Early years.

Hale was born in Rochester, Strafford County, New Hampshire, the son of John Parker Hale and Lydia Clarkson O'Brien. He attended Phillips Exeter Academy and graduated in 1827 from Bowdoin College, where he was a classmate of Franklin Pierce and a prominent member of the Athenian Society, a literary club. He began his law studies in Rochester with Jeremiah H. Woodman, and continued them with Daniel M. Christie in Dover. He passed the bar examination in 1830, and practiced law in Dover. He married Lucy Lambert, the daughter of William Thomas Lambert and Abigail Ricker.

Start of political career.

In March 1832, Hale was elected to the New Hampshire House of Representatives as a Democrat. In 1834, President Andrew Jackson appointed him as U.S. District Attorney for New Hampshire. This appointment was renewed by President Martin Van Buren in 1838, but in 1841 Hale was removed on party grounds by President John Tyler, a Whig.  Hale was elected as a Democrat to the Twenty-eighth Congress, serving from March 4, 1843 to March 3, 1845. There he spoke out against the gag rule that had been approved by Congress on December 12, 1838. This rule had been created by another New Hampshire representative, Charles G. Atherton and was intended to put a stop to anti-slavery petitions.

Anti-slavery transition.

Hale supported the Democratic candidates James K. Polk and George M. Dallas in the 1844 presidential election, and was renominated for his Congressional seat without opposition. Before the Congressional election, Texas annexation was adopted by the Democratic Party as part of its platform. In December 1844 the New Hampshire Legislature passed resolutions instructing its Senators and Congressmen to favor Texas annexation. Instead, Hale made a public statement opposing annexation on anti-slavery grounds.  The Democratic state convention was then reassembled in Concord under Pierce's leadership for the purpose of stripping Hale of his Congressional nomination. The reassembled convention branded him a traitor to the party, and in February 1845 his name was stricken from the Democratic ticket. In the subsequent election, Hale ran as an independent. Hale, the replacement Democratic candidate, and the Whig candidate failed to obtain a majority, so the district was unrepresented.

Anti-slavery activist.

In the face of an apparently invincible Democratic majority, Hale set out to win New Hampshire over to the anti-slavery cause. He addressed meetings in every town and village in the state, carrying on a remarkable campaign known as the "Hale Storm of 1845," which included a June 5, 1845 debate between Pierce and Hale at the North Church in Concord. In March 1846 Hale's efforts paid off when New Hampshire chose a legislature in which the Whigs and Independent Democrats had a majority, and Whig Anthony Colby won election as governor. Hale was himself elected to the state House, and was chosen to serve as Speaker.

United States Senator.

Hale was elected June 9, 1846, as an Independent Democratic Candidate to the United States Senate and served from March 4, 1847, to March 3, 1853, later becoming a Free Soiler. He was among the strongest opponents of the Mexican–American War in the Senate and is considered "the first U.S. Senator with an openly anti-slavery (or abolitionist) platform".  He was the only Senator to vote against the resolution tendering the thanks of Congress to Winfield Scott and Zachary Taylor for their victories in the Mexican–American War. In 1849 he was joined in the Senate by anti-slavery advocates Salmon P. Chase and William H. Seward, and in 1851 he was joined by Charles Sumner.  Hale also opposed flogging and the spirit ration in the United States Navy, and secured the abolition of flogging in September 1850.  In 1851 Hale served as counsel in the trials of anti-slavery activists that arose out of their forcible rescue of fugitive slave Shadrach Minkins from the custody of the United States Marshal in Boston.  Hale was an unsuccessful candidate for President of the United States on the Free Soil ticket in 1852, losing to Pierce. (See U.S. presidential election, 1852.) In March, 1853 Hale was succeeded in the Senate by Democrat Charles G. Atherton, and began practicing law in New York City.

Return to the Senate.

Following the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, Democrats were again overthrown in New Hampshire. Hale was elected to the Senate as a member of the new Republican Party in 1855, replacing Jared W. Williams, who had been appointed following the death of Charles G. Atherton. James Bell, a fellow Republican, was elected to New Hampshire's other Senate seat in the same election. Hale was re-elected Senator in 1859, in total serving from July 30, 1855, to March 3, 1865. He served as the chair of the Senate Republican Conference until 1862.  In 1862 Hale succeeded in repealing the Navy's spirit ration, which he had attempted during his first Senate term.

Minister to Spain.

President Lincoln nominated Hale to the post of minister to Spain and he served in that capacity 1865–1869. Hale attributed his April 1869 recall to a quarrel with Horatio J. Perry, his secretary of legation. Perry had accused Hale of violating his diplomatic privilege of importing free of duty merchandise for his official or personal use by putting some goods up for sale and pocketing the proceeds. Hale's answer was that he had been misled about the rules by a commission merchant friendly to Perry. Perry was himself removed from his post in June 1869.

Death and burial.

Hale died in Dover on November 19, 1873. He was buried at Pine Hill Cemetery in Dover.

Legacy.

Hale's Federal style house, built in 1813, is now part of the Woodman Institute Museum.  Portraits of President Lincoln and John P. Hale hang next to each other in the chamber of the New Hampshire House of Representatives.

Family.

On September 2, 1834 Hale married Lucy Hill Lambert (1814–1902) in Berwick, Maine. They were the parents of two daughters, Elizabeth (Lizzie) (1835–1895) and Lucy (1841–1915).  Elizabeth Hale first married Edward Kinsley (1825–1888). Their only child died shortly after birth. Her second husband was William Henry 'Harry' Jacques (1847–1916).  Lucy Lambert Hale was secretly betrothed in 1865 to John Wilkes Booth, Abraham Lincoln's assassin. Booth had a picture of Lucy Hale with him when he was shot and killed by Sergeant Boston Corbett on April 26, 1865. Lucy Hale eventually married Senator William E. Chandler.

John Parker Hale (March 31, 1806November 19, 1873) was an American politician and lawyer from New Hampshire. He served in the United States House of Representatives from 1843 to 1845 and in the United States Senate from 1847 to 1853 and again from 1855 to 1865. He began his Congressional career as a Democrat, but helped establish the anti-slavery Free Soil Party and eventually joined the Republican Party.

John Parker Hale ( – ) est un juriste et homme politique américain du New Hampshire. Il fut membre de la Chambre des représentants de 1843 à 1845 puis sénateur des États-Unis de 1847 à 1853, puis à nouveau de 1855 à 1865. Il était l'un des dirigeants du "Free Soil Party" et son candidat à l'élection présidentielle américaine de 1852. En 1862, le président Lincoln le nomme ambassadeur des États-Unis en Espagne, où il servira jusqu'en 1865.


History.

A Mamluk was a soldier of slave origin who had converted to Islam. The phenomenon started in the 9th century and gradually the Mamluks became a powerful military class in various Muslim societies. Mamluks held political and military power most notably in Egypt, but also in the Levant, Iraq, and India.  In 1206, Muhammad of Ghor, Sultan of the Ghurid Empire, was assassinated. Since he had no children, his empire split into minor sultanates led by his former Mamluk generals. Taj-ud-Din Yildoz became the ruler of Ghazni, Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji got Bengal and Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha became the sultan of Multan. Qutb ud-Din Aibak became the sultan of Delhi, and that was the beginning of the Slave dynasty.  Aibak rose to power when a Ghurid superior was assassinated. However, his reign as the Sultan of Delhi was short lived as he died in 1210 and his son Aram Shah rose to the throne, only to be assassinated by Iltutmish in 1211.  The Sultanate under Iltutmish established cordial diplomatic contact with the Abbasid Caliphate between 1228–29 and had managed to keep India unaffected by the invasions of Genghis Khan and his successors. Following the death of Iltutmish in 1236 a series of weak rulers remained in power and a number of the noblemen gained autonomy over the provinces of the Sultanate. Power shifted hands from Rukn ud din Firuz to Razia Sultana until Ghiyas ud din Balban rose to the throne and successfully repelled both external threats to the Sultanate from the Chagatai Khanate invasions and internal threats from the rebellious sultanate nobles. The Khalji dynasty came into being when Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji overthrew the last of the Slave dynasty rulers, Muiz ud din Qaiqabad, the grandson of Balban, and assumed the throne at Delhi.

Sultans.

The first Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty was Qutb ud-Din Aibak (), who had the titular name of "Sultan" () and reigned from 1206 to 1210. He temporarily quelled the rebellions of Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha of Multan and Tajuddin Yildoz of Ghazni. Making Lahore his capital, he consolidated his control over North India through an administrative hold over Delhi. He also initiated the construction of Delhi's earliest Muslim monuments, the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar. In 1210, he died due to injuries received from an accident while playing a game of polo in Lahore; his horse fell and he was impaled on the pommel of his saddle. He was buried near the Anarkali Bazaar in Lahore.  The second Sultan was Aram Shah (), who had the titular name of "Sultan" and reigned from 1210 to 1211. An elite group of forty nobles named "Chihalgani" ("the Forty") conspired against Aram Shah and invited Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, then Governor of Badaun, to replace Aram. Iltutmish defeated Aram in the plain of Jud near Delhi in 1211. It is not quite certain what became of Aram.  The third Sultan was Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (), who had the titular name of "Nasir Amir-ul-Mu'minin" () and reigned from 1211 to 1236. He shifted the capital from Lahore to Delhi and trebled the exchequer. He defeated Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha of Multan and Tajuddin Yildoz of Ghazni, who had declared themselves contenders of Delhi. Mongols invaded India in pursuit of Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni who was defeated at the Battle of Indus by Genghis Khan in 1221. After Genghis Khan's death, Iltutmish consolidated his hold on northern India by retaking many of the lost territories. In 1230, he built the Hauz-i-Shamsi reservoir in Mehrauli, and in 1231 he built Sultan Ghari, which was the first Islamic mausoleum in Delhi.  The fourth Sultan was Rukn-ud-din Feroze (), who had the titular name of "Sultan" and reigned from April 1236 to November 1236. He ruled for only seven months and his mother, Shah Turkan, for all practical purposes was running the government. He abandoned himself to the pursuit of personal pleasure and debauchery, to the considerable outrage of the citizenry. On 9 November 1236, both Rukn-ud-din Feroze and his mother Shah Turkan were assassinated by the Chihalgani.  The fifth Sultana was Razia al-Din (), who had the titular name of "Jalâlat-ud-dîn Raziyâ Sultana" () and reigned from 1236 to 1240. As the first female Muslim ruler in India, she initially managed to impress the nobles and administratively handled the Sultanate well. However, she began associating with the African Jamal-ud-Din Yaqut, provoking racial antagonism amongst the nobles and clergy, who were primarily Central Asian Turkic and already resented the rule of a female monarch. She was defeated by the powerful nobleman Malik Altunia whom she agreed to marry. Her half-brother Muiz-ud-din Bahram, however, usurped the throne with the help of the Chihalgani and defeated the combined forces of the Sultana and her husband. The couple fled and reached Kaithal, where their remaining forces abandoned them. They both fell into the hands of Jats and were robbed and killed on 14 October 1240.  The sixth Sultan was Muiz-ud-din Bahram (), who had the titular name of "Sultan" and reigned from 1240 to 15 May 1242. During his reign, the Chihalgani became disorderly and constantly bickered among each other. It was during this period of unrest that the Mongols invaded the Punjab and sacked Lahore. Muiz-ud-din Bahram was too weak to take any action against them, and the Chihalgani besieged him in the White Fort of Delhi and put him to death in 1242.  The seventh Sultan was Ala-ud-din Masud (), who had the titular name of "Sultan" and reigned from 1242 to 1246. He was effectively a puppet for the Chihalgani and did not actually have much power or influence in the government. Instead, he became infamous for his fondness of entertainment and wine. By 1246, the chiefs had become upset with Ala-ud-din Masud's increasing hunger for more power and replaced him with his cousin Nasiruddin Mahmud, who was another grandson of Iltutmish.  The eighth Sultan was Nasiruddin Mahmud (), who had the titular name of "Nasir-ud-din Feroze Shah" () and reigned from 1246 to 1266. As a ruler, Mahmud was known to be very religious, spending most of his time in prayer and was renowned for aiding the poor and the distressed. It was his Deputy Sultan, Ghiyath-ud-din Balban, who primarily dealt with state affairs.  The ninth Sultan was Ghiyath-ud-din Balban (), who had the titular name of "Sultan" and reigned from 1266 to 1287. Balban ruled with an iron fist and broke up the Chihalgani group of noblemen. He tried to establish peace and order in India and built many outposts with garrisons of soldiers in areas where there had been disorder. Balban wanted to make sure everyone was loyal to the crown, so he established an efficient espionage system.  The tenth and final Sultan was Muiz-ud-din Muhammad Qaiqabad (), who had the titular name of "Sultan" and reigned from 1287 to 1290. Being still young at the time, he ignored all state affairs. After four years, he suffered a paralytic stroke and was later murdered in 1290 by a Khalji chief. His three-year-old son Kayumars nominally succeeded him, but the Slave dynasty had ended with the rise of the Khaljis.

Architecture.

The architectural legacy of the dynasty includes the Qutb Minar by Qutb ud-Din Aibak in Mehrauli, the Mausoleum of Prince Nasiru'd-Din Mahmud, eldest son of Iltumish, known as "Sultan Ghari" near Vasant Kunj, the first Islamic Mausoleum (tomb) built in 1231, and Balban's tomb, in the Mehrauli Archaeological Park.

The Mamluk Dynasty () was directed into Northern India by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, a Turkic Mamluk general from Central Asia. The Mamluk Dynasty ruled from 1206 to 1290; it was the first of five unrelated dynasties to rule as the Delhi Sultanate till 1526. Aibak's tenure as a Ghurid dynasty administrator lasted from 1192 to 1206, a period during which he led invasions into the Gangetic heartland of India and established control over some of the new areas.

La dynastie des esclaves, ou dynastie ilbarîde (1206-1290), du nom de la tribu turque des Ilbarî, connue aussi sous le nom de dynastie des Ghulâms (urdu : غلام خاندان, hindi : ग़ुलाम ख़ानदान) ou des Mamlûks (esclaves), dirige le sultanat de Delhi en Inde de 1206 à 1290.


Vertical structure.

The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Unlike the Earth's atmosphere, Jupiter's lacks a mesosphere. Jupiter does not have a solid surface, and the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, smoothly transitions into the planet's fluid interior. This is a result of having temperatures and the pressures well above those of the critical points for hydrogen and helium, meaning that there is no sharp boundary between gas and liquid phases. Hydrogen becomes a supercritical fluid at a pressure of around 12 bar.  Since the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill-defined, the pressure level of 10 bars, at an altitude of about 90 km below 1 bar with a temperature of around 340 K, is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere. In scientific literature, the 1 bar pressure level is usually chosen as a zero point for altitudes—a "surface" of Jupiter. As with Earth, the top atmospheric layer, the exosphere, does not have a well defined upper boundary. The density gradually decreases until it smoothly transitions into the interplanetary medium approximately 5,000 km above the "surface".  The vertical temperature gradients in the Jovian atmosphere are similar to those of the atmosphere of Earth. The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height until it reaches a minimum at the tropopause, which is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. On Jupiter, the tropopause is approximately 50 km above the visible clouds (or 1 bar level), where the pressure and temperature are about 0.1 bar and 110 K. In the stratosphere, the temperatures rise to about 200 K at the transition into the thermosphere, at an altitude and

Chemical composition.

<div style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; width: 25em;">  The composition of Jupiter's atmosphere is similar to that of the planet as a whole. Jupiter's atmosphere is the most comprehensively understood of those of all the gas giants because it was observed directly by the "Galileo" atmospheric probe when it entered the Jovian atmosphere on December 7, 1995. Other sources of information about Jupiter's atmospheric composition include the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), the "Galileo" and "Cassini" orbiters, and Earth-based observations.  The two main constituents of the Jovian atmosphere are molecular hydrogen () and helium. The helium abundance is relative to molecular hydrogen by number of molecules, and its mass fraction is, which is slightly lower than the Solar System's primordial value. The reason for this low abundance is not entirely understood, but some of the helium may have condensed into the core of Jupiter. This condensation is likely to be in the form of helium rain: as hydrogen turns into the metallic state at depths of more than 10,000 km, helium separates from it forming droplets which, being denser than the metallic hydrogen, descend towards the core. This can also explain the severe depletion of neon (see

Zones, belts and jets.

The visible surface of Jupiter is divided into several bands parallel to the equator. There are two types of bands: lightly colored "zones" and relatively dark "belts." The wider Equatorial Zone (EZ) extends between latitudes of approximately 7°S to 7°N. Above and below the EZ, the North and South Equatorial belts (NEB and SEB) extend to 18°N and 18°S, respectively. Farther from the equator lie the North and South Tropical zones (NtrZ and STrZ). The alternating pattern of belts and zones continues until the polar regions at approximately 50 degrees latitude, where their visible appearance becomes somewhat muted. The basic belt-zone structure probably extends well towards the poles, reaching at least to 80° North or South.  The difference in the appearance between zones and belts is caused by differences in the opacity of the clouds. Ammonia concentration is higher in zones, which leads to the appearance of denser clouds of ammonia ice at higher altitudes, which in turn leads to their lighter color. On the other hand, in belts clouds are thinner and are located at lower altitudes. The upper troposphere is colder in zones and warmer in belts. The exact nature of chemicals that make Jovian zones and bands so colorful is not known, but they may include complicated compounds of sulfur, phosphorus and carbon.  The Jovian bands are bounded by zonal atmospheric flows (winds), called "jets". The eastward (prograde) jets are found at the transition from zones to belts (going away from the equator), whereas westward (retrograde) jets mark the transition from belts to zones. Such flow velocity patterns mean that the zonal winds decrease in belts and increase in zones from the equator to the pole. Therefore, wind shear in belts is cyclonic, while in zones it is anticyclonic. The EZ is an exception to this rule, showing a strong eastward (prograde) jet and has a local minimum of the wind speed exactly at the equator. The jet speeds are high on Jupiter, reaching more than 100 m/s. These speeds correspond to ammonia clouds located in the pressure range 0.7–1 bar. The prograde jets are generally more powerful than the retrograde jets. The vertical extent of jets is not known. They decay over two to three scale heights above the clouds, while below the cloud level, winds increase slightly and then remain constant down to at least 22 bar—the maximum operational depth reached by the Galileo Probe.  The origin of Jupiter's banded structure is not completely clear, though it may be similar to that driving the Earth's Hadley cells. The simplest interpretation is that zones are sites of atmospheric upwelling, whereas belts are manifestations of downwelling. When air enriched in ammonia rises in zones, it expands and cools, forming high and dense clouds. In belts, however, the air descends, warming adiabatically as in a convergence zone on Earth, and white ammonia clouds evaporate, revealing lower, darker clouds. The location and width of bands, speed and location of jets on Jupiter are remarkably stable, having changed only slightly between 1980 and 2000. One example of change is a decrease of the speed of the strongest eastward jet located at the boundary between the North Tropical zone and North Temperate belts at 23°N. However bands vary in coloration and intensity over time (see below). These variations were first observed in the early seventeenth century.

Dynamics.

Circulation in Jupiter's atmosphere is markedly different from that in the atmosphere of Earth. The interior of Jupiter is fluid and lacks any solid surface. Therefore, convection may occur throughout the planet's outer molecular envelope. As of 2008, a comprehensive theory of the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere has not been developed. Any such theory needs to explain the following facts: the existence of narrow stable bands and jets that are symmetric relative to Jupiter's equator, the strong prograde jet observed at the equator, the difference between zones and belts, and the origin and persistence of large vortices such as the Great Red Spot.  The theories regarding the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere can be broadly divided into two classes: shallow and deep. The former hold that the observed circulation is largely confined to a thin outer (weather) layer of the planet, which overlays the stable interior. The latter hypothesis postulates that the observed atmospheric flows are only a surface manifestation of deeply rooted circulation in the outer molecular envelope of Jupiter. As both theories have their own successes and failures, many planetary scientists think that the true theory will include elements of both models.

Shallow models.

The first attempts to explain Jovian atmospheric dynamics date back to the 1960s. They were partly based on terrestrial meteorology, which had become well developed by that time. Those shallow models assumed that the jets on Jupiter are driven by small scale turbulence, which is in turn maintained by moist convection in the outer layer of the atmosphere (above the water clouds). The moist convection is a phenomenon related to the condensation and evaporation of water and is one of the major drivers of terrestrial weather. The production of the jets in this model is related to a well-known property of two dimensional turbulence—the so-called inverse cascade, in which small turbulent structures (vortices) merge to form larger ones. The finite size of the planet means that the cascade can not produce structures larger than some characteristic scale, which for Jupiter is called the Rhines scale. Its existence is connected to production of Rossby waves. This process works as follows: when the largest

Deep models.

The deep model was first proposed by Busse in 1976. His model was based on another well-known feature of fluid mechanics, the Taylor–Proudman theorem. It holds that in any fast-rotating barotropic ideal liquid, the flows are organized in a series of cylinders parallel to the rotational axis. The conditions of the theorem are probably met in the fluid Jovian interior. Therefore, the planet's molecular hydrogen mantle may be divided into cylinders, each cylinder having a circulation independent of the others. Those latitudes where the cylinders' outer and inner boundaries intersect with the visible surface of the planet correspond to the jets; the cylinders themselves are observed as zones and belts.  The

Internal heat.

As has been known since 1966, Jupiter radiates much more heat than it receives from the Sun. It is estimated that the ratio of the thermal power emitted by the planet to the thermal power absorbed from the Sun is. The internal heat flux from Jupiter is, whereas the total emitted power is. The latter value is approximately equal to one billionth of the total power radiated by the Sun. This excess heat is mainly the primordial heat from the early phases of

Discrete features.

Vortices.

The atmosphere of Jupiter is home to hundreds of vortices—circular rotating structures that, as in the Earth's atmosphere, can be divided into two classes: cyclones and anticyclones. Cyclones rotate in the direction similar to the rotation of the planet (counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern); anticyclones rotate in the reverse direction. However, unlike in the terrestrial atmosphere, anticyclones predominate over cyclones on Jupiter—more than 90% of vortices larger than 2000 km in diameter are anticyclones. The lifetime of Jovian vortices varies from several days to hundreds of years, depending on their size. For instance, the average lifetime of an anticyclone between 1000 and 6000 km in diameter is 1–3 years. Vortices have never been observed in the equatorial region of Jupiter (within 10° of latitude), where they are unstable. As on any rapidly rotating planet, Jupiter's anticyclones are high pressure centers, while cyclones are low pressure.  The anticyclones in Jupiter's atmosphere are always confined within zones, where the wind speed increases in direction from the equator to the poles. They are usually bright and appear as white ovals. They can move in longitude, but stay at approximately the same latitude as they are unable to escape from the confining

Storms and lightning.

The storms on Jupiter are similar to thunderstorms on Earth. They reveal themselves via bright clumpy clouds about 1000 km in size, which appear from time to time in the belts' cyclonic regions, especially within the strong westward (retrograde) jets. In contrast to vortices, storms are short-lived phenomena; the strongest of them may exist for several months, while the average lifetime is only 3–4 days. They are believed to be due mainly to moist convection within Jupiter's troposphere. Storms are actually tall convective columns (plumes), which bring the wet air from the depths to the upper part of the troposphere, where it condenses in clouds. A typical vertical extent of Jovian storms is about 100 km; as they extend from a pressure level of about 5–7 bar, where the base of a hypothetical water cloud layer is located, to as high as

Circumpolar cyclones.

Other notable features of Jupiter are its cyclones near the northern and southern poles of the planet. These are called circumpolar cyclones (CPCs) and they have been observed by the Juno Spacecraft using JunoCam and JIRAM. The cyclones have only been observed for a relatively short time from perjoves 1-15 which is approximately 795 days or two years. The northern pole has eight cyclones moving around a central cyclone (NPC) while the southern pole only has five cyclones around a central cyclone (SPC), with a gap between the first and second cyclones. The cyclones look like the hurricanes on Earth with trailing spiral arms and a denser center, although there are differences between the centers depending on the individual cyclone. Northern CPCs

Disturbances.

The normal pattern of bands and zones is sometimes disrupted for periods of time. One particular class of disruption are long-lived darkenings of the South Tropical Zone, normally referred to as "South Tropical Disturbances" (STD).

Hot spots.

One of the most mysterious features in the atmosphere of Jupiter are hot spots. In them, the air is relatively free of clouds and heat can escape from the depths without much absorption. The spots look like bright spots in the infrared images obtained at the wavelength of about 5 μm. They are preferentially located in the belts, although there is a train of prominent hot

Observational history.

Early modern astronomers, using small telescopes, recorded the changing appearance of Jupiter's atmosphere. Their descriptive terms—belts and zones, brown spots and red spots, plumes, barges, festoons, and streamers—are still used. Other terms such as vorticity, vertical motion, cloud heights have entered in use later, in the 20th century.  The first observations of the Jovian atmosphere at higher resolution than possible with Earth-based telescopes were taken by the "Pioneer" "10" and "11" spacecraft. The first truly detailed images of Jupiter's atmosphere were provided by the "Voyagers". The two spacecraft were able to image details at a resolution as low as 5 km in size in various spectra, and also able to create "approach movies" of the atmosphere in motion. The Galileo Probe, which suffered an antenna problem, saw less of Jupiter's atmosphere but at a better average resolution and a wider spectral bandwidth.  Today, astronomers have access to a continuous record of Jupiter's atmospheric activity thanks to telescopes such as Hubble Space Telescope. These show that the atmosphere is occasionally wracked by massive disturbances, but that, overall, it is remarkably stable. The vertical motion of Jupiter's atmosphere was largely determined by the identification of trace gases by ground-based telescopes. Spectroscopic studies after the collision of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 gave a glimpse of the Jupiter's composition beneath the cloud tops. The presence of diatomic sulfur (S) and carbon disulfide (CS) was recorded—the first detection of either in Jupiter, and only the second detection of S in any astronomical object— together with other molecules such as ammonia (NH) and hydrogen sulfide (HS), while oxygen-bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected, to the surprise of astronomers.  The "Galileo" atmospheric probe, as it plunged into Jupiter, measured the wind, temperature, composition, clouds, and radiation levels down to 22 bar. However, below 1 bar elsewhere on Jupiter there is uncertainty in the quantities.

Great Red Spot studies.

The first sighting of the GRS is often credited to Robert Hooke, who described a spot on the planet in May 1664; however, it is likely that Hooke's spot was in the wrong belt altogether (the North Equatorial Belt, versus the current location in the South Equatorial Belt). Much more convincing is Giovanni Cassini's description of a "permanent spot" in the following year. With fluctuations in visibility, Cassini's spot was observed from 1665 to 1713.  A minor mystery concerns a Jovian spot depicted around 1700 on a canvas by Donato Creti, which is exhibited in the Vatican. It is a part of a series of panels in which different (magnified) heavenly bodies serve as backdrops for various Italian scenes,

White ovals.

The white ovals that were to become Oval BA formed in 1939. They covered almost 90 degrees of longitude shortly after their formation, but contracted rapidly during their first decade; their length stabilized at 10 degrees or less after 1965. Although they originated as segments of the STZ, they evolved to become completely embedded in the South Temperate Belt, suggesting that they moved north, "digging" a niche into the STB. Indeed, much like the GRS, their circulations were confined

The atmosphere of Jupiter is the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System. It is mostly made of molecular hydrogen and helium in roughly solar proportions; other chemical compounds are present only in small amounts and include methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and water. Although water is thought to reside deep in the atmosphere, its directly measured concentration is very low. The nitrogen, sulfur, and noble gas abundances in Jupiter's atmosphere exceed solar values by a factor of about three.

L’atmosphère de Jupiter est la plus importante des atmosphères des planètes du système solaire. Elle est composée principalement de d'hydrogène et d'hélium ; les autres composants chimiques sont présents seulement en petite quantité, dont le méthane, l'ammoniac, le sulfure d'hydrogène et l'eau. Ce dernier composant n'a pas été observé directement mais il se trouverait dans les profondeurs de l'atmosphère. Il y a environ trois fois plus d'oxygène, d'azote, de soufre et de gaz nobles dans l'atmosphère jovienne que dans le Soleil.


History.

The land that comprises Nance County was originally part of the Pawnee Reservation, created in 1857 when the Pawnee Indians signed a treaty with the United States ceding its lands in exchange for the reservation. After Nebraska gained statehood in March 1867, the state government extinguished the tribe's rights to their land, sold the land and used the proceeds to defray expenses to obtain lands elsewhere for the Indians. In the mid-1870s the remainder of the reservation was sold, and in 1876 the tribe was relocated to its present-day location in central Oklahoma. The boundaries for Nance County were approved in 1879. It was named for Governor Albinus Nance.  Nearly all the land in Nance County was purchased by settlers or by investors for resale, instead of the homestead provisions common to most of Nebraska.

Geography.

The terrain of Nance County consists of rolling hills, sloping to the northeast. The Loup River flows east-northeastward through the central part of the county. The Cedar River flows southeastward to discharge into the Loup River near Fullerton. The county has a total area of, of which is land and (1.5%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the 2000 United States Census there were 4,038 people, 1,577 households, and 1,107 families in the county. The population density was 9 people per square mile (4/km2). There were 1,787 housing units at an average density of 4 per square mile (2/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 98.39% White, 0.37% Native American, 0.05% Asian, 0.45% from other races, and 0.74% from two or more races. 1.14% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 1,577 households out of which 32.80% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.50% were married couples living together, 5.60% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.80% were non-families. 27.60% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 3.05.  The county population contained 27.90% under the age of 18, 6.80% from 18 to 24, 23.60% from 25 to 44, 22.00% from 45 to 64, and 19.70% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 104.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.90 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $31,267, and the median income for a family was $38,717. Males had a median income of $25,349 versus $19,044 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,886. About 10.20% of families and 13.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.20% of those under age 18 and 9.30% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Nance County voters are reliably Republican. In only one national election since 1936 has the county selected the Democratic Party candidate.

Nance County is a county in the U.S. state of Nebraska. As of the 2010 census, the population was 3,735. Its county seat is Fullerton.

Le comté de Nance est un comté de l'État du Nebraska, aux États-Unis. son siège est la ville de Fullerton.


Geography.

The terrain of Sherman County consists of rolling hills, sloping to the southeast. The area is partially dedicated to agriculture, with limited use of center pivot irrigation. The Middle Loup River flows south-southeastward through the eastern central part of the county. The western portions are drained by Clear Creek and Muddy Creek, which merge in the SW part of the county and exit the south boundary line, to discharge into Middle Loup River at a point southeast of the county's SE corner.  The county has a total area of, of which is land and (1.0%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 3,152 people, 1,392 households, and 903 families in the county. The population density was 5.6 people per square mile (2/km2). There were 1,392 occupied housing units and 1,941 total housing units. The racial makeup of the county was 99% White, 0.1% Black or African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 0.1% from other races, and 0.4% from two or more races. 1% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 1,392 households out of which 27.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.2% were married couples living together, 5.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.9% were non-families. 30.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.78.  The county population contained 22.4% under the age of 18, 54.2% from 18 to 64, and 23.4% 65 years of age or older. The median age was 47.8 years. 50.9% of the population were female and 49.1% were male.  The median income for a household in the county was $39,041, and the median income for a family was $34,821. Males had a median income of $23,065 versus $17,269 for females. The per capita income for the county was $26,416. About 14.1% of the population were below the poverty line.  Sherman County is one of the main Polish-American communities in the state and in the country. As of the census of 2000, Americans of Polish ancestry comprised 29.6% of Sherman County's population.

Politics.

Sherman County voters tend to vote Republican. In only three national elections since 1948 has the county selected the Democratic Party candidate (as of 2016).

Sherman County is a county in the U.S. state of Nebraska. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 3,152. Its county seat is Loup City. The county was created in 1871, and was organized in 1873. It was named for American Civil War General William Tecumseh Sherman.

Le comté de Sherman est un comté de l'État du Nebraska, aux États-Unis. Son siège est la ville de Loup City.


Geography.

The terrain of Stanton County consists of low rolling hills, sloped toward the east. The Elkhorn River flows easterly through the upper central part of the county. The county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.7%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 6,455 people, 2,297 households, and 1,784 families in the county. The population density was 15 people per square mile (6/km2). There were 2,452 housing units at an average density of 6 per square mile (2/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 96.72% White, 0.42% Black or African American, 0.48% Native American, 0.12% Asian, 1.38% from other races, and 0.88% from two or more races. 2.31% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 55.8% were of German, 9.7% Czech and 5.6% Irish ancestry.  There were 2,297 households out of which 38.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.50% were married couples living together, 7.20% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.30% were non-families. 19.20% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.76 and the average family size was 3.16.  The county population contained 29.80% under the age of 18, 7.60% from 18 to 24, 27.40% from 25 to 44, 21.80% from 45 to 64, and 13.50% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.40 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $36,676, and the median income for a family was $41,040. Males had a median income of $27,969 versus $19,428 for females. The per capita income for the county was $15,511. About 5.30% of families and 6.80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.80% of those under age 18 and 7.20% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Stanton County voters are reliably Republican. In no national election since 1936 has the county selected the Democratic Party candidate.

Stanton County is a county in the U.S. state of Nebraska. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 6,129. Its county seat is Stanton. The county was formed in 1856 and organized in 1867. It was first called Izard County until 1862, when it was renamed for Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War during the administration of President Abraham Lincoln.

Le comté de Stanton est un comté de l'État du Nebraska, aux États-Unis. Son siège est la ville de Stanton.


Geography.

The terrain of Wheeler County consists of low rolling hills, sloping to the east. A local drainage, Beaver Creek, flows to the SE and east through the upper part of the county, exiting near the midpoint of the county's east boundary line. The county has an area of, of which is land and (0.07%) is water.

History.

Wheeler County was authorized in 1877. It was organized in 1881, following the establishment and rapid growth of the town of Cumminsville, in anticipation of a Union Pacific Railroad line through that town. Cedar City (now disbanded) was the site of the first seat of government for the county, which covered an area of 48 miles west to east and 25 miles north to south. On 25 November 1884, this area was halved, with the western portion becoming Garfield County, leaving the remainder as Wheeler County with its present boundaries.  The county's government was overseen by three commissioners, two from two districts in the more heavily populated southern half of the county, the third from the North. In 1885, the government was deemed to be outgrowing its small courthouse in Cedar City and two men, Cumminsville school superintendent Begelow and Ezra Bartlett Mitchell offered land options outside of Cedar City to build a new courthouse. In a heated election, Mitchell's site was chosen over Begelow's by a vote of 193 to 90, and the new courthouse led to the establishment of a surrounding town, named Bartlett (Mitchell's middle name), to serve as the seat of government. Cedar City collapsed shortly after the government offices there were abandoned.  In 1886, a spur line of the C.B.& Q. railroad was built into the county, ending at a point where the town of Ericson was established.  In 1895, while attempting to construct a ditchway to irrigate farm land between Ericson and Spalding, a dam was built across Clear Creek. Though the ditch construction was ultimately not successful, the dam created present-day Pibel Lake.  Wheeler County's population began to wane after the turn of the 20th century, but in 1904, with the enactment of the Kincaid Act, a new round of settlers reinvigorated the population.

Demographics.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 886 people, 352 households, and 243 families in the county. The population density was 1.5 people per square mile (0.6/km2). There were 561 housing units at an average density of 1 per square mile (0.4/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 99.10% White, 0.23% Native American, 0.56% from other races, and 0.11% from two or more races. 0.56% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 47.4% were of German, 9.4% Irish, 7.8% English, 7.2% Swedish and 7.0% American ancestry.  There were 352 households out of which 31.80% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.80% were married couples living together, 3.10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.70% were non-families. 29.00% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.10.  The county population contained 29.10% under the age of 18, 6.40% from 18 to 24, 21.90% from 25 to 44, 25.70% from 45 to 64, and 16.80% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 96.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.00 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $26,771, and the median income for a family was $33,750. Males had a median income of $21,563 versus $17,083 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,355. About 15.40% of families and 20.90% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27.80% of those under age 18 and 16.70% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Wheeler County voters have been reliably Republican for decades. In no national election since 1948 has the county selected the Democratic Party candidate (as of 2016).

Wheeler County is a county in the U.S. state of Nebraska. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 818. Its county seat is Bartlett. The county was formed in 1877 and organized in 1881. The county was named for Major Daniel H. Wheeler, longtime secretary of the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture.

Le comté de Wheeler est un comté de l'État du Nebraska, aux États-Unis. Son siège est la ville de Bartlett.


History.

The history of Lake County has been largely defined by Reelfoot Lake, a natural lake created by the New Madrid earthquakes of 1811 and 1812. It is surrounded by wetlands. This territory was originally included in Obion County.  In 1862, during the Civil War, the Battle of Island Number Ten took place in the Mississippi River, just off the shores of Obion County, in territory now part of Lake County.  The county was organized in 1870, during the Reconstruction era. Its residents had long complained about the difficulty of having to traverse swampy areas during seasonal high waters around Reelfoot Lake to reach the county seat, then Troy, Tennessee, located to the east of the lake. After the new Lake County was established, Tiptonville was designated as its county seat.  In 1907 and 1908, a violent conflict took place in Lake and Obion counties, and neighboring Fulton County, Kentucky, which also had frontage on the lake. Private investors bought title to most of the land around the lake, gaining control, and formed the West Tennessee Land Company, to develop the property. In this era, western Tennessee and Kentucky were being developed for cotton culture and the lowlands around the lake were fertile floodplain. They announced plans to drain the lake. A band of local farmers and others who made their living from the lake, organized resistance, becoming known as the "Night Riders of Reelfoot Lake."  Beginning with the burning of John Carlos Burdick's fish docks on April 12, 1908, they committed crimes over a period of months, harassing the land company's employees. In October 1908 they kidnapped two attorneys and lynched one, Quentin Rankin, who was also a shareholder in the land company. The other escaped. Given this attack and murder, Governor Malcolm Patterson personally led the Tennessee National Guard into the area, and arrested hundreds of suspected Night Riders. The Night Riders also rode against African Americans, as they were resisting the increase of blacks in the counties, some of whom had come to work as sharecroppers on newly developed cotton plantations. Since the late 19th century, the white-dominated legislature had passed Jim Crow laws and increasing restrictions on voters.  The state gained title to Reelfoot Lake in 1914 to preserve it for public use, but actions were tied up for some years in court challenges. To prevent private development from restricting its use, in 1925 Governor Austin Peay designated the lake as a hunting and fishing reserve. This was the precedent for the larger area to be preserved as the modern Reelfoot Lake State Park.  From 1877–1950, there were 13 lynchings of blacks in Lake County, the third-highest number in the state. Neighboring Obion County had 18 lynchings. These were high rates for counties with relatively small populations; Shelby County had the highest total, 20 lynchings in that period. Most of these murders were committed in the decades around the turn of the century, during the period of heightened violence related to opposition to corporate control of Reelfoot Lake and the introduction of cotton plantations and African-American workers to this area.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (14%) is water. It is the fifth-smallest county in Tennessee by area.

Demographics.

From 1950 to 1990 the population declined noticeably, as many African Americans moved to cities or to the West Coast in the Great Migration of the second half of the 20th century.  As of the census of 2000, there were 7,954 people, 2,410 households, and 1,614 families residing in the county. The population density was 49 people per square mile (19/km2). There were 2,716 housing units at an average density of 17 per square mile (6/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 66.63% White, 31.19% Black or African American, 0.39% Native American, 0.14% Asian, 0.62% from other races, and 1.03% from two or more races. 1.37% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 2,410 households out of which 28.80% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.20% were married couples living together, 16.30% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.00% were non-families. 30.00% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.92.  In the county, the population was spread out with 17.70% under the age of 18, 13.70% from 18 to 24, 33.80% from 25 to 44, 21.50% from 45 to 64, and 13.30% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 151.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 163.40 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $21,995, and the median income for a family was $30,339. Males had a median income of $25,082 versus $18,700 for females. The per capita income for the county was $10,794. About 19.90% of families and 23.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 35.10% of those under age 18 and 25.10% of those age 65 or over.

Lake County is a county located in the northwest corner of the U.S. state of Tennessee. As of the 2010 census, the population was 7,832, making it the fifth-least populous county in Tennessee. Its county seat is Tiptonville. It shares a border with Kentucky to the north and is separated from Missouri to the west by the Mississippi River.

Le comté de Lake est un comté de l'État du Tennessee, aux États-Unis. Son siège est situé à Tiptonville et sa population était en 2000 de habitants.


Barangays.

Lal-lo is politically subdivided into 35 barangays.

Etymology.

Lal-lo means "twisting two strands to make a rope", or may also refer to the strong river current as it is located along Cagayan River, the longest and largest river in the Philippines.

History.

Classical Era.

In the classical era, Lal-lo was used to be the home of hunter-gatherers who were specialized in hunting mollusks. These hunter-gatherers have stockpiled their leftover mollusk shells in numerous sites in Lal-lo and neighboring Gattaran, until eventually, the shells formed into the largest stock of shell-midden sites in the entire Philippines.

Spanish Era.

The first European to set foot on what is now the town of Lal-lo is Juan de Salcedo, the Spanish conquistador and grandson of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, in 1572. Don Juan Pablo Carrion established it as a "pueblo" (municipality) in 1581 and named it Nueva Segovia. The reason is currently unknown, as the hometown of this Spanish soldier was Carrión de los Condes (Palencia, Spain), as his last name, Carrión, suggests. This is mentioned by Juan Miguel Aguilera and Ángel Miranda in their book "Espadas del Fin del Mundo" (2016).

Diocese of Nueva Segovia.

In 1595, Pope Clement VIII created the Diocese of Nueva Segovia and in 1596, the Dominicans accepted it as an ecclesiastical mission. Nueva Segovia had three churches: the cathedral that was under the secular clergy, and the parishes of Centro and Tocolona under the supervision of the Dominicans. But because of its distance from Manila and the constant threat of the Cagayan River's rampaging waters, the Diocese of Nueva Segovia was transferred to Vigan in Ilocos Sur province in 1758. The diocese's name went along with the transfer to Vigan and to avoid confusion, Bishop Miguel Garcia requested that Nueva Segovia and its suburbs renamed back to Lal-lo. The seat of the Diocese of Nueva Segovia remains in Vigan till today where is now elevated as the Archdiocese of Nueva Segovia.  The transfer affected the closure of the cathedral and the merging of the three churches into the single parish of Centro. The two other churches were abandoned and eventually destroyed because of neglect while the church of Centro, dedicated to "Santo Domingo de Guzman" (Saint Dominic) became what is now the church of Lal-lo. The remains of three bishops are interred in the church: Bishop Miguel de Benavides who was Nueva Segovia's first bishop and later of Manila where he founded the University of Santo Tomas, Bishop Diego de Soria who was the second bishop of the diocese, and Bishop Diego Aduarte who was the sixth.

Provincial capital.

Lal-lo used to be the capital of Cagayan province until 1839 when the provincial seat of power was relocated to Tuguegarao. The decline of Lal-lo is the transformation of Tuguegarao as the most important town in Cagayan. It was accepted as an ecclesiastical mission by the Dominicans in 1604, 23 years after the foundation of Lal-lo.

Cityhood.

Researchers have found a Spanish document which declared this municipality as a city during the Spanish regime, according to board member Maria Olivia Pascual. Pascual said a bill, which clamors for the restoration of the former "Ciudad Nueva Segovia" now called Lal-lo filed by 1SR Congressional District Representative Juan Ponce Enrile Jr., will be re-filed.  During the first term of Mayor Florante Pascual, he resolved that the cityhood be restored through an earlier bill. However, even after sending a research delegation to Madrid to retrieve the historical document originally signed by King Philip, the team failed to locate it. The document is a basic requirement in the bid of this town for cityhood.  Under the local government code, municipalities who want to elevate themselves into cities must satisfy requirements on population, land area and income. For municipalities who were earlier declared as Spanish cities, only decrees which declared them as such is the basic requirement. Earlier, the towns of Naga (Nueva Caceres) and Vigan (Ciudad Fernandina) were elevated to cityhood status after both towns applied for their historical rights in the early 1990s. Academics clarified that there is a big difference between restoration and conversion of cities under Philippine laws.  Under the Diocese of Nueva Segovia, Lal-lo enjoyed lavish gifts from Spain and was the capital of the entire Cagayan Valley region until its transfer to Tuguegarao City in 1839.  As recently as 2018, vice mayor Oliver Pascual has said that the establishment of Northern Cagayan International Airport in the municipality would be "a great boost" in its bid for the restoration of its city status.

Modern Era of Harvey Deseo.

In 2006, the shell-midden sites of Lalo-lo and Gattaran were included in the UNESCO Tentative List for World Heritage Site inclusion, a step closer to becoming a world heritage site. The shell-midden sites are currently being conserved by the local government from looting to preserve its outstanding universal value.

Demographics.

In the, the population of Lal-lo, Cagayan, was people, with a density of.

', officially the ', is a in the province of,. According to the, it has a population of people.

Lal-lo est une municipalité de la province de Cagayan, aux Philippines. La ville fut fondée durant la colonisation espagnole par le gouverneur général Gonzalo Ronquillo de Peñalosa (en poste de 1580 à 1583), sous le nom de Nueva Segovia.


Etymology.

The name Medvednica could be translated as "bear mountain", there being other toponyms on the mountain using the Kajkavian dialect term "medved" (standard Croatian "medvjed" = bear), notably Medvedgrad, a medieval castle on its southwestern edges.  Sljeme () ("Sleme" in Kajkavian) means "summit", and it is a name often used to refer to the entire mountain.

Climate.

The climate of the Medvednica mountain is typical for Central European mountain ranges. The average annual precipitation is around 1300 mm (cf. 840 mm at Zagreb–Grič), which provides for an abundance of rich spring wells. Snow cover lasts for about 100 days in a year, the thickest being in February. The skiing slopes are also covered with artificial snow when necessary. Much more sunshine occurs during the winter on Medvednica than in Zagreb or Zagorje, so it is not surprising that winter is the most visited season on the Medvednica mountain.  Medvednica, in comparison to the surrounding lowland area, behaves as an "island" in its climate characteristics, with more precipitation, lower temperatures, and higher duration and quantity of snow cover. The Medvednica area is located in a temperature zone where air temperature decreases for 0.5°C for every 100 m of elevation. Based on the annual rate of precipitation, Medvednica is characterised as having a continental precipitation regimen with maximum precipitation during the warm part of the year (April to September).

Temperature.

During summer and winter, temperature inversion is sometimes present. An anticyclone forms above the cold continent during winter. When its center is close to Croatia, the weather is cold and gloomy in Zagreb and warmer at Sljeme. The mean annual air temperature on Medvednica is, compared with in Zagreb. The mean temperature in summer months is on average lower by than in Zagreb.  On average, 15 days have temperatures below, eight days a year have average daily maxima higher than, and only one day reaches above. The coldest month is January with a mean monthly air temperature of, while the warmest month is July with an average temperature of. Insolation exceeds Zagreb's by about 100 hours annually. This difference manifests itself during the colder period of the year, from October to March, when more fog occurs in Zagreb.

Precipitation.

The relative air humidity is largest during the cold part of the year, and generally is larger on stations with higher altitude because of lower temperatures, but luxuriant vegetation. The number of days with relative humidity above 80% is greatest on Puntijarka (158 days annually), and it decreases with the decrease in elevation; for example, at the Zagreb–Grič station it is 67 days annually. On all stations, the warm part of the year (from April to September) has the most thunderstorm days; these are often connected to showers. June has the most thunderstorm days (Puntijarka 7).  The annual precipitation on Medvednica is about 50% higher in comparison to Zagreb (Zagreb:, Sljeme:, Kraljičin zdenac:, Fakultetsko dobro: ). Average number of days with hoar is 40 (4 in Zagreb). The mean annual number of days with snowfall on the top of Medvednica, most usually in January and February, is 54 days.  The number of days with strong wind is 91 (26 in Zagreb) and they are more frequent during the cold part of the year. The number of days with storm-force wind is 21 (2 in Zagreb), also mostly during the cold part of the year. In 1980, the forests of Medvednica, especially beech trees, were heavily stricken by a catastrophic ice break. Later, in February 1983, large devastations occurred as a result of strong wind (large damage on fir). Effects of such a strong wind can be seen in the area of Adolfovac as of early 2010s.

Skiing.

A winter sports center is based on the northern slopes towards Sljeme. The center has hosted several FIS World Cup slalom skiing races, known as the Snow Queen Trophy.  The winter sports center consists of one chairlift for three persons and two T-bar lifts. Equipment for producing artificial snow has been added, and because of that, the skiing season has been prolonged to more than four months. Three ways exist to reach the mountain: by road (with a car or a bus) or on foot (numerous mountain paths). In the past, a gondola lift was present, which started from the Gračani neighborhood just below Medvednica. The cable car had run from 1963 to 2007, when a major fault in the engine room made repairs economically impossible. The gondola had a capacity for four people, with a 23-minute journey time, covering a distance of 4023 m. The new gondola lift will use the existing route extended by 3 km.  On Medvednica are dozen of mountain huts for traditional one-day trips to the mountain. Because of its proximity to Zagreb, Medvednica has many visitors, especially during weekends. Among the most popular sites is the Veternica cave with a 2,622-m-long main channel.

Medvednica () is a mountain in central Croatia, just north of Zagreb, and marking the southern border of the historic region of Zagorje. The highest peak, at is Sljeme. Most of the area of Medvednica is a nature park ("park prirode"), a type of preservation lesser than a national park. The area of the park is and about 63% is covered with forest. During Miocene and Pliocene, the mountain was an island within the Pannonian Sea.

Medvednica est un massif montagneux situé au nord de Zagreb, en Croatie. Le point culminant de cette montagne est le Sljeme.


Origins.

These poets drew inspiration from the troubadour poetry of Occitania written in langue d'oc, which applied the feudal code of honor to the relation between a man (acting as the vassal) and a woman (acting as king or superior). This is a reversal of the traditional role of women, traditionally dependent on men, and marks a new awareness in medieval society: the decadence of feudalism with the increasing power of the middle class, causes a shift in the reading public, the epic (traditionally devoted to great military pursuits) gradually giving way to the lyric (generally focused on love). In the lower Middle Ages more and more women were reading books than ever before and poetry tried to adapt to their point of view and their newly acquired role in society.  This features French poetry, then very influential in Italy. What distinguishes the Sicilian School from the troubadours, however, is the introduction of a kinder, gentler type of woman than that found in their French models; one who was nearer to Dante's madonnas and Petrarch's Laura, though much less characterised psychologically. The poems of the Sicilians hardly portray real women or situations (Frederick's song cannot be read as autobiographical), but the style and language are remarkable, since the Sicilians (as Dante called them) created the first Italian literary standard by enriching the existing vernacular base, probably inspired by popular love songs, with new words of Latin and Provençal origin.

The work of a roving school.

"It is lyric poetry to be in the forefront of literature, inspiring a widespread enthusiasm whose effects will be felt for centuries. The initial boost given by the Sicilian poets from the Svevs' court, the first to use a standardised vernacular to make art poetry will be passed on to many others: and all of them, not just the pedantic imitators of the Siculo-Tuscan school (such as Bonagiunta Orbicciani) but also Guinizzelli, the poets of Dolce Stil Novo and more widely all writers of verse, will have to deal, though by different degrees, with the Sicilian models, so that some peculiarities will be assimilated into standard usage of Italian poetry." (Bruno Migliorini, "Storia della letteratura italiana")  Though yet confined to a few notaries and dignitaries of the emperors, such poetry shows for the first time uniform linguistic traits and a richness in vocabulary far exceeding that of the Sicilian language by which it was inspired. The "Magna curia" was not based in any given city, but always moving across Southern Italy, a fact which helped the school avoid the temptation of choosing any local dialect as the starting point for their new language. That is why the new standard was a Koiné language, a melting pot of many different vernaculars.  The reason for moving from city to city was mainly political. Although his experiment was short-lived, Frederic successfully created the first modern state in Europe, run by an efficient bureaucracy: its members were neither appointed from the aristocracy nor the clergy with good reason, since the former were far more interested in defending their own privileges than the welfare of the country and often plotted against him in the hope of regaining their power, while the latter were basically faithful to the Pope, his biggest enemy.  Frederic was in fact dismantling the feudal system of government inherited from the Normans, his "magna curia" and minor dignitaries were usually chosen from lay orders (like his poet-notaries). He also abolished internal barriers: free trade brought prosperity to the South, making Bari (as witnessed by Cielo in his "Contrasto") one of the richest cities in the Mediterranean. But, keeping this modern state afloat, meant that his barons had no power to collect taxes, their greatest source of revenues. Hence the necessity for Frederick to bring law and order by moving his court to and fro.

Style and subject-matter.

Though the Sicilian School is generally considered conventional in theme or content it rather "stands out for his refined lexicon, near to the style of "trobar clus" and for the wise treatment of figures of speech and metaphors of "stylnovistic taste" taken from natural philosophy" (Cesare Segre). There is a visible move towards neoplatonic models, which will be embraced by Dolce Stil Novo in the later 13th century Bologna and Florence, and more markedly by Petrarch. Unlike the Northern Italian troubadours, no line is ever written in Occitan. Rather, the Occitan repertoire of chivalry terms is adapted to the Siculo-Italian phonetics and morphology, so that new Italian words are actually coined, some adapted, but none really loaned. A most famous specimen is "Io m'aggio posto in core" by Giacomo da Lentini, who apparently inspired the movement. Giacomo da Lentini is also widely credited by scholars (as Francesco Bruni, Cesare Segre et al.) for inventing the sonnet, a literary form later perfected by Dante and, most of all, Petrarch. He uses it in a number of poems. We quote here the most famous that probably inspired the whole school:

The limitations of Sicilian poetry.

The main inhibiting factor on Sicilian poetry was probably the political censorship imposed by Frederick: literary debate was confined to courtly love. In this respect, the poetry of the north, though stuck to the langues d'oïl, provided fresher blood for satire. The north was fragmented into communes or little city-states which had a relatively democratic self-government, and that is precisely why the "sirventese" genre, and later, Dante's "Divina Commedia" and sonnets were so popular: they referred to real people and feelings, though often idealised like Beatrice. A sirventese is, in effect, eminently political: it usually refers to real battles and attacks real military or political enemies, the author often being the soldier or the knight involved in the strife, as in Guittone d'Arezzo's "Rotta di Montaperti" (Defeat of Montaperti), a bloody battle where Manfred of Sicily, Frederick's son, defeated the guelfs. Dante himself will commemorate the event in the Commedia many years later, where, mindful of the political strife that had him exiled, he will attack many princes and popes, such as Boniface VIII, one of his biggest personal enemies.  Frederick's censorship is also apparent from the structure of the song: the Sicilians transformed the "tornada", the strophe which in troubadour poetry contains a dedication to a famous person with a "congedo", where the poet bids goodbye to his reader and asks the song to bear his message to his lady. The re-shaping of the Occitan model also involved the suppression of music. The authors were great readers and translators, but apparently could not play any instrument, so their work was intended for reading, which called for logical unity, posing a question, proposing, and finding a solution in the end.  That meant no interchangeable lines as in troubadour poetry and fewer repetitions: for a French "jongleur" who sang his poems these were necessary, but they sounded redundant to the Sicilian authors. Their poetry was music to the eye, not to the ear, and their legacy is also apparent in Dante and Petrarch's lyrics. The sonnet is even more exacting on this point: the separation between the octave and the sestet is purely a logical one, the rimes drawing a visual line between the first and last part. However, the fact that Italian poetry was being made for the reading public may have facilitated its circulation.

Realism and parody: "Cielo d'Alcamo".

Though lyric poetry prevailed at Frederick's (and later Manfredi's) court, it is at this time that we have an interesting exception in "Rosa fresca aulentissima" (transl: "Fresh very perfumed rose"), widely known as "Contrasto" and attributed to Cielo d'Alcamo (also known as "Ciullu di Vincenzullu"), about which modern critics have much exercised themselves. This "Contrasto" is written in a Sicilian language close to that spoken in the city of Messina, with several influences from continental Italian variants. The subject is a humorous fight between two young lovers, a kind of poetry quite common in the Middle Ages (as "contrasti" or "pastorelle"). It is about a young suitor who sneaks into the garden of a young lady from a rich Sicilian family and secretly declares his love to her. He then tries to seduce the girl with his one-liners; she berates him for his "ill" intentions and keeps him at bay to protect her honor, but her prudeness proves eventually to be just a love game: she gives in completely to his bold advances. However, the language uses much of the courtly language of lyric poetry and the result is a parody of the Sicilian School's clichés. The "Contrasto" belongs to the time of the emperor Frederick II (it can be dated between 1230 and 1250, but probably closer to the latter), and is also important as a proof that there once existed a popular, independent of literary, poetry prior to Frederick's times. Now most critics agree that the "Contrasto" of Cielo d'Alcamo is probably a scholarly re-elaboration of some lost popular song. It is perhaps the closest to a kind of poetry that has perished or which was smothered by the Sicilian literature of Frederick's. Its distinguishing feature was its hilarity and down-to-earthedness as opposed to the abstract verse of the Sicilian School. But it has been argued that its style betrays a profound knowledge of Frederick's movement and some critics have hinted the man who penned it must have been acquainted with or even been part of, the court itself. Given the highly satiric and erotic vein Ciullo d'Alcamo may well be a fictitious name. His "Contrasto" shows vigor and freshness in the expression of feelings: Such "low" treatment of the love-theme shows that its subject-matter is certainly popular. This poem sounds real and spontaneous, marked as it is by the sensuality characteristic of the people of southern Italy.

Linguistic notes on the Sicilian standard.

The standard of the Sicilian school combines many traits typical of the Sicilian, Latin, Provençal and to a lesser, but not negligible extent, Apulian and certain southern dialects. Such a melting pot greatly helped the new Italian language: the Provençal suffixes "-ière" and "-ce", for example, generated hundreds of new Italian words in "-iera" and "-za" as it. "riv-iera" ("river") or "costan-za" ("constancy"). Such affixes would be then adopted by Dante and his contemporaries, and handed on to future generations of Italian writers. Dante's styles "illustre, cardinale, aulico, curiale" were partly developed from his close study of the Sicilian School which he quotes widely in his studies, especially in his "De Vulgari Eloquentia". The Sicilian school was later re-founded by Guittone d'Arezzo in Tuscany following the death of Manfredi, Frederick's son, so many of these poems were later copied in manuscripts that widely circulated in Florence. This first standard in which they were written, was, however, modified in Tuscany. In fact, Tuscan scriveners perceived the five-vowel system used by southern Italian dialects (i, e, a, o, u) as a seven-vowel one (i, é, è, a, ó, ò, u). As a consequence, the Italian texts may contain lines that no longer rhyme with each other (sic. -i > tusc. -é, sic. -u > tusc. -ó). Tuscans also changed words as "gloria" [pron. glòria] to "ghiora", "aju" [pron. àyu] ("I have) to "aggio" [pron. adjo] etc. Though some original texts have been restored to their original Sicilian, we must see such remakes only as tentative reconstructions of originals that, unfortunately, may have been lost forever. Dante and his contemporaries would take this newborn language a step further, expanding and enriching it with even more words of Latin and Florentine origin, carefully working on the style to create "volgare illustre", a higher standard quite close to today's Standard Italian.

The Sicilian School was a small community of Sicilian and mainland Italian poets gathered around Frederick II, most of them belonging to his imperial court. Headed by Giacomo da Lentini, they produced more than three-hundred poems of courtly love between 1230 and 1266, the experiment being continued after Frederick's death by his son, Manfred.

L’École sicilienne (en italien, "La Scuola Siciliana"), aussi connue depuis Dante comme "I Siciliani" (« Les Siciliens »), est une école poétique du qui s'intéresse au "fin'amor" (amour courtois).


Personal life.

Ljalková (born Petrušáková) was born in Horodenka, Poland (today in Ukraine) to a family of Volhynian Czechs. She lost her parents at the age of 12 and then lived with her aunt in Stanisławów (today Ivano-Frankivs'k, Ukraine) where she met her first husband, Michal Ljalko. After the World War she remarried twice.

World War II.

After the German attack on the Soviet Union, Ljalková together with her husband joined the First Czechoslovak Independent Field Battalion as a volunteer in March 1942, aged 21. She then underwent a medical course and three-month sniper course in Buzuluk.  Her first combat experience came during the three-day Battle of Sokolovo (8–11 March 1943) when she was credited with killing seven German soldiers, earning her immediate "ace status". Her performance was even noticed by Nazi anti-Czechoslovak propaganda in the occupied Czech lands (in order to stress the outlandish character of the Czechoslovak military unit.).  Ljalková later became a sniper instructor of the Czechoslovak and Soviet infantry. After the women were withdrawn from combat units in 1944, she became a head medic of the Czechoslovak tank battalion.

Awards.

She was credited with at least 30 confirmed kills during the war. This number is not exact according to Ljalková's own words, because the real numbers are not known. She was awarded the Soviet Order of the Red Star and the Czechoslovak War Cross.

Post World War II.

After the war, she studied medicine and worked as a military doctor in Olomouc and at the Central Military Hospital in Prague. She later moved to Brno hospital where she met her second husband, Václav Lastovecký. She eventually attained the rank of colonel, but due to health problems she left the army and started to work as a tourist guide for Russian speaking tourists. She spent the rest of her life in Brno.  On 28 October 2010 she received the Order of the White Lion, Second Class, Czech second highest military honour.

Marie Ljalková-Lastovecká (3 December 1920 – 7 November 2011) was a Czechoslovak sniper, military medic and member of the Czechoslovak Army in exile fighting alongside Soviet Army during World War II.

Marie Ljalková-Lastovecká, née le à Horodenka et morte le à Brno, est une tireur d'élite tchécoslovaque de l'armée soviétique pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.


Etymology.

The concept was identified by the robotics professor Masahiro Mori as "bukimi no tani genshō" () in 1970. The term was first translated as "uncanny valley" in the 1978 book "Robots: Fact, Fiction, and Prediction", written by Jasia Reichardt, thus forging an unintended link to Ernst Jentsch's concept of the "uncanny", introduced in a 1906 essay entitled "On the Psychology of the Uncanny". Jentsch's conception was elaborated by Sigmund Freud in a 1919 essay entitled "The Uncanny" ("Das Unheimliche").

Hypothesis.

Mori's original hypothesis states that as the appearance of a robot is made more human, some observers' emotional response to the robot becomes increasingly positive and empathetic, until it reaches a point beyond which the response quickly becomes strong revulsion. However, as the robot's appearance continues to become less distinguishable from a human being, the emotional response becomes positive once again and approaches human-to-human empathy levels.  This area of repulsive response aroused by a robot with appearance and motion between a "barely human" and "fully human" entity is the uncanny valley. The name captures the idea that an almost human-looking robot seems overly "strange" to some human beings, produces a feeling of uncanniness, and thus fails to evoke the empathic response required for productive human–robot interaction.

Theoretical basis.

A number of theories have been proposed to explain the cognitive mechanism underlying the phenomenon:

Research.

A series of studies experimentally investigated whether uncanny valley effects exist for static images of robot faces. Mathur MB & Reichling DB used two complementary sets of stimuli spanning the range from very mechanical to very human-like: first, a sample of 80 objectively chosen robot face images from Internet searches, and second, a morphometrically and graphically controlled 6-face series set of faces. They asked subjects to explicitly rate the likability of each face. To measure trust toward each face, subjects completed a one-shot investment game to indirectly measure how much money they were willing to "wager" on a robot's trustworthiness. Both stimulus sets showed a robust uncanny valley effect on explicitly-rated likability and a more context-dependent uncanny valley on implicitly-rated trust. Their exploratory analysis of one proposed mechanism for the uncanny valley, perceptual confusion at a category boundary, found that category confusion occurs in the uncanny valley but does not mediate the effect on social and emotional responses.  One study conducted in 2009 examined the evolutionary mechanism behind the aversion associated with the uncanny valley. A group of five monkeys were shown three images: two different 3D monkey faces (realistic, unrealistic), and a real photo of a monkey's face. The monkeys' eye-gaze was used as a proxy for preference or aversion. Since the realistic 3D monkey face was looked at less than either the real photo, or the unrealistic 3D monkey face, this was interpreted as an indication that the monkey participants found the realistic 3D face aversive, or otherwise preferred the other two images. As one would expect with the uncanny valley, more realism can lead to less positive reactions, and this study demonstrated that neither human-specific cognitive processes, nor human culture explain the uncanny valley. In other words, this aversive reaction to realism can be said to be evolutionary in origin.  As of 2011, researchers at University of California, San Diego and California Institute for Telecommunications and Information Technology are measuring human brain activations related to the uncanny valley. In one study using fMRI, a group of cognitive scientists and roboticists found the biggest differences in brain responses for uncanny robots in parietal cortex, on both sides of the brain, specifically in the areas that connect the part of the brain's visual cortex that processes bodily movements with the section of the motor cortex thought to contain mirror neurons. The researchers say they saw, in essence, evidence of mismatch or perceptual conflict. The brain "lit up" when the human-like appearance of the android and its robotic motion "didn’t compute". Ayşe Pınar Saygın, an assistant professor from UCSD, says "The brain doesn’t seem selectively tuned to either biological appearance or biological motion per se. What it seems to be doing is looking for its expectations to be met – for appearance and motion to be congruent."  Viewer perception of facial expression and speech and the uncanny valley in realistic, human-like characters intended for video games and film is being investigated by Tinwell et al., 2011. Consideration is also given by Tinwell et al. (2010) as to how the uncanny may be exaggerated for antipathetic characters in survival horror games. Building on the body of work already undertaken in android science, this research intends to build a conceptual framework of the uncanny valley using 3D characters generated in a real-time gaming engine. The goal is to analyze how cross-modal factors of facial expression and speech can exaggerate the uncanny. Tinwell et al., 2011 have also introduced the notion of an "unscalable" uncanny wall that suggests that a viewer's discernment for detecting imperfections in realism will keep pace with new technologies in simulating realism. A summary of Angela Tinwell's research on the uncanny valley, psychological reasons behind the uncanny valley and how designers may overcome the uncanny in human-like virtual characters is provided in her book, "The Uncanny Valley in Games and Animation" by CRC Press.

Design principles.

A number of design principles have been proposed for avoiding the uncanny valley:

Criticism.

A number of criticisms have been raised concerning whether the uncanny valley exists as a unified phenomenon amenable to scientific scrutiny:

Similar effects.

An effect similar to the uncanny valley was noted by Charles Darwin in 1839: A similar "uncanny valley" effect could, according to the ethical-futurist writer Jamais Cascio, show up when humans begin modifying themselves with transhuman enhancements (cf. body modification), which aim to improve the abilities of the human body beyond what would normally be possible, be it eyesight, muscle strength, or cognition. So long as these enhancements remain within a perceived norm of human behavior, a negative reaction is unlikely, but once individuals supplant normal human variety, revulsion can be expected. However, according to this theory, once such technologies gain further distance from human norms, "transhuman" individuals would cease to be judged on human levels and instead be regarded as separate entities altogether (this point is what has been dubbed "posthuman"), and it is here that acceptance would rise once again out of the uncanny valley. Another example comes from "pageant retouching" photos, especially of children, which some find disturbingly doll-like.  Due to rapid advancements in the areas of artificial intelligence and affective computing, cognitive scientists have also suggested the possibility of an "Uncanny Valley of Mind". Accordingly, people might experience strong feelings of aversion if they encounter highly advanced, emotion-sensitive technology. Among the possible explanations for this phenomenon, both a perceived loss of human uniqueness and expectations of immediate physical harm are discussed by contemporary research.

In visual effects.

A number of films that use computer-generated imagery to show characters have been described by reviewers as giving a feeling of revulsion or "creepiness" as a result of the characters looking too realistic. Examples include the following:

Virtual actors.

An increasingly common practice is to feature virtual actors in films: CGI likenesses of real actors used because the original actor either looks too old for the part or is deceased. Sometimes a virtual actor is created with involvement from the original actor (who may contribute motion capture, audio, etc.), while at other times the actor has no involvement. Reviewers have often criticized the use of virtual actors for its uncanny valley effect, saying it adds an eerie feeling to the movie. Examples of virtual actors that have received such criticism include replicas of Arnold Schwarzenegger in "Terminator Salvation" (2009), Jeff Bridges in "" (2010), Schwarzenegger again in "Terminator Genisys" (2015), Peter Cushing and Carrie Fisher in "Rogue One" (2016), and Will Smith in "Gemini Man" (2019).  The use of virtual actors is in contrast with digital de-aging, which can involve simply removing wrinkles from actors' faces. This practice has generally not faced uncanny valley criticism. One exception is the 2019 film "The Irishman", in which Robert De Niro, Al Pacino and Joe Pesci were all de-aged to try to make them look up to 50 years younger: one reviewer wrote that the actors' "hunched and stiff" body language stood in marked contrast to their facial appearance, while another wrote that when De Niro's character was in his 30s, he looked like he was 50.  Deepfake software, which first began to be widely used in 2017, uses machine learning to graft one person's appearance onto another's facial expressions, thus providing an alternate approach to both creating virtual actors and digital de-aging. Various individuals have created web videos that use deepfake software to re-create some of the notable previous uses of virtual actors and de-aging in film. Journalists have tended to praise these deepfake imitations, calling them "more naturalistic" and "objectively better" than the originals.

In fiction.

In the 2008 "30 Rock" episode "Succession", Frank Rossitano explains the uncanny valley concept, using a graph and "Star Wars" examples, to try to convince Tracy Jordan that his dream of creating a pornographic video game is impossible. He also references the computer-animated film "The Polar Express."

In aesthetics, the uncanny valley is a hypothesized relationship between the degree of an object's resemblance to a human being and the emotional response to such an object. The concept suggests that humanoid objects which imperfectly resemble actual human beings provoke uncanny or strangely familiar feelings of eeriness and revulsion in observers. "Valley" denotes a dip in the human observer's affinity for the replica, a relation that otherwise increases with the replica's human likeness.

La vallée dérangeante ou vallée de l'étrange (de l'anglais "uncanny valley") est une théorie du roboticien japonais Mori Masahiro, publiée pour la première fois en 1970, selon laquelle plus un robot androïde est similaire à un être humain, plus ses imperfections nous paraissent monstrueuses. Ainsi, beaucoup d'observateurs seront plus à l'aise en face d'un robot clairement artificiel que devant un robot doté d'une peau, de vêtements et d'un visage visant à le faire passer pour humain. Ce n'est qu'au-delà d'un certain degré de réalisme dans l'imitation, selon cette théorie, que les robots humanoïdes seront mieux acceptés. C'est pour cela qu'est utilisé le terme de "vallée" : il s'agit d'une zone à franchir dans laquelle chaque progrès fait vers l'imitation humaine amènera au départ plus de rejet, mais passé un certain seuil de réalisme une acceptation plus grande.


History.

The WQS was introduced in 1992 as a feeder competition to what was then called the WCT (World Championship Tour). The top scoring fifteen surfers on the WQS replaced the lowest scoring seventeen from the WCT on the following year's tour.

2009 Competition.

Event 1: O'Neill Sebastian Inlet Pro (4*).

"Jan 12 - Jan 18"  Winner: Nathaniel Curran ()

Event 2: Copa Movistar (2*).

"Jan 23 - Jan 25"  Winner: Rafael Pereira ()

Event 3: Hang Loose Pro (5*).

"Feb 09 - Feb15"  Winner: Bruno Santos ()

Event 4: MR Pro (2*).

"Mar 18 - Mar 22"  Winner: Travis Logie ()

Event 5: O'Neill Coldwater Classic - Tasmania (6*).

"Mar 23 - Mar 29"  Winner : Jordy Smith ()

Event 6: Van's Pier Classic (2*).

"Mar 25 - Mar 29"  Winner : Mike Losness ()

Event 7: Drug Aware Pro (6P*).

"Mar 29 - Apr 05"  Winner : Daniel Ross()

Event 8: Vendee Surf Pro (5*).

"Apr 06 - Apr 12"  Winner : Joan Duru ()

Event 9: Goanna Pro (1*).

"Apr 10 - Apr 12"  CANCELLED

Event 10: Quiksilver Pro Durban (6P*).

"Apr 19 - Apr 26"  Winner: Andre Jadson ()

Event 11: Estoril Coast Pro (6*).

"Apr 21 - Apr 26"  Winner: Alejo Muniz ()

Event 12: 6.0 Lower's Pro (6P*).

"Apr 28 - May 02"  Winner : Fredrick Pattacchia ()

Event 13: O'Neill Coldwater Classic - Scotland (6P*).

"Apr 29 - May 06"  Winner : Adam Melling ()

Event 14: Lizzard Nandos Surf Pro (1*).

"May 14 - May 17"  Winner : Royden Bryson ()

Event 15: Macy's E'Series - Sandy Beach, Oahu (1*).

"May 12 - May 17"  Winner : TJ Barron ()

Event 16: Arica Pro Challenge (3*).

"Jun 02 - Jun 07"  Winner : Gabriel Villarán ()

Event 17: SriLankan Airlines Pro (6P*).

"Jun 08 - Jun 14"  Winner : Owen Wright ()

Event 18: O'Neill Coldwater Classic - South Africa (6P*).

"Jun 16 - Jun 24"  Winner : Blake Thornton ()

Event 19: The Mr Price Pro (6*).

"Jun 28 - Jul 05"

Event 20: Super Bock Pro (1*).

"Jul 09 - Jul 12"

Event 21: Maresia Surf International (6*).

"Jul 07 - Jul 12"  Winner : Gabriel Medina ()

Event 22: Macy's E'Series - Ala Moana Bowls, Oahu (1*).

"Jul 07 - Jul 12"

Event 23: Billabong ECO Surf Festival (5*).

"Jul 14 - Jul 19"

Event 24: Local Motion Guaraja Surf Pro (5*).

"Jul 21 - Jul 26"

Event 25: US Open of Surfing (6*).

"Jul 17 - Jul 26"

Event 26: Tahana Pro (6*).

"Jul 28 - Aug 02"

"Event 27: TBA - Puerto Escondido, Mexico (4*)".

"Jul 29 - Aug 02"

Event 28: Relentless Boardmasters - Newquay, England (5*).

"Aug 5 - Aug 9"

Event 29: Soöruz Lacanau Pro (6*).

"Aug 18 - Aug 23" 30th Anniversary of the Lacanau Pro and good conditions this year. Surf, concerts, events scheduled. Check out the video for a summary of the event http://vimeo.com/6994555

Event 30: Acores Pro (6*).

"Aug 25 - Aug 30"

Event 31: Japan Pro Open (3*).

"Sep 01 - Sep 06"

"Event 32: TBA - Zarautz, Basque Country (5*)".

"Sep 01 - Sep 06"

Event 33: Gatorade Surf Classic (3*).

"Sep 04 - Sep 06"

Event 34: Vans El Ponto Loco (2*).

"Sep 09 - Sep 12"

Event 35: Sunshine Surfmasters (1*).

"Sep 10 - Sep 13"

"Event 36: TBA - Pantin, Spain (5*)".

"Sep 08 - Sep 13"

Event 37: Buondi Billabong Pro (6*).

"Sep 15 - Sep 20"

Event 38: Murasaki Pro Kitaizumi (2*).

"Sep 16 - Sep 22"

Event 39: Oakley NB Pro (2*).

"Sep 22 - Sep 27"

Event 40: Rio Surf Pro International (6*).

"Oct 05 - Oct 11"

Event 41: Hyuga Pro (2*).

"Oct 07 - Oct 12"

Event 42: Onbongo Pro Surfing (6*).

"Oct 13 - Oct 18"

Event 43: Squalo Mexican Surf Fiesta (1*).

"Oct 16 - Oct 18"

Event 44: La Caja de Canarias - Ocean & Earth Pro (5*).

"Oct 19 - Oct 25"

Event 45: O'Neill Coldwater Classic - Canada (6*).

"Oct 25 - Oct 31"

Event 46: Santa Pro (6P*).

"Oct 30 - Nov 07"  Winner : Drew Courtney ()

Event 47: O'Neill Coldwater Classic - California (6P*).

"Nov 02 - Nov 08"

Event 48: Xcel Pro (4*).

"Oct 26 - Nov 10"

Event 49: PXM International Vans Pro (3*).

"Nov 11 - Nov 15"

"Event 50: TBA - Papua New Guinea (2*)".

"Nov 17 - Nov 22"

Event 51: Reef Hawaiian Pro (6P*).

"Nov 12 - Nov 24"

Event 52: O'Neill World Cup of Surfing (6P*).

"Nov 25 - Dec 06"

World Qualification Series (WQS) is a surfing points competition for the honour of competing with the world's best surfers on the ASP World Tour. The WQS is sometimes referred to as 'The Grind' or simply the 'QS' by competitors.

Les World Qualifying Séries 2009 sont un championnat de surf hommes et un championnat de surf femmes qui en fin de saison qualifieront les meilleurs pour l'élite : l'ASP World Tour 2010.


Geography.

Location.

Schönberg lies some 20 km east of Trier and 8 km from the Mehring interchange on the Autobahn A 1. Schönberg belongs to the "Verbandsgemeinde" of Thalfang am Erbeskopf, whose seat is in the municipality of Thalfang. The municipality lies in the middle of the Hunsrück, whose highest elevation is the Erbeskopf at 816 m above sea level. The Erbeskopf is roughly 6 km from the municipality as the crow flies. Flowing near Schönberg are the upper reaches of the river Kleine Dhron.

History.

Schönberg belonged to the Archbishopric of Trier. As a result of the turmoil of the French Revolution, Schönberg lay under French rule beginning about 1800. In 1814 it was assigned to the Kingdom of Prussia at the Congress of Vienna. Since 1947, it has been part of the then newly founded state of Rhineland-Palatinate.

Politics.

Municipal council.

The council is made up of 6 council members, who were elected by majority vote at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.

Coat of arms.

The municipality’s arms might be described thus: Gules an abbot’s staff palewise between two oakleaves, the one in dexter bendwise sinister and the one in sinister bendwise, all Or, in a base embowed towards chief of the second a menhir sable.

Culture and sightseeing.

Monoliths.

Within municipal limits are found in two different spots upright menhirs.  North of the village, not far from the Büdlicherbrück-Talling road at the edge of the dale stands a menhir made out of a quartzite erratic block. The stone is 2.85 m tall, 1.35 m wide and 0.95 m thick. It tapers towards the top, albeit without coming to a point. The other such monolith is found near the electrical substation at the edge of "Kreisstraße" (District Road) 108 going towards Schönberg. This one is 2.85 m long, 1.30 m wide and 1.10 m thick. After grading work, the stone was put up again some 50 m north of where it had been found. It stands somewhat east of the substation near two benches.

Economy and infrastructure.

Infrastructure.

Schönberg is a rural residential community. There are small businesses serving local demands.

Transport.

Nearby runs the "Hunsrückhöhenstraße" (“Hunsrück Heights Road”, a scenic road across the Hunsrück built originally as a military road on Hermann Göring’s orders)

Schönberg near Thalfang is an "Ortsgemeinde" – a municipality belonging to a "Verbandsgemeinde", a kind of collective municipality – in the Bernkastel-Wittlich district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.

Schönberg est une municipalité allemande située dans le land de Rhénanie-Palatinat et l'arrondissement de Bernkastel-Wittlich. À proximité de la commune se dressent les menhirs de Schönberg.