia, where the French-based Antillean Creole is also widely spoken.  Spanish is the dominant language in Mexico and all of Central America apart from Belize, as well as Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico (where English is spoken as well); it is also widely spoken in the United States.  French is the dominant language in Quebec and Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and is spoken in Manitoba, Prince Edward Island, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Louisiana. It is spoken alongside French-based creole languages in Saint Lucia, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Martinique, Saint Barthélemy, and the French side of Saint Martin. French is one of the two official and national languages of Canada.  Russian was once widely spoken in Alaska as it was the language of administration, commerce, and the settlers there that often intermarried with the locals (they numbered no more than a thousand), creating a sizable biracial population. The language began to decline after the United States purchased the land from the Russian Empire. Nonetheless, the language, called "Old Russian" by its speakers, is still spoken today in parts of Alaska like Ninilchik and Kodiak by descendants of Russian colonists and Russified Alaskan Natives and is known for its archaic Russian vocabulary and indigenous influences, though the vast majority of speakers are elderly, so that this unique Russian dialect is heavily endangered. In addition, a Russian creole/mixed language known as Medny Aleut language was once spoken in some of the Aleutian Islands. Only a few elderly people still speak it. There has also been sizable recent immigration from Russia in the past few decades, leading to a new generation of Russian-speaking Alaskans.  Though no German state played a major role in the European colonization of the Americas, German people did found their own colonies. Pennsylvania German, Hutterite German, Texas German, all of which developed in North America, as well as Plautdietsch are spoken by descendants of these settlers in the United States, Canada, and Mexico.  Other introduced languages include Danish in Greenland, where it is spoken by nearly everyone (mostly as a second language) due to centuries of colonization by Denmark. Danish was once the language of administration of the US Virgin Islands before the purchase by the United States. Dutch in Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles, where it is spoken alongside the Portuguese Creole language in Papiamento. In modern times North America has immigrant speakers of many languages from around the world. For details see Languages of Canada, Languages of the United States, and Languages of Mexico. Some historic languages include Gholan Language and Quechua.  Indians were brought to the Caribbean from South Asia during the mid-19th century to the early 20th century to work on the sugar cane, cocoa bean, rice and coffee bean plantations after slavery was abolished. Caribbean Hindustani is spoken by Indo-Caribbeans in islands in the Caribbean like Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica where a majority of the Indians are North Indian. Tamil and Telugu was spoken as the lingua franca of Indians in islands like Martinique and Guadeloupe, where the majority of Indians are Dravidians (South Indians). Recent immigration beginning in the 1960s from India to Canada and the United States has increased the prevalence of Indian languages in those countries, with Punjabi once had the highest ranking in Canada among Indian languages, being the third most-spoken language by the 2011 Canadian census. But now in the most recent 2016 census, Punjabi has been superseded by Mandarin and Cantonese to be the fifth. Today, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Kashmiri, Dogri, Gujarati, Konkani, Marathi, Punjabi, Sindhi, Odia, Maithili, Nepali, Balochi, Pashto, Assamese, Meitei, Santali, Kokborok, Tamil, Telugu, Tulu, Malayalam, Kannada, and other South Asian languages are also spoken throughout North America.

The languages of North America reflect not only that continent's indigenous peoples, but the European colonization as well. The most widely spoken languages in North America (which includes Central America and the Caribbean islands) are English, Spanish, and to a lesser extent French, and, especially in the Caribbean, creole languages lexified by them.

Les langues en Amérique du Nord (y compris les Antilles et l'Amérique centrale) proviennent en grande part de la colonisation européenne. Autrefois répandues, les nombreuses langues amérindiennes ont été largement remplacées par quatre principales langues coloniales : l'anglais, l'espagnol, le français et le néerlandais. S'y ajoutent les langues des immigrants, principalement l'italien, l'allemand et les langues chinoises. Il faut également y compter un certain nombre de langues créoles.


Key features.

Seaside's implementation of continuations was an initial point of interest in its first several years of existence following its 2002 release. Continuations provide a mechanism for rollback and resumption, a useful provision for the web browser environment in which "refresh" and "back" buttons may interrupt the flow of processing. This resolves many common issues with running web applications, like adequately sustaining the state on the server-side even when the web browser’s ‘back’ and ‘forward’ buttons are used. Continuation servers give the developer the ability to maintain state on the server in a scalable manner. The subsequent improvement of web browser implementations of JavaScript since 2002 has made the continuations aspect of Seaside less significant, by allowing client browsers to keep track of state better.  A distinctive feature of Seaside is its integrated development environment, providing access to development tools and debugging support within an application. In development-mode, unhandled errors are reported to the web page; developers can access and alter the program code and state directly from the web page, allowing bug identifying and fixing processes to occur within an integrated development environment (IDE).  A Seaside application is a set of interacting components. Each one stores state across page views and can "render" itself to the HTML stream. Thus, it is straightforward to write a component once and then reuse it elsewhere in an application. Seaside also supports the notion of tasks, which allow a programmer to describe the high-level logic of component interaction.  Seaside is not template-oriented, and does not offer generating or using HTML templates; HTML markup is generated programmatically. (The Seaside-based Pier content-management framework does offer wiki-markup syntax for templating.) Seaside uses callbacks on closures to specify actions to be taken when clicking on a link or submitting a form. The developers and users of Seaside argue that this helps enforce separation of structure (markup) from content and presentation (Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)). Seaside's combination of components, callbacks, and closures can significantly reduce the semantic gap between a complex workflow and its representation in code.  Seaside supports Ajax through integration with script.aculo.us and jQuery. Seaside also supports Comet-style server-push technology. Seaside can work with either Smalltalk-based web server implementations or other non-Smalltalk ones (Nginx, Apache).

Philosophy.

Over the last few years, some best practices have come to be widely accepted in the web development field:  Seaside deliberately breaks all of these rules. Avi Bryant describes it as a 'heretical' framework. He argues that this careful and reasoned rejection of the conventional wisdoms of web development has led to a very effective model for developing web applications.

Ports.

The main development of Seaside is implemented in Pharo Smalltalk. Ports for other Smalltalk dialects exist. The original development of Seaside was done on Squeak in the early 2000s. Michel Bany implemented ports to VisualWorks through Seaside version 2.7; Cincom Systems supports Seaside as part of VisualWorks as of early 2008. Instantiations announced Seaside support in its VAST (VA Smalltalk) Platform version 8.0 in 2009. The VAST Platform has continued to support Seaside through its latest version. Esteban Maringolo maintained the 2.8 port, plus some other add-ons (such as script.aculo.us) for Dolphin Smalltalk X6. Gemstone Systems implemented a port to Gemstone/S. A port of 2.8 was completed for GemStone, and a preliminary version of 3.0 runs on GNU Smalltalk 3.0a and later.

Open-source projects using it.

Many open-source projects use Seaside, some of which are:

Proprietary projects using it.

Many proprietary projects use Seaside, some of which are:

Seaside, an acronym that stands for “Squeak Enterprise Aubergines Server with Integrated Development Environment,” is computer software, a web framework to develop web applications in the programming language Smalltalk. It is distributed as free and open-source software under an MIT License.

Seaside est un cadriciel (framework) pour le développement d'applications web, il est écrit en Smalltalk. Il fait un usage intensif de continuation afin d'imiter le maintien de l'état de l'application avec le protocole sans connexion HTTP. C'est le seul framework web majeur à utiliser les continuations comme une partie fondamentale du comportement de l'application. Seaside possède une architecture basée sur les composants, ceux-ci étant caractérisés par un couplage faible.


Description.

The 2dF survey covered an area of about 1500 square degrees, surveying regions in both the north and the south galactic poles. The name derives from the fact that the survey instrument has a 2 degree diameter field of view.  The areas selected for observation were previously surveyed by the massive APM Galaxy Survey (on which Steve Maddox also worked). The regions surveyed cover roughly 75 degrees of right ascension for both bands, and the declination of the North Polar band was about 7.5 degrees while the declination of the South Polar band was about 15 degrees. Hundreds of isolated two degree fields near the South Polar band were also surveyed (see this illustration, where black circles represent survey fields, and the red grid represents the earlier APM survey).  In total, the photometry of 382,323 objects were measured, which includes spectra for 245,591 objects, of which 232,155 were galaxies (221,414 with good quality spectra), 12,311 are stars, and 125 are quasi-stellar objects (quasars). The survey necessitated 272 required nights of observation, spread over 5 years.  The survey was carried out with the 4 metre Anglo-Australian Telescope, with the 2dF instrument installed at the primary focus permitting the observation of a field of 2 degrees per pointing. The instrument possesses a spectrograph equipped with two banks each of 200 optical fibres, permitting the simultaneous measurement of 400 spectra.  The limiting apparent magnitude of the survey is 19.5, covering objects with a redshift mostly within less than z=0.3 and a median redshift of 0.11. The volume of the Universe covered by the survey is approximately 10 "h" Mpc, where "h" corresponds to the value of the Hubble constant, "H", divided by 100. "H" is approximately 70 km/s/Mpc. The largest redshift observed by the survey corresponds to a distance of 600 "h" Mpc.

Survey Results.

The principal results obtained for the field of cosmology by the 2dF survey are:  All these results are in agreement with the measurements of other experiments, notably those of WMAP. They confirm the standard cosmological model.  The 2dF survey also yields a unique view on our local cosmic environment. In the figure a 3-D reconstruction of the inner parts of the survey is shown, revealing an impressive view on the cosmic structures in the nearby universe. Several superclusters stand out, such as the Sloan Great Wall, one of the largest structures in the universe known to date (see also Huge-LQG).

In astronomy, the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (Two-degree-Field Galaxy Redshift Survey), 2dF or 2dFGRS is a redshift survey conducted by the Australian Astronomical Observatory (AAO) with the 3.9m Anglo-Australian Telescope between 1997 and 11 April 2002. The data from this survey were made public on 30 June 2003. The survey determined the large-scale structure in two large slices of the Universe to a depth of around 2.5 billion light years (redshift ~ 0.2). It was the world's largest redshift survey between 1998 (overtaking Las Campanas Redshift Survey) and 2003 (overtaken by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey). Matthew Colless, Richard Ellis, Steve Maddox and John Peacock were in charge of the project. Team members Shaun Cole and John Peacock were awarded a share of the 2014 Shaw Prize in astronomy for results from the 2dFGRS.

2dFGRS, ou 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey, pour l’anglais "Two degree field" (« champ de deux degrés ») est un catalogue de galaxies réalisé par l’observatoire anglo-australien (AAO). Il a été réalisé sur une période de cinq ans, de 1997 à 2002, et les données obtenues ont été rendues publiques le. Les responsables du projet étaient Steve Maddox et John Peacock. Il s’agit du second plus grand relevé, tant en volume qu’en nombre d’objets recensés, derrière le "Sloan Digital Sky Survey".


History.

This line had previously been run by the state-owned company Ferrocarriles Argentinos since nationalisation of the Argentine railways in 1948. Branches from Constitución to Ezeiza and Glew were electrified and the entire fleet of trains renewed, acquiring multiple units by Japanese companies Nippon Sharyo, Kinki Sharyo, Tokyu Car, Kawasaki and Hitachi. The electrified rail system was opened to public in November, 1985. The design of these Japanese-built cars was based upon the Odakyu 9000 series, built for the first time between 1972 and 1977.  Ferrocarriles Argentinos operated the trains until 1991 when residual company FEMESA temporarily took over all the urban services prior to the privatisation of the network. After the Government of Carlos Menem privatised the urban railways services, the private company Metropolitano (TMR) took over Roca Line through concession.  Nevertheless, non-compliance with the terms and conditions (such as lack of investment and poor maintenance of the line, in spite of the large government subsidies received by Metropolitano) led the Government of Argentina to revoke the contract of concession in 2007. The UGOFE consortium took over the service until 12 February 2014, when it was announced that the line would be granted to the local Emepa Group.  After the concession was revoked, a temporary consortium named "UGOFE", took over the Roca line.  Several projects were announced to modernize the line and improve its service, setting as a priority the electrification of the whole system. Other projects included a new maintenance yard in the town of Tolosa in La Plata Partido, several new bridges and tunnels at road crossings and improved grade crossings, all new concrete sleepers and welded rail joints for the entire line, the remodeling of 50 stations and the purchase of 200 electric coaches of the latest technology. Presently electrification of Avellaneda-Quilmes and Temperley-Bosques sections are under way.

Recent developments.

In April 2013 the University train of La Plata service was opened, using railbuses built by the Argentine company TecnoTren. In that same year, Argentine state-owned company SOFSE announced that brand new electric multiple unit trains had been acquired for the line's metropolitan services. The contract included 300 coaches for the Roca Line, among the new rolling stock purchased for other lines.  The State-owned company Operadora Ferroviaria took over Roca Line (operated by Argentren) after the Government of Argentina rescinded the contracts signed with the company on 2 March 2015. The contract terms specified that the concession could be cancelled with no right to claim compensation. The agreements had been signed in February 2014, committing Argentren and Corredores Ferroviarios to operate the lines.  In March 2015, a total of 300 brand-new electric multiple units acquired to Chinese company CSR arrived in Argentina. The National Government announced that the new CSR EMUs would be put into service in June 2015, what finally happened on 8th of that month.  The line also reestablished services to Claypole (Constitución–Bosques–Gutiérrez branch) serving with the brand-new EMUs bought from China. The service had previously been suspended in February 2014.  There are currently ongoing electrification works on the line, most notably on the Buenos Aires - La Plata service which has received a US$500 million investment from the state, 300 of which come from an Inter-American Development Bank loan. Other works on the line include the refurbishment of stations and the raising of platforms to match the height of the new CSR rolling stock, while the construction of new underpasses and other infrastructure improvements is due to reduce travel times by around 50%.  On 5 December 2015, the electrified service between Constitución and Quilmes was presented, although the service was only opened next year, after the presidential elections, on 13 February. On 13 June 2016, the Quilmes-Berazategui section began service.  In March 2017, the first section of the electrified service was opened, joining Constitución with City Bell, covering almost 45 km-length. The entire project includes to extend the electrified service to La Plata downtown. The extension to La Plata was opened on 18 October 2017, about two years late due to numerous delays in construction.  In January 2018, Argentinian Minister of Transport Guillermo Dietrich approved an order of 200 EMU cars from CRRC Qingdao Sifang for service on the Roca Line, where they were to replace Toshiba EMUs that were built in the 1980s.

The Roca line is a gauge commuter rail service in the Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, part of General Roca Railway network. The service is currently operated by State-owned company Trenes Argentinos, from the city-centre terminus of Constitución south to Ezeiza, Alejandro Korn, La Plata, Cañuelas, Chascomús, Gutiérrez and Lobos, and west to Sarmiento Line's station Haedo. The transfer stations between the branch lines are Avellaneda, Temperley, Bosques and Berazategui.

La Ligne Roca à Buenos Aires, capitale de l'Argentine est une ligne de transport de passagers qui draine la plus grande partie de la banlieue sud de la ville, ainsi que l'importante cité de La Plata, capitale de la province de Buenos Aires, distante de quelques kilomètres seulement de la capitale.


Career.

Before moving to Los Angeles, McGowan was a firefighter in his native Denver. An on-the-job accident during a fire rescue mission left him with a permanent limp.  McGowan moved to California in the 1910s and made the acquaintance of Hal Roach, an aspiring film producer who opened his own studio in 1914. By 1920, McGowan was a director at the Roach studio, and in 1921 began work on the first entries in the "Our Gang" series.  The "Our Gang" series was at its most popular and successful under McGowan's direction; when he became ill in the late-1920s and had to turn over the director's chair to nephew Robert A. McGowan (billed as "Anthony Mack" to distinguish himself from his uncle) for two years, the series faltered. McGowan was a natural with kids, and knew how to explain scenes and comic business to his young charges to elicit convincing performances out of them. His favorite "Our Gang" kids were Allen "Farina" Hoskins, Mary Kornman, Matthew "Stymie" Beard, and George "Spanky" McFarland, whom McGowan declared a "natural".  McGowan's daughter Jerry was an actress and dancer herself; she would often sit in on "Our Gang" story meetings and appears onscreen in "Shivering Shakespeare".  McGowan left "Our Gang" in 1933 due to the strain of dealing with stage mothers and additional hassles involved with directing child stars. He moved over to Paramount Pictures to helm features such as "One Too Many" (1934), "Frontier Justice", and "Too Many Parents". McGowan returned for one last "Our Gang" short ("Divot Diggers") in 1936, and later produced two "Our Gang" derived featurettes for Hal Roach, "Curley" and "Who Killed Doc Robbin", in the 1940s after retiring from directing.

Death.

McGowan died of cancer in Santa Monica, California on January 27, 1955 at the age of 72. His nephew, Robert A. McGowan, died five months later.

Robert Francis McGowan (July 11, 1882 – January 27, 1955) was an American film director and producer, best known as the senior director of the "Our Gang" short subjects film series from 1922 until 1933.

Robert F. McGowan est un réalisateur, producteur, scénariste et acteur américain né le à Denver, dans le Colorado (États-Unis), mort le à Santa Monica en Californie. Il est l'oncle du cinéaste Robert A. McGowan.


Origin.

The word "fog" in reference to uncertainty in war was introduced by the Prussian military analyst Carl von Clausewitz in his posthumously published book, "Vom Kriege" (1832), which appeared in English translation in 1873 under the title "On War":  It has been pointed out that von Clausewitz does not use the exact phrase "fog of war," using multiple similar metaphors such as "twilight" and "moonlight" to describe lack of clarity. The first known use of the exact phrase "fog of war" in text only dates to 1896, described as "the state of ignorance in which commanders frequently find themselves as regards the real strength and position, not only of their foes, but also of their friends."

Military.

The fog of war is a reality in all military conflict. Precision and certainty are unattainable goals, but modern military doctrine suggests a trade off of precision and certainty for speed and agility. Militaries employ command and control (C2) systems and doctrine to partially alleviate the fog of war.  The term also applies to the experience of individual soldiers in battle: often cited is the pure confusion of direction, location, and perspective on a battlefield. Officers and soldiers become separated, orders become confused and subject to revision with poor communication. Sounds and vision are limited from the perspective of the individual and may not be easily resolved, resulting in a continuing uncertainty, a perceptual "fog".  The fog of war has been decreasing as intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance technology is improving. In 2016, Chief of Staff of the United States Army Gen. Mark A. Milley stated that "On the future battlefield, if you stay in one place longer than two or three hours, you will be dead... With enemy drones and sensors constantly on the hunt for targets, there won’t even be time for four hours' unbroken sleep."

Simulations and games.

Abstract and military board games sometimes try to capture the effect of the fog of war by hiding the identity of playing pieces, by keeping them face down or turned away from the opposing player (as in "Stratego") or covered (as in "Squad Leader"). Other games, such as the "Kriegspiel" chess-variant, playing pieces could be hidden from the players by using a duplicate, hidden game board.  Another version of fog of war emulation is used by block wargaming where, much like "Stratego", the blocks face each player, hiding their value. However, this also allows for incremental damage, where the block is rotated up to four times to indicate battle damage before the unit is eliminated from the playing field.  Solitaire games also by their nature attempt to recreate fog of war using random dice rolls or card draws to determine events. Complex double-blind miniature wargames, including military simulations, may make use of two identical maps or model landscapes, one or more referees providing limited intelligence to the opposing sides, participants in the roles of sub-unit leaders, and the use of radio sets or intercoms.

In video games.

A computer's ability to effectively hide information from a player is seen as a distinct advantage over board games when simulating war. Fog of war in strategy video games refers to enemy units, and often terrain, being hidden from the player; this is lifted once the area is explored, but the information is often fully or partially re-hidden whenever the player does not have a unit in that area.  The earliest use of fog of war was in the 1977 game "Empire" by Walter Bright. Another early use of fog of war was the 1978 game "Tanktics" designed by Chris Crawford, which was criticized for its unreliable and "confusing" fog of war system. Crawford in 1982 suggested "limit[ing] the amount of information available to the human player" to compensate for the computer's lack of intelligence. In a 1988 "Computer Gaming World" article Dave Arneson called fog of war "one of the biggest 'plus' factors in computer simulations", while Crawford concluded, using "Tanktics" as an example, that video game fog of war systems became less "fun" the more realistic they were, leading the medium to instead use simplified systems.  Two large Blizzard franchises, "Warcraft" and "StarCraft", use a fog of war which only reveals terrain features and enemy units through a player's reconnaissance. Without a unit actively observing, previously revealed areas of the map are subject to a shroud through which only terrain is visible, but changes in enemy units or bases are not. This is also common in both turn-based and real-time strategy games, such as the "Total War" series, "Age of Empires" series,, "Advance Wars" series, "Fire Emblem" series and Sid Meier's "Civilization" series.  Fog of war gives players an incentive to uncover a game's world. A compulsion to reveal obscured parts of a map has been described to give a sense of exploring the unknown. Crawford said that "reasonable" uses of fog of war, such as needing to send out scouts, "not only seem natural, but... add to the realism and excitement of the game" "Merchant Prince" displays over unexplored territory what "Computer Gaming World" described as a "renaissance-style map of dubious accuracy". In some strategy games that make use of fog of war, enemy AI can get access to complete visibility of the map, which a player may associate with cheating when discovered. A designer may use fog of war to keep a game that has become impossible to win enjoyable, by hiding this fact from the player.

The fog of war () is the uncertainty in situational awareness experienced by participants in military operations. The term seeks to capture the uncertainty regarding one's own capability, adversary capability, and adversary intent during an engagement, operation, or campaign. Military forces try to reduce the fog of war through military intelligence and friendly force tracking systems.

Le brouillard de la guerre est le climat d'incertitude dans lequel se déroule la guerre. L'expression est de Carl von Clausewitz.


Stadium history.

Construction on the stadium began in 1936 as a project of the Works Progress Administration under President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression. The stadium was built to the immediate east of the baseball park Tinker Field, which opened in 1914. The stadium opened later in 1936 with a capacity of 8,900 as Orlando Stadium. The first college football bowl game was played on January 1, 1947. Catawba defeated Maryville 31–6 in the inaugural Tangerine Bowl. 2,000 seats were added in 1952. During this period, the stadium was known as the Tangerine Bowl. 5,000 more seats were added in 1968, along with the first press box.  From 1974 to 1976 an expansion project raised the capacity to 50,612, including a 3,600-seat upper deck on the east sidelines. However, shortly after completion the project proved to be a public fiasco and potentially an architectural and engineering failure. On November 27, 1976 the first major game was held at the expanded stadium, a regular season matchup between Florida and Miami. During the game, the newly-constructed upper deck noticeably swayed whenever fans stood up and cheered. The deck vibrated, fences and railings shook and creaked, causing an unnerving sensation for the patrons sitting in those sections. The swaying and shaking was noticeable again about a month later during the 1976 Tangerine Bowl game. The swaying was so pronounced that some fans vowed never to sit in those seats again, while some refused to return to the stadium at all. Before long, engineering evaluations, as well as legal investigations, uncovered numerous missteps, rushing, and cut corners in the stadium's design. While it was believed that the upper deck was structurally sound and met building codes, it nevertheless was deemed a failure. Additional problems included inadequate access to restrooms in the upper deck, gaps between the sections which required obstructive fences, and the fact that the upper deck was built at such an angle that it had poor sight lines. Meanwhile, unsightly I-beams installed to hold up the upper deck now blocked seats in the lower deck that were previously unobstructed.  The maligned stadium's reputation was heavily tarnished after the upper deck scandal, criticized by public officials, media, and fans. Further complicating the situation was UCF's pending move to the stadium for 1979. The city finally received a settlement of $900,500 from the stadium's engineers, architects, and designers, money that was soon appropriated for new improvements. The infamous steel east upper deck was dismantled in May 1980.  After various new improvements, and a $30 million renovation that added new concrete upper decks to both sides, a capacity of 65,438 was established in 1989. In 1983, the Florida Department of Citrus was added as a title sponsor for the facility, at a price of $250,000. From 1999 to 2002, key stadium improvements included the addition of contour seating, two escalators, and a new wide scoreboard/video screen. A new sound system, along with two full-color ribbon displays along the upper decks, were also added. The expansion resulted in the upper deck overhanging Tinker Field's right field area, albeit at a significant height.

Events hosted.

Football.

Professional football.

Camping World Stadium has been home field to several short-lived professional football teams. From 1966 to 1970, the stadium was home to the Orlando Panthers of the Continental Football League. In 1974, the Florida Blazers of the World Football League played their only season in existence at the Tangerine Bowl. The USFL's Orlando Renegades played one season in 1985. The Orlando Thunder of the WLAF called the Citrus Bowl home in their two-season existence during the early 1990s, while the XFL's Orlando Rage played there in 2001 as well as the UFL's Florida Tuskers, occupying the stadium for 2 seasons from 2009, before moving to Virginia Beach as the Virginia Destroyers in 2011. The Orlando Fantasy of the Lingerie Football League moved to the stadium shortly after, having previously used the UCF Arena.  Seven National Football League (NFL) preseason football games have been held at the stadium.  The stadium hosted the NFL Pro Bowl from 2017 until 2020.

College football.

The stadium has hosted various college football games, including many bowl games:

High school football.

The Florida High School Athletic Association state football championships are held at Camping World Stadium. The varsity football team from nearby Jones High School used Camping World Stadium as a regular season home field for decades through the end of their 2011 season. The school started playing home football games on their own field beginning on August 31, 2012.

Soccer.

The playing surface is large enough for use in international soccer matches, and it was a venue for the 1994 FIFA World Cup. In five matches, attendance averaged over 60,000 per match. In 1996, Olympic soccer matches in both the men's and women's competitions were held at the stadium.  It hosted the USISL A-League Orlando Sundogs in 1997. It also hosted the Major League Soccer All-Star Game in 1998. The stadium was the home of Orlando City SC, a soccer team in the USL Pro League. In 2013, the investment group that owned that club was awarded an expansion team in Major League Soccer. They spent their 2014 season in USL Pro at ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex in Lake Buena Vista while Camping World Stadium was being renovated.  During the 2013 season, Fifth Third Bank owned naming rights to the field for Orlando City matches. Its name during those matches was Fifth Third Bank Field at the Citrus Bowl.  Orlando City played their final USL Pro match at Camping World Stadium on September 6, 2013. They won the USL Pro Championship over Charlotte Eagles, 7–4, before a crowd of 20,886. The last soccer event held at Camping World Stadium before its renovation was an international friendly between the women's teams of the United States and Brazil. The U.S. won the match, 4–1, before a crowd of 20,274.  Orlando City, now playing in Major League Soccer, returned to Camping World Stadium for the 2015 and 2016 seasons.  The Orlando Pride, the National Women's Soccer League 2016 expansion team owned by Orlando City SC, played in Camping World Stadium while the Orlando City Stadium was completed.

1994 FIFA World Cup matches.

Camping World Stadium was one of the venues for Copa América Centenario in June 2016. Three group stage matches were held there, Paraguay vs Costa Rica on June 4, Bolivia vs Panama on June 6 and Brazil vs Haiti on June 8.

WrestleMania.

On March 30, 2008, the Citrus Bowl held WWE's WrestleMania XXIV. This was the first WrestleMania to be held in the state of Florida, and the second to be held outdoors. Nine professional wrestling matches were scheduled for the event, which featured a supercard of more than one main bout. At 74,635, it was the largest crowd, at the time, ever to attend an event at the venue.  WWE returned to Camping World Stadium to host WrestleMania 33, which took place on April 2, 2017. The WWE claimed an attendance record of 75,245, beating the venue's previous attendance record which was set at WrestleMania XXIV.

Renovations.

By 2005, Orlando-area government officials and officials from the University of Central Florida (UCF) expressed dissatisfaction with the state of the facility and lack of revenue, as while UCF was the primary leasing tenant for the facility, it received minimal revenue from football games. Lack of an agreement to rectify these issues led UCF to consider relocating, or spend considerable expense to upgrade the facility at its own cost. In addition, the stadium's capacity was seen as too large for UCF, leaving the stadium an appearance of being empty even with attendance of as much as 30,000–40,000 people per game. UCF's all-time attendance record was 51,978 for the 2005 C-USA Championship Game versus Tulsa. Furthermore, the stadium was located over from the university's main campus in East Orlando, with travel times of up to a half-hour due to traffic. In 2005, UCF officials led by university president John Hitt made the decision to construct a new on-campus stadium, which opened for the 2007 season.  Orlando officials began exploring stadium refurbishment project in 2004, when the Capital One Bowl bid to become a Bowl Championship Series (BCS) game, but was not chosen due to the stadium's aging condition. Camping World Stadium also submitted a bid for the ACC Championship Game, but lost to Jacksonville Municipal Stadium. The key reasons for losing the bids were the lack of modern luxury boxes, bench seating, and capacity. The hopes for Camping World Stadium became reality when, on September 29, 2006, Orlando Mayor Buddy Dyer announced an agreement on a $175-million renovation of Camping World Stadium. It is part of the "Triple Crown for Downtown", a $1.1-billion plan to redo the Orlando Centroplex with a new $480-million arena for the Orlando Magic, a new $375-million performing arts center, and the Camping World Stadium improvements. Conceptual drawings for the possible improvements include enclosed concourses on the east and west sides of the stadium and additions to the north side that will finally complete the lower bowl. The Orlando/Orange County Interlocal Agreement was approved by the Orlando City Council on August 6, 2007. However, the plans were heavily affected by the Great Recession of 2007–08.  In 2010, the natural grass surface was replaced with AstroTurf Gameday Grass 3D after the 2009 Champs Sports Bowl and 2010 Capital One Bowl were marred by poor field conditions that led to two football player injuries. Stadium conditions once again prompted a review of the stadiums condition. Finally, it was announced in May 2013 that the Florida Citrus Bowl Stadium would undergo a reconstruction during 2014, at a cost of less than US$200 million. The cost estimate as of March 2014 was US$207 million. The stadium's upper level seating was retained, but the entire lower bowl structure was demolished.  In the newly reconstructed stadium there are two 360-degree concourses, a plaza deck ("Party Deck") in the north end zone, 41,000 all-new lower bowl seats with six additional inches of leg room & chairbacks, multiple giant video displays, new team facilities including locker rooms training rooms and attached media, new stadium operations facilities to allow better efficiency in food service, security, first aid and maintenance, new concessions and restrooms, and an open-air façade. The new mezzanine is now referred to as the "Plaza level". The upper deck, previously numbered the "300" level, is now numbered the "200" level.  The reconstruction began immediately following a groundbreaking event held at the stadium on January 29, 2014 and demolition of the entire lower bowl lasted 25 days. The first event at the renovated Camping World Stadium was the 2014 edition of the Florida Classic on November 22, 2014. The Bethune-Cookman Wildcats defeated the Florida A&M Rattlers, 18–17 in overtime.  Orlando City returned to the renovated Camping World Stadium for the 2015 season, their first season in Major League Soccer, while awaiting construction of their own soccer-specific stadium. In their first match, a 1–1 draw against fellow expansion team New York City FC on March 8, 2015, they drew a sellout crowd of 62,510, the largest attendance for a soccer match at the venue.  The United States women's national soccer team returned to Camping World Stadium on October 25, 2015. They defeated Brazil again, 3–1. The attendance of 32,869 was the largest attendance for a standalone USWNT friendly in the state of Florida.  The Orlando Pride, the expansion National Women's Soccer League team owned by Orlando City SC, played in Camping World Stadium until the Orlando City Stadium was complete. On April 23, 2016, they broke the record for attendance at an NWSL game, setting at 23,403, when the Pride beat the Houston Dash, 3–1.  On November 19, 2015, CONCACAF and CONMEBOL announced that Camping World Stadium would be one of the host venues for the Copa América Centenario soccer tournament in 2016.  On April 26, 2016, Florida Citrus Sports announced that they had sold naming rights for the stadium to Camping World. Camping World also became the title sponsor of the stadium's college football kickoff game through at least 2019, and the annual December bowl game held at the stadium was known as the Camping World Bowl from 2017 through 2019. These naming changes did not affect the Citrus Bowl or the Florida Classic.

Seating and attendance.

Prior to the 2014 renovation, the stadium had 65,000 permanent seats. The lower bowl lacked permanent seats in the north end zone, though temporary bleachers could be erected there if necessary. The temporary bleachers were last used for the 2005 Capital One Bowl, which had an attendance of 70,229.  Following the renovation, the seating capacity was reduced to 60,219 due to the introduction of chair-back seats in the lower bowl and Plaza Level. The upper deck continues to have bleachers. Temporary bleachers can be added in the Plaza level in place of the Party Deck to increase the capacity to 65,194.

Camping World Stadium is a stadium in Orlando, Florida, located in the West Lakes neighborhood of Downtown Orlando, west of new sports and entertainment facilities including the Amway Center, the Dr. Phillips Center for the Performing Arts, and Exploria Stadium. It opened in 1936 as Orlando Stadium and has also been known as the Tangerine Bowl and Florida Citrus Bowl. The City of Orlando owns and operates the stadium.

Le Camping World Stadium, auparavant Florida Citrus Bowl, Orlando Stadium et Tangerine Bowl, est un stade de football américain de 70 000 places situé à Orlando, en Floride.


Early life.

Will was born in Evanston, Illinois, and raised in Kenilworth. He graduated from New Trier High School in 1988, then attended Allegheny College in Meadville, Pennsylvania, where he earned a B.A. in English. Beginning in the summer of 1991, he was a regular attendee at the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics, the summer writing program of Naropa University and was a teaching assistant to Peter Lamborn Wilson (a.k.a. Hakim Bey). In 1995, after spending time at Dreamtime Village in southwest Wisconsin, he moved to Manhattan where he squatted on the Lower East Side before moving to Williamsburg, Brooklyn.

Activism.

U.S..

At Naropa, Will participated in a satirical performance art piece designed to mock the Colorado socially conservative Christian community and protest a proposed amendment to the Colorado constitution which sought to limit gay rights. Will pretended to marry another man in a ceremony conducted by Peter Lamborn Wilson, a Universal Life Church-ordained minister. The mock ceremony included a procession of their wedding party in drag, parading in front of a Promise Keepers event in Boulder, Colorado.  While in New York City, Will became involved in the squatters movement of the Lower East Side, and also became involved in what has become known as freeganism, an effort to live outside the mainstream economic grid by means that includes collecting and eating food discarded by stores and food manufacturers. He fought the removal of community gardens, including the Chico Mendez Mural Garden on the Lower East Side, named after Brazilian activist Chico Mendes. Will was an active participant in protests across the country, usually for various social justice and human rights causes, and was involved with environmental movements such as Earth First! and the Fall Creek Tree Village in the Willamette National Forest outside Eugene, Oregon.  Will gained some notoriety for his efforts to prevent New York City from demolishing a squat on Fifth Street in the Lower East Side. When construction crews arrived at the building to begin taking it down, he stood atop the roof waving his arms. His efforts stalled the demolition, but the city eventually leveled the building, which housed a café, a meeting place and a performance space. Will later talked about the building in a program produced by Paper Tiger Television called "ABC Survives, Fifth Street Buried Alive".  We were making a home out of a crumbling building. The interior of the building needed help, and we brought that building back to life. It was standing strong. And the only reason it was standing was because people were living in it. If we had let it go the way the city wanted it to go– they tore out the stairwell, they punched holes in the roof. The water– the rain was rotting that building from the inside out. We replaced the joists. We rebuilt the floors. We sheet rocked the walls and made the building alive. What did they do? They killed it. That building is over a hundred years old. It was standing strong.  Will was a proponent of anti-corporate media and he hosted his own program on Steal This Radio, a Lower East Side-based pirate radio station.  In 1998, he and partner Hazel spoke at the Ecosaloon, a weekly activism forum held on Tuesday evenings at the Wetlands Preserve nightclub. Their presentation connected the struggle to defend the forests of the Pacific Northwest with the fight against the gentrification of Manhattan's Lower East Side. After helping to organize Buy Nothing Day and a Reclaim the Streets protest in Times Square, Will traveled to Seattle for the 1999 WTO protests, and was a long-standing participant in the New York City Direct Action Network (DAN) and New York Independent Media Center (IMC). In August 2001 he joined participants for a roving exploration of usable food in Tribeca garbage; they were accompanied by a TV crew from PBS's "Life 360". In his latter years, Will began recording documentary videos, releasing them on the internet through the Indymedia network of websites. During the summer of 2006, Will continued videotaping demonstrations, including a June 15 protest at the Mexican Consulate in response to a police incursion into a teacher's plantón (encampment). On June 29 he video-recorded and helped organize a protest against Victoria's Secret at the Manhattan Mall in response to the resources used to print the high volume of mail-order catalogs which the company mails out. He also filmed a street theater performance by the group A for Anarchy, organized in response to the release of the film "V for Vendetta". At the time of his death, he was working on a documentary about folk punk music.

International.

In 2000, while visiting the Czech Republic Will attended a protest in Prague against the International Monetary Fund Summit. He later traveled through South America while participating in anti-globalization. He reached Ecuador, Argentina, Chiapas and Brazil in that trip.

Death.

Traveling under a tourist visa, Will arrived in Oaxaca in early October 2006 in order to document and film the teachers' strike. On October 27, he was videotaping near a barricade erected by pro-strike protesters when he was shot twice. In the last few minutes of the video Will filmed before being shot, voices speaking in Spanish are heard demanding that filming be stopped and cameras be turned off. In the final seconds of the video a voice in Spanish reprimands Will for not having turned off the camera. In the middle of this statement a gunshot is heard, there is a scream, the camera pans down to the ground and the video ends.  Will died while being carried from the area in search of medical help. Two others, Esteban Zurita López and teacher Emilio Alonso Fabián, were also killed. Several others were injured. 26 protesters were ultimately murdered during this mobilization. A truth commission later classified his death as an "extrajudicial execution".  During a news conference on October 29, 2006, Oaxaca mayor Manuel Martínez said that four men, all local public officials, were being detained in connection with the shooting.

Reaction.

Federal Police mobilized.

Later on the day of the shooting, the Oaxaca airport was closed to commercial flights as the Federal Police arrived to reestablish government control of the city. The army was also mobilized to provide intelligence support to the police, but not to engage directly with protesters. APPO representatives declared their intention to resist the government's armed response to the crisis. At the beginning of November, violent clashes continued between protesters and police. The government claimed that the Federal Police that entered Oaxaca were unarmed.

Demonstrations at Mexican consulates.

On October 30, more than 200 protesters convened outside the Mexican consulate in New York City to deplore the killing of Will and others and to demand an end to the violence. The protest was organized by the grassroots group named in his honor, The Friends of Brad Will.

Committee to Protect Journalists.

The Committee to Protect Journalists sent an open letter on October 30 to the Mexican attorney general calling on the Mexican government to launch an investigation into Will's death. The statement said that David Vega Vera, special independent prosecutor, had begun gathering information related to the case.

Commemoration and memorial.

On November 11 and 12, 2006, Friends of Brad Will organized a gathering in New York City to commemorate Will's life. The event included a memorial service at St Mark's Church in-the-Bowery attended by 250 people, as well as speeches and concerts. Outside the church was an array of freegan food as well as a pile of Will's personal possessions, from which attendees were urged to take. It was followed by a procession through the East Village described by "The Villager" as "jubilant and rowdy" and culminated in marchers breaking into the former Charas/El Bohio, inside which they briefly cavorted, scrawled graffiti, twirled fire bolas and cycled.

Brad.

David Rovics wrote a song about his life and death, titled 'Brad'.

Bradley Roland Will (June 14, 1970 – October 27, 2006) was an American activist, videographer and journalist. He was affiliated with Indymedia. On October 27, 2006 during a labor dispute in the Mexican city of Oaxaca, Will was shot twice, possibly by government-aligned paramilitaries, resulting in his death.

Bradley Roland Will, né le à Evanston, Illinois, et mort le à Oaxaca, Mexique, est un militant américain affilié à Indymedia.