History.

Eugénie Smet.

Eugénie Smet (25 March 1825 in Lille – 7 February 1871), also known as sœur Marie de la Providence, was a French nun who founded the Society of the Helpers of the Holy Souls in 1856. Her feast day is 7 February.  She was born in Lille on 25 March 1825, the daughter of Henri Édouard Joseph and Marie Pauline Joseph Taverne Smet. Her father was a trader from Lille. From 1836 to 1843 she was educated at the Convent of the Sacred Heart in Lille, where she demonstrated a particular devotion to the Guardian Angels.  In November 1853, she discovered her mission in the Church. In 1855, the Curé d'Ars confirmed her in her mission. She went to Paris on 19 January 1856 (the society dates its foundation from this day); three days later, Smet obtained permission of Archbishop Sibour to establish her congregation in Paris. The community Mademoiselle Smet had gathered round her took possession of No. 16, Rue de la Barouillère, on 1 July, 1856.  On 27 December 1857, Smet, with five of her first companions, pronounced her first religious vows. A Jesuit was appointed chaplain, and the Rule of St. Ignatius was adapted. The congregation was dedicated to Our Lady of Providence.  Eugénie Smet died on 7 February 1871, of breast cancer, at the age of 45. She is buried in the Montparnasse cemetery. Eugénie Smet, was beatified in Rome on May 26, 1957 by Pope Pius XII. Her feast is kept on February 7, the anniversary of her death. Lady Georgiana Fullerton wrote a biography of Eugénie Smet, "Mere Marie de la Providence".

Foundation.

The first branch house was established at Nantes, July, 1864. In 1867 six nuns were conducted by Bishop Adrien Languillat to Shanghai to take charge of an orphanage. In December, 1869, a house was established in Brussels. The Helpers did good work in the ambulances for the wounded of both nations during the Franco-Prussian War. On 25 June, 1878, the constitutions of the order were approved by Pope Leo XIII. From 1874 to 1880 communities were established at Cannes, Orléans, Tourcoing, and Montmartre.

Present day.

The Helpers profess vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, and follow an Ignation spirituality. They have worked with the poor and the marginal of their societies since their founding. They work in a variety of ministries, based in Ignatian spirituality, with the goal of working for peace and justice in a lifestyle based in contemplation. Rather than focus on a particular ministry, Smet decided to respond to such needs as presented themselves. As of 2015 they numbered some 500 Sisters in twenty four countries.

In the UK.

The first foundation in the UK was in the Archdiocese of Westminster, at 23 Queen Anne Street, Cavendish Square. They removed to Gloucester Avenue, Regent's Park, in 1882. As of 2019 sisters serve in London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Liverpool and Burnley.

US Province.

In May, 1892, seven “Helpers” sailed to New York City, and were heartily welcomed by Archbishop Michael Corrigan. The first convent was a very small house in Seventh Avenue; there they laboured for nearly three years, when they removed to 114 East 86th Street. During 1905 a course of lectures on hygiene and first aid to the injured was given. In 1906, they had five houses in the same neighbourhood. Children from the public schools came to the convents for religious instruction and preparation for First Communion and Confirmation. There were sewing classes for girls.  In May 1903, some Helpers were sent to St. Louis, Missouri led by Mother Mary St. Bernard. Archbishop John J. Glennon asked them to work among the African-American community. Home visitation was a major part of the Sisters’ work in North St. Louis.  In 1905, the Sisters went to San Francisco, where they settled in a house in Howard Street, which was destroyed in the earthquake of 1906.  The leadership team of the U.S. Province is located in Chicago. The province produces an annual publication, "Voices of Hope".

The Society of Helpers, formerly known as the Society of the Helpers of the Holy Souls, is a Roman Catholic religious congregation of women founded in Paris, France in 1856, with the objective of assisting the souls in Purgatory through their service to the needy of the world. The Sisters use the postnominal initials of "A.P." () in Europe, or, alternately, "H.H.S" in English-speaking countries.

Les sœurs auxiliatrices (en latin : "Instituti Sororum auxiliatricum animarum in Purgatorio degentium") forment une congrégation religieuse catholique apostolique féminine de droit pontifical.


Hanno I the Great.

Hanno the Great was a politician and military leader of the 4th century BC.  His title, according to Justin, was "princeps Cathaginiensium". It is considered more likely that the title signifies "first among equals", rather than being a title of nobility or royalty.  His rival Suniatus was called the "potentissimus Poenorum", or "the most powerful of the Carthaginians", in the year 368. Several years later Suniatus was accused of high treason (for correspondence with Syracuse) and probably executed.  In 367 Hanno the Great commanded a fleet of 200 ships which won a decisive naval victory over the Greeks of Sicily. His victory effectively blocked the plans of Dionysius I of Syracuse to attack Lilybaeum, a city allied to Carthage in western Sicily.  For about twenty years Hanno the Great was the leading figure of Carthage, and perhaps the wealthiest. In the 340s he schemed to become the tyrant. After distributing food to the populace, the time for a show of force came and he utilized for that purpose the native slaves and a Berber chieftain. Although not a military threat to Carthage, Hanno the Great was captured, found to be a traitor, and tortured to death. Many members of his family were also put to death.  Yet later his son Gisgo was given the command of seventy ships of Carthage manned by Greek mercenaries and sent to Lilybaeum, after which peace was negotiated by Carthage with Timoleon of Syracuse, c. 340. Thereafter, this family's prestige and influence at Carthage would tell in later generations.  Hanno I the Great was probably an ancestor of Hanno II the Great.

Hanno II the Great.

Hanno the Great was a wealthy Carthaginian aristocrat in the 3rd century BC.  Hanno's wealth was based on the land he owned in Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, and during the First Punic War he led the faction in Carthage that was opposed to continuing the war against Roman Republic. He preferred to continue conquering territory in Africa rather than fight a naval war against Rome that would bring him no personal gain. In these efforts, he was opposed by the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca. Hanno demobilized the Carthaginian navy in 244 BC, giving Rome time to rebuild its navy and finally defeat Carthage by 241 BC.  After the war, Hanno refused to pay the Berber mercenaries who had been promised money and rewards by Hamilcar. The mercenaries revolted, and Hanno took control of the Carthaginian army to attempt to defeat them. His attempt failed and he gave control of the army back to Hamilcar. Eventually, they both cooperated to crush the rebels in 238 BC.  His nickname "the Great" was apparently earned because of his conquests among the African enemies of Carthage, and he continued to oppose war with Rome, which would necessarily involve naval engagements. During the Second Punic War, he led the anti-war faction in Carthage, and is blamed for preventing reinforcements from being sent to Hamilcar's son Hannibal after his victory at the Battle of Cannae. After Carthage's defeat at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, he was among the ambassadors to negotiate peace with the Romans.

Hanno III the Great.

The third Hanno the Great was an ultra-conservative politician at Carthage during the 2nd century BC.

Hanno the Great (, ) may refer to any of three different leaders of ancient Carthage, according to Gilbert Charles-Picard and Colette Picard: Hanno I the Great, Hanno II the Great, and Hanno III the Great. According to Warmington, there were three elders of Carthage called Hanno who were given the same nickname but he conjectures that it was a family nickname or a term not well understood by the ancient Greek or Roman writers. Warmington discusses only two of them (the Picards' Hannos I and II) but he does not use Roman numerals for them. Lancel mentions only one Hanno the Great, the Picards' "Hanno I". He references "Hanno II" but calls him simply "Hanno".

Hannon le Grand ou Hannon le Rab était un homme politique, stratège et riche aristocrate carthaginois du Il a joué un rôle politique important dans l'histoire de Carthage.


Overview.

The PT Cruiser is a front-wheel drive 5-passenger vehicle, classified as a truck in the US by the NHTSA for CAFE fuel economy calculations but as a car by most other metrics. Chrysler specifically designed the PT Cruiser to fit the NHTSA criteria for a light truck in order to bring the average fuel efficiency of the company's truck fleet into compliance with CAFE standards. A turbocharged GT model was introduced for the 2003 model year. A convertible was introduced for the 2005 model year.  The PT Cruiser was manufactured at Toluca Car Assembly in Toluca, Mexico. On March 8, 2006, DaimlerChrysler announced that it had built 1,000,000 PT Cruisers at the Toluca plant. The final PT Cruiser built rolled off the assembly line there on July 9, 2010. A Chrysler spokesperson said the last model was Stone White and was destined for a U.S. dealership. In all, a grand total of 1,050,281 PT Cruisers were sold in the United States.  The PT Cruiser was also assembled at the Eurostar Automobilwerk in Graz, Austria, for global markets (outside North America) in 2002, using the production code PG. European PT Cruisers built in 2001 or from 2003 onwards were built in Mexico under the PT production code. The US version came standard with a 2.4 L four-cylinder gasoline engine. In addition to this standard model, a 2.2 L four-cylinder diesel engine built by Mercedes Benz was also available in Europe, Asia, and South Africa. A 2.0 L engine (D4RE) was also available outside the US. It produced SAE at 6500 rpm with of torque at 4800 rpm. In July 2000, the PT Cruiser replaced the Neon in Japan as their small car offering. Chrysler sold over 10,000 PT Cruisers in Japan. Both the five door hatchback and the two door convertible, and the GT turbo engine package were sold in Japan in right hand drive configurations. Japanese versions were manufactured at the Austrian factory and were equipped very similar to European specifications.  From 2002 until 2007, the PT Cruiser was used in the city of Urayasu, Chiba Prefecture by the Maihama Resort Cab company to serve as a taxi in the vicinity of Tokyo Disneyland because of its fun, retro appearance. The PT Cruiser taxis augmented the Maihama Resort Line service to Tokyo Disneyland. Unfortunately, the PT Cruiser wasn't built for the rigors of taxi service, and the fleet became expensive to maintain, with eventual retirement in 2007. The PT Cruiser was offered in Japan until April 2010, when it was replaced by the Dodge Caliber.  In 2001 "Car and Driver" acknowledged the PT Cruiser on its Ten Best list and the PT Cruiser also won the North American Car of the Year. In 2013, "Top Gear" named the PT Cruiser Convertible as the worst car of the last twenty years.

Design.

The PT Cruiser was originally conceived before Chrysler's merger with Daimler-Benz. At the time, Chrysler had planned a new look for Plymouth, previewed by the Plymouth Prowler "hot rod". Styling cues from the Prowler, particularly the grille, were used to create the Plymouth Pronto concept car in 1997. The look was refined, and in 1998, another Plymouth concept called the Pronto Cruizer directly previewed the styling of the PT Cruiser. The Pronto Cruizer was designed as a modern interpretation of the Chrysler Airflow with Dodge Neon components, but the final design used a separate platform. After the new DaimlerChrysler discontinued the Plymouth marque, the PT Cruiser was marketed as a Chrysler model. The PT Cruiser also stylistically resembles the 1953 Chevrolet Advance Design truck.  The PT Cruiser also resembles the 1997 Chrysler CCV prototype – which would evolve into the styling of the PT Cruiser.  Intended to evoke a 1930s look, the 2000 PT Cruiser grew out of a collaboration with Robert A. Lutz, who was an executive at Chrysler at the time, Dr. Clotaire Rapaille and Bryan Nesbitt, who went on to design the Chevrolet HHR.

Updates.

PT Cruiser models included the Classic Edition, Limited Edition, Touring Edition, "Dream Cruiser", "Street Cruiser", "Pacific Coast Highway Edition" and PT Cruiser GT. Non-GT Turbo (180 hp) edition models (introduced in 2004) were identified by a "2.4L Turbo" badge on the lower right hand corner of the rear lift-gate. The GT model (introduced in 2003) has a "2.4L Turbo High Output" badge on the right hand corner of the lift-gate indicating the 215–230 hp engine version.  The PT Cruiser was updated for 2006 to include scalloped headlights, a revised grille no longer extending below the "bumper", new lower front fascia which eliminated the patented brake cooling ducts and available round fog lamps and redesigned taillights. Interior updates included a revised interior with an updated dash with an analog clock in the center stack. The audio system featured a line-in jack for MP3 players integrated into the dash. Features such as satellite radio, a premium sound system by Boston Acoustics with external amplifier and subwoofer, and U Connect hands-free Bluetooth for compatible cell phones also became available in 2006. The standard audio system now included an A/M-F/M stereo with single-disc CD player and 3.5-millimeter auxiliary audio input jack with six speakers, replacing a cassette player and four speakers. The turbocharged 2.4 L four-cylinder engine was available in or "High-Output" versions. A "Mopar" cruise control unit became available as an after market unit on 2007 models. Also in 2007, Chrysler dealers were permitted to order vehicles with separate options (un-bundled options from option packages) such as anti-lock brakes and Side Impact Airbags. Sirius Satellite Radio also became an option that could be installed as a dealer option with a factory appearance (i.e. roof mount satellite antenna).  For 2010, the last year of production for the PT Cruiser, there was only one trim level available: the PT Cruiser Classic. It included a 2.4L Inline Four-Cylinder (I4) engine producing 150 horsepower, a standard four-speed automatic transmission with overdrive, an AM/FM stereo with single-disc CD player, 3.5-millimeter auxiliary audio input jack and six speakers, a rear-mounted spoiler, standard air conditioning, standard cruise control, standard tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS), standard front and front and rear side SRS airbags, standard keyless entry with two remotes and panic alarm, standard ABS anti-lock brakes, standard sixteen-inch alloy wheels, and more. Optional features included leather seating surfaces, a power front driver's bucket seat, an engine block heater, a power tilt-and-sliding sunroof, and heated dual front bucket seats. Exterior color options were Bright Silver Metallic, Brilliant Black Crystal Pearl Coat, Deep Water Blue Pearl Coat, Inferno Red Crystal Tinted Pearl Coat, Silver Steel Metallic, and Stone White Clear Coat. The only interior color option was Pastel Slate Gray.

Safety.

In 2002 Euro NCAP gave the PT Cruiser a three (out of five) stars rating. The car received bad results in the frontal impact test (6 out of 16 possible points). The height of the seats and side airbags helped to attain a maximum score of 16 points in the side impact test. The low frontal scores are in part explained by the cushioning near the knees, designed to protect unbelted occupants, which is not a factor in the EU where passengers must wear seat belts.  For 2008, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety gave the PT Cruiser the highest rating of "Good" overall for occupant protection in frontal crashes and the lowest overall rating of "Poor" for side crashes. It was the only small car to not offer electronic stability control.

PT Cruiser GT.

The PT Cruiser GT (also known as the GT Cruiser) is a high output turbocharged hot hatch variant of the PT Cruiser introduced as a 2003 model. The engine is upgraded over the standard PT, including: stronger crank case webbing, a thicker deck with 11 mm head bolts (vs 10 mm), an oil drain back for the turbo, a cast aluminum structural oil pan, a higher capacity oil pump, a crankshaft of higher hardness steel, improved machining of bearing journals, oil squirters (to cool underside of pistons), eutectic aluminum alloy pistons made specially by Mahle, and forged connecting rods with cracked caps and 9 mm bolts. The cylinder head was also different for turbo engines, from naturally aspirated. The turbo version was used by both the PT Cruiser GT and Dodge Neon SRT-4 with larger diameter valves and seats, exhaust valves made of Inconel, improved cooling and larger oil drain back passages, different camshafts. The PT Cruiser Turbo engine package differs from the SRT-4 because the intake manifold, turbocharger plumbing and intercooler are different. Upgrades such as MOPAR Stage 1 and supporting turbo components were available from the manufacturer. Many of the performance parts from the SRT-4 are compatible with the PT Cruiser GT.

Factory special editions.

Flame package & Woodie package.

Factory Flame package – Optional flame-inspired decals that extended from the front fenders.  Woodie package – Available only on 2002-4 models, simulated wood panels that extended down the side of the vehicle, and around the rear hatch.

Street Cruiser Route 66 Edition.

Available in 2006 Route 66 Edition was finished in either Solar Yellow or Black. This version featured Solar Yellow brake calipers, body-color grille, solar-tinted sunscreen glass, liftgate mounted spoiler, 17-inch all-season performance tires, four-wheel anti-lock brakes with low-speed traction control, speed control, and a sport suspension. Brightwork accents included chrome body-side moldings, a chrome exhaust tip and, chrome-plated, and five-spoke Empire aluminum wheels. Exterior identification included a 'Street Cruiser' badge with Solar Yellow accents on the liftgate and 'Route 66' badges on the front doors. A total of 1443 Route 66 models were produced in North America, with 142 of those equipped with 5 speed manual transmissions.

Street Cruiser Pacific Coast Highway Edition.

Based on the 2007 Chrysler PT Cruiser Touring model, this version had Pacific Blue Pearl body, 4-wheel disc anti-lock brakes, bright front door sill scuff pads, front bright accent ring cupholders, silver shift knob, chrome lock knobs, chrome bodyside molding, "Street Cruiser" badge, Pacific Coast Highway Edition badge, rear body-color spoiler, bright exhaust tip, leather steering wheel with bright spokes, sport suspension, supplemental side air bags, 6-way power driver's seat, Sirius satellite radio, 17x6 inch aluminum platinum clad wheels with 205/50R17XL 93H BSW all-season performance tires, and cloth seats with blue insert.

Street Cruiser Sunset Boulevard Edition.

Street Cruiser Sunset Boulevard Edition version was based on 2008 PT Cruiser LX and was limited to 500 units. It included "Sunset Crystal" body accented with various chrome body-trim pieces, deep-tint glass, 16-inch chrome wheels with all-season touring tires.

Dream Cruiser Series 5.

The Dream Cruiser Series 5 production totaled 1,750 units for the US market during the 2009 model year. It included 4-speed automatic transmission, pearl-white body (however one was made in inferno red and one finished in bright silver) with a black roof and spoiler, gray interior with leather and chrome trim, upper- and lower-billet aluminum cross-hatch pattern grilles, chromed door handles and body-side moldings, chromed stainless-steel exhaust tip (on turbo), SRT Design wheels with all-season performance tires, unique 'PT' door badging, PT Dream Cruiser Series 5 tailgate badge, fog lamps and a Brilliant Black Crystal Pearl hoop spoiler.  The vehicle was announced in conjunction with the 2008 Woodward Dream Cruise.

PT Cruiser Sport.

Based on the Classic trim, the Sport version included roof mounted body color spoiler, 16-inch alloy wheels, PT Cruiser Sport badge, and exclusive graphite metallic paint.  The PT Cruiser Sport was available with a two-litre petrol engine.

Couture Edition.

The Couture Edition featured a contrasting two-tone paint scheme: black above the beltline and silver metallic on the bottom section, with a red pinstripe dividing the two. The interior included Radar Red leather buckets (dark gray leather optional) with black piping, a red or black shifter knob and chrome appliques. Outside features included 16-inch chrome-clad wheels with chromed bodyside moldings and accents. Production was limited to 500.

Chrysler Panel Cruiser.

The Chrysler Panel Cruiser was a design study that appeared at the 2000 Detroit Auto Show. Based on the PT Cruiser, it featured panels in place of the rear doors and a wooden floor in place of the rear seats.

The Chrysler PT Cruiser is a front-engine, front-wheel drive, small family car/compact MPV manufactured and marketed internationally by Chrysler in 5-door hatchback (2000–2010) and 2-door convertible (2005–2008) body styles—over a single generation, with an intermediate facelift for model year 2006.

Le PT Cruiser est un modèle d'automobile construit par Chrysler. Son design a été choisi pour rappeler les lignes d'anciens modèles américains.


Background.

The threat posed by "Tirpitz" had an important influence on British naval strategy during the Second World War. She was commissioned in February 1941 and completed her crew training late that year. At about the same time the German high command decided to station the battleship in Norway; this deployment was intended to deter a feared Allied invasion of Norway and threaten the convoys which regularly sailed through the Arctic Sea to the Soviet Union. These convoys carried large quantities of war material from ports in the UK and Iceland, and were frequently attacked by the German air and naval units stationed in Norway. "Tirpitz" arrived in Norway in January 1942 and operated from anchorages located in fjords. While she was operational the Allies had to keep a powerful force of warships with the British Home Fleet to guard against the possibility of a sortie against the Arctic convoys, and capital ships accompanied most convoys part of the way to the Soviet Union. The British attacked "Tirpitz" several times during 1942 and 1943. When the battleship sortied to intercept Convoy PQ 12 on 6 March 1942, which formed part of the convoy's escort, attempted to attack her using torpedo bombers. These aircraft launched twenty torpedoes at the battleship but all missed. On several occasions during 1942 and 1943 bombers from the Royal Air Force and Soviet Air Forces attempted to strike "Tirpitz" in her anchorages without success. On 23 September 1943 two British X-class midget submarines succeeded in penetrating the defences around the battleship at her main anchorage at Kaafjord in northern Norway during Operation Source, and placed explosive charges in the water beneath her. This attack caused extensive damage to "Tirpitz", putting her out of service for six months.  Repairs to "Tirpitz" were carried out using improvised facilities at Kaafjord as it was considered too risky to attempt to move the damaged warship to Germany. Instead, equipment and work crews were shipped to the fjord from German ports. On the night of 10/11 February 1944, 15 Soviet aircraft attacked the battleship, but did not cause any damage. By 17 March, the repairs to "Tirpitz"s armament, machinery and hull were complete, but several minor repair tasks were outstanding. During the period the ship was under repair, "Scharnhorst", the only remaining operational German battleship, was sunk on 26 December during the Battle of the North Cape. Following this engagement the Royal Navy stopped deploying battleships to cover convoys travelling to and from the Soviet Union. By this stage of the war the Allies also had large numbers of anti-submarine and anti-aircraft escort ships available, and were able to assign strong forces to protect all of the Arctic convoys. German submarines operating in the Norwegian Sea were rarely able to evade the convoy escorts, and few merchant vessels suffered damage from enemy attack.  The British Government and Royal Navy were concerned about the threat "Tirpitz" posed once she re-entered service. Allied intelligence tracked the progress of work on the battleship using decrypted German radio signals, photo reconnaissance flights and eyewitness reports from agents in Norway. It was feared the battleship could sortie and attack convoys in the Norwegian Sea or Atlantic Ocean after the repairs were completed. The need to guard against this possibility would also occupy warships needed to support the planned invasion of France. As a result, it was decided in late 1943 to make further attempts to sink the battleship.  Despite Allied concerns, "Tirpitz" posed only a limited danger to Allied shipping. From late 1943 the battleship was unable to put to sea for crew training due to the threat of Allied attack and fuel shortages. These shortages also meant the Germans were unable to move the battleship between anchorages to make her more difficult to locate and attack.

Preparations.

The options for attacking "Tirpitz" at Kaafjord were limited. Another submarine-borne raid was considered impractical as intelligence gathered from intercepted radio transmissions and field agents indicated that the battleship's underwater defences had been improved and more aerial reconnaissance patrols of the region were being flown. The commander of the Royal Air Force's Bomber Command, Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Harris, also refused to attempt a heavy bomber raid on "Tirpitz" on the grounds that the Kaafjord area was beyond the effective range of these aircraft and the battleship's guns would cause heavy casualties. After these two options were ruled out, the task was assigned to the Home Fleet's aircraft carriers. At this time the large fleet carriers and "Victorious" and four smaller escort carriers were ready.  Planning for the raid on Kaafjord began in December 1943. Vice Admiral Bruce Fraser, the commander of the Home Fleet, was not optimistic about the prospects for success, and had to be persuaded to undertake the operation by First Sea Lord Sir Andrew Cunningham. Fraser gave his second in command, Vice Admiral Sir Henry Moore, responsibility for planning and leading the raid. The operation was initially designated "Operational Thrustful", but was later renamed "Operation Tungsten". The attack was originally scheduled for mid-March 1944, shortly before the time Allied intelligence believed "Tirpitz" would become operational. However, it was delayed by two weeks while "Victorious" was fitted with new radars. The British considered cancelling Operation Tungsten in February as "Victorious" was also needed in the Indian Ocean to counter a build-up of Japanese warships at Singapore. To enable the attack to proceed, the United States Navy agreed to temporarily transfer to the Eastern Fleet so that "Victorious" could be retained in the North Sea.  The plans for the raid were centred on two dive-bombing attacks by Fleet Air Arm Fairey Barracuda aircraft. Each of the attacks was to involve 21 Barracudas escorted by 40 fighters; Vought F4U Corsairs flying from "Victorious" would provide protection against German aircraft while Grumman F4F Wildcat and F6F Hellcats operating from "Furious" and the escort carriers, and were to strafe anti-aircraft batteries near "Tirpitz", as well as the battleship herself. Further aircraft flying from "Furious" and the escort carrier would protect the fleet against attack by German aircraft or submarines. While carrier aircraft had previously lacked a bomb capable of penetrating a battleship's thick deck armour, it was hoped that the recently developed armour-piercing bomb would be able to pierce at least the first layer of "Tirpitz"s armour if they were dropped from an altitude of or higher. The damage caused by such hits was expected to put the battleship out of service. Nine of the Barracudas were to be armed with 1,600-pound bombs and a further 22 would each carry three 500-pound semi-armour-piercing bombs that were capable of penetrating the lightly protected upper decks of the ship if dropped from above. The remaining ten aircraft would be armed with 500- and 600-pound general-purpose bombs and with anti-submarine bombs intended to inflict casualties among the battleship's crew and cause underwater damage if they exploded in the water near her hull. The aircraft carrying high-explosive bombs were to initiate the dive bombing of "Tirpitz" as it was hoped that these weapons would knock out at least some of the battleship's anti-aircraft guns before the main attack commenced. The Fleet Air Arm units selected for Operation Tungsten conducted intensive training from February 1944. A high proportion of the airmen were inexperienced, and the captain of "Victorious" estimated that 85 per cent of the aircrew embarked on his ship had not previously operated at sea. The training program was centred on Loch Eriboll in northern Scotland which, like Kaafjord, was surrounded by steep hills. Flying from RNAS Hatston in the Orkney Islands, the aircrew practised manoeuvring around this terrain to familiarise themselves with the tactics needed to avoid German anti-aircraft guns and successfully attack "Tirpitz". The Royal Navy drew on intelligence on the defences of Kaafjord to make the exercise range as similar to the conditions around "Tirpitz" as was possible, and the aircrew were extensively briefed on the locations of German positions. An area the size of the battleship was also marked out on an island in the centre of the loch and repeatedly bombed.  While these preparations were under way, the Allies continued to monitor "Tirpitz". In late February the escort carrier transported photo analysts and the ground crews for a Royal Air Force photo reconnaissance detachment to Vaenga airfield in northern Russia. These personnel were joined by three Supermarine Spitfires fitted for photo reconnaissance work and a single Consolidated PBY Catalina in March. The Spitfires flew regular sorties over Kaafjord and took very detailed photographs of "Tirpitz" and the nearby anti-aircraft batteries on 12 and 13 March; after being developed the Catalina flew these images to the UK. Although the German forces in northern Norway detected the Spitfire flights, the Kaafjord area's defences were not increased or placed on alert. On 16 March eight British, Dutch and Norwegian submarines were directed to take up positions off the Norwegian coast after decrypted German radio messages indicated that "Tirpitz" may have been preparing to depart Kaafjord for Germany to complete her repairs. A further eight British and Dutch submarines were dispatched on 18 March, but two days later it was concluded that "Tirpitz" was not about to put to sea and the submarines were diverted to other tasks or ordered back to port. On 21 March British intelligence warned the Admiralty that due to recent Soviet advances on the Eastern Front, the Germans were placing a strong emphasis on disrupting the flow of supplies to the Soviet Union and could dispatch "Tirpitz" to attack any convoys not escorted by capital ships. In response, Fraser was directed to provide battleship protection for the next Arctic Convoy.  The final decision to undertake Operation Tungsten was made in mid-March on the basis of a decrypted radio message that indicated that "Tirpitz" was almost ready for combat and would conduct high-speed trials on 1 April. As a result of the delays to the operation, the sailing of the attack force coincided with the departure of Convoy JW 58 for the Soviet Union. It was hoped that if German forces spotted the British fleet it would be assumed that the warships were supporting the convoy. As part of the final preparations for the attack a full-scale rehearsal was conducted using the training range at Loch Eriboll on 28 March. From 1 April onwards, the Admiralty received hourly weather reports from a group of Norwegian Secret Intelligence Service agents in Alta, near Kaafjord.

Opposing forces.

The Royal Navy assembled a powerful force for Operation Tungsten. The main striking force was made up of two wings of Barracudas: 8 Wing comprising 827 and 830 Naval Air Squadrons, and 52 Wing with 829 and 831 Naval Air Squadrons. While 8 Wing was normally based on board "Furious" and 52 Wing on "Victorious", Moore chose to station a squadron from each of the wings on each carrier so they could launch simultaneously and go into battle as formed units. The 163 Fleet Air Arm airmen in the attacking units included 28 New Zealanders, three Canadians, two Australians, and one South African; the remainder were British.  The large number of warships assigned to the operation were initially split into two groups. Force One was personally commanded by Fraser on board the battleship, and also included "Victorious", the battleship (with Moore and his staff on board), a light cruiser and five destroyers. Force Two was commanded by Rear Admiral Arthur La Touche Bisset and comprised "Furious", the four escort carriers, five destroyers and two tankers. It was planned that Force One would initially provide support for Convoy JW 58 and Force Two would sail separately and proceed directly to a point off Norway where it would be joined by "Anson" and "Victorious" on 3 April and conduct the raid the next day.  "Tirpitz" anchorage at Kaafjord was protected by anti-aircraft batteries and fighter aircraft. At the time of Operation Tungsten, four batteries of heavy anti-aircraft guns and seven batteries of light guns were located on the shore near the battleship. Several anti-aircraft vessels and destroyers were also usually moored near "Tirpitz". The battleship herself was fitted with 68 anti-aircraft guns. Equipment capable of generating an artificial smokescreen to hide "Tirpitz" from aircraft had also been installed around Kaafjord. The German Air Force ("Luftwaffe") had only a small number of fighters stationed at bases near Kaafjord, and their operations were constrained by a lack of fuel. British intelligence believed that the German fighter force in the area could be rapidly expanded in the event of an emergency. The "Luftwaffe" typically conducted three reconnaissance flights into the Arctic Sea each day.

Attack.

Force One departed the Home Fleet's base at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands on 30 March, three days after JW 58 had sailed from Loch Ewe in Scotland. Force Two departed separately later that day. The convoy comprised 49 merchant ships escorted by a powerful force of 33 warships, including two escort carriers. German reconnaissance aircraft located JW 58 on 30 March, and all of the U-boats in the Norwegian Sea were directed to intercept it. The German aircraft did not conduct wider-ranging sorties in search of the convoy's battleship covering force or other Allied ships. A total of 17 U-boats attacked JW 58 between 1 and 3 April without success; none of the Allied ships suffered any damage, and the escorts sank four U-boats and shot down six German aircraft during the convoy's voyage from Scotland to the Soviet Union. JW 58 reached its destination at Kola Bay on 6 April. While several Allied aircraft were lost during the voyage, mostly to flying accidents, all of the ships arrived unscathed. Owing to a combination of favourable factors, Fraser decided on 1 April to bring the raid on Kaafjord forward by 24 hours. Decrypted German signals indicated that "Tirpitz"s trials had been delayed until 3 April, and Fraser hoped that an attack on this date would catch the battleship away from her usual well-protected mooring. Moreover, as JW 58's escorts were performing well and there was no indication that "Tirpitz" would sortie into the open sea, Fraser judged that Force One no longer needed to provide support for the transports. Weather conditions were also unusually good for the Norwegian Sea in early Spring and were well suited to flying operations. After the decision to attack was made both tankers and two escorting destroyers detached from Force Two and proceeded to a point north-west of Kaafjord where they remained to supply any destroyers that ran low on fuel. The rest of Force Two altered course to rendezvous with Force One, and this was achieved at 4:20 pm on 2 April. After the two forces met "Duke of York", with Fraser on board, and two destroyers sailed to the north-west and took up a position where they would be able to intercept "Tirpitz" in the event that she had sailed from Kaafjord without being detected. The remainder of the Home Fleet proceeded to the strike's launching point.  The attack was launched during the early hours of 3 April. All the airmen were woken shortly after midnight, and attended a final briefing from 1:15 am. The aircraft to be used in the strike were armed at this time, with all of the bombs being marked with messages for "Tirpitz" in chalk. The aircrew began boarding their aircraft at 4:00 am and flying-off operations started 15 minutes later; at this time the warships were from Kaafjord. Ten Corsairs drawn from 1834 and 1836 Naval Air Squadrons were the first aircraft to be launched and were followed by the 21 Barracudas of 8 Wing; 827 Squadron was launched from "Victorious" and 830 Squadron departed from "Furious". Seven of the Barracudas were armed with a 1,600-pound bomb, and the remainder carried multiple 500 or 600-pound weapons. Once the Barracudas were airborne the remaining escort fighters – 30 Wildcats and Hellcats from 800, 881 and 882 Naval Air Squadrons – were launched. All the aircraft of the first wave were dispatched successfully, and the force completed forming up at 4:37 am. Flying conditions remained perfect, and German forces had not detected the British fleet during its approach. The first wave headed for Norway at low altitude, flying just above the sea to avoid detection by German radar. The aircraft began to climb to a higher altitude when they reached a point from the coast, and had reached by the time they made landfall at 5:08 am. The force approached Altenfjord from the west, passing over the western end of Langfjord before turning south, then looping to the north and attacking the battleship over the hills on the southern shore of Kaafjord shortly before 5:30 am.  The arrival of the British force caught "Tirpitz" by surprise. While the aircraft had first been picked up by a German radar station shortly after they crossed the Norwegian coastline, the battleship was not immediately warned. At the time of the attack "Tirpitz" was preparing to sail for her high-speed trials, and her crew were busy unmooring the vessel. Her five protective destroyers had already departed for the trials area in Stjern Sound. The warning from the radar station arrived shortly before the British aircraft appeared over Kaafjord, and the battleship's crew were still in the process of moving to their battle stations when the attack commenced; at this time not all of the watertight doors were closed and some damage-control stations were not fully manned.  As planned, the British raid began with Hellcat and Wildcat fighters strafing "Tirpitz"s anti-aircraft guns and batteries located on the shore; this attack inflicted heavy casualties on the battleship's gunners, disabled her main anti-aircraft control centre and damaged several guns. The fighters also strafed several anti-aircraft ships in Kaafjord. The 21 Barracudas began their attack shortly afterwards, and hit "Tirpitz" with a general-purpose bomb, three 500-pound semi-armour-piercing bombs and three 1,600-pound bombs within 60 seconds. Overall, ten bombs struck the battleship during the first attack. Most of these bombs did not penetrate the ship's armoured deck as they had been dropped from too low an altitude. Hundreds of members of the ship's crew died or were wounded; her commanding officer, Captain Hans Meyer, was among the wounded and another officer assumed command. The battleship also drifted into the western shore of Kaafjord and ran aground, but was quickly refloated. One of 830 Squadron's Barracudas crashed following the attack with the loss of all three members of its crew. The surviving aircraft of the first wave began landing on the carriers at 6:19 am, and all were recovered by 6:42. The first aircraft of the second wave took to the air at 5:25 am. One of 829 Squadron's Barracudas crashed shortly after take-off, resulting in the deaths of its crew of three, and another aircraft from this squadron was not launched due to engine problems. Only two of the Barracudas in this wave were armed with 1,600-pound bombs. As with the first strike, 40 fighters accompanied the torpedo bombers; these comprised 10 Corsairs from 1834 and 1836 Naval Air Squadrons, all of the 20 Wildcats assigned to 896 and 898 Naval Air Squadrons and 10 Hellcats from 804 Naval Air Squadron. All aircraft were launched by 5:37 am, and the force had an uneventful flight to the Kaafjord area. While the German defences were now alert, the artificial smoke screen being generated around Kaafjord was not yet sufficient to hide "Tirpitz" from view.  The second attack on "Tirpitz" was similar to the first. It began with Hellcat fighters strafing the anti-aircraft batteries while Wildcats attacked the battleship. The fighters also attacked German ships in Kaafjord and a radio or radio direction finding station. The Barracudas executed their dive bombing attack at 6:36 am and struck "Tirpitz" with a 1,600-pound bomb and four 500-pound bombs within a minute. The German defences at Kaafjord received little warning of the incoming raid, and the smokescreen hid the British aircraft from sight. As a result, the gunners had to fire blindly and only shot down one of the Barracudas; all three airmen died. The second wave landed on the carriers between 7:20 and 7:58 am. A damaged Hellcat had to ditch near the Canadian destroyer and one of the Corsairs suffered heavy damage as a result of a landing accident; both pilots survived.  During the period in which the air strikes were conducted, a force of 25 Wildcat and Supermarine Seafire fighters from 801, 842 and 880 Naval Air Squadrons provided air defence for the Home Fleet. Nine Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers, which were also operated by 842 Naval Air Squadron, conducted anti-submarine patrols. No threat to the fleet developed, and Corsairs took over air defence duties at the conclusion of the two attacks.  During the early afternoon of 3 April, Moore considered conducting a further raid on Kaafjord the next day. He decided against doing so as the preliminary assessment of photos taken during the attack had concluded that "Tirpitz" was badly damaged. Moore was also aware that his aircrew were fatigued, and was reluctant to expose them to what would now be alert defences. Accordingly, he ordered that the fleet return to base, and it arrived at Scapa Flow in the afternoon of 6 April. King George VI and Prime Minister Winston Churchill sent congratulatory messages to the fleet, but both Churchill and Cunningham were concerned that "Tirpitz" could be returned to service. Cunningham also regretted Moore's decision not to launch a further strike on 4 April.

Aftermath.

The two attacks on "Tirpitz" largely went to plan. The airmen found the defences and geography at Kaafjord to be very similar to the Loch Eriboll training range, and one of the post-attack reports stated that the operation had been "almost an exercise which they [the aircrew] had frequently carried out before". The official historian of the Royal Navy's role in the Second World War, Stephen Roskill, also judged that the strikes were "beautifully co-ordinated and fearlessly executed". The most important discrepancy between the plans for the operation and its execution was that many pilots dropped their bombs below the specified minimum altitude of in an attempt to improve their chances of hitting "Tirpitz". The shorter than optimum flight times may have meant that some of the bombs which struck the battleship lacked the necessary velocity to penetrate her deck armour. Nine Royal Navy airmen died during the raid.  While two bombs that exploded in the water near "Tirpitz" opened holes in her hull and caused flooding, none of the 15 bombs that struck the battleship penetrated her main deck armour belt. As a result, her guns, magazines, and machinery did not suffer serious damage. Most of the damage to the battleship was inflicted on her superstructure and between her armoured decks. The starboard aircraft catapult and crane were destroyed, as were both "Tirpitz"s Arado floatplanes. The number two starboard gun turret was knocked out, and the number three port 150 mm turret incurred significant damage. The officers' mess and several galleys were wrecked, and the ship was filled with smoke. "Tirpitz"s funnel was also struck by bomb fragments that badly damaged all of the boiler intakes. While the starboard turbine was knocked out by shock damage and two of the boilers were disabled after being contaminated by salt water used for firefighting, the battleship was still capable of steaming within Kaafjord. "Tirpitz"s crew suffered heavy casualties in the attack. Overall, 122 sailors died and 316 were wounded; these casualties represented 15 percent of the battleship's crew. Many of the casualties were anti-aircraft gunners who were killed or wounded by machine-gun fire from the British fighters.  The British fighters also damaged four patrol craft and a large repair ship; the captain of an armed trawler died and 13 other sailors on board these vessels suffered wounds. Torstein Raaby of the Allied Secret Intelligence Service group in Alta reported a few hours after the raid, that no civilian casualties had resulted from the attack, and that the local population was "... extremely impressed by the bombing." A further report six days after the operation relayed that the Germans estimated that it would take months to repair the damage inflicted on "Tirpitz".  The commander of the "Kriegsmarine", Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, directed that the damage caused to "Tirpitz" during Operation Tungsten be repaired. Although the battleship was no longer capable of operating against Allied convoys for lack of air support, it was considered desirable to retain her in service in order to tie down Allied naval resources. Repair work began in early May after a destroyer transported equipment and workmen to Kaafjord from Germany, and "Tirpitz" was able to steam under her own power by 2 June. She was capable of undertaking gunnery practice by the end of June, and all repairs were completed in mid-July. During this period the battleship's anti-aircraft armament was augmented by fitting her with additional cannons, modifying the 150 mm guns so they could be used to attack aircraft and supplying anti-aircraft shells for her main guns. The defences of Kaafjord were also improved during this period. Additional radar stations and observation posts were established, and the number of smoke generators located around "Tirpitz" was increased. Following Operation Tungsten, British intelligence assessed that "Tirpitz" would be repaired within six months. Accordingly, Cunningham directed Fraser on 13 April to launch another attack on the battleship. While Cunningham did not believe that Barracudas could carry weapons capable of sinking "Tirpitz", he hoped that further air strikes would increase the period the battleship was out of service and harm her crew's morale. Fraser initially resisted Cunningham's order, arguing that the prospects for a successful raid were poor as the Germans would have reinforced the defences around "Tirpitz" and weather conditions were likely to be worse than those encountered during Operation Tungsten. He eventually relented, and Moore sailed from Scapa Flow on 21 April to attack Kaafjord again. This raid, designated Operation Planet, was called off on 24 April due to bad weather over the target area. Two other attacks, Operation Brawn and Operation Tiger Claw, also had to be cancelled on 15 and 28 May respectively because of adverse weather. Further carrier raids were attempted in July and August after Allied intelligence determined that the repairs to "Tirpitz" were nearing completion. During Operation Mascot a force of 42 Barracudas and 40 fighters attacked "Tirpitz" on 17 July, but did not score any hits as the battleship was hidden by a smokescreen. A further four carrier raids were conducted against Kaafjord between 22 and 29 August during Operation Goodwood, but these caused only light damage to the battleship.  In late August it was decided that further Fleet Air Arm attacks should not be attempted as the Germans were now able to cover "Tirpitz" in smoke before Barracudas could reach the battleship, and these aircraft could not carry bombs large enough to inflict heavy damage. As it was still seen as desirable to destroy "Tirpitz", the task was assigned to Bomber Command. On 15 September a force of heavy bombers attacked Kaafjord after refuelling at bases in northern Russia and inflicted irreparable damage on the battleship. Following this, "Tirpitz" sailed to an anchorage near Tromsø to be used as an immobile coastal defence battery. Another heavy bomber attack on 29 October caused only minor damage, and a third raid was mounted on 12 November in which "Tirpitz" was struck by several Tallboy bombs and capsized with heavy loss of life among her crew.

References.

Citations  Works consulted

Operation Tungsten was a Second World War Royal Navy air raid that targeted the German battleship "Tirpitz". The operation sought to damage or destroy "Tirpitz" at her base in Kaafjord in the far north of Norway before she could become fully operational again following a period of repairs.

L'opération Tungsten était une des nombreuses attaques que mena la Fleet Air Arm (les unités aériennes embarquées britanniques) contre le cuirassé allemand "Tirpitz" alors qu'il stationnait dans les fjords norvégiens.


History.

At the First Pan-American Conference in 1890, the idea of a development institution for Latin America was first suggested during the earliest efforts to create an inter-American system. The IDB became a reality under an initiative proposed by President Juscelino Kubitshek of Brazil. The Bank was formally created on April 8, 1959, when the Organization of American States drafted the Articles of Agreement establishing the Inter-American Development Bank.

Member states.

The Bank is owned by 48 sovereign states, which are its shareholders and members. Only the 26 borrowing countries are able to receive loans.

Operations.

The IDB is the largest multilateral source of financing for the Latin America and the Caribbean region. The IDB makes loans to the governments of its borrowing member countries at standard commercial rates of interest, and has "preferred creditor" status, meaning that borrowers will repay loans to the IDB before repaying other obligations to other lenders such as commercial banks.

Governance.

The IDB is governed by its Board of Governors, a 48-member body who regularly meets once a year. In March 2010, reunited in Cancun, Mexico, the Board of Governors of the Bank agreed on a $70 billion capital increase, along with full debt forgiveness for Haiti, its poorest member country, devastated by an earthquake that had destroyed its capital, Port-au-Prince, two months before.  The developing countries that borrow from the IDB are the majority shareholders, and therefore control the majority of the decision-making bodies of the Bank. Each member's voting power is determined by its shareholding: its subscription to the Bank's ordinary capital. The United States holds 30 percent of the Bank's shares, while the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean combined hold 50.02 percent but with another 20% from Europe the US can veto decisions. This arrangement is unique in that the developing member countries, as a group, are the majority shareholders. Though this arrangement was first viewed as risky, it is believed by some that strict peer pressure prevents the borrowers from defaulting, even when under severe economic pressure.

Priority areas.

In March 2015, the Bank updated its Institutional Strategy for 2010-2020. The document says that to ultimately transform Latin American and the Caribbean 'into a more inclusive and prosperous society, three main development challenges must be addressed: social exclusion and inequality, low productivity and innovation, and limited economic integration." Moreover, the document also says that "these three challenges are inter-related and certain overarching issues cut across them that public policies need to address: gender equality and diversity; climate change and environmental sustainability; and institutions and the rule of law."

Education Initiative.

Vision.

The IDB's Education Division works in partnership with 26 borrowing countries in Latin America and the Caribbean to ensure that children and adolescents exercise their right to a quality education, achieve their potential, and reverse the cycle of poverty.

Mission.

Given that education is a key to development and a prerequisite for a genuine equality of opportunity, and given its strategic importance to the region, the IDB has an Education Initiative that focuses its research and projects in three main areas: Early Childhood Development, School to Work Transition and Teacher Quality.

Early childhood development.

The IDB supports readiness to learn interventions so that children can have access to quality programs within the region. Among the projects in this area are the Regional Project on Child Development Indicators (PRIDI), which provides high quality, policy-relevant, and regionally comparative data on the situation of young children and their families. These data will allow countries to benchmark progress on childhood development both within their borders and in the region, thus facilitating policy dialogue between governments on how to best address the needs of young children and their families. Participating countries include Argentina, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Peru and Paraguay. The IDB also participates in the Support for a Seamless Education System Program in Trinidad and Tobago, which aims to improve the quality of early childhood care and primary education, and the Alliance for Children Initiative (Alianza por la Iniciativa Infantil), an initiative that seeks to foster collaboration between governments, families, civil society and the private sector to support innovative interventions in the field.

Teacher quality.

The IDB supports interventions to improve teacher quality in Latin America and the Caribbean and conducts research in the field. It supports the Aligning of Learning Incentives (ALI) in Mexico, a pilot program that provides monetary incentives to students, faculty and staff to improve student achievement in mathematics. Brazil also supports the tutoring program, Multiplying Knowledge, where academically successful students help children in the last years of primary school with mathematics. and the implementation and evaluation of Enseña Chile, a program that attracts outstanding college graduates to teach for two years in vulnerable schools. The Inter-American Development bank focuses on three main areas: incentives (with particular emphasis on teachers), supplies (with emphasis on teacher training and capacity building), and administration (targeting school management).

School to work transition.

The IDB supports the development of knowledge, interventions, programs, and policies to improve the competencies and skills acquired by adolescents in the education system so they will contribute to a student's successful transition between school and work. The projects for this field include supporting the government of Costa Rica to improve the English as a foreign language project in order to close the skills gap between the demand in the labor market and the supply of the education systems in the field. As part of its research agenda, the IDB conducted a survey of young students from Chile analyzing their educational labor trajectory while measuring certain cognitive and non-cognitive skills, relating them to the education and labor performance of adolescents. The IDB also implemented The Employers’ Survey of Mandatory Skills (ENEHD, Spanish Acronym), that investigated the twenty-first century skills demanded by entrepreneurs for people under 25.

Other projects.

The Bank also has interventions in other areas that affect children and adolescents in the region, such as education inputs, equity, and compensatory programs. The initiatives in these fields are support projects for the reconstruction of educational infrastructure in Haiti; a support project for the consolidation and expansion of the Plan Ceibal in Uruguay; a community education program in Mexico, which aims to raise quality of educational services for marginalized communities; a project to support the education plan in the Dominican Republic; the National Infrastructure Program for the universalization of education quality and equality in Ecuador; a program to support policies for the improvement of education equity in Argentina (PROMEDU); a project to improve education activities and learning quality in Mexico; and a comprehensive care program for children in Nicaragua, which contributes to the development of children living in extreme poverty within rural areas under 6 years old.

Poverty reduction.

Government of developing countries is not equipped to reduce poverty due to heavy responsibility to build and maintain infrastructure, as well as meet payroll and debt obligations. Tax revenue is often weak or non-existent. Poverty reduction depends largely on business investment in global markets to create sustainable jobs for economic empowerment of individuals. International companies need funding, and difficulty lies on the inability of the investment banks to overcome regulatory obstacles.  Small business entities are largely responsible for improving lives, as they play an inherent role in raising the socio-economic status of families, making it possible to combat poverty in the long range, as employed heads of household are in better positions to finance the education of children for a better future. Hence, empowering institutions, such as, The World Bank, IFC, the IADB, and others can exercise their due diligence to fit those promising entities in their projects with eased regulatory restraints, as certain regulations that work in developed nations are obstacles to progress in developing nations.

Climate Change and Sustainability Division.

Climate change threatens both to undermine the long-term efforts of the region to achieve sustainable development and to affect the most vulnerable members of society disproportionately.  To respond to increasing demand for clients for assistance in addressing climate change, the General Capital Increase (GCI-9) commits the Bank to support mitigation and adaptation efforts of borrowing members while meeting their developmental and energy requirements. GCI-9 sets a target of 25 percent of total lending going to a growing portfolio on climate change, environmental sustainability, and renewable energy.

Climate Change Strategy.

The objective of the Climate Change Strategy (CCS) is to serve as a guiding instrument for scaling up IDB support for actions to mitigate and adapt to climate change within Latin America and the Caribbean Leveraging the IDB's institutional strengths and its unique advantages, the CCS will promote the development and use of a range of public and private sector financial and nonfinancial instruments for strengthening the institutional, technical, and financial capacity to address climate change challenges.

Water and sanitation.

There are four programs in the Water and Sanitation Division: 100 Cities Program, Water for 3,000 Rural Communities, Water Defenders and Efficient and Transparent Utilities.  The Bank has also a number of focused special programs: AquaFund, Energy Efficient, Hydro-BID, and AquaRating.

Hydro-BID.

In order to support the Latin American and Caribbean region to address water resources challenges, the IDB has created Hydro-BID, a tool that allows the efficient management and planning of water resources by predicting water availability taking into consideration the impacts of climate change.  Hydro-BID was developed to respond to the challenges related to lack of information, reliable data and the lack of tools to support governments, water utilities, the private sector and other institutions to plan and make better decisions for a sustainable management on behalf of the consumers of water, the people.

AquaRating.

AquaRating is the first rating agency for the water sector. It is an Inter-American Development Bank venture, hosted by the International Water Association. The rating system has already been piloted in thirteen utilities in nine countries in Europe and Latin America and the Caribbean. A worldwide market introduction is planned during 2015.

Infrastructure.

The satisfactory provision and administration of infrastructure stimulates economic growth and competitiveness. It is also essential for improving the quality of life and inclusion in modern society. The infrastructure strategy identifies priority areas of action: a)Promote access to infrastructure services b)Support infrastructure for regional and global integration c)Foster financing mechanisms and leverage private sector participation in infrastructure d) Adopt and promote a multisector agenda e) Support the construction and maintenance of an environmentally and socially sustainable infrastructure f) Promote ongoing improvements in infrastructure governance  Of the 44 new projects, 32% are in the infrastructure and environment sector.

Capital Increase.

On July 21, 2010, the Board of Governors agreed to increase the Bank's ordinary capital by $70 billion, the largest expansion of resources in the Bank's history, and to provide an unprecedented package of financial support to Haiti. The agreement also includes a replenishment of the Fund for Special Operations, which finances operations in the region's poorest nations.  The Bank's capital increase will be implemented through 2015 as parliaments in each of its member countries appropriate the necessary funds.

Haiti.

After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the IDB pledged to provide Haiti more than $2.2 billion in grants over the next decade to fund its recovery efforts and long-term development plans, working closely with the Haitian government and the international community. The Bank's Board of Governors also agreed to cancel all of Haiti's outstanding debt.  President Preval also gave the Inter-American Development Bank the mandate to work with the Education Ministry and the National Commission preparing a major reform of the Education System in a 5-year plan.

Financial resources.

The callable capital pledged by the 22 non-borrowing members, which include the world's wealthiest developed countries, therefore functions as a guarantee for the bonds that the IDB sells. This arrangement ensures that the IDB maintains a triple-A credit rating, and as a result can make loans to its borrowing member countries at rates of interest similar to those that commercial banks charge their largest corporate borrowers. At the same time, the 22 non-borrowing countries are only putting up guarantees – not actual funds – so their support of the IDB's lending operations has a minimal impact on their national budgets.  The funds that the IDB lends are raised by selling bonds to institutional investors at standard commercial rates of interest. The bonds are backed by (a) the sum of the capital subscriptions actually paid in by the Bank's 47 member countries, plus (b) the sum of the callable capital subscriptions pledged by the Bank's 22 non-borrowing member countries. Together these constitute the Bank's "ordinary capital", some US$101 billion. Of this amount, 4.3 percent is paid in, while the remaining 95.7 percent is callable.  Aside from its lending activities for its member countries, the IDB also has lending operations with private sector companies, both directly through its Structured Corporate Finance Department and Opportunities for the Majority Initiative, and by means of the Inter-American Investment Corporation (IIC), a multilateral lender created by the IDB member countries to help develop small and medium-sized companies in Latin America and the Caribbean. An affiliate of the IDB, the Multilateral Investment Fund (FOMIN), uses loans, grants and equity investments to support private projects seeking to bring innovation, boost entrepreneurship, or expand access to financing throughout the region. The Bank, the Corporation and the Fund constitute the IDB Group.

Criticism.

There are claims that operations funded by the IDB may have adverse impacts on local environments and indigenous peoples. According to the Bank Information Center (BIC), "civil society groups have long been concerned about the negative impacts the IDB's operations have on the environment and on indigenous and traditional peoples, as well as on the prospects for genuine economic and democratic reform in the region". The BIC cites environmental and social damage funded by the IDB as adversely impacting local economies, contrary to IDB's stated goal of fostering social and economic prosperity.

List of 20 largest countries by subscribed capital stock, voting power, and FSO contribution quotas.

The following table are amounts for 20 largest countries by subscribed capital stock, voting power, and FSO contribution quotas at the Inter-American Development Bank as of December 2013.

The Inter-American Development Bank (IADB or IDB or BID) is the largest source of development financing for Latin America and the Caribbean. Established in 1959, the IDB supports Latin American and Caribbean economic development, social development and regional integration by lending to governments and government agencies, including State corporations.

La banque interaméricaine de développement ou BID (en anglais, "Inter-American Development Bank" ou "IDB") est une organisation financière au niveau international qui a son siège à Washington (États-Unis), créée en 1959 dans le but de financer des projets viables dans le développement économique, social et institutionnel tout en promouvant l'intégration commerciale au niveau régional en Amérique latine et dans les Caraïbes.


History.

Fernando Belaúnde founded Popular Action ("Acción Popular") in 1956 as a reformist alternative to the status quo conservative forces and the populist American Popular Revolutionary Alliance party.  Although Belaúnde's message was not all that different from APRA's, his tactics were more inclusive and less confrontational. He was able to appeal to some of the same political base as APRA, primarily the middle class, but also to a wider base of professionals and white-collar workers. It also advocated scientific advancement and technocracy, a policy set that it took from the Progressive Social Movement, a splinter party which it eventually absorbed. The AP had significant electoral success, attaining the presidency in 1963 and 1980, but the party was more of an electoral machine for the persona of Belaúnde than an institutionalized organization. The AP was initially reckoned as a center-left party. However, by the 1980s, Peru's political spectrum had shifted sharply leftward, and the AP found itself on the center-right.  After AP's second administration, in 1985, the party only got 6.4 percent of the vote. In 1990 AP participated in the elections as a part of the Democratic Front, a center-right coalition headed by Mario Vargas Llosa.  AP member Valentín Paniagua would become President of Congress in October 2000 and, after the demise of the Fujimori administration, became the interim President of the Republic, holding office from November 2000 to July 2001.  At the 8 April 2001 election, the party won 4.2% of the popular vote and three of 120 seats in Congress.  For the 2006 national election, the party joined forces with Somos Perú and Coordinadora Nacional de Independientes to form the Frente de Centro coalition. Paniagua was the presidential candidate, while the vice-presidential candidates belonged to AP's allies. The Center Front ended in the fifth place in the national election, with 5.6% of the popular vote.  For the 2011 national election, the party joined forces with Somos Perú and Perú Possible to form the Peru Possible Alliance. The presidential candidate was former Peru's President and leader of Perú Possible, Alejandro Toledo. The alliance ended in the fourth place in the national election, with 15.6% of the popular vote.  For the 2016 national election, the party ran alone for the first time since 2000, when Congressman Víctor Andrés García Belaúnde ran against the sitting president Alberto Fujimori, and it was the first time since 2006 that Popular Action participated with a party member as a presidential candidate, when former President Valentín Paniagua ran for office. The presidential candidate was Alfredo Barnechea, journalist and political analyst, who won the party's primaries with 52% of the votes, defeating Mesías Guevara (40%), currently the party's president for the 2014–2018 term, the lawyer Beatríz Mejía (6%) and former Deputy Alejandro Montoya (2%). Popular Action ended in the fourth place in the national election, with 6.97% of the popular vote. This has been the best result for Popular Action since 1985. For the 2016–2021 term, AP had five of 130 congressmen representing the party, until the snap election in 2020, when it increased its representation until the end of the 2021 term.

The Popular Action () is a liberal and reformist political party in Peru, founded by former Peruvian president Fernando Belaúnde Terry.

Action populaire (espagnol: "Acción Popular") est un parti politique péruvien fondé le dans la Province de Chincheros (Département de Cuzco), par Fernando Belaúnde Terry.


History and design.

The first design studies relating to the AGV were made in 1998. An AGV design, initially named "TGV 400" was presented in Barcelona in early 2000 as part of Alstom's bid to supply high-speed trains for the Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line. Initial specifications were for a train with distributed traction (total power 7.2 MW), seating 359 in a train 180 metres long, with a version including eddy current brakes with a top speed of, and a tilting version with a top speed of. The design would retain the articulated Jacobs bogie of the TGV.  Unlike the TGV, which was developed in collaboration between Alstom and SNCF, the AGV was developed wholly at Alstom's expense, with European Union rules on state aid limiting the extent of financial collaboration between the state-owned SNCF and Alstom. The AGV was promoted in 2002 as a complementary high-speed train to the TGV Duplex, offering higher speeds for less busy train paths, while a double-decker AGV was posited as a future possibility by Alstom.  The new design was the first high-speed train design in modern times that had inter-vehicle articulation and distributed traction. The design used Alstom Onix IGBT based traction inverters; the weight reduction associated with IGBT technology allowed an axle load of within 17 tonnes per axle. The trainsets were to be made up of modules of 3-car sets with two powered bogies per module. Each motor bogie had two body-mounted self-ventilated motors, one per axle, rated at 600 kW. The traction electronics used two taps per transformer per module, each powering two parallel connected inverters, with a separate inverter for each motor. There were two carriage designs: the driving control cars, and intermediate cars; and two designs of bogie: powered and unpowered.  The initial AGV design incorporated a number of new features: an electrically-activated active suspension (in the transverse direction to movement), used to limit oscillations between car and bogie; and eddy current brakes, fitted to the end bogies. Both technologies had been previously trialled on TGV sets. The carriages were constructed from aluminium alloy as used on the TGV Duplex. The transformers, which weigh 6.5 tonnes, are fitted underneath the end cars, since the presence of the leading bogie allows the mass to be distributed over three instead of two axles. The interior structure was designed to allow easier refurbishment and alteration to the passenger environment. The floor level is kept practically constant throughout the train, including at inter-coach connections.  By 2005, permanent-magnet synchronous motor technology had become mature enough to use in a commercial product, and was incorporated into the design allowing a bogie-mounted (instead of frame-mounted) traction motor, with higher efficiency and lower overall weight. The 2005 specifications allowed a wider (3 metre) carriage than the TGV, with a correspondingly shorter coach length. Alstom claimed operating and capital costs per seat were the same as a TGV Duplex.  In 2007 a modified TGV Duplex, the 'V150', fitted with AGV-type bogies, traction electronics and traction motors (operating at 1 MW) set a new rail speed record of.  The design was complete enough to be frozen by July 2006. It had become formalised at basic train lengths of 7 or 14 cars, with the 3-car modules remaining part of the design. Each 3-car module had either a transformer or one of two traction modules (inverters) located beneath a carriage. Additional trailer vehicles (referred to as 'key' cars) were to extend the train size beyond multiples of three. The train is able to operate under all four European electrification systems, with a top speed specified at under 25 kV electrification, under 15 kV 162⁄3 Hz supply, and further reduced to and under 3 kV and 1.5 kV respectively.  The bogies are related to the type used on the TGV trains; in addition to the changes to traction motor type and installation, the bogies are constructed of a high tensile steel, for lighter weight, the bogie wheelbase is 3m as with the TGV. Braking is by rheostatic braking and regenerative braking, in addition to triple disc brakes on trailer bogies for low speed braking. An eddy current brake was not fitted. The train also incorporates a carbon composite as a structural element, forming a U beam which supports the carriage body end on the secondary suspension.  In January 2008 NTV (Italy) ordered twenty-five eleven-car trains for €650 million for use on the Italian rail network.  The prototype "Pégase" AGV was unveiled in February 2008, by which time Alstom had invested approximately €100 million in the development program.

Prototypes.

Elisa test train, 2001.

By May 2000 prototype vehicles were being constructed for testing in 2001. Two coaches were constructed; a driving and an intermediate cab, with both trailer and motor bogies; for testing the units were attached to a four car TGV Reseau set. The test train (named "Elisa") began tests in late 2001; including ride and noise level measurements, as well as testing of a multisystem "Europantograph", designed to work with all four European overhead electrification systems. Dynamic tests included measuring traction motor, braking rheostat, transformer and inverter cooling under high-speed conditions, as well as aerodynamic tests on airconditioning system performance at high speed. Initial tests were complete in May 2002.

Pégase demonstrator, 2008.

By 2004, enabled by the availability of rare-earth magnets with high magnetic strength, Alstom had developed permanent-magnet synchronous motors (PMSM) which were suitable for rail vehicles. They were smaller and had a higher efficiency than asynchronous motors and a higher power-to-weight ratio, as well as having the potential for lower noise levels. The AGV was one of the early applications of the new motor design, using 720 kW prototype motors weighing 730 kg. By 2008 the motor's continuous power rating had been respecified to 760 kW.  In late 2005 Alstom began the process of constructing a 7-car AGV demonstration train fitted with PMSMs, with half the bogies powered. The demonstration vehicle, named "Pégase" ("Prototype Evolutif Grande vitesse Automotrice Standard Européen") was assembled at Alstom's La Rochelle plant, with bogies built at Alstom's Le Creusot plant. The prototype was unveiled on 5 February 2008, at La Rochelle, in the presence of president Nicolas Sarkozy.  The transformers were mounted in the driving cars, with the other two cars of the three car modules each carrying a traction converter (ONIX 233 water cooled), which also integrate auxiliary converters, the middle 'key' car carried auxiliary equipment under the carriage. The HVAC equipment is mounted on the roof. The internal DC inverter power bus is supplied at 3600 V DC.  The unit began a four-month dynamic testing programme at speeds up to 210 km/h on the Velim railway test circuit in the Czech Republic in mid-2008.  Testing over four weekends on the LGV Est high-speed line began in late 2008; the train completed 7500 km of test runs, after which it returned to the Velim test track for tests relating to certification for NTV's trainsets in Italy, including SCMT safety system integration.  In 2010 the AGV test train began testing in Italy, reaching on the Rome-Naples high-speed line. Dynamic tests were completed by March 2010.

Customers.

NTV.

Alstom's first, and for the moment, only customer for the AGV was Italian company Nuovo Trasporto Viaggiatori (NTV).  Alstom submitted its bid to supply NTV with high-speed trains in March 2006. On 17 January 2008 NTV ordered 25 eleven-coach, 460-seat AGV trains, for €650 million. The order included an option for ten more trainsets. 17 trains were to be built at Alstom's La Rochelle plant, the remaining 8 at Alstom's plant in Savigliano, Italy. An additional contract for maintenance of the trains over a thirty-year period involved the construction of a maintenance depot at Nola, Italy.  The company planned to launch a variety of services on the Turin - Milan - Bologna, Rome - Venice, and Bologna - Florence - Rome - Naples high-speed lines, with some trains from Naples running to Bari. Initial services were planned for mid-2011 based on the delivery of the first trains in September 2010. The NTV livery was unveiled in July 2008.  The buildings at the €90-million AGV maintenance facility were completed by May 2010; construction of the first NTV AGV trainset was completed on 10 May 2010. However, in March 2011 NTV announced it was to postpone service start from the planned start date of September 2011 due to delays with the train certification. This start date had moved to 2012 by November 2011. The first AGV produced at Savigliano was handed over in November 2011. By December 2011 certification testing was complete. On 30 March 2012 NTV announced its first "Italo" service would begin on the Naples to Milan rail lines on 28 April 2012; the service would be the first open access high-speed train service in the world.  The Italo NTV trains feature internet connectivity, TV and a cinema for passengers in three classes.  The service launched on 28 April 2012, and carried 45,000 passengers by 21 May 2012, with an average passenger loading of 41%.

Avelia.

In 2008 the President of Alstom Transport, Philippe Mellier, stated that an 'AGV Duplex' would be developed, and would become Alstom's double deck train offer (for SNCF) after the TGV 2N2. In June 2011 Les Échos reported that Alstom was developing a new high speed train, "AGV II" with a top speed of between, to be available as a single and a double deck version. The design was to utilise power/traction equipment in a single unit (locomotive) as previously used in the TGV design, rather than distributed traction. The traction locomotive design was thought to be aimed in part at orders from SNCF as early as 2014/5 or post 2015.  In 2015 Alstom and ("Agence de l'environnement et de la maîtrise de l'énergie") formed a joint venture, 'SpeedInnov', with the aim of developing the next generation high speed train for France.  In October 2015 the technology was grouped into the series of "Avelia" branded products for Alstom's high-speed trains, consisting of the existing Pendolino, Euroduplex and AGV offers. At that time NTV bought 8 Pendolino high-speed trains with the "Avelia Pendolino" having a maximum speed of 250 km/h. In August 2016 Amtrak and Alstom announced that the Avelia Liberty trainset had been chosen to replace the existing Bombardier-Alstom Acela Express trainsets on the Northeast Corridor between Boston and Washington, D.C. via New York City and Philadelphia. The Avelia Liberty will combine Pendolino active tilting at a speed up to 300 km/h and it can reach a maximum speed of 350 km/h without tilting like the AGV basis.  The cooperation with the SNCF led into a contract for 100 Avelia Horizon double deck trains in August 2018. These trains have a top speed of as well.

Preservation.

Alstom donated an intermediate car of the "Pégase" demonstrator to the National College for High Speed Rail (NCHSR). The car was moved from Alstom's La Rochelle plant to NCHSR's Doncaster campus in early December 2018, where it will be used in courses.

The AGV (acronym for French: "Automotrice à grande vitesse") is a standard gauge, high-speed, electric multiple-unit train designed and built by Alstom.

L'AGV (pour automotrice à grande vitesse) est un train à grande vitesse construit par Alstom. Semblable au TGV dont il reprend une caractéristique importante, l'articulation des voitures, il innove notamment par sa motorisation répartie le long de la rame contrairement aux TGV dont la motorisation est concentrée dans deux motrices situées aux extrémités de la rame. Ainsi il dispose de plus d'espace pour les voyageurs et sa masse est réduite.