Taxonomy and phylogenetics.

Mutualism occurs between fig and fig wasps, which creates a need for specific species of figs to be pollinated by specific species of wasps. The origin of mutualism is also the beginning of the fig wasp phylogeny. In the phylogenetic tree, the genus of "Blastophaga" and "Wiebesia" are very similar. Both of these genera pollinate "Ficus" species of figs.

Description and identification.

"B. psenes" are small wasps, approximately only 2 millimeters in length. The females are black wasps and seem shiny while the males are smaller than females. While males are wingless, females have wings that are transparent and very thin. Yet females' wings and antennae detach as they enter the opening of a fig. Upon dissecting a fig, one can see the wings of the wasps at the opening of the fig and adult wasps, larvae, and eggs are found within the fig. Because these wasps are free-living, they only live for a few days or weeks.

Distribution and habitat.

Because "B. psenes" relies on "Ficus carica" to breed, it is found in regions where this fig species grows. These wasps' native range is in the Palaearctic, including Southern Europe near the Mediterranean Basin. "B. psenes" has been introduced on other continents to ensure that "Ficus carica" bear fruit there.

Life cycle.

Adult "B. psenes" only live for a few days or weeks, and at maximum, much less than a month. These wasps lay fertilized eggs in the syconium of a "F. carica" fig. When the larvae hatch, they develop in the fig ovaries, creating a gall. The larvae become adults around the same time male fig flowers are ready to produce pollen. When an adult wasp is mature, it mates with another wasp within the syconium. After mating, females emerge from the fig and search for a new nearby fig in which to lay their eggs. The female then oviposits into a new syconium. From there, the short life cycle of a "B. psenes" continues.

Mutualism.

Each species of fig is pollinated by a specific species of fig wasp. This idea leads to the concept of fig-fig wasp mutualism. While the fig wasp uses the fig as a “nest” and a location to lay their eggs and for the brood to develop, the fig uses the wasps as the method of pollination for the figs and fig flowers. As previously stated, "B. psenes" has a mutualist relationship with the fig species "F. carica". This fig can only be pollinated by the symbiotic wasp who has retrieved pollen from another syconium. Female wasps oviposit into the syconium for hatching. When these larvae emerge as adults, they carry pollen that they accumulated in the syconium out of the fig. Wasps usually oviposit into a nearby syconium. When they oviposit, they are also pollinating that syconium. There is a major difference between male and female fig trees.

Male trees.

Male trees contain female flowers with short styles. Due to the fact that wasps do not have very long ovipositors, they can only parasitize ovaries of these female flowers with short styles which are only found on male trees. All female flowers on male trees with parasitized ovaries with wasp eggs produce larva and no seeds. All female flowers on male tree with ovaries that are not parasitized with wasp eggs will produce seeds and will help pollination and reproduction of that flower.

Female trees.

On the other hand, female flowers on female trees have long styles. Therefore, these wasps cannot parasitize these ovaries because their ovipositors are too short to reach the bottom of the syconium. Because of this lack of depositing eggs in these female flowers, all female flowers on female trees produce seeds and none produce larva. Also, it is near impossible for wasps to emerge from a fig if they cannot perform oviposition. This leads to the trend that female trees are lethal since wasps are stuck in that syconium.

Winter versus spring caprifigs.

There is also a difference in winter and spring caprifigs (male figs) and the time course for becoming available for receiving eggs and being pollinated. Spring caprifigs usually produce more wasps than winter caprifigs do because of the better and more available resources of the spring caprifigs compared to the winter caprifigs. This also implies that the fig wasp population is much more active and larger in the spring. The spring and winter caprifigs have a cycle related to each other as to maximize resources and output of figs and wasps. Winter, or delayed, caprifigs usually occur on male trees. Spring, or undelayed, caprifigs usually occur on female trees. Because female trees are lethal, wasps prefer these delayed caprifigs of male trees.

Chemoattraction.

Once wasps emerge from the syconium, they have to figure out how to get to the fig in which they want to deposit their eggs. Not only that, they need to make sure that the fig they find is available and acceptable for breeding. In the case of "B. psenes, "olfactory stimuli drive the wasp to a fig that is available to receive wasp eggs. Figs emit compounds that the wasps can sense. Pentane extracts from figs which are in their receptive-phase will attract "B. psenes" from at least 5 meters. Upon sensing these signals from a specific syconium, the wasp will approach that fig. The wasps assess the figs before entrance. They do this by holding up their heads and antennae next to the opening of the syconium (the ostiole). The actual attractive substances come from the ostiole. If a wasp detects the signal, it will lower its antennae and will search for the entrance to the fig. Both smell and taste also help actual entrance into a fig once the desired fig has been located. If the wasp does not detect a signal, it will not enter the fig. Instead, it will move on and search for another receptive fig. Because these wasps have such short lives, selection has favored this attraction towards receptive plants to be easily distinguishable from a few meters. Due to the difference in male and female trees, male tree figs are more attractive than female tree figs as caused by selection. This olfactory stimulus is specific for the wasps' host fig (in this case, "F. carica"), and enables the wasps to distinguish between their host and other fig species.

Mating.

Males emerge first and start seeking females to mate with. Sometimes mating occurs before the female has finished emerging from its cocoon. Then, males start enlarging the fig's opening. Some fall from the fig to the ground. They have no wings and die shortly after. The enlarged opening enables the females to leave the syconium in search of a new one where to oviposit. Mating occurs within the syconium and laying eggs occurs in a syconium different than the one where mating occurred.

Kin selection.

Kin.

The wasps breed inside the fig. Later, the female lays its eggs in the ovaries of another fig by sticking its ovipositor in each flower's style. This can lead to some flowers not being pollinated because some styles are too long. Each larva from a deposited egg destroys a female flower when it feeds on its growing seed. When wasps emerge from the syconium, they rush to the nearest syconia. This rush creates a large number of wasps all competing to enter an adjacent syconium. Due to this rush, pollination will become less effective as more pollen falls off of the wasp bodies. Offspring number depends on number of pollinator wasps per syconium. The number of offspring is low when the entry number of wasps in a syconium is high. On average, each wasp has 3 broods a year; one for each of the different seasonal caprifigs. Also, reproductive success depends heavily on transmission of strong signals by plant.

Interactions with other species.

Diet.

When they are hatched, "B. psenes" larvae feed on hyperplastic floret tissue. The mother produces this hyperplastic tissue when she lays the eggs in the syconium.

Predation.

One of the main predators of these wasps is ants. Ants find these wasps using chemical signals such as odor cues. The ants use the fig-fig wasp mutualism to find the fig wasps by detecting an odor that comes from the figs of the male trees. They know that most fig wasps are located on male fig trees, so they use that relationship to prey on wasps. This concept is called associative learning of odor because the ants are indirectly finding these wasps by associating the smell of the fig with the wasps. However, some ants do not respond to the odor of figs for different reasons. For instance, the fig could be a non-pollinator and therefore not release any chemical substance. In the case where the ants cannot detect odors, the wasps will not be predated upon.

Parasitism.

"B. psenes" are parasitized by a nematode "Schistonchus caprifici." These parasites are carried in the hemocoel of the female wasp. When a "B. psenes" wasp oviposits her egg inside the syconium, nematodes are also deposited. These nematodes then invade, feed, and reproduce inside the floret tissues. Larvae finish development with nematode still inside the hemocoel. After fertilization, females emerge from a syconium with nematodes still in hemocoel along with pollen flakes along her body. Because this nematode is primarily found in the hemocoel of a female wasp, males are not associated with nematodes. "B. psenes" is a very efficient host of these nematodes.

Cleptoparasitism.

"B. psenes" also has a cleptoparasite, "Philotrypesis caricae". The cleptoparasite is actually another wasp. By being a cleptoparasite, "P. caricae" allows "B. psenes" to do the work and acquire food with little or no cost to itself. "B. psenes "wasps oviposit in the syconium, while "P. caricae" oviposit at the outside of the florets. This layering of ovipositing causes the larvae of "P. caricae" to put pressure on the larvae "B. psenes" wasps so that "B. psenes" cannot emerge from the syconium. "B. psenes" struggles to compete for food with "P. caricae" so it usually dies when cleptoparasitized. While the nematodes as parasites are not lethal to "B. psenes," these cleptoparasites are lethal because they are taking "B. psenes" all the food source instead of sharing the food like the nematodes.

Disease.

Some wasps can carry a disease that is carried by "F. carica" trees. This disease is a fungus called "Fusarium moniliforme", or fig endosepsis. The wasps carry this disease on their wings and body. Because the fungus grows on the ostiole, the fungus is transmitted to the wasps' bodies when the wasp emerges from the syconium through the ostiole. Fig endosepsis is not transmitted transovarily by the fig wasp. The wasps become contaminated with spores of the fungus as they contact plant surfaces upon emergence. Studies show that wasps on upper surfaces of the leaves were infected with this fungus in higher levels than other wasps. Wasps who were higher up in the tree or further out on a branch also showed more fungus on their wings and bodies. This led to the conclusion that contamination increases as the wasps walk on leaves, petioles, and fruits before they reach the opening to the syconium. This fungus affects both males and females. The fungus shows to be more evident in spring caprifigs that are pollinated with 5 to 10 winter caprifigs than when spring caprifigs are pollinated with only one winter caprifig. Also, the incidences of this fungus are higher when there is a high population of wasps with limited figs. The more wasps that pass through one ostiole, the more likely the wasp will contract "F. moniliforme".

Blastophaga psenes is a wasp species in the genus "Blastophaga". It pollinates the common fig "Ficus carica" and the closely related "Ficus palmata". Without a colony or nest, these wasps breed in figs and live for only a few days or weeks. They locate the fig they wish to pollinate through olfactory senses.

L'espèce de blastophages Blastophaga psenes est un hyménoptère de la famille des Agaonidae qui assure la pollinisation du figuier européen. Il s'agit donc d'un exemple d'association mutualiste exclusive. C'est la seule espèce du genre présente en Europe.


Background.

Around 1900, the Cunard Line faced tight competition from the British White Star Line and the German lines Norddeutscher Lloyd (North German Lloyd) and Hamburg America Line (HAPAG). Cunards largest liners, as of 1898 and, had a reputation for size and speed, both being of 12,950 gross register tons (GRT) and having held the "Blue Riband" for the fastest crossing of the Atlantic Ocean. However, Norddeutscher Lloyds new liner had taken the Blue Riband from them in 1897, while White Star was planning to place a new 17,000-GRT liner, into service. Cunard also updated its fleet during this time, ordering three new liners,,, and "Carpathia".  Rather than attempting to fully regain prestige by spending the additional money necessary to order liners that were fast enough to win back the Blue Riband from the German "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse" or large enough to rival "Oceanic" in size, Cunard tried to maximize their profitability in order to remain solvent enough to fend off any takeover attempts by competing shipping conglomerate International Mercantile Marine Co..  The three new ships were not especially fast, as they were designed for the immigrant trade, but provided significant cost savings in fuel economy. The three ships became both instruments and models through which Cunard was able to successfully compete with its larger rivals – most notably IMM's lead company, White Star Line.  "Carpathia" was a modified design of the "Ivernia"-class ships, being approximately shorter than her "half-sisters." Like her predecessors, her design was based on a long hull, a low, well-balanced superstructure, and four masts fitted with cranes, allowing for effective handling of larger amounts of cargo than was customary on an ocean liner. "Carpathia" was designed with a single tall smokestack funnel to carry soot and smoke well clear of passenger areas.

History.

Design and construction.

RMS "Carpathia" was constructed by C. S. Swan & Hunter at their Newcastle upon Tyne, England shipyard for the Cunard Steamship Company, to operate between Liverpool and Boston alongside "Ivernia" and "Saxonia". She was laid down on 10 September 1901, and launched on 6 August 1902, when she was christened by Miss Watson, daughter of the vice-chairman of the Cunard line. She underwent her sea trials on a voyage from the River Tyne to the River Mersey between 22 and 25 April 1903.  At the time of her launch, she was described as being long, breadth, with gross register tonnage of 12,900. As completed her gross register tonnage had increased to more than 13,500. She was designed with "four complete steel decks, a steel orlop deck in Nos. 1 and 2 holds, and a bridge deck 290 ft. long for passenger, saloon and cabins" with a boat deck above this. At the time she was launched, it was said that she was to be fitted for carrying 200 first-class and 600 third-class passengers and large quantities of frozen meat. As completed, her capacity had increased to about 1,700 passengers. Despite being an intermediate liner designed for the second and third-class trade, "Carpathia"s interior accommodations were still quite comfortable and set a standard for the day. The dining saloon was described as decorated in "cream and gold, which combine effectively with the rich upholstery and mahogany of the...furniture...and old gold curtains screening the ports," and was capped by a stained-glass dome underneath an electrical fan for ventilation. The second-class accommodation also included a walnut-panelled smoking room located in the aft deckhouse and a handsome library at the forward end of the bridge (A) deck. After the 1905 renovation, these spaces would be converted to first-class accommodation. Third-class accommodation on "Carpathia" were extraordinarily generous for the time. The third-class dining saloon extended the full width of the ship and seated 300 passengers, with "walls panelled in polished oak and teak dado." Third-class also included a smoking room and ladies' room located immediately forward of the dining saloon on the upper (C) deck, adjacent to the enclosed promenade (or open space) similar to the design on "Ivernia" and "Saxonia". Officers were berthed in the forward deckhouse on the bridge (A) deck, above the second-class dining saloon, while the captain's quarters was located on the boat deck immediately below the ship's bridge.  "Carpathia"s lower decks were well-ventilated by means of deck ventilators, supplemented by electric fans. The ventilation systems were designed to force fresh air over coiled thermotanks, which could be fed with cool water during the summer or steam during the winter, thus heating and cooling the ship as conditions warranted. Although the ship was fully electrified with over 2,000 lamps, the ship still had backup oil lamps in the cabins when she entered service.  "Carpathia" had seven single-ended boilers, fitted with the Howden forced draught system, working at, which fed two independent sets of four-cylinder, four-crank, quadruple expansion engines, built by the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Company, Ltd. of Wallsend, England with cylinders of:,,, and with a stroke of. The engine power available allowed for an intended trial speed of.  "Carpathia" made her maiden voyage on 5 May 1903 from Liverpool, England, to Boston, Massachusetts in the US, and ran services between New York City, and Mediterranean ports at Gibraltar, Algiers, Naples, Trieste, and Fiume.

Early service.

Although lacking the speed and grand luxury of express liners (initially she had no first-class accommodations), "Carpathia" quickly developed a reputation as a comfortable ship, particularly in rough weather, due to her relatively wide breadth to length ratio, the use of bilge keels, and the lack of vibration typically found in powerful engines. The ship became popular with both tourists and emigrants. During the summer season "Carpathia" operated mainly between Liverpool and New York City, and in the winter it travelled from New York City to the Mediterranean  After Cunard partnered with the Royal Hungarian Sea Navigation Company "Adria" in 1904 "Carpathia" was more on the duty to transfer Hungarian emigrants. As a result, "Carpathia" was renovated in 1905, increasing its capacity from 1,700 passengers to 2,550 passengers. Mainly third-class small cabins were converted to large shared dormitory rooms while adding first-class accommodation to areas that were previously second-class. In 1912, her tonnage was, and she had a capacity of 2,450 passengers (250 first and second-class combined, and 2,200 third-class. She had a crew in 1912 of about 300, including 6 officers. She carried 20 lifeboats.

"Titanic" disaster.

"Carpathia" departed from New York City on 11 April 1912 bound for Fiume, Austria-Hungary (now Rijeka, Croatia). Among its passengers were the American painters Colin Campbell Cooper and his wife Emma, author Philip Mauro, journalists Lewis Palmer Skidmore and Carlos Fayette Hurd, with their wives, Emily Vinton Skidmore and Katherine Cordell Hurd, photographer Dr. Francis H. Blackmarr, and Charles H. Marshall, whose three nieces were travelling aboard "Titanic". Also on board were Hope Brown Chapin, honeymooning youngest daughter of former governor of Rhode Island, Russell Brown, Pittsburgh architect Charles M. Hutchison and wife, Sue Eva Rule, sister of Judge Virgil Rule of the St. Louis court of appeals, as well as Louis Mansfield Ogden, Esq., with his wife, Augusta Davies Ogden, a granddaughter of Alexander H. Rice.  On the night of 14 April, "Carpathia"s wireless operator, Harold Cottam, had missed previous messages from the "Titanic", as he was on the bridge at the time. After his shift ended at midnight, he continued listening to the transmitter before bed, and received messages from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, stating they had private traffic for "Titanic". He thought he would be helpful and at 12:11 a.m. on 15 April sent a message to "Titanic" stating that Cape Cod had traffic for them. In reply he received "Titanic"s distress signal, stating that they had struck ice and were in need of immediate assistance.  Cottam took the message and coordinates to the bridge, where the officers on watch were sceptical about the seriousness of the distress call. Agitated, Cottam rushed down the ladder to the captain's cabin and awakened Captain Arthur Henry Rostron, who immediately sprang into action and "gave the order to turn the ship around", and then "asked the operator if he was absolutely sure it was a distress signal from the Titanic". The operator said that he had "received a distress signal from the "Titanic", requiring immediate assistance", gave "Titanic" position, and said that "he was absolutely certain of the message". Whilst dressing, Rostron set a course for "Titanic", and sent for the chief engineer and told "him to call another watch of stokers and make all possible speed to the "Titanic", as she was in trouble." Rostron later testified that the distance to "Titanic" was and took "Carpathia" three and a half hours.  Rostron ordered the ship's heating and hot water cut off in order to make as much steam as possible available for the engines, and had extra lookouts on watch to spot ice. Cottam, meanwhile, messaged the "Titanic" that "Carpathia" was "coming as quickly as possible and expect to be there within four hours." Cottam refrained from sending more signals after this, trying to keep the air clear for "Titanic"s distress signals. "Carpathia" reached the edge of the ice field by 2:45 a.m., and for the next two hours dodged icebergs as small growlers of ice ground along the hull plates. The "Carpathia" arrived at the distress position at 4:00 a.m., approximately an hour and a half after the "Titanic" went down, claiming more than 1,500 lives. For the next four and a half hours, the ship took on the 705 survivors of the disaster from "Titanic"s 20 lifeboats. Survivors were given blankets and coffee, and then escorted by stewards to the dining rooms. Others went on deck to survey the ocean for any sign of their loved ones. Throughout the rescue, "Carpathia"s own passengers assisted in any way that they could. By 9:00, the last survivor had been picked up, and Rostron gave the order to get under way.  After considering options for where to disembark the passengers, including the Azores (the destination with the least cost to the Cunard Line) and Halifax (the closest port, although along an ice-laden route), Rostron consulted with Bruce Ismay and decided to disembark the survivors in New York. News of the "Titanic" disaster spread on shore, and the humble "Carpathia" became the center of intense media attention as she steamed westward towards New York at 14 knots. Hundreds of wireless messages were being sent from Cape Race and other shore stations addressed to Captain Rostron from relatives of "Titanic" passengers and journalists demanding details in exchange for money. Rostron ordered that no news stories would be transmitted directly to the press, deferring such responsibilities to the White Star offices as Cottam provided details to "Titanic"s sister ship,. On Wednesday, 17 April, the scout cruiser began escorting "Carpathia" to New York. Cottam, by then assisted by "Titanic"s junior wireless operator Harold Bride, transmitted the names of third-class survivors to "Chester". Slowed by storms and fog since the early morning of Tuesday 16 April, "Carpathia" finally arrived in New York on the evening of Thursday 18 April 1912.  For their rescue work, the crew of "Carpathia" were awarded medals by the survivors. Crew members were awarded bronze medals, officers silver, and Captain Rostron a silver cup and a gold medal, presented by Margaret Brown. Rostron was knighted by King George V, and was later a guest of President Taft at the White House, where he was presented with a Congressional Gold Medal, the highest honour the United States Congress could confer.

Service in the First World War.

During the First World War, "Carpathia" was used to transfer Canadian and American Expeditionary Forces to Europe. At least some of her voyages were in convoy, sailing from New York through Halifax to Liverpool and Glasgow. Among her passengers during the war years was Frank Buckles, who went on to become the last surviving American veteran of the war.

Sinking.

On 15 July 1918, "Carpathia" departed Liverpool in a convoy bound for Boston carrying 57 passengers (36 saloon class and 21 steerage) and 166 crew. The convoy travelled on a zig-zag course along with an escort in accordance with procedures against submarine attacks. The escort left the convoy early in the morning of 17 July, and the convoy was cut in half. The "Carpathia" continued west along with six other ships; as the largest, she assumed the role of commodore ship. Three and a half hours later, at 9:15 a.m. while sailing in the Southwest Approaches, a torpedo was sighted approaching on her port side. The engines were thrown in full-astern and the helm was turned hard-a-starboard, but it was no use. "Carpathia" was torpedoed near the No. 3 hatch on the port side by the Imperial German Navy submarine, followed by a second which penetrated the engine room, killing three firemen, two trimmers, and effectively removing her ability to escape. The explosion wrecked all the electrical gear, including the wireless, as well as two of the ship's lifeboats. As a result, Captain William Prothero, in command of "Carpathia" since 1916, signalled the other ships in the convoy to send out wireless messages, by use of flags. He then had rockets fired to attract the attention of nearby patrol boats. The remaining convoy steamed away at full speed to elude the submarine.  As "Carpathia" began to settle by the head and list to port, Captain William Prothero gave the order to abandon ship. All passengers and the surviving crew members boarded the 11 lifeboats as the vessel sank. There were 218 survivors of the 223 aboard. As the passengers and crew disembarked, Prothero, the chief officer, first and second officers and the gunners remained on the sinking ship, seeing to it that all the confidential books and documents were thrown overboard. The captain then signalled one of the lifeboats to come alongside, and he and the remaining crew abandoned their ship. "U-55" surfaced and fired a third torpedo into the ship near the gunner's rooms, resulting in a large explosion that doomed the ship. "U-55" started approaching the lifeboats when the sloop arrived on the scene and drove away the submarine with gunfire before picking up the survivors from "Carpathia" around 1 pm. "Snowdrop" arrived back in Liverpool with the survivors on the evening of 18 July.  "Carpathia" sank at 11:00 AM at a position recorded by "Snowdrop" as, about two and a half hours after the torpedo strike, and approximately west of Fastnet. At the time of her sinking, "Carpathia" was the fifth Cunard steamship sunk in as many weeks; the others being the "Ascania", "Ausonia", "Dwinsk", and "Valentia", leaving only five Cunarders afloat from the large pre-war fleet.

Discovery and salvage works.

On 9 September 1999, the Reuters and AP wire services reported that Argosy International Ltd., headed by Graham Jessop, son of the undersea explorer Keith Jessop, and sponsored by the National Underwater and Marine Agency (NUMA), had discovered "Carpathia"s wreck in of water, west of Land's End. Bad weather forced his ship to abandon the position before Jessop could verify the discovery using underwater cameras. However, when he returned to the location, the wreck was determined to be the Hamburg-America Line's "Isis", sunk on 8 November 1936.  In 2000, the American author and diver Clive Cussler announced that his organisation, NUMA, had found the true wreck of "Carpathia" in the Spring of that year, at a depth of. After the submarine attack, "Carpathia" landed upright on the seabed. NUMA gave the approximate location of the wreck as west of Fastnet, Ireland.  The wreck is owned by Premier Exhibitions Inc., formerly RMS "Titanic" Inc., which plans to recover objects from the wreck.

RMS "Carpathia" was a Cunard Line transatlantic passenger steamship built by Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson in their shipyard in Newcastle upon Tyne, England.

Le RMS "Carpathia" est un paquebot transatlantique britannique appartenant à la compagnie Cunard Line. Accompagné de deux "sister-ships" plus anciens, l’"Invernia" et le "Saxonia", il est mis en service en 1903. Après neuf années de carrière sans histoires, il vient en aide aux naufragés du "Titanic" en avril 1912 sous le commandement du capitaine Arthur Rostron. En effet, alors qu'il est sur le point de se coucher, son opérateur radio, Harold Cottam, capte les messages de détresse du paquebot, distant de. Le commandant pousse alors son navire à pleine vitesse malgré les glaces pour venir à son secours. Bien qu'arrivé trop tard pour sauver tous les passagers, le "Carpathia" récupère les 705 rescapés présents dans les canots et les ramène à New York où il arrive à 10h30 le. La presse considère alors les membres de l'équipage du navire comme des héros.


Name and history.

Thomas Aquinas was one of the major Doctors of the Church of the Middle Ages. The name of Saint Thomas Aquinas was also given to the nearby Église Saint-Thomas-d'Aquin (Paris), built in the 17th century, and to the neighboring parish. It is also given to the neighborhood.

Current establishment.

Today, the lycée Saint-Thomas-d’Aquin is a lycée of general French Catholic private education, under contract in association with the state, located at 44, rue de Grenelle in Paris (7th arrondissement of Paris) headed by Olivier Duchenoy.  It is relatively small (no more than 500 students.)

Classes.

Today, the establishment consists of around 12 classes from the second year to finish, and includes Baccalauréat. There are also options in languages, economics, maths, and sciences, with specialities including theatre, plastic arts, and sport. Languages include English, German, Spanish, and Italian. The lycée also offer a special option: a second year immersion in the USA. The results for the Baccalauréat in 2010 were at 96% compared to an expected result of 94%. In 2017, the level of results was at 100%.

Ranking of the Lycée.

In 2015, the lycée ranked 32nd of 109 at departmental level in terms of teaching quality, and 288th at national level. The ranking was based on three criteria: the level of bac results, the proportion of students who achieved their baccalauréat and spent their last two years at the establishment, and the "added value" (calculated based on social origin of the students, their age, and their diploma results).

The lycée Saint-Thomas-d’Aquin is a school famous as the establishment where Général de Gaulle undertook his primary studies. It is also known as the école des Frères des écoles chrétiennes de la paroisse Saint-Thomas-d’Aquin. It was a primary school at the time. Since then, the original building has been completely destroyed, and a new building constructed in its place. Charles de Gaulle later became President of the Republic, head of the French Resistance and of Free France. A commemorative plaque noting his attendance at the school can be found in the hall of establishment above the doors to the courtyard (primary classes).

Le lycée Saint-Thomas-d’Aquin est un établissement scolaire ayant la particularité d'avoir accueilli le général de Gaulle de 1896 à 1900 lors d'une partie de ses études primaires. Il était alors dénommé école des Frères des écoles chrétiennes de la paroisse Saint-Thomas-d’Aquin. C'était à l'époque un établissement proposant des formations du premier et du second degré. Depuis le bâtiment d’origine a été détruit et une construction entièrement nouvelle a été édifiée en 1957. Charles de Gaulle devint plus tard président de la République, chef de la Résistance et de la France libre. Une plaque commémorative rappelant sa présence se trouve dans le hall de l’établissement au-dessus des portes qui permettent de se rendre dans la cour (classes primaires).


History.

The club started in the Third Division (199091). They were promoted to Second Division in season 200001 after finishing 2nd in Third division. The team once played against Omonia Nicosia in Cup tournament. It lost 4–0 in the first match but came 2–2 in the second match.

Promotion to First Division.

The biggest achievement of Ayia Napa FC's history was in the 200506 season after the team finished 3rd in Cypriot Second Division and was promoted to the Cypriot First Division. Despite it being their maiden appearance in the First Division, Ayia Napa proved a formidable force for other First Division sides in the 200607 season. In their first match in the division, they achieved a surprise away draw against Anorthosis Famagusta, which were followed by two more draws, including one against First Division Heavyweights Omonia Nicosia. In their first 12 matches overall they achieved several draws, including another home draw against APOEL. However, they had to wait until the 13th matchday for their first victory, when the team beat Aris Limassol 4–1. By the midway point of the season, the team had lost just 5 times. On January 14, 2007, in the reverse fixture of their earlier draw, Ayia Napa beat Omonia Nicosia 2–1, arguably the most impressive result in the clubs' history. After that victory there were a few more successful results and the club looked like they may avoid relegation. However, the team lost their last seven First Division matches of the season and ended up relegated.

Cup qualification to the Quarter-finals.

Another big achievement of Ayia Napa FC is the qualification to the cup's quarter-finals group stage in the 200708 season while the team was in the Cypriot Second Division. That season was the only team from Cypriot Second Division that qualified to quarter-finals. The club finished third in the group stages with wins against APOEL and Aris Limassol.

Stadium.

The team's stadium is Municipal Stadium of Ayia Napa, which is a multi-use stadium in Ayia Napa. It is currently used mostly for football matches and holds 2,000 people. However the stadium was not suitable for first division matches, so for the season 200607, when Ayia Napa plays in First Division, the team is using for home the Tasos Markou Stadium in Paralimni.  The UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship was hosted in Cyprus in 1998 and the UEFA European Under-16 Football Championship in 1992 and the Ayia Napa Stadium was used for two matches of Republic of Ireland in each competition; on June 19, 1998 their 5–2 victory against Croatia and four days later, their 3–0 Cyprus U-19 national team and qualified to the final where they went on to win the trophy. In 1992, the Irish were beaten by the Netherlands U-16 0–2 and tied by Spain 1–1.

Current squad.

"For recent transfers, see List of Cypriot football transfers summer 2019."

Athlitikos Omilos Ayia Napa (, Athletic Club Ayia Napa) is a Cypriot football club from the town of Ayia Napa. The club was founded in 1990 after the merger of two clubs: APEAN ("Athlitiki Podosfairiki Enosis Ayias Napas"; "Athletic Football Union of Ayia Napa") and ENAN ("Enosis Neon Ayias Napas"; "Youth Union Ayia Napa").

L'Ayia Napa FC est un club chypriote de football basé à Ayia Napa. Le club évolue pour la saison 2017/2018 en deuxième division chypriote.


Development.

North American Aviation had produced the propeller-powered P-51 Mustang in World War II, which saw combat against some of the first operational jet fighters. By late 1944, North American proposed its first jet fighter to the U.S. Navy, which became the FJ-1 Fury. It was an unexceptional transitional jet fighter that had a straight wing derived from the P-51. Initial proposals to meet a United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) requirement for a medium-range, single-seat, high-altitude, jet-powered day escort fighter/fighter bomber were drafted in mid-1944. In early 1945, North American Aviation submitted four designs. The USAAF selected one design over the others, and granted North American a contract to build three examples of the XP-86 ("experimental pursuit"). Deleting specific requirements from the FJ-1 Fury, coupled with other modifications, allowed the XP-86 to be lighter and considerably faster than the Fury, with an estimated top speed of, versus the Fury's. Despite the gain in speed, early studies revealed the XP-86 would have the same performance as its rivals, the XP-80 and XP-84. Because these rival designs were more advanced in their development stages, it was feared that the XP-86 would be cancelled.  Crucially, the XP-86 was not able to meet the required top speed of ; North American had to quickly devise a radical change that could leapfrog its rivals. The North American F-86 Sabre was the first American aircraft to take advantage of flight research data seized from the German aerodynamicists at the end of World War II. These data showed that a thin, swept wing could greatly reduce drag and delay compressibility problems that had bedeviled fighters such as the Lockheed P-38 Lightning when approaching the speed of sound. By 1944, German engineers and designers had established the benefits of swept wings based on experimental designs dating back to 1940. Study of the data showed that a swept wing would solve their speed problem, while a slat on the wing's leading edge that extended at low speeds would enhance low-speed stability.  Because development of the XP-86 had reached an advanced stage, the idea of changing the sweep of the wing was met with resistance from some senior North American staff. Despite stiff opposition, after good results were obtained in wind tunnel tests, the swept-wing concept was eventually adopted. Performance requirements were met by incorporating a 35° swept-back wing, using modified NACA four-digit airfoils, NACA 0009.5–64 at the root and NACA 0008.5–64 at the tip, with an automatic slat design based on that of the Messerschmitt Me 262 and an electrically adjustable stabilizer, another feature of the Me 262A. Many Sabres had the "6–3 wing" (a fixed leading edge with a 6-inch extended chord at the root and a 3-inch extended chord at the tip) retrofitted after combat experience was gained in Korea. This modification changed the wing airfoils to the NACA 0009-64 mod at the root and the NACA 0008.1–64 mod at the tip.  The XP-86 prototype, which led to the F-86 Sabre, was rolled out on 8 August 1947. The first flight occurred on 1 October 1947 with George Welch at the controls, flying from Muroc Dry Lake (now Edwards AFB), California.  The United States Air Force's Strategic Air Command had F-86 Sabres in service from 1949 through 1950. The F-86s were assigned to the 22nd Bomb Wing, the 1st Fighter Wing, and the 1st Fighter Interceptor Wing. The F-86 was the primary U.S. air combat fighter during the Korean War, with significant numbers of the first three production models seeing combat.  The F-86 Sabre was also produced under license by Canadair, Ltd, as the Canadair Sabre. The final variant of the Canadian Sabre, the Mark 6, is generally rated as having the highest capabilities of any Sabre version.

Breaking sound barrier and other records.

The F-86A set its first official world speed record of on September 15, 1948, at Muroc Dry Lake, flown by Major Richard L. Johnson, USAF. Five years later, on 18 May 1953, Jacqueline Cochran became the first woman to break the sound barrier, flying a "one-off" Canadian-built F-86 Sabre Mk 3, alongside Chuck Yeager. Col. K. K. Compton won the 1951 Bendix air race in an F-86A with an average speed of 553.76 mph (891.19 km/h).

Design.

Overview.

The F-86 was produced as both a fighter-interceptor and fighter-bomber. Several variants were introduced over its production life, with improvements and different armament implemented (see below). The XP-86 was fitted with a General Electric J35-C-3 jet engine that produced of thrust. This engine was built by GM's Chevrolet division until production was turned over to Allison. The General Electric J47-GE-7 engine was used in the F-86A-1 producing a thrust of, while the General Electric J73-GE-3 engine of the F-86H produced of thrust.  The fighter-bomber version (F-86H) could carry up to of bombs, including an external fuel-type tank that could carry napalm. Unguided rockets were used on some fighters on training missions, but rockets were later carried on combat operations. The F-86 could also be fitted with a pair of external jettisonable jet fuel tanks (four on the F-86F beginning in 1953) that extended the range of the aircraft. Both the interceptor and fighter-bomber versions carried six M3 Browning machine guns with electrically boosted feed in the nose (later versions of the F-86H carried four cannon instead of machine guns). Firing at a rate of 1,200 rounds per minute, the 0.50 in guns were harmonized to converge at in front of the aircraft, using armor-piercing (AP) and armor-piercing incendiary (API) rounds, with one armor-piercing incendiary tracer (APIT) for every five AP or API rounds. The API rounds used during the Korean War contained magnesium, which were designed to ignite upon impact, but burned poorly above as oxygen levels were insufficient to sustain combustion at that height. Initial planes were fitted with the Mark 18 manual-ranging computing gun sight. The last 24 F-86A-5-Nas and F-86Es were equipped with the A-1CM gunsight-AN/APG-30 radar, which used radar to automatically compute a target's range, which later proved to be advantageous against MiG opponents over Korea.

Flying characteristics.

The Sabre's swept wings and jet engine produced a flying experience that was very different from the propeller-driven fighters of the time. The transition from props to jets was not without accidents and incidents even for experienced fighter pilots. Early on in the jet age, some US manufacturers instituted safety and transition programs where experienced test and production pilots toured operational fighter squadrons to provide instruction and demonstrations designed to lower the accident rate.  Additionally, the ongoing technical development and long production history of the F-86 resulted in some significant differences in the handling and flying characteristics between the various F-86 models. Some of the important changes to the design included the switch from an elevator/stabilizer to an all-flying tail, the discontinuation of leading edge slats for a solid leading edge with increased internal fuel capacity, increased engine power, and an internal missile bay (F-86D). Each of these design changes impacted the handling and flying characteristics of the F-86, not necessarily for the better. In the case of the solid leading edge and increased internal fuel capacity, the design change produced increased combat performance, but exacerbated a dangerous and often fatal handling characteristic upon take-off if the nose were raised prematurely from the runway. This 'over-rotation' danger is now a major area of instruction and concern for current F-86 pilots. The 1972 Sacramento Canadair Sabre accident resulting in 22 fatalities and 28 other casualties was a result of over-rotation on take-off.

Operational history.

Korean War.

The F-86 entered service with the USAF in 1949, joining the 1st Fighter Wing's 94th Fighter Squadron and became the primary air-to-air jet fighter used by the Americans in the Korean War. While earlier straight-winged jets such as the F-80 and F-84 initially achieved air victories, when the swept-wing Soviet MiG-15 was introduced in November 1950, it outperformed all UN-based aircraft. In response, three squadrons of F-86s were rushed to the Far East in December. Early variants of the F-86 could not out turn, but they could out dive the MiG-15, although the MiG-15 was superior to the early F-86 models in ceiling, acceleration, rate of climb, and zoom. With the introduction of the F-86F in 1953, the two aircraft were more closely matched, with many combat-experienced pilots claiming a marginal superiority for the F-86F. The heavier firepower of the MiG (and many other contemporary fighters) was addressed by fielding eight cannon-armed F-86s in the waning months of the war. Despite being able to fire only two of the four 20 mm cannon at a time, the experiment was considered a success. The MiGs flown from bases in Manchuria by Chinese, North Korean, and Soviet VVS pilots were pitted against two squadrons of the 4th Fighter-Interceptor Wing forward-based at K-14, Kimpo, Korea. In October 1951, the Soviets managed to recover a downed Sabre, and in their investigation of the type they concluded that the Sabre's advantage in combat was due to the APG-30 gun-sight that facilitated accurate fire at longer ranges. Many of the American pilots were experienced World War II veterans, while the North Koreans and the Chinese lacked combat experience, thus accounting for much of the F-86's success. However, United Nations pilots suspected many of the MiG-15s were being flown by experienced Soviet pilots who also had combat experience in World War II. Former Communist sources now acknowledge Soviet pilots initially flew the majority of MiG-15s that fought in Korea, and dispute that more MiG-15s than F-86s were shot down in air combat. Later in the war, North Korean and Chinese pilots increased their participation as combat flyers. The North Koreans and their allies periodically contested air superiority in MiG Alley, an area near the mouth of the Yalu River (the boundary between Korea and China) over which the most intense air-to-air combat took place. Although the F-86A could be safely flown through Mach 1, the F-86E's all-moving tailplane greatly improved maneuverability at high speeds. The MiG-15 could not safely exceed Mach 0.92, an important disadvantage in near-sonic air combat. Far greater emphasis had been given to the training, aggressiveness, and experience of the F-86 pilots. American Sabre pilots were trained at Nellis, where the casualty rate of their training was so high, they were told, "If you ever see the flag at full staff, take a picture." Despite rules of engagement to the contrary, F-86 units frequently initiated combat over MiG bases in the Manchurian "sanctuary". The hunting of MiGs in Manchuria would lead to many reels of gun camera footage being 'lost' if the reel revealed the pilot had violated Chinese airspace.  The needs of combat operation balanced against the need to maintain an adequate force structure in Western Europe led to the conversion of the 51st Fighter-Interceptor Wing from the F-80 to the F-86 in December 1951. Two fighter-bomber wings, the 8th and 18th, converted to the F-86F in the spring of 1953. No. 2 Squadron, South African Air Force also distinguished itself flying F-86s in Korea as part of the 18 FBW.  On 17 June 1951, at 01:30 hours, Suwon Air Base was bombed by two Polikarpov Po-2 biplanes. Each Po-2 dropped a pair of fragmentation bombs: one scored a hit on the 802nd Engineer Aviation Battalion's motor pool, damaging some equipment. Two bombs burst on the flightline of the 335th Fighter Interceptor Squadron. One F-86A Sabre (FU-334 / 49-1334) was struck on the wing and began burning. The fire took hold, gutting the aircraft. Prompt action by personnel who moved aircraft away from the burning Sabre prevented further loss. Eight other Sabres were damaged in the brief attack, four seriously. One F-86 pilot was among the wounded. The North Koreans subsequently credited Lt. La Woon Yung with this damaging attack.  By the end of hostilities, F-86 pilots were credited with shooting down 792 MiGs for a loss of only 78 Sabres in air-to-air combat, a victory ratio of 10:1. Of the 41 American pilots who earned the designation of ace during the Korean War, all but one flew the F-86 Sabre, the exception being a Navy Vought F4U Corsair night fighter pilot. However, after the war the USAF reviewed its figures in an investigation code-named "Sabre Measure Charlie" and downgraded the kill ratio of the North American F-86 Sabre against the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 by half. Internally, the USAF accepted that its pilots in fact downed ~ 200 MiGs  According to Soviet data, the Soviets lost 335 MiG-15s in Korea to all causes, including accidents, antiaircraft fire, and ground attacks. Chinese claims of their losses amount to 224 MiG-15s in Korea. North Korean losses are not known, but according to North Korean defectors, their air force lost around 100 MiG-15s during the war. Thus, 659 MiG-15s are admitted as being lost, many of these to F-86 Sabres The Soviets claimed to have downed over 600 Sabres, together with the Chinese claims (211 F-86s shot-down), although these cannot be reconciled with the number Sabres recorded as lost by the US.  The status of many claimed air-to-air victories in the Korean War has been increasingly debated as more data becomes available, showing that instances of over-claiming abounded on both sides. The research by Dorr, Lake and Thompson claimed a F-86's kill ratio closer to 2:1. A recent RAND report made reference to "recent scholarship" of F-86 v MiG-15 combat over Korea and concluded that the actual kill:loss ratio for the F-86 was 1.8:1 overall, and likely closer to 1.3:1 against MiGs flown by Soviet pilots. However, this ratio were not count the number of aircraft of other types (B-29, A-26, F-80, F-82, F-84...) were shot down by MiG-15s.  Data-matching with Soviet records shows that US pilots routinely attributed their own combat losses to "landing accidents" and "other causes". According to official US data ("USAF Statistical Digest FY1953"), the USAF lost 250 F-86 fighters in Korea. Of these, 184 were lost in combat (78 in air-to-air combat, 19 by anti-aircraft guns, 26 were "unknown causes" and 61 were "other losses") and 66 in incidents. South African Air Force lost 6 F-86s in the war. This gives 256 confirmed F-86 losses during the Korean War.

Cold War.

In addition to its distinguished service in Korea, USAF F-86s also served in various stateside and overseas roles throughout the early part of the Cold War. As newer Century-series fighters came on line, F-86s were transferred to Air National Guard (ANG) units or the air forces of allied nations. The last ANG F-86s continued in U.S. service until 1970.

1958 Taiwan Strait crisis.

The Republic of China Air Force of Taiwan was an early recipient of surplus USAF Sabres. From December 1954 to June 1956, the ROC Air Force received 160 ex-USAF F-86F-1-NA through F-86F-30-NA fighters. By June 1958, the Nationalist Chinese had built up an impressive fighter force, with 320 F-86Fs and seven RF-86Fs having been delivered.  Sabres and MiGs were shortly to battle each other in the skies of Asia once again in the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis. In August 1958, the Chinese Communists of the People's Republic of China attempted to force the Nationalists off of the islands of Quemoy and Matsu by shelling and blockade. Nationalist F-86Fs flying combat air patrol over the islands found themselves confronted by Communist MiG-15s and MiG-17s, and numerous dogfights resulted.  During these battles, the Nationalist Sabres introduced a new element into aerial warfare. Under a secret effort designated Operation Black Magic, the U.S. Navy had provided the ROC with the AIM-9 Sidewinder, its first infrared-homing air-to-air missile, which was just entering service with the United States. A small team from VMF-323, a Marine FJ-4 Fury squadron with later assistance from China Lake and North American Aviation, initially modified 20 of the F-86 Sabres to carry a pair of Sidewinders on underwing launch rails and instructed the ROC pilots in their use flying profiles with USAF F-100s simulating the MiG-17. The MiGs enjoyed an altitude advantage over the Sabres, as they had in Korea, and Communist Chinese MiGs routinely cruised over the Nationalist Sabres, only engaging when they had a favorable position. The Sidewinder took away that advantage and proved to be devastatingly effective against the MiGs.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.

In 1954, Pakistan began receiving the first of a total of 120 F-86F Sabres. Many of these aircraft were F-86F-35s from USAF stocks, but some were from the later F-86F-40-NA production block, made specifically for export. Many of the −35s were brought up to −40 standards before they were delivered to Pakistan, but a few remained −35s. The F-86 was operated by nine Pakistan Air Force (PAF) squadrons at various times: Nos. 5, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 26 Squadrons.  The Sabre was no longer a world-class fighter (due to availability of supersonic jets). However, many sources state the F-86 gave the PAF a technological advantage.

Air to air combat.

In the air-to-air combat of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the PAF Sabres claimed to have shot down 15 Indian Air Force (IAF) aircraft, comprising nine Hunters, four Vampires, and two Gnats. India, however, admitted a loss of 14 combat aircraft to the PAF's F-86s. The F-86s of the PAF had the advantage of being armed with AIM-9B/GAR-8 Sidewinder missiles, whereas none of its Indian adversaries had this capability. Despite this, the IAF claimed to have shot down four PAF Sabres in air-to-air combat.  The Indian Air Force claimed that seven F-86 Sabres were shot down by Folland Gnats and six F-86 Sabres were shot down by Hawker Hunters.

Ground attack.

The aircraft remained a potent weapon for use against ground targets. On the morning of 6 September, six F-86s of No. 19 Sqn struck advancing columns of the Indian army using 5-in (127-mm) rockets along with their six.50-in (12.7-mm) M3 Browning machine guns. On the same day, eight F-86 fighters of the same squadron executed an attack against IAF Pathankot. No. 14 PAF Squadron earned the nickname "Tailchoppers" for their successful attack against the Indian bomber base in Kalaikunda.  PAF claims of destroying around 36 aircraft on the ground at various Indian airfields. However, India only acknowledges 22 aircraft lost on the ground to strikes partly attributed to the PAF's F-86s and its bomber Martin B-57 Canberra.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

The Canadair Sabres (Mark 6), acquired from ex-Luftwaffe stocks via Iran, were the mainstay of the PAF's day-fighter operations during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, and had the challenge of dealing with the threat from IAF.  At the beginning of the war, PAF had eight squadrons of F-86 Sabres. Along with the newer fighter types such as the Mirage III and the Shenyang F-6, the Sabres were tasked with the majority of operations during the war. In East Pakistan, only one PAF F-86 squadron (14th Squadron) was deployed to face the numerical superiority of the IAF.  In the Battle of Boyra Indian MiG-21and Folland Gnats shot down two F-86E and damaged one F-86E.  PAF F-86s performed well, with Pakistani claims of downing 31 Indian aircraft in air-to-air combat. These included 17 Hawker Hunters, eight Sukhoi Su-7 "Fitters", one MiG 21, and three Gnats while losing seven F-86s. The most interesting of these was a battle between two Sabres and four MiG-21s. One MiG was shot down, without any Sabres lost. This was achieved due to better low-speed performance of the Sabre in comparison to the delta-winged MiG-21.  India, however, claims to have shot down 11 PAF Sabres for the loss of 11 combat aircraft to the PAF F-86s. The IAF numerical superiority overwhelmed the sole East Pakistan Sabres squadron (and other military aircraft) which were either shot down, or grounded by Pakistani fratricide as they could not hold out, enabling complete air superiority for the IAF. After this war, Pakistan slowly phased out its F-86 Sabres and replaced them with Chinese F-6 (Soviet MiG-19 based) fighters. The last of the Sabres were withdrawn from service in PAF in 1980. They are now displayed in Pakistan Air Force Museum and in the cities in which their pilots lived.

Guinea-Bissau War of Independence.

In 1958, the Forca Aerea Portuguesa (FAP) received 50 F-86Fs from ex-USAF stocks. A few former Norwegian Air Force F-86Fs were also purchased as spares in 1968–69.  The FAP deployed some of its F-86F Sabres to Portuguese Guinea in 1961, being based at AB2 – Bissalanca Air Base, Bissau. These aircraft formed "Detachment 52", initially equipped with eight F-86Fs (serials: 5307, 5314, 5322, 5326, 5354, 5356, 5361, and 5362) from the "Esquadra 51", based at the BA5 – Monte Real Air Base. These aircraft were used in the Guinea-Bissau War of Independence, in ground-attack and close-support operations against the insurgent forces. In August 1962, 5314 overshot the runway during emergency landing with bombs still attached on underwing hardpoints and burned out. F-86F 5322 was shot down by enemy ground fire on 31 May 1963; the pilot ejected safely and was recovered. Several other aircraft suffered combat damage, but were repaired.  In 1964, 16 F-86Fs based at Bissalanca returned to mainland Portugal due to U.S. pressure. They had flown 577 combat sorties, of which 430 were ground-attack and close-air-support missions.

Philippine Air Force.

The Philippine Air Force (PhAF) first received the Sabres in the form of F-86Fs in 1957, replacing the North American P-51 Mustang as their primary interceptor. F-86s first operated from Basa Air Base, known infamously as the "Nest of Vipers", where the 5th Fighter Wing of the PhAF was based. Later on, in 1960, the PhAF acquired the F-86D as their first all-weather interceptor. The most notable use of the F-86 Sabres was in the Blue Diamonds aerobatic display team, which operated eight Sabres until the arrival of the newer, supersonic Northrop F-5. The F-86s were subsequently phased out of service in the 1970s as the Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter and Vought F-8 Crusaders became the primary fighters and interceptors of the PhAF. Antonio Bautista was a Blue Diamonds pilot and a decorated officer. He was killed on 11 January 1974 during a combat sortie against rebels in the south of the country.

Soviet Sabre.

During the Korean War, the Soviets were searching for an intact U.S. F-86 Sabre for evaluation/study purposes. Their search was frustrated, largely due to the U.S. military's policy of destroying their weapons and equipment once they had been disabled or abandoned; in the case of U.S. aircraft, USAF pilots destroyed most of their downed Sabres by strafing or bombing them. However, on one occasion, an F-86 was downed in the tidal area of a beach and subsequently was submerged, preventing its destruction. The aircraft was ferried to Moscow and a new OKB (Soviet Experimental Design Bureau) was established to study the F-86, which later became part of the Sukhoi OKB. "At least one F-86... was sent to the Soviet Union, the admitted, and other planes and prizes such as U.S. G-suits and radar gun sights also went." The Soviets studied and copied the optical gunsight and radar from the captured aircraft to produce the ASP-4N gunsight and SRC-3 radar. Installed in the MiG-17, the gunsight system was later used against American fighters in the Vietnam War.The F-86 studies also contributed to the development of aircraft aluminum alloys such as V-95.

Feather Duster.

The old but nimble MiG-17 had become such a serious threat against the Republic F-105 Thunderchief over North Vietnam that the USAF created project "Feather Duster" to test which tactics supersonic American fighters could use against fighters such as the MiG-17. ANG F-86H units proved to be an ideal stand-in for the Soviet jets. One pilot remarked, "In any envelope except nose down and full throttle", either the F-100 or F-105 was inferior to the F-86H in a dogfight.

Variants.

CAC Sabre (Australia).

Two types based on the U.S. F-86F were built under licence by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation (CAC) in Australia, for the Royal Australian Air Force as the CA-26 (one prototype) and CA-27 (production variant). The RAAF operated the CA-27 from 1956 to 1971. Ex-RAAF Avon Sabres were operated by the Royal Malaysian Air Force ("TUDM") between 1969 and 1972. From 1973 to 1975, 23 Avon Sabres were donated to the Indonesian Air Force ("TNI-AU"); five of these were ex-Malaysian aircraft.  The CAC Sabres included a 60% fuselage redesign, to accommodate the Rolls-Royce Avon Mk 26 engine, which had roughly 50% more thrust than the J47, as well as 30 mm Aden cannon and AIM-9 Sidewinder missiles. As a consequence of its powerplant, the Australian-built Sabres are commonly referred to as the Avon Sabre. CAC manufactured 112 of these aircraft.  CA-27 marques:

Canadair Sabre.

The F-86 was also manufactured by Canadair in Canada as the CL-13 Sabre to replace its de Havilland Vampires, with the following production models:

Production costs.

Note: The costs are in approximately 1950 United States dollars and have not been adjusted for inflation.

Operators.

Civil aviation.

According to the FAA there are 50 privately owned and registered F-86s in the US, including Canadair CL-13 Sabres.

The North American F-86 Sabre, sometimes called the Sabrejet, is a transonic jet fighter aircraft. Produced by North American Aviation, the Sabre is best known as the United States' first swept-wing fighter that could counter the swept-wing Soviet MiG-15 in high-speed dogfights in the skies of the Korean War (1950–1953), fighting some of the earliest jet-to-jet battles in history. Considered one of the best and most important fighter aircraft in that war, the F-86 is also rated highly in comparison with fighters of other eras. Although it was developed in the late 1940s and was outdated by the end of the 1950s, the Sabre proved versatile and adaptable and continued as a front-line fighter in numerous air forces until the last active operational examples were retired by the Bolivian Air Force in 1994.

Le North American F-86 "Sabre" est le premier avion de chasse à réaction et ailes en flèches conçu et construit par la société américaine North American, juste après la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Construit à plusieurs milliers d'exemplaires, cet appareil a été utilisé par une trentaine de pays. Son affrontement avec le MiG-15 pendant la guerre de Corée est un épisode notoire de l'histoire du combat aérien.


Description.

Tracing paper is paper made to have low opacity, allowing light to pass through. It is named as such for its ability for an image to be traced onto it. It was originally developed for architects and design engineers to create drawings which could be copied precisely using the diazo copy process;  When tracing paper is placed onto a picture, the picture is easily visible through the paper. Thus, it becomes easy to find edges in the picture and trace the image onto the tracing paper. Pure cellulose fiber is translucent, and it is the air trapped between fibers that makes paper opaque and look white. If the fibers are refined and beaten until all the air is taken out, then the resulting sheet will be translucent. Translucent papers are dense and contain up to 10% moisture at 50% humidity.

Production.

Tracing paper is usually made from sulfite pulp by reducing the fibres to a state of fine subdivision and hydrolysing them by very prolonged beating in water.  There are three main processes to manufacture this type of paper, as follows:-  The sizing in production will determine whether it is for laser printer or inkjet/offset printing.  Tracing paper may be uncoated or coated. Natural tracing paper for laser printing is usually uncoated.  The HS code for tracing paper is 4806.30.  Tracing paper can be recycled and also can be made from up to 30% recycled fibre.

Technical specifications.

The follows are common standards for tracing paper Though, generally it is manufactured in grammages over 60 GSM:

Tracing paper is paper made to have low opacity, allowing light to pass through. It was originally developed for architects and design engineers to create drawings which could be copied precisely using the diazo copy process; it then found many other uses. The original use for drawing and tracing was largely superseded by technologies which do not require diazo copying or manual copying (by tracing) of drawings.

Le papier calque est un type de papier translucide. Il est fabriqué par immersion de papier de bonne qualité dans de l'acide sulfurique pendant quelques secondes. L'acide a pour effet de transformer une partie de la cellulose, et cela donne pour effet le caractère translucide du papier calque.


History.

Moimenta's history is fairly recent: Alfonso III of Asturias conquered Lamego from the Moors, when the first settlements along the Douro began by remnants of Visigothic tribes. ""And there they entered into power, becoming absolute masters of everything that the force of arms would take"", from the writings of the Scribe Santa Rosa Viterbo.  These bands created rural villages and homes that received in their local dialects the names Leomil, Baldos, Alvite, Toitam, Mileu, Segões, Sever and Ariz. The inhabitants of the mountains and castros, such as Pêra, Caria and São Félix, began to descend into the valleys, abandoning the rudimentary and fragile fortifications to work in the towns for the signeurial masters.  During this epoch, one of these lands (actually insignificant), whose name was implied to the localities ceremonial and funerary importance; it served as a place of homage and worship of the dead, and its name "Moimenta" () was in reference to its mausoleum in honour of the dead.  By the 12th century all the civil parishes that now exist were already part of the Moimenta administration, although Leomil ("Couto") and Caria ("Honra") had their own magistrate until 1258.  One hundred years later, in the 14th century, the lands of the municipality of Moimenta da Beira, had three ecclesiastical parishes: Santa Maria de Caria, Santa Maria de Lobozaim and São Tiago de Leomil. Sever and Alvite were part of the "Couto de São João de Tarouca" (a military administration) created in 1140, while Vilar was part of the "Honra de Fonte Arcada" (an honorific title bestowed to nobility). After the 14th century, as the management of rural territories necessitated an administrative authority, eight municipalities were established in the region, which extended into the 19th century: Paçô; Nagosa e Castelo; Sever e Alvite; Pêra e Peravelha; Ariz e Peva; and Moimenta (then known as "Moimenta de São João Baptista de Leomil"), were formed at the expense of Leomil. Meanwhile, the parishes of Paradinha, Cabaços e Baldos, were separated from Leomil (resulting in this municipality only retaining the parishes of Sarzedo and Paraduça). Finally, the municipality of Caria, already a municipal seat with pillory in the "Vila da Rua", included the small parishes of Arcozelos, Aldeia de Nacomba, Faia, Penso, Carregal, Lamosa, Quintela da Lapa and Segões.  The administrative reform of 1834 initiated a concentration of municipal authority in fewer administrative units: the small municipalities of Peravelha, Castelo, Nagosa and Arcos were extinguished and incorporated into the municipality of Moimenta da Beira; the municipality of Caria received the parishes of Arcozelos, Aldeia de Nacomba and Segões; and Leomil grew to include the municipalities of Paçô and Sever. In 1855 the municipality of Leomil was extinct and all its assets redistributed to Moimenta da Beira, which also received the parish of Vilar from the extinguished municipality of Sernancelhe.  On 21 May 1896, Caria and Rua were transferred from Sernancelhe to Moimenta da Beira. In the short span of 21 yeast, the small municipality of Moimenta, which included only Moimenta, Paradinha, Cabaços and Baldos, in 1834, grew to 19 by 1855. It was only in 1896 when the geographic limits were finally settled.

Geography.

The municipality is bounded by Tabuaço the northeast, Sernancelhe in the southeast, Sátão in the south, Vila Nova de Paiva in the west and Tarouca and Armamar in the northwest.  Administratively, the municipality is divided into 16 civil parishes ("freguesias"):

Moimenta da Beira () is a municipality in the northern part of Portugal, located in the district of Viseu. The population in 2011 was 10,212, in an area of 219.97 km2.

Moimenta da Beira est une municipalité (en portugais : "concelho" ou "município") du Portugal, située dans le district de Viseu et la région Nord.


Kingdom of Mann and the Isles (836–1237).

Since the emergence of Somerled and his descendants in the 12th century, the Manx kings began to lose territory and power in the Hebrides. Before the reigns of the three sons of Olaf the Black, the Manx kings styled themselves "King of the Isles". By the time of the reigns of Olaf's sons, the kings had begun to style themselves "King of Mann and the Isles".

Scottish and English rule (1265–1333).

Between 1265 and 1333, Mann was ruled directly by the kings of Scotland (1265–1290, 1293–1296, 1313–1317, 1328–1333) or the kings of England (1290–1293, 1296–1313, 1317–1328).

Independent kingdom (1333–1399).

On 9 August 1333 Edward III renounced all English claims over the Isle of Man, and recognised it as an independent kingdom under its then king, William Montacute, 1st Earl of Salisbury.  William le Scrope, Earl of Wiltshire was the last King of Mann in this line, claiming descent from the House of Godred Crovan, the earlier Norse Rulers.  William le Scrope was executed for treason for his support of Richard II in his struggle with Henry Bolingbroke, who defeated Richard and became Henry IV. Le Scrope's possessions, including the Isle of Man, passed to the Crown.

English suzerainty (1399–1504).

As Henry's predecessor, Edward III, had recognised Mann as an independent kingdom, Henry IV did not directly claim the Manx throne, but instead proclaimed that he had acquired the island by right of conquest, which in international legal theory at that time erased any existing constitutional arrangements. He then on 19 October 1399 granted the Island, as a fiefdom under the English Crown, to Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland together with wide-ranging powers of government and associated regalities, together with the style of 'Lord of Man', in a position of feudality and thus without sovereignty. Despite this, Percy styled himself as 'King of Mann'.  Following Percy's treasonous rebellion, Henry IV granted the suzerainty of the Isle of Man, on similar terms but only for the term of his life, to Sir John Stanley in 1405. In addition, but separate from the power of governance over the Island, John Stanley was also granted the patronage of the Diocese of Sodor and Man.  A second letters-patent were issued and re-granted to Sir John Stanley on 6 April 1406, the difference being that the grant was inheritable and had a different feudal fee, the service of which comprised rendering homage and a tribute of two falcons to all future kings of England on their coronations.

Lord of Mann (1504—present).

Edward Stanley, 3rd Earl of Derby, the son of Thomas Stanley, 2nd Earl of Derby, did not take the style 'King', and he and his successors were generally known instead as Lord of Mann. However, the Latin style "Rex Manniae et Insularum" (King of Mann and the Isles) continued to be occasionally used in official documents until at least the 17th century.  In 1765 the title was revested in the Crown of Great Britain; thus today the title, Lord of Mann, is used by Queen Elizabeth II.

The King of Mann () was the title taken between 1237 and 1504 by the various rulers, both sovereign and suzerain, over the Kingdom of Mann – the Isle of Man which is located in the Irish Sea, at the centre of the British Isles.

Les dirigeants de l'île de Man possèdent des titres variés et plusieurs de ces dirigeants peuvent régner durant les mêmes périodes au gré des dominations étrangères au cours desquelles le souverain peut installer un gouvernement local dirigé par un gouverneur et/ou un lieutenant-gouverneur.


Club career.

Early career.

Obinna played for Nigerian clubs Plateau United and Kwara United, he went on trials with Italian clubs Internazionale, Perugia and Juventus before signing with Brazilian club Internacional, but international clearance problems meant that the transfer was never finalised. He rejoined Enyimba to take part in their domestic league campaign and CAF Champions League defence.

Chievo.

Obinna was signed by Italian club Chievo on a five-year contract in July 2005. But also reported that Chievo formed an agreement with Internazionale that Obinna first registered as Chievo player in order to use the non-EU registration quota of Chievo, like Júlio César in the 2004–05 season. Then he would be call back to Inter.  In his first season with Chievo, Obinna scored six goals in 26 games, including a goal on his Serie A debut against Parma in a 1–0 win, 11 September 2005. In the first months of the 2006 season, Obinna was suspended for having signed a contract with both Internacional and Chievo in 2005. Chievo were relegated at the end of the 2006–07 season, casting some doubt over Obinna's future; the club choosing to keep Obinna in the squad to help gain promotion back to Serie A.  On 4 October 2007, Obinna was involved in a car accident on his way home from training in which he swerved away from a vehicle that had tried to overtake him around a bend. He escaped with only a few cuts and bruises. The car flipped several times and was heavily damaged. He lost consciousness and was taken to hospital. The accident occurred only a few hundred yards away from where former Chievo player Jason Mayélé was killed in a car accident in 2002.

Internazionale.

In the summer of 2008, Obinna moved back to Inter for a €1.2 million transfer fee in a three-year contract. English club Everton attempted to immediately sign him on loan, but were unable to secure a work permit for the player. Obinna's first goal for Inter came on 19 October in a 4–0 win over Roma. Internazionale coach José Mourinho described Obinna as one of Inter's best talents for the future.

Málaga.

On 26 August 2009, Spanish La Liga side Málaga signed Obinna on a season-long loan. He scored his first goal for the Andalusian club on 4 October in 1–1 a draw against Xerez, a match in which he was also sent off.

West Ham United.

On 27 August 2010, Obinna signed for West Ham United on a season-long loan with the option of a permanent deal in 2011. He made his debut for West Ham on 11 September in a 3–1 home defeat to Chelsea. He scored his first goal for West Ham in a 2–1 win against Sunderland in the third round of the League Cup at the Stadium of Light on 21 September 2010. He scored his first league goal in 3–1 win against Wigan Athletic on 27 November 2010. He continued the fine form with four assists in a 4–0 win against Manchester United on 30 November 2010, automatically booking a first League Cup semi-final for 20 years.  Obinna was sent off during West Ham's semi-final, first leg match on 11 January 2011 against Birmingham City for an off the ball challenge on Sebastian Larsson with West Ham having conceded an equaliser just minutes earlier. On 30 January, Obinna scored a hat-trick in a FA Cup 4th round tie against Nottingham Forest, leading West Ham to a 3–2 victory. He followed that up three days later with two goals as West Ham beat Blackpool 3–1 at Bloomfield Road.

Lokomotiv Moscow.

On 19 June 2011, Obinna signed a four-year deal with Lokomotiv Moscow on a free transfer.

MSV Duisburg.

Obinna joined MSV Duisburg on 9 September 2015 for the 2015–16 season.

Darmstadt.

He joined SV Darmstadt on 5 August 2016. He was released on 31 January 2017.

Cape Town City.

In September 2017, Obinna signed for Premier Soccer League side Cape Town City. At the time of signing, the club were managed by former West Ham teammate Benni McCarthy.

International career.

Obinna was a member of the U-20 Flying Eagles that won the gold in Benin in the African Youth Tournament in 2005 he was called up to the Nigerian senior squad at the 2006 African Cup of Nations, scoring once before his side's semifinal elimination.  In August 2008, he was named amongst Nigeria's squad for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Obinna scored Nigeria's first goal in a 2–1 win against Japan the "Dream Team IV" winning goal in the final group match against the United States, ensuring that Nigeria qualified for the quarter-finals. Nigeria were drawn against Ivory Coast who they beat 2–0, with Obinna scoring a penalty and setting up Peter Odemwingie for the other goal. He later captained the Nigerian team when they beat Belgium 4–1 in the semi-final match, before losing to Argentina in the final.

Career statistics.

Club.

Source:

International.

Source:

Honours.

Club.

Chievo  Internazionale

Victor Nsofor Obinna (born 25 March 1987) is a Nigerian professional footballer who plays as a striker. Obinna in Igbo, literally means "father's heart". He played for Chievo in Italy's Serie B, having played regularly in Serie A with the club until their relegation in 2007. He made his full international debut for Nigeria at the 2006 African Cup of Nations, scoring once in three appearances as his side were eliminated in the semi-finals.

Victor Nsofor Obinna est un footballeur nigérian né le à Jos. Réputé pour sa vitesse, il évolue au poste d'attaquant. Il a participé aux Coupe d'Afrique des nations 2006, 2008 et 2010 avec l'équipe du Nigeria.


Background: solution to a marketing problem.

Through the need to meet proposed European Union legislation on emissions regulation, BMW had started to develop an alternate technology to its traditional flat-twin engines with the introduction of the 1,000 cc BMW K100 from 1983 to 1992. Led by Josef Fritzenwenger and Stefan Pachernegg, the team developed a design prototype based on a liquid-cooled Peugeot car engine. In the base design of the K100, the engine was laid on its side in line with the motorcycle frame, known as a longitudinal four, with the crankshaft on the right hand side of the motorcycle, with the cylinders, pistons, camshafts, injectors and spark plugs on the left hand side. This arrangement keeps the centre of gravity relatively low, which benefits handling.

Design.

The K100 was still a cruiser/tourer design in bias, and BMW marketing wanted a sports oriented tourer to appeal to a more youth oriented market perception, and compete with the Japanese factories. BMW was committed to the manufacturer imposed limit for motorcycles sold in Germany, so decided that to address both issues it needed to turn to aerodynamics to solve the problem.  In 1984 at the Cologne Motor Show, BMW design created the aerodynamic "Racer" mockup, based on a standard K100 chassis. At the 1988 Cologne show, the production K1 used the same large and all enveloping two-piece front mud guard mated closely to a seven-piece main fairing, that included two small panniers (lids made by Zanussi ZCP (Zanussi Componenti Plastica)). The resultant drag coefficient was 0.34 with the rider prone, the lowest of any production motorcycle in 1988.  Adding to the "different to traditional BMW" nature of the bike, the colour scheme of bright red or blue with yellow graphics and highlighting was bold, and hence seen as so different to normal BMW, bizarre.

Engineering.

The K1 differed from the K100 in engineering terms, being designed for high speed and hence with many components either replaced or upgraded.  Retaining the K100's bore and stroke of, the K1 was BMW's first 16-valve engine, using four valves per cylinder, with the camshafts acting directly on the bucket tappets. Other improvements over the K100 included higher compression pistons, lighter conrods and a lighter crankshaft. This combined with digital Motronic engine management system resulted in a gain over the K100, producing at the crankshaft at 8,000 rpm; and increased torque of versus the K100's.  The stronger tubular steel chassis was mounted on wide FPS front wheels, 18s in the back, with low profile radial tyres. The rear suspension was a Bilstein shock absorber acting on a single-sided Paralever swingarm, which pushed the wheelbase out to. On the front were twin Marzocchi forks. The brakes were four-pot Brembo over two-pot on the K100, with a pair of drilled discs. An Anti-lock braking system was optional in all markets except North America, where it was standard.

Marketing, sales and usage.

By the time the K1 was launched, it was quick but not fast. The result of the addition of the aerodynamic bodywork and general upgrading of engineering and components added to the weight, which as a result came in as heavy for a sports bike at. Combined with the extended wheelbase which created a turning circle, it made the bike an economical and comfortable sports tourer. But the engine was not powerful enough against the weight to make the bike quick accelerating, and hence sports-competitive.  The all over fairing was found in early press road tests to retain excess heat below, and in some cases burn riders. BMW eventually offered an under-fairing heat blanket which reduced this considerably, but it was always a problem. However, as BMW knew weight was a problem, the panels were well engineered but thin and subject to cracking. Resultantly panel fit was poor on early models, and combined with panel cracking earned the bike the nickname "yoghurt carton" in Germany. The design and manufacture of the panels never changed in the bikes production, but the colouring schemes were toned down from a ketchup red and metallic blue with yellow details, to a metallic black.  The engine, although well developed, suffered from secondary vibration. This was minimal in the three-cylinder K100 derived K75, and minimised in the K100 through introduction of well designed vibration suppression. On the sporting inspired K1, the engine was directly mounted onto the frame, which led to secondary vibrations problems at certain mid-range engine revolutions.  In the important United States market, emissions regulations dragged the power out down to. At almost US$13,000 it was also expensive, and when compared to the competition the excess price did not offer a sufficient performance or quality gap for volume sales. In comparison, the Honda CBR600F was as fast and lighter, yet was almost two thirds of the price.  By 1993, the market had changed and developed considerably, with the introduction of sports bikes like the Tadao Baba designed Honda Fireblade, brought about the end of production. However, although it only sold 6,921 units, the K1 helped BMW change its persona forever with the press and market perception as simply a touring motorcycle manufacturer. It remains one of their most memorable machines.

The BMW K1 is a motorcycle that was designed by BMW as a high-speed sports-tourer, designed to change the motorcycle media and buying public's mind of BMW as only a manufacturer of flat-twin tourers.

La K1 est un modèle de moto, créée par la firme allemande BMW. Quand la K1 apparaît en 1988, c'est d'abord un choc visuel. L'esthétique change radicalement par rapport aux autres productions de la marque. Les lignes sont très aérodynamiques, les critiques comparant même la moto au TGV. L'énorme phare rectangulaire barre la face avant, cassant la forme pointue que le garde-boue suggère. On trouve des ouïes d'aération un peu partout, sur les flancs de carénage, sur le garde-boue... Néanmoins, cet immense carénage accroît la prise au vent latéral. À l'heure actuelle, cette moto possède toujours le meilleur Cx.


Early life.

Margarita Zavala was born on 25 July 1967 in Mexico City. She is the fifth of seven siblings: Diego Hildebrando, Mercedes, Pablo, Juan Ignacio, Rafael and Mónica. Her parents, Diego Zavala Pérez and Mercedes Gómez del Campo, were lawyers. Her father was a magistrate in the. She attended the Instituto Asunción, an academy run by nuns. She became a youth leader of the Partido Acción Nacional at age 17. She first met Felipe Calderón in 1984, when both were activists for the PAN party. Zavala studied law at the Escuela Libre de Derecho, where she graduated with a 9.5 (out of ten) grade point average. Her thesis, "La Comisión Nacional de Derechos Humanos: antecedentes, estructura y propuestas", was on the National Human Rights Commission.

Career.

Zavala worked for the private law firms Estrada, González y de Ovendo and Sodi y Asociados. Zavala was a Deputy of the Legislative Assembly of the Federal District between 15 September 1994 and 14 September 1997. Zavala was a professor at the Universidad Iberoamericana (1991-1992) and also taught law at the Instituto Asunción (1990 to 1999), her high-school alma mater. Zavala is a regular op-ed contributor to "El Universal".

National Action Party leadership roles.

Zavala has been a national councilor for the National Action Party (PAN) since 1991, and was the PAN's Legal Director of the National Executive Committee from 1993 to 1994. In 1995, she was a Mexican delegate to the Fourth World Conference on Women. Zavala was named by Luis Felipe Bravo Mena to head the Secretaria de Promoción Política de la Mujer, which is the party's office for the promotion of the participation of women in politics, serving from 1999 to 2003. During her four years as head, the proportion of female PAN federal deputies increased from 19% to 32%, the largest of any political party.  She was part of the transition team of Vicente Fox, advising on women's issues. She was a founding member of the Junta de Gobierno del (2001), which is the government office that works toward gender equality and elimination of discrimination and violence against women.

Chamber of Deputies.

Zavala was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 2003, as part of the LIX Legislature of the Mexican Congress. She was nominated through the National Action Party's list under the principle of proportional representation. She served on three Chamber of Deputies commissions: Commission on Labor and Social Security (2003–06), Commission on Justice and Human Rights (2003–06), Commission on National Defense (2003–06). She was also a member on the Law Studies and Parliamentary Investigations Center Committee (2004–06). Additionally, she served as Sub-Coordinator of Social Politics of PAN's Parliamentary Group. Zavala resigned in April 2006 to campaign for her husband's 2006 bid for the Mexican presidency.

First Lady of Mexico.

Margarita's primary objective in the changing Mexican government was to help her newly elected husband run the educational programs throughout the country.  As the wife of Felipe Calderón, President of Mexico during 2006-2012, Margarita Zavala was considered "First Lady" although such function is not defined by the legal framework. She is the only First Lady to have served in Congress, although she served as non-elected member through a position defined as plurinominal by the Mexican law. She served as president of the civic advisory board to the Desarrollo Integral de la Familia, a government agency that promotes child and family development.  She supported organizations that fight drug addiction and others that help migrant children returning from the United States. Zavala became a pledged organ and tissue donor upon death in 2009 to help promote organ donation in Mexico. She launched an anti-addiction program called Nueva Vida, which planned to have 310 centers nationwide as of 2011. Zavala continued to hold influence in the PAN, with the election of Gustavo Madero Muñoz for PAN presidency cited as an example of her lobbying.  During her husband's administration her family was involved in corruption scandals, including a privately run, publicly funded day care facility in Hermosillo, Mexico, which caught fire on June 5, 2009, resulting in the death of 49 children. It later became known that the facility never met safety standards, and among the owners was Marcia Matilde Altagracia Gómez del Campo Tonella, a cousin of the first lady. Though she was not found guilty by a jury, many people question a possible interference from the executive branch of the government given the family ties.  Moreover, her brother's company, Diego Hildebrando Zavala, was awarded some public contracts both during the administration of Felipe Calderón, and before when he was Secretary of Energy, an issue which some Corruption Watch organizations point out as evidence of conflicts of interest from the former president.  Her cousin Luis Felipe Zavala MacGregor was murdered in gang-related violence.  Mariana Gomez del Campo, another cousin of her, became president of the National Action Party of Mexico City amid allegations of electoral fraud by other party members. They also accused her of misappropriation of public money from the party's budget, and nepotism as she appointed her own sister, Teresa Gomez del Campo to the local Mexican Youth Institute, known by its acronym in Spanish IMJUVE with a monthly salary of $28,125 pesos which is almost the double of an average salary in Mexico City.

Post-Calderón presidency.

Speculations surrounding Zavala's political career began after her husband's presidency ended. She was eyed as the possible leader of the National Action Party, as well as a potential presidential candidate in 2018, though in 2013 she declined both.  In September 2014, after two years as private citizen, Zavala revealed her intentions of becoming a candidate for the Mexican Chamber of Deputies. On January 2015, Zavala formally registered as a pre-candidate for a term as a Federal Deputy, through the means of proportional representation in the fourth constituency, stating that Mexico required a Congress capable of balancing power. She was backed by several members of her party, including former presidential candidate Josefina Vázquez Mota. However, she was left out of the first 15 places in the PAN's national list, significantly reducing her chances of winning a position in Congress.  A day later, she announced that she would seek the presidency of the PAN, stating that the party needed to change. In February, however, she left open the possibility of running for president in 2018.  Zavala campaigned for various PAN candidates at municipal and state levels during the 2013, 2015, 2016 and 2017 election cycles.

2018 presidential campaign.

On 14 June 2015, Zavala released a video announcing her desire to run as a presidential candidate in 2018.  While attending the Guadalajara International Book Fair, she was asked for the three books that impacted her life (commonly asked to presidential candidates), to which she answered: the Bible, "The Price of My Soul" by Bernadette Devlin and "Caudillos culturales en la Revolución Mexicana" by Enrique Krauze.  Zavala was consistently been the among likely PAN presidential candidates between March 2016 and April 2017. She released her financial records in December 2016.  On May 16, 2018, Zavala publicly withdrew her name from the ticket, ending her presidential campaign.

Political stances.

Zavala was a proponent for constitutional amendments that would have allowed politicians to seek reelection. Congress members were allowed to seek reelection since 2014 (four terms for the lower house and two for the upper house, total of 12 years, while the president remains limited to one term).  Zavala opposes abortion; with her only political declaration during her time as First Lady being the condemnation of the legalization of abortion in Mexico City.  Following the Supreme Court's June 2015 declaration of state laws defining marriage as unconstitutional, Zavala was asked her stance on the matter in an interview on "Al Punto" to which she responded: the Court has been clear on same-sex marriage, including on a previous challenge to Mexico City's civil code, various resolutions make it jurisprudence and "I do not have any problem". However, during an event in which she was collecting signatures for her independent candidacy, a lesbian couple with children approached her, while they were recorded, they introduced themselves to her and, as the recording shows, Zavala's immediate reaction was of shock followed by instructing the person recording to put it off saying "this is something different", then she turned again at the couple and told them "I believe..." and the recording ends abruptly. She was criticized by the media, and was asked again to clarify her position on same-sex marriage which caused her to say she regretted having done that.

Personal life.

After six years of dating, she married Felipe Calderón in January 1993. They have three children: María (born 1997), Luis Felipe (born 1999) and Juan Pablo (born 2003).  Zavala is a Roman Catholic.  On 13 June 2012, Zavala underwent surgery in her right eye to avoid retinal detachment from an injury; she was submitted to emergency surgery following a retinal detachment on 18 October 2016.

Public image.

Zavala became known for wearing rebozos, a traditional shawl. Her austere personality during her time as First Lady was contrasted with the frequently outspoken Marta Sahagún. Zavala's political discreteness was seen as intentional to avoid the scrutiny Sahagún received for her prominence in the Fox administration.

Margarita Zavala de Calderón (; born Margarita Ester Zavala Gómez del Campo. on 25 July 1967) is a Mexican lawyer and politician. She is the wife of the former President of Mexico Felipe Calderón and served as the First Lady of Mexico during her husband's tenure. Zavala also ran as an independent candidate for the presidency of Mexico between 12 October 2017 and 16 May 2018.

Margarita Ester Zavala Gómez del Campo, née le à Mexico, Mexique, est une avocate et personnalité politique mexicaine, membre du Parti action nationale (PAN). Elle est la Première dame du Mexique de 2006 à 2012.