History.

Campsa and Repesa.

In 1927 CAMPSA (Compañía Arrendataria del Monopolio de Petróleos S.A.), headed by Miguel Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja, was created with the objective of administering concessions in handing over the state monopoly of petroleum companies. Originally the company was arranged so that the state would have a minority stake. The Creation of CAMPSA intensified the progress of the Spanish refinery industry.  In 1941 the Spanish government under Francisco Franco created the INI (National Industry Institute), in order to finance and promote Spanish industries. The INI supported CAMPSA in its exploration of Tudanca, Cantabria, a monumental moment in Spanish exploration on the Iberian Peninsula. The year 1947 marked the end of a 20-year contract between the Spanish state and CAMPSA, decentralizing services while at the same time giving specific rights to the state to intervene in the company's affairs, minus distribution and commercialization, which remained exclusive to CAMPSA.  In 1948, REPESA (Refinería de Petróleos de Escombreras S.A.) was incorporated for the installation of a refinery in the Valley of Escombreras (Cartagena).  'REPESA became the symbol of the increasing industrial consolidation in the refining sector, as it took on the production and marketing of petrol, oils and lubricants under its own brand name.' From the beginning, REPSOL was REPESA's "star brand" of petroleum as a REPESA product brand.

International expansion.

In 1999 Repsol bought 97.81% of the Argentine oil and gas company YPF S.A., which at the time was the largest oil-and-gas company in Ibero America. The acquisition better positioned Repsol as a multinational company. Repsol's acquisition of YPF also increased its capital to 288 million shares worldwide. Repsol's presence in Latin America was one of the keys to corporate growth. It was the first full year after the acquisition of YPF and the consolidation of Gas Natural SDG by global integration. The company's business structure was more balanced and international. Then in December 2001 Repsol completed an asset exchange agreement with Petrobras, making it the second largest consolidated oil company in Brazil. The same year Repsol announced new discoveries in Libya, Indonesia, Spain, Venezuela, Argentina, and Bolivia, prompting the development and marketing of its electricity business through Gas Natural SDG. In 2003 Repsol tripled its reserves and production of hydrocarbons in Trinidad and Tobago. North American expansion in 2008 saw Repsol open a massive regasification plant on the east coast of Canada with enough capacity to supply up to 20% of the gas demand for New York and New England.

Canary Islands.

Following years of opposition from environmentalist groups, Spain finally gave permission in August 2014 for the company and its partners to explore prospects off the Canary Islands. Eventually, in January 2015, after two months of exploration about 50 kilometers off the coasts of Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, the company said in a statement it only found small deposits that were not worth drilling thus scrapping the project.

Change to the company profile.

In 2008 Repsol began an intensive exploration campaign in which it focused its efforts on and invested in exploring in new areas, with results that enabled the company to change its profile. Using cutting edge technology, the company made over 30 hydrocarbon discoveries, many of which were considered to be among the largest in the world. This efforts was recognized by Petroleum Economist magazine as the "Best energy company of the year".

Talisman acquisition.

In December 2014 Repsol announced that it would buy Canadian oil company Talisman Energy in a transaction worth about $15.1 billion Cdn ($13 billion US).

Company name and origins.

In 1971 Repsol logo first appears, as REPESA (Refinería de Petróleos de Escombreras S.A.) brand product, during the motorcycle Derby of that year.  Its name derives from the founding company REPESA for its visibility and easy pronunciation in different languages. In 1991, the Instituto Nacional de Hidrocarburos (INH), before the imminent demise of the state oil monopoly, set the goal to create a company of mixed public-private capital, which exploited state oil assets. When looking for a name a survey at street level was performed and the only two words that people recognized and associate with the world of oil were CAMPSA (badge of the former monopoly) and REPSOL; obviously, this last one was chosen to name the new company.  "A short, round, sonorous and catchy name was searched. As many terms of the language sink their roots in Latin, here the first letters of a small company of lubricants (Repesa) were used, and the term is completed with the star that identifies Spain in the cultures of the north. Repsol is one of the few names of companies which does not obey an acronym or joins that obsession of putting together letters of horrific names. And that was the first hit".

Business areas.

Upstream.

Exploration and production of oil and natural gas are in charge of Repsol Exploration SA and its many subsidiaries. It is present in several countries as Spain, Norway, Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Malaysia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Angola, United States of America, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Russia and so many others. Repsol's had an intense exploration campaign throughout these years, with a 38% success rate.  The oil and gas exploration and production activity is Repsol's main growth driver. Repsol has become a world leader in exploration, with over 40 finds since 2008. To guarantee this activity in the long term, in 2013 Repsol incorporated 65 exploration blocks, mainly in the United States (44 blocks) and Norway (6 blocks), into its mining holdings. The 2013 net production reached 346,000 barrels of oil equivalent per day, up pm of 4% compared to 2012.

Downstream.

Downstream activity involves the supply and trading of crude and products, oil refining, petroleum product marketing (Marketing), distribution and marketing of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), production and marketing of chemicals and the development of new energies.  The Repsol Group owns and operates five refineries in Spain (Cartagena, A Coruña, Bilbao, Puertollano and Tarragona), with a combined distillation capacity of 896,000 bo/d. Installed capacity at La Pampilla refinery (Peru), in which Repsol holds a 51.03% stake and is the operator, is 102,000 bo/d.  Marketing their products is in charge of Repsol, CAMPSA and Petronor brand this through an extensive network of over 6,900 outlets, of which over 6,500 are service stations, distributed in Europe and Latin America. Repsol is one of the leading retail distributions of LPG, bottled and bulk, worldwide and is the first in Spain and Latin America. LPG sales totaled 2,464 Mt in 2013.

Chemicals.

The Chemicals division produces and markets a wide variety of products in over 90 countries and it is one of the leaders of the market on the Iberian Peninsula. Its activities range from basic petrochemicals to derivatives.  Production is concentrated at three petrochemical complexes located in Spain (Puertollano and Tarragona) and Portugal (Sines), where there is a high level of integration between basic and derivatives, as well as with refining activities in the case of the Spanish facilities. Repsol also has a number of subsidiary and affiliate companies, through which the company produces polypropylene compounds, chemical specialties and synthetic rubber at special plants.

Electricity and gas.

Repsol has 20% stake in Gas Natural Fenosa, which carry on the activities of gas and electricity distribution. In Spain, this business includes the compensated gas distribution activity, TPA (third-party network access services) and secondary transport, as well as non-compensated distribution activities. Sales from the regulated gas business in Spain amounted to 191,189 GWh in 2013, down 2.3% on the prior year. The distribution business now boasts 455,000 supply points, representing an increase of 1.3% over the previous year. Electricity supply points in Spain kept steady with 2012 levels, at 3,772,000. Electricity effectively supplied decreased 3% from 2012 to 2013, to 32,766 GWh, mainly because of more clement weather conditions.

Expropriation of YPF.

In May 2012, the Argentine president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, proposed the expropriation of 51% of Repsol's shares in YPF. The Republic of Argentina's Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Act that was passed that summer made officially possible the expropriation of Repsol's shares. Repsol went to various international bodies to pursue legal action directly after losing its shares of YPF. The expropriation was an attempt by the Argentine government to nationalize its oil and gas production. Results however show that the move to nationalize actually hurt oil production in Argentina. Compared to the oil production in 2011, YPF's oil production in 2012 fell by 8%, according to data from Argentina's Department of Energy.  Repsol had the backing of the EU and the US, and both powers condemned Argentina's move as expropriation. President Fernández claimed that the state would seize 51% of YPF. In June 2013, Repsol rejected a $5 billion proposal from Argentina to compensate for the 2012 expropriation. The proposal also would have given Repsol drilling rights to 6.4% of the massive Vaca Muerta shale-gas field. The board of the Repsol firm unanimously rejected this offer, as it would have caused them to drop a $10.5 billion lawsuit that was in progress against the Argentine government. Repsol at the time owned 6.4% of the YPF oil-and-gas company. On 25 February 2014 the Repsol board announced it had accepted a settlement offer from the Argentine government of an issue of Argentine bonds valued at $5 billion. The deal concluded after 3 months of negotiations in Buenos Aires was subject to shareholder approval. The agreement ended two years of legal wrangling and the potential for a long drawn-out legal battle. Repsol Chairman Antonio Brufau described the "friendly" settlement as "extremely positive."

Environmental record.

In 2011 Repsol built the world's first service station certified by BREEAM, "the leading international method for evaluating and certifying building sustainability". The construction of the station was completed under green architecture parameters, utilizing multiple recycled materials. The publication Newsweek selected Repsol as the most environmentally respectful energy company of 2012. However, recent reports of Repsol drilling in the indigenous lands of the Peruvian Amazon display a disregard for the environment. According to an Environmental Impact Assessment, Repsol's exploration of the rainforest will involve drilling at least 21 wells. Although Repsol denies it, 20 of the 21 wells fall within the land of indigenous people, who are very vulnerable to any sort of contact with foreigners.  In 2016, Repsol ranked as being among the 12th best of 92 oil, gas, and mining companies on indigenous rights in the Arctic.

Sponsorship.

Repsol has been a longtime sponsor of motorsport. It partners with Honda Racing Corporation to compete in MotoGP under Repsol Honda Team since 1995, winning titles with legendary riders such as Mick Doohan, Àlex Crivillé, Valentino Rossi, Nicky Hayden, Casey Stoner, and Marc Márquez. Previously, it supported two-time world rally champion Carlos Sainz until 1997, Formula One teams Jordan Grand Prix in 1998, Arrows Grand Prix in 1999–2000 and Scuderia Toro Rosso from 2018, and the Mitsubishi Ralliart factory program at the Dakar Rally until 2009.

Repsol S.A. () is a fossil fuel company based in Madrid, Spain. It carries out upstream and downstream activities throughout the entire world. It has more than 24,000 employees worldwide. It is vertically integrated and operates in all areas of the oil and gas industry, including exploration and production, refining, distribution and marketing, petrochemicals, power generation and trading.

Repsol S.A. (Ibex 35) est une société anonyme espagnole, fondée en octobre 1987. Elle centre ses activités autour de l'exploration, la production, le transport et le raffinage du pétrole et du gaz naturel. De plus, elle fabrique, distribue et commercialise des produits issus de la pétrochimie, et du gaz naturel.


Etymology and inscriptions.

Manes may be derived from "an archaic adjective manus—"good"—which was the opposite of immanis (monstrous)".  Roman tombstones often included the letters "D.M.", which stood for "diis manibus", "for the ghost-gods" or figuratively translated, "for the Manes", an abbreviation that continued to appear even in Christian inscriptions.  The Manes were offered blood sacrifices. The gladiatorial games, originally held at funerals, may have been instituted in the honor of the Manes. According to Cicero, the "Manes" could be called forth from the caves near Lake Avernus.

Lapis manalis.

When a new town was founded, a round hole would be dug and a stone called a "lapis manalis" would be placed in the foundations, representing a gate to the underworld. Due to similar names, the "lapis manalis" is often confused with the "lapis manilis" in commentaries even in antiquity: "The 'flowing stone'... must not be confused with the stone of the same name which, according to Festus, was the gateway to the underworld."  Cyril Bailey writes:  "Of this we have a characteristic example in the ceremony of the "aquaelicium", designed to produce rain after a long drought. In classical times the ceremony consisted in a procession headed by the pontifices, which bore the sacred rain-stone from its resting-place by the Porta Capena to the Capitol, where offerings were made to the sky-deity, Iuppiter, but from the analogy of other primitive cults and the sacred title of the stone ("lapis manalis"), it is practically certain that the original ritual was the purely imitative process of pouring water over the stone.

In ancient Roman religion, the Manes or Di Manes are chthonic deities sometimes thought to represent souls of deceased loved ones. They were associated with the "Lares", "Lemures," "Genii", and "Di Penates" as deities ("di") that pertained to domestic, local, and personal cult. They belonged broadly to the category of "di inferi", "those who dwell below," the undifferentiated collective of divine dead. The Manes were honored during the Parentalia and Feralia in February.

Le chlorure de fer(III), également appelé chlorure ferrique ou perchlorure de fer, est un sel de fer de formule chimique FeCl. C'est un composé très hygroscopique, qui émet des vapeurs dans l'air humide sous l'effet de l'hydrolyse. La réaction de dissolution dans l'eau est très exothermique et forme une solution acide marron. Ce liquide corrosif est utilisé pour traiter les eaux usées et les eaux d'adduction. Il est également utilisé pour des attaques métallographiques sur des cuivreux (notamment ceux présents dans les circuits imprimés) ainsi que l'acier inoxydable.


Maternal problems.

The following problems originate mainly in the mother.

Gestational diabetes.

Gestational diabetes is when a woman without diabetes develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy.

Hyperemesis gravidarum.

Hyperemesis gravidarum is the presence of severe and persistent vomiting, causing dehydration and weight loss. It is more severe than the more common morning sickness and is estimated to affect 0.5–2.0% of pregnant individuals.

High blood pressure.

Potential severe hypertensive states of pregnancy are mainly:

Venous thromboembolism.

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT), a form of venous thromboembolism (VTE), has an incidence of 0.5 to 7 per 1,000 pregnancies, and is the second most common cause of maternal death in developed countries after bleeding.

Anemia.

Levels of hemoglobin are lower in the third trimesters. According to the United Nations (UN) estimates, approximately half of pregnant individuals suffer from anemia worldwide. Anemia prevalences during pregnancy differed from 18% in developed countries to 75% in South Asia.  Treatment varies due to the severity of the anaemia, and can be used by increasing iron containing foods, oral iron tablets or by the use of parenteral iron.

Infection.

A pregnant woman is more susceptible to certain infections. This increased risk is caused by an increased immune tolerance in pregnancy to prevent an immune reaction against the fetus, as well as secondary to maternal physiological changes including a decrease in respiratory volumes and urinary stasis due to an enlarging uterus. Pregnant individuals are more severely affected by, for example, influenza, hepatitis E, herpes simplex and malaria. The evidence is more limited for coccidioidomycosis, measles, smallpox, and varicella. Mastitis, or inflammation of the breast occurs in 20% of lactating individuals.  Some infections are vertically transmissible, meaning that they can affect the child as well.

Peripartum cardiomyopathy.

Peripartum cardiomyopathy is decrease in heart function which occurs in the last month of pregnancy, or up to six months post-pregnancy. It increases the risk of congestive heart failure, heart arrhythmias, thromboembolism, and cardiac arrest.

Hypothyroidism.

Hypothyroidism (also called Hashimoto's disease) is an autoimmune disease that affects the thyroid in pregnant individuals. This condition can have a profound effect during pregnancy and on the child. The infant may be seriously affected and have a variety of birth defects. Many pregnant individuals with Hashimoto's disease develop an underactive thyroid. The clinician will do an exam and order one or more tests.

Fetal and placental problems.

The following problems occur in the fetus or placenta, but may have serious consequences on the mother as well.

Ectopic pregnancy.

Ectopic pregnancy is implantation of the embryo outside the uterus

Miscarriage.

Miscarriage is the loss of a pregnancy prior to 20 weeks. In the UK, miscarriage is defined as the loss of a pregnancy during the first 23 weeks.

Placental abruption.

Placental abruption is the separation of the placenta from the uterus.

Placenta praevia.

Placenta praevia is when the placenta fully or partially covers the cervix.

Placenta accreta.

Placenta accreta is an abnormal adherence of the placenta to the uterine wall.

Multiple pregnancies.

Multiples may become monochorionic, sharing the same chorion, with resultant risk of twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome. Monochorionic multiples may even become monoamniotic, sharing the same amniotic sac, resulting in risk of umbilical cord compression and entanglement. In very rare cases, there may be conjoined twins, possibly impairing function of internal organs.

Vertically transmitted infection.

The embryo and fetus have little or no immune function. They depend on the immune function of their mother. Several pathogens can cross the placenta and cause (perinatal) infection. Often microorganisms that produce minor illness in the mother are very dangerous for the developing embryo or fetus. This can result in spontaneous abortion or major developmental disorders. For many infections, the baby is more at risk at particular stages of pregnancy. Problems related to perinatal infection are not always directly noticeable.  The term TORCH complex refers to a set of several different infections that may be caused by transplacental infection.  Babies can also become infected by their mother during birth. During birth, babies are exposed to maternal blood and body fluids without the placental barrier intervening and to the maternal genital tract. Because of this, blood-borne microorganisms (hepatitis B, HIV), organisms associated with sexually transmitted disease (e.g., gonorrhoea and chlamydia), and normal fauna of the genito-urinary tract (e.g., Candida) are among those commonly seen in infection of newborns.

Intrauterine bleeding.

There have been rare but known cases of intrauterine bleeding caused by injury inflicted by the fetus with its fingernails or toenails.

General risk factors.

Factors increasing the risk (to either the pregnant individual, the fetus/es, or both) of pregnancy complications beyond the normal level of risk may be present in the pregnant individual's medical profile either before they become pregnant or during the pregnancy. These pre-existing factors may related to the individual's genetics, physical or mental health, their environment and social issues, or a combination of those.

Biological.

Some common biological risk factors include:

Environmental.

Some common environmental risk factors include:

High-risk pregnancy.

Some disorders and conditions can mean that pregnancy is considered high-risk (about 6-8% of pregnancies in the USA) and in extreme cases may be contraindicated. High-risk pregnancies are the main focus of doctors specialising in maternal-fetal medicine.  Serious pre-existing disorders which can reduce a woman's physical ability to survive pregnancy include a range of congenital defects (that is, conditions with which the woman herself was born, for example, those of the heart or, some of which are listed above) and diseases acquired at any time during the woman's life.

Complications of pregnancy are health problems that are related to pregnancy. Complications that occur primarily during childbirth are termed obstetric labor complications, and problems that occur primarily after childbirth are termed puerperal disorders. Severe complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium are present in 1.6% of mothers in the US and in 1.5% of mothers in Canada. In the immediate postpartum period (puerperium), 87% to 94% of pregnant individuals report at least one health problem. Long-term health problems (persisting after six months postpartum) are reported by 31% of pregnant individuals.

Les complications de la grossesse sont des affections et des états pathologiques provoqués par la grossesse. Les pathologies de la grossesse sont nombreuses, en effet la grossesse est une période de vulnérabilité particulière pour la future mère et son enfant à naître. On estime qu'en France 95 % des grossesses se déroulent sans anomalie.


Pronunciations.

Name pronunciation varies by region. Some people in the upper reaches of the river, particularly in Kansas, and parts of Colorado, pronounce it, People in Oklahoma, Arkansas, and some parts of Colorado, typically pronounce it, which is how the Arkansas state is always pronounced according to a state law passed in 1881.

Physical geography.

Course changes.

The path of the Arkansas River has changed over time. Sediments from the river found in a palaeochannel next to Nolan, a site in the Tensas Basin, show that part of the river's meander belt flowed through up to 5200 BP. Whilst it was previously thought that this relict channel was active at the same time as another relict of Mississippi River's meander belt, it has been shown that this channel of the Arkansas was inactive approximately 400 years before the Mississippi channel was active.

Hydrography.

The Arkansas has three distinct sections in its long path through central North America. At its headwaters beginning near Leadville, Colorado, the Arkansas runs as a steep fast-flowing mountain river through the Rockies in its narrow valley, dropping in. This section supports extensive whitewater rafting, including The Numbers (near Granite, Colorado), Brown's Canyon, and the Royal Gorge.  At Cañon City, Colorado, the Arkansas River valley widens and flattens markedly. Just west of Pueblo, Colorado, the river enters the Great Plains. Through the rest of Colorado, Kansas, and much of Oklahoma, it is a typical Great Plains riverway, with wide, shallow banks subject to seasonal flooding and periods of dwindling flow. Tributaries include the Cimarron River and the Salt Fork Arkansas River.  In eastern Oklahoma the river begins to widen further into a more contained consistent channel. To maintain more reliable flow rates, a series of large reservoir lakes have been built on the Arkansas and its intersecting tributaries including the Canadian, Verdigris, Neosho (Grand), Illinois, and Poteau rivers. These locks and dams allow the river to be navigable by barges and large river craft downriver of Muskogee, Oklahoma, where the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System joins in with the Verdigris River.  Into western Arkansas, the river path works between the encroaching Boston and Ouachita Mountains, including many isolated, flat-topped mesas, buttes, or monadnocks such as Mount Nebo, Petit Jean Mountain, and Mount Magazine, the highest point in the state. The river valley then expands as it encounters much flatter land beginning just west of Little Rock, Arkansas. It continues eastward across the plains and forests of eastern Arkansas until it flows into the Mississippi River near Napoleon, Arkansas.  Water flow in the Arkansas River (as measured in central Kansas) has dropped from approximately average from 1944–1963 to average from 1984–2003, largely because of the pumping of groundwater for irrigation in eastern Colorado and western Kansas.  Important cities along the Arkansas River include Canon City, Colorado; Pueblo, Colorado; La Junta, Colorado; Lamar, Colorado; Garden City, Kansas; Dodge City, Kansas; Wichita, Kansas; Tulsa, Oklahoma; Fort Smith, Arkansas; and Little Rock, Arkansas.  The May 2002 I-40 bridge disaster took place on I-40's crossing of Kerr Reservoir on the Arkansas River near Webbers Falls, Oklahoma.

Allocation problems.

Since 1902, Kansas has claimed Colorado takes too much of the river's water, resulting in a number of lawsuits before the U.S. Supreme Court that continue to this day, generally under the name of "Kansas v. Colorado". The problems over the possession and use of Arkansas River water by Colorado and Kansas led to the creation of an interstate compact or agreement between the two states. While Congress approved the Arkansas River Compact in 1949, the compact did not stop further disputes by the two states over water rights to the river.  The Kansas–Oklahoma Arkansas River Basin Compact was created in 1965 to promote mutual consideration and equity over water use in the basin shared by those states. It led to the Kansas–Oklahoma Arkansas River Commission, which was charged with administering the compact and reducing pollution. The compact was approved and implemented by both states in 1970, and has been in force since then.

Riverway commerce.

The McClellan–Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System begins at the Tulsa Port of Catoosa on the Verdigris River, enters the Arkansas River near Muskogee, and runs via an extensive lock and dam system to the Mississippi River. Through Oklahoma and Arkansas, dams which artificially deepen and widen the river to sustain commercial barge traffic and recreational use give the river the appearance of a series of reservoirs.  The McClellan–Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System diverts from the Arkansas River upstream of the Wilbur D. Mills Dam to avoid the long winding route which the lower Arkansas River follows. This circuitous portion of the Arkansas River between the Wilbur D. Mills Dam and the Mississippi River was historically bypassed by river vessels; early steamboats instead following a network of rivers—known as the Arkansas Post Canal—which flowed north of the lower Arkansas River and followed a shorter and more direct route to the Mississippi River. When the McClellan–Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System was constructed between 1963 and 1970, the Arkansas Post Canal was significantly improved, while the lower Arkansas River continued to be bypassed by commercial vessels.

The river in history.

Many nations of Native Americans lived near, or along, the 1,450-mile (2,334-km) stretch of the Arkansas River for thousands of years. The first Europeans to see the river were members of the Spanish Coronado expedition on June 29, 1541. Also in the 1540s, Hernando de Soto discovered the junction of the Arkansas with the Mississippi. The Spanish originally called the river "Napeste". "The name "Arkansas" was first applied by Father Jacques Marquette, who called the river "Akansa" in his journal of 1673. The Joliet-Marquette expedition travelled the Mississippi River from Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin towards the Gulf of Mexico, but turned back at the mouth of the Arkansas River. By that time, they had encountered Native Americans carrying European trinkets, and feared confrontation with Spanish conquistadors.  Jean-Baptiste Bénard de la Harpe, a French trader, explorer and nobleman had led an expedition into what is now Oklahoma in 1718–19. His original objective was to establish a trading post near the present city of Texarkana, Arkansas, but he then extended his trip overland as far north as the Arkansas River (which he designated as the "Alcansas"). The explorer wrote he and nine other men, including three Caddo guides and 22 horses loaded with trade goods had come to a native settlement overlooking the river, where there were about 6,000 natives, who gave the strangers a warm welcome. La Harpe's party were honored with the calumet ceremony and spent ten days at this location. In 1988, evidence of a native village was discovered along the Arkansas River south of present-day Tulsa, Oklahoma. By then, the site was known as the Lasley Vore Site.  French traders and trappers who had opened up trade with Indian tribes in Canada and the areas around the Great Lakes began exploring the Mississippi and some of its northern tributaries. They soon learned that the birchbark canoes, which had served them so well on the northern waterways, were too light for use on the southern rivers, such as the Arkansas. They turned to making and using dugout canoes, which they called "pirogues", made by hollowing out the trunks of cottonwood trees. Cottonwoods are plentiful along the streams of the southwest and grow to large sizes. The wood is soft and easily worked with the crude tools carried by both the French and Indians. The pirogues were sturdier and could be more for navigating the sandbars and snags of the Southern waterways.  In 1819, the Adams–Onís Treaty set the Arkansas as part of the frontier between the United States and Spanish Mexico. This continued until the United States annexed Texas after the Mexican–American War, in 1846. The treaty was made shortly after "Old Settler" Cherokees moved to near what became known as Webbers Falls on the Arkansas River. That area, then part of Arkansas Territory would become Indian Territory and later Oklahoma, was traditional territory of the Osage, leading to conflict and a treaty in 1828 but still unresolved by the time thousands of additional Cherokee refugees moved to the area during the Trail of Tears.  By the time Fort Smith was established in 1817, larger capacity watercraft became available to transport goods up and down the Arkansas. These included flatboats ("bateaus") and keelboats. Along with the pirogues, they transported piles of deer, bear, otter, beaver and buffalo skins up and down the river. Agricultural products such as corn, rice, dried peaches, beans, peanuts, snake root, sarsaparilla, ginseng had grown in economic importance.  On March 31, 1820, the "Comet" became the first steamboat to successfully navigate part of the Arkansas River, reaching a place called Arkansas Post, about above the confluence of the Arkansas and the Mississippi Rivers. In mid-April 1822, the "Robert Thompson", towing a keelboat, was the first steamboat to navigate the Arkansas as far as Fort Smith. For five years, Fort Smith was known as the head of navigation for steamboats on the river. It lost the title to Fort Gibson in April 1832, when three steamboats, "Velocipede", "Scioto" and "Catawba", all arrived at Fort Gibson later that month.  Later, the Santa Fe Trail followed the Arkansas through much of Kansas, picking it up near Great Bend and continuing through to La Junta, Colorado, unless users elected to take the challenging Cimarron Cutoff in Cimarron, Kansas.

American Civil War.

During the American Civil War, each side tried to prevent the other from using the Arkansas and its tributaries as a route for moving reinforcements. Initially, the Union Army abandoned its forts in the Indian Territory, including Fort Gibson and Fort Smith, in order to maximize its strength for campaigns elsewhere, while the Confederate Army sent troops from Texas to support its Native American allies. Union Troops returned later in the war, after defeating the Confederates at the Battle of Pea Ridge and the Battle of Fort Smith, and began recovering the position it had previously abandoned, most notably Fort Gibson, reopening the Arkansas River as a supply route. In September 1864, a body of Confederate irregulars led by General Stand Watie successfully ambushed a Union supply ship bound for Fort Gibson. The vessel was destroyed, and a part of its cargo was looted by the Confederates.

Post Civil War.

In the 1880s, Charles "Buffalo" Jones, one of the cofounders of Garden City, Kansas, organized four irrigation companies to take water one hundred miles from the Arkansas River to cultivate of land. By 1890, water from the Arkansas was being used to irrigate more than of farmland in Kansas. By 1910, irrigation projects in Colorado had caused the river to stop flowing in July and August.  Flooding in 1927 severely damaged or destroyed nearly every levee downstream of Fort Smith, and led to the development of the Arkansas River Flood Control Association. It also led to the Federal Government assigning responsibility of flood control and navigation on the Arkansas to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACOE).

Angling.

The headwaters of the Arkansas River in central Colorado have been known for exceptional trout fishing, particularly fly fishing, since the 19th century, when greenback cutthroat trout dominated the river. Today, brown trout dominate the river, which also contains rainbow trout. "Trout Unlimited" considers the Arkansas one of the top 100 trout streams in America, a reputation the river has had since the 1950s. From Leadville to Pueblo, the Arkansas River is serviced by numerous fly shops and guides operating in Buena Vista, Salida, Cañon City and Pueblo. The Colorado Division of Wildlife provides regular online fishing reports for the river.  A fish kill occurred on December 29, 2010, in which an estimated 100,000 freshwater drum lined the Arkansas River bank. An investigation, conducted by the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, found the dead fish "... cover of river from the Ozark Lock and Dam downstream to River Mile 240, directly south of Hartman, Arkansas." Tests later indicated the likely cause of the kill was gas bubble trauma caused by opening the spillways on the Ozark Dam.

The Arkansas River is a major tributary of the Mississippi River. It generally flows to the east and southeast as it traverses the U.S. states of Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. The river's source basin lies in the western United States in Colorado, specifically the Arkansas River Valley, where the headwaters derive from the snowpack in the Sawatch and Mosquito mountain ranges. It then flows east into the Midwest via Kansas, and finally into the South through Oklahoma and Arkansas.

LArkansas ("Arkansas River" en anglais) est un affluent du Mississippi dont le cours traverse les États du Colorado, du Kansas, de l'Oklahoma et de l'Arkansas. Long de, c'est le quatrième cours d'eau le plus long des États-Unis.


Taxonomy.

"Ommastrephes bartramii" belongs to the family Ommastrephidae, subfamily Ommastrephinae. It is the only species belonging to the monospecific genus Ommastrephes. It was first described by the French naturalist, explorer, and artist Charles Alexandre Lesueur in 1821. Russian taxonomists consider the separate spawning populations of "Ommastrephes bartramii" as subspecies.

Description.

"Ommastrephes bartramii" are easily distinguishable by the presence of an elongated silver-colored band in the middle of the ventral side of the mantle. Adult males usually have a mantle length of, but can reach the maximum length of. Adult females are much larger, usually having a mantle length of around, with the maximum known length being. Their arms do not possess lateral membranes and have 9 to 27 suckers on the ventral sucker series and 10 to 25 suckers on the dorsal sucker series. The left and right third arms have protective membranes greater in width than the arm width. The hectocotylus develops from the left or right fourth arm. Another distinguishing characteristic of "O. bartramii" is the presence of 4 to 7 toothed suckers on the tentacular club, near the nearest carpal suckers of the carpal locking apparatus. This is especially useful in differentiating it from the orangeback flying squid ("Sthenoteuthis pteropus").  Photophores are present but are small, irregular, and restricted to the ventral side of the mantle, head, and tentacles. Visceral photophores are absent.  Like other ommastrephids and onychoteuthids known as 'flying squid', neon flying squid are so named for their ability to shoot out of the water, much like flying fishes. They sometimes unintentionally land on the decks of ships. This happens more frequently during rough weather or in the presence of predators in the vicinity, and it is presumed that this behavior is an instinctive response to threat. Flying squid have been observed to engage in behaviors that prolong the time it remains in the air, making it more akin to actual flight than just gliding. Biologists, however, still do not fully understand the exact mechanisms by which the squid become airborne. Nevertheless, the phenomenon is known to happen quite frequently and at least one photographic evidence of "Ommastrephes bartramii" in flight exists.

Distribution and habitat.

Neon flying squid are cosmopolitan, being found in subtropical and temperate waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. They are rarely found in the Mediterranean.  At night, they are usually found feeding just beneath the surface near cold-water fronts, at depths of. They descend to depths of during daytime, though they have been known to descend to depths of up to. This movement pattern is known as diel vertical migration and is also exhibited by other oceanic organisms.

Ecology and biology.

Life cycle.

Neon flying squid are highly migratory. They have a lifespan of about one year, during which they complete a cyclical migration between their feeding and spawning grounds. Mating occurs when males (who usually achieve sexual maturity earlier in the season) pass spermatophores to the females. The female squid store them in the oral surface of their buccal membrane until they too become sexually mature later in the season and begin to spawn. Spawning is continuous and not seasonal, occurring virtually throughout the year in intermittent spawning events. Each female spawns approximately 350,000 to 3.6 million eggs, depending on their size. Males and females are both presumed to die soon after.  Hatchlings are around long and grow rapidly, reaching a length of after a month. The paralarvae migrate northwards toward the waters bordering subarctic regions during summer and autumn. They are usually found feeding at a depth of from the surface. Maturing squid return to the spawning grounds to mate.

Diet and predators.

Neon flying squid eat small oceanic fishes (like lanternfishes and saury) and other squids. They are known to engage in cannibalism to smaller members of their own species as well. They serve as prey to large fishes (like swordfish, marlin, and tuna), sharks, and marine mammals. They are also fished commercially for human consumption.

The neon flying squid ("Ommastrephes bartramii"), sometimes called the red flying squid, akaika, and red squid is a species of large flying squid in the family Ommastrephidae. They are found in subtropical and temperate oceanic waters globally.

L'Ommastrephes bartramii (Lesueur, 1821) est un mollusque céphalopode décapode. Ce calmar est dénommé "encornet volant" par la FAO, mais en 2009 ne fait pas partie de la liste des espèces pouvant être vendues en France sous le nom d'encornet ou de calmar.


Biography.

London was born in Breslau, Germany (now Wrocław, Poland) as the son of Franz London (1863-1917). Being a Jew, London lost his position at the University of Berlin after Hitler's Nazi Party passed the 1933 racial laws. He took visiting positions in England and France, and emigrated to the United States in 1939, of which he became a naturalized citizen in 1945. Later in his life, London was a professor at Duke University. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1953. He died from a heart ailment in Durham, North Carolina, in 1954.

Academic achievements.

London's early work with Walter Heitler on chemical bonding is now treated in any textbook on physical chemistry. This paper was the first to properly explain the bonding in a homonuclear molecule such as H. It is no coincidence that the Heitler–London work appeared shortly after the introduction of quantum mechanics by Heisenberg and Schrödinger, because quantum mechanics was crucial in their explanation of the covalent bond. Another necessary ingredient was the realization that electrons are indistinguishable, as expressed in the Pauli principle.  Other early work of London was in the area of intermolecular forces. He coined the expression "dispersion effect" for the attraction between two rare gas atoms at large (say about 1 nanometer) distance from each other. Nowadays this attraction is often referred to as "London force". In 1930 he gave (together with R. Eisenschitz) a unified treatment of the interaction between two noble gas atoms that attract each other at large distance, but repel each other at short distances. Eisenschitz and London showed that this repulsion is a consequence of enforcing the electronic wavefunction to be antisymmetric under electron permutations. This antisymmetry is required by the Pauli principle and the fact that electrons are fermions.  For atoms and nonpolar molecules, the London dispersion force is the only intermolecular force, and is responsible for their existence in liquid and solid states. For polar molecules, this force is one part of the van der Waals force, along with forces between the permanent molecular dipole moments.  London was the first theoretical physicist to make the fundamental, and at the time controversial, suggestion that superfluidity is intrinsically related to the Einstein condensation of bosons, a phenomenon now known as Bose–Einstein condensation. Bose recognized that the statistics of massless photons could also be applied to massive particles; he did not contribute to the theory of the condensation of bosons.  London was also one of the early authors (including Schrödinger) to have properly understood the principle of local gauge invariance (Weyl) in the context of the then new quantum mechanics.  London predicted the effect of flux quantization in superconductors and with his brother Heinz postulated that the electrodynamics of superconductors is described by a massive field. I.e. that whilst magnetic flux is expelled from a superconductor, this happens exponentially over a finite length with an exponent which is now called the London penetration depth.  London also developed a theory of a rotational response of a superconductor, pointing out that rotation of a superconductor generates magnetic field London moment. This effect is used in models of rotational dynamics of neutron stars.

Fritz London Memorial Lectures and Prize.

Since 1956, the Fritz London Memorial Lectures have brought to the scientific community at Duke University a distinguished group of lecturers including twenty Nobel laureates. The scientific interests of each lecturer impinge at one or more points upon the various fields of physics and chemistry to which Fritz London contributed. In December 1972, John Bardeen, two-time winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, established an endowment fund "to perpetuate the memory of Fritz London, distinguished scientist and member of the Duke faculty from 1939 to the time of his death in 1954, and to promote research and understanding of Physics at Duke University and in the wider scientific community". The fund is to be used to underwrite the Fritz London Memorial Prize, given in recognition of outstanding contributions in Low Temperature Physics, and provide support for the London Memorial Lectures at Duke University.

Fritz Wolfgang London (March 7, 1900 – March 30, 1954) was a German physicist and professor at Duke University. His fundamental contributions to the theories of chemical bonding and of intermolecular forces (London dispersion forces) are today considered classic and are discussed in standard textbooks of physical chemistry. With his brother Heinz London, he made a significant contribution to understanding electromagnetic properties of superconductors with the London equations and was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry on five separate occasions.

Fritz Wolfgang London ( – ) était un physicien théoricien allemand et américain connu pour son application de la mécanique quantique aux problèmes chimiques. Les forces de London ont été ainsi baptisées en son honneur car il fut le premier à fournir leur formulation mathématique.


Early life and public career.

Born in 1922, Montazeri was from a peasant family in Najafabad, a city in Isfahan Province, 250 miles south of Tehran.  His early theological education was in Isfahan. After Khomeini was forced into exile by the Shah, Montazeri "sat at the center of the clerical network" which Khomeini had established to oppose Pahlavi rule. He became a teacher at the Faiziyeh Theological School. While there he answered Khomeini's call to protest the White Revolution of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in June 1963 and was active in anti-Shah clerical circles. He was sent to prison in 1974 and released in 1978 in time to be active during the revolution. Montazeri then went to Qom where he studied theology.

Iranian Revolution.

Montazeri was known as an Islamic jurist who was made to pay for his liberal-leaning beliefs. He supported a democratic republic as the best form of government; however in his ideal model for government, an Islamic jurist acts as a supervisor and advisor, what he, along with Ayatollah Khomeini, termed as velayat-e faqih. He was the author of "Dirasāt fī wilāyah al-faqīh", a scholarly book advocating the supervision of the administration by Islamic jurists. He believed in the independence of the government and did not accept any executive and policy making role for the Islamic jurist. Montazeri asserted that the rule of the jurisprudent should not be an absolute rule; instead, it should be limited to the function of advisor to the rulers, who are elected by the people.  In 1979, following the overthrow of the Shah, he played a pivotal role in instituting Iran's new constitution. He was one of the leaders of the movement to replace the democratic and secular draft constitution proposed for the Islamic Republic with one where the supervision of Islamic jurists was recognized. He distributed "a detailed commentary and alternate draft" for Iran's new constitution. It included proposals to specify that Twelver Shi'ism—and not Islam in general—was the official religion of the state and to state that Islamic jurists should appoint judges with the right of veto over all laws and actions that are against the Islamic principles. Later he served on the Assembly of Experts ("Majles-e-Khobregan") that wrote the constitution and that implemented many of his proposals.  During this time, Montazeri also served as Friday prayer leader of Qom, as a member of the Revolutionary Council and as deputy to Supreme Leader Khomeini. Khomeini began "to transfer some of his power" to Montazeri, in 1980. By 1983 "all government offices hung a small picture" of Montazeri next to that of Khomeini. In 1984, Montazeri became a grand ayatollah.  Montazeri initially rejected Khomeini's proposal to make him his successor, insisting that the choice of successor be left to the democratically elected Assembly of Experts. Later, Montazeri relented, and following a session of the Assembly of Experts in November 1985, he was officially appointed Khomeini's successor as Supreme Leader.  Some observers believe Khomeini chose him for this role solely because of his support for Khomeini's principle of theocratic rule by Islamic jurists. Khomeini's proposed form of administration called for the most learned, or one of the most learned, Islamic jurists to "rule", and of all those who might be considered a leading Islamic jurist, only Montazeri supported theocracy. In Montazeri's opinion, however the jurist would not act as an absolute ruler, instead, he would act as an advisor and consultant.  Montazeri fell short of the theological requirements of the supreme Faqih. He could not claim descent from the Prophet nor did he possess all the credentials of a revered scholar of Islamic law. His religious followers were few. And he lacked the all-important charisma. His selection had happened for one reason—he was the only one among the candidates for Faqih who totally endorsed Khomeini's vision of Islamic government.  In addition, traditionalists did not approve Montazeri's designation as successor due to several reasons, including his problematic persona in Shiite seminaries during the reign of the Shah and his support for Ali Shariati’s and for Nematollah Salehi Najaf Abadi's works. Montazeri's leadership qualifications were further hurt by not being a seyyed, or descendant of the Prophet Mohammed, traditionally wearing the black turban in Shiite Islam, like Khomeini and Khomeini's successor Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. In the early years of the revolution, he was not as popular as he was in the last two decades of his life. The middle class and elites would mock him in those early years.

Dispute with Khomeini and demotion.

Mehdi Karrubi claims that the tensions between Montazeri and Khomenei began in around October 1986 when Montazeri sent a letter to the latter, criticising and questioning the foundation of the state. Montazeri's troubles became further evident due to his association with Mehdi Hashemi who ran an organization out of Montazeri's office which sought to export the Islamic revolution. Hashemi is thought to have embarrassed Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani by leaking information of his connection with the Iran-Contra affair. Subsequently Hashemi was arrested, convicted and executed in September 1987 on charges of counterrevolutionary activities.  In November 1987, Montazeri created more controversy when he called for the legalization of political parties, though under strict regulation. He followed this by calling for "an open assessment of failures" of the Revolution and an end to the export of revolution, saying that Iran should inspire by example, not train and arm allied groups. Khomeini responded the next February by criticizing Montazeri and a month later called for a meeting of the Assembly of Experts to "discuss him."  Things came to a head following the mass execution of political prisoners in late summer and early autumn 1988, when Montazeri gave a series of lectures in which he indicated support for a "far more open" policy. In an interview published in "Keyhan" in early 1989, he criticized Khomeini in language that is said to have sealed "his political fate": The denial of people's rights, injustice and disregard for the revolution's true values have delivered the most severe blows against the revolution. Before any reconstruction [takes place], there must first be a political and ideological reconstruction... This is something that the people expect of a leader. Still worse for him were the publication abroad and broadcast on the BBC of his letters condemning the post-war wave of executions in March 1989. Montazeri also criticized Khomeini's fatwa ordering the assassination of author Salman Rushdie saying: "People in the world are getting the idea that our business in Iran is just murdering people."  On 26 March 1989, Imam Khomeini strongly denounced Montazeri's actions, and two days later announced that Montazeri had resigned his post. Montazeri did not protest his loss, issuing a message concluding, "I ask all brothers and sisters not to utter a word in my support."  In addition to losing his position as designated heir, Montazeri's title of Grand Ayatollah was withdrawn, publication of his lectures in the "Kayhan" newspaper and references to him on the state radio were stopped, his portraits were ordered by the then Prime Minister Mir Hossein Mousavi to be removed from offices and mosques, and his security guards were withdrawn. "Articles and editorials appeared in various newspapers aimed at dismantling" Montazeri's "impeccable" revolutionary credentials."  According to numerous sources, the amendment to Iran's constitution removing the requirement that the Supreme Leader be a Marja was instituted to deal with the problem of a lack of any remaining Grand Ayatollahs willing to accept "illimitable velayat-e faqih". However, others said the reason marjas were not elected was because of their lack of votes in the Assembly of Experts. For example, Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Reza Golpaygani had the backing of only thirteen members of the assembly. Furthermore, there were other marjas present who accepted "illimitable velayat-e faqih".

Later dissent and house arrest.

Khomeini died in June 1989 and another cleric, Seyed Ali Khamene'i, was selected by the Assembly of Experts to be the new Supreme Leader. Khamenei had been a high-ranking Hojatoleslam before Montazeri's removal. His promotion was accepted by many Shi'a, among the exceptions being Montazeri.  In December 1989, Montazeri's supporters in Qom distributed "night letters" questioning Khamenei's qualifications to be a Marja e Taqlid ("Source of Emulation"), or in other words, an Ayatollah. In retaliation Revolutionary Guards "detained and humiliated" Montazeri, "forcing him to wear his nightcap rather than his white turban."  In October 1997, after openly criticizing the authority of the Iranian Supreme leader Ayatollah Khamenei, Ayatollah Montazeri was placed under house arrest under the pretext of protecting him from hardliners. He was finally freed from house arrest in 2003 after "more than 100 Iranian legislators" called on President Khatami to free Montazeri. Some thought that the government lifted the house arrest to avoid the possibility of a popular backlash if the ailing Montazeri died while in custody.

Criticism of the government.

During the 1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners, Ayatollah Montazeri wrote to Ayatollah Khomeini saying "at least order to spare women who have children... the execution of several thousand prisoners in a few days will not reflect positively and will not be mistake-free... A large number of prisoners have been killed under torture by interrogators... in some prisons of the Islamic Republic young girls are being raped... As a result of unruly torture, many prisoners have become deaf or paralysed or afflicted with chronic decease."  On 22 January 2007, Grand Ayatollah Montazeri criticized the former Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad for his nuclear and economic policies.  While agreeing Iran had the right to develop nuclear energy, he called Ahmadinejad's approach to the issue aggressive, saying, "One has to deal with the enemy with wisdom, not provoke it,... his (provocation) only creates problems for the country" and asked, "Don't we have other rights too?", referring to individual and human rights. Montazeri also criticized the economic performance of Ahmadinejad's administration's, noting the rate of inflation—including a 50% increase in housing costs—arguing that a country cannot be run on "slogans".  Montazeri, in a 2008 interview with the Voice of America concerning the 29th anniversary of the revolution, stated that the revolution had given Islam a bad name, arguing "Unfortunately, it is only by name that the revolution remains Islamic. Its content has changed, and what is taking place in the name of Islam gives a bad image of the religion. This is the religion of kindness and tolerance." He also issued a statement in 2008 in support of the rights of the Baha'is in the Islamic Republic, saying that though Baha'is were not People of the Book like Jews, Christians and Zoroastrians, nonetheless: "they are the citizens of this country, they have the right of citizenship and to live in this country. Furthermore, they must benefit from the Islamic compassion which is stressed in Quran and by the religious authorities."  Montazeri again spoke out against Ahmadinejad on 16 June 2009 during the protests against his reelection. Ahmadinejad was controversially reelected as president after a closely contested and disputed election, which involved many candidates, but whose leading vote-getters were Ahmadinejad and former Prime Minister Mir Hossein Mousavi. The government reported that Ahmadinejad had won the election with 62 percent of the vote. Montazeri stated that "No one in their right mind can believe" the results were fairly counted. Montazeri called for three days of public mourning for the death of Neda Agha-Soltan and others killed during 20 June protests. He further declared that the then current ruling government was neither Islamic nor a republic, but military. In November 2009, on the day before the 30th anniversary celebration of the Iran hostage crisis, Montazeri said that the occupation of the American embassy in 1979 had been a mistake.

Human rights and gender.

While Ayatollah Montazeri has been celebrated as a champion of the rights of political prisoners, and human rights associated with the public sphere, in an interview conducted in 2003 in Qom with the Iranian feminist academic Golbarg Bashi he said that while men and women enjoy the same dignity and respect in the eyes of God, women's rights must remain strictly under the domain of Shi'i fiqh rather than international human rights conventions such as CEDAW.  In response to Golbarg Bashi, Ayatollah Montazeri said:  When Bashi informed him that currently (2003) in Iranian universities, "some 60% of students are women" and asked him "so in future generations, when the number of professors, physicians, high-ranking experts, etc, will be mostly women, will Islam be able to have an ijtihad and modify these unjust laws because they no longer correspond with reality?"  Ayatollah Montazeri responded: "Those aspects of the Islamic law that are based on the very letter of the Qur'an, the answer is no. But certain other things yes, you can, and they can be subject to changing times. But those that are from the very letter of the Qur'an, no they cannot, and those have certain wisdom and subtleties in them."

Reputation.

Montazeri was described by his allies as "brilliant," down-to-earth, unpretentious, plain spoken, and as one who "lives plainly, and equates Islam with social justice" and stays above political infighting." His detractors portrayed him as stubborn and naïve in his insistence that the Islamic republic find reconciliation with the "hypocrites" and "liberals" who are its "internal enemies."

Public image.

In late 1960s, Montazeri gained influence and popularity in Isfahan Province after his speeches criticizing the Shah, moving SAVAK to banish and subsequently imprison him.  In 1980s, Montazeri was known by the pejorative nickname "Gorbeh Nareh" (, the masculine cat) after the Cat, a character in the "Pinocchio" animated series. According to Elaine Sciolino, this was due to his "poor public speaking skills, squeaky voice, round face and grizzled beard".

Personal life.

On 4 September 1942, he married Mah-Sultan Rabbani (1926 – 26 March 2010) and had seven children, four daughters and three sons. One of his sons, Mohammad Montazeri died in a bomb blast at Islamic Republican Party headquarters in 1981 which was carried out by the People's Mujahedin of Iran; another, Saeed Montazeri, lost an eye in the Iran-Iraq war in 1985. Another son, Ahmad Montazeri, is a cleric in Qom. The brother of Montazeri's son-in-law, Mehdi Hashemi, was sentenced to death and executed after the 1979 revolution due to his alleged involvement in the murder of Ayatollah Abul Hassan Shams Abadi, who had been a critic of Montazeri, in Isfahan.  He was described by Ayatollah Mohammad Guilani as "meticulous about, if not obsessed by, cleanliness."

Death.

On 19 December 2009, Montazeri died in his sleep of heart failure at his home in Qom, at the age of 87. The Islamic Republic News Agency, the official news agency of Iran, did not use the Ayatollah title in its initial reports of his death and referred to him as the "clerical figure of rioters". The state television and radio broadcasters were similar, showing the tension between the government and its opponents.

Funeral and protests.

Montazeri's funeral was said to have marked "a new phase" in Iran's 2009 uprising.

21 December.

On 21 December, hundreds of thousands of mourners and the Green Movement supporters from across Iran turned out in Montazeri's funeral and turned the funeral to a massive protest against the Iranian government. The funeral service for him began at his house and funeral prayers were held at the Grand Mosque in Qom. After the special prayers by Ayatollah Mousa Shabiri Zanjani, his body was laid to rest in the Fatima Masumeh Shrine. He was buried alongside his son, Mohammad Montazeri.  The protesters chanted opposition slogans, including "Our shame, our shame, our idiot leader", and “Dictator, this is your last message: the people of Iran are rising!”  Although the police mostly stayed clear of the funeral, there were some skirmishes between protesters and the Basij militia. Also on 21 December, inside the Qom shrine where Montazeri’s body was laid to rest, opposition activists gathered and chanted “Death to the dictator.” When one group of pro-government basiji militiamen came toward them, chanting “Death to the hypocrites,” the crowd changed to an anti-basiji slogan. Then they took out money, offering it to the basiji, and chanted that they were acting as paid mercenaries of the government: “Where is the oil money? Spent on the Basiji,” and “Basij’s great pride, rape in prison.” On the same day, Mir-Hossein Mousavi stepped out from the compound of Grand Ayatollah Saanei, a fellow reformist, to cross the street to Montazeri’s house in Qom. At that moment, a group of 30 bearded men, holding Montazeri pictures to blend into the crowd, dropped the portraits, started attacking Mousavi and shouted “death to the hypocrite.” The former candidate had to be hustled quickly into the Montazeri compound. The same thing happened when cleric Mehdi Karroubi stepped into the street. This time, groups of reformists were ready and pushed back the vigilantes, so that Karroubi could pass.  As the funeral procession ended, security forces poured into the city, blocking roads to the Ayatollah's house and tearing down posters of the Ayatollah. Mourners were reported to have thrown stones at police who tried to stop them chanting pro-Montazeri slogans. Mourners responded defiantly when ordered by loudspeaker not to chant, breaking into shouts of "Ya Hossein, Mir Hossein" in support of Mir Hossein Mousavi. When a crowd of pro-government supporters chanted back: "I will give my life for the supreme leader," they were booed by mourners, a witness said. The security forces prevented the Ayatollah's family from holding a planned memorial ceremony in the grand mosque of Qom following the funeral.  According to the reformist website Kalameh, men on motorbikes, believed to be Ahmadinejad supporters, attacked the car carrying Mir Hossein Mousavi back from Qom to Tehran. They insulted Mousavi, smashed the back window and injured one of his aides.  There were also protests in Najafabad, birthplace of Ayatollah Montazeri. Internet videos showed protesters waving green banners and chanting, “Dictator, dictator, Montazeri is alive!” and “Oh Montazeri, your path will be followed even if the dictator shoots us all!”

22 and 23 December.

On 22 December, Ahmadinejad continued his quest to strip his opponents of their last vestiges of political power. He interrupted a visit to Shiraz to return to Tehran and remove Mir Hossein Mousavi, the main opposition leader he defeated in the presidential election, as head of the state Academy of Arts and Culture- a post he had held for ten years. Hardliners also want Mousavi arrested for his role in inciting unrest since the disputed June election.  On 23 December, Iranian security forces clashed with tens of thousands of opposition supporters in the city of Isfahan, according to opposition website reports. Activists said police used tear gas, pepper spray and batons to disperse people gathering to commemorate Grand Ayatollah Montazeri in the Seyed mosque. People had gathered at the main mosque for the memorial service, but when they arrived the doors were closed and security forces told them to leave. Afterwards, security forces began beating people, including women and children with batons, chains and stones, used tear gas and pepper spray and arrested at least 50 people, including four journalists and a cleric, Masoud Abid, who was to deliver the sermon. Many were also injured. One witness said, "They took people in the shops and beat them up mostly out of public vision although some beatings happened outside on the streets." Security forces also sealed off the home of Ayatollah Jalal Al-Din Taheri, who organised the service and used to lead Friday prayers in Isfahan until he resigned in 2002 in protest at the government’s growing authoritarianism.  Meanwhile, footage sent to the BBC from Najafabad showed crowds chanting "Criminals, rapists, death to the leadership" and "We're not afraid, we're not afraid" as security men watched from rooftops.  Police severely attacked mourners and protesters in several cities, with many wounded and arrested. The government also announced that banknotes with anti-government annotation, which recently spread across the country, will be forbidden starting from 8 January.

24 December.

On 24 December, opposition web sites reported that police in Tehran and the northwestern city of Zanjan clashed with protesters defying an order by the Iranian government banning memorial services for Montazeri. Protesters marched in Imam Khomeini Square in southern Tehran in a sign of mourning for Montazeri. The protesters chanted, "Today is a mourning day; the green nation of Iran is mourning today"—a reference to the trademark color of the opposition. The police attacked the protesters with clubs and tear gas. Older women tried to prevent the arrest of young men by throwing themselves on them, and were severely beaten by officers who intended to drag the young men away.  Meanwhile, the police in Zanjan, a city of mostly Turkish speakers, tried to prevent a mourning ceremony for Montazeri by locking the mosque where the ceremony was to be held and attacking mourners who chanted outside it. It was mentioned that: “The police beat people with such violence that many suffered from broken legs, arms and noses.” There were also many arrests.

26 December.

Witnesses and opposition websites reported the following incidents:

Later events.

In 2010, the office of Montazeri that had been run by his son Ahmad was closed on the orders of Ali Khamenei.

Hussein-Ali Montazeri (24 September 1922 – 19 December 2009;, ) was an Iranian Shia Islamic theologian, Islamic democracy advocate, writer and human rights activist. One of the leaders of the Iranian Revolution in 1979, he was a former designated successor to the revolution's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khomeini, with whom he had a falling-out in 1989 over government policies that Montazeri claimed infringed on people's freedom and denied them their rights. Montazeri spent his later years in Qom, and remained politically influential in Iran, especially for the reformist movement. He was known as the most knowledgeable senior Islamic scholar in Iran and a "Grand Marja" (religious authority) of Shia Islam.

L'ayatollah Hossein Ali Montazeri (حسینعلی منتظری en persan), né à Najafabad en 1922 et mort le à Qom, est un des hauts dignitaires chiites iraniens, défenseur de la démocratie et des droits de l'homme en Iran. Il participe activement à la Révolution iranienne de 1979, dont il est l'un des chefs de file religieux, puis à l'élaboration de la constitution iranienne de 1979 et à l'instauration du Velayat-e faqih. Il est surtout connu comme le seul successeur de l'ayatollah Khomeini, mais à la suite de son opposition, en particulier pour avoir critiqué la répression politique et culturelle, il est écarté par une lettre de Khomeini en 1988 et supplanté par l'actuel Guide suprême de la révolution islamique, Ali Khamenei.


Geology.

Remnants of past, prehistoric lava domes are main components of the summit of the volcano, in addition to its false summit, Disappointment Peak. Past pyroclastic flow deposits are easily visible in river valleys near the volcano, likely caused by lava dome collapse, along with ridges found east of the summit consisting of ash cloud remains. On its western flank, the volcano also has a lahar, or mudflow deposit, which runs for about into the White Chuck River Valley around 14,000 years ago. Ten other pyroclastic flow deposits are visible, all identified as relatively 10,000 years old. There is also a considerably newer mudflow, about 5,500 years old, which covers an area of between the same river valley, along with two small incidents both under 3,000 years old. Another lahar, of unidentified age, was rich in oxyhornblende dacite; and continued for into the Sauk River.  There are also ash cloud deposits on the opposite eastern flank of the volcano. Studies of the mountain have to date been unable to find any correspondence with pyroclastic flows, but several past mudflows have been identified. In the Dusty Creek, located by the mountain, there is a lahar at least thick, containing pyroclastic flow deposits and other mudflows. However, this large mudflow is part of a thick concentration of past incidents at the volcano that spans the Dusty and Chocolate Creek. In the area at least ten cubic kilometers of lithic debris are contained. Tephra deposits are for the most part constrained to the left flank of the volcano, and at least nine past incidents have been identified. These form several layers of tephra constructing the mountain. Smaller eruptions involving tephra occurred between 6,900–5,500 years ago, 3,450–200 years ago, and as recent as 316–90 years ago.  On the mountain, about up, are three additional cinder cones — one at the head of White Chuck River, one at Dishpan Gap, and one near Indian Pass. The volcano has also caused thermal events such as hot springs. There were three hot springs on the mountain: Gamma, Kennedy, and Sulphur, but Kennedy Hot Springs was destroyed and buried in a slide.

Tectonic setting.

The volcano is located in Washington, and is one of the five major stratovolcanoes there. Situated in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, the volcano was created by subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca Plate under the North American Plate. Convergence between the two continues at a rate of per year. This range has been volcanically active for about 36 million years, and the rocks that make up its volcanoes are between 55 and 42 million years old. Eruptions within the range are irregular and do not occur all at once. In an attempt to organize the volcanoes by age, scientists typically divide them into the High Cascades, younger volcanoes, and the Western Cascades, consisting of the older volcanoes. However, the vents in Washington are all of different ages so none of its volcanoes are included in either of the sections.

History.

Around the area, there were many Native Americans, and along with other Washington volcanoes, the mountain was recognized by them as a spirit. When European-American explorers reached the area, they learned about the mountain, though only partially, through local legends. Although the local people described Glacier Peak as a vital part of their storytelling and beliefs; when other volcanoes in the area were mapped, Glacier Peak was left out. In 1850 natives mentioned the volcano to naturalist George Gibbs saying that the volcano had once "smoked". In 1898 the volcano was finally documented on a map.  Native Americans also used the area around the Cascades for their agriculture, leading them to often congregate in the region. As a result, gold miners eventually reached the area in the 1870s–1890s, searching for resources and rich land. The first white man recorded to observe the mountain—Daniel Lindsley—was an employee of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company searching for possible railroad routes when he saw it in 1870.

Eruptive history.

Despite its elevation of, Glacier Peak is a small stratovolcano. Its relatively high summit is a consequence of its location atop a high ridge, but its volcanic portion extends only above the underlying ridge. Another Cascade Arc volcano with similar geomorphology is the Mount Meager massif in southwestern British Columbia, Canada, which is situated on a ridge of nonvolcanic, crystalline and metamorphic rock. Of the five major volcanoes in Washington, only Glacier Peak and Mount St. Helens have had large eruptions in the past 15,000 years. Since both volcanoes generate magma of dacitic origin, the viscous magma builds up since it cannot flow through the eruptive vent. Gradually, the pressure grows, culminating in an explosion that ejects materials such as tephra, which in its simplest form, is ash.  Tephrochronology and radiocarbon dating indicate that Glacier Peak eruptions occurred in 1700 AD ± 100 years, 1300 AD ± 300 years, 900 AD ± 50 years, 200 AD ± 50 years, 850 BC, 3150 BC, and in 3550 BC. The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) for three of these was 2 to 4, small compared to the 5 of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. They were characterized mainly by a central vent eruption, followed by an explosive eruption. These eruptions varied in outcome; some produced lahars, some pyroclastic flows, and others lava domes.  A little more than 13,000 years ago, a sequence of nine tephra eruptions occurred within a period of less than a few hundred years. Associated with these eruptions were pyroclastic flows. Mixed with snow, ice and water, these formed lahars that raced into three nearby rivers, filling their valleys with deep deposits. Subsequently, the mudflows drained into both the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River (at that time an outlet of the Sauk River) and Skagit Rivers. In Arlington, downstream, lahars deposited seven feet of sediment. Subsequent erosion of lahar deposits near Darrington led to the current river system with the Stillaguamish River separated from the Sauk/Skagit Rivers. Lahar debris was deposited along both the Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers all the way to Puget Sound. A small portion of the erupted tephra was deposited locally. However, most of the tephra reached higher levels of the atmosphere, and was transported by the wind hundreds of miles. Deposits from this congregation were as thick as near Chelan and near Missoula, Montana.  Since these events, Glacier Peak has produced several lahars. The largest events were 5,900 and 1,800 years ago and were associated with dome-building eruptions. In both cases, the lahars traveled down the Skagit River to Puget Sound.

Hazards.

The risk of an eruption in any given year is currently estimated as 1 in 1,000.  When lahars reach populated areas, they can bury structures and people. An example was the Armero tragedy at Nevado del Ruiz where 23,000 died from an enormous mudflow. Lahars from Glacier Peak pose a similar threat to the small communities of Darrington and Concrete and a lesser threat to the larger and rapidly growing towns of Mount Vernon and Burlington, as well as other communities along the lower Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers. A 2005 study conducted by the United States Geological Survey identified nine Cascade volcanoes, including Glacier Peak, as "very-high-threat volcanoes with inadequate monitoring". At the time of the study, only one seismometer was installed on Glacier Peak that had not "worked in two years".

Glaciers.

Eleven significant glaciers cover Glacier Peak. When C.E. Rusk first saw these glaciers in 1906 they were beginning to retreat, but were still very advanced. The average retreat of Glacier Peak glaciers from the Little Ice Age to the 1958 positions was. Richard Hubley noted that North Cascade glaciers began to advance in the early 1950s, after 30 years of rapid retreat. The advance was in response to a sharp rise in winter precipitation and a decline in summer temperature beginning in 1944. Ten of the fifteen glaciers around Glacier Peak advanced, including all of the glaciers directly on the mountain's slopes. Advances of Glacier Peak glaciers ranged from and culminated in 1978. All eleven Glacier Peak glaciers that advanced during the 1950–79 period emplaced identifiable maximum advance terminal moraines. From 1984 to 2005, the average retreat of eight Glacier Peak glaciers from their recent maximum positions was. Milk Lake Glacier, on the north flank of the mountain, melted away altogether in the 1990s.

Recreation.

The Pacific Crest Trail passes near Glacier Peak. The Suiattle River crossing is a well known feature on the Pacific Crest Trail (PCT) as it passes through the area. The Suiattle PCT crossing used to have a bridge crossing until it was flooded out by storms in late 2003.  The first recorded person to climb the mountain was Thomas Gerdine, along with a group of United States Geological Survey scientists, Sam Strom, A. H. Dubor, and Darcy Bard, in 1897. The volcano is also available to skiers. To reach the mountain itself, it takes 5 miles of walking along the White Chuck River Trail (Forest Service Trail No. 643) and up the Sitkum Glacier. The trail is reached via Forest Service Road No. 23. Mainly, the slopes consist of black diamonds for both the ascent and descent.

Glacier Peak or Dakobed (known in the Sauk-Suiattle dialect of the Lushootseed language as "Tda-ko-buh-ba" or "Takobia") is the most isolated of the five major stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes) of the Cascade Volcanic Arc in the U.S state of Washington. Located in the Glacier Peak Wilderness in Mount Baker–Snoqualmie National Forest, the volcano is visible from the west in Seattle, and from the north in the higher areas of eastern suburbs of Vancouver such as Coquitlam, New Westminster and Port Coquitlam. The volcano is the fourth tallest peak in Washington state, and not as much is known about it compared to other volcanoes in the area. Local Native Americans have recognized Glacier Peak and other Washington volcanoes in their histories and stories. When American explorers reached the region, they learned basic information about surrounding landforms, but did not initially understand that Glacier Peak was a volcano. Positioned in Snohomish County, the volcano is only northeast of Downtown Seattle. From locations in northern Seattle and northward, Glacier Peak is closer than the more famous Mount Rainier, but as Glacier Peak is set farther into the Cascades and almost shorter, it is much less noticeable than Mount Rainier.

Le pic Glacier, en anglais "Glacier Peak", est une montagne des États-Unis située dans l'État de Washington. Il est l'un des sommets les plus élevés de la chaîne des Cascades et de l'arc volcanique des Cascades avec d'altitude. Ce volcan couvert de glaciers a connu sa dernière éruption il y a environ 300 ans. D'accès peu aisé, son ascension ne requiert pas d'entrainement particulier mais les sentiers qui conduisent au sommet demandent plusieurs jours de marche.


Biography.

Simultaneous to his studies, Stanković played professionally for Crvena zvezda (1946–1948), Železničar Beograd (1948–1950), and Partizan (1950–1953), and was on the senior Yugoslav national basketball team for five years, in the early 1950s. After he retired from the game, he coached OKK Beograd for ten consecutive seasons (1953–1963), and for a season in 1965. He then moved on to the Italian club Pallacanestro Cantù, spending three seasons as its head coach (1966–1969).  Throughout his lengthy involvement with basketball, Stanković was a part of the Yugoslav Olympic Committee, the International Olympic Committee, and the Board of Trustees at the Basketball Hall of Fame. He served as FIBA's second Secretary General from 1976 to 2002.  From the beginning of his tenure as Secretary General, Stanković wanted FIBA to allow NBA players in international competitions, especially the Olympics. At the FIBA Congress in Madrdid in 1986, his attempt to pass that resolution failed by a vote of 31-27. Undeterred, he continued to campaign for the idea, and at the 1989 FIBA Congress in Munich, his resolution passed by a vote of 56-13. Beginning at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, NBA players began competing at all of FIBA's international competitions from then on.  Other than Serbian, Stanković fluently spoke six other languages. He was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1991, as a contributor. He was inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2000. In 2007, he was enshrined as a contributor into the FIBA Hall of Fame. FIBA named the annual international basketball cup the "FIBA Stanković Continental Champions' Cup".

Personal life.

Stanković was born in Bihać, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Early in his life, he moved to Novi Sad, and then to the Syrmian town of Ledinci, during World War II. After the war, Stanković went to Belgrade, where he graduated from the University of Belgrade, with a degree in veterinary medicine. In 1966, he pledged his efforts to basketball full-time, ending a 10-year career as a veterinary inspector for meat control in Belgrade.  Stanković died on 20 March 2020 in Belgrade. He had one daughter, two granddaughters and two great grandchildren.

Orders and special awards.

The following is a selected list of orders and special awards:

In popular culture.

Stanković is portrayed by Aleksandar Radojičić in the 2015 Serbian sports drama "We Will Be the World Champions" and the 2016 Serbian TV series "The World Champions".

Borislav "Bora" Stanković (; 9 July 1925 – 20 March 2020) was a Serbian basketball player and coach, as well as a longtime administrator in the sport's various governing bodies, including FIBA and the International Olympic Committee. He played 36 games for the Yugoslavian national basketball team internationally.

Borislav Stanković, ("Борислав Станковић") né le à Bihać et mort le à Belgrade, est un joueur, entraîneur, dirigeant de basket-ball yougoslave puis serbo-monténégrin et enfin serbe.


Aliens versus Predator (1999 video game)

Aliens versus Predator (jeu vidéo, 1999)

Gameplay.

Like the 1994 "Alien vs Predator" game for the Atari Jaguar, "Aliens versus Predator" offers three separate campaigns, each playable as a separate species: Alien, Predator, or human Colonial Marine. Each player character has different objectives, abilities, and weapons. The single-player campaign presents the player with a conventional series of levels to progress through that are designed around the abilities of each character.  As the Colonial Marine the player uses a number of weapons to combat Aliens and Predators. The marine wears armor for protection and uses an image intensifier and flares to improve visibility in dark areas.  When playing as the Predator the player uses a variety of weapons from the "Predator" films such as wrist blades, a throwing disc, and shoulder-mounted energy weapons. The Predator is the most durable of the three player characters and can survive falls from greater heights than the human. The player can use a cloaking device to become invisible and several different modes of vision to detect enemies, including an infrared vision mode and a mode sensitive to electrical systems.  As an Alien the player can explore most of the game's environments freely, even climbing across walls and ceilings. The Alien has no weapons, however, using its claws, tail, and jaws to attack enemies. The screen is distorted into a fisheye lens effect to reflect the Alien's field of view. The player can also use a form of echolocation in dark areas and can detect pheromones to discern human or Predator enemies. The Alien can drop from any height without injury and is the fastest of the three player characters.  Several bonus levels allow each player character access to portions of the missions of the other characters. To allow the marine and Predator characters to traverse through the areas of the Alien missions, the player is supplied with a jet pack for the marine and a grappling hook for the Predator.

Plot.

The storylines of the three player characters are independent of one another. As an Alien the player must defend the Alien hive from human marines, then stow away on an evacuating spacecraft and reach the marines' ship, the "Ferarco". When the "Ferarco"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s self-destruct system is activated, the player must reach the escape shuttle, which takes them to Gateway Station. Here the player explores the station and battles more marines, reaching a ship departing for Earth. Before boarding the ship the player battles two Predators, after which the Alien enters the Earth-bound shuttle.  When playing as the Colonial Marine, the player begins at a research station on LV-426 built to study the derelict spacecraft where the "Nostromo" crew first encountered the Alien eggs in the film "Alien" (1979). Aliens attack and the player must fight their way through the research facility, the derelict ship, and an adjoining colony. Next the player explores the atmosphere processing station and shuts down its cooling valves in order to cause an explosion which will wipe out the Aliens. The player character escapes in a drop ship and travels to Odobenus Station in orbit above the planetoid, where they battle more Aliens, Predators, facehuggers, and cybernetically-enhanced Aliens until reaching the spaceship "Tyrargo". Aboard the ship the player battles more enemies including an Alien/Predator hybrid and "praetorian" Aliens. The player then battles an Alien queen, defeating it by expelling it through the airlock.  The Predator character's storyline visits three different planets, beginning with the player hunting marines in order to recover a captured Predator ship and its occupant from a human military base. Aliens are accidentally released in the base and the player discovers that the humans have created an Alien/Predator hybrid by implanting the captured Predator with an Alien embryo. The player defeats the hybrid, triggers the facility's self-destruct mechanism, and escapes in the Predator ship. The player next visits Fiorina "Fury" 161, the prison planet that is the setting of "Alien 3" (1992), where more Aliens and marines are battled. Finally the player visits a marine-controlled Alien habitat, battling cybernetically-enhanced Aliens, "praetorian" Aliens, and finally the Alien Queen.

Development and release.

"Aliens versus Predator" was developed by Rebellion Developments and published by Fox Interactive. It was announced in 1995 for release during the 1997 Christmas season on the PlayStation, Sega Saturn, and PC. However, the PC version was pushed back to 1999, while the Saturn and PlayStation versions were scrapped altogether, though the PlayStation was showcased in an early state during E3 1997. The Saturn version was not displayed at the show, though Rebellion was still planning a release for the system at the time. A version for the Dreamcast was also in development but never released.  An expansion pack titled "Millennium Expansion Pack" was released in 2000. It adds nine levels for single- and multiplayer, the ability to save within levels and new weapons for the marine. A compilation package titled "Aliens versus Predator: Gold Edition" was also released in 2000. It contains the main game and the expansion. An Apple Macintosh version, for OS X and classical Mac OS, based on the "Gold Edition" was released by MacPlay in 2001. A version for Game Boy Advance was developed and published by Ubisoft, but eventually canceled.

Source code release.

In 2001, on end-of-support and end-of-life of the game, Rebellion Developments released the game's source code and tools to public to allow the game community further support of the game. Following the source code release, the game was unofficially ported to Linux and hosted at icculus.org in 2001 and Xbox in 2009. Also an unofficial patch project for the PC version exists, based on the source code.

Re-release.

On 15 January 2010, after several years of unavailability, "Aliens versus Predator" was commercially re-released under the title "Aliens versus Predator Classic 2000". This version of the game has been updated to work on modern computers, as well as support for the Xbox 360 controllers. Moreover, this release includes all the levels from the original AvP Gold Edition and the extra content of the "Millennium Expansion Pack". Supporting only single player initially, multiplayer functionality has since been added. This release can be purchased either through Valve's Steam digital distribution service, through Green Man Gaming, or through GOG.com where it started as a free giveaway. A patch released on 19 January 2010 added proper widescreen support, optional unlimited saves, a locked frame rate, mouse improvements, and other updates to the game. At one point it was available through the now-defunct game streaming service OnLive.

Reception.

"Next Generation" reviewed the PC version of the game, rating it four stars out of five, and stated that "Played as the Marine, late at night with the lights out and the movie-inspired music cranked up, "AvP" is a totally absorbing, even terrifying experience."  "Aliens versus Predator" received "favorable" reviews on both platforms according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. IGN praised the game for allowing the player to play three different characters, each with a unique game-play element, and for being "fun and terrifying at the same time". "GamePro" cited the lack of a save feature as a major flaw, but praised the "splendid graphics, perfect sound effects, multiple vision modes, and ambiance" and citing it as "the most frightening game since "Half-Life"". The Adrenaline Vault cited the lack of depth in the story as a major flaw but praised the immersive atmosphere describing a moment of being attacked by a facehugger in the game as being "in these moments...the greatest game I had ever played".

Sequel.

A sequel called "Aliens versus Predator 2" was developed by Monolith Productions and released by Sierra in 2001. It once again comprised three campaigns for each of the three playable species, but this time, the sequel had a much deeper plot and the campaigns intersected at numerous points.

Aliens versus Predator is a 1999 science fiction first-person shooter video game developed by Rebellion Developments and published by Fox Interactive in North America for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. It is a part of the "Alien" and "Predator" crossover franchise, "Alien vs. Predator". A sequel, "Aliens versus Predator 2", was developed by Monolith Productions and released by Sierra in 2001.

Aliens versus Predator est un jeu vidéo de tir en vue à la première personne (FPS), sorti le et le en Europe. Il est édité par Fox Interactive et développé par le studio anglais Rebellion sur PC. La licence "Aliens versus Predator" est née de la scène finale du film Predator 2 dans laquelle le vaisseau Predator montre une salle des trophées où l'on peut clairement apercevoir un crâne d'Alien.