Early career.

Bebeto, who was born in Salvador, Brazil, started his career in 1983 with Vitória.

Club career.

He played for Flamengo, Vasco da Gama, Cruzeiro and Botafogo in Brazil, Deportivo La Coruña and Sevilla in Spain, Toros Neza in Mexico, Kashima Antlers in Japan, and Al Ittihad in Saudi Arabia, finally retiring in 2002.

Deportivo La Coruña.

Bebeto spent four years in Spain at Deportivo La Coruña, scoring an impressive 86 goals in 131 games. Bebeto became the top scorer in La Liga in his first season at Deportivo, scoring 29 goals in the 1992–93 season. In the next season, 1993–94 season, Deportivo had the chance to win their first ever La Liga title by beating Valencia in the last match of the season. In a very evenly matched contest Deportivo had a golden opportunity to seal the victory and thus the league title. They were given a penalty kick just minutes from the end. The official penalty taker all season had been Bebeto (after Donato, who wasn't in the field), who this time, refused to take the penalty. Eventually, Miroslav Đukić took the penalty and failed to score; hence, the match ended with a 0–0 draw, effectively handing Barcelona the title.

Later career.

In 1996 Bebeto returned to play for native club Flamengo, but after just 15 games, Bebeto returned to Spain to play for Sevilla, for whom he never scored. In 1997, Bebeto joined Cruzeiro for just one match, the 1997 Intercontinental Cup final against Borussia Dortmund. Despite his presence, the Belo Horizonte side lost the match 2–0. Bebeto returned to goalscoring form at native clubs Vitória in late 1997 and Botafogo in early 1998, which saw him being picked for Brazil's World Cup defence in 1998.  In 2001, he was rejected by Scottish side St Mirren, who were willing to pay his wages but had reservations about his fitness. On 5 September 2002, he joined his final club at the age of 38, Al-Ittihad of Saudi Arabia, after pledging to join Vasco da Gama on 28 August.

International career.

For Brazil, Bebeto scored 39 goals in 75 caps after making his debut in 1985. He played in three World Cups: 1990, 1994, and 1998. In 1994, he was one of the best players of the tournament, scoring three goals and providing two assists for the eventual champions, and then repeated the feat four years later as Brazil finished second to hosts France.  During the 1994 World Cup, Bebeto formed a formidable partnership with Romário, after they succeeded in putting their personal differences aside. Bebeto and Romário were fierce rivals in the Spanish League. Bebeto led the Spanish first division with 29 goals in 1992–93 and Romário led it with 30 goals in 1993–94. It was Romário who gave Bebeto the nickname Chorao, or Crybaby, for his habit of pouting to referees. It was also Romário who called a news conference before the World Cup to announce that he would not sit next to Bebeto on the team's flight to the United States. Today, however, Bebeto and Romario are friends, with Bebeto claiming that they talk often. In an interview in 2018, Bebeto praised his partnership with Romario: "I played with Romario only in the national team. We played only one game together at Flamengo before he left for Europe. Do you know that Brazil have never lost a game when Bebeto and Romario played together? Not a single game! Besides, every time we played together at least one of us scored."  Bebeto became a household name for his goal celebration in the 1994 World Cup in the United States. His wife had delivered their third child just days before a quarter-final match against the Netherlands in the scorching heat of Dallas. After scoring, Bebeto ran to the sideline, brought his arms together and began rocking an imaginary baby. Teammates Romário and Mazinho quickly joined in. That child, a boy who was named Mattheus, started his football career with the youth side of Brazilian club Flamengo.  He won a Silver medal for Brazil in the 1988 Summer Olympics. He was later chosen to be an over-23 player at the 1996 Summer Olympics, scoring a hat-trick in the Bronze medal match against Portugal.  On 8 December 2012 a friendly match was played by Brazil Masters vs IFA All Stars at Salt Lake Stadium, Kolkata, India. Bebeto scored a goal for Brazil Masters as they defeated All Stars by 3–1.

Style of play.

One of Brazil's greatest strikers, Bebeto was a prolific goalscorer and an excellent finisher, who was known for his consistency and determination throughout his career, although he was also injury-prone and was criticised for his character. Despite not being imposing physically due to his lack of height and slender physique, he was a fast and opportunistic player, who used his agility, offensive movement, and intelligence to lose his markers in tight spaces. Due to his vision, outstanding technical skills, close control on the ball, and his ability to play off other strikers and provide them with assists, he was often employed as a playmaking attacking midfielder or as a supporting striker early on in his career, drawing influence from Zico's playing style. He was later deployed as a striker or as a centre-forward, however, where he excelled, due to his eye for goal, and remained in this position for the rest of his career.

Coaching career.

Bebeto was hired on 16 December 2009 as the América Football Club's head coach. After an average performance at the Taça Guanabara, he was sacked on 13 February 2010. He had a record of three wins, one draw and four losses.

Media.

Bebeto features in EA Sports' "FIFA" video game series; he was on the cover of certain editions of "FIFA 97".

José Roberto Gama de Oliveira (born 16 February 1964), known as Bebeto, is a Brazilian former professional football player who played as a forward. He entered politics in the 2010 Brazilian General Elections and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Rio de Janeiro representing the Democratic Labour Party.

José Roberto Gama de Oliveira, plus connu sous le surnom de Bebeto, est un footballeur brésilien né le à Salvador (Brésil). Il formait dans les années 1990 le duo offensif du Brésil avec Romário terriblement efficace. Il a gagné la Coupe du monde 1994 aux États-Unis et a été finaliste en 1998 en France. Il a gagné deux fois la Copa América en 1989 et 1997


Early history.

Motobi was established in Pesaro, Italy in 1949, by Giuseppe Benelli, initially trading under the name Moto 'B' Pesaro. This was shortened to Motobi in the 1950s. After a family disagreement in 1948, Giuseppe Benelli, one of the six brothers and an engineer of some talent, decided to go his own way. He stayed in Pesaro, but moved to separate premises. Giuseppe launched the Moto 'B' marque selling small two-stroke motorcycles and scooters. In 1953, Motobi introduced a 200cc horizontal two-stroke twin called the B200 Spring Lasting. Its innovative pressed steel frame and horizontal cylinder layout were to become the trademark for many future Motobi bikes. The B200 motor was a clean, streamlined, very modern appearing unit, which was soon nicknamed the "egg" for its distinctive shape. Giuseppe and his sons Luigi and Marco continued to work on improving Motobi products, and envisioned a four-stroke, single-cylinder variant of the B200. In late 1955, the two-stroke twin cylinder B200 was abandoned entirely, and two different new models, both called "Catria" were introduced, one at 125cc and the other at 175cc. Both were four-stroke four speed singles, designed by freelance engineer Piero Prampolini. These improved singles became the focus of Motobi production, beating Moto Aermacchi's 175cc Chimera (which had a similar horizontal single-cylinder engine configuration) to market by a year. Not long afterward, Giuseppe Benelli died, leaving the company in the hands of his two heirs. Once in charge of the company, they hired a young former racer and tuner named Primo Zanzani to develop the new Catria machine into a factory racing machine. Italian semi-professional road racing (called MSDS for Moto Sportive Derivate dalla Serie) and road hill climbing races were popular, and the tough little motorbike was soon earning a reputation among the Italian riders, who called it the "power egg". Bright decals lauding Motobi's racing championships started appearing on the little bikes' gas tanks, each version more colorful than the last. In America, where the Eisenhower-era economy was good, sales of motorcycles and other leisure products were booming. The Benelli company saw opportunity in the New World, and also right next door, under the roof of their little cousin, Motobi. Motobi was acquired by the larger Benelli company in 1962, a move that would not only bring the family back together under the Gruppo Benelli-Motobi name, but also swell the workforce to around 550 employees, and increase production to a notable 300 machines per day. Many of these machines were exported to the United States badged as Benelli models.

Motobi was an Italian motorcycle manufacturer in production between 1950 and 1977. The brand was revived by Austrian company Michael Leeb Trading GmbH in partnership with Demharter GmbH in 2010.

Motobi est un constructeur de motos italien de 1950 à 1974. En réalité, la marque s'appelait Moto B, le B voulant dire Benelli, ce qui donna finalement "Moto bi" avec la prononciation italienne.


Inhibiteur sélectif de la recapture de la sérotonine

Medical uses.

The main indication for SSRIs is major depressive disorder; however, they are frequently prescribed for anxiety disorders, such as social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), eating disorders, chronic pain, and, in some cases, for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). They are also frequently used to treat depersonalization disorder, although generally with poor results.

Depression.

Antidepressants are recommended by the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) as a first-line treatment of severe depression and for the treatment of mild-to-moderate depression that persists after conservative measures such as cognitive therapy. They recommend against their routine use in those who have chronic health problems and mild depression.  There has been controversy regarding the efficacy of antidepressants in treating depression depending on its severity and duration.  There does not appear to be a difference in effectiveness between medications in the second generation antidepressants (SSRIs and SNRIs).  In children, there are concerns around the quality of the evidence on the meaningfulness of benefits seen. If a medication is used, fluoxetine appears to be first line.

Social anxiety disorder.

Some SSRIs are effective for social anxiety disorder, although their effects on symptoms is not always robust and their use is sometimes rejected in favor of psychological therapies. Paroxetine was the first drug to be approved for social anxiety disorder and it is considered effective for this disorder, sertraline and fluvoxamine were later approved for it too, escitalopram and citalopram are used off label with acceptable efficacy, while fluoxetine is not considered to be effective for this disorder.

Post traumatic stress disorder.

PTSD is relatively hard to treat and generally treatment is not highly effective; SSRIs are no exception. They are not very effective for this disorder and only two SSRI are FDA approved for this condition, paroxetine and sertraline. Paroxetine has slightly higher response and remission rates for PTSD than sertraline but both are not fully effective for many patients. Fluoxetine is used off label but with mixed results, venlafaxine, an SNRI, is considered somewhat effective, although used off label too. Fluvoxamine, escitalopram and citalopram are not well tested in this disorder. Paroxetine remains the most suitable drug for PTSD as of now, but with limited benefits.

Generalized anxiety disorder.

SSRIs are recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) that has failed to respond to conservative measures such as education and self-help activities. GAD is a common disorder of which the central feature is excessive worry about a number of different events. Key symptoms include excessive anxiety about multiple events and issues, and difficulty controlling worrisome thoughts that persists for at least 6 months.  Antidepressants provide a modest-to-moderate reduction in anxiety in GAD, and are superior to placebo in treating GAD. The efficacy of different antidepressants is similar.

Obsessive–compulsive disorder.

In Canada, SSRIs are a first line treatment of adult obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). In the UK they are first line treatment only with moderate to severe functional impairment and as second line treatment for those with mild impairment, though, as of early 2019, this recommendation is being reviewed. In children, SSRIs can be considered a second line therapy in those with moderate-to-severe impairment, with close monitoring for psychiatric adverse effects. SSRIs, especially fluvoxamine, which is the first one to be FDA approved for OCD, are efficacious in its treatment; patients treated with SSRIs are about twice as likely to respond to treatment as those treated with placebo. Efficacy has been demonstrated both in short-term treatment trials of 6 to 24 weeks and in discontinuation trials of 28 to 52 weeks duration.

Panic disorder.

Paroxetine CR was superior to placebo on the primary outcome measure. In a 10-wk randomized controlled, double-blind trial escitalopram was more effective than placebo. Fluvoxamine, another SSRI, has shown positive results. However evidence for their effectiveness and acceptability is unclear.

Eating disorders.

Antidepressants are recommended as an alternative or additional first step to self-help programs in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. SSRIs (fluoxetine in particular) are preferred over other anti-depressants due to their acceptability, tolerability, and superior reduction of symptoms in short-term trials. Long-term efficacy remains poorly characterized.  Similar recommendations apply to binge eating disorder. SSRIs provide short-term reductions in binge eating behavior, but have not been associated with significant weight loss.  Clinical trials have generated mostly negative results for the use of SSRIs in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Treatment guidelines from the National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence recommend against the use of SSRIs in this disorder. Those from the American Psychiatric Association note that SSRIs confer no advantage regarding weight gain, but that they may be used for the treatment of co-existing depressive, anxiety, or OCD.

Stroke recovery.

SSRIs have been used in the treatment of stroke patients, including those with and without symptoms of depression. A 2019 meta-analysis of randomized, controlled clinical trials found a statistically significant effect of SSRIs on dependence, neurological deficit, depression, and anxiety but the studies had a high risk of bias. No reliable evidence points to their routine use to promote recovery following stroke.

Premature ejaculation.

SSRIs are effective for the treatment of premature ejaculation. Chronic administration is more efficacious than on demand use.

Side effects.

Side effects vary among the individual drugs of this class and may include:

Bruxism.

SSRI and SNRI antidepressants may cause jaw pain/jaw spasm reversible syndrome (although it is not common). Buspirone appears to be successful in treating bruxism on SSRI/SNRI induced jaw clenching.

Sexual dysfunction.

SSRIs can cause various types of sexual dysfunction such as anorgasmia, erectile dysfunction, diminished libido, genital numbness, and sexual anhedonia (pleasureless orgasm). Sexual problems are common with SSRIs. Poor sexual function is also one of the most common reasons people stop the medication.  In some cases, symptoms of sexual dysfunction may persist after discontinuation of SSRIs. On the 11th of June 2019 the Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee of the European Medicines Agency issued a new product information wording regarding persistent sexual dysfunction after SSRIs and SNRIs.  The mechanism by which SSRIs may cause sexual side effects is not well understood. The range of possible mechanisms includes (1) nonspecific neurological effects (e.g., sedation) that globally impair behavior including sexual function; (2) specific effects on brain systems mediating sexual function; (3) specific effects on peripheral tissues and organs, such as the penis, that mediate sexual function; and (4) direct or indirect effects on hormones mediating sexual function. Management strategies include: for erectile dysfunction the addition of a PDE5 inhibitor such as sildenafil; for decreased libido, possibly adding or switching to bupropion; and for overall sexual dysfunction, switching to nefazodone.  A number of non-SSRI drugs are not associated with sexual side effects (such as bupropion, mirtazapine, tianeptine, agomelatine and moclobemide).  Several studies have suggested that SSRIs may adversely affect semen quality.  Priapism can also be caused sometimes.

Cardiac.

SSRIs do not appear to affect the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) in those without a previous diagnosis of CHD. A large cohort study suggested no substantial increase in the risk of cardiac malformations attributable to SSRI usage during the first trimester of pregnancy. A number of large studies of people without known pre-existing heart disease have reported no EKG changes related to SSRI use. The recommended maximum daily dose of citalopram and escitalopram was reduced due to concerns with QT interval prolongation. In overdose, fluoxetine has been reported to cause sinus tachycardia, myocardial infarction, junctional rhythms and trigeminy. Some authors have suggested electrocardiographic monitoring in patients with severe pre-existing cardiovascular disease who are taking SSRIs.

Bleeding.

SSRIs interact with anticoagulants, like warfarin, and antiplatelet drugs, like aspirin. This includes an increased risk of GI bleeding, and post operative bleeding. The relative risk of intracranial bleeding is increased, but the absolute risk is very low. SSRIs are known to cause platelet dysfunction. This risk is greater in those who are also on anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents and NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), as well as with the co-existence of underlying diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver or liver failure.

Fracture risk.

Evidence from longitudinal, cross-sectional, and prospective cohort studies suggests an association between SSRI usage at therapeutic doses and a decrease in bone mineral density, as well as increased fracture risk, a relationship that appears to persist even with adjuvant bisphosphonate therapy. However, because the relationship between SSRIs and fractures is based on observational data as opposed to prospective trials, the phenomenon is not definitively causal. There also appears to be an increase in fracture-inducing falls with SSRI use, suggesting the need for increased attention to fall risk in elderly patients using the medication. The loss of bone density does not appear to occur in younger patients taking SSRIs.

Discontinuation syndrome.

Serotonin reuptake inhibitors should not be abruptly discontinued after extended therapy, and whenever possible, should be tapered over several weeks to minimize discontinuation-related symptoms which may include nausea, headache, dizziness, chills, body aches, paresthesias, insomnia, and electric shock-like sensations. Paroxetine may produce discontinuation-related symptoms at a greater rate than other SSRIs, though qualitatively similar effects have been reported for all SSRIs. Discontinuation effects appear to be less for fluoxetine, perhaps owing to its long half-life and the natural tapering effect associated with its slow clearance from the body. One strategy for minimizing SSRI discontinuation symptoms is to switch the patient to fluoxetine and then taper and discontinue the fluoxetine.

Serotonin syndrome.

Serotonin syndrome is typically caused by the use of two or more serotonergic drugs, including SSRIs. Serotonin syndrome is a short-lived condition that can range from mild (most common) to deadly. Mild symptoms may consist of increased heart rate, shivering, sweating, dilated pupils, myoclonus (intermittent jerking or twitching), as well as overresponsive reflexes. Concomitant use of an SSRI or selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor for depression with a triptan for migraine does not appear to heighten the risk of the serotonin syndrome.

Suicide risk.

Children and adolescents.

Meta analyses of short duration randomized clinical trials have found that SSRI use is related to a higher risk of suicidal behavior in children and adolescents. For instance, a 2004 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) analysis of clinical trials on children with major depressive disorder found statistically significant increases of the risks of "possible suicidal ideation and suicidal behavior" by about 80%, and of agitation and hostility by about 130%. According to the FDA, the heightened risk of suicidality is within the first one to two months of treatment. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) places the excess risk in the "early stages of treatment". The European Psychiatric Association places the excess risk in the first two weeks of treatment and, based on a combination of epidemiological, prospective cohort, medical claims, and randomized clinical trial data, concludes that a protective effect dominates after this early period. A 2014 Cochrane review found that at six to nine months, suicidal ideation remained higher in children treated with antidepressants compared to those treated with psychological therapy.  A recent comparison of aggression and hostility occurring during treatment with fluoxetine to placebo in children and adolescents found that no significant difference between the fluoxetine group and a placebo group. There is also evidence that higher rates of SSRI prescriptions are associated with lower rates of suicide in children, though since the evidence is correlational, the true nature of the relationship is unclear.  In 2004, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in the United Kingdom judged fluoxetine (Prozac) to be the only antidepressant that offered a favorable risk-benefit ratio in children with depression, though it was also associated with a slight increase in the risk of self-harm and suicidal ideation. Only two SSRIs are licensed for use with children in the UK, sertraline (Zoloft) and fluvoxamine (Luvox), and only for the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder. Fluoxetine is not licensed for this use.

Adults.

It is unclear whether SSRIs affect the risk of suicidal behavior in adults.

Pregnancy and breastfeeding.

SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. As depression is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes, determining the extent to which observed associations between antidepressant use and specific adverse outcomes reflects a causative relationship has been difficult in some cases. In other cases, the attribution of adverse outcomes to antidepressant exposure seems fairly clear.  SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold. Use is also associated preterm birth.  A systematic review of the risk of major birth defects in antidepressant-exposed pregnancies found a small increase (3% to 24%) in the risk of major malformations and a risk of cardiovascular birth defects that did not differ from non-exposed pregnancies. Other studies have found an increased risk of cardiovascular birth defects among depressed mothers not undergoing SSRI treatment, suggesting the possibility of ascertainment bias, e.g. that worried mothers may pursue more aggressive testing of their infants. Another study found no increase in cardiovascular birth defects and a 27% increased risk of major malformations in SSRI exposed pregnancies.  The FDA issued a statement on July 19, 2006 stating nursing mothers on SSRIs must discuss treatment with their physicians. However, the medical literature on the safety of SSRIs has determined that some SSRIs like Sertraline and Paroxetine are considered safe for breastfeeding.

Neonatal abstinence syndrome.

Several studies have documented neonatal abstinence syndrome, a syndrome of neurological, gastrointestinal, autonomic, endocrine and/or respiratory symptoms among a large minority of infants with intrauterine exposure. These syndromes are short-lived, but insufficient long-term data is available to determine whether there are long-term effects.

Persistent pulmonary hypertension.

Persistent pulmonary hypertension (PPHN) is a serious and life-threatening, but very rare, lung condition that occurs soon after birth of the newborn. Newborn babies with PPHN have high pressure in their lung blood vessels and are not able to get enough oxygen into their bloodstream. About 1 to 2 babies per 1000 babies born in the U.S. develop PPHN shortly after birth, and often they need intensive medical care. It is associated with about a 25% risk of significant long-term neurological deficits. A 2014 meta analysis found no increased risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension associated with exposure to SSRI's in early pregnancy and a slight increase in risk associates with exposure late in pregnancy; "an estimated 286 to 351 women would need to be treated with an SSRI in late pregnancy to result in an average of one additional case of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn.". A review published in 2012 reached conclusions very similar to those of the 2014 study.

Neuropsychiatric effects in offspring.

According to a 2015 review available data found that "some signal exists suggesting that antenatal exposure to SSRIs may increase the risk of ASDs (autism spectrum disorders)" even though a large cohort study published in 2013 and a cohort study using data from Finland's national register between the years 1996 and 2010 and published in 2016 found no significant association between SSRI use and autism in offspring. The 2016 Finland study also found no association with ADHD, but did find an association with increased rates of depression diagnoses in early adolescence.

Overdose.

SSRIs appear safer in overdose when compared with traditional antidepressants, such as the tricyclic antidepressants. This relative safety is supported both by case series and studies of deaths per numbers of prescriptions. However, case reports of SSRI poisoning have indicated that severe toxicity can occur and deaths have been reported following massive single ingestions, although this is exceedingly uncommon when compared to the tricyclic antidepressants.  Because of the wide therapeutic index of the SSRIs, most patients will have mild or no symptoms following moderate overdoses. The most commonly reported severe effect following SSRI overdose is serotonin syndrome; serotonin toxicity is usually associated with very high overdoses or multiple drug ingestion. Other reported significant effects include coma, seizures, and cardiac toxicity.

Bipolar switch.

In adults and children suffering from bipolar disorder, SSRIs may cause a bipolar switch from depression into hypomania/mania. When taken with mood stabilizers, the risk of switching is not increased, however when taking SSRI's as a monotherapy, the risk of switching may be twice or three times that of the average. The changes are not often easy to detect and require monitoring by family and mental health professionals. This switch might happen even with no prior (hypo)manic episodes and might therefore not be foreseen by the psychiatrist.

Interactions.

The following drugs may precipitate serotonin syndrome in people on SSRIs:  Painkillers of the NSAIDs drug family may interfere and reduce efficiency of SSRIs and may compound the increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeds caused by SSRI use. NSAIDs include:  There are a number of potential pharmacokinetic interactions between the various individual SSRIs and other medications. Most of these arise from the fact that every SSRI has the ability to inhibit certain P450 cytochromes.  Legend: 0 — no inhibition + — mild inhibition

— moderate inhibiti.

+ — strong inhibiti.

The CYP2D6 enzyme is entirely responsible for the metabolism of hydrocodone, codeine and dihydrocodeine to their active metabolites (hydromorphone, morphine, and dihydromorphine, respectively), which in turn undergo phase 2 glucuronidation. These opioids (and to a lesser extent oxycodone, tramadol, and methadone) have interaction potential with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The concomitant use of some SSRIs (paroxetine and fluoxetine) with codeine may decrease the plasma concentration of active metabolite morphine, which may result in reduced analgesic efficacy.  Another important interaction of certain SSRIs involves paroxetine, a potent inhibitor of CYP2D6, and tamoxifen, an agent used commonly in the treatment and prevention of breast cancer. Tamoxifen is a prodrug that is metabolised by the hepatic cytochrome P450 enzyme system, especially CYP2D6, to its active metabolites. Concomitant use of paroxetine and tamoxifen in women with breast cancer is associated with a higher risk of death, as much as a 91 percent in women who used it the longest.

List of SSRIs.

Related drugs.

Although described as SNRIs, duloxetine (Cymbalta), venlafaxine (Effexor), and desvenlafaxine (Pristiq) are in fact relatively selective as serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs). They are about at least 10-fold selective for inhibition of serotonin reuptake over norepinephrine reuptake. The selectivity ratios are approximately 1:30 for venlafaxine, 1:10 for duloxetine, and 1:14 for desvenlafaxine. At low doses, these SNRIs act mostly as SSRIs; only at higher doses do they also prominently inhibit norepinephrine reuptake. Milnacipran (Ixel, Savella) and its stereoisomer levomilnacipran (Fetzima) are the only widely marketed SNRIs that inhibit serotonin and norepinephrine to similar degrees, both with ratios close to 1:1.  Vilazodone (Viibryd) and vortioxetine (Trintellix) are SRIs that also act as modulators of serotonin receptors and are described as serotonin modulators and stimulators (SMS). Vilazodone is a 5-HT receptor partial agonist while vortioxetine is a 5-HT receptor agonist and 5-HT and 5-HT receptor antagonist. Litoxetine (SL 81-0385) and lubazodone (YM-992, YM-35995) are similar drugs that were never marketed. They are SRIs and litoxetine is also a 5-HT receptor antagonist while lubazodone is also a 5-HT receptor antagonist.

Mechanism of action.

Serotonin reuptake inhibition.

In the brain, messages are passed from a nerve cell to another via a chemical synapse, a small gap between the cells. The presynaptic cell that sends the information releases neurotransmitters including serotonin into that gap. The neurotransmitters are then recognized by receptors on the surface of the recipient postsynaptic cell, which upon this stimulation, in turn, relays the signal. About 10% of the neurotransmitters are lost in this process; the other 90% are released from the receptors and taken up again by monoamine transporters into the sending presynaptic cell, a process called "reuptake".  SSRIs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin. As a result, the serotonin stays in the synaptic gap longer than it normally would, and may repeatedly stimulate the receptors of the recipient cell. In the short run, this leads to an increase in signaling across synapses in which serotonin serves as the primary neurotransmitter. On chronic dosing, the increased occupancy of post-synaptic serotonin receptors signals the pre-synaptic neuron to synthesize and release less serotonin. Serotonin levels within the synapse drop, then rise again, ultimately leading to downregulation of post-synaptic serotonin receptors. Other, indirect effects may include increased norepinephrine output, increased neuronal cyclic AMP levels, and increased levels of regulatory factors such as BDNF and CREB. Owing to the lack of a widely accepted comprehensive theory of the biology of mood disorders, there is no widely accepted theory of how these changes lead to the mood-elevating and anti-anxiety effects of SSRIs.

Sigma receptor ligands.

In addition to their actions as reuptake inhibitors of serotonin, some SSRIs are also, coincidentally, ligands of the sigma receptors. Fluvoxamine is an agonist of the σ receptor, while sertraline is an antagonist of the σ receptor, and paroxetine does not significantly interact with the σ receptor. None of the SSRIs have significant affinity for the σ receptor, and the SNRIs, unlike the SSRIs, do not interact with either of the sigma receptors. Fluvoxamine has by far the strongest activity of the SSRIs at the σ receptor. High occupancy of the σ receptor by clinical dosages of fluvoxamine has been observed in the human brain in positron emission tomography (PET) research. It is thought that agonism of the σ receptor by fluvoxamine may have beneficial effects on cognition. In contrast to fluvoxamine, the relevance of the σ receptor in the actions of the other SSRIs is uncertain and questionable due to their very low affinity for the receptor relative to the SERT.

Anti-inflammatory effects.

The role of inflammation and the immune system in depression has been extensively studied. The evidence supporting this link has been shown in numerous studies over the past ten years. Nationwide studies and meta-analyses of smaller cohort studies have uncovered a correlation between pre-existing inflammatory conditions such as type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), or hepatitis, and an increased risk of depression. Data also shows that using pro-inflammatory agents in the treatment of diseases like melanoma can lead to depression. Several meta-analytical studies have found increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in depressed patients. This link has led scientists to investigate the effects of antidepressants on the immune system.  SSRIs were originally invented with the goal of increasing levels of available serotonin in the extracellular spaces. However, the delayed response between when patients first begin SSRI treatment to when they see effects has led scientists to believe that other molecules are involved in the efficacy of these drugs. To investigate the apparent anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs, both Kohler et al. and Więdłocha et al. conducted meta-analyses which have shown that after antidepressant treatment the levels of cytokines associated with inflammation are decreased. A large cohort study conducted by researchers in the Netherlands investigated the association between depressive disorders, symptoms, and antidepressants with inflammation. The study showed decreased levels of interleukin (IL)-6, a cytokine that has proinflammatory effects, in patients taking SSRIs compared to non-medicated patients.  Treatment with SSRIs has shown reduced production of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-6, and interferon (IFN)-γ, which leads to a decrease in inflammation levels and subsequently a decrease in the activation level of the immune response. These inflammatory cytokines have been shown to activate microglia which are specialized macrophages that reside in the brain. Macrophages are a subset of immune cells responsible for host defense in the innate immune system. Macrophages can release cytokines and other chemicals to cause an inflammatory response. Peripheral inflammation can induce an inflammatory response in microglia and can cause neuroinflammation. SSRIs inhibit proinflammatory cytokine production which leads to less activation of microglia and peripheral macrophages. SSRIs not only inhibit the production of these proinflammatory cytokines, they also have been shown to upregulate anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10. Taken together, this reduces the overall inflammatory immune response.  In addition to affecting cytokine production, there is evidence that treatment with SSRIs has effects on the proliferation and viability of immune system cells involved in both innate and adaptive immunity. Evidence shows that SSRIs can inhibit proliferation in T-cells, which are important cells for adaptive immunity and can induce inflammation. SSRIs can also induce apoptosis, programmed cell death, in T-cells. The full mechanism of action for the anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs is not fully known. However, there is evidence for various pathways to have a hand in the mechanism. One such possible mechanism is the increased levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) as a result of interference with activation of protein kinase A (PKA), a cAMP dependent protein. Other possible pathways include interference with calcium ion channels, or inducing cell death pathways like MAPK and Notch signaling pathway.  The anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs have prompted studies of the efficacy of SSRIs in the treatment of autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis, RA, inflammatory bowel diseases, and septic shock. These studies have been performed in animal models but have shown consistent immune regulatory effects. Fluoxetine, an SSRI, has also shown efficacy in animal models of graft vs. host disease. SSRIs have also been used successfully as pain relievers in patients undergoing oncology treatment. The effectiveness of this has been hypothesized to be at least in part due to the anti-inflammatory effects of SSRIs.

Pharmacogenetics.

Large bodies of research are devoted to using genetic markers to predict whether patients will respond to SSRIs or have side effects that will cause their discontinuation, although these tests are not yet ready for widespread clinical use.

Versus TCAs.

SSRIs are described as'selective' because they affect only the reuptake pumps responsible for serotonin, as opposed to earlier antidepressants, which affect other monoamine neurotransmitters as well, and as a result, SSRIs have fewer side effects.  There appears to be no significant difference in effectiveness between SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants, which were the most commonly used class of antidepressants before the development of SSRIs. However, SSRIs have the important advantage that their toxic dose is high, and, therefore, they are much more difficult to use as a means to commit suicide. Further, they have fewer and milder side effects. Tricyclic antidepressants also have a higher risk of serious cardiovascular side effects, which SSRIs lack.  SSRIs act on signal pathways such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) on the postsynaptic neuronal cell, which leads to the release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). BDNF enhances the growth and survival of cortical neurons and synapses.

History.

Fluoxetine was introduced in 1987 and was the first major SSRI to be marketed.

Society and culture.

Controversy.

A study examining publication of results from FDA-evaluated antidepressants concluded that those with favorable results were much more likely to be published than those with negative results. Furthermore, an investigation of 185 meta-analyses on antidepressants found that 79% of them had authors affiliated in some way to pharmaceutical companies and that they were also reluctant to reporting caveats for antidepressants.  David Healy has argued that warning signs were available for many years prior to regulatory authorities moving to put warnings on antidepressant labels that they might cause suicidal thoughts. At the time these warnings were added, others argued that the evidence for harm remained unpersuasive and others continued to do so after the warnings were added.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of drugs that are typically used as antidepressants in the treatment of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders.

Les inhibiteurs sélectifs de la recapture de la sérotonine (ISRS ; SSRI en anglais) sont une classe médicamenteuse de psychotropes. Ils opèrent dans le cerveau notamment en augmentant le taux d'un neurotransmetteur appelé sérotonine (5-hydroxytryptamine ou 5-HT). Ils agissent sur le cerveau en inhibant la recapture de la sérotonine au niveau de la synapse.


Biography.

May-Mayevsky was born in 1867 to a family of minor gentry in the Mogilev Governorate, now part of Belarus. He entered military service in 1885, graduating from the Nikolaev Engineering Institute in 1888, now Military engineering-technical university (Russian ), serving as a lieutenant with the elite Izmaylovsky Regiment. He later attended the Nikolaev Military Academy in 1896, and was promoted to a captain of the Life Guards.  During the Russo-Japanese War, May-Mayevsky was promoted to the rank of colonel and commanded the 1st Guards Corps, which he continued to command in the First World War, when he was promoted to the rank of major general. He was awarded the Order of St. George (4th class) and Golden Sword of St. George in 1915, and the Cross of St. George in 1917.  At the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917 May-Mayevsky was still in charge of the 1st Guard Corps. Although his obese appearance was distinctly unmilitary, he had military talent and a reputation for calm bravery and quick decisive action.  In March 1918 May-Mayevsky fled to the Don region, and joined Mikhail Drozdovsky's White movement army as a common soldier. This unit soon merged with the anti-Bolshevik Volunteer Army, and May-Mayevsky became a divisional commander. On May 23, 1919 May-Mayevsky was appointed chief commander of the Volunteer Army after his division drove the Red Army from the city of Kharkiv. His forces moved on to secure Kiev, Orel and Voronezh. However, his forces were thus overextended, and after suffering a number of defeats, problems with his alcoholism increased. May-Maevsky was blamed for the military retreats from Tula and Orel and accused of "moral decay". On November 27, 1919 General Anton Denikin replaced him with General Pyotr Wrangel, an effective general without the moral weaknesses of May-Mayevsky.  In 1920, he led rearguard units in the final defence of the Crimea. Accounts differ on his end. According to one version, he shot himself during the evacuation of the White Army from Sevastopol on November 12, 1920, according to another - he died of heart failure in one of the hospitals in Sevastopol or while traveling by car to the ship for evacuation.

Vladimir Zenonovich May-Mayevsky KCMG () (September 15, 1867 – November 30, 1920) was a general in the Imperial Russian Army and one of the leaders of the counterrevolutionary White movement during the Russian Civil War.

Vladimir Zenonovitch Maï-Maïevski (en ) : -. Général russe, vétéran de la guerre russo-japonaise et de la Première Guerre mondiale. Il est décoré en 1917 de la médaille de Saint-Georges avec branche d'olivier, décoration pour officiers attribuée sur décision des comités de soldats pour bravoure au combat.


Etymology.

The origin of the name of the Christian martyrium is as follows: Ancient Greek "martys", "witness", to "martyrion", "testimony", to Late and Ecclesiastical Latin "martyrium".

History.

The oldest Christian martyria were built at "a site which bears witness to the Christian faith, either by referring to an event in Christ's life or Passion, or by sheltering the grave of a martyr". Martyria, mostly small, were very common after the early 4th century, when Constantine became the first Roman emperor to declare religious tolerance for Christianity in the Roman Empire. Martyria had no standard architectural plan, and are found in a wide variety of designs. There was often a sunken floor, or part of it, to bring the faithful closer to the remains of the saint, and a small opening, the "fenestella", going from the altar-stone to the grave itself.  Later churches began to bring the relics of saints to the church, rather than placing the church over the grave; the first translation of relics was in Antioch in 354, when the remains of Saint Babylas, which were in a sarcophagus, were moved to a new church.

Development.

The architectural form of the martyrium has been developed from Roman architecture, mainly based on imperial mausolea. Constantine the Great applied it for the tomb of Jesus at the Anastasis in Jerusalem (ca. 326–380s) and the Apostles' Church in Constantinople, while also erecting round mausolea for himself and his daughters. The first step towards creating a church based on an imperial mausoleum was made around 320, when Constantine connected what was supposed to become his own mausoleum, with a church structure.  The same form was later adopted by the early Islamic architecture, who employed it in the creation of a shrine known as the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, built much in the style of the Constantinian rotunda of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which it was supposed to create a "dialog of shrines" with, while looking down on it from a dominant position (the Temple Mount).  The central-plan martyrium church became a shape used for important churches which didn't contain important relics, as was the case of the Constantinian "Golden Octagon" at Antioch, perhaps also of the octagonal church of Caesarea Maritima (built ca. 480–500), San Vitale in Ravenna (526–547), and the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (ca. 792–805).

Examples.

Martyria that remain in something like their original form include the following:  Other celebrated Martyria include:

A martyrium (Latin) or martyrion (Greek), plural "martyria", sometimes anglicized martyry (pl. martyries), is a church or shrine built over the tomb of a Christian martyr. It is associated with a specific architectural form, centered on a central element and thus built on a central plan, that is, of a circular or sometimes octagonal or cruciform shape.

Un martyrium est un édifice religieux construit sur un site qui témoigne de la foi chrétienne, soit en se référant à un événement dans la vie ou la Passion du Christ, soit en abritant le tombeau d'un martyr. Il n'a pas à l'origine de plan architectural standard mais il a souvent adopté le modèle architectural des mausolées païens, à plan centré et symétrique. Il peut parfois être combiné avec un plan basilical, comme dans les grandes basiliques martyriales romaines (basilique Saint-Pierre, basilique Saint-Paul-hors-les-Murs de Rome).


History.

Origin and marketing.

The VIC-20 was intended to be more economical than the PET computer. It was equipped with 5 KB of static RAM and used the same MOS 6502 CPU as the PET. The VIC-20's video chip, the MOS Technology VIC, was a general-purpose color video chip designed by Al Charpentier in 1977 and intended for use in inexpensive display terminals and game consoles, but Commodore could not find a market for the chip.  As the Apple II gained momentum with the advent of VisiCalc in 1979, Jack Tramiel wanted a product that would compete in the same segment, to be presented at the January 1980 CES. For this reason Chuck Peddle and Bill Seiler started to design a computer named "TOI" (The Other Intellect). The TOI computer failed to materialize, mostly because it required an 80-column character display which in turn required the MOS Technology 6564 chip. However, the chip could not be used in the TOI since it required very expensive static RAM to operate fast enough.  In the meantime, freshman engineer Robert Yannes at MOS Technology (then a part of Commodore) had designed a computer in his home dubbed the "MicroPET" and finished a prototype with some help from Al Charpentier and Charles Winterble. With the TOI unfinished, when Jack Tramiel was shown the MicroPET prototype, he immediately said he wanted it to be finished and ordered it to be mass-produced following a limited demonstration at the CES.  As the new decade began, the price of computer hardware was dropping and Tramiel saw an emerging market for low-price computers that could be sold at retail stores to relative novices rather than professionals or people with an electronics or programming background. The personal computer market up to this point had sold primarily through mail order or authorized dealers, the sole exception being Radio Shack, who had their own stores as a distribution network. Radio Shack had been achieving considerable success with the TRS-80 Model I, a relatively low-cost machine that was widely sold to novices and in 1980 released the Color Computer, which was aimed at the home and educational markets, utilized ROM cartridges for software, and connected to an ordinary TV set. The prototype produced by Yannes had very few of the features required for a real computer, so Robert Russell at Commodore headquarters had to coordinate and finish large parts of the design under the codename "Vixen". The parts contributed by Russell included a port of the operating system (kernel and BASIC interpreter) taken from John Feagans design for the Commodore PET, a character set with the characteristic PETSCII, an Atari 2600-compatible joystick interface, and a ROM cartridge port. The serial IEEE-488-derivative CBM-488 interface was designed by Glen Stark. It served several purposes, including costing substantially less than the IEEE-488 interface on the PET, using smaller cables and connectors that allowed for a more compact case design, and also complying with newly-imposed FCC regulations on RFI emissions by home electronics (the PET was certified as Class B office equipment which had less stringent RFI requirements). Some features, like the memory add-in board, were designed by Bill Seiler. Altogether, the VIC 20 development team consisted of five people led by Michael Tomczyk the product manager, who recruited the group and dubbed them the VIC Commandos. Commodore founder Jack Tramiel initially gave Tomczyk the title VIC Czar and later appointed him product manager. Tomczyk insisted on several features including full size typewriter keys, programmable function keys and a built-in RS-232 interface. Michael later contracted and co-designed a $100 modem, the VICModem, which became the first modem to sell 1 million units. According to one of the development team, Neil Harris, "[W]e couldn't get any cooperation from the rest of the company who thought we were jokers because we were working late, about an hour after everyone else had left the building. We'd swipe whatever equipment we needed to get our jobs done. There was no other way to get the work done! [...] they'd discover it was missing and they would just order more stuff from the warehouse, so everybody had what they needed to do their work." At the time, Commodore had a glut of SRAM chips, so Tramiel decided these should be used in the new computer. The end result was arguably closer to the "PET" or "TOI" computers than to Yannes' prototype, albeit with a 22-column VIC chip instead of the custom chips designed for the more ambitious computers. As the amount of memory on the VIC-20's system board was very small even for 1981 standards, the design team could get away with using more expensive SRAM due to its lower power consumption, heat output, and less supporting circuitry. The original Revision A system board found in all silver-label VIC-20s used 2114 SRAMs and due to their tiny size (only 512 bytes per chip), ten of them were required to reach 5 KB of system RAM. The Revision B system board, found in rainbow logo VIC-20s (see below) switched to larger 2048-byte SRAMs which reduced the memory count to five chips: 2× 2048-byte chips + 3× 2114 (the 1024 × 4 bits) chips.  While newer PETs had the upgraded BASIC 4.0, which had disk commands and improved garbage collection, the VIC-20 reverted to the 8 KB BASIC 2.0 used on earlier PETs as part of another of the design team's goals, which was limiting the system ROMs to only 20 KB. Since Commodore's BASIC had been designed for the PET which had only limited audiovisual capabilities, there were no dedicated sound or graphics features, thus VIC-20 programmers had to use large numbers of POKE and PEEK statements for this. This was in contrast to the computer's main competitors, the Atari 400 and TRS-80 Color Computer, both of which had full-featured BASICs with support for the machines' sound and graphics hardware. Supplying a more limited BASIC in the VIC-20 would keep the price low and the user could purchase a BASIC extender separately if he desired sound or graphics commands.  While the TRS-80 Color Computer and Atari 400 had only RF video output, the VIC-20 instead had composite output, which provided a sharper, cleaner picture if a dedicated monitor was used. An external RF modulator was necessary to use the computer with a TV set, and had not been included internally so as to comply with FCC regulations (Commodore lobbied for and succeeded in getting them relaxed slightly by 1982, so the C64 had an RF modulator built in).  VIC-20s went through several variations in their three and a half years of production. First-year models (1981) had a PET-style keyboard with a blocky font while most VIC-20s made during 1982 had a slightly different keyboard also shared with early C64s. The rainbow logo VIC-20 was introduced in early 1983 and has the newer C64 keyboard with gray function keys and the Revision B motherboard. It has a similar power supply to the C64 PSU, although the amperage is slightly lower. A C64 "black brick" PSU is compatible with Revision B VIC-20s; however, the VIC's PSU is not recommended on a C64 if any external devices such as cartridges or user port accessories are installed as it will overdraw the available power. Older Revision A VIC-20s cannot use a C64 PSU or vice versa as their power requirement is too high. In April 1980, at a meeting of general managers outside London, Jack Tramiel declared he wanted a low-cost color computer. When most of the GMs argued against it, he said: "The Japanese are coming, so we will become the Japanese." This was in keeping with Tramiel's philosophy which was to make "computers for the masses, not the classes". The concept was championed at the meeting by Michael Tomczyk, newly hired marketing strategist and assistant to the president, Tony Tokai, General Manager of Commodore-Japan, and Kit Spencer, the UK's top marketing executive. Then, the project was given to Commodore Japan; an engineering team led by Yash Terakura created the VIC-1001 for the Japanese market. The VIC-20 was marketed in Japan as VIC-1001 before VIC-20 was introduced to the US.  When they returned to California from that meeting, Tomczyk wrote a 30-page memo detailing recommendations for the new computer, and presented it to Tramiel. Recommendations included programmable function keys (inspired by competing Japanese computers), full-size typewriter-style keys, and built-in RS-232. Tomczyk insisted on "user-friendliness" as the prime directive for the new computer, to engineer Yash Terakura (who was also a friend), and proposed a retail price of. He recruited a marketing team and a small group of computer enthusiasts, and worked closely with colleagues in the UK and Japan to create colorful packaging, user manuals, and the first wave of software programs (mostly games and home applications).  Scott Adams was contracted to provide a series of text adventure games. With help from a Commodore engineer who came to Longwood, Florida to assist in the effort, five of Adams's Adventure International game series were ported to the VIC. They got around the limited memory of VIC-20 by having the games reside in a ROM cartridge instead of being loaded into main memory via cassette as they were on the TRS-80 and other machines. The first production run of the five cartridges generated over $1,500,000 in sales for Commodore.  While the PET was sold through authorized dealers, the VIC-20 primarily sold at retail—especially discount and toy stores, where it could compete more directly with game consoles. It was the first computer to be sold in K-Mart. Commodore took out advertisements featuring actor William Shatner (of "" fame) as its spokesman, asking: "Why buy just a video game?" and describing it as "The Wonder Computer of the 1980s". Television personality Henry Morgan (best known as a panelist on the TV game show "I've Got a Secret") became the commentator in a series of Commodore product ads.  The VIC-20 had 5 KB of RAM, of which only 3.5 KB remained available on startup (exactly 3583 bytes). This is roughly equivalent to the words and spaces on one sheet of typing paper, meeting a design goal of the machine. The computer was expandable up to 40 KB with an add-on memory cartridge (a maximum of 27.5 KB was usable for BASIC).  The "20" in the computer's name was widely assumed to refer to the text width of the screen (although in fact the VIC-20 has 22-column text, not 20) or that it referred to the combined size of the system ROMs (8 KB BASIC+8 KB KERNAL+4 KB character ROM). Bob Yannes claimed that "20" meant nothing in particular and "We simply picked '20' because it seemed like a friendly number and the computer's marketing slogan was 'The Friendly Computer'. I felt it balanced things out a bit since 'Vic' sounded like the name of a truck driver."  In 1981, Tomczyk contracted with an outside engineering group to develop a direct-connect modem-on-a-cartridge (the VICModem), which at US$99 became the first modem priced under US$100. The VICModem was also the first modem to sell over 1 million units. VICModem was packaged with US$197.50 worth of free telecomputing services from The Source, CompuServe and Dow Jones. Tomczyk also created a SIG called the Commodore Information Network to enable users to exchange information and take some of the pressure off of Customer Support inquiries, which were straining Commodore's lean organization. In 1982, this network accounted for the largest traffic on CompuServe.

Applications.

The VIC-20's BASIC is compatible with the PET's, and the Datasette format is the same. Before the computer's release, a Commodore executive promised it would have "enough additional documentation to enable an experienced programmer/hobbyist to get inside and let his imagination work". "Compute!" favorably contrasted the company's encouragement of "cottage industry software developers" to Texas Instruments discouraging third-party software. Because of its small memory and low-resolution display compared to some other computers of the time, the VIC-20 was primarily used for educational software and games. However, productivity applications such as home finance programs, spreadsheets, and communication terminal programs were also made for the machine.  The VIC had a sizable library of public domain and freeware software. This software was distributed via online services such as CompuServe, BBSs, as well as offline by mail order and by user groups. Several computer magazines sold on newsstands, such as "Compute!", "Family Computing", "RUN", "Ahoy!", and the CBM-produced "Commodore Power Play", offered programming tips and type-in programs for the VIC-20.  An estimated 300 commercial titles were available on cartridge and another 500+ were available on tape. A handful of disk applications were released.  The VIC's low cost led to it being used by the Fort Pierce, Florida Utilities Authority to measure the input and output of two of their generators and display the results on monitors throughout the plant. The utility was able to purchase multiple VIC and C64 systems for the cost of one IBM PC compatible.

Decline.

The VIC-20 was the best-selling computer of 1982, with 800,000 machines sold. One million units had been sold by the end of the first full year of production; at one point, 9,000 units a day were being produced. That summer, Commodore unveiled the a more advanced machine with of RAM and considerably improved sound and graphics capabilities. Sales of the C64 were slow at first due to reliability problems and lack of software. But by the middle of 1983, sales of the C64 took off resulting in plunging sales for the VIC-20. In order to try and staunch the sales decline, by mid-1983 the computer had become widely available for under $90. As sales of the computer continued to decline, the VIC-20 was quietly discontinued in January 1985. Perhaps the last new commercially available VIC-20 peripheral was the VIC-Talker, a speech synthesizer; "Ahoy!" in January 1986 wrote when discussing it, "Believe it or not, a new VIC accessory...We were as surprised as you."

Technical specifications.

The VIC-20 shipped with RAM, but of this was used by the system for the video display and dynamic aspects of the ROM-resident Commodore BASIC and KERNAL (a low-level operating system). Only 3583 bytes of BASIC program memory for code and variables are actually available on an unexpanded machine.

Ports and sockets.

The VIC-20 has card edge connectors for program/expansion cartridges and a PET-standard Datassette tape drive. The VIC-20 did not originally have a disk drive; the VIC-1540 disk drive was released in 1981.  The computer also has a single DE-9 Atari joystick port, compatible with the digital joysticks and paddles used with Atari 2600 videogame consoles (the use of a standard port ensured ample supply of Atari-manufactured and other third-party joysticks; Commodore itself offered an Atari-protocol joystick under the Commodore brand); a serial CBM-488 bus (a serial version of the PET's IEEE-488 bus) for daisy chaining disk drives and printers; a TTL-level "user port" with both RS-232 and Centronics signals (most frequently used as RS-232, for connecting a modem).  The VIC has a ROM cartridge port to allow for plug-in cartridges with games and other software as well as for adding memory to the machine. Port expander boxes were available from Commodore and other vendors to allow more than one cartridge to be attached at a time. Cartridge software ranged from in size, although the latter was uncommon due to its cost.  The VIC-20 can be hooked into external electronic circuitry via joystick port, the so-called "user port," or the memory expansion–cartridge port, which exposes various analog to digital, memory bus, and other internal I/O circuits to the experimenter. The BASIC language can then be used (using the PEEK and POKE commands) to perform data acquisition from temperature sensors, control robotic stepper motors, etc.

Graphics.

The graphics capabilities of the VIC chip (6560/6561) are limited but flexible. At startup the screen shows 176×184 pixels, with a fixed-color border to the edges of the screen. Since a PAL or NTSC screen has a 4:3 width-to-height ratio, each VIC pixel is much wider than it is high. The screen normally shows 22 columns and 23 rows of 8-by-8-pixel characters; it is possible to increase these dimensions up to 27 columns, but the characters would soon run out the sides of the monitor at about 25 columns. Just as on the PET, two different 256 character sets are included, the uppercase/graphics character set and the upper/lowercase set, and reverse video versions of both. Normally, the VIC-20 operates in high-resolution mode whereby each character is 8×8 pixels in size and uses one color. A lower-resolution multicolor mode can also be used with 4×8 characters and three colors each, but it is not used as often due to its extreme blockiness. The VIC chip does not support a true bitmap mode, but programmers can define their own custom character sets. It is possible to get a fully addressable screen, although slightly smaller than normal, by filling the screen with a sequence of different double-height characters, then turning on the pixels selectively inside the RAM-based character definitions. The Super Expander cartridge adds BASIC commands supporting such a graphics mode using a resolution of 160×160 pixels. It is also possible to fill a larger area of the screen with addressable graphics using a more dynamic allocation scheme, if the contents are sparse or repetitive enough. This is used by the port of "Omega Race".  The VIC chip has readable scan-line counters but cannot generate interrupts based on the scan position. The two VIA timer chips can serve this purpose through an elaborate programming technique, allowing graphics to mixed with text above or below it, two different background and border colors, or more than 200 characters for the pseudo-high-resolution mode.  The VIC chip can process a light pen signal (a light pen input is provided on the DE-9 joystick connector) but few appeared on the market.  The VIC chip outputs composite video. Commodore did not include an RF modulator inside the computer's case because of FCC regulations. It can either be attached to a dedicated monitor or a TV set using the external modulator included with the computer.

Sound.

The VIC chip has three pulse wave generators and a white noise generator with an overall volume control and mono output. Each pulse wave generator has a range of three octaves located on the scale about an octave apart, giving a total range of about five octaves.

Memory expansion.

Because the VIC had only 5K RAM, the VIC-20's RAM was expandable through the cartridge port via a Super Expander Cartridge (or simply, RAM Expander). RAM cartridges were available in several sizes: (with or without an included BASIC extension ROM),,, and, the latter two only from third-party vendors. The internal memory map was dramatically reorganized with the addition of each size cartridge, leading to a situation where some programs would only work if the right amount of memory was present (to cater to this, the cartridges had switches, and the cartridges had software setups, allowing the RAM to be enabled in user-selectable memory blocks). Since the VIC-20 was designed to use SRAM rather than DRAM, the system board had no provisions for DRAM refresh.  The memory mapping of the VIC-20 was slightly confusing and could vary depending on system configuration. With no expanders installed, free user memory started at $1000 and extended up to $1DFF, with the video buffer placed at $1E00-$1FFF. Below $1000 was a "hole" from $400-$FFF which could be filled with of expansion RAM, which if installed would place the BASIC program area at $400. If an or larger expander was used, screen memory began at $1000 and BASIC program text at $1200.  The VIC-20 allowed two locations for color RAM, either at $9600 or $9400. The default for unexpanded machines was at $9600, and with an or larger expander, the color RAM would be moved to $9400, however the user could freely set it to either location via the register at $9002.  The normal location for ROM cartridges was at $A000–$BFFF. On power up, the kernel ROM checked for an ID header and if found would jump to the specified starting address. Larger cartridges had the second half of ROM either at $2000 or $6000. A few cartridges, including Scott Adams adventures, loaded entirely in the $2000-$7FFF area. Since the kernel can only autostart ROMs located at $A000, such programs would have to be manually launched from BASIC via the SYS command.  Commodore's official RAM expansion cartridges were only available up to a maximum of worth of additional memory, but third party cartridges could provide up to and sometimes included DIP switches to map the additional RAM to user-selectable address space.  Unlike the PET, the VIC-20 did not include a built-in machine language monitor, but Commodore offered them on disk, tape, or cartridge, with several different executables to load into various memory locations. The monitor programs were the same as the PET monitor, but now added a mini-assembler instead of requiring the user to enter hexadecimal opcodes.  The cartridges allowed adding up to to the BASIC user memory; together with the built-in user memory, this gave a maximum of for BASIC programs and variables. The extra could usually be used in one of two ways, set by switches:  Some expansion cartridges allowed the user to copy ROM images to RAM. The more advanced versions even contained an 80-character video chip and a patched BASIC interpreter which gave access to of the memory and to the 80-column video mode. As the latter type of cartridges, marketed primarily in Germany, were not released until late 1984—two years after the appearance of the more capable C64—they went by mostly unnoticed.

Reception.

Describing it as "an astounding machine for the price", "Compute!" in 1981 expected the VIC-20 would be popular in classrooms and homes with small children, with "excellent graphic and sound capabilities". While predicting the 22-column screen was "too small to support any but the most rudimentary business applications" the magazine observed that "at a price of $299, that is hardly the point", stating that "the VIC will provide very stiff competition to the TRS-80 Color Computer" and "is a much more valuable computer literacy tool than" other products like the TRS-80 Pocket Computer. "Compute!" concluded "VIC will create its own market, and it will be a big one". While also noting the small screen size and RAM, "BYTE" stated that the VIC 20 was "unexcelled as low-cost, consumer-oriented computer. Even with some of its limitations...it makes an impressive showing against...the Apple II, the Radio Shack TRS-80, and the Atari 800". The magazine praised the price ("Looking at a picture...might cause you to think $600 would be a fair price...But it does not cost $600—the VIC 20 retails for $299.95"), keyboard ("the equal of any personal-computer keyboard in both appearance and performance. This is a remarkable achievement, almost unbelievable considering the price of the entire unit"), graphics, documentation, and ease of software development with the KERNAL.

Further reading.

"BYTE" in 1983 published a series of technical articles about the VIC-20:

The VIC-20 (in Germany, VC-20, in Japan, VIC-1001) is an 8-bit home computer that was sold by Commodore Business Machines. The VIC-20 was announced in 1980, roughly three years after Commodore's first personal computer, the PET. The VIC-20 was the first computer of any description to sell one million units. It was described as "one of the first anti-spectatorial, non-esoteric computers by design...no longer relegated to hobbyist/enthusiasts or those with money, the computer Commodore developed was the computer of the future."

Le VIC-20 est un ordinateur personnel 8 bits qui était construit par Commodore International avec de RAM (dont pour les applications BASIC) et une unité centrale basée sur un processeur MOS 6502. Il ressemblait à ses successeurs le C64 et le C16. Le VIC-20 apparut en juin 1980, et après la sortie du premier ordinateur personnel de Commodore, le PET.


Biography.

Travis Stewart was born on March 4, 1982 in Eden, North Carolina. He was exposed to a wide range of musical influences in his childhood. His grandfather played pedal steel for a country band, and gave Stewart his first guitar. His first recordings were made at his grandparents' house, around the age of 5 or 6. His parents kept a house full of instruments, and a singer-songwriter cousin continually exposed him to new sounds and ideas. He fostered an interest with polyrhythms while playing marching snare in his high school band, and the djembe in an African ensemble. Stewart played in two local alternative bands, before turning more towards electronic music around the time of 8th grade. Using handed down computers, he began to produce his own music, and connected with a community of likeminded musicians over the internet. He started the Machinedrum project during his final two years of high school, between 1998 and 1999. After graduation, he attended Full Sail University in Florida to study audio engineering. In 2001, at the age of 19, he released his first record as Machinedrum, Now You Know, on Merck Records.  Following college, Stewart moved to New York City and got involved with Brooklyn-based boutique label Normrex, and has since collaborated with such people as Tiombe Lockhart, Theophilus London, Jesse Boykins III, Azealia Banks, and Mickey Factz among others. For Theophilus London, Stewart produced the Jam Mixtape and mixed This Charming Mixtape. For Azealia Banks, he produced the tracks Barbie Shit, L8R, and Fantasea among others. From 2001–2010, Stewart is credited for having released 8 albums, 20 remixes, and numerous mixes, singles, and EPs.  Stewart's collaboration with Praveen Sharma, known as Sepalcure, began after the two had collaborated on parties Percussion Lab and Cassette NYC, then decided to record music together, which gained the attention of Hotflush records, who signed the duo. Pitchfork Magazine considered their self-titled LP one of 2011's Top 50 albums, and the song "Pencil Pimp," made the list of 2011's Top 100 Tracks. In 2010, Stewart and Sharma wrote and performed the song "Outside The Lines" for the film Black Swan. Also in 2010, Stewart signed to LuckyMe records and released the Many Faces EP, followed by the "Alarma" single in 2011 and the SXLND EP in 2012. In 2011, Stewart released the album Room(s), on Planet Mu. The album was made mostly on the road, with Stewart limited to his laptop and headphones. In 2013, Stewart signed to Ninja Tune and announced his debut LP for the label, "Vapor City, "would be released later that year. His single "She Died There" was featured in the video game Grand Theft Auto V on the fictional radio station "FlyLo FM."  As a performer, Stewart has played such venues as the Sydney Opera House, the Nokia Theater in New York City, the Sonar Music Festival '11 and '12 in Barcelona, and SXSW.  Stewart currently resides in the Kreuzberg district of Berlin.

Travis Stewart (born March 4, 1982), better known as Machinedrum, is an American electronic music producer and performer from North Carolina. He is also known as Syndrone and Tstewart. He is one half of Sepalcure, with Praveen Sharma, one half of Jets, with Jimmy Edgar, as well as half of Dream Continuum, with Jim Coles, a.k.a. Om Unit.

Machinedrum, pseudonyme de Travis Stewart, est un musicien américain de musique électronique né le à Eden en Caroline du Nord. Éclectique et prolifique, il a signé de nombreux disques et apparitions dans des styles allant du hip-hop expérimental à la jungle en passant par le juke, la house et le dubstep.


Biography.

Drozdovsky was born in Kiev where his father was a highly decorated general of the Crimean War. His mother died when he was twelve, and he was largely raised by his elder sister, Julia, who was a decorated nurse during the Russo-Japanese War.  He started his military career early in life, entering the Polotsk Cadet Corps in 1892, and subsequently transferring to the Vladimir of Kiev Cadet Corps, from which he graduated in 1899. In August 1899, he enrolled in the Pavlovsk Military School in St. Petersburg, famous for its strict discipline and considered a model in the training officers of the Imperial Russian Army. He graduated in 1901 at the top of his class.  From 1901, Drozdovsky served in the Life Guards Regiment in Warsaw and was promoted to lieutenant in 1904. With the Start of the Russo-Japanese War he was sent to the front lines with the 1st Siberian Corps of the 2nd Russian Manchurian Army. He was wounded in the thigh during the Battle of Sandepu, but remained on the front lines through the end of the conflict and was awarded with several decorations for heroism.  After the end of the war, Drozdovsky completed his studies at the General Staff Academy in 1908 and was promoted to Stabskapitän, and to captain in 1910. He was stationed at the Headquarters of the Amur Military District in Harbin, Manchuria. In November 1911, he was appointed Assistant to the Senior Staff of the Warsaw Military District. With the start of the First Balkan War in October 1912, he volunteered for combat duty, but his application declined. Instead, he was assigned to the Sevastopol Aviation School, where he became a pilot and trained on aerial reconnaissance. He also trained with the Imperial Russian Navy, taking a dive in a submarine, and also diving using a diving suit. After this training, he returned to the Warsaw Military District.  At the start of World War I, Drozdovsky served as a staff officer for the Russian 27th Army Corps on the Northwestern Front. He made a number of reconnaissance missions using an airplane and a balloon. From December 1914, he was assigned to the headquarters of the 26th Army Corps. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in March 1915, and became Chief of Staff of the 64th Infantry Division in May 1915. He led his division from the front in numerous battles to the end of 1915. From October 1915, he was chief of staff of the 26th Army Corps. From the summer of 1916, he was on the General Staff as a colonel, serving on the Southwestern Front. Wounded in the hand during a battle on August 31, 1916, he was awarded the Order of St. George (4th class).  However, with the February Revolution, Drozdovsky was faced with collapse of central authority. Known as a staunch monarchist, he refused to acknowledge the formation of committees of enlisted men which challenged the authority of (and often murdered) their superior officers. He suppressed Bolshevik elements within his command through executions, and managed to maintain discipline and order, and continued combat operations against the Germans until late August 1917. However, with the Bolshevik seizure of power in the October Revolution and separate peace with Germany, Drozdovsky was forced to resign his commission. He refused offers of a position as commander of an infantry division in late November, and instead contacted General Mikhail Alekseev, who had started an anti-Bolshevik uprising in the Don region. Drozdovsky promised to form a unit of volunteers from troops at the Romanian front and join the White movement. In January 1918 "White Guard" volunteer units were created in Kishinev, and Iaşi in Romania, as well as in Bolgrad in the Odessa region. Colonel Drozdovsky decided to lead his anti-Bolshevik forces east and join the Volunteer Army in its fight against the Red Army in the Don region of southern Russia.  On February 26, 1918, despite the actions of the Romanian army, which tried to disarm them, Drozdovsky and his men, numbering around 1100 war veterans (most of them officers), started their march to the Don. On its way Drozdovsky was joined by other officers and soldiers hostile to the new Soviet regime. Drozdovsky's private notes written during the march show him as a patriotic officer who felt that he had no choice but to fight the Bolsheviks—whom he considered the destroyers of Russia. The notes often reveal a sense of doomed resignation. This, however, did not prevent him from acting with great energy and from being an inspiration to his men. On April 21, 1918, Drozdovsky briefly captured Rostov-on-Don. While battling for Rostov's train station, Colonel Voinalovich, Drozdovsky's second-in-command and closest advisor, was killed in action. Three days later, Drozdovsky's force came to the assistance of the Don Cossacks desperately battling Red forces at Novocherkassk. The Reds were defeated and Drozdovsky's men marched into Novocherkassk. It is here, after a 900-mile march from Romania to the Don, that Drozdovsky and his men officially became part of the Volunteer Army.  In June 1918, at the start of the Second Kuban Campaign, General Anton Denikin promoted Drozdovsky to the rank of Major General, and his unit, now augmented with an influx of new volunteers, was designated as the 3rd Infantry Division. Drozdovsky's unit became one of the elite formations of the Volunteer Army (later called the Armed Forces of South Russia). Drozdovsky was one of the firsts among the White Army commanders to augment his forces with Red Army prisoners they captured in battle. Although the initial performance of these former Red Army troops exceeded Drozdovsky's expectations, as their numbers increased their reliability decreased.  General Drozdovsky was wounded in October 1918, during a battle near Stavropol. Although initially it was thought that the wound was not serious, he never recovered and died on January 1, 1919, in the vicinity of Rostov-on-Don. Subsequently the 3rd Infantry Division, which consisted of several regiments, became known as the Drozdovsky Rifle Division, one of the famous "colored" units of the Volunteer Army. The Drozdovsky Division was well known for its fighting spirit and esprit de corps. In 1920, before the departure of the Volunteer Army from Crimea, General Drozdovsky's remains were secretly reburied by his men in Sevastopol, Crimea, to prevent their defilement by the Bolsheviks (as happened with the remains of General Lavr Kornilov). Their exact location remains unknown to this day.

Mikhail Gordeevich Drozdovsky () (October 7, 1881 – January 1, 1919) was a Russian army officer and one of the military leaders of the anti-Bolshevik White movement during the Russian Civil War.

Mikhaïl Gordeïevitch Drozdovski (en ), né le à Kiev et mort le à Rostov-sur-le-Don), est un général de division russe, chevalier des ordres de Saint-Georges, Saint-Vladimir, Sainte-Anne et Saint-Stanislas. Vétéran de la guerre russo-japonaise et de la Première Guerre mondiale, représentant de la branche monarchiste du mouvement blanc.


Model.

The star schema separates business process data into facts, which hold the measurable, quantitative data about a business, and dimensions which are descriptive attributes related to fact data. Examples of fact data include sales price, sale quantity, and time, distance, speed and weight measurements. Related dimension attribute examples include product models, product colors, product sizes, geographic locations, and salesperson names.  A star schema that has many dimensions is sometimes called a "centipede schema". Having dimensions of only a few attributes, while simpler to maintain, results in queries with many table joins and makes the star schema less easy to use.

Fact tables.

Fact tables record measurements or metrics for a specific event. Fact tables generally consist of numeric values, and foreign keys to dimensional data where descriptive information is kept. Fact tables are designed to a low level of uniform detail (referred to as "granularity" or "grain"), meaning facts can record events at a very atomic level. This can result in the accumulation of a large number of records in a fact table over time. Fact tables are defined as one of three types:  Fact tables are generally assigned a surrogate key to ensure each row can be uniquely identified. This key is a simple primary key.

Dimension tables.

Dimension tables usually have a relatively small number of records compared to fact tables, but each record may have a very large number of attributes to describe the fact data. Dimensions can define a wide variety of characteristics, but some of the most common attributes defined by dimension tables include:  Dimension tables are generally assigned a surrogate primary key, usually a single-column integer data type, mapped to the combination of dimension attributes that form the natural key.

Benefits.

Star schemas are denormalized, meaning the typical rules of normalization applied to transactional relational databases are relaxed during star-schema design and implementation. The benefits of star-schema denormalization are:

Disadvantages.

The main disadvantage of the star schema is that it's not as flexible in terms of analytical needs as a normalized data model. Normalized models allow any kind of analytical query to be executed, so long as it follows the business logic defined in the model. Star schemas tend to be more purpose-built toward a particular view of the data, thus not really allowing more complex analytics. Star schemas don't easily support many-to-many relationships between business entities. Typically these relationships are simplified in a star schema in order to conform to the simple dimensional model.  Another disadvantage is that data integrity is not well-enforced due to its denormalized state. One-off inserts and updates can result in data anomalies, which normalized schemas are designed to avoid. Generally speaking, star schemas are loaded in a highly controlled fashion via batch processing or near real-time "trickle feeds", to compensate for the lack of protection afforded by normalization.

Example.

Consider a database of sales, perhaps from a store chain, classified by date, store and product. The image of the schema to the right is a star schema version of the sample schema provided in the snowflake schema article.  codice_1 is the fact table and there are three dimension tables codice_2, codice_3 and codice_4.  Each dimension table has a primary key on its codice_5 column, relating to one of the columns (viewed as rows in the example schema) of the codice_1 table's three-column (compound) primary key (codice_7, codice_8, codice_9). The non-primary key codice_10 column of the fact table in this example represents a measure or metric that can be used in calculations and analysis. The non-primary key columns of the dimension tables represent additional attributes of the dimensions (such as the codice_11 of the codice_2 dimension).  For example, the following query answers how many TV sets have been sold, for each brand and country, in 1997:  SELECT  FROM Fact_Sales F INNER JOIN Dim_Date D ON (F.Date_Id = D.Id) INNER JOIN Dim_Store S ON (F.Store_Id = S.Id) INNER JOIN Dim_Product P ON (F.Product_Id = P.Id)  WHERE D.Year = 1997 AND P.Product_Category = 'tv'  GROUP BY

In computing, the star schema is the simplest style of data mart schema and is the approach most widely used to develop data warehouses and dimensional data marts. The star schema consists of one or more fact tables referencing any number of dimension tables. The star schema is an important special case of the snowflake schema, and is more effective for handling simpler queries.

Un schéma en étoile, ou modèle de données « en étoile », est une structure stockant des données atomiques ou agrégées, typiquement dans dtes datawarehouse ou datamart. Souvent considéré () comme un, le modèle en étoile permet une économie de jointures à l'interrogation, ce qui le rend optimisé pour les requêtes d'analyse.


History.

SK Admira Vienna.

"SK Admira Vienna" was formed in the Vienna district of Jedlesee as a merger between two football clubs named "Burschenschaft Einigkeit" and "Sportklub Vindobona" in 1905. In 1919, Admira were promoted to the first tier of the Austrian league system for the first time in their history. The club soon became one of the more successful teams during the inter-war period, capturing seven Austrian national championship and three Austrian Cup titles. Several Admira players were also regulars in the Austrian national football team at this time.  After the Anschluss in 1938, Admira played for several seasons in the Gauliga Ostmark, one of the top-flight regional leagues created through the reorganization of German football under the Third Reich. Their win of the 1938–39 Gauliga Ostmark qualified them for the 1939 German football championship, in which Admira made their way to the final against Schalke 04, which was the dominant German football team of the era. They lost overwhelmingly by a score of 0–9. This effort marked the last major success for Vienna before the end of World War II.

Post-War.

The post-war period led to a slow, but steady decline due to lack of funds to buy more competitive players. It eventually culminated into the first brief relegation from the top tier after forty years in 1960. The club underwent two name changes in that period, playing as "ESV Admira Vienna" after a merger with the railroad sports club "ESV Vienna" in 1953 before changing to "ESV Admira-NÖ Energie Vienna" in 1960 due to a sponsorship agreement with regional energy suppliers NEWAG/NIOGAS. Soon thereafter, Admira (or Admira Energie, as it was called in most media during the time) regained some of its earlier strength, winning the Austrian Cup in 1964 and the Double of league and cup titles in 1966.  The revelation of financial scandals within NEWAG/NIOGAS in the late 1960s led to an abrupt end of the steady flow of funds and brought the club onto the brink of administration, which would narrowly be avoided. Nevertheless, Admira began looking for a merger partner, and particularly targeted Austria Vienna. However, after the creation of "Admira-Austria" was declined twice, Admira eventually began talks with "SC Wacker Vienna", which were successfully concluded in 1971.

SC Wacker Vienna.

"Wacker Vienna" was formed in 1908 in the Vienna district of Meidling. The club reached the first tier of the Austrian league system for the first time in 1914. Being a mid-table side until the second half of the 1930s, Wacker became a top-team in the 1940s and 1950s, winning the double in 1947 and ending as league runners-up eight more times between 1940 and 1956.  During the last decade as an independent club it became a bona-fide yo-yo club, with eight straight relegations from or promotions to the Austrian top tier between 1961 and 1968. A fifth relegation in 1971, combined with financial and stadium problems, eventually led to a merger with "Admira", forming "FC Admira/Wacker Vienna".

VfB Mödling.

"VfB Mödling" was formed on 17 June 1911 in the Lower Austrian town of Mödling. Since their foundation, Mödling were playing in the highest Lower Austrian league. With the introduction of an Austria-wide national league in 1949, the club was classified into the second tier. Playing most of its existence in second- and third-tier leagues since then, the club enjoyed three brief stints in the top division during the 1952–53 and 1987–88 seasons as well as between 1992 and 1995 before eventually merging with "Admira/Wacker" in 1997.

1997 to 2011 Merger with VfB Mödling and Financial Trouble.

In 1997, after a financial crisis, VfB Mödling and Admira Wacker merged. In 2004 Iranian Majid Pishyar purchased the club. His stewardship of the club led to on-field and off-field difficulties. The club was relegated after the 2005–06 season. With further financial trouble, Pishyar sold the club to Richard Trenkwalder in 2008. Trenkwalder made a series of changes to the club, including changing the club's name to FC Trenkwalder Admira. His changes eventually paid off, with the club gaining promotion back to the Austrian first division following the 2010–11 season. (Majid Pishyar, meanwhile, notably also caused similar financial problems at a Swiss club, Servette, in the 2011–12 season.)

FC Admira Wacker Mödling, also known as simply Admira, is a football club from Mödling, Austria. The club was originally formed in 1905 as "SK Admira Wien" in the Austrian capital. Mergers in 1971 with "SC Wacker Wien", in 1997 with "VfB Mödling" and in 2008 with SK Schwadorf led to its current name.

Le FC Flyeralarm Admira Wacker Mödling est un club de football autrichien basé à Maria Enzersdorf, au sud de Vienne. Créé en 1905 sous le nom d"'Admira Vienne", le club fusionne avec le "Wacker Vienne" en 1971, avec le "VfB Mödling" en 1997 et avec le "SK Schwadorf" en 2008. Le club possède à son palmarès neuf titres de champion d'Autriche, et évolue actuellement en première division.


History.

Simon took a prominent part in the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid Empire led by his brothers, Judas Maccabaeus and Jonathan Apphus. The successes of the Jews rendered it expedient for the Seleucid leaders in Syria to show them special favour. Therefore, Antiochus VI appointed Simon strategus, or military commander, of the coastal region stretching from the Ladder of Tyre to Egypt. As strategus, Simon conquered the cities of Beth-zur and Joppa, garrisoning them with Jewish troops and built the fortress of Adida.  After the capture of Jonathan, Simon was elected leader by the people, assembled at Jerusalem. He at once completed the fortification of the capital, and made Joppa secure. ("1 Macc. 13:8-13:11"); (Josephus, "Antiquities Bk13 Ch6:4)  At Hadid he blocked the advance of the Seleucid general, Diodotus Tryphon, who was attempting to enter the country and seize the throne of Syria. Since Tryphon could gain nothing by force, he demanded a ransom for Jonathan and the surrender of Jonathan's sons as hostages. Although Simon was fully aware that Tryphon would deceive him, he acceded to both demands, so that the people might see that he had done everything possible for his brother. Jonathan was nevertheless treacherously assassinated, and the hostages were not returned. Simon thus became the sole leader of the people.  As an opponent of Diodotus Tryphon, Simon decided to side with the Seleucid king, Demetrius II, to whom he sent a deputation requesting freedom from taxation for the country. The fact that his request was granted implied the recognition of the political independence of Judea.  He became the first prince of the Hebrew Hasmonean Dynasty. He reigned from 142 to 135 BCE.  The Hasmonean Dynasty was founded by a resolution, adopted in 141 BCE, at a large assembly "of the priests and the people and of the elders of the land, to the effect that Simon should be their leader and high priest forever, until there should arise a faithful prophet".("1 Macc. 14:41") Recognition of the new dynasty by the Roman Republic was accorded by the Senate about 139 BCE, when the delegation representing Simon was in Rome. Simon made the Jewish people semi-independent of the Seleucid Empire.  In February 135 BCE, he was assassinated at the instigation of his son-in-law and rival Ptolemy, son of Abubus. Simon was followed by his third son, John Hyrcanus, whose two brothers, Mattathias and Judah, had been murdered, together with their father.

Simon Thassi ( "Šiməōn Ha<unk>asī"; died 135 BCE) was the second son of Mattathias and thus a member of the Hasmonean family. The name "Thassi" has a connotation of "the Wise", a title that can also mean "the Director", "the Guide", "the Man of Counsel", and "the Zealous".

Simon, fils de Mattathias, est un dirigeant juif du. Il succède à son frère Jonathan, mort en -143, et fonde la dernière dynastie juive, celle des Hasmonéens.


Etymology.

"San" in proto-Indoeuropean languages means "speed" or "rapid stream". In Celtic languages, "San" means "river".

Course.

The San arises in the Carpathian Mountains near the village of Sianky, at an elevation of 900 metres, exactly on the Polish-Ukrainian border () and on the continental watershed, and forms the border between Poland and Ukraine for approximately its first 50 km. Poland's largest artificial lake, Lake Solina, was created by a dam on the San River near Lesko.

History of the region.

Historical records first mention the river in 1097 as "Sanъ", "reku Sanъ", "k Sanovi"; then as "nad Sanomъ" (1152) and "Sanu" (1287). On the old maps of the Ruthenian Voivodeship, Poland 1339–1772: "San" (1339), San (1372), "Szan" (1406), "Sanok" (1438), "Saan" (1439), "Sayn" (1445), "San" (1467), "Szan" (1517), "Schan" (1526).  Humans had first settled the southeastern region of present-day Poland (the Subcarpathian Voivodeship or "Podkarpacie") in prehistoric times. In the pre-Roman era various tribes, including the Celts, Goths and Vandals (Przeworsk culture and Puchov culture) overran the area. After the fall of the Roman Empire, Hungarians and Slavs invaded the area.  The San valley must have become an important trade-route and axis of human settlement as early as the 9th or 10th century. The region subsequently became part of the Great Moravian state. Upon the invasion of the Hungarian tribes into the heart of the Great Moravian Empire around 899, the Lendians of the area declared their allegiance to the Hungarian Empire. The region then became a site of contention between Poland, Kievan Rus and Hungary starting in around the 9th century. This area was mentioned for the first time in 981 (by Nestor), when Volodymyr the Great of Kievan Rus took the area over on his way into Poland. In 1018 it returned to Poland, in 1031 reverted to Rus, and in 1340 was recovered by Casimir III of Poland.  During the years 966–1018, 1340–1772 (the Ruthenian Voivodeship) and 1918–1939, the region was part of Poland. Between 1772 and 1918 it belonged to the Austrian empire, which became the Austro-Hungarian empire when the double monarchy was introduced. This region, including the area west and east of the Subcarpathian Voivodship, was controlled by Austria for almost 120 years. During that time it was known as Galicia.  The San River, which saw many battles in its history, was a battle site during the start of World War II in Europe. At the outset of the German invasion of Poland, Polish forces attempted to defend a line along the San from September 6, 1939, until German forces broke out of their bridgeheads on September 12, 1939.

The San (; "Sian"; ) is a river in southeastern Poland and western Ukraine, a tributary of the river Vistula, with a length of 458 km (it is the 6th-longest Polish river) and a basin area of 16,877 km (14,426 km of it in Poland).

Le San (en, "Sian" ; en ) est une rivière du sud-est de la Pologne et un affluent droit du fleuve la Vistule, dans le sud de son bassin versant.