History.

Constituent companies and formation in 1923.

Four important railway companies operated along the south coast of England prior to 1923 – the London & South Western Railway (LSWR), the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LBSCR), and the South Eastern Railway and the London Chatham and Dover Railway. (The last two had formed a working union known as the South Eastern and Chatham Railway (SECR) in 1899.) These companies were amalgamated, together with several small independently operated lines and non-working companies, to form the Southern Railway in 1923, which operated 2186 route miles (3518 km) of railway. The new railway also

Electrification.

In 1923, the Southern Railway took over route miles () of railway electrified with overhead line at 6.7 kV, 57 route miles () of railway electrified with a third rail at 660 V DC, and the long underground Waterloo & City Railway. The route mileage of third rail electrification was to more than double in 1925 when the current was switched on on the routes to Guildford, and Effingham and the route from Victoria and to via and the Catford Loop. In 1926, electric trains started to run on the South Eastern Main Line route to Orpington and the three lines to using the 3rd rail system. On 9 August 1926, the Southern announced that the DC system was to

Economic crisis of the 1930s.

The post-Wall Street Crash affected South Eastern England far less than other areas. The investment the company had already made in modernising the commuter network ensured that the Southern Railway remained in good financial health relative to the other railway companies despite the Depression. However, any

Second World War.

During the Second World War, the Southern Railway's proximity to the Channel ports meant that it became vital to the Allied war effort. Holidaymakers using the lines to the Channel ports and the West Country were replaced by troops and military supplies, especially with the threat of a German invasion of the south coast in 1940. Before hostilities, 75% of traffic was passenger, compared with 25% freight; during the war roughly the same number of passengers was carried, but freight

Nationalisation.

After a period of slow recovery in the late 1940s, the war-devastated company was nationalised along with the rest of the railway network in 1948 and incorporated into British Railways. The Southern Railway retained a separate identity as the Southern Region of British Railways. The Southern Railway Company continued to exist as a legal entity until it

Revival in the privatised network.

The former LBSCR routes to South London, Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire, from Victoria and London Bridge are now served by the current Southern. It was branded "Southern" on 30 May 2004, recalling

Geography.

The Southern railway covered a large territory in south-west England including Weymouth, Plymouth, Salisbury and Exeter, where it was in competition with the Great Western Railway (GWR). To the east of this area it held a monopoly of rail services in the counties of Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex and Kent. Above all, it had a monopoly of the London suburbs south of the River Thames, where it provided a complex network of secondary routes that intertwined between main lines.  Unlike the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, the London and North Eastern Railway and the GWR, the Southern Railway was predominantly a passenger railway. Despite its small size it carried more than a quarter of Britain's passenger traffic because of its network of commuter lines around London, serving some of the most densely populated parts of the country. In addition, South London's geology was largely unsuitable for underground railways, meaning that the Southern Railway faced little competition from underground lines, encouraging a denser network stretching from stations located in close proximity to central London.

Key locations.

The headquarters of the Southern was in the former LSWR offices at Waterloo station and there were six other London termini at Blackfriars, Cannon Street, Charing Cross, Holborn Viaduct, Victoria and London Bridge. The last of these also held the headquarters of the Eastern and Central Divisions. Other major terminal stations were at Dover, Brighton and Southampton. The railway also had one of Europe's busiest stations at Clapham Junction.  Locomotives were constructed and maintained at works inherited from constituent companies at Eastleigh, Ashford and Brighton. The largest was Eastleigh, which was built by the LSWR in

Engineering.

The South Western Main Line of the former LSWR between London and Southampton was completed by Joseph Locke with easy gradients, leading to several cuttings, tunnels and embankments across the Loddon, Test and Itchen Valleys, with brick arches constructed across South London to the site of Waterloo station. Such was the emphasis on minimising gradients that the stretch

Operations.

The running of the Southern was undertaken by the Board of Directors, the first Chairman of which was Sir Hugh Drummond, appointed to the post in 1923. There were originally three general managers representing the interests of the three pre-Grouping railway companies: Sir Herbert Walker, Percy Tempest and William Forbes, although Walker was the sole occupant in the post within a year. The position of Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Southern Railway was given to a former employee of the SECR, Richard Maunsell. For ease of administration, the lines inherited in 1923 were divided into three geographical sections with a Traffic Department for each, loosely based upon the areas covered by the amalgamated companies:  Operational and Commercial aspects of railway operation were brought under the control of Traffic Managers, relieving the General Manager of many tasks, allowing him to make policy decisions. Specialised Superintendents served under the Traffic Manager, breaking down the task of operating their respective sections. As such, the Southern Railway operated a hybrid system of centralised and decentralised management.

Passenger operations.

Passenger services, especially the intensive London suburban services, constituted the key breadwinner of the Southern Railway. The railway also served Channel ports and a number of attractive coastal destinations which provided the focus for media attention. This meant that the railway operated a number of famous named trains, providing another source of publicity for John Elliot. The Eastern and Central Sections of the network served popular seaside resorts such as Brighton, Eastbourne, Hastings and the Channel ports, whilst the Western Section catered for the heavy summer holiday traffic to the West Country resorts. Passenger services on the Southern Railway consisted of luxury Pullman dining trains and normal passenger services, which gave the railway a high total number of carriages at 10,800.

Pullman services.

Pullman services were the premier trains of the Southern, reflecting the pride felt towards the railway. These luxury services included several boat trains such as the Golden Arrow (London-Paris, translated as Flèche d'Or for the French part of its route), The Cunarder (London - Southampton Ocean Liner service) and the Night Ferry (London - Paris and Brussels), the Brighton Belle on the Central Section, and the Bournemouth Belle and Devon Belle on the Western Section.  The Golden Arrow was the best-known train of the Southern Railway, and was introduced

Titled trains.

Amongst the ordinary services, the Southern Railway also operated famous titled express trains such as the Atlantic Coast Express ("ACE"). With a large variety of holiday destinations including Bude, Exmouth, Ilfracombe, Padstow, Plymouth, Seaton, Sidmouth and Torrington, the 11am "ACE" from Waterloo, as the Atlantic Coast Express became known, was the most multi-portioned train in the UK from its introduction in 1926. This was due to sections of the train splitting at selected junctions for onward journey to their final

Commuter services.

Inner London suburban services were fully electrified by 1929 and worked by electric multiple units of varying lengths according to demand, which had the

Other passenger services.

The remainder of passenger operations were non-Pullman, reflecting the ordinary business of running a passenger railway. West Country services were dominated by lucrative summer holiday traffic and passengers wishing to travel to the Isle of Wight and further afield. In winter months, the western extremity of the Southern Railway network saw very little local use, as the railway served sparsely populated communities. Competition with the GWR also diluted passenger traffic within this area, as this carried the bulk of passengers to the major urban centres of the West Country. Steam-hauled passenger services in the east of the network were gradually replaced with electric traction, especially around London's suburbs.

Freight operations.

Passenger traffic was the main source of revenue for the Southern Railway throughout its existence, although goods were also carried in separate trains. Goods such as milk and cattle from the agricultural areas of the West Country provided a regular source of freight traffic, whilst imports from the south coast ports also required carriage by rail to freight terminals such as the large Bricklayers Arms facility. The railway operated three large marshalling yards for freight on the outskirts of South London, at Feltham, Norwood and Hither Green, where freight could be sorted for onward travel to their final destinations. It

Ancillary operations.

The Southern Railway inherited a range of railway-related activities from its constituent companies, which it continued to develop until nationalisation in 1948. These activities included several ports, a fleet of ships, road services (both freight and passenger) and several hotels. These ancillary operations provided extra revenue for the railway at a time when railways were classified as a common carrier by the Railways Act of 1844, and could not compete with road with regards to pricing. This was because railways were obliged to advertise their rates of carriage at railway stations, which could subsequently be undercut by road haulage companies. The Southern Railway also invested in an air service during the 1930s, which supplemented the popular sea crossings to the Isle of Wight and the Channel Islands.

Shipping.

The Southern inherited docks at Southampton, Newhaven, Plymouth, Folkestone, Dover, Littlehampton, Whitstable, Strood, Rye, Queenborough, Port Victoria and Padstow. The Southern continued to invest heavily in these facilities, and Southampton

Ships.

The Southern inherited a number of ships from its constituent companies, some of which were converted to car ferries when this mode of transport became more common. Such conversions were needed on the French routes, where holidays by car were beginning to become popular. Services to the Channel Islands began in 1924, along with services to

Hotels, road transport and air transport.

Ten large hotels were owned by the company, at the London termini and at the coast. The Charing Cross Hotel, designed by Edward Middleton Barry, opened on 15 May 1865 and gave the station an ornate frontage in the French Renaissance style. At Cannon Street station in London, an Italianate style hotel was constructed in 1867, designed by Barry. This provided much of the station's passenger facilities as well as an impressive architectural frontispiece to the street prior to demolition in 1960. London Bridge station boasted The Terminus hotel of 1861, which was turned into offices for the LBSCR in 1892, and destroyed by bombing in 1941. Victoria station had the 300-bedroom Grosvenor hotel, which was rebuilt in 1908. Other hotels were to be found at Southampton and other port locations connected to the railway.  From 1929, the Southern Railway invested in bus companies providing feeder services to its trains. The brand names Southern National (a joint venture with the National Omnibus & Transport Co. Ltd.) and Southern

Livery, traction and rolling stock.

Livery and numbering system.

For most of its existence the Southern Railway painted its 2,390 locomotives in a rich yellow/brown Olive green, with plain black frames and wheels, and fittings were lined in black with thin white edges. From 1937, the basic livery was changed by Bulleid to a matt blue/green Malachite green that was similar in appearance to copper carbonate. This was complemented with black wheels and frames with bright yellow lettering and lining-out of the various locomotive fixtures. Some of Bulleid's locomotives had their wheels painted in Malachite green with yellow rims, though this combination was scarcely used. Pre-grouping and Maunsell locomotives were given yellow and black lining to complement the Malachite green livery. During the Second World War, engines that went for overhaul were painted in an overall matt black due to the scarcity of paint and labour. The yellow lettering remained, highlighted with Malachite green. The period leading up to nationalisation in 1948 saw a reversion to Malachite green, albeit in gloss form. Below are examples of Southern Railway livery, including the approximate dates of first application:  Maunsell locomotives featured name and

Motive power.

The Southern Railway inherited in the region of 2,281 steam locomotives from its constituent companies at grouping The railway handed over in the region of 1789 locomotives to British Railways in 1948. Similarly, it inherited 84 DC multiple units (later designated 3-SUB) from the LSWR and 38 AC units (later designated CP and SL classes) from the LBSCR, and handed over in the region of 1480 DC units.

Steam Locomotives.

From 1924 Maunsell began standardising the fleet of locomotives for ease of maintenance. Later Bulleid undertook sweeping changes that propelled the Southern Railway into the forefront of locomotive design. The first locomotives constructed for the Southern Railway were to designs inherited from the pre-Grouping railway companies, such as the N15 class and H15 class, though both were modified by Maunsell from the original design. These were intended as interim solutions to motive power problems, since several designs in operation on the Southern Railway were obsolete. The 1920s was the era

Diesel locomotives.

Maunsell began experimenting with the use of diesel locomotives for yard shunting in 1937. He ordered three locomotives, which proved to be successful, but his retirement and the onset of the Second World

Electric locomotives.

The Southern Railway also built two mixed-traffic electric locomotives, numbered CC1 and CC2 under Bulleid's numbering system. They were designed by Bulleid and Alfred Raworth, and were renumbered 20001 and 20002 after nationalisation. At this time a third locomotive was under construction, and was numbered 20003 in 1948. The locomotives were later classified as British

Electric Multiple Units (EMUs).

The early LBSCR AC overhead Electric multiple units (EMU) were phased-out by September 1929 and converted into DC types. All further electrification was at 660 V DC, and investment was made in modernising the fleet inherited from the pre-Grouping companies, and building new stock often by converting existing steam hauled carriages. The Southern Railway's EMU classification meant the unit type was given a three-letter code (sometimes two letters), prefixed by the number of carriages within each unit. These early suburban units, constructed between 1925 and 1937 were therefore designated 3-SUB, or later 4-SUB, depending on the number of coaches. The EMUs consisted of a fixed

Other forms of traction.

The railway also experimented with other forms of traction. It bought a 50 hp petrol-driven Drewry Railcar in 1927 to test its operating cost and reliability on lightly used branch lines. It was not successful and was sold to the Weston, Clevedon and Portishead Railway in 1934. Similarly, a Sentinel steam railcar was purchased in 1933 for use on the Devil's Dyke branch. It was transferred from that line in March 1936 and tried in other areas, but was withdrawn in 1940.

Carriages.

The Southern inherited many wooden-bodied carriage designs from its constituent companies. However, there was an emphasis on standardising the coaching stock, which led to Maunsell designing new carriages. These were classified between 0 and 4, so that an 8' 03⁄4" wide carriage was "Restriction 0". The restrictions related to the Southern's composite loading gauge, so that some more restricted routes could be catered for. The new carriages were based upon the former LSWR "Ironclad" carriage designs, and comprised First and Third Class compartments, each of which contained a corridor and doors for each compartment, enabling quick egress on commuter services. Similar principles were applied to the electric train sets, where quick passenger egress promoted a punctual service.  The Southern Railway was one of the few railways to marshal its carriages into fixed numbered sets. This made maintenance easier, as the location of a particular set would always be known through its number, which was painted on the ends of the set. A pool of "loose" carriages was kept for train strengthening on summer Saturdays and to replace faulty

Wagons.

The Southern Railway painted its freight wagons dark brown. Most wagons were four-wheeled with the letters "SR" in white, and there were also some six-wheeled milk tankers on the South Western Main Line which supplied United Dairies in London. As the railway was

Cultural impact.

The Southern Railway was particularly successful at promoting itself to the public. The downgrading of the Mid-Sussex line via Horsham that served Portsmouth was met with hostility by the general public, causing a public relations disaster. This stimulated the creation of the first "modern" public relations department with the appointment of John Elliot (later Sir John Elliot) in 1925. Elliot was instrumental in creating the positive image that the Southern enjoyed prior to the Second World War, building a publicity campaign for its electrification project that marketed the "World's Greatest Suburban Electric".

Tourism.

The positive image of progress was enhanced by the promotion of the south and south-west as holiday destinations. "Sunny South Sam" became a character that embodied the railway, whilst slogans such as "Live

Heritage.

The Southern Railway's memory lives on at several preserved railways in the south of England, including the Watercress Line, the Swanage Railway, the Spa Valley Railway, the Bluebell Railway, the Isle of Wight Steam Railway and

Notable people.

General managers.

Sir Herbert Ashcombe Walker, KCB, (1923–1937). Walker was an astute administrator of railways, having gained experience as General Manager of the LSWR from 1912. After retiring in 1937 he was a director of the Southern until the end of its existence in 1947. Two significant events occurred under Walker's tenure as General Manager: electrification in the mid-1920s and the appointment of Bulleid as CME in 1937.  Gilbert S. Szlumper, TD, CBE, (1937–1939). Trained as a civil engineer and became Docks and Marine Manager at Southampton, before becoming Assistant General Manager in 1925. In 1939 the War Office recalled him as a Major-General to sort out the military movements at

Chief mechanical engineers.

R. E. L. Maunsell, the Southern's first chief mechanical engineer (1922 to 1937). Maunsell was responsible for initial attempts at locomotive standardisation on the Southern, as well as overseeing the introduction of electric traction. Among his many achievements was the introduction of the 4-6-0 SR Lord Nelson Class locomotives and also the SR Class V or "Schools" class, which were the ultimate

Other engineers.

Alfred Raworth (1882–1967) was chief electrical engineer to the Southern Railway from 1938 until 1946. He had joined the London and South Western Railway in 1912. After retirement he

The Southern Railway (SR), sometimes shortened to 'Southern', was a British railway company established in the 1923 Grouping. It linked London with the Channel ports, South West England, South coast resorts and Kent. The railway was formed by the amalgamation of several smaller railway companies, the largest of which were the London & South Western Railway (LSWR), the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR) and the South Eastern and Chatham Railway (SE&CR). The construction of what was to become the Southern Railway began in 1838 with the opening of the London and Southampton Railway, which was renamed the London & South Western Railway.

La Southern Railway (SR) est une ancienne compagnie ferroviaire britannique créée en 1923 lors du regroupement des compagnies prôné par le "« Railways Act 1921 »". Les trains de cette compagnie relient alors la ville de Londres aux ports situés sur la Manche, le sud-ouest de l'Angleterre (Cornouailles), les stations balnéaires du la côte sud de l'Angleterre et le Kent.


History.

The original Lummi spoke the Songish dialect of the Salish language, a cultural feature that persists to the present. Their ancient villages bore the evocative names Hutatchl, Lemaltcha, Statshum and Tomwhiksen. For 12,000 years, the Lummi subsisted near the sea and in mountain areas. They returned seasonally to their longhouses situated at scattered locales on the present reservation in today's western Whatcom County and the San Juan Islands of Washington State. Their protein-rich diet consisted principally of salmon, followed by trout, shellfish, elk, deer, other wildlife, starchy camas bulbs and sun-dried berries.  The Lummi, and most of the other northwest coastal tribes included in the Point Elliott Treaty of 1855, were paid a total of $150,000 for their lands and paid an additional $15,000 in relocation costs and expenses. That would equate to over $4.2 million or approximately $840 per person in economic power in 2013. The reservation has a land area of 54.378 km2 (20.996 sq mi), which includes the Lummi Peninsula, and uninhabited Portage Island. The Lummi nation are the original inhabitants of the Puget Sound lowlands.  In pre-colonial times, the tribe migrated seasonally among many sites including Point Roberts, Washington, Lummi Peninsula, Portage Island, as well as sites in the San Juan Islands, including Sucia Island.  Many tribal members were Christianized in the late nineteenth century by the Catholic Oblate order.  The traditional lifestyle of the Lummi, like many Northwest Coast tribes, consisted of collecting shellfish, gathering plants, such as camas and different species of berries and, most importantly, salmon fishing. The Lummi developed a fishing technique known as "reef netting." Reef netting was used for taking large quantities of fish in salt water. It's a practice that the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife acknowledges as the original and best technique for selective fishing Lummi had reef net sets on Orcas Island, San Juan Island, Lummi Island and Fidalgo Island, Portage Island and near Point Roberts and Sandy Point. Following steady increases in the number of individuals and firms fishing in areas traditionally fished by the Lummi nation, the nation fought for and gained limited protection under the law for the right to fish in their traditional manner.  From July 30 to August 4, 2007, the Lummi hosted their first potlatch since the 1930s, the Tribal Canoe Journeys Paddle to Lummi event. In a revival of traditional practice, 68 families paddled hand-made canoes to the Lummi Reservation from parts of Washington and British Columbia to celebrate the potlatch with other members.  In 2017, the Lummi Nation declared a state of emergency in the aftermath of the 2017 Cypress Island Atlantic salmon pen break and were responsible for recapturing the bulk of the recovered escaped non-native farmed Atlantic salmon.

Gateway Pacific Terminal.

The Gateway Pacific Terminal is a proposed export terminal at Xwe’chi’eXen (Cherry Point) in Whatcom County, Washington, along the Salish Sea shoreline. "Xwe’chi’eXen (Cherry Point) was an important village site for Lummi ancestors, and is considered culturally and historically significant to the Lummi people." On February 28, 2011, the environmental review process for the Gateway Pacific Terminal commenced when SSA Marine applied for state and federal permits to build the $500 million project.  The scale of the project resulted in protests by the Lummi Nation and other concerned parties in opposition to the construction of the terminal. The Lummi Nation argues that the construction of the Gateway Pacific Terminal violates their treaty rights under the 1855 Treaty of Point Elliot, which under Article 5 grants signatory nations "The right of taking fish at usual and accustomed grounds and stations is further secured to said Indians in common with all citizens of the Territory." Further, they argue the presence of the terminal could "irrevocably damage religious and sacred sites, such as Cherry Point, if the coal should spill." Previous requests for permits in the area, including for a proposed salmon fishery, have been rejected on similar grounds.  On June 1, 2011, more than 300 persons turned out for a hearing regarding the Gateway Pacific Terminal hosted by Mayor Dan Pike of nearby Bellingham, Washington. Many of the speakers opposed the terminal, citing varied concerns, including "health effects from coal dust and ship and locomotive emissions, climate change from the burning of exported coal in China, and reduced property values from railroad dirt and noise." Supporters of the project also spoke, with primarily members of local labor unions speaking in support because of potential employment opportunities. David Warren, a former president of the Whatcom County Labor Council, stated, "We've lost 3,500 to 4,000 jobs in the last several years in this area... you can't say you're for jobs if you are against the industries that provide them."  On June 3, 2011 in the aftermath of the June 1 meeting, Mayor Pike announced his opposition to the Gateway Pacific Terminal project, stating "At this point, I don't think this community wants to see any coal, and I'm kind of with them on that," and critiqued the concerns over employment opportunities, stating "We cannot turn our backs on people who are struggling in this community, but that doesn't mean we take jobs at any cost."  In May, 2012, the Seattle City Council unanimously passed a resolution in opposition to the development of coal export ports in the region. This followed the passage of resolutions in opposition by smaller municipalities regionally, including Hood River, Oregon, and Camas, Washougal, and Marysville, in Washington.  In October 2012, a group of Native and non-Native fishermen gathered a fleet of boats in the waters around Xwe’chi’eXen to stand with the Lummi Nation in opposition. This action was supported by the leadership of the Lummi Nation, with Lummi Nation Chairman Cliff Cultee stating "We have to say ‘no’ to the coal terminal project... it is our Xw’ xalh Xechnging (sacred duty) to preserve and protect all of Xwe’chi’eXen." Again, in October 2012, tribal leaders burned a mock million dollar to signify that they could not be bought out.  A December 2014 study by the Washington State Department of Ecology stated that the construction of the Gateway Pacific Terminal would cause an increase in potential oil spills, leading to environmental damage and disruption of traditional fishing grounds. The median amount of oil spills in the nearby Puget Sound is projected by the study to increase 26 percent, or an increase from approximately 10 to approximately 13 individual spills a year by 2019. The quantity of oil spilled in the area would increase 28 percent, from 656 gallons to 857 gallons.  On January 5, 2015, the Lummi Indian Business Council and the Lummi Nation sent a formal letter to the Army Corps of Engineer requesting a denial of the permit. The letter, signed by members of the Council and Chair Tim Bellew II, states "The proposed project will directly result in the substantial impairment of the treaty rights of the Lummi Nation throughout the Nations’ "usual and accustomed" fishing areas... The Lummi have harvested at this location since time immemorial and plan to continue into the future. The proposed project will impact this significant treaty harvesting location and will significantly limit the ability of tribal members to exercise their treaty rights... The devastating environmental impacts associated with this project, as well as the trust responsibility of federal agencies to ensure the protection of the treaty rights of the Lummi Nation, mandate the denial of any and all permits under the Corp’s jurisdiction."  On August 27, 2015, the Lummi Indian Business Council and the Lummi Nation sent a letter to the Army Corps of Engineers requesting an expedited decision on the status of the Gateway Pacific Terminal, stating "We remain committed to assisting the Corps in evaluating our request for a permit denial. However, we are not interested in engaging in a lengthy dialogue with the project proponent and do not anticipate the necessity of responding further." Additionally, the Lummi Nation announced on the same date that they were hiring Dentons, the world's largest law firm, to represent them in future lawsuits, indicating the Lummi are preparing for a fight in the courts over the Gateway Pacific Terminal.  These protests by the Lummi and others regarding the Gateway Pacific Terminal connect to regional struggles against fossil coal extraction and export by environmental groups and Native American organizations in the Pacific Northwest. In September 2012, the Affiliated Tribes of Northwest Indians, a congress of more than 50 tribes in seven states, passed a resolution demanding a broad environmental impact statement for all terminal projects regionally. Another regional protest against coal development in the Pacific Northwest by Native American groups was the Totem Pole Journey, the journey of a 22-foot totem pole through the region from Vancouver, British Columbia to Lame Deer, Montana. On August 21, 2015, the pole made a stop in Bellingham, Washington, for a blessing by the Lummi Nation at the Tribal Administration Center.  On May 9, 2016, the Army Corps of Engineers denied a permit to the project, citing the Lummi Nation's treaty-protected fishing rights.

Language.

The Lummi language ("Xwlemi Chosen," ) is a dialect of the North Straits Salish language.

Reservation population.

An estimated 6,590 people live on the Lummi Reservation. Roughly 2,564 are enrolled tribal members, and 665 are either related to or live with an enrolled tribal member. Some 3,361 are neither tribal members nor affiliated with any member of the Lummi Nation.  There are approximately 1,864 homes located on the reservation. Approximately 697 of these have an enrolled Lummi living in the home; thus, roughly 1,167 homes on the reservation do not house a tribal member. The 2000 census official record was 4,193 persons residing on the reservation, of whom 1,828 (43.6 percent) identified as whites, and 2,114 (50.4 percent) identified as of solely Native American ancestry.

Enrollees.

As of April 2010 there are 4,483 enrolled tribal members. 49.6% are female and 50.4% are male.

Age distribution.

The median age of tribal members is 29. Nearly one-third of the members, some 31.8%, are 18 years or younger. 11.6% are 55 or older.

Locations.

According to studies conducted by the Lummi Nation either on or near the reservation boundaries, enrolled Lummi tribal members have an average household size of approximately 4.5 persons.

Workforce.

A recent collaborative study conducted by the Lummi Nation and Northern Economics Inc. found the following information pertaining to the Lummi Nation workforce.

Education.

Among enrolled Lummis aged 25–64: 15.1% do not have a high school diploma or a GED; 33.8% have either a high school or GED degree; 27.1% have some college experience; 14.9% have a two-year (AA or AS) degree; 7.5% have a bachelor's degree; and 1.6% have a graduate or professional degree.

Employment.

61% of the adult population (ages 18–64) is employed. The labor workforce participation rate is 74%. The Lummi unemployment rate of about 25.1% is estimated to be three times the local average. The median monthly income for employed Lummi tribal members is approximately $2,000.

The Lummi ( ; Lummi: "Xwlemi" ; also known as Lhaq'temish (LOCK‐tuh‐mish), or "People of the Sea"), governed by the Lummi Nation, are a Native American tribe of the Coast Salish ethnolinguistic group in the Pacific Northwest region of Washington state in the United States. The federally recognized tribe primarily resides on and around the Lummi Indian Reservation () to the west of Bellingham in western Whatcom County, south of the border with Canada.

La tribu Lummi est une tribu amérindienne de langues Salish originaire de l'ouest de l'État de Washington aux États-Unis. Les membres de la tribu vivent essentiellement dans une réserve ("Lummi Indian Reservation") située à l'ouest de la ville de Bellingham à une trentaine de kilomètres au sud de la frontière canadienne.


Early life and education.

Brownlee was born in Youngstown, Ohio. He grew up without much exposure to classical music, but had an extremely musical childhood, playing trumpet, guitar and drums, and singing Gospel music in church. His first gigs were at an amusement park in Sandusky, Ohio, singing pop and show tunes. Brownlee attended Anderson University in Indiana for his undergraduate degree and Indiana University Jacobs School of Music for graduate studies. He studied with soprano Costanza Cuccaro, David Starkey, and Fritz Robertson. While a graduate student, he became a member of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity, his desire to become a member was due in large part to his association with members of its Alpha chapter, founded at Indiana University Bloomington in January 1911. He was officially initiated into the Indianapolis Alumni Chapter in the fall of 1999, but considers himself close to the founding chapter and was involved in many of its activities while a student. He became a life member in 2008.  Brownlee participated in young artist programs at the Seattle Opera and the Wolf Trap Opera Company.

Career.

Brownlee's professional stage debut took place in 2002 as Almaviva in Rossini's "The Barber of Seville" with Virginia Opera. Brownlee made his Metropolitan Opera debut in a new production of "Il Barbiere di Siviglia" in 2007. The role has since become one of his most recognizable and famous. He has subsequently appeared in "Il Barbiere" in Vienna, Milan, Berlin, Madrid, Dresden, Munich, Baden-Baden, Hamburg, Tokyo, New York, Washington, San Diego, Seattle, and Boston. Brownlee's career highlights include performances of "The Barber of Seville" at the Vienna State Opera, the Boston Lyric Opera and Madrid's Teatro Real. He has appeared in Rossini's "L'italiana in Algeri" and "La Cenerentola" at Milan's La Scala, as Belfiore in Rossini's "Il viaggio a Reims" in Brussels, and as Tonio in Donizetti's "La fille du régiment" at the Cincinnati Opera. He has also received acclaim in Rossini's "Armida", alongside Renée Fleming, in the famously challenging role of Tonio in "La fille du régiment", and as Arturo in "I puritani" at the Metropolitan Opera. In 2014 Brownlee, Juan Diego Flórez, and Javier Camarena were called "The Three Tenors," and said to "represent a new golden age in high male voices and in the singular thrill of their top notes."  In concert, Brownlee has performed in Handel's "Messiah" with the Houston Symphony and the San Francisco Symphony. He has given recitals under the auspices of the Marilyn Horne Foundation, and was featured in one of that Foundation's Gala Concerts at Lincoln Center. In May 2010, Brownlee performed a concert with mezzo-soprano Denyce Graves in the United States Supreme Court Building for the Supreme Court justices. He also gives recitals with selections from his "Spiritual Sketches" album with Damien Sneed, new arrangements of traditional music, including for an NPR "Tiny Desk Concert".  In a departure from his usual repertoire, he created the role of Syme in Lorin Maazel's opera "1984" in its world premiere at London's Royal Opera House on May 3, 2005. In 2015 he will play Charlie Parker in the premiere of Daniel Schnyder's opera "Yardbird" at Opera Philadelphia.

Personal life.

Brownlee lives in Atlanta with his wife, Kendra, and their two children. He is a fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers. He also likes photography and playing table tennis, and is an avid salsa dancer. He sang the national anthem at Heinz Field on November 15, 2015 when the Steelers played the Cleveland Browns.

Lawrence Brownlee (born 1972) is an American operatic tenor particularly associated with the bel canto repertoire. Describing his voice, Speight Jenkins, general director of the Seattle Opera, said: "There are other singers that sing this repertory very well, but I don't think anyone else has quite as beautiful a sound and as rounded a tone," and praise his "incredible top notes", adding about his high F (F) in "Credeasi, misera": "With him it's not a scream, it's a beautiful sound." Mezzo-soprano Joyce DiDonato adds: "He is always in service of the music. His natural instrument is just incredibly beautiful. The word 'honey' comes to mind. He also has technical prowess and agility."

Lawrence Brownlee, né le à Youngstown (Ohio), est un ténor américain. Il est particulièrement reconnu pour ses interprétations de rôles de bel canto. Il a été désigné Artiste de l'année de l'opéra de Seattle en 2008 pour son interprétation du rôle d'Arturo dans "Les Puritains" de Bellini. Il a aussi reçu les prix Marian Anderson et Richard Tucker. Il débute au Metropolitan Opera de New York le dans le rôle du Comte Almaviva du "Barbier de Séville" de Rossini


Biography.

Gilbert's family moved from her birthplace, Manchester, to the nearby market town of Macclesfield when she was young. She disliked living in Cheshire as a teenager and had wanted to live in Manchester.  In the late 1970s, seeing Siouxsie and the Banshees play live on UK television was a life changing experience for her. "Me dad always says to us, 'You changed as soon as you saw Siouxsie and the Banshees on television'... And I really liked Gaye Advert out of the Adverts, who played bass, and I thought, 'Oh, there's nobody playin' guitar' - you know, women in bands." Her uncle taught her how to play guitar.  She then was in a punk band with three girls, The Inadequates, who rehearsed at premises next to Joy Division. In a 1987 interview with "Option", Gilbert reflected on the first time she became familiar with Joy Division: "We didn't have a car and us three needed a lift home. So we asked them, and they said, 'Alright, but you have to buy one of our singles.' So we did and got it home and played it on this horrible record player. We'd known Stephen before. We thought, 'My God, this sounds horrible.'" She would later begin dating Stephen Morris.  After Ian Curtis's death in May 1980, the three remaining members of Joy Division renamed the band New Order. Wishing to complete their line-up with someone they knew well and whose musical skill and style was compatible with their own, New Order invited Gilbert to join the band during the early part of October 1980, as keyboardist and guitarist. She had already played with Joy Division a number of times, filling in for both Curtis and Sumner playing guitar. New Order's manager Rob Gretton suggested she should join. Gilbert's first live performance with them occurred at The Squat in Manchester on 25 October 1980.  Her voice can be heard on several New Order tracks: the 1981 single "Procession"; the 1983 single "Confusion"; "Avalanche" from the album "Republic" on which she sang a single word, "faith"; and "Doubts Even Here" from their first album, "Movement", on which she provided a spoken-word background vocal.  Given that fellow band members Sumner and Hook had already produced music outside New Order, Gilbert and Morris formed their own band, The Other Two. They released their first single "Tasty Fish" in 1991, and recorded two albums: "The Other Two & You", released in 1993, and "Super Highways" in 1999.  Gilbert and Morris were engaged in 1993, and married the following year. The couple live in Rainow, outside Macclesfield, and have two daughters. Gilbert stopped touring with New Order in 1998 so that she could care for their children, one of whom suffers from neuromyelitis optica. Her husband had briefly offered to care for the children, but Gilbert reasoned that it would be easier for the band to replace her than her husband. She participated in the recording of 2001's "Get Ready", after which she was replaced by Phil Cunningham in New Order's line-up.  In 2007, Gilbert and Morris remixed two tracks for the Nine Inch Nails remixes album "Year Zero Remixed". That year she was diagnosed with breast cancer, from which she recovered.  She rejoined New Order in 2011, after a 10-year absence from their albums. She performed alongside Cunningham who remained a member, expanding the group to a quintet. She is quoted as being glad that she did other things during that time. Since 2011, New Order have performed across the world. Their album "Music Complete" was released in September 2015. Gilbert's vocals were featured on a Koishii & Hush remix album titled "Lifetime"; it was released on 3 February 2016, and featured four tracks remixed by artists such as Saltmarine, Lavigne, FM Attack and Re:Locate.

Gillian Lesley Gilbert (born 27 January 1961) is an English musician and singer, best known as the keyboardist and guitarist of the band New Order.

Gillian Gilbert est une claviériste, guitariste et chanteuse britannique née le à vers Manchester, connue pour avoir été membre actif du groupe New Order de 1980 à 2001, puis pour avoir fondé le groupe The Other Two.


Life and career.

Adolf Grünbaum's family left Nazi Germany in 1938 and emigrated to the United States. Grünbaum received a B.A. with twofold High Distinction in Philosophy and in Mathematics from Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut in 1943.  During the Second World War, Grünbaum was trained at Camp Ritchie, Maryland, and thus was one of the Ritchie Boys. He was stationed in Berlin and interrogated highly-placed Nazis, returning to the United States in 1946.  Grünbaum obtained both his M.S. in physics (1948) and his Ph.D in philosophy (1951) from Yale University. He was a chaired professor of Philosophy at Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania (1956–1960), after rising through the ranks there, starting in 1950, becoming a full professor in 1955.  In the fall of 1960, Grünbaum left Lehigh University to join the faculty of the University of Pittsburgh, where he became the first Andrew Mellon Professor of Philosophy. In that year, he also became the founding Director of that University's Center for Philosophy of Science, serving as Director until 1978. He and the colleagues he recruited then built world-class Philosophy and History and Philosophy of Science Departments at the university. Several of these colleagues had come from Yale University's Philosophy Department, starting in 1962. During this recruitment period the University of Pittsburgh appointed Nicholas Rescher, Wilfrid Sellars, Richard Gale, Nuel Belnap, Alan Ross Anderson, and Gerald Massey, among others.  In 2003, Grünbaum resigned from the Department of Philosophy at the University of Pittsburgh, while retaining his lifetime tenured Mellon Chair and all of his other affiliations at that university.  Grünbaum served as President of both the American Philosophical Association (Eastern Division) and the Philosophy of Science Association (two terms). He was the director of the Center for Philosophy of Science from 1960 to 1978. He was the president of the Division of Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS) in 2004–2005 and then automatically became president of the IUHPS from 2006 to 2007. He is also a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.  He received the Senior U.S. Scientist Prize from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (Germany, 1985), the Fregene Prize for science from the Italian Parliament (1998) and the Wilbur Lucius Cross Medal for outstanding achievement from Yale University (1990). Also, in May 1995, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Konstanz in Germany and, in 2013, an honorary doctorate of philosophy from the University of Cologne in Germany. In 2013, he received the Großes Bundesverdienstkreuz from the Federal Republic of Germany.  Grünbaum was Jewish. He died in November 2018 at the age of 95.

Philosophical work.

Grünbaum was the author of nearly 400 articles and book chapters as well as books on space-time and the critique of psychoanalysis. He is often viewed as part of the American brand of logical empiricism, associated especially with Hans Reichenbach.  Grünbaum did not embrace the prevailing — especially among physical scientists — Popperian philosophy of science, leading to some notoriety in the 1960s after he was ridiculed in print by the physicist Richard Feynman. A much-quoted exchange followed Grünbaum's neo-Leibnizian suggestion that the flow of time might be an illusion only in conscious entities, in which Feynman asked whether dogs, then cockroaches, were sufficiently conscious entities. Reportedly as a mark of further disdain, Feynman refused to let his name be printed, becoming instead the easily recognizable "Mr. X".  Some 40 years later, writer Jim Holt would characterize Grünbaum as, in the 1950s, "the foremost thinker about the subtleties of space and time," and as, by the 2000s, "arguably the greatest living philosopher of science." Holt portrays a rationalist Grünbaum who rejects any hint of mysteriousness in the cosmos (a "great rejector").

Festschriften.

Three celebratory books (""Festschrift"" volumes) dealing with his work have been published to date:

Adolf Grünbaum (; May 15, 1923 – November 15, 2018) was a German-American philosopher of science and a critic of psychoanalysis, as well as Karl Popper's philosophy of science. He was the first Andrew Mellon Professor of Philosophy at the University of Pittsburgh from 1960 until his death, and also served as Co-Chairman of its Center for Philosophy of Science (from 1978), Research Professor of Psychiatry (from 1979), and Primary Research Professor in the Department of History and Philosophy of Science (from 2006). His works include "Philosophical Problems of Space and Time" (1963), "The Foundations of Psychoanalysis" (1984), and "Validation in the Clinical Theory of Psychoanalysis" (1993).

Adolf Grünbaum, né le à Cologne en Allemagne et mort le, allemand naturalisé américain, est un philosophe des sciences et un critique de la psychanalyse, ainsi que de la pensée de Karl Popper.


Etymology.

"Ad" is a Latin preposition expressing direction toward in space or time (e.g. "ad nauseam", "ad infinitum", "ad hoc", "ad libidem", "ad valorem", "ad hominem"). It is also used as a prefix in Latin word formation.  "Astra" is the accusative plural form of the Latin word "astrum",'star' (from Greek "astron" 'a star', derived from PIE root "ster-").

Mottos.

"Ad astra" is used as, or as part of, the motto of many organizations, most prominently, air forces. It has also been adopted as a proper name for various unrelated things (publications, bands, games, etc.). It likewise sees general use as a popular Latin tag.

"Ad astra per alas porci".

"To the stars on the wings of a pig"

"Ad astra per aspera".

"To the stars through difficulties;" "a rough road leads to the stars;" or "Through hardships, to the stars."

"De profundis ad astra".

"From the depths to the stars."

"Per ardua ad astra".

"Through adversity to the stars" or "Through struggle to the stars."

"Per aspera ad astra".

"Through hardships to the stars" or "To the stars through difficulties."

"Per audacia ad astra".

"Through boldness to the stars."

"Quam celerrime ad astra".

"speedily to the stars."

"Sic itur ad astra".

"Thus one goes to the stars."  "Such is the pathway to the stars."  "Reach for the stars."

Ad astra is a Latin phrase meaning "to the stars". The phrase has origins with Virgil, who wrote in his "Aeneid": ""sic itur ad astra"" ('thus one journeys to the stars') and ""opta ardua pennis astra sequi"" ('desire to pursue the high[/hard to reach] stars on wings'). Another origin is Seneca the Younger, who wrote in "Hercules": ""non est ad astra mollis e terris via"" ('there is no easy way from the earth to the stars').

Il s’agit d’une citation de Virgile figurant au vers 641 du chant de l’"Énéide". Cette locution a souvent été prise comme devise : notamment par des villes :


Name.

"Panisperna" most probably refers to the tradition of the Poor Clares of the adjacent convent distributing bread and ham, ""pane e perna"" on 10 August, the Feast of St. Lawrence, in remembrance of his distribution of funds of the Church to the poor. The previous name of the church "in Formoso" referred to Pope Formosus who erected the first attested church on its site.

History.

Tradition states that the first edifice on the site was constructed during the reign of Emperor Constantine I, only 100 years after the martyrdom of St. Lawrence. In the fifth century, this church was one of the Stational Churches of Rome that the Pope visited on its titular day: the Thursday of the first week in Lent. Recent popes have revived this ancient custom. The first written evidence of an ecclesiastical edifice on the site is from 1300, when Pope Boniface VIII rebuilt the church and annexed an abbey to it. That abbey was given to the Benedictines in 1451 and later hosted the Poor Clares. They were removed in February 1872 as part of the confiscations of the new Italian government, but were restored through the efforts of Cardinal Jacopo Colonna in 1896, who also restored the church and abbey. The Franciscans presently serve the church.  The present church is the result of a rebuilding by Carlo Rainaldi in 1575-6 under Pope Gregory XIII. At this time it became denominated "in Panisperna", rather than "in Formoso", and its present facade was constructed. A new, outer portico was added in the 17th century, then restored and decorated with images of St. Lawrence and St. Francis of Assisi in 1893-4 by Pope Leo XIII, who in 1843 had been ordained bishop in the church. Pope Leo XIII also constructed a steep flight of steps in front of the church that led to a tree-lined courtyard. A modern, bronze statue of St. Bridget of Sweden adorns this courtyard.  A medieval house is preserved adjacent to the church; it has an exterior staircase that renders it one of the few such houses to be preserved in Rome.

Interiors.

The church has a single nave with three chapels on each side.  A late 16th-century fresco of the "Matryrdom of St. Lawrence" serves as the reredos of the high altar and was painted by Pasquale Cati, a pupil of Michelangelo. The crucifix of the high altar is from the 14th century.  The south side includes a painting of "St. Clare of Assisi" by Antonio Nessi (1756); a ceiling fresco of the "Glory of St. Lawrence" by Antonio Bicchierai; the tomb of the brothers St. Crispin and St. Crispinianus, with a painting by Giovanni Francesco Romano; and a painting of the Immaculate Conception by Giuseppe Ranucci.  The north side includes the "Stigmata of St. Francis" by Niccolò Lapiccola; an 18th-century crucifix of the Roman school; and the chapel of St. Bridget of Sweden, in which she was buried before her body was translated to Sweden. St. Bridget used to beg for alms for the poor outside the church and prayed before the crucifix by its high altar. Presently, a martyr named Victoria is interred underneath the altar of the chapel. The painting of "St. Bridget Praying before the Crucifix" is by Giuseppe Montesanti (1757).  Under the porch of the church is a chapel containing the oven that is believed to have been that used for the martyrdom of St. Lawrence.

Chiesa di San Lorenzo in Panisperna or simply San Lorenzo in Panisperna is a Roman Catholic church on Via Panisperna, Rome, central Italy. It was previously known as "San Lorenzo in Formoso". It was erected on the site of its dedicatee's martyrdom. It is one of several churches in Rome dedicated to him.

L'église San Lorenzo in Panisperna (en français : "église Saint-Laurent-à-Panisperna") est une église romaine située dans le rione de Monti dans la "via Panisperna". Elle est dédiée au diacre Laurent de Rome qui fut selon la tradition martyrisé sur ce site au.


Attentats du 29 mars 2010 dans le métro de Moscou

Background.

The bombings were the latest in a series of attacks in Russia since 1994, many attributed to Chechen militants or to the Caucasus Emirate. Since 1999, Chechen separatists gradually shifted away from a pro-western approach of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, becoming strongly influenced by Salafi beliefs which placed them at odds not only with Russia and Chechen President Ramzan Kadyrov, but also with a Dagestani population with strong Sufi traditions. A "mujahideen" group claim they are fighting a "holy war", and wish to create an "Emirate" in the Caucasus. Over 5,000 people have been killed and wounded in the Caucasus since 2002.

Follow-up.

About 48 hours after the Moscow Metro bombings a double suicide bombing hit the Caucasian Republic of Dagestan, killing the city police chief amongst others. Russia immediately drew parallels, saying the two bombings were linked. On April 1 another bombing in Dagestan killed two more people. On April 5, exactly a week after the Moscow attacks, another bombing in Ingushetia targeting a police barracks drew parallels between that and the Dagestan attacks. It was feared that these incidents might lead to an escalation of violence in general.

Suicide bombings.

The first explosion occurred on the "Red Arrow – 75 years" train at the Lubyanka station at approximately 7:56 am local time (03:56 UTC). The train started from Yugo-Zapadnaya, and stopped at Lubyanka station. Once the train doors opened, explosives worn by a woman standing at the second carriage's second exit detonated. The explosive had a force of up to 1.5 kg of trinitrotoluene (TNT). Fifteen people on board the train, and eleven people on the platform, were killed. One victim from the third carriage died from a head injury caused by an piece of metal.  A second explosion at the Park Kultury station followed at approximately 8:38 am, caused by another female, who at the time of the first explosion was riding another train from Yugo-Zapadnaya towards Ulitsa Podbelskogo station in the same direction as the first train. At the time of first explosion, the second train had stopped in the tunnel between Frunzenskaya and Park Kultury stations. It was announced over the speakers that due to technical problems, the train would have to unload the passengers at the next stop. About 40 minutes later, the train reached the station, and once its doors opened, the second female suspect detonated the second explosion, killing fourteen commuters. Panic included stampedes at both stations, as commuters attempted to escape. The second attack was carried out by a dark-haired woman with the equivalent of 2 kg of TNT strapped to her waist. Both bombs were packed with metal nuts, bolts and screws, to increase the destructive impact of the blasts. The two women who carried out the attacks wore explosive belts, presumably using detonation devices set inside their mobile phones and activated by a call to self. The attackers intended to strike during peak hours on a weekday when the subway would be at capacity. Eyewitnesses said that some survivors were so badly injured that they constantly splashed heavy amounts of blood on the floor and walls, until they were attended to by doctors.  Alexander Bortnikov, the FSB chief, said its investigation pointed to "terrorist groups related to the North Caucasus".

Casualties.

Citizenship of those killed and wounded was updated by the Ministry of Emergency Situations.  Forty people, aged between 16 and 65, were killed in the explosions. This counts a victim who died of her injuries on March 30. This figure was revised upwards from an earlier count of 36 killed, that had consisted of 24 people in the explosion at the Lubyanka station and 12 at Park Kultury. Two other people died in the resulting stampede at both the stations after the blast. Three of the dead were minors.  A high-ranking official of the Black Sea Fleet of the Russian Federation, Captain Viktor Ginkut, was also amongst the passengers killed at Park Kultury station. His residential registry in Sevastopol, Ukraine has raised the question of his actual nationality, but the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia refused to comment on it.  Over 100 other passengers sustained mild to serious injuries. Five of the injured passengers remained in critical condition for an extended period.

Subsequent false alarms.

A third reportedly failed detonation was announced by "Life News" roughly 40 minutes later, aimed at one of the two Prospekt Mira stations; however, no explosives were found in the plastic bag, after it was taken from the station. Around 10:04 am local time a call from a public phone announcing another planned explosion was made to the Begovaya station staff, but the caller soon revealed it to be a hoax.  Another hoax occurred about an hour after the second explosion at the Ulitsa Podbelskogo station when passengers noticed a Muslim woman entering the train.

Aftermath.

Russian television carried little coverage of the attacks for the first hour after the first explosion took place (at 7:57 am). Commentators have criticised this, alleging that it spread more panic and led to citizens feeling helpless.  Around 11:00 am local time, a special operation was launched to patrol all the subway stations in search of possible clues to trace the instigators. Squads of local police performed passport control at every station of the Sokolnicheskaya Line.  Russia's Interior Ministry head Rashid Nurgaliyev said security was being boosted across the country, "in particular in those cities with metro systems." March 30 was declared a nationwide Day of Mourning. Prime Minister Vladimir Putin issued a decree ordering the allocation from the Reserve Fund of 300,000 rubles (approx. $11,000 USD) to the families of those killed in the bombings, plus 18,000 rubles for funeral expenses, and of 50,000–100,000 rubles to those who were injured in the attacks, depending on the severity of their injuries.  Authorities have announced that due to upcoming Easter (Paskha), May 1 International Workers Day and May 9 Victory Day, strict security would be imposed on Moscow's metro network up until May 15, 2010. As a result of the terror bombings, the number of daily commuters in the Moscow metro decreased by 17% the next day.

Investigation.

According to Interfax news agency, citing law enforcement sources, surveillance cameras captured two women – aged between 18 and 20 – boarding the metro at the Yugo-Zapadnaya station. Police were hunting for one 30-year-old man with North Caucasian features, and two other women of Slavic appearance aged 22 and 45 who had been seen shepherding the bombers into the station. All had their faces uncovered.  Unconfirmed reports said the perpetrators tried to take the explosives to the Russian Ministry of Defense building on Arbat street. Law enforcement also speculated the suicide bombers may have confused the stations, missing one of their original targets – Oktyabrskaya station. They opine that the attackers intended to blow up the Lubyanka station, which is located next to central headquarters of FSB, and then Oktyabrskaya, which is attached to the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Officials suspect that Muslim rebels from the troubled North Caucasus region that includes Chechnya are responsible for the attack. The link to the Caucasian group was immediate. According to preliminary reports, law enforcement were notified about possible terror acts through three telegrams indicating potential threats to Moscow's transport system, but the suicide bombers passed through the security. Unofficial reports the morning before the attacks took place indicate many female passengers of North Caucasian appearance were stopped and checked by Moscow security enforcement under pretence of routine ID verifications, and taken to local precincts. The Investigation Committee of the Procuracy of the Russian Federation started a criminal investigation under Article 205 of the Russian Criminal Code ("act of terrorism").

Perpetrators.

Two female natives of Dagestan are believed to have detonated the explosions. Russian authorities released photographs of both women, showing their facial features to be intact and possibly identifiable. Russia's FSB security service have named the suicide bomber behind the Park Kultury metro station explosion as Dzhanet Abdullayeva (1992-2010), "black widow" who had lived in the Khasavyurtsky region of Dagestan. She was the widow of 30-year-old Umalat Magomedov, a prominent insurgent killed by Russian forces on December 31, 2009. Investigators confirmed that the second attacker was Maryam Sharipova, a 28-year-old schoolteacher from Dagestan, after her father identified her body although he claimed she had a degree in mathematics and psychology and taught computer science while never expressing any "radical beliefs." Although, there was some speculation as to whether her brother had been arrested in connection to North Caucassian fighters. Police had identified an apartment rented out by two suspected accomplices of the bombers. The men were believed to have accompanied the women to a metro station in the southwest of the city and handed over the bomb belts. They then went back to the apartment where they were said to have remotely detonated the charges. The two were known to police who have put them on a wanted list.  Moscow said that there were an additional twenty-one "black widows" ready to strike, and were studying if the alleged attackers were part of an original group of thirty. Female suicide bombers, known as "black widows," have been involved in suicide bombings on numerous occasions, including 2004 bombings of two passenger planes that took off from Domodedovo International Airport, previous Moscow metro bombings, the Moscow theater hostage crisis, and the Beslan school hostage crisis.  The Caucasus Emirate immediately denied responsibility for the attack, saying that they planned attacks on economic targets inside Russia, but not against civilians. However, the attack followed a warning from Chechen rebel leader Doku Umarov the prior month of his intent to spread the Caucasian insurgency to Russian cities.  Two days following the blasts, in a video message posted on a Chechen rebel website, Umarov claimed that his group was behind the bombings and that he had ordered the attacks. He said the Moscow attacks were an act of revenge for the killings of Chechen and Ingush civilians by Russian security forces near Arshty on February 11, and that more attacks would follow.  On May 13, FSB director Aleksandr Bortnikov announced that they had identified all members of the group behind the attack and that three of the members were killed during a raid in an attempt to detain them, one of them being the person who escorted the suicide bombers from Dagestan to Moscow. Bortnikov was quoted as saying: "To our great regret, we were unable to detain them alive because they put up fierce armed resistance and were killed."

Reactions.

Following the attacks, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev and Prime Minister Vladimir Putin as well as Ramzan Kadyrov, President of the Chechen Republic, were quick to comment on the attacks. The heads of Russia's three biggest religious bodies also condemned the attacks and called for justice. The Russian Council of Muftis said that "extremism and terrorism have no basis in the Holy Qur'an," and added that "a terrorist cannot be a Muslim while a Muslim cannot be a terrorist." Russia's chief rabbi, Berel Lazar, said he was sure the masterminds of the terrorist attack would get the punishment they deserved.  The attack also sparked condemnation and expressions of condolence from numerous governments and heads of state, as well as international bodies such as NATO, the Council of Europe, and the European Union who also condemned the attacks and/or expressed condolences to the victims' families.  Amongst media reactions, there was controversy about how the Russian media handled the reporting in the first hours after the attack. Outside Russia, the United States increased security and police presence on transit systems in New York City, Washington, D.C., Chicago, and Atlanta following the attacks.

The 2010 Moscow Metro bombings were suicide bombings carried out by two Islamic female terrorists during the morning rush hour of March 29, 2010, at two stations of the Moscow Metro (Lubyanka and Park Kultury), with roughly 40 minutes in between. At least 40 people were killed, and over 100 injured.

Les attentats du 29 mars 2010 à Moscou, survenus à et à (heure locale), sont deux attentats-suicides qui ont créé deux explosions et ont fait 39 morts et 102 blessés dans deux stations de la même ligne du métro moscovite. Ils ont été revendiqués par Dokou Oumarov, le fondateur de l'Émirat du Caucase.


History.

Dunbartonshire was a hotbed of the game in the early years of organised football in Scotland, with the county's three leading clubs of the era, Dumbarton, Renton and Vale of Leven all forming in 1872. Although not one of the founder members of the Scottish Football Association in 1873, Renton joined the body in time to enter the inaugural (1873–74) Scottish Cup tournament, and on 18 October 1873 were one of the clubs involved in the first day of competition for the new trophy. Renton faced Kilmarnock on neutral territory at Crosshill, Glasgow, winning 2–0. Although full details of the matches played are difficult to ascertain, it is generally believed that this was the first of the three games played that day to kick off, and therefore the first official competitive football match to take place in Scotland. Renton went on to reach the semi final, losing to eventual winners Queen's Park. The following season they went one step further, reaching the final, but again lost to Queen's Park, by 3–0.  During the 1880s Renton were amongst the most powerful clubs in the country. They lifted the Scottish Cup for the first time in 1885, beating local rivals Vale of Leven in the final. The 1886 final once again ended in defeat against Queen's Park, but Renton lifted the trophy for a second time in 1888 with an emphatic 6–1 win over Cambuslang, a winning margin that has never been exceeded in a Scottish Cup final. During this period, Renton also lifted another prestigious trophy of the era, the Glasgow Merchants' Charity Cup, four years in succession. During season 1886–87, Renton competed in the FA Cup. They defeated Accrington 1–0 at home in the first round. Following a 2–2 draw at home in the second round, they beat Blackburn Rovers 2–0 in a replay. Preston ended their FA Cup run in the third round, winning 2–0 at Renton.  Three months after their second Scottish Cup triumph, Renton returned to the scene, the second Hampden Park in Glasgow, to face FA Cup holders West Bromwich Albion in a challenge match billed as being for the "Championship of the United Kingdom and the World". The fixture was really no more than a friendly organised between the clubs, without any direct sanction from the respective national associations. Given there were no league competitions as yet, a meeting between the English and Scottish Cup winners could reasonably lay some claim to deciding the leading club in the UK (albeit without any opportunity for the Welsh or Irish equivalents to compete). When Renton won the World Cup, the footballing world was in its infancy in 1888, almost exclusively played by Scottish and English clubs. It was a World Cup Championship by default – nevertheless Renton’s claim is undisputed. A “Champion of the World” sign was proudly displayed on the pavilion at Tontine Park. The trophy can be found in the Hampden Park museum.  Two years later, Renton were one of the eleven founder members of the Scottish Football League, the meeting which led to the establishment of the new competition having been instigated by Renton club secretary Peter Fairly. The club's first experience of League competition was to be cut short a month into the 1890–91 season, however, when they were suspended from all football by the SFA for playing a friendly against a team billed as "Edinburgh Saints". This was in reality St Bernard's, who had themselves been suspended following allegations of professionalism, in thin disguise. Renton successfully sued the SFA to have their suspension lifted and subsequently resumed their place in the Scottish League for 1891–92. The St Bernard's case illustrated the growing creep of illegal professionalism in Scottish football, a trend no doubt encouraged by the introduction of regular league competition, and one which was to lead to the decline of small town or village clubs, who could never hope to match the financial muscle of the big city clubs.  At the end of the 1893–94 season — the first following the legalisation of professionalism — Renton were relegated to the League's Division Two, never to return to the top level. They continued to run into trouble with the authorities, failing to turn up for their away fixture against Dundee Wanderers in 1894–95, in favour of playing a more lucrative friendly against Queen's Park. The points were therefore awarded to the Wanderers. The club were more rigorous in their attention to that season's Scottish Cup, however, reaching the final for the fifth (and as it turned out, last) time. Once more pitted against the opposition that had embroiled them in their earlier brush with officialdom — St Bernard's — Renton lost out by a 2–1 scoreline.  Despite this appearance back in the national spotlight, Renton's time in the Scottish League was drawing to a close. Financial hardship began to hit deeply for a club only ever capable of drawing a few hundred spectators to home matches; at one point, the club had even considered relocating to Glasgow as a solution to their problems (where their appearance had always drawn thousands). Their league career ended four games into the 1897–98 season when, unable to meet their financial guarantees, they tendered their resignation. This was accepted, with Hamilton Academical taking on Renton's remaining fixtures – less than a decade after Renton's "world championship". The club continued to play in a variety of minor senior leagues – mainly the Western League along with their derby rivals Vale of Leven before finally folding in 1922 (not 1921 as sometimes stated) – entering the 1922–23 Scottish Cup, but failing to turn up for their tie.  Their final hour of fame came in the Scottish Cup of 1906–07 when they put out St Bernard's – then leading the 2nd Division – after two draws, and then stunned Scottish football by putting out Dundee, who were to finish second in the championship that year. They finally went out to Queen's Park in the last 16 of the competition.

Colours.

The Renton team normally wore dark blue jerseys, dark blue shorts and white socks.

Stadium.

Throughout the club's history, their home ground was Tontine Park. After the club's demise, the ground was built over for housing, with the former location of the centre circle being commemorated in one of the gardens.

Noted players.

Thirteen Renton players were chosen to represent Scotland between 1885 and 1896. The club's international players were as follows:

Renton Football Club was a football club based in Renton, West Dunbartonshire, Scotland. Formed in 1872, they were a prominent team in the early history of Scottish football, and were one of the teams that featured in the first ever Scottish Cup fixture. They won the competition twice, in 1885 and 1888, and were also runners-up three times. Their 6–1 win against Cambuslang in 1888 is the joint record win in a Scottish Cup final.

Le Renton Football Club est un club écossais de football fondé en 1872 et disparu en 1921 basé à Renton.


Etymology.

The name is derived from "tack", the British sailor slang for food. It is known by other names including "brewis" (possibly a cognate with "brose"), "cabin bread", "pilot bread", "sea biscuit", "soda crackers", "sea bread" (as rations for sailors), "ship's biscuit", or pejoratively as "dog biscuits", "molar breakers", "sheet iron", "tooth dullers", "armor plates" (Germany) and "worm castles". Australian and New Zealand military personnel knew them with some sarcasm as "ANZAC wafers" (not to be confused with Anzac biscuit).

History.

The introduction of the baking of processed cereals, including the creation of flour, provided a more reliable source of food. Egyptian sailors carried a flat brittle loaf of millet bread called dhourra cake, while the Romans had a biscuit called bucellatum. King Richard I of England left for the Third Crusade (1189–92) with "biskit of muslin", which was a mixed grain compound of barley, bean flour, and rye. The more refined captain's biscuit was made with finer flour. Some early physicians associated most medical problems with digestion. Hence, for sustenance and health, eating a biscuit daily was considered good for one's constitution.  As the biscuits would soften and become more palatable with time due to exposure to humidity and other weather elements, the bakers of the time made biscuits as hard as possible. Because it was baked hard, it would stay intact for years if kept dry. For long voyages, hardtack was baked four times, rather than the more common two, and prepared six months before sailing. Because it is dry and hard, hardtack (when properly stored and transported) will survive rough handling and temperature extremes.  Un-moistened hardtack was inedible and "nearly dense enough to stop a musket ball". To soften, hardtack was often dunked in brine, coffee, or some other liquid, or cooked into a skillet meal. In 1588, the daily allowance on board a Royal Navy ship was one pound of hardtack, plus one gallon of small beer. In 1667, Samuel Pepys first regularized naval victualing with varied and nutritious rations.  Hardtack, crumbled or pounded fine and used as a thickener, was a key ingredient in New England seafood chowders from the late 1700s.  In 1801, Josiah Bent began a baking operation in Milton, Massachusetts, selling "water crackers" or biscuits made of flour and water that would not deteriorate during long sea voyages from the port of Boston. These were also used extensively as a source of food by the gold prospectors who migrated to the gold mines of California in 1849. Since the journey took months, hardtack, which could be kept a long time, was stored in the wagon trains. Bent's company later sold the original hardtack crackers used by troops during the American Civil War. The G. H. Bent Company remains in Milton and continues to sell these items to Civil War re-enactors and others.  During the American Civil War (1861–65), three-inch by three-inch (7.5 cm by 7.5 cm) hardtack was shipped from Union and Confederate storehouses. Civil War soldiers generally found their rations to be unappealing, and joked about the poor quality of the hardtack in the satirical song "Hard Tack Come Again No More". The song was sung to the tune of the Stephen Foster song "Hard Times Come Again No More", and featured lyrics describing the hardtack rations as being 'old and very wormy' and causing many'stomachs sore'. Some of this hardtack had been stored from the 1846–48 Mexican–American War.  With insect infestation common in improperly stored provisions, soldiers would break up the hardtack and drop it into their morning coffee. This would not only soften the hardtack but the insects, mostly weevil larvae, would float to the top, and the soldiers could skim off the insects and resume consumption. Some men also turned hardtack into a mush by breaking it up with blows from their rifle butts, then adding water. If the men had a frying pan, they could cook the mush into a lumpy pancake; otherwise they dropped the mush directly on the coals of their campfire. They also mixed hardtack with brown sugar, hot water, and sometimes whiskey to create what they called a pudding, to serve as dessert.  Royal Navy hardtack during Queen Victoria's reign was made by machine at the Royal Clarence Victualing Yard at Gosport, Hampshire, stamped with the Queen's mark and the number of the oven in which it was baked. When machinery was introduced into the process, the dough was thoroughly mixed and rolled into sheets about two yards long and one yard wide, which were then stamped in one stroke into about sixty hexagonal shaped biscuits. The hexagonal shape meant a saving in material and time and made them easier to pack than the traditional circular shaped biscuit. Hardtack remained an important part of the Royal Navy sailor's diet until the introduction of canned foods; canned meat was first marketed in 1814, and preserved beef in tins was officially introduced to the Royal Navy rations in 1847.  During the Spanish–American War in 1898, some military hardtack was stamped with the phrase "Remember the "Maine"".

Modern use.

Commercially available hardtack is a significant source of food energy in a small, durable package. A store-bought 24-gram cracker can contain 100 kilocalories (20 percent from fat), 2 grams of protein and practically no fiber.

Asia.

Ma Bo mentioned hardtack as being a staple food of Chinese hard-labor workers in Inner Mongolia, during the Cultural Revolution.  Hardtack was a staple of military servicemen in Japan and South Korea well into the late 20th century. It is known as "Kanpan" (乾パン) in Japan and "geonbbang (geonppang, 건빵)" in South Korea, meaning 'dry bread', and is still sold as a fairly popular snack food in both countries. (Canned kanpan is also distributed in Japan as emergency rations in case of earthquake, flood, or other disaster.) A harder hardtack than Kanpan, called "Katapan" (堅パン), is historically popular in Kitakyushu City, Fukuoka, Japan as one of its regional specialty foods. In Korea, geonppang (hardtacks) mixed with byulsatang (star candy) as a medley is considered a popular snack.

Europe.

In Genoa, hardtack was and still is a traditional addition to a fish and vegetable salad called cappon magro.  Hardtack, baked with or without the addition of fat, was and still is a staple in Russian military rations, especially in the Navy, as infantry traditionally preferred simple dried bread when long shelf life was needed. Called "galeta" (галета) in Russian, it is usually somewhat softer and more crumbly than traditional hardtack, as most varieties made in Russia include at least some fat or shortening, making them closer to saltine crackers. One such variety, "khlyebtsy armyeyskiye" (хлебцы армейские), or "army crackers", is included in Russian military rations. Other brands enjoy significant popularity among the civilian population as well, both among campers and the general populace.  In Germany, hardtack is included in every military ration and colloquially known as "Panzerplatten" (armor plates). Due to conscription for many years, a large part of the male population knows about them from their service and thus, became very popular even in civilian use. The company that makes them also sells them unaltered to the civilian market. They are said to have many properties, some jokingly assigned, such as the ability to combine them with standard issue shoe polish to create a flammable device, or to glue them onto vehicles to increase their armor protection. One quality, liked by many soldiers, is its ability to hinder one's need to defecate, some claiming they didn't need to defecate for 3 days after consuming large quantities of them.  In Poland hardtacks (known by official name: "Suchary Specjalne SU-1" or "SU-2 - Special Hardtacks") are still present in Polish Army military rations. In military slang they are jokingly called "Pancerwafle" (Armor wafers), which can be interpreted as a play on German words "panzer" and "waffe" ("armor" and "weapon", respectively). They are also very popular amongst civilians, and are a common part of a meal in some regions.

Melanesia.

Hardtack remains popular today in Papua New Guinea. The Lae Biscuit Company, which is the most commonly found and popular brand in that country, makes multiple lines of different varieties of hardtack.

North America.

Canada.

Hardtack is a mainstay in parts of Canada. Canada is one Canadian maker of traditional hardtack. They specialize in a high density, high caloric product that is well suited for use by expeditions.  Purity Factories, located in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, currently bakes three varieties of hardtack:

United States.

Interbake Foods of Richmond, Virginia, produces most, if not all, of the commercially available hardtack in the United States, under the "Sailor Boy" label. As of January 2015, 98 percent of its production goes to Alaska. Alaskans are among the last to still eat hardtack as a significant part of their normal diet. Originally imported as a food product that could endure the rigors of transportation throughout Alaska, hardtack has remained a favored food even as other, less robust foods have become more readily available. Alaskan law requires all light aircraft to carry "survival gear", including food. Therefore, the blue-and-white Sailor Boy Pilot Bread boxes are ubiquitous at Alaskan airstrips, in cabins, and in virtually every village. Unlike the traditional hardtack recipe, Sailor Boy Pilot Bread contains leavening and vegetable shortening.  Hardtack is also a common pantry item in Hawaii, and The Diamond Bakery's "Saloon Pilot" cracker is available there in grocery and convenience stores. The round hardtack crackers are available in large- and small-diameter sizes.  Those who buy commercially baked hardtack in the continental US are often those who stock up on long-lasting foods for disaster survival rations. Hardtack can compose the bulk of dry food storage for some campers.  Many other people who currently buy or bake hardtack in the US are Civil War re-enactors. One of the units that continually bakes hardtack for living history is the USS "Tahoma" Marine Guard Infantry of the Washington State Civil War Association.

Hardtack (or hard tack) is a simple type of biscuit or cracker made from flour, water, and sometimes salt. Hardtack is inexpensive and long-lasting. It is used for sustenance in the absence of perishable foods, commonly during long sea voyages, land migrations, and military campaigns. Along with salt pork, hardtack was a standard ration for many militaries and navies throughout the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries.

Le biscuit de mer, aussi nommé galette, est une sorte de biscuit ou de pain sec utilisé par les marins lors des voyages au long cours. Il est composé d'eau, de levain et de farine. Il est plat et peut être de forme ronde ou carrée. Il est à l'origine du « pain de guerre ».


Life.

Born in Temerin on 26 November 1857 into the Hungarian nobility as son of Anton Graf Szécsen von Temerin (1819–1896), an Austro-Hungarian government minister. In 1896, he married Johanna Gräfin Mikes von Zabola (1866–1930) in Vienna.  Count Szécsen joined the Austro-Hungarian foreign service and served inter alia in Rome. In November 1895, he was appointed Second Section Chief at the Foreign Ministry in Vienna and was promoted to First Section Chief in January 1900. At the insistence of Count Tisza, he was appointed despite his relatively limited experience to serve as the Dual Monarchy's ambassador to the Holy See in November 1901, a prominent posting given the close connections between the House of Habsburg and the papacy.  Count Szécsen, considered an able diplomat with a "solid, practical mind and a masterful grasp of the workings of diplomacy", apparently turned down an offer to succeed Count von Aehrenthal as ambassador to St. Petersburg upon the latter's appointment as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1906.  In early January 1911, Count Szécsen was appointed as ambassador to France, considered one of the most prestigious ambassadorships at the time, and presented his credentials on 21 March. In that capacity, he played a key role during the July Crisis in 1914. After returning to Vienna, he became a member of the Upper House ("Herrenhaus") in 1916 and served as a Hofmarschall in Hungary from 1916 to 1918.  Count Szécsen had been invested as a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in 1908.  His son Nikolaus was executed by Russian soldiers at Mór, Hungary, on 28 March 1945.  Count Szécsen died in Gyöngyösszentkereszt on 18 May 1926.

Nikolaus (Anton) Graf Szécsen von Temerin () (26 November 1857 – 18 May 1926), was an Austro-Hungarian diplomat of Hungarian origin serving as ambassador at Paris at the outbreak of World War I.

Nikolaus, comte Szécsen de Temerin (né le à Temerin - mort le à Gyöngyösszentkereszt) fut un diplomate austro-hongrois, d'origine hongroise, qui joua un rôle diplomatique important avant la Première Guerre mondiale.