British Isles.

Historic bailiffs.

"Bailiff" was the term used by the Normans for what the Saxons had called a "reeve": the officer responsible for executing the decisions of a court. The duty of the bailiff would thus include serving summonses and orders, and executing all warrants issued out of the corresponding court. The district within which the bailiff operated was called his "bailiwick", even to the present day. Bailiffs were outsiders and free men, that is, they were not usually from the bailiwick for which they were responsible.  Throughout Norman England, the Saxon and Norman populations gradually mixed, and "reeve" came to be limited to shire-level courts (hence "sheriff" as a contraction of "shire-reeve"), while "bailiff" was used in relation to the lower courts. Primarily then, "bailiff" referred to the officer executing the decisions of manorial courts, and the hundred courts. Likewise, in Scotland a "bailie" was the chief officer of a barony ("baron bailie"), and in the Channel Islands they were the principal civil officers. With the introduction of justices of the peace ("magistrates"), magistrates' courts acquired their own bailiffs.  Historically, courts were not only concerned with legal matters, and often decided administrative matters for the area within their jurisdiction. A bailiff of a manor, therefore, would often oversee the manor's lands and buildings, collect its rents, manage its accounts, and run its farms (see Walter of Henley).  In the 19th century, the administrative functions of courts were mostly replaced by the creation of elected local authorities (councils). Nevertheless, the term "bailiff" is retained as a title by the chief officers of various towns and the keepers of royal castles, such as the High Bailiff of Westminster and the Bailiff of Dover Castle. In Scotland, "bailie" now refers to a municipal officer corresponding to an English alderman.  In the 20th century, the court system in England was drastically re-organised, with the assize courts taking some of the powers of the shire courts, and becoming the High Court of Justice; in turn, the remaining elements of the shire court took over the powers of the hundred courts, to form county courts. The High Court acquired the sheriffs, the county courts the bailiffs. Bailiffs were now appointed by a county court judge and were removable by the Lord Chancellor.

Delegation.

A bailiff could, for practical reasons, delegate his responsibilities, in regard to some particular court instruction, to other individuals. As the population expanded, the need for the services of a bailiff mainly arose from financial disputes; consequently, these assistants came to be closely associated with debt-collection, in the public's minds. By Shakespeare's time, they had acquired the nickname "bum-bailiffs", perhaps because they followed debtors very closely behind them; in France, the term "pousse-cul" (literally "push-arse") was similarly used for their equivalent officers.  To avoid confusion with their underlings, the County Courts Act 1888 renamed bailifs as high bailiffs. This act also formally acknowledged right of the high bailiffs to appoint (and dismiss) under-bailiffs as they wished, and establishing that the high bailiffs retain ultimate responsibility for their actions. The High Bailiff gradually became a purely ceremonial role, the court's clerk liaising with under-bailiffs directly.  The Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888 enacts that no person may act as an under-bailiff to levy any distress for rent unless he is authorized by a county court judge to act as an under-bailiff. The County Courts Act 1888 restricted the hours an under-bailiff could execute a possession warrant, to only be between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m. (§ 142). It also limited the ability to bring a legal complaint against a bailiff; six days' notice now had to be given (§52).

Modern-day usage.

Channel Islands.

In the Channel Islands the Bailiff is the first civil officer in each of the two bailiwicks. He (historically Bailiffs have always been male) is appointed by the Crown, and holds office until retirement. He presides as a judge in the Royal Court, and takes the opinions of the jurats; he also presides over the States Assembly (Jersey) or States of Guernsey, and represents the Crown on civic occasions. The Bailiff in each island must, in order to fulfill his judicial role, be a qualified lawyer.

England and Wales.

In England and Wales, there are a number of offices either formally titled, or commonly referred to, as "bailiffs". Some of these bailiffs are concerned with executing the orders of the courts, generally around the collection of debts, and some exercise semi-official supervisory powers over certain activities. Those concerned with the execution of court orders are commonly referred to as bailiffs, although reforms to the law in 2014 have renamed all these positions to alternative titles.  With the 19th century renaming of bailiffs to "high bailiff", their under-bailiffs generally came to be referred to as "bailiffs" themselves. The powers and responsibilities of these bailiffs depend on which type of court they take orders from. In emulation of these responsibilities, a number of roles established by 19th century statute laws have also been named "bailiffs", despite not having a connection to a court.

Magistrates' bailiffs.

Civilian enforcement officers are employees of Her Majesty's Courts and Tribunals Service, and can seize and sell goods to recover money owed under a fine and community penalty notice, and also execute warrants of arrest, committal, detention and control (formally called distress or distraint). These functions can also be carried out by employees of private companies authorised by the Ministry of Justice. In July 2013 HM Court Service announced it is to fully contract out the whole of the compliance and enforcement process to a private company; this would involve the transfer of over 500 of its employees. This decision led to official strike action by some employees on 30 July 2013.

Certificated enforcement agents.

Certificated enforcement agents are used by local authorities, Her Majesty's Courts and Tribunals Service and landlords for a variety of reasons such as collection of taxes, road traffic debts and commercial rent arrears.

County Court bailiffs.

County Court bailiffs remain directly employed by HM Courts Service, carrying out enforcement for the County Court. The current frequency of different types of case means that they are mainly involved in recovering payment of unpaid County Court judgments; like magistrates' bailiffs, they can seize and sell goods to recover a debt. They can also affect and supervise the possession of the property and the return of goods under hire purchase agreements, and serve court documents. They also execute arrest warrants and search warrants.

High Court enforcement officers.

A High Court enforcement officer has similar functions to a County Court bailiff, in that they execute writs and warrants for unpaid court judgements, and evict people from land where possession has been granted. The majority of the work of High Court enforcement officers is carried out by certificated enforcement agents acting under the authority of a senior High Court enforcement officer, often a director of an enforcement firm for whom the enforcement agent works.  Another officer of the High Court, the Tipstaff, is an employee of HM Courts and Tribunals Service, and is concerned with enforcing certain judgements of the High Court, typically involving the enforcement of court orders relating to the custody of children in family law cases.

Water bailiff.

Water bailiffs also exist in England and Wales to police bodies of water and prevent illegal fishing. They are generally employees of the Environment Agency and when executing their duties, have the powers and privileges of a police constable for the purpose of the enforcement of the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1975.

Farm bailiff.

Farm bailiffs exist on landed estates. The farm bailiff is employed by the proprietor and his managerial duties can include collecting rent, taxes and supervising both farm operations and labourers. Historically, the estate would typically include a hall or manor house, a home farm managed by the bailiff, several smaller farms occupied by tenants and possibly a tiny village (a collection of small cottages) in which the farm labourers lived.

Epping Forest bailiffs.

The Epping Forest Act 1878 allows the conservators of the forest to appoint forest keepers, reeves and also bailiffs. These individuals may also be attested as a constable, although currently only forest keepers are sworn in. The forest currently has volunteer fishing bailiffs, who support forest keepers. As the Epping Forest Act does include this title of appointment, these individuals are statutory bailiffs and the title is not merely just historic.

Jury bailiffs.

Jury bailiffs are court ushers who monitor juries during their deliberations and during overnight stays.

Colloquial uses of the word.

As most people's contact with bailiffs is when a bailiff comes to take property to enforce debt, public perception does not usually distinguish between bailiffs and debt collectors. Indeed, many mere debt collectors often publicly refer to themselves as "bailiffs". However, it is illegal for a debt collector to call themselves a bailiff, if they are not – that is, if they are not a certified officer acting on a court order, they may not call themselves a "bailiff". Mere debt collectors do not have the powers or authority of a bailiff.  The officer appointed by a sheriff was also sometimes described as the sheriff's bailiff, on account of the similarity of the role. However, they are not the same, and High Court enforcement officers have greater powers.  Due to the negative association with debt collection, in former times, in The Fens of eastern England, the term "Bailiff of Bedford" was often used as slang for destructive floods of the River Great Ouse.

Isle of Man.

The High Bailiff is the head stipendiary magistrate in the Isle of Man.

Republic of Ireland.

In the Republic of Ireland, a bailiff () is an official appointed by the Revenue Commissioners who is involved with the enforcement of judgments, including evictions and repossessions, and the collection of unpaid tax. A bailiff is subordinate to a sheriff.

Scotland.

The Scottish form of this post is the bailie. Bailies served as burgh magistrates in the system of local government in Scotland before 1975 when the system of burghs and counties was replaced by a two-tier system of regional councils and district councils. The two-tier system was later replaced by a system of unitary authorities.  Under the new arrangements the bailies were abolished and replaced by justices of the peace serving in the District Courts of Scotland, these posts no longer holding any authority within the local authority as an administrative body. However the term bailie is still used as an honorary title by Glasgow City Council for a number of senior councilors who can deputise for the Lord Provost.  The Scottish equivalent of a sheriff's bailiff or high bailiff is the sheriff officer (for the sheriff court) or the messenger-at-arms (for the court of session). These positions were to be abolished by §60 of the Bankruptcy and Diligence etc. (Scotland) Act 2007, and replaced with the office of judicial officer under §57(1) of that enactment. This enactment was never brought into effect and was repealed under Schedule 4 of the Public Services Reform (Scotland) Act 2010  In Scotland, the office of water bailiff does exist, with power to enforce legislation relating to the illegal collection of salmon and trout.

Australia.

In Australia, bailiffs service various legal documents (e.g. subpoenas), issued from any Australian jurisdiction. Bailiffs also have the duty of executing warrants.

Canada.

In parts of Canada, bailiffs are responsible for the service of legal process. In some jurisdictions, duties of the bailiff include the service of legal documents, repossession and evictions in accordance with court judgments, application of wheel clamps and the execution of arrest warrants. Some jurisdictions also require that applicants receive special training and have a degree in Paralegal Technology to become a bailiff.

Ontario.

In Ontario, provincial bailiffs provide primary transportation of prisoners between correctional facilities such as jails and prisons. Under the Ministry of Correctional Services Act (Ontario), while transporting prisoners, bailiffs have the powers of police constables. When necessary, Provincial correctional officers will act as bailiffs for short and long term assignments and full-time bailiffs are typically recruited from the correctional officer ranks. Provincial bailiffs are armed with expandable batons and pepper spray and operate under the jurisdiction of the provincial Ministry of Community Safety and Correctional Services. Duties normally associated with bailiffs in other jurisdictions, such as residential evictions, seizures, and other processes order by the court, are performed by sheriffs under the office of the Attorney General of Ontario or "private" bailiffs if initiated without a court order.  Private bailiffs are licensed by the Province of Ontario's Ministry of Consumer Services under the Bailiffs Act. Assistant bailiffs are similarly licensed, but must be supervised by a bailiff. Bailiffs in this capacity assist others who have a right to exercise self-help to repossess or seize something, or to evict under a "commercial" tenancy. Bailiffs are agents of the person contracting their services, not government employees or peace officers, and are prohibited from using force to seize goods or evict tenants.

United States.

Many in the United States use the word "bailiff" colloquially to refer to a peace officer providing court security. More often, these court officers are sheriff's deputies, marshals, corrections officers or constables. The terminology varies among (and sometimes within) the several states.  In rural areas, this responsibility is often carried out by the junior lawyer in training under the judge's supervision called a law clerk who also has the title of bailiff.  Whatever the name used, the agency providing court security is often charged with serving legal process and seizing and selling property (e.g., replevin or foreclosure). In some cases, the duties are separated between agencies in a given jurisdiction. For instance, a court officer may provide courtroom security in a jurisdiction where a sheriff or constable handles service of process and seizures.

Hawaii.

Within the state of Hawaii there are two types of bailiff, district court and circuit court. Both types of bailiff are employees of the State of Hawaii: district court bailiffs provide support services to the court staff and judge, call the cases and maintain order in the court. Circuit court bailiffs have similar duties to their district court counterparts, but also deal with the calling, selection and control of jury trials. They also provide security for the judge and courtroom. Circuit court bailiffs currently have limited law enforcement authority while on duty, but are unarmed. Currently there is only one Circuit court bailiff within the Hawaii Judiciary, he is located in the 5th Circuit (Kaua’i), all the other Circuit courts have replaced their bailiffs with Law clerks, who call calendars etc., but have none of the police powers or security responsibilities.

Indiana.

In the State of Indiana, bailiffs are administrative assistants that are employed by judges who reside in a county judicial circuit. For example, a county court judge, superior court judge, and circuit court judge may have at least one bailiff who is in charge of calling a jury, seating a jury, as well as attending to a juror's needs. They are sworn officers of the court.

Maryland.

Within the state of Maryland there are two types of bailiffs, circuit court and district court. "Circuit court bailiffs" are employees of the prospective county of which they work and possess no law enforcement authority. They are unarmed and provide services to the courtroom judge, escort and maintain the jurors/jury pool, and maintain courtroom decorum. "district court bailiffs" provide similar services as their circuit court counterparts but differ in that they are employees of the state of Maryland, are armed, and have limited law enforcement authority while on duty.

Massachusetts.

The trial court officers are responsible for the security of all court buildings in the state as well as for the people who work in or visit them.

New York.

In the New York State Unified Court System, court officers, are responsible for providing security and enforcing the law in and around court houses. Under New York State penal code, they are classified as "peace officers." New York State Court Officers are able to carry firearms both on and off duty, and have the power to make warrantless arrests both on and off duty anywhere in the State of New York. They also have the authority to make traffic stops.

Vermont.

A high bailiff is an elected county officer who performs certain duties when the sheriff is unable to do so.

France.

In pre-revolutionary France, bailiff (, ) was the king's administrative representative during the "ancien régime" in northern France, where the bailiff was responsible for the application of justice and control of the administration and local finances in his bailiwick ("").  "Bailli" (12th-century French "bailif", "administrative official, deputy") was derived from a Vulgar Latin term "*bajulivus" meaning "official in charge of a castle", i.e. a royal castellan.

History.

In the late 12th and early 13th century, King Philip II, an able and ingenious administrator who founded the central institutions on which the French monarchy's system of power would be based, prepared the expansion of the royal demesne through his appointment of bailiffs in the king's northern lands (the "domaine royal"), based on medieval fiscal and tax divisions (the "") which had been used by earlier sovereign princes such as the Duke of Normandy. In Flanders, the count appointed similar bailiffs (). The equivalent agent in the king's southern lands acquired after the inheritance of the County of Toulouse was the seneschal.  Unlike the local administration of Norman England through sheriffs drawn from the great local families, the French bailiff was a paid government official, who had no power network in the area to which he had been assigned, and, in the way of a true bureaucrat, owed his income and social status wholly to the central administration that he represented. "He was therefore fanatically loyal to the king," Norman Cantor observes, "and was concerned only with the full exercise of royal power." The cathedral schools and the University of Paris provided the clerks and lawyers who served as the king's bailiff.

Magistrates.

Under the Ancien Régime in France, the "bailli" (earlier "baillis"), or bailie, was the king's chief officer in a bailiwick or bailiery ("bailliage"), serving as chief magistrate for boroughs and baronies, administrator, military organizer, and financial agent. In southern France the term generally used was "sénéchal" who held office in a "sénéchaussée". The bailie convened a bailie court ("cour baillivale") which was an itinerant court of first instance. The administrative network of bailiwicks was established in the 13th century over the Crown lands (the "domaine royal") by Philip Augustus who commissioned the first bailiff under the name "bailli". They were based on pre-existing tax collection districts ("baillie") which had been in use in formerly sovereign territories, e.g., the Duchy of Normandy. Bailie courts, as royal courts, were made superior over existent local courts; these lower courts were called:  The bailie court was presided over by a lieutenant-bailie ("lieutenant général du bailli"). Bailie courts had appellate jurisdiction over lower courts (manorial courts, provost courts) but was the court of first instance for suits involving the nobility. Appeal of bailie court judgments lay in turn with the provincial Parlements. In an effort to reduce the Parlements' caseload, several bailie courts were granted extended powers by Henry II of France and were thereafter called presidial courts ("baillages présidiaux"). Bailie and presidial courts were also the courts of first instance for certain crimes (previously the jurisdiction of manorial courts): sacrilege, treason, kidnapping, rape, heresy, money defacement, sedition, insurrection, and illegal bearing of weapons.  By the late 16th century, the bailie's role had become mostly symbolic, and the lieutenant-bailie was the only one to hear cases. The administrative and financial role of the bailie courts declined in the early modern period (superseded by the king's royal tax collectors and provincial governors, and later by intendants), and by the end of the 18th century, the bailiwicks, which numbered in the hundreds, had become purely judicial.

Ushers, beadles and tipstaffs.

In medieval France court bailiffs did not exist as such, but their functions were carried out by several court officers. The "ussier" (modern "huissier"), or usher, originally the doorkeeper, kept order in the court. The "somoneor" (mod. "semonneur"), or court crier, adjourned and called the court to order and announced its orders or directions. The "bedel" (mod. "bedeau"), or beadle, was the court's messenger and served process, especially summonses ("sumunse", "somonse", mod. "semonce"). And finally the "sergens" (mod. "sergent"), or tipstaff, enforced judgments of the court, seized property, and made arrests. The tipstaff's badge of authority was his "verge", or staff, made of ebony, about 30 cm long, decorated with copper or ivory, and mandatory after 1560.  The Parlement courts consolidated most of these functions in its tipstaff ("varlet"), and the rest of the court system followed suit as the tipstaff was given the broadest powers. During the Renaissance, the four officers were reduced to two – the "huissier" and "sergent" – who took on all these functions, with the distinction being that the "huissier" served in higher courts and "sergent" in bailie courts ("sergent royal") and manorial courts ("sergent de justice"). In 1705 the two professions were fused by royal edict under the name "huissier".

Low Countries and German-speaking lands.

The office of bailiff was historically used in Flanders, Zealand, the Netherlands, Hainault, and in northern France. The bailiff was a civil servant who represented the ruler in town and country. In Flanders the count usually appointed the bailiff.  In the Low Countries and German-speaking Europe this position was known as "baljuw" (from "bailli"), but other words were used such as "schout" "reeve, (medieval) bailiff" (Holland, Antwerp, Mechelen,'s-Hertogenbosch, Turnhout), "meier" "majordomo" (Asse, Leuven), "drossāte" "steward, seneschal" (other parts of Brabant), "amman" (Brussels), and "Amtmann" and "Ammann" (Germany, Switzerland, Austria). The "Amtmann" was the senior official appointed by a territorial lord to oversee the administration and jurisdiction of a manorial estate or equivalent.

Belgium.

Most of the functions associated with the older Dutch-language terms translated as bailiff in English, are no longer found in one officer. The modern Belgian terms "huissier de justice" (in French) or "gerechtsdeurwaarder" (in Dutch) however, are often, and inaccurately, translated into English as bailiff, though the latter under an Anglo Saxon law system is by no means identical to the former who is typical for many countries influenced by the Napoleonic Code. He or she is a sworn officer who may legally deliver exploits (process serving), see to the execution of court orders such as the confiscation of goods, or make formal record of events, acts and circumstances. In Belgium, the bailiff can be appointed by a confiscating court to exercise the judicial mandate of "schuldbemiddelaar" (in Dutch) or "médiateur de dettes" (in French), a debt negotiator, in a procedure called "collectieve schuldenregeling" (CSR) or "médiation collective de dettes", a collectively negotiated settlement of debts, which is comparable with the regulations by the "Wet Schuldsanering Natuurlijke Personen" (WSNP) in the Netherlands.  In auction catalogs published in Brussels at the beginning of the 20th century the term "huissier" is associated with auction sales, i.e., "vente aux enchères publiques par le ministère de Me Grégoire, huissier, 26, rue Josaphat, à Bruxelles.[Galerie Georges Giroux, November 27, 1937.]

Netherlands.

In Netherlands during the Middle Ages, the term bailiff translates to "Baljuw", which had various meanings and sometimes carried the same privileges and duties as the title "Drost" or "Drossaard", depending on the jurisdiction. Pieter Cornelisz Hooft for example, carried both the titles ""Drost van Muiden"" and ""Baljuw van Goeilandt"", that were more or less honorary titles by that time. The two neighboring areas had needed the office to oversee the appointment of local council staff (mostly referred to as ""schout & schepenen""), whose most important interests were the passage of travelers and goods by water (Muiden) and overland (Gooiland). The Netherlands was governed by waterschappen as well as by regional city councils, and both institutions once had honorary titles of Baljuw or Drost.  These days, the term "Bailiff" is not used in the Netherlands, except for the position of president and some honorary Bailiffs of the Dutch branch of the Knights Hospitaller.  A person who amongst others sees to the execution of court orders such as the confiscation of goods is called a deurwaarder

Sovereign Military Order of Malta.

In the Sovereign Military Order of Malta the term bailiff is used for an honour given to certain senior knights. The dignity of bailiff may be conferred upon:  The heads of several royal or princely houses who are Knights Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion usually receive the dignity of bailiff. These currently include King Albert II of Belgium; Franz, Duke of Bavaria; Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou; Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein; Carl, Duke of Württemberg.

Poland.

In Poland, a court bailiff ("komornik sądowy") is a public official (but not a civil servant) who is assigned to undertake enforcement action within the area of the jurisdiction of a single regional court (in Poland “"a regional court is established for one or more communes, and, in justified cases, more than one regional court may be established for a single commune"”*). With the 2008 amendment of "the Court Bailiffs and Enforcement Act of 20 August 1997" a bailiff is allowed to act in the whole territory of the Republic of Poland if and only if the creditors remark in the enforcement application that they exercise a right of selecting a bailiff. Then the bailiff acts beyond its area of action, which might result in a prolonged and ineffective enforcement. However, such practices are inadmissible when the creditors apply for the enforcement to be carried out in respect of real property and other property rights where the regulations on the execution on real property shall apply. The execution proceedings on real property must be conducted only by the court bailiff who acts within the area of the jurisdiction of the regional court which keeps land and mortgage register for that real property.  A court bailiff is an individual who is appointed to act as such by the minister of justice on application of the person concerned, filed via the intermediary of the president of the court of appeal, within whose area the candidate intends to perform acts in enforcement proceedings. Before appointing, the minister of justice shall request the council of the chamber of the court bailiffs to give the opinion of the candidate. The bailiffs are not employed by the regional courts (they act at the regional courts) but they are self-employed, which means that they have their own registered offices (named Bailiff’s Office in...) and are remunerated by percentage on money recovered and the other fees specified in "The Court Bailiffs and Enforcement Act of 20 August 1997". The bailiff also incurs expenses including costs of correspondence, operating costs per kilometer when visiting debtors residing out of the place of bailiff's office; and the other expenses specified in above mentioned act. All those expenses incurred in the course of proceedings are to be covered by the debtor or by the creditor if the enforcement proceedings are ineffective. The regional courts supervise only the work of the bailiffs, especially with reference to the fastness, proficiency and accuracy of their activities; the correctness of office management and accounting. When enforcing the bailiffs are subordinate to the judicial decisions and president of the regional court. The bailiff acts on behalf of a creditor who is legally owed money. The creditor files an application for commencing enforcement proceedings and an original writ of execution with an enforcement clause inserted herein.  The court bailiffs are responsible for: (Sources: *www.ms.gov.pl/en/the-judiciary-in-poland/ Ustawa o komornikach sądowych i egzekucji z dnia 29.08.1997; Kodeks postępowania Cywilnego)

Li Tieguai (lit. "Iron Crutch Li") is a Chinese mythological figure and one of the Eight Immortals in the Taoist pantheon. He is sometimes described as irascible and ill-tempered, but also benevolent to the poor, sick and the needy, whose suffering he alleviates with special medicine from his gourd. He is often portrayed as an ugly old man with dirty face, scraggy beard, and messy hair held by a golden band. He walks with the aid of an iron crutch and often has a gourd slung over his shoulder or held in his hand. He often is depicted as a clown figure who descends to earth in the form of a beggar who uses his power to fight for the oppressed and needy.

Li à la canne de fer (pinyin : Tiěguǎi Lǐ ; sinogrammes traditionnels : 鐵拐李 ; sinogrammes simplifiés : 铁拐李), T'ieh-kuai Li, ou Li Tieguai est l’un des huit immortels du taoïsme.


Biography.

She was born 10 February 1786, Anne-Élisabeth-Élise Petitpain, in Nancy, France, the oldest of eight children. Her father was the organist at the Cathedral in Nancy but died at a young age. Élise expanded her knowledge of German by assisting her stepfather M. Wouters, a local manufacturer, with his business. In 1807, Monsignor Antoine Eustache d'Osmond, had the idea of having her admitted to the court of Josephine, which resulted in the Empress giving the young lady a pension of 500 francs and the hope of being admitted to a special secondary school for daughters of recipients of the Legion of Honor, called Écouen.  Voïart intended to enter Écouen, but at 20, she met and married a widower thirty years older, Jacques-Philippe Voïart, food administrator at Les Invalides and art lover who already had two daughters, including the future poet Amable Tastu (1795-1885) whose literacy education Élise nurtured.  The new couple had one child, a daughter, Élisabeth Voïart (c. 1814-1875), who became a pastellist artist. The Voïart family took up residence in Choisy-le-Roi outside Paris, where Élise ran a liberal-minded salon frequented by Adélaïde-Gillette Dufrénoy, "la Sapho française," the popular singer Béranger, and the artist couple Pierre-Paul Prud'hon and Constance Mayer who painted a portrait of Élise Voïart that is held at the Museum of Fine Arts of Nancy.

Translations.

The first publications of Élise Voïart (sometimes spelled Voyart) were translations from German and English into French. She produced 30 volumes between 1817 and 1821; most were sentimental novels by August Lafontaine, which she did not hesitate to revise, thus appropriating the writing. For "Fridolin" by Friedrich Schiller, however, she opted instead to stick rigorously to the text, saying it was the only way to make "the touching and naive simplicity inherent to the character and the German language." In doing so, she freed the work from rhyme, thus promoting free verse poetry.

Novels.

Voïart's first historical novel, "The Virgin of Arduene," described the passage of Gaul under Roman rule during the reign of Augustus. It became part of the romantic movement to rediscover France's past. A review of the work by Auguste Lafontaine describes the author's strong female characters."Élisa Voïart enthusiastically painted this ancient Gaul where women were almost deified. Struck with the influence that in all times her sex exerted on our mores, she sought the origin, and thought she found it based on religious principles, passed out in the wave of centuries, but preserved until today by popular traditions: the Gauls and the Germans, according to Tacitus, attributed something divine to their wives; recognition and love, continues Voïart, made this cult lasting."She also wrote commissioned works intended for the "Ladies"'"Encyclopedia" ("Letters on the ladies' toilet", 1821; "Essay on ancient and modern dance", 1823).

Young adult works.

At the beginning of the 1830s, Voïart wrote for the booming educational and feminine press, contributing to the "Journal des dames", the "Journal des Demoiselles" and the "Journal des jeunes personnes". In the process of supporting her stepdaughter, the poet Amable Tastu during the bankruptcy of her husband's printing business, together they begin to collect fairy tales. Eager to promote national cultures, she translated the "Popular Songs of the Servians" (1834).

Last years.

In 1836, the Voïarts offered their hospitality to the aging and bankrupt Rouget de Lisle, famous for writing the words and music of the French national anthem, "the Marseillaise". (He died at 76 in Choisy-le-Roi.)  After her husband's death in 1842, Élise Voïart moved back to her birthplace, Nancy, where she composed historical Lorraine novels and earned her the status of "the Walter Scott of Lorraine." She also signed a series of novels for the collection of the “Library of little children” created by the Catholic publisher Alfred Mame in 1845. In children's literature dominated by “a massive production of bland and bland moral stories,” her stories are distinguished by a precise observation of the world of childhood and the staging of autonomous female characters.

Accolades.

For her novel "The Woman, or the six loves", Voïart was honored by the French Academy with the Montyon Prize in 1828.  Her growing notoriety caused her to be included in collections such as Montferrand's "Femmes célèbres" (1843) and the "Book of the Hundred and one" by Pierre-François Ladvocat, where she is listed among the most prominent literary figures.  In 1868, Voïart was elected an associate member of the Stanislas Academy, the first woman to be so honored.

Death.

Voïart died on 22 January 1866 in Nancy at the age of 79.

Critiques.

The literary critic Sainte-Beuve wrote condescendingly about Voïart's work, citing her "young, gifted (...) taste and talent for writing, known by several nice books." However, her books and translations have been held in libraries continuously since the 1821. As of 2017, Worldcat.org lists 235 works in 523 publications in 4 languages could be found in libraries worldwide.

Selected Works.

Only a few of her many works are listed. Some were published in multiple editions.

Élise Voïart, (1786-1866) was a writer and translator from Nancy, France, specializing in historical works, fiction and children's books. She held literary salons at her home when she lived near Paris.

Élise Petitpain, dite Voïart, née le à Nancy où elle est morte le, est une écrivaine française, traductrice, romancière et auteure d’ouvrages pour la jeunesse.


History.

Bao'an was the historical name of Bao'an County (also known as Xin'an County) of the Qing dynasty, which included area of modern-day Shenzhen and Hong Kong. The area of today Bao'an District, was integrated into Shenzhen in 1979, which the Bao'an County was promoted as a city.  Bao'an was reverted into county status in 1981, as the administrative unit of the area that belongs to Shenzhen, but now belongs to Shenzhen Special Economic Zone. Border patrols were also established in the border of the Economic Zone. In 1991, Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport, located in Bao'an County, was opened.  Finally Bao'an district was established on January 1, 1993. Two New Districts () were created as sub-districts of Bao'an district, namely Guangming and Longhua new districts, in 2007 and 2011 respectively.  In 2010, Shenzhen Special Economic Zone was enlarged to cover the whole Shenzhen city. Rapid development occurred in the Bao'an District. Longhua District was separated from Bao'an and became a district on 11 October 2016. In 2018, Guangming District was also separated from Bao'an District.

Demographics.

The district had a population of 2,736,500 in 2014. About 85% of Bao'an's population are migrants from other parts of China, most speaking Standard Chinese (Standard Mandarin). Hence this made Standard Chinese the primary Chinese variety spoken in the district. Cantonese is also widely spoken, between locals and migrants from around Guangdong Province (Canton Province).

Public Safety.

Bao'an has, as of 2008, a notoriously bad safety record. Since the turn of the millennium, the district has seen a string of high-profile abductions, robberies, and other cases of violent crime. However, in the last 4 years, this has become less of an issue with an increased police presence and higher average income in the district.

Subdistricts.

Bao'an District comprises ten subdistricts:

Economy.

Bao'an is predominantly a secondary sector economy as industrial center famous for having a concentration electronics factories, mostly in Xixiang and Guanlan sub-districts. There is also a sizable service industry. Agriculture, which used to dominate the economy, has diminished in recent years. Like many parts of Shenzhen, high-rises can be found all over Bao'an.  Four airlines are headquartered on the grounds of Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport: Shenzhen Airlines, Jade Cargo International, Shenzhen Donghai Airlines, and SF Airlines.

Transportation.

Shenzhen Bao'an International Airport is situated in this district. Shenzhen metro lines 1, 5 and 11 go through the district at some point.

Shenzhen Metro.

Bao'an is currently served by three metro lines operated by Shenzhen Metro:

Education.

Primary schools include:

Bao'an District () is one of the nine districts comprising the city of Shenzhen, Guangdong province. It is one of the two districts formerly lying outside the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone, the other being Longgang.

Le district de Bao'an (宝安区 ; pinyin: Bǎo'ān Qū) est l'une des huit subdivisions administratives de la ville de Shenzhen dans la province du Guangdong en Chine. Depuis 2005, le nouveau district de Guangming, qui faisait partie du district, est administré de manière indépendante.


Possible origin of the motto.

According to legend, the "guardian thistle" (see Scotch thistle) played a vital part in Alexander III, King of Scots' defence of the ancient realm of Scotland against a night-time raiding party of Norwegian Vikings, prior to the Battle of Largs (1263): one or more raiders let out a yell of pain when stepping on a prickly thistle, thus alerting the Scots. In the motto "No one harasses me with impunity" (Latin: "Nemo me impune lacessit"), "me" was therefore originally the thistle itself, but by extension now refers to the Scottish regiments which have adopted it.  The modern form of the motto was used by Francesco I, Duke of Milan and had been used in Britain on the colours of the Scottish Royalist officer John Urry during the English Civil War. It was also used by the Parliamentarian propagandist Marchamont Nedham as the motto for his newsletters.  Another traditional source appears in the form of a Scots proverb, ""Ye maunna tramp on the Scotch thistle, laddie"", this being immortalised in marble by Glasgow monumental sculptors James Gibson & Co. for the Kelvingrove International Exhibition of 1888. The phrase ""Wha daur meddle wi' me?"" also appears in a traditional border ballad entitled "Little Jock Elliot", which recalls the exploits of a 16th-century Border Reiver ("John Elliot of the Park"), with particular reference to an infamous encounter in the summer of 1566 with James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, the third husband of Mary, Queen of Scots.  The French city of Nancy has a similar motto, "Non inultus premor" ("I cannot be touched unavenged"), also a reference to the thistle, which is the symbol of the region of Lorraine.

Present and historical use of the motto.

In the British Isles and Commonwealth.

The motto of the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, the Scottish chivalrous order, is also that of the British Army regiments The Royal Regiment of Scotland, Scots Guards and Royal Scots Dragoon Guards. It was also the motto of several former units of the British Army, including the Royal Scots, Royal Scots Greys, Royal Highland Fusiliers and Black Watch, some of which went on to be amalgamated to form the Royal Regiment of Scotland in 2006. The motto is also that of the Royal Company of Archers and has been displayed upon the unit's second standard since 1713, following the grant of a Royal charter by Queen Anne.  During the reign of Charles II, the motto, appearing on a scroll under the shield and overlying the compartment, was added to the Royal coat of arms of Scotland, as displayed in relief above the entrance to Holyrood Palace. Since 1707 it has appeared in the Scottish version of the arms of British Monarchs, including the present Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom used in Scotland. The motto appears in conjunction with the collar of the Order of the Thistle, which is placed around the shield. (The collar of the order appears in earlier versions of the Royal coat of arms of Scotland, but without the order motto).  The motto of the Order of the Thistle ("Nemo me impune lacessit") should not be confused with the motto of the Royal arms ("In Defens"), which appears on an escroll above the crest in the tradition of Scottish heraldry. ("In Defens" being an abbreviated form of the full motto "In My Defens God Me Defend"). "Nemo me impune lacessit" is displayed prominently above the Gatehouse entrance added to Edinburgh Castle in 1888. Armed forces units elsewhere have also adopted this historic motto. In Australia, members of Heavy Weapons Platoon (DFSW) of the 3rd battalion (PARA) Royal Australian Regiment proudly use this motto as a symbol of platoon brotherhood and bonds forged in service together, the motto was also used by the Victoria Scottish Regiment, which subsequently became 5th Battalion Royal Victoria Regiment (RVR) which now forms one of the rifle companies of the RVR. (The motto is also used by the RVR Pipes and Drums Association). The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada, a reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Forces, also bears this motto. (The motto appearing upon the regimental cap badge).  The motto is also that of the Cape Town Highlanders Regiment, a reserve mechanised infantry unit of South African Army.  The Caledonian Railway used the motto as part of its crest, until "grouped" into the London, Midland and Scottish railway in 1923.  The motto (with the verb in the future tense [lacesset]: "Nemo Me Impune Lacesset") appears as a reverse inscription on the Scottish "Bawbee" (6 pence) coin of King Charles II surrounding a crowned thistle. Examples exist for 1677, 1678 and 1679. The coin is scarce but not considered rare. This coin is of copper, and was later revalued as a half penny.  The motto appears as an inscription on the rim of both the 1984 (& 1989) "Thistle and royal diadem" and the 1994 (& 1999) "Lion rampant" designs of the "Scottish" themed editions of the British one pound coin - and again on the rim of one of two new "floral" designs for 2014.  Union College, University of Queensland, Australia, also adopted the motto.  The motto also appears on the back collar of Edinburgh Rugby official kit.

In continental Europe.

In Belgium, the 1st Squadron (Belgium) of the Belgian Air Force bears the motto.  The motto was also used by the Italian noble family Malacrida, of Como.  Wilhelm II, German Emperor used the motto in a telegram to Foreign Minister Bernhard von Bülow on November 7, 1897 following the Kiautschou Bay concession, arguing that Chinese aggression towards Catholic missionaries will no longer be tolerated, and will be met with swift military action.

In the U.S..

The 1st Battalion, 24th Marines of the United States Marine Corps uses the phrase as its motto.  It is also referred to in the Edgar Allan Poe story "The Cask of Amontillado" (Poe was adopted by a Scottish merchant), and in Stanisław Lem's "Fiasco".  The motto also appears (with the verb in the Future Tense: "Nemo Me Impune Lacesset") above an American timber rattlesnake on a 1778 $20 bill from Georgia as an early example of the colonial use of the coiled rattlesnake symbol, which later became famous on the Gadsden flag. The phrase also appears on mourning bands worn over the badges of law enforcement officers in the United States.  "Nemo me impune lacessit" is the motto of Dartmouth College's independent conservative newspaper, "The Dartmouth Review".

In India.

On 10 December 1992, addressing Gentleman Cadets at the Indian Military Academy, India's Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw conveyed the motto from a regiment he had served in Scotland, first conveying the Latin form, "Nemo me impune lacessit" and then translating it for the GCs:

Nemo me impune lacessit ("No one provokes me with impunity") was the Latin motto of the Royal Stuart dynasty of Scotland from at least the reign of James VI when it appeared on the reverse side of merk coins minted in 1578 and 1580. It is the adopted motto of the Order of the Thistle and of three Scottish regiments of the British Army. The motto also appears, in conjunction with the collar of the Order of the Thistle, in later versions of the Royal coat of arms of the Kingdom of Scotland and subsequently in the version of the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom used in Scotland. It has been loosely rendered in Scots as "Wha daur meddle wi' me?" (in Scottish Gaelic, ). It is also alternatively translated into English as "No one can harm me unpunished".

C'était également la devise du Régiment Royal Ecossais de l'armée française de l'Ancien Régime. En langue scots, elle est souvent rendue par « "Wha daur meddle wi me?" », ce qui signifie


History.

In 1871, the Canning Road District was established under the "District Roads Act 1871", covering a very wide area to the southeast of Perth.  The City of Canning originated as the Municipality of Queen's Park, which was established on 1 July 1907 when the original Canning Road District was divided into two and split into the Queen's Park municipality and the Gosnells Road District (later to become the City of Gosnells). It was renamed the Queen's Park Road District on 5 November 1913.  It was renamed again to become the second Canning Road District on 17 June 1921, and received a large amount of land from the abolished Jandakot Road District on 30 November 1923. On 1 July 1961, Canning Road District became the Shire of Canning under the "Local Government Act 1960", which reformed all remaining road districts into shires. On 4 December 1970 it gained town status as the Town of Canning and assumed its current name when it gained city status on 10 March 1979.  In 1974 the then-Town of Canning brought heritage registered Woodles Homestead to create a local Heritage museum.  In late 2012, an inquiry against the Canning City Council launched by the State Government's Department of Local Government resulted in a 476-page report "pointing to widespread dysfunction, micromanagement and alleged serious governance irregularities." As a result, the State Government ordered the suspension of the Council, appointing Linton Reynolds to replace it as City Commissioner.  Two years later, in mid-September 2014, it was reported that the State Government had sacked the four remaining Canning councillors, to be replaced by a panel of three new Commissioners upon the end of Commissioner Reynolds' tenure on 16 September. As part of the Department of Local Governments' plans, in which the number of local councils would have been reduced drastically, it was announced that the City of Canning would be split up and merged into neighbouring local areas, including the City of Gosnells and City of Melville. Since the failure of the state government's council merger process, the governor's order for the merger has been revoked.

Wards.

The city is divided into five wards with each ward electing two councillors while the mayor is directly elected.

Heritage-listed places.

s of 2020, 95 places are heritage-listed in the City of Canning, of which eight are on the State Register of Heritage Places, among them Castledare Boys' Home and Woodloes Homestead.

Sister cities.

Canning also shares a friendship agreement with Fresagrandinaria, Abruzzo, Italy.

External links.

The City of Canning is a local government area in the southeastern suburbs of the Western Australian capital city of Perth, about southeast of Perth's central business district. The City covers an area of and had a population of approximately 90,000 as at the 2016 Census.

La Cité de Canning ("City of Canning" en anglais) est une zone d'administration locale dans la banlieue de Perth en Australie-Occidentale en Australie à environ 10 kilomètres au sud-est du centre ville.


History.

Cockburn is named after Cockburn Sound, which was named in 1827 by Captain James Stirling after Admiral Sir George Cockburn. Sir George was born in London in 1772 and was a renowned British naval officer, eventually becoming Admiral of the Fleet and First Sea Lord. He served under Horatio Nelson during the war with France, but came to public attention and was granted his knighthood for his service in the War of 1812, in particular for the burning of Washington in 1814. It was he who took Napoleon to exile on the island of Saint Helena after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.  In 1871, the Fremantle Road District was created under the "District Roads Act 1871" to cover the area to the south and east of Fremantle, and the Fremantle Road Board was created to manage it. The original District was bounded on the north by the Swan River from Fremantle to the mouth of the Canning River; on the east by a line from Bull Creek to the junction of what is now the intersection of the Albany and South Western Highways in Armadale; on the south by a line from Armadale to, and including the Rockingham townsite; and to the west by the Indian Ocean.  In the first five years of the Board's existence most of its members served on the Fremantle Town Council. The function of the Board was simply to provide the roads that linked Fremantle to other parts of the Colony. By 1913 the District was divided into Wards, each electing representatives to the Board. In 1922 the Board constructed new offices at the corner of Forrest and Rockingham Roads.  In July 1923, the District received a large amount of land (gaining the localities of Atwell and Banjup and 75% of the Jandakot locality) from Jandakot Road District when that entity was abolished. On 21 January 1955, it was renamed Cockburn, after a successful referendum underlined the desire for recognition of the District's independence from Fremantle.  On 1 July 1961, Cockburn Road District became a shire following the enactment of the "Local Government Act 1960", and on 24 January 1971, almost exactly 100 years after the formation of the Fremantle Road District, it became a Town in recognition of its increasingly urban nature. On 26 October 1979 the town attained City status.  A public inquiry into corruption in the City of Cockburn was held in 1999. The Council was suspended in April 1999 and dismissed on 30 June 2000, with administrators running the council until an election held on 6 December 2000. In 2007 the City of Cockburn was again embroiled in controversy as alleged evidence of corruption arose at the Corruption and Crime Commission.

Wards.

The city is divided into three wards, each electing three councillors. The mayor is directly elected.

Heritage-listed places.

As of 2020, 134 places are heritage-listed in the City of Cockburn, of which 18 are on the State Register of Heritage Places, among them the Coogee Hotel the Newmarket Hotel and the Woodman Light.

The City of Cockburn is a local government area in the southern suburbs of the Western Australian capital city of Perth about south of Fremantle and about south of Perth's central business district. The City covers an area of and had a population of over 104,000 as at the 2016 Census.

La Cité de Cockburn ("City of Cockburn" en anglais) est une zone d'administration locale dans la banlieue de Perth en Australie-Occidentale en Australie à environ 8 kilomètres au sud de Fremantle et 24 kilomètres au sud du centre ville de Perth.


Preventing overgrazing.

Sustainable grassland production is based on grass and grassland management, land management, animal management and livestock marketing. Grazing management, with sustainable agriculture and agroecology practices, is the foundation of grassland-based livestock production, since it affects both animal and plant health and productivity. There are several new grazing models and management systems that attempt to reduce or eliminate overgrazing like Holistic management and Permaculture

Indicators.

One indicator of overgrazing is that the animals run short of pasture. In some regions of the United States under continuous grazing, overgrazed pastures are predominated by short-grass species such as bluegrass and will be less than 2-3 inches tall in the grazed areas. In other parts of the world, overgrazed pasture is typically taller than sustainably grazed pasture, with grass heights typically over 1 meter and dominated by unpalatable species such as "Aristida" or "Imperata". In all cases, palatable tall grasses such as orchard grass are sparse or non-existent. In such cases of overgrazing, soil may be visible between plants in the stand, allowing erosion to occur, though in many circumstances overgrazed pastures have a greater sward cover than sustainably grazed pastures.

Rotational grazing.

Under rotational grazing, overgrazed plants do not have enough time to recover to the proper height between grazing events. The animals resume grazing before the plants have restored carbohydrate reserves and grown back roots lost after the last defoliation. The result is the same as under continuous grazing: in some parts of the United States tall-growing species die and short-growing species that are more subject to drought injury predominate the pasture, while in most other parts of the world tall, drought tolerant, unpalatable species such as "Imperata" or "Aristida" come to dominate. As the sod thins, weeds encroach into the pasture in some parts of the United States, whereas in most other parts of the world overgrazing can promote thick swards of native unpalatable grasses that hamper the spread of weeds.  Another indicator of overgrazing in some parts of North America is that livestock run out of pasture, and hay needs to be fed early in the fall. In contrast, most areas of the world do not experience the same climatic regime as the continental United States and hay feeding is rarely conducted.  Overgrazing is also indicated in livestock performance and condition. Cows having inadequate pasture immediately following their calf's weaning may have poor body condition the following season. This may reduce the health and vigor of cows and calves at calving. Also, cows in poor body condition do not cycle as soon after calving, which can result in delayed breeding and a long calving season. With good cow genetics, nutrition, ideal seasons and controlled breeding 55% to 75% of the calves should come in the first 21 days of the calving season. Poor weaning weights of calves can be caused by insufficient pasture, when cows give less milk and the calves need pasture to maintain weight gain.

Ecological impacts.

Overgrazing typically increases soil erosion. Reduction in soil depth, soil organic matter and soil fertility impair the land's future natural and agricultural productivity. Soil fertility can sometimes be mitigated by applying the appropriate lime and organic fertilizers. However, the loss of soil depth and organic matter takes centuries to correct. Their loss is critical in determining the soil's water-holding capacity and how well pasture plants do during dry weather.  Overgrazing results in increased trampling of soil by livestock, which increases soil compaction (Fuls, 1992) and thus, decreases the permeability of the soil. Furthermore, with more exposure of soil due to the decrease in plant biomass, the soil is exposed to increased levels of direct rainfall, creating a crust layer that is compacted and impermeable. This impermeability is what increases runoff and soil erosion.  With continued overutilization of land for grazing, there is an increase in degradation. This leads to poor soil conditions that only xeric and early successional species can tolerate.  Native plant grass species, both individual bunch grasses and in grasslands, are especially vulnerable. For example, excessive browsing of white-tailed deer can lead to the growth of less preferred species of grasses and ferns or non-native plant species that can potentially displace native, woody plants, decreasing the biodiversity.

North America.

In the continental United States, to prevent overgrazing, match the forage supplement to the herd's requirement. This means that a buffer needs to be in the system to adjust for the fastest growth of forages.  Another potential buffer is to plant warm-season perennial grasses such as switchgrass, which do not grow early in the season. This reduces the area that the livestock can use early in the season, making it easier for them to keep up with the cool-season grasses. The animals then use the warm-season grasses during the heat of the summer, and the cool-season grasses recover for fall grazing.  The grazing guidelines in the table are for rotationally grazed, cool-season forages. When using continuous grazing, manage pasture height at one-half the recommended turn-in height for rotational grazing to optimize plant health. The growth habit of some forage species, such as alfalfa, does not permit their survival under continuous grazing. When managing for legumes in the stand, it is beneficial to use rotational grazing and graze the stand close and then give adequate rest to stimulate the legumes' growth.

Economic theory.

Overgrazing is used as an example in the economic concept now known as the Tragedy of the Commons devised in a 1968 paper by Garrett Hardin. This cited the work of a Victorian economist who used the over-grazing of common land as an example of behaviour. Hardin's example could only apply to unregulated use of land regarded as a common resource.  Normally, rights of use of Common land in England and Wales were, and still are, closely regulated, and available only to "commoners". If excessive use was made of common land, for example in overgrazing, a common would be "stinted", that is, a limit would be put on the number of animals each commoner was allowed to graze. These regulations were responsive to demographic and economic pressure; thus rather than let a common become degraded, access was restricted even further. This important part of actual historic practice was absent from the economic model of Hardin. In reality the use of common land in England and Wales was a triumph of conserving a scarce resource using agreed custom and practice.

Africa-Sahel region.

The violent herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria, Mali, Sudan and other countries in the Sahel region have been exacerbated by land degradation and overgrazing.

Sub-Sahara Africa.

Various countries in Sub-Sahara Africa are affected by overgrazing and resulting ecological effects. In Namibia, overgrazing is considered the main cause of the thickening of shrubs and bushes at the expenses of grassees on a land area of up to 45 million hectares (see bush encroachment).

Australia.

Overgrazing does not necessarily mean total denudation of the land. Overgrazing can also occur with native species. In the Australian Capital Territory, Australia the local government, in 2013, authorised the culling of 1455 kangaroos due to overgrazing.

Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, game reserves, or nature reserves. It can also be caused by immobile, travel restricted populations of native or non-native wild animals. However, "overgrazing" is a controversial concept, based on equilibrium system theory. A strong indicator of overgrazing is where additional feed needs to be brought in from outside the farm, often to support livestock through the winter. Traditionally this feed was sourced on the farm, with fewer animals being kept and some fields being used for hay and silage production. Modern farm businesses often choose to keep more animals than their land can support alone; buying in external feed to offset this.

Le surpâturage est un excès de "« pression de pâturage »" par des animaux (domestiques, semidomestiques ou marrons), autrement dit une surexploitation des ressources végétales servant à l'alimentation de ces derniers. Le sous-pâturage, souvent lié à la présence de plantes peu appétentes, résulte de la situation inverse où la demande fourragère du troupeau est déficitaire par rapport à l'offre.


Biography.

Anders Johansson was born in Stockholm. He and his mum and younger brother later moved to Malmö after his father died in a car accident. The first instrument he played was the piano, but at the age of 14, after a bicycle accident, he switched to drums. From 1979 through 1982 he attended an electronics engineering school.  In 1984 he moved to the United States to join his brother Jens in Yngwie Malmsteen's band. He recorded five albums and made five world tours with Malmsteen. After that, he worked with a huge number of artists, including bassist Jonas Hellborg, Benny Jansson, and with his brother Jens (as "The Johansson Brothers"). He initially joined HammerFall on the "Legacy" tour in 1999, at first only as a session drummer but later as a full-time member.  He is co-founder of Heptagon Records with his brother, created to promote their discs, their father's and some other Swedish musicians' work.  Johansson was a guest drummer on Narnia's album "The Great Fall". Johansson is best known for his time in Malmsteen's band, besides his former role as HammerFall's drummer. He has been praised for his technical talent, in metal as well as other genres.  Johansson also plays the upright bass (double bass) in a jazz duo together with his brother Jens Johansson. He released his memoirs "Trumslagarpojken" 2016.  Today Anders lives with his family outside Malmö in south Sweden. He is interestred of cars and martial arts.  Now Johansson plays with Manowar, his first concert was in 25.3.2019 in BRNO, Czech Republic.

Anders Johansson (born 25 May 1962) is a Swedish drummer, best known as the former drummer of HammerFall and Yngwie Malmsteen's Rising Force. He is the son of jazz pianist Jan Johansson, and brother of Stratovarius and Rainbow keyboardist Jens Johansson.

Anders Johansson, né le à Göteborg en Suède, est un batteur suédois. Il est le fils de Jan Johansson, célèbre pianiste de jazz (1931- 1968), et le frère de Jens Johansson, claviériste de renom membre du groupe de power metal finlandais Stratovarius. Comme son frère, il s'est fait connaitre grâce à son travail sur les premiers albums du guitariste suédois Yngwie Malmsteen.


Biography.

Eyebe Ayissi was born in Mbellé, a village in Obala District, Lekie Department, Center Province. After working at the "Inspection Générale" of the State from November 1981 to September 1982, he worked under the Prime Minister as Head of the Department of Legal Studies and Deputy Director of Legislative and Regulatory Affairs from September 1982 to February 1984. From August 1984 to September 1985 he worked at the Ministry of Public Service as Head of the Division of Research and Regulations. From September 1985 to January 1987, he was First "Chargé d'études" in the Division of Legal Affairs at the Ministry of Planning, and on January 7, 1987, he became Secretary of Ministerial Councils at the Presidency. He was then appointed to the government as Minister of Urban Planning and Housing on September 7, 1990, serving in that position until he was replaced in the government named on November 27, 1992.  In 1998, Eyebe Ayissi became Inspector-General of the Services of the Ministry of Higher Education, and he subsequently served as Inspector-General on Electoral Issues at the Ministry of Territorial Administration and Decentralisation. He was appointed as Foreign Minister by President Paul Biya on September 7, 2007, replacing Jean-Marie Atangana Mebara, and he was installed in office on September 10, 2007.  He was moved to the post of Minister-Delegate at the Presidency for the Higher Audit Office in December 2011 and then to the post of Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development on 2 October 2015.

Henri Eyebe Ayissi (born September 24, 1955) is a Cameroonian politician and diplomat who served in the government of Cameroon as Minister of Foreign Relations from 2007 to 2011. He was Minister-Delegate at the Presidency for the Higher Audit Office from 2011 to 2015 and has been Minister of Agriculture since 2015.

Henri Eyebe Ayissi, né le à Mbele II dans le département de la Lekié (région du Centre), est un homme politique camerounais. Le, il devient ministre de l'Agriculture et du Développement rural dans le troisième gouvernement Philémon yang. Le, il est nommé ministre des Domaines, du Cadastre et des Affaires foncières.


History.

Construction and opening.

The stadium cost (US$192 million) to build, which was six times the stadium's original construction budget of R$60,000,000 The Mayor's office estimated in 2003 that the total construction cost would be of R$60 million (US$30 million); the actual cost was thus 533% higher than early estimates.  The stadium opened on 30 June 2007. The first match held was a Campeonato Brasileiro Série A game between Botafogo and Fluminense. 40,000 tickets were available for the match and were exchanged for donations of powdered milk. In all, 43,810 people were at the stadium to watch the inaugurating match, where Botafogo beat Fluminense 2–1. The first goal of the match was scored by Fluminense's Alex Dias. As Dias scored the first goal in the stadium's history, he was awarded the Valdir Pereira Trophy ("Taça Valdir Pereira"), which was named after retired footballer Didi. Because Botafogo won the stadium's inaugural match, the club was awarded the João Havelange Trophy ("Taça João Havelange").

Pan American Games, Botafogo, and the Olympics.

During the course of the 2007 Pan American Games held in Rio de Janeiro in July, the stadium hosted athletics competitions, in addition to twelve games of the first stage of the men's and women's football tournaments. After the conclusion of the games, on 3 August 2007, Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas signed a deal with the City of Rio de Janeiro to rent the stadium for 20 years. Botafogo was the only organization to present a bid; the club agreed to pay $18.200 (or R$36.000) a month to rent "Engenhão", plus maintenance costs which run at $2 million (or R$4 million) annually. On 11 August 2007, a 15-meter long and 6-meter high stadium wall collapsed, but nobody was hurt. On 10 September 2008, the Brazilian national team played for the first time at the Engenhão. The match, against Bolivia, for 2010 World Cup Qualification, ended 0–0.  The stadium remains owned by the City of Rio de Janeiro, but it has been rented to Botafogo until at least 2027 (20 years). The Engenhão was the main venue for top football competitions in Rio de Janeiro while the Maracanã Stadium was being renovated in preparation for both the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2016 Summer Olympics. Flamengo and Fluminense played their home matches at the Engenhão from the 2010–11 through 2012–13 seasons. The stadium was closed indefinitely in March 2013 after it was found the structural integrity of the roof was not up to standard, and could potentially place spectators at risk. It was announced on 8 June 2013, that the stadium would need a minimum of 18 months of reconstruction work and remain closed until 2015 while the repairs were carried out to the roof.

The Estádio Olímpico Nilton Santos, formerly the Estádio Olímpico João Havelange (; ), is a multi-purpose stadium located in the neighbourhood of Engenho de Dentro in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is used mostly for football matches and athletics and is the home stadium of the football club Botafogo. The stadium was built by a consortium under the leadership of Odebrecht S.A., from 2003 through to 2007, opening in time for the 2007 Pan American Games. It hosted the athletics competitions at the 2016 Summer Olympics and the 2016 Summer Paralympics.

Le stade olympique Nilton-Santos, ancien stade olympique João-Havelange, populairement surnommé Engenhão ou encore simplement stade olympique, est un stade omnisports situé à Rio de Janeiro au Brésil. Il fut construit en 2007, pour accueillir les épreuves de football et d'athlétisme des Jeux panaméricains de 2007 qui eurent lieu dans la ville.


Details.

Newman later commented on the lack of influence from rock and roll on the album.  "It's like I'd never heard The Rolling Stones. I thought you could move things along just with the orchestra, that it was somehow cheating to use drums. What Van Dyke and I, and Harry Nilsson to some degree, were doing, it was like a branch of homo sapiens that didn't become homo sapiens. Homo erectus," he said.  Newman said in 2017, that he signed away the publishing rights on his first album, doesn't see any money from people doing covers of those songs and advised people getting into the business to never sign away their publishing.

Previous versions of songs on this album.

As with many of Newman's early albums, several Newman-penned songs had been previously recorded by other artists.

Singles.

"I Think It's Going to Rain Today" b/w "The Beehive State" was issued as a single on Reprise 0284. Reprise also issued this single on a promotional 10" vinyl 78 rpm record as the first (and only) release under their proposed "Reprise Speed Series" of 78 RPM releases (the series was discontinued by Reprise due to a lack of interest and sales a few months after this release).

Reception.

"Rolling Stone" noted, "the mood of a bitter longing for affection that characterizes the album.  Denny Cordell has called Randy “the foremost practitioner of suburban blues,” and certainly “Love Story” is the blues of Middle America. The song marks out a simple pattern of life: boy meets girl, gets married, lives in suburbia, has children, dies. Randy moves in on The Dream in an uncommon way: “When our kids are grown/They’ll send us away to a little home in Florida/ We’ll play checkers all day/Till we pass away.”"

Legacy.

Critic Ellen Willis feels that the songs on the album, "show an intimate familiarity with, and an affection for, all the nuances of American life - the setting and characters, the family relationships, the romantic fantasies, the euphemisms - as well as an unsparing awareness of our oppression of old people, fat people, and other nonmainstream types."  William Ruhlmann in an AllMusic retrospective review feels that Newman's lyrics are "intent upon taking clichés and using them to satirize social conventions, a popular parlor game in the late '60s." Overall he considers the album "an audacious first album by a major, if extremely quirky, talent."  In 2000 it was voted number 716 in Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums".

Track listing.

All songs written and arranged by Randy Newman.

Randy Newman is the eponymous debut studio album by American singer-songwriter Randy Newman, released in 1968 by Reprise Records. Unlike his later albums, which featured Newman and his piano backed by guitar, bass guitar and drums, "Randy Newman" was highly orchestral and aimed to blend the orchestra with Newman's voice and piano.

Randy Newman () est le de l'auteur-compositeur-interprète américain de rock Randy Newman. Il est parfois désigné avec son sous-titre : "Randy Newman Creates Something New Under The Sun".


Beliefs.

The CRC denounces Vatican II, which it considers as a legitimately convoked ecumenical council, yet they accuse it of many errors because it chose not to speak infallibly. For example, the movement denounces the ecumenical dialogue and what it sees as worship of man.  The CRC also denounces the principle of religious freedom as well as the freedom of conscience in the Roman Catholic Church, while recognizing that the principle of equality between religions runs counter to the notion of truth taught by Christ.  Georges de Nantes and deacon defend the thesis of the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin. According to the CRC, the relic was a victim of "fraud" in the carbon 14 analysis in 1988, fraud "premeditated" by the "mafia" of Freemasons ; the 1997 fire, which seriously damaged the Cathedral of Turin, where the Shroud is kept, would be a "final solution" found by "these hidden forces, that Freemasonry".

Status.

The organization is outside the Catholic Church which had suspended a divinis Georges de Nantes before he founded the CRC. In 2001, Georges de Nantes was forbidden to exercise priestly faculties, including the celebration of sacraments. This is the highest penalty before excommunication. The CRC is not recognized by the Catholic bishops.  The community of the, which belongs to the CRC, was considered as a cult by French Commission on Cults in the 1995 report. In 1997, the Belgian parliamentary commission established a list of 189 movements containing the CRC (see Groups referred to as cults in government documents).

The League for Catholic Counter-Reformation (, CRC) is a nationalist and ultramontane organization founded in 1967 by, a former abbot who was suspended "a divinis" (from administering the sacraments) on 25 August 1966. The movement is composed of two religious communities in Saint-Parres-lès-Vaudes, in the Aube department, and in Quebec. It is considered a cult in France.

La Contre-Réforme catholique (ou CRC) est le titre d'un mensuel fondé par l'abbé Georges de Nantes en 1967 s'opposant aux nouveautés adoptées par le concile Vatican II. C'est aussi le nom d'une Ligue que l'abbé de Nantes a fondée en 1970. Dans le contexte mouvementé des années post-conciliaires, l'abbé de Nantes résuma sa position par la formule : « Ni hérésie ni schisme ». Il a cependant été condamné par l'Église. Le mouvement est considéré comme étant de nature sectaire par l'UNADFI, des rapports parlementaires français et belges ou la plupart des associations mobilisées contre les dérives sectaires. On le situe généralement à l'extrême droite, dans la mouvance nationaliste.


Background.

The album was produced by Ken Thomas, who is best known for his work with Icelandic band Sigur Rós. Upon its debut, critical reception was generally mixed; while many complimented the album's personal subject matter, others described it as lacking depth. "Paper Monsters" became a modest success in the UK where it debuted at number thirty-six on the albums chart, but it was a big success in the German, Swedish, and Swiss charts, reaching the Top 10 there. In North America, the album was released on 3 June 2003; however, it failed to make much of an impact on the mainstream charts, although the "Paper Monsters Tour" had some impact, especially on Depeche Mode fans. One concert of the tour, the one on 4-5.07 in Paris at the Olympia, was recorded and released on a DVD called "Live Monsters".  From this album, four songs were released on three singles: "Dirty Sticky Floors", "I Need You" and "Bottle Living"/"Hold On" (the last was a double A-side, so two album songs were released on the same single: "Bottle Living" and "Hold On"). The three reached the UK Top 40.  Gahan first played with the idea of releasing a solo album after the release of Depeche Mode's "Exciter" in 2001, but approached the project slowly. It was not until he began writing music with friend and musician Knox Chandler that he gained the self-confidence he needed to begin to consider working on an album of his own material.

Singles.

The album produced three singles. "Dirty Sticky Floors", the lead single from the album, became Gahan's most successful solo release, where it reached #18 on the UK Singles Chart (and the Top 10 in Germany and Italy). Its remixes were also promoted in U.S. dance clubs, and peaked within the top five of the "Billboard" Dance Chart. This first single had two b-sides: "Stand Up" and "Maybe".  The second single "I Need You" was a ballad based around a synth and drum arrangement, which reached #27 in the UK and #5 on the U.S. Dance Chart. The second single also had two b-sides, "Closer" and "Breathe".  The third and final single was "Bottle Living" / "Hold On", a double A-side. meaning that two songs were released on the same single. The single also contained a remix of another album track, "Hidden Houses", as a B-side. The single continued the album's string of top-forty singles reaching #36 in the UK.

Critical response.

At Metacritic, that assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 67, based on nine critical reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews".  Upon release, the album received mixed responses from international music-critics. In a review for the BBC, Kate Lawrence called "Paper Monsters" "an assured debut" with "surprising depth". She was impressed by Gahan's vocals on the track "Hidden Houses", which she called "deliciously devilish and angelic in equal measure" and said that it "demonstrates a vocal range rarely seen in the Mode back catalogue". "Slant Magazine" echoed Lawrence's review for the "BBC", calling the album a "competent solo debut" with "murky rock grooves and throaty vocals". However, Pitchfork Media reviewer Michael Idov was less impressed with the album and wrote that its personal subject matter made for a "faintly embarrassing listen". Idov criticised Gahan's lyrics stating that his "vocal can still elevate the dumbest lyric to the level of a cathartic mantra, a skill that comes handy in the absence of Martin Gore". Allmusic reviewer Don Kline called "Paper Monsters" "a mix of swampy blues-injected rock, slick urban electronica, and atmospheric balladry" and gave it three out of five stars. He also stated that "although it doesn't stray too far from the Depeche mould, Gahan does manage to put his own stamp on the songs".

Track listing.

All tracks written and composed by Dave Gahan and Knox Chandler.  The album was released in two versions: a single-disc version, and a double-disc version which included the regular album and a bonus DVD. The DVD contains a short film, music videos, and live performances by Gahan filmed in New York City.

Bonus tracks and footage.

All bonus tracks and footage appear on the United Kingdom and North American edition of "Paper Monsters".

Paper Monsters is the debut solo album by Depeche Mode lead singer Dave Gahan. The record was released by Mute Records on 2 June 2003 in Europe via Mute and Reprise labels.

Paper Monsters est le premier album solo de Dave Gahan, le chanteur de Depeche Mode. Produit par Ken Thomas, connu pour son travail avec le groupe islandais Sigur Rós, le CD est sorti le.


History.

The name "Riesa" is derived from Slavic "Riezowe". This name, romanised as "Rezoa", appears first in October 1119 in a document from Pope Callixtus II.  The world's first 110 kV power line was installed between Riesa and Lauchhammer in 1912. Between 1952 and 1994, Riesa was the seat of a district.  During the 1980s, Riesa was the headquarters of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany's 9th Tank Division.

Population history.

The city grew from the start of the 20th century due to industrialisation. The population declined after German Reunification in 1989. The local steel works shut and the population fell from 52,000 to 31,000.

Sights.

Riesa has a 25 m tall, 234 tonne, cast-iron (GGG 40) sculpture of an oak trunk, named "Elbquelle", which means source of the Elbe, by Jörg Immendorff, erected in 1999. Local folk call the sculpture by many other names, most notably "Rostige Eiche", which means "rusty oak".  In the city of Riesa there are two famous churches. The minster St. Marien was built in 1261 as an addition to the Benedictine Abbey. The Trinitatis Church was completed in 1897.  Riesa is known locally for the "SACHSENarena", a large hall which hosted the European Sumo Wrestling Championship in October 2003 and the World Sumo Wrestling Championship in October 2004.

Culture.

Riesa is well known locally for its pasta, which is produced at "Teigwaren Riesa GmbH". Another symbol of Riesa are the "Riesaer Zündhölzer", the matches which were traditionally manufactured there.  Very famous is also the steel production in Riesa. Notable people from Riesa include the former footballer Ulf Kirsten. Riesa has a football club, BSG Stahl Riesa. The club's crest is blue and white, as are the club colours. They play now in the Landesliga Sachsen (6th. League).

Twin towns - sister cities.

Riesa is twinned with:

Transport.

Riesa railway station is located north of the town's centre, it offers both regional and long-distance services.  Riesa is located on Bundesstraße 169, which ensures access to federal motorways A 14 (close to Döbeln, approx. 25 km) and A 13 (close to Ruhland, approx. 50 km).

Riesa is a town in the district of Meißen in the Free State of Saxony, Germany. It is located on the Elbe River, approximately northwest of Dresden.

Riesa est un Mittelstadt dans le district saxon de Meissen. Il se trouve sur une superficie de 58,84 kilomètres carrés sur le côté gauche de l'Elbe. La ville était principalement connue pour son industrie sidérurgique et sa ville sportive. Depuis 1994, Riesa a le statut de grande ville de district dans l'État libre de Saxe.


Juries.

Main competition.

The following people were appointed as the Jury for the feature films of the 2008 Official Selection:

Official selection.

In competition - Feature films.

The following feature films competed for the "Palme d'Or":

Un Certain Regard.

The following films were selected for the competition of Un Certain Regard:

Films out of competition.

The following films were selected to be screened out of competition:

Special Screenings.

The following films were selected for the Special Screenings:

Cinéfondation.

The following short films were selected for the competition of Cinéfondation:

Short film competition.

The following short films competed for the Short Film "Palme d'Or":

Cannes Classics.

Cannes Classics places the spotlight on documentaries about cinema and restored masterworks from the past.  Tributes Documentaries about Cinema  Restored prints

Parallel sections.

International Critics' Week.

The following films were screened for the 47th International Critics' Week (47e Semaine de la Critique):  Feature film competition  Short film competition  Special screenings

Directors' Fortnight.

The following films were screened for the 2008 Directors' Fortnight (Quinzaine des Réalizateurs):  Feature films  Special screenings  Short films

Awards.

Official awards.

The following films and people received the 2008 Official selection awards: Un Certain Regard Cinéfondation Golden Camera Short films

Independent awards.

FIPRESCI Prizes Vulcan Award of the Technical Artist Ecumenical Jury Awards in the frame of International Critics' Week Other awards Association Prix François Chalais

The 61st Annual Cannes Film Festival was held from 14 to 25 May 2008. The President of the Official Jury was American actor and director Sean Penn. Twenty two films from fourteen countries were selected to compete for the "Palme d'Or". The awards were announced on 24 May. The film "The Class" ("Entre les murs"), directed by Laurent Cantet won the "Palme d'Or".

Le Festival de Cannes 2008, du festival a lieu du 14 au. Le président du jury était l'acteur et réalisateur américain Sean Penn.


History.

Zinjibar was a long-established trading center for commerce with the Far East. However, in 1163 (559 AH) the town was burned and destroyed by Abdel Nabi Ali Mahdi Yoosuf. It was rebuilt as is evidenced by 15th century Yemeni pottery at the Mazda (القريات) archaeological site, but was destroyed again in tribal warfare. In the 19th century, Fadhli Sultan Hussein bin Ahmed bin Abdullah re-established the town, also was exiled to Pune India and in the early 1920s was ordered to be returned, Sultan Saleh Abdullah bin Hussein bin Ahmed was exiled by the British to Zinzibar thous upon his return he renamed the town Zinjibar in honor of his exile.  The name "Zinjibar" is from Persian compound "Zang-bâr" (زنگبار), meaning "coast of the dark-skinned". The name "Zanzibar" is also of the same root.

2011 revolt.

In May 2011, the town was reported as overtaken by Islamist militants as part of the 2011 Yemeni uprising. On June 12, 2012, the militants were driven out by the Yemeni army. On the same date, the neighboring town of Jaʿār, 15 kilometers or 9 miles to the north, was also retaken by the government forces.

2015 conflict.

Soldiers allied with the Houthis took over Zinjibar in late March 2015, driving out troops and fighters loyal to President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi. The city became a target for the airstrikes of a multinational coalition intervening in Yemen on Hadi's behalf. On 2 December 2015, Ansar al-Sharia captured Zinjibar, along with Jaʿār.

2016 conflict.

In early May 2016, AQAP fighters withdrew from the city of Zinjibar and Jaar after negotiation with Hadi loyalists. Since then, it has repeatedly withdrawn and returned. On 14 August, the cities were fully captured by pro-government forces which dislodged the militants from them.

Zinjibar ( "Zinjibār") is a port and coastal town in south-central Yemen, the capital of Zinjibar District and the Abyan Governorate. It is located next to the Wadi Bana in the Abyan Delta. From 1962 to 1967, it was the administrative capital of the Fadhli Sultanate, although the royal residence remained at the former capital of Shuqrah. At the time of the 2004 census, Zinjibar's population numbered 19,879 inhabitants. The town supports a small seaside resort and fishing industry. Cotton ("Gossypium barbadense") grown in the area is brokered in the market.

Zinjibar (arabe : زنجبار) est une ville côtière située dans le Sud-Ouest du Yémen ; elle est le chef-lieu du district du même nom et du gouvernorat d'Abyan. C'est la du Yémen.


History.

Ellensburg was officially incorporated on November 26, 1883. John Alden Shoudy came to the Kittitas Valley in 1871, and purchased a small trading post from Andrew Jackson "A.J." Splawn, called "Robber's Roost." Robber's Roost was the first business in the valley, other than the early trading that occurred among Native Americans, cattle drivers, trappers, and miners. Robber's Roost was located on the present-day 3rd Avenue, just west of Main Street near the alley. There is a placard on the wall commemorating the location, as well as a small stone monument against the wall on the sidewalk. Shoudy named the town after his wife, Mary Ellen Shoudy; thus officially began the city of Ellensburgh around 1872. Shoudy was not the first settler in the Kittitas Valley, nor was he the first businessperson, but he was responsible for platting the city of Ellensburgh in the 1870s, and he was the person who named the streets in the downtown district.  The city was originally named Ellensburgh, until the final -"h" was dropped under standardization pressure from the United States Postal Service and Board of Geography Names in 1894. Ellensburg was among the first cities in Washington to have electrical service and was an early center of commerce. The city launched a bid to become the state capital in 1889, preparing a site in the Capital Hill neighborhood for government offices. On July 4, 1889, a major fire destroyed much of downtown Ellensburg and stalled the capital campaign, which resumed with a series of referendums, in which Washington voters chose Olympia. The state legislature selected Ellensburg as the location for the State Normal School (now Central Washington University) as a consolation prize for losing the capital bid.  There were several early newspapers in Ellensburg. "The Daily Record", however, began in 1909 and is the name of the local newspaper today.  Concerns over the state of Ellensburg's historic downtown led to the formation of the Ellensburg Downtown Association to work on revitalizing the area.

Arts and culture.

The City of Ellensburg is home to a number of local art museums and galleries:  Every first Friday of each month, Ellensburg hosts First Friday Art Walk from 5:00 to 7:00 pm. This downtown event showcases art of all forms. The local businesses, galleries and museums come alive with art, music, wine and people as they celebrate art in the community.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water.

Climate.

Owing to the strong Cascade rain shadow, Ellensburg experiences a typical Intermountain cool semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSk").

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 18,174 people, 7,301 households, and 2,889 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 7,867 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 85.7% White, 1.5% African American, 1.0% Native American, 3.2% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 4.6% from other races, and 3.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.7% of the population.  There were 7,301 households, of which 19.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.2% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 60.4% were non-families. 35.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 2.86.  The median age in the city was 23.5 years. 14.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 41.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.8% were from 25 to 44; 13.9% were from 45 to 64; and 8.9% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.1% male and 49.9% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 15,414 people, 6,249 households, and 2,649 families living in the city. The population density was 2,338.9 people per square mile (903.1/km2). There were 6,732 housing units at an average density of 1,021.5 per square mile (394.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 88.07% White, 1.17% Black or African American, 0.95% Native American, 4.09% Asian, 0.16% Pacific Islander, 2.86% from other races, and 2.69% from two or more races. 6.33% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 6,249 households, of which 20.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.4% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 57.6% were non-families. 35.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.84.  In the city, the population was spread out with 15.8% under the age of 18, 39.3% from 18 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 12.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.1 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $20,034, and the median income for a family was $37,625. Males had a median income of $31,022 versus $22,829 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,662. About 18.8% of families and 34.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.0% of those under age 18 and 11.2% of those age 65 or over.

Politics and government.

The City of Ellensburg uses the Manager/Council form of government with a City Manager hired by the City Council. The seven-member City Council is elected at large and serve 4-year terms. The City Council elects a Mayor and Deputy Mayor from the Council to serve 2-year terms. The Council meets the first and third Monday of each month, at 7:00 pm, in the City Council Chambers at City Hall.  On the state legislative level, Ellensburg is in the 13th district. As of May, 2018, its state senator is Republican Judy Warnick, and its two state representatives are Republicans Matt Manweller and Tom Dent. On the congressional level, Ellensburg is located in Washington's 8th congressional district and is represented by Democrat Kim Schrier.

Media.

Kittitas County is served by the "Daily Record", a newspaper published in Ellensburg five days a week.  The city maintains its own public library, which opened on January 20, 1910, using funds donated by Andrew Carnegie.

Education.

Public schools.

Public schools are operated by Ellensburg School District 401. The district includes one high school (Ellensburg High School), one middle school, and three elementary schools.

Ellensburg is a city in and county seat of Kittitas County, Washington, United States. The population was 21,111 in a July 2019 census estimate. It is located just east of the Cascade Range at the junction of Interstate 90 and Interstate 82.

Ellensburg est une ville des États-Unis, siège du comté de Kittitas dans l'État de Washington. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


Armenian Anahit and Persian Anahita.

According to Strabo, the "Armenians shared in the religion of the Perses and the Medes and particularly honored Anaitis". The kings of Armenia were "steadfast supporters of the cult" and Tiridates III, before his conversion to Christianity, "prayed officially to the triad Aramazd-Anahit-Vahagn but is said to have shown a special devotion to 'the great lady Anahit,... the benefactress of the whole human race, mother of all knowledge, daughter of the great Aramazd'" According to Agathangelos, tradition required the Kings of Armenia to travel once a year to the temple at Eriza (Erez) in Acilisene in order to celebrate the festival of the divinity; Tiridates made this journey in the first year of his reign where he offered sacrifice and wreaths and boughs. The temple at Eriza appears to have been particularly famous, "the wealthiest and most venerable in Armenia", staffed with priests and priestesses, the latter from eminent families who would serve at the temple before marrying. This practice may again reveal Semitic syncretic influences, and is not otherwise attested in other areas. Pliny reports that Mark Antony's soldiers smashed an enormous statue of the divinity made of solid gold and then divided the pieces amongst themselves. Also according to Pliny, supported by Dio Cassius, Acilisene eventually came to be known as Anaïtica. Dio Cassius also mentions that another region along the Cyrus River, on the borders of Albania and Iberia, was also called "the land of Anaïtis."

Temples dedicated to Anahit.

In Armenia, Anahit-worship was established in Erez, Armavir, Artashat and Ashtishat. A mountain in Sophene district was known as Anahit's throne ("Athor Anahta"). The entire district of Erez, in the province of Akilisene (Ekeghiats), was called "Anahtakan Gavar".  According to Plutarch, the temple of Erez was the wealthiest and the noblest in Armenia. During the expedition of Mark Antony in Armenia, the statue was broken to pieces by the Roman soldiers. Pliny the Elder gives us the following story about it: The Emperor Augustus, being invited to dinner by one of his generals, asked him if it were true that the wreckers of Anahit's statue had been punished by the wrathful goddess. "No!" answered the general, "on the contrary, I have to‐day the good fortune of treating you with one part of the hip of that gold statue." The Armenians erected a new golden statue of Anahit in Erez, which was worshiped before the time of St. Gregory Illuminator.  The annual festivity of the month Navasard, held in honor of Anahit, was the occasion of great gatherings, attended with dance, music, recitals, competitions, etc. The sick went to the temples in pilgrimage, asking for recovery. The symbol of ancient Armenian medicine was the head of the bronze gilded statue of the goddess Anahit.

Historians' accounts of Anahit.

According to Agathangelos, King Trdat extolls the "great Lady Anahit, the glory of our nation and vivifier...; mother of all chastity, and issue of the great and valiant Aramazd." The historian Berossus identifies Anahit with Aphrodite, while medieval Armenian scribes identify her with Artemis. According to Strabo, Anahit's worship included rituals of sacred prostitution, but later Christian writers do not mention such custom.

Relation to the Avestan Anahita.

The name corresponds to Avestan Anahita (Aredvi Sura Anahita), a similar divine figure.

Anahit () was the goddess of fertility and healing, wisdom and water in Armenian mythology. In early periods she was the goddess of war. By the 5th century BC she was the main deity in Armenia along with Aramazd. The Armenian goddess Anahit is related to the similar Iranian goddess Anahita. Anahit's worship, most likely borrowed from the Iranians during the Median invasion or the early Achaemenid period, was of paramount significance in Armenia. Artaxias I erected statues of Anahit, and promulgated orders to worship them.

Anahid était la déesse de la fécondité et de la naissance (comparable à Aphrodite), de la beauté et de l'eau dans le paganisme arménien. Elle fut la déesse de la guerre à l'époque primitive. Au, elle était une des deux figures principales du panthéon arménien avec Mithra.