Early life and education.

Sennett grew up in the Cabrini Green housing project in Chicago, to a Jewish family of Russian emigres. As a child he trained in music, studying the cello and conducting, working with Claus Adam of the Juilliard String Quartet and the conductor Pierre Monteux. When a hand injury put an end to his musical career, he entered academia. He studied under David Riesman, Erik Erikson, and Oscar Handlin at Harvard, graduating with his Ph.D. in the History of American Civilization in 1969. His intellectual life as an urbanist came into focus during the time he spent as a fellow of the Joint Center for Urban Studies of Harvard and MIT.

Career.

Sennett's scholarly writing centers on the development of cities, the nature of work in modern society, and the sociology of culture. "Families Against the City", his earliest book, examines the relationship between family and work in 19th-century Chicago. A subsequent quartet of books explores urban life more largely: "The Uses of Disorder", an essay on identity formation in cities; "The Fall of Public Man", a history of public culture and public space, particularly in London, Paris, and New York in the 18th and 19th Centuries; "The Conscience of the Eye", a study of how Renaissance urban design passed into modern city planning, and "Flesh and Stone", an overview of the design of cities from ancient to modern times.  Another quartet of books is devoted to labor. "The Hidden Injuries of Class" is a study of class consciousness among working-class families in Boston; "The Corrosion of Character" explores how new forms of work are changing our communal and personal experience; "Respect" probes the relation of work and reforms of the welfare system; and "The Culture of the New Capitalism" provides an overview of these changes. "Authority" is an essay in political theory; it addresses the tools of interpretation by which we recast raw power into either legitimate or illegitimate authority.  Sennett is working on a project called 'Homo Faber,' exploring material ways of making culture. The first book in this series is "The Craftsman", published in 2008; subsequent volumes are "Together: The Rituals, Pleasures, and Politics of Cooperation", published in 2012, and "Building and Dwelling: Ethics for the City" (2018) on the making of the urban environment.  In the public realm, Sennett founded, and directed for a decade, the New York Institute of the Humanities at New York University. Sennett then chaired a United Nations commission on urban development and design. As president of the American Council on Work, Sennett led a forum, sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation, for researchers trying to understand the changing pattern of American labor. Most recently he helped create, and has chaired, the LSE Cities Programme at the London School of Economics. The Urban Age project also emerged as a product of the research and ideas by Sennett and others at LSE Cities. In 2006, he served as Chair of the jury of the Venice Biennale.

Personal life.

Sennett has been married to sociologist Saskia Sassen since 1987.

Selected works.

Fiction  Literature on Richard Sennett

Richard Sennett (born 1 January 1943) is the Centennial Professor of Sociology at the London School of Economics and former University Professor of the Humanities at New York University. He is currently a Senior Fellow of the Center on Capitalism and Society at Columbia University. Sennett has studied social ties in cities, and the effects of urban living on individuals in the modern world.

Richard Sennett, né le à Chicago, est un sociologue et historien américain qui enseigne à la London School of Economics et à l'université de New York, également romancier et musicien. Poussé vers la sociologie par Hannah Arendt, il reconnaît l'influence fondamentale de Michel Foucault sur son travail. Il est fondateur du New York Institute for the Humanities.


Early life and career.

Badoglio was born in 1871. His father, Mario Badoglio, was a modest landowner, and his mother, Antonietta Pittarelli, was of middle class background. On 5 October 1888 he was admitted to the Royal Military Academy in Turin. He received the rank of Second Lieutenant in 1890. In 1892, he finished his studies and was promoted to Lieutenant.  After completing his studies, he served with the Italian Army from 1892, at first as a Lieutenant ("Tenente") in artillery, taking part in the early Italian colonial wars in Eritrea (1896), and in Libya (1912).

World War I.

At the beginning of Italian participation in World War I, he was a Lieutenant Colonel ("Tenente Colonnello"); he rose to the rank of Major General following his handling of the capture of Monte Sabotino in May 1916 and by the late months of 1917, by now already a Lieutenant General, was named as Vice Chief-of-Staff ("Sottocapo di Stato Maggiore") despite being one of those mainly responsible for the disaster during the Battle of Caporetto on 24 October 1917.  With regard to the Battle of Caporetto, although he was blamed in various quarters for his disposition of the forces under his command before the battle, a commission of inquiry rejected most of the criticisms made upon him. In the years after World War I in which he held several high posts in the Italian Army, Badoglio exerted a constant effort in modifying official documents in order to hide his role in the defeat.

Italian "Pacification of Libya".

Post-war, Badoglio was named as a Senator, but also remained in the army with special assignments to Romania and the U.S. in 1920 and 1921. At first, he opposed Benito Mussolini and after 1922 was side-lined as ambassador to Brazil. A change of political heart soon returned him to Italy and a senior role in the army as Chief of Staff from 4 May 1925. On 25 June 1926, Badoglio was promoted to the rank of Marshal of Italy ("Maresciallo d'Italia").  Badoglio was the first unique governor of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (later formed Italian Libya) from 1929 to 1933. During his governorship, he played a vital part (with Rodolfo Graziani, deputy governor of Cyrenaica) in defeating the Libyan Resistance by waging a near-genocidal campaign. On 20 June 1930, Badoglio wrote to General Graziani: "As for overall strategy, it is necessary to create a significant and clear separation between the controlled population and the rebel formations. I do not hide the significance and seriousness of this measure, which might be the ruin of the subdued population... But now the course has been set, and we must carry it out to the end, even if the entire population of Cyrenaica must perish". By 1931, well over half of the population of Cyrenaica were confined to 15 concentration camps where many died as result of overcrowding together with a lack of water, food and medicine while Badoglio had the Air Force use chemical warfare against the Bedouin rebels in the desert. On 24 January 1932 (third anniversary of his appointment), Badoglio proclaimed the end of Libyan resistance for the first time since the Italian invasion in 1911.

Italian invasion of Ethiopia.

On 3 October 1935, because the progress of De Bono's invasion of Abyssinia was judged to be too slow by Mussolini, Badoglio, who had in the meantime launched an epistolary campaign against Emilio de Bono, replaced de Bono as the commander. Badoglio asked for and was given permission to use chemical warfare, using as a pretext the torture and murder of downed Italian pilot Tito Minniti during the Ethiopian "Christmas Offensive". The British historian Ian Kershaw wrote the "barbarous initiatives in the conduct of the war" in Ethiopia "came as a rule from the military elite rather than from Mussolini himself, through the Duce certainly gave the orders for measures of gross inhumanity".  He employed mustard gas to effectively destroy the Ethiopian armies confronting him on the northern front. Badoglio commanded the Italian invasion army at the First Battle of Tembien, the Battle of Amba Aradam, the Second Battle of Tembien, and the Battle of Shire. On 31 March 1936, Badoglio defeated Emperor Haile Selassie commanding the last Ethiopian army on the northern front at the Battle of Maychew. On 26 April, with no Ethiopian resistance left between his forces and Addis Ababa, Badoglio launched his "March of the Iron Will" to take the Ethiopian capital city and end the war. By 2 May, Haile Selassie had fled the country.  On 5 May 1936, Marshal Badoglio led the victorious Italian troops into Addis Ababa. Mussolini declared King Victor Emmanuel to be the Emperor of Ethiopia, and Ethiopia became part of the Italian Empire. On this occasion, Badoglio was appointed the first Viceroy and Governor General of Ethiopia and ennobled with the victory title of "Duke of Addis Abeba" ad personam.  On 11 June 1936, Rodolfo Graziani replaced Badoglio as Viceroy and Governor General of Ethiopia. Badoglio returned to his duties as the Supreme Chief of the Italian General Staff. According to "Time" magazine, Badoglio even joined the Fascist Party in early June.

World War II.

Badoglio was Chief of Staff from 1925 to 1940, and it was he who had the final say on the entire structure of the Armed Forces, including doctrine, selection of officers, armaments, during that period, influencing the whole military environment. Badoglio was not in favour of the Italian-German Pact of Steel and was pessimistic about the chances of Italian success in any European war. Despite such misgivings - he did not oppose the decision of Mussolini and the King to declare war on France and Great Britain. Following the Italian army's poor performance in the invasion of Greece in December 1940, he resigned from the General Staff. Badoglio was replaced by Ugo Cavallero.  By early 1943, there was a wide held belief by the military elite, that Italy needed to sign an armistice in order to exit the war. Mussolini needed to go, as he was neither willing to sign an armistice nor were the Allies willing to sign an armistice with him. The two men considered to replace Mussolini, were Marshal Badoglio and Marshal Enrico Caviglia. As Marshal Caviglia was one of the few officers of the "Regio Esercito" who was known to dislike Fascism, the king was unwilling to have him as prime minister. Victor Emmanuel wanted an officer who was committed to continuing the Fascist system, which led him to choose Badoglio who had faithfully served Mussolini and committed an array of atrocities in Ethiopia, but who had a grudge against "Il Duce" for making him the scapegoat for the failed invasion of Greece in 1940. Moreover, Badoglio was an opportunist well known for his sycophancy towards those in power, which led the king to choose him as Mussolini's successor as he knew that Badoglio would do anything to have power whereas Caviglia had a reputation as a man of principle and honor. On 15 July 1943, in a secret meeting Victor Emmanuel told Badoglio that he would soon be sworn in as Italy's new prime minister and the king wanted no "ghosts" (i.e liberal politicians from the pre-fascist era) in his cabinet.  On 24 July 1943, as Italy had suffered several setbacks following the Allied invasion of Sicily in World War II, Mussolini summoned the Fascist Grand Council, which voted no confidence in Mussolini. The following day "Il Duce" was removed from government by King Victor Emmanuel III and arrested. On 3 September 1943, General Giuseppe Castellano signed the Italian armistice with the Allies in Cassibile on behalf of Badoglio, who was named Prime Minister of Italy. Wary of the potentially hostile German response to the Armistice, Badoglio hesitated to formally announce the treaty.  On 8 September 1943, the armistice document was published by the Allies in the Badoglio Proclamation, before Badoglio could communicate news of the switch to the Italian armed forces. The units of the Italian Royal Army, Royal Navy, and Royal Air Force were generally surprised by the switch and unprepared for German actions to disarm them. In the early hours of the following day, 9 September 1943, Badoglio, King Victor Emmanuel, some military ministers, and the Chief of the General Staff escaped to Pescara and Brindisi seeking Allied protection.  On 23 September 1943, the longer version of the armistice was signed in Malta. On 13 October, Badoglio and the Kingdom of Italy officially declared war on Nazi Germany. Badoglio continued to head the government for another nine months.  On 9 June 1944, following the German rescue of Mussolini, the capture of Rome by the allies, and increasingly strong opposition to his government, Badoglio was replaced by Ivanoe Bonomi of the Labour Democratic Party.

Final years.

Due to increased tensions with the Soviet Union, the British government saw Badoglio as a guarantor of an anti-communist post-war Italy. Consequently, Badoglio was never tried for Italian war crimes committed in Africa.  Badoglio died in Grazzano Badoglio on 1 November 1956.

Pietro Badoglio, 1st Duke of Addis Abeba, 1st Marquess of Sabotino (, ; 28 September 1871 – 1 November 1956), was an Italian general during both World Wars and the first viceroy of Italian East Africa. With the fall of the Fascist regime in Italy, he became Prime Minister of Italy.

Pietro Badoglio, né le à Grazzano Monferrato (Piémont) où il est mort le (la ville ayant été rebaptisée Grazzano Badoglio en son honneur en 1939), est un militaire et homme d'État italien, président du Conseil de 1943 à 1944.


Name.

Mes-gegra is mentioned in "Cormac's glossary", only to state that "Mes" signifies 'edge' or 'blade'.  Mes-gegra shared this Mes- prefix with his siblings and father.  Margaret E. Dobbs guesses that Mesgegra would have originally meant "warrior (or sword) of Cecra". In Ancient Chaldea, "Mes-" meaning "hero or champions" appears in the roster of kings, and this Chaldean word derived from Sumerian "mas" 'cut, divide' or "mâsu" 'warrior'. Dobbs ventured that the Irish Mes- name convention could have been borrowed from that far region.

Genealogy.

Mesgegra (Messcegra), Mesroida (Mesreta), Mesdana, Mesdomnand are named as siblings in the poem "Cethri meic Airtt Mis-Telmann" ("four sons of Art Mes-Telmann") Their father Art is said to have belonged to the tribe of Domnann, and the settlement of the British Dumnonii in East Leinster appears to be incontrovertible historical fact.  Mesgegra was a King of Leinster, Mesroidia a wealthy "brugaid" of Leinster also known as Mac-Da-Tho, Mesdana, a warrior, and Mesdomnand, a poet according to the stated poem. Mesroída aka Mac Datho  Mesroída who was the "brugaid" (hospitaller, from "brug" "hostel") was of course the titular figure of "Scéla Muicce Mac Dáthó" "The Tale of Mac Da Thó's Pig", and the final strophe of the poem recapitulates that story by telling of the pig and hound and the banquet and the "Four times seven fifties" who died in the mansion.

Life and death.

Mesgegra (Mess-gegra) was king of Leinster (North Leinster), whose parents were deaf and mute; his brother was named Mes-Róidia ("var." Mes roida).  To Leinster arrived the Ulster poet Athirne, who had been dispatched from his king Conchobar mac Nessa and was making circuit around Ireland to exact ruthless demands of precious jewels, or women, or even an eye, on pain of receiving the poet's invective and dishonor. The poet intended to goad the Leinstermen into killing him, thereby causing war between Leinster and Ulster, so he named an impossible bribe, a lost buried heirloom jewel, but that was fortuitously found and given him.  Mesgegra yielded his wife Buan to the poet for a night, but did not have his wife taken away afterwards, although he had to make a binding promise that she would be given to whichever Ulsterman arrived bearing Mesgegra's head. The poet then carried away him 150 wives of Leinstermen, so that the Leinster army did give pursuit, and clashed with the Ulster army. The ensuing battle, the Siege of Howth, was a bloody stalemate which ceased when Leinster retreated and erected a red wall as barrier, which Ulstermen were forbidden from crossing (due to a "geis").  Mesgegra was incautiously tarrying with just his gillie in his company at a spot called Cassán Chlóinta (Path of Clane), where a strange incident unfolds. A giant nut larger than a man's head floats down the stream, which Mesgegra takes and halves with a knife. The gillie wakes up claiming to have had an evil vision, and asks if his half of the nut was saved, then slashes off the king's hand without properly confirming. Learning his mistake afterwards, the gillie commits suicide. The one-handed Mesgegra, forced to act as his own charioteer, is met with worse luck when he encounters the Ulster warrior Conall Cernach, who was seeking revenge for two fallen brothers in the earlier battle. To make it a fair fight, Conall fought him with one hand tied to his side. Conall is triumphant and carries Mesgegara's severed head to Leinster, hoping to claim Mesgegra's queen as his prize (as the poet predicted), but she falls dead in sorrow.  Mesgegra's head was hollowed out, and the brain mixed with lime for Connall to take back to Ulster's capital Emain Macha as trophy.  Mesgegra's calcified brain became Connal's bragging piece in Ulster. Mesgegra's brain was later stolen by Cet Mat Matach (Cet mac Mágach) of Connacht as it was prophesied that Mesgegra would eventually avenge himself even in death. Cet shot the brain-ball and lodged in the head, resulting in a horrific injury. Mesgegra's brain ball made Conchobar unable to over-exert himself, but he still survive the injury another 7 years, when the brain-ball dislodged with Conchobar's excitement at trying to rally an army to avenge the crucifixion of Christ.  It is worth mentioning that Cet had been outdone and shamed by Connal (and the Connachtsmen shamed by the Ulstermen in general by Connal's administration of the "curadmír" or "Champion's Portion" in the "Scéla Muicce Meicc Dá Thó"), and the trouble-making hosteller named Mac Dá Thó of Leinster, also called Mesroeda, is identified as a brother of Mesgegera the king.

Comparative analyses.

Mesgegra's brain-ball has been likened to the "táthlum" or "táthluib" "sling-stone", such as the Lugh's sling-stone which was a hardened ball of blood and sand.  The one-handed () Mesgegra fighting Connal with a hand tied has been paralleled with Nuada of the Silver Arm and his arm-cutting foe Sreng whose name can mean "cord" or "tug away", as well as with the Norse god Týr who lost one hand in order to bind Fenris wolf. The one-handed figure appears alongside a one-eyed () Eochaid mac Luchta, the king of South Connacht, whose Norse counterpart is Óðinn. Scowcroft conjectures there was some wisdom-gaining underlying theme, similar to Óðinn losing an eye in Mimir's Well, as the strange nut that Mesgegra ate is reminiscent of the hazelnut of water-pool of Segais which imparted wisdom to the Salmon of Knowledge.

In Irish mythology, Mesgegra (Mess-gegra, Mes Gegra, Mes Gedra) was king of Leinster during the events of the Ulster Cycle, and was also the brother of Mac Da Thó aka Mes Róidia in "The Tale of Mac Da Thó's Pig".

Mesgegra, dans la mythologie celtique irlandaise, est un roi de Leinster, qui appartient au « cycle d'Ulster ». Sa femme Buân ayant été enlevée par le druide Athirne et les guerriers Ulates (habitants d’Ulster), il assiège Dun Etair, tue Athirne, mais subit une sérieuse défaite de la part de Conall Cernach. Resté seul avec son cocher, celui-ci lui coupe la main au cours d’une dispute futile ; en proie à la honte, le serviteur se suicide. Arrivée de Conall qui le défie en combat singulier et, par respect des forces, demande qu’on lui entrave un bras. Mesgegra est tué, sa tête coupée et récupérée par sa veuve dont elle fait de la cervelle, une arme redoutable : une balle de fronde. Cette balle, lancée par Cêt Mac Magach tuera le roi Conchobar Mac Nessa.


Discovery.

Because of interstellar dust along the line of sight, the Galactic Center cannot be studied at visible, ultraviolet, or soft (low-energy) X-ray wavelengths. The available information about the Galactic Center comes from observations at gamma ray, hard (high-energy) X-ray, infrared, submillimetre, and radio wavelengths.  Immanuel Kant stated in "General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens" (1755) that a large star was at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy, and that Sirius might be the star. Harlow Shapley stated in 1918 that the halo of globular clusters surrounding the Milky Way seemed to be centered on the star swarms in the constellation of Sagittarius, but the dark molecular clouds in the area blocked the view for optical astronomy. In the early 1940s Walter Baade at Mount Wilson Observatory took advantage of wartime blackout conditions in nearby Los Angeles to conduct a search for the center with the Hooker Telescope. He found that near the star Alnasl (Gamma Sagittarii) there is a one-degree-wide void in the interstellar dust lanes, which provides a relatively clear view of the swarms of stars around the nucleus of our Milky Way Galaxy. This gap has been known as Baade's Window ever since.  At Dover Heights in Sydney, Australia, a team of radio astronomers from the Division of Radiophysics at the CSIRO, led by Joseph Lade Pawsey, used'sea interferometry' to discover some of the first interstellar and intergalactic radio sources, including Taurus A, Virgo A and Centaurus A. By 1954 they had built an fixed dish antenna and used it to make a detailed study of an extended, extremely powerful belt of radio emission that was detected in Sagittarius. They named an intense point-source near the center of this belt Sagittarius A, and realised that it was located at the very center of our Galaxy, despite being some 32 degrees south-west of the conjectured galactic center of the time.  In 1958 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) decided to adopt the position of Sagittarius A as the true zero co-ordinate point for the system of galactic latitude and longitude. In the equatorial coordinate system the location is: RA, Dec (J2000 epoch).

Distance to the Galactic Center.

The exact distance between the Solar System and the Galactic Center is not certain, although estimates since 2000 have remained within the range. The latest estimates from geometric-based methods and standard candles yield the following distances to the Galactic Center: An accurate determination of the distance to the Galactic Center as established from variable stars (e.g. RR Lyrae variables) or standard candles (e.g. red-clump stars) is hindered by countless effects, which include: an ambiguous reddening law; a bias for smaller values of the distance to the Galactic Center because of a preferential sampling of stars toward the near side of the Galactic bulge owing to interstellar extinction; and an uncertainty in characterizing how a mean distance to a group of variable stars found in the direction of the Galactic bulge relates to the distance to the Galactic Center.  The nature of the Milky Way's bar, which extends across the Galactic Center, is also actively debated, with estimates for its half-length and orientation spanning between 1–5 kpc (short or a long bar) and 10–50°. Certain authors advocate that the Milky Way features two distinct bars, one nestled within the other. The bar is delineated by red-clump stars (see also red giant); however, RR Lyrae variables do not trace a prominent Galactic bar. The bar may be surrounded by a ring called the "5-kpc ring" that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the Milky Way, and most of the Milky Way's star formation activity. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest feature of the Milky Way.

Supermassive black hole.

The complex astronomical radio source Sagittarius A appears to be located almost exactly at the Galactic Center (approx. 18 hrs, −29 deg), and contains an intense compact radio source, Sagittarius A*, which coincides with a supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way. Accretion of gas onto the black hole, probably involving an accretion disk around it, would release energy to power the radio source, itself much larger than the black hole. The latter is too small to see with present instruments. A study in 2008 which linked radio telescopes in Hawaii, Arizona and California (Very Long Baseline Interferometry) measured the diameter of Sagittarius A* to be 44 million kilometers (0.3 AU). For comparison, the radius of Earth's orbit around the Sun is about 150 million kilometers (1.0 AU), whereas the distance of Mercury from the Sun at closest approach (perihelion) is 46 million kilometers (0.3 AU). Thus, the diameter of the radio source is slightly less than the distance from Mercury to the Sun.  Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany using Chilean telescopes have confirmed the existence of a supermassive black hole at the Galactic Center, on the order of 4.3 million solar masses.  On 5 January 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record-breaker, from Sagittarius A*. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A*, according to astronomers.

Stellar population.

The central cubic parsec around Sagittarius A* contains around 10 million stars. Although most of them are old red giant stars, the Galactic Center is also rich in massive stars. More than 100 OB and Wolf–Rayet stars have been identified there so far. They seem to have all been formed in a single star formation event a few million years ago. The existence of these relatively young stars was a surprise to experts, who expected the tidal forces from the central black hole to prevent their formation. This "paradox of youth" is even stronger for stars that are on very tight orbits around Sagittarius A*, such as S2 and S0-102. The scenarios invoked to explain this formation involve either star formation in a massive star cluster offset from the Galactic Center that would have migrated to its current location once formed, or star formation within a massive, compact gas accretion disk around the central black-hole. Current evidence favors the latter theory, as formation through a large accretion disk is more likely to lead to the observed discrete edge of the young stellar cluster at roughly 0.5 parsec. Most of these 100 young, massive stars seem to be concentrated within one or two disks, rather than randomly distributed within the central parsec. This observation however does not allow definite conclusions to be drawn at this point.  Star formation does not seem to be occurring currently at the Galactic Center, although the Circumnuclear Disk of molecular gas that orbits the Galactic Center at two parsecs seems a fairly favorable site for star formation. Work presented in 2002 by Antony Stark and Chris Martin mapping the gas density in a 400-light-year region around the Galactic Center has revealed an accumulating ring with a mass several million times that of the Sun and near the critical density for star formation. They predict that in approximately 200 million years there will be an episode of starburst in the Galactic Center, with many stars forming rapidly and undergoing supernovae at a hundred times the current rate. This starburst may also be accompanied by the formation of galactic relativistic jets as matter falls into the central black hole. It is thought that the Milky Way undergoes a starburst of this sort every 500 million years.  In addition to the paradox of youth, there is also a "conundrum of old age" associated with the distribution of the old stars at the Galactic Center. Theoretical models had predicted that the old stars—which far outnumber young stars—should have a steeply-rising density near the black hole, a so-called Bahcall–Wolf cusp. Instead, it was discovered in 2009 that the density of the old stars peaks at a distance of roughly 0.5 parsec from Sgr A*, then falls inward: instead of a dense cluster, there is a "hole", or core, around the black hole. Several suggestions have been put forward to explain this puzzling observation, but none is completely satisfactory. For instance, although the black hole would eat stars near it, creating a region of low density, this region would be much smaller than a parsec. Because the observed stars are a fraction of the total number, it is theoretically possible that the overall stellar distribution is different from what is observed, although no plausible models of this sort have been proposed yet.

Gamma- and X-ray emitting Fermi bubbles.

In November 2010, it was announced that two large elliptical lobe structures of energetic plasma, termed "bubbles", which emit gamma- and X-rays, were detected astride the Milky Way galaxy's core. These so-called "Fermi bubbles" extend up to about 25,000 light years above and below the galactic center. The galaxy's diffuse gamma-ray fog hampered prior observations, but the discovery team led by D. Finkbeiner, building on research by G. Dobler, worked around this problem. The 2014 Bruno Rossi Prize went to Tracy Slatyer, Douglas Finkeiner, and Meng Su "for their discovery, in gamma rays, of the large unanticipated Galactic structure called the "Fermi bubbles"".  The origin of the bubbles is being researched. The bubbles are connected and seemingly coupled, via energy transport, to the galactic core by columnar structures of energetic plasma dubbed "chimneys". They were seen in visible light and optical measurements were made for the first time in 2020.

The Galactic Center (or Galactic Centre) is the rotational center of the Milky Way galaxy; it is a supermassive black hole of 4.100 ± 0.034 million solar masses which powers the compact radio source Sagittarius A*. It is away from Earth in the direction of the constellations Sagittarius, Ophiuchus, and Scorpius where the Milky Way appears brightest.

Le centre galactique est le centre de rotation du disque de la Voie lactée, galaxie comprenant la planète Terre. Il est situé à une distance de, soit, du Soleil dans la région lumineuse la plus étendue de la Voie lactée, dans la direction de la constellation zodiacale du Sagittaire.


Etymology.

"Feijoa sellowiana" Berg is from the genus which the German botanist, Ernst Berger, named after João da Silva Feijó, a Portuguese naturalist, and the specific name honors Friedrich Sellow, a German who first collected specimens of feijoa in southern Brazil. It has been nicknamed "pineapple guava", "Brazilian guava", "fig guava" or "guavasteen" among different countries.

Fruit.

The fruit, known as feijoa maturing in autumn, is green, ellipsoid, and about the size of a chicken egg. It has a sweet, aromatic flavour, which tastes like pineapple, apple and mint. The flesh is juicy and is divided into a clear, gelatinous seed pulp and a firmer, slightly granular, opaque flesh nearer the skin. The fruit falls to the ground when ripe and at its fullest flavour, but it may be picked from the tree prior to falling to prevent bruising.  The fruit pulp resembles the closely related guava, having a gritty texture. The feijoa pulp is used in some natural cosmetic products as an exfoliant. Feijoa fruit has a distinctive, potent smell that resembles that of a fine perfume. The aroma is due to the ester methyl benzoate and related compounds that exist in the fruit.

Growing conditions.

It is a warm-temperate to subtropical plant that also will grow in the tropics, but requires at least 50 hours of winter chilling to fruit, and is frost-tolerant. When grown from seed, feijoas are noted for slow growth during their first year or two, and young plants, though cold tolerant, can be sensitive to high wind.  In the Northern Hemisphere, this species has been cultivated as far north as western Scotland, but under such conditions it does not fruit every year, as winter temperatures below approximately kill the flower buds. Summer temperatures above may also have an adverse effect upon fruit set. Feijoas are somewhat tolerant of drought and salt in soils, though fruit production can be adversely affected. Tolerant to partial shade, regular watering is essential while fruit is maturing.

Cultivation.

Some grafted cultivars of feijoa are self-fertile. Most are not, and require a pollinator. Seedlings may or may not be of usable quality, and may or may not be self-fertile. Feijoas will mature into a sprawly shrub, but can be kept successfully as a large container plant, though accommodations will need to be made for the width of the plants, and the need to encourage new growth for fruit production.  Feijoas are occasionally found as landscape plants in Texas, Florida, California, and the maritime Pacific Northwest. They can succeed in greenhouses in temperate parts of the United States, and have been grown in-ground as fruiting trees on the United States east coast in coastal Georgia and South Carolina as well as in California. Other regions of the United States such as the southernmost Appalachian Mountains, and the immediate coastal region from North Carolina to Delaware would warrant further investigation. Large quantities of the fruit are grown in New Zealand where it is a popular garden tree and commonly available in season from March to June. In New Zealand, the pollinators of this plant are bees, bumblebees, and medium-sized birds. The silvereye is a pollinator in the cooler parts of the South Island; the blackbird and the Indian myna, which feeds on the sweet, fleshy flower petals, are pollinators further north. In some areas where the species has been introduced, however, the trees have been unproductive due to lack of pollinators. The shrub has very few insect pests, although guava moth is a problem in northern New Zealand.  In the South Caucasus, feijoa has been cultivated in the southern coastal region of Azerbaijan since 1928; cultivation in neighboring Georgia has gradually increased to about 988 hectares in 1986.

Sale and shipping.

Ripe fruit is prone to bruising; difficulty maintaining the fruit in good condition for any length of time, along with the short period of optimum ripeness and full flavor, probably explains why feijoas frequently are not exported, and where grown commercially, are typically sold close to the source of the crop. However, intercontinental shipping of feijoa by sea or air has been successful.  Because of the relatively short shelf life, storekeepers need to be careful to replace older fruit regularly to ensure high quality. In some countries, they also may be purchased at roadside stalls, often at a lower price.  Feijoas may be cool-stored for approximately a month and still have a few days of shelf life at optimum eating maturity. They also may be frozen for up to one year without a loss in quality.

Consumption.

Nutrition.

100 grams of raw feijoa provides 55 calories and is 13% carbohydrates, 8% sugars, and 1% each of fat and protein. The raw fruit is an excellent source of vitamin C, providing 40% of the daily value, but supplies no other nutrients in significant amount.

Food uses.

Although the skin is edible, the fruit usually is eaten by cutting it in half, then scooping out the pulp with a spoon. The fruit has a juicy, sweet seed pulp and slightly gritty flesh nearer the skin. Feijoa may be torn or bitten in half and the contents squeezed out and consumed. An alternative method is to bite the end off and then tear the fruit in half length-wise, exposing a larger surface with less curvature and using one's teeth to scrape the pulp out closer to the skin.  A feijoa may be used as an interesting addition to a fruit smoothie and may be used to make wine or cider and feijoa-infused vodka. The flavour is aromatic, strong and complex, inviting comparison with guava, strawberry, pineapple, and often containing a faint wintergreen-like aftertaste. It also is possible to buy feijoa yogurt, fruit drinks, jam, ice cream, and such in New Zealand. It also may be cooked and used in dishes where one would use stewed fruit. It is a popular ingredient in chutney. The very strong, complex flavour can make using feijoas, in combination with other fruits or vegetables, a creative and complex undertaking.  Fruit maturity is not always apparent visually, as the fruits remain the same shade of green until they are overripe or rotting. One usually may sense ripeness, however, by giving the fruit a soft squeeze; a ripe feijoa yields to pressure somewhat like a just-ripe banana. Generally, the fruit is at its optimum ripeness the day it drops from the tree. While still hanging, it may well prove bitter; once fallen, however, the fruit very quickly becomes overripe, so daily collection of fallen fruit is advisable during the season.  The flower petals are edible, with a slightly sweet flavor with hints of cinnamon. The most common use is as an addition to salads. They are regularly consumed by birds.

Varieties.

Numerous cultivars of feijoa have been developed.

Acca sellowiana – a species of flowering plant in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae – is native to the highlands of southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, Uruguay, northern Argentina, and Colombia. It is widely cultivated as an ornamental tree and for its fruit. Common names include feijoa (, ), pineapple guava and guavasteen, although it is not a true guava. It is an evergreen, perennial shrub or small tree, in height.

Le Feijoa (Acca sellowiana, synonymes : "Feijoa sellowiana", "Orthostemon sellowianus"), aussi appelé Goyavier du Brésil, Goyavier de Montevideo, Goyave-ananas, est un arbuste fruitier de la famille des Myrtacées, originaire d'Amérique du Sud (Colombie, Uruguay, Brésil, Argentine, et Paraguay) et utilisable en haie.


History.

From an acoustic point of view, phonetics had a serious problem with the idea that length of vocal tract changed vowels. It was unclear how they could depend on frequencies when everyone from bass to soprano can make the same vowels. There had to be some way to normalize the frequencies. Hermann suggested a solution to this problem in 1894, coining the term “formant”. A vowel, according to him, is a special acoustic phenomenon, depending on the intermittent production of a special partial, or “formant”, or “characteristique”. The frequency of the “formant” may vary a little without altering the character of the vowel. For "a", for example, the “formant” may vary from 350 to 440 Hz even in the same person.

Phonetics.

Formants are distinctive frequency components of the acoustic signal produced by speech or singing. The information that humans require to distinguish between speech sounds can be represented purely quantitatively by specifying peaks in the amplitude or frequency spectrum. Most of these formants are produced by tube and chamber resonance, but a few whistle tones derive from periodic collapse of Venturi effect low-pressure zones. The formant with the lowest frequency is called "F", the second "F", and the third "F". Most often the two first formants, "F" and "F", are sufficient to identify the vowel. The relationship between the perceived vowel quality and the first two formant frequencies can be appreciated by listening to "artificial vowels" that are generated by passing a click train (to simulate the glottal pulse train) through a pair of bandpass filters (to simulate vocal tract resonances).  Nasal consonants usually have an additional formant around 2500 Hz. The liquid usually has an extra formant at 1500 Hz, whereas the English "r" sound () is distinguished by a very low third formant (well below 2000 Hz).  Plosives (and, to some degree, fricatives) modify the placement of formants in the surrounding vowels. Bilabial sounds (such as and in "ball" or "sap") cause a lowering of the formants; velar sounds ( and in English) almost always show "F" and "F" coming together in a'velar pinch' before the velar and separating from the same 'pinch' as the velar is released; alveolar sounds (English and ) cause fewer systematic changes in neighbouring vowel formants, depending partially on exactly which vowel is present. The time course of these changes in vowel formant frequencies are referred to as 'formant transitions'.  If the fundamental frequency of the underlying vibration is higher than a resonance frequency of the system, then the formant usually imparted by that resonance will be mostly lost. This is most apparent in the example of soprano opera singers, who sing high enough that their vowels become very hard to distinguish.  Control of resonances is an essential component of the vocal technique known as overtone singing, in which the performer sings a low fundamental tone, and creates sharp resonances to select upper harmonics, giving the impression of several tones being sung at once.  Spectrograms may be used to visualise formants. In spectrograms, it can be hard to distinguish formants from naturally occurring harmonics when one sings. However, one can hear the natural formants in a vowel shape through atonal techniques such as vocal fry.

Formant estimation.

Formants, whether they are seen as acoustic resonances of the vocal tract, or as local maxima in the speech spectrum, like band-pass filters, are defined by their frequency and by their spectral width.  Different methods exist to obtain these informations. Formant frequencies, in their acoustic definition, can be estimated from the frequency spectrum of the sound, using a spectrogram (in the figure) or a spectrum analyzer. However, to estimate the acoustic resonances of the vocal tract (i.e. the speech definition of formants) from a speech recording, one can use "linear predictive coding". An intermediate approach consists in extracting the spectral envelope by neutralizing the fundamental frequency, and only then looking for local maxima in the spectral envelope.

Formant plots.

The first two formants are important in determining the quality of vowels, and are frequently said to correspond to the open/close and front/back dimensions (which have traditionally, though not entirely accurately, been associated with the shape and position of the tongue). Thus the first formant "F" has a higher frequency for an open vowel (such as ) and a lower frequency for a close vowel (such as or ); and the second formant "F" has a higher frequency for a front vowel (such as ) and a lower frequency for a back vowel (such as ). as can be seen in Fig. 1. Vowels will almost always have four or more distinguishable formants; sometimes there are more than six. However, the first two formants are most important in determining vowel quality, and this is often displayed in terms of a plot of the first formant against the second formant, though this is not sufficient to capture some aspects of vowel quality, such as rounding. An example of how the vowels of a language or dialect may be plotted on a traditional auditory vowel chart and also on a formant plot may be seen in the case of Norwegian. Many writers have addressed the problem of finding an optimal alignment of the positions of vowels on formant plots with those on the conventional vowel quadrilateral. The pioneering work of Ladefoged used the Mel scale because this scale was claimed to correspond more closely to the auditory scale of pitch than to the acoustic measure of fundamental frequency expressed in Hertz as in Fig. 1. Two alternatives to the Mel scale are the Bark scale and the ERB-rate scale. A comparison of these three scales is shown by Hayward, p. 141, and formant plots based on the Hertz scale and on the Bark scale are compared on p. 153. Another strategy for improving formant plots that has been widely adopted is to plot on the horizontal axis not the value of F2 but the difference between F1 and F2 for a given vowel.

Singer's formant.

Studies of the frequency spectrum of trained classical singers, especially male singers, indicate a clear formant around 3000 Hz (between 2800 and 3400 Hz) that is absent in speech or in the spectra of untrained singers. It is thought to be associated with one or more of the higher resonances of the vocal tract. It is this increase in energy at 3000 Hz which allows singers to be heard and understood over an orchestra. This formant is actively developed through vocal training, for instance through so-called "voce di strega" or "witch's voice" exercises and is caused by a part of the vocal tract acting as a resonator. In classical music and vocal pedagogy, this phenomenon is also known as "squillo".

In speech science and phonetics, a formant is the spectral shaping that results from an acoustic resonance of the human vocal tract. However, in acoustics, the definition of a formant sometimes differs as it can be defined as a peak, or local maximum, in the spectrum. For harmonic sounds, with this definition, the formant frequency is therefore that of the harmonic partial that is augmented by a resonance. The difference between these two definitions resides in whether "formants" characterise the production mechanisms of a sound or the produced sound itself. In practice, the frequency of a spectral peak differs from the associated resonance frequency, except when, by luck, harmonics are aligned with the resonance frequency.

On désigne par formant (acoustique) d'un son de parole l'un des maxima d'énergie du spectre sonore de ce son de parole. Il y a plusieurs définitions du mot « formant » (résonances du conduit vocal, pôles).


Development.

By 1957, it was obvious that transatlantic travel was becoming dominated by air travel due to its speed and low cost relative to sea routes, with passenger numbers split 50:50 between sea and air transport. The increase in market share by air showed no signs of slowing down, especially once the Boeing 707 entered service in 1958. Conversely, and "Queen Elizabeth" were becoming increasingly expensive to operate, and both internally and externally were relics of the pre-war years and needed to be retired by the mid-1960s.  Despite falling passenger revenues, Cunard did not want to give up its traditional role as a provider of a North Atlantic passenger service, and so decided to replace the existing ageing "Queens" with a new ocean liner designated "Q3", as it would be the third Cunard Queen.  The Q3 was projected to measure 75,000 gross register tons, have berths for 2,270 passengers, and cost an estimated £30 million.  Work had proceeded as far

Design.

The interior and superstructure for the QE2 was designed by James Gardner. His design for the ocean liner was described by The Council of Industrial Design as that of a "very big yacht" and with a "look [that was] sleek, modern and purposeful".

Characteristics.

At the time of retirement, the ship had a gross tonnage of 70,327 and was long.

Hull.

The steel hull had a bulbous bow and was welded which

Superstructure.

Like both and, "QE2" had a flared stem and clean forecastle.  What was controversial at the time, was that Cunard decided not to paint the funnel with the line's distinctive colour and pattern, something that had been done on all merchant vessels since the first Cunard ship, the, sailed in 1840. Instead, the funnel was painted white and black, with the Cunard orange-red appearing only on the inside of the wind scoop. This practice ended in 1983 when "QE2" returned from service in the Falklands War, and the funnel has been repainted in Cunard traditional colours (orange and black), with black horizontal bands (known as "hands") ever since.  The original pencil-like funnel was rebuilt in 1986 as a more robust one, using metal from the original, when the ship was converted from steam to diesel power.  Large quantities of aluminium were used in the framing and cladding of "QE2"s superstructure. This

Interiors.

"Queen Elizabeth 2"s interior configuration was laid out in a horizontal fashion, similar to "France", where the spaces dedicated to the two classes were spread horizontally on specific decks, in contrast to the vertical class divisions of older liners. Where "QE2" differed from "France" was that the first class deck (Quarter Deck) was below the deck dedicated to tourist class (Upper Deck). Originally there were to be main lounges serving three classes, layered one atop the other, but when Cunard decided to make the ship a two class vessel, only two main lounges were needed.  Instead of completely reconfiguring the Boat Deck, the ship's architects simply opened a well in the deck between what were to have been the second and third class lounges, creating a double height space known as the Double

Artwork and artefacts.

The designers included numerous pieces of artwork within the public rooms of the ship, as well as maritime artefacts drawn from Cunard's long history of operating merchant vessels.  Althea Wynne’s sculpture of the "White Horses" of the Atlantic Ocean was installed in the Mauretania Restaurant. Two bronze busts were installed—one of Sir Samuel Cunard outside the Yacht Club, and one of Queen Elizabeth II in the Queen’s Room. Four life-size statues of human forms—created by sculptor Janine Janet in marine materials like shell and coral, representing the

Crew accommodation.

The majority of crew were accommodated in two- or four-berth cabins, with showers and toilets at the end of each alleyway. These were located forward and aft on decks three to six. At the time she entered service, the crew areas were a significant improvement over those aboard and ; however the ship's age and the lack of renovation of the crew area during her 40 years of service, in contrast to passenger areas, which were

Machinery.

"Queen Elizabeth 2" was originally fitted out with a steam turbine propulsion system utilising three Foster Wheeler E.S.D II boilers, which provided steam for the two Brown-Pametrada turbines. The turbines were rated with a maximum power output figure of 110,000 shaft horsepower (normally operating at 94,000 hp) and coupled via double-reduction gearing to two six-bladed fixed-pitch propellers.  The steam turbines were plagued with problems from the time the ship first entered service and, despite being technically advanced and fuel-efficient in 1968, her consumption of 600 tons of fuel oil every twenty four hours was more than expected for such a ship by the 1980s.

Construction.

On 30 December 1964, Cunard placed an order for construction of the new ship with John Brown and Company, who would build it at their shipyard in Clydebank, Scotland. The agreed price was £25,427,000 with provision for escalation of labour and materials increases, with an agreed delivery date of May 1968. To assist with its construction the British government provided financial assistance to Cunard in the form of a £17.6 million loan at 4.5% interest.  The keel was laid down on 5 July 1965, as hull number 736 on the same slipway where previous Cunard liners such as,, "Queen Mary", and "Queen Elizabeth" had been constructed.  As construction continued on the new ship, Cunard found itself in increasing financial difficulties as increased competition from airlines resulted in the company's passenger ships losing money. With profits from its cargo ships eventually unable to offset the losses, Cunard was forced to sell "Mauretania", "Sylvania", "Carinthia", "Caronia", "Queen Mary" and "Queen Elizabeth" between 1965 and 1968. Income also fell due to a seven-week-long seamens' strike in 1966. Then John Brown advised that the delivery would be delayed

Service.

Early career.

"Queen Elizabeth 2"s maiden voyage, from Southampton to New York, commenced on 2 May 1969, taking 4 days, 16 hours, and 35 minutes.  In 1971, she participated in the rescue of some 500 passengers from the burning French Line ship. Later that year on 5 March "QE2" was disabled for four hours when jellyfish were sucked into and blocked her seawater intakes.  On 17 May 1972, while travelling from New York to Southampton, she was the subject of a bomb

Falklands War.

On 3 May 1982, she was requisitioned by the British government for service as a troop carrier in the Falklands War.  In preparation for war service, Vosper Thornycroft commenced in Southampton on 5 May 1982 the installation of two helicopter pads, the transformation of public lounges into dormitories, the installation of fuel pipes that ran through the ship down to the engine room to allow for refuelling at sea, and the covering of carpets with 2,000 sheets of hardboard. A quarter of the ship's length was reinforced with steel plating, and an anti-magnetic coil was fitted to combat naval mines. Over 650 Cunard crew members volunteered for the voyage, to look after the 3,000 members of the Fifth Infantry Brigade, which the ship transported to South Georgia.  On 12 May 1982, with only one of her three boilers

Diesel era and Project Lifestyle.

"QE2" once again experienced mechanical problems following her annual overhaul in November 1983. Boiler problems caused Cunard to cancel a cruise, and, in October 1984, an electrical fire caused a complete loss of power. The ship was delayed for several days before power could be restored. Instead of replacing the QE2 with a newer vessel, Cunard decided that it was more prudent to simply make improvements to her. Therefore, from 27 October 1986 to 25 April 1987, "QE2" underwent one of her most significant refurbishments when she was converted by Lloyd Werft at their shipyard in Bremerhaven, Germany from steam power to diesel. Nine MAN B&W diesel electric engines, new propellers and a heat recovery system (to utilise heat expelled by the engines) were fitted, which halved the fuel consumption. With this new propulsion system, "QE2" was expected to serve another 20 years with Cunard. The passenger accommodation was also modernised. The refurbishment cost over £100 million.  On 7 August

Later years.

Following the 1998 acquisition of the Cunard Line by Carnival Corporation, in 1999 "QE2" was given a US$30 million refurbishment which included refreshing various public rooms, and a new colour palette in the passenger cabins. The Royal Promenade, which formerly housed upscale shops such as Burberry, H. Stern and Aquascutum, were replaced by boutiques typical of cruise ships, selling perfumes, watches and logo items. During this refit the hull was stripped to bare metal, and the ship repainted in the traditional Cunard colours of matte black (Federal Grey) with a white superstructure. On 29 August 2002, "Queen Elizabeth 2" became the first merchant ship to sail more than 5 million nautical miles at sea.  In 2004, the vessel stopped plying the traditional transatlantic route and began full-time cruising, the transatlantic route having been assigned to Cunard's new flagship, the. However, "Queen Elizabeth 2" still undertook an annual world cruise and regular trips around the Mediterranean. By this time, she lacked the amenities to rival newer, larger

Retirement and final Cunard voyage.

On 18 June 2007, it was announced by Cunard that "QE2" had been purchased by the Dubai investment company Istithmar for $100 million. Her retirement, in part, was forced by the oncoming June 2010 implementation of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) regulations, which would have forced large and expensive structural changes to the ship.  In a ceremonial display before her retirement, "Queen Elizabeth 2" met the and "Queen Mary 2" near the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor on 13 January 2008, with a celebratory fireworks display; "Queen Elizabeth 2" and "Queen Victoria" had made a tandem crossing of the Atlantic for the

Layup.

Istithmar, Nakheel, "QE2" in Dubai and Cape Town hotel proposal.

Her final voyage from Southampton to Dubai began on 11 November 2008, arriving on 26 November in a flotilla of 60 smaller vessels, led by MY "Dubai", the personal yacht of Sheikh Mohammed, ruler of Dubai, in time for her official handover the following day.  She was greeted with a fly-past from an Emirates Airbus A380 jet and a huge fireworks display, while thousands of people gathered at the Mina Rashid, waving the flags of the United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates. Since her arrival in Dubai "QE2" has remained moored at Port Rashid. Shortly after her final passengers were disembarked, she was moved forward to the cargo area of the port, to free up the passenger terminal

2010 sale and relocation speculation.

In early 2010, due to the continued poor financial performance of Dubai World, there was much media speculation that "QE2", along with other assets owned by Istithmar, Dubai World's private-equity arm, would be sold to raise capital. Despite this sale

2011 drifting.

On 28 January 2011 during a heavy dust storm, "QE2" broke loose from her moorings and drifted out into the channel at Port Rashid.

Warm layup.

Throughout 2011 and 2012, "QE2" remained berthed at Port Mina Rashid in Dubai. She was maintained in a seaworthy condition and generated her own power. Each of her nine diesel generators were turned over and used to power the ship. A live-in

2011 return to Liverpool plan, Port Rashid and "QE2" development plans.

On 28 September 2011 news broke that a plan was being formulated to return QE2 to the United Kingdom by berthing her in Liverpool. Liverpool has a historic connection with Cunard Line being the first British home for the line as well as housing the iconic Cunard Building.  It was revealed that Liverpool Vision, the economic development company responsible for Liverpool's regeneration, has been involved in confidential discussions with Out of Time Concepts, a company headed by a former Chief Engineer on the ship, who recently advised its current owners on plans to turn it into a luxury hotel in Dubai.  In a letter from Out of Time Concepts to

2011/2012 New Year's party aboard "QE2".

On 31 December 2011, "Queen Elizabeth 2" was the location of a lavish New Year's Eve party in Dubai.

July 2012: Hotel announcement.

On 2 July 2012 in a coordinated press release, the ship's owner, operator and Port Rashid operator, DP Ports, jointly announced "QE2" would re-open as a 300-bed hotel after an

Scrapping in China, "QE2" London and "QE2" Asia.

On 23 December 2012, it was reported that "QE2" had been sold for scrapping in China for £20 million, after a bid to return her to the UK was rejected. With monthly berthing and maintenance charges of £650,000, it was reported that a Chinese salvage crew arrived at the vessel on 21 December, to replace a crew of 40 which has been maintaining the vessel since it arrived at Port Rashid. However, Cunard dismissed the reports as "pure speculation". When the ship was sold in 2007, a clause in the contract

"Bring "QE2" Home" proposals.

Cunard's 175 anniversary celebrations on 25 May 2015 led to renewed interest in "Queen Elizabeth 2". John Chillingworth secured the backing of London mayor Boris Johnson for a plan to anchor the ship opposite The O2 Arena at Greenwich. A move to London however would require the ship to pass through the Thames Barrier. In late 2015 there was disagreement between ship preservation advocates and harbour authorities on whether a dead ship of her size could safely manoeuvre through the

"Queen Elizabeth 2" movements in 2015.

On 12 August 2015, the QE2 was observed to have been moved from her berth within Dubai Dry Docks, where she had been since January 2013, to a

2016 removal of lifeboats and davits.

Between May and August 2016, observers noted that the ship's lifeboats were lowered and stored on a nearby car park. Following this,

50th anniversary celebration.

September 2017 marked the 50th anniversary of QE2's launch. To mark the occasion, Cunard Line, the ship's former owners, arranged a commemorative voyage aboard the MS "Queen Elizabeth" – a 17-night cruise. Planned events include a QE2 day on 25 September and keynote speeches

Hotel and tourist attraction.

"Queen Elizabeth 2" reopened as a floating hotel on 18 April 2018, following an extensive refurbishment. Over 2.7 million man-hours were committed to the work to upgrade and rebuild the ship to meet hotel standards. This included a full hull repaint and the replacing of Port Vila registry

Name.

Form of name.

The name of the liner as it appears on the bow and stern is "Queen Elizabeth 2", with upper- and lower-case lettering and an

Background.

"Queen Mary", in 1934, and "Queen Elizabeth", in 1938, were both named by and for contemporary spouses of reigning monarchs: Mary of Teck and Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, respectively. These two previous Cunarders both had capitalised bow names, as "QUEEN MARY" and "QUEEN ELIZABETH".  Cunard practice at the time of naming "QE2" was to re-use the existing name of its former ships, for example, launching the in 1938

Launch.

As was Cunard practice at the time, the name of the liner was not to be publicly revealed until the launch. Dignitaries were invited to the "Launch of Cunard Liner No. 736", as no name had yet been painted on the bow.  The Queen launched the ship with the

1969 authorised history.

In an authorised history of "Queen Elizabeth 2" published in 1969, various explanations of events occur.  These state that, as at the launch ceremony, an envelope and card were also held in New York in case of transmission failure, and when opened the card was found to read the name Queen Elizabeth, and that the decision to add "The Second" to the name was an alteration by the Queen. The book quotes the Cunard chairman Sir Basil Smallpeice as saying "The "Queen

Ron Warwick, former captain.

In a later account by Ronald Warwick, who was the son of William "Bil" Warwick and the first master of "QE2", Warwick junior himself was also later in his Cunard career a master of the "QE2" and latterly the first captain of "QM2" supports the account that the Queen initiated the surprise move of naming the liner after herself rather

Cunard website.

From at least 2002 the official Cunard website stated that "The new ship is not named after the Queen but is simply the second

Other accounts.

Other later accounts repeat the position that Cunard originally intended to name the ship "Queen Elizabeth" and the addition of a 2 by the Queen was a surprise to Cunard, in 1990 and 2008, although two books by William H. Miller state that Queen Elizabeth 2 was the name agreed on before the launch between

RMS "Queen Elizabeth 2, often referred to simply as QE2", is a retired British ocean liner converted into a floating hotel. Originally built for the Cunard Line, "QE2" was operated by Cunard as both a transatlantic liner and a cruise ship from 1969 to 2008. It was then laid up until converted and since 18 April 2018, she has been operating as a floating hotel in Dubai.

Le Queen Elizabeth 2 (souvent appelé QE2) est un paquebot transatlantique britannique qui a sillonné les mers de 1969 à 2008. Il est principalement utilisé pour assurer la liaison transatlantique maritime régulière entre Southampton (Angleterre) et New York (États-Unis), "via" Cherbourg (Cherbourg-Octeville de 2000 à 2015, Cherbourg-en-Cotentin depuis 2016) (France), pour une traversée de cinq jours. Après le lancement du "Queen Mary 2", il est employé principalement comme navire de croisière et effectue, chaque année, un tour du monde de trois mois.


Structure and physiology.

In women it is the deepest point of the peritoneal cavity, posterior to (behind) the uterus and anterior to (in front of) the rectum. (The pouch on the other side of the uterus is the vesico-uterine pouch.) It is near the posterior fornix of the vagina.  It is normal to have approximately 1 to 3 ml (or mL) of fluid in the recto-uterine pouch throughout the menstrual cycle. After ovulation there is between 4 and 5 ml of fluid in the recto-uterine pouch.  In men, the region corresponding to the recto-uterine pouch is the recto-vesical pouch, which lies between the urinary bladder and rectum. (There is no equivalent to the vesico-uterine pouch).

Pathology.

The recto-uterine pouch, being the lowest part of the peritoneal cavity in a woman at supine position, is a common site for the spread of pathology such as ascites, tumour, endometriosis, pus, etc.

Naming and etymology.

The recto-uterine (or rectouterine) pouch is also called the recto-uterine (or rectouterine) excavation, utero-rectal (or uterorectal) pouch, recto-vaginal (or rectovaginal) pouch, pouch of Douglas (after anatomist James Douglas, 1675–1742), Douglas pouch, Douglas cavity, Douglas space, Douglas cul-de-sac, Ehrhardt–Cole recess, Ehrhardt–Cole cul-de-sac, cavum Douglasi, or excavatio rectouterina. The combining forms reflect the rectum ("recto-", "-rectal") and uterus ("utero-", "-uterine").  In Obstetrics and Gynecology, it is commonly referred to as the pouch of Douglas or the posterior cul-de-sac.  The Douglas fold (rectouterine plica), Douglas line, and Douglas septum are likewise named after the same James Douglas.

Culdotomy.

A culdotomy or posterior colpotomy is an incision or needle puncture into this "cul-de-sac" pouch by way of the vagina.

Clinical significance.

As it is the furthest point of the abdominopelvic cavity in women, it is a site where infection and fluids typically collect.  The recto-uterine pouch can be used in the treatment of end-stage kidney failure in patients who are treated by peritoneal dialysis. The tip of the dialysis catheter is placed into the deepest point of the pouch.

The recto-uterine pouch, also known by various other names (e.g., pouch of Douglas), is the extension of the peritoneal cavity between the rectum and the posterior wall of the uterus in the female human body.

Le cul-de-sac de Douglas, du nom de James Douglas (1675-1742), est un repli du péritoine situé entre le rectum et l'utérus, formant un cul-de-sac. Chez l'homme, ce cul-de-sac est simplement l'extrémité inférieure de la cavité péritonéale, entre la face postérieure de la vessie et la face ventrale du rectum.


History.

Catalan Courts.

The first representative and legislative bodies in Catalonia were the Peace and Truce of God Assemblies ("assemblees de pau i treva"), of which the earliest record dates from 1027. These were originally ad hoc, local meetings convened by the clergy (Oliba, Bishop of Vic, who died in 1046, was a notable instigator) but progressively became subsumed into the court of the Counts of Barcelona. The first Catalan legal code, the "Usatges de Barcelona", was promulgated by Count Ramon Berenguer I based on the decisions of these assemblies.  Although the Counts of Barcelona, had greatly extended the territory under their control, their financial and military power was quite limited, partly because of their former status as vassals of the Carolingian dynasty. Their personal resources were particularly insufficient in periods of economic crisis or military expansion, of which they were many from the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries. The need to secure troops and revenue led to the steady expansion of the royal court and a formalisation of its procedures. It came to be referred to as the "Cort General de Catalunya" or "Corts catalanes" (Catalan Courts), and was endowed with formal procedures, effectively a written constitution, by King Peter III of Aragon in 1283, making this institution the policemaking and legislative body of the Principality of Catalonia.  The "Corts Catalanes" were composed of Three Estates ("Tres Braços"), representing the clergy, the feudal nobles and the citizens of Royal towns such as Barcelona or Girona. Inhabitants of feudal towns (such as Cardona) were not represented, except by their overlords. The main function of the "Corts" was legislative, either in approving laws proposed by the King Peter III of Aragon ("Constitucions") or at their own initiative ("capítols de cort"). Although the "Corts" met at irregular intervals, it also formally approved the acts of the between the King and their sessions (known as "pragmàtiques") and, from 1359, established a permanent delegation to oversee the Crown (the Deputation of the General, forerunner of the Generalitat de Catalunya). The Catalan Courts, as well as the use of Catalan as the official language, were abolished by the Nueva Planta decrees in 1716 after the House of Bourbon, supported by the Crown of Castille, defeated the Habsburg pretender to throne, which was backed by the remnants of the Crown of Aragon in the War of the Spanish Succession.

Modern history.

There were attempts in the early 20th century to institute an autonomous system of representation for Catalonia. The Commonwealth of Catalonia (1914–25) was an assembly without legislative powers of the provincial delegations of Barcelona, Girona, Lleida and Tarragona, disbanded and outlawed by Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship in 1925.  Following an abortive declaration of the Catalan Republic on 14 April 1931, a separate Parliament of Catalonia was established under the first Statute of Autonomy approved by the Parliament of the new Spanish Republic, and was elected on 20 November 1932. This first legislature was controlled by the Republican Left of Catalonia, the winning party of the election, while the conservative Regionalist League, almost hegemonic in Catalonia during the reign of Alfonso XIII, reached the second place but far from the Republican Left. The Parliament approved a large number of progressive legislation in different areas, such as health, culture and civil law, but the institution was suspended between 1934 and 1936 when the Government of Catalonia attempted to create a Catalan State after, among other reasons, a bill to change the taxing of farmers was rejected by the Constitutional Court. The unilateral declaration of independence lasted 10 hours. The Statute of Autonomy was restored in February 1936 after the victory of Popular Front in the Spanish election, and abolished again by Generalissimo Francisco Franco in 1938 during the Spanish Civil War. The Parliament of Catalonia, like the rest of the institutions of the Generalitat, went to exile in 1939. After the death of Franco in 1975 and the Spanish transition to democracy, the new Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 1979 recognized the restoration of the Parliament. The first legislature of the current Parliament of Catalonia was elected on 20 March 1980, 48 years after the first election in 1932.

The Parliament of Catalonia (, ; ; ) is the unicameral legislature of the autonomous community of Catalonia, Spain. It is formed by 135 deputies ("diputats"/"deputats"/"diputados"), who are elected every four years or after extraordinary dissolution, chosen by universal suffrage in lists with four constituencies, the Catalan provinces. The Parliament building is located in Ciutadella Park, Barcelona.

Le Parlement de Catalogne (en catalan : "Parlament de Catalunya" ; en espagnol : "Parlamento de Cataluña" ; en occitan : "Parlament de Catalonha") est l'assemblée législative de la Catalogne, communauté autonome d'Espagne. Il forme, avec la présidence de la Généralité et le gouvernement (conseil exécutif), la Généralité de Catalogne. Il est composé de, élus au suffrage universel par les citoyens de Catalogne. Il est situé dans le Parc de la Ciutadella de Barcelone et occupe tout l'espace du Palais du Parlement.


Taxonomy.

The following six subspecies are considered valid:

Characteristics.

It stands at tall and weighs about. It has a reddish-buff summer coat with smooth, glossy fur. In winter, the white belly and throat fur is in greater contrast. The sides of the face have dark chestnut stripes from the corner of the eye to the muzzle, bordered by white stripes. Its horns reach over.

Distribution and habitat.

Chinkara live in arid plains and hills, deserts, dry scrub and light forests. They inhabit more than 80 protected areas in India. In Pakistan, they range up to elevations of. In Iran, they inhabit the Kavir National Park.  In 2001, the Indian chinkara population was estimated at 100,000 with 80,000 living in the Thar Desert. The population in Pakistan is scattered, and has been severely reduced by hunting. Also in Iran, the population is fragmented. In Afghanistan, chinkaras are probably very rare.

Ecology.

Chinkaras are shy and avoid human habitation. They can go without water for long periods and can get sufficient fluids from plants and dew. Although most are seen alone, they can sometimes be spotted in groups of up to four animals. They share their habitat with several other herbivores, such as nilgai, blackbuck, chausingha, wild goat, and wild boar.  Chinkaras mate once a year. Males compete for access to females.  Chinkaras are preyed upon by leopards, Bengal tigers, Asiatic lions and dholes. The chinkara was a common prey of the Asiatic cheetah in India alongside blackbucks. Outside protected areas they may be attacked by pariah dogs, and both wolves and golden jackals are also known to hunt them.

Conservation.

The chinkara occurs in over 80 protected areas in India. In January 2016, the Karnataka government issued a notification to establish a sanctuary especially for chinkara in the Yadahalli village in the Bagalkot district of the state. This region shelters a major population of chinkara. The Karnataka Government also notified the Bukkapatna Chinkara Wildlife Sanctuary in Tumakuru district in May 2019. The chinkara is protected in nine areas of Iran and five of Pakistan.

Threats.

The chinkara is threatened by extensive hunting for meat and trophies in Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan. Other threats include habitat loss due to agricultural and industrial expansion. The status in these countries is unclear. Around 1,300 individuals occur in Iran. However, the situation in India is not so grim; in 2001, populations were estimated at over one million in the country, of which nearly 80,000 occur in the Thar desert, with a stable population trend. Since 2003, it has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.  In 1993, a controversy erupted when the Gujarat government issued a decree to denotify the Narayan Sarovar Sanctuary, that contains a small population of chinkara, to allow mining of lignite, limestone, bentonite and bauxite inside the sanctuary. This was, however, rejected by the Gujarat High Court, and the sanctuary was restored to its earlier limits.

The chinkara ("Gazella bennettii"), also known as the Indian gazelle, is a gazelle species native to Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.

Gazella bennettii connue localement sous le nom de chinkara ou idimi, est une espèce de gazelle présente en Asie du Sud. Elle vit dans les prairies et les zones désertiques en Inde, au Bangladesh, dans certaines parties de l'Iran et au Pakistan.


History.

The tower stands on an old area in the center of the city called "Le Marchix". This old medieval quarter had been considered dirty and dangerous long before the 1943 American bombing which considerably damaged it.  During the post-war redevelopment, the construction of two important modernist buildings along Place de Bretagne, housing the Treasury General, the Social Security building and the main post office inspired officials to build a skyscraper nearby. Tour Bretagne was meant to represent the economic power of the city and to display it to the world.  In 1966, with the encouragement of the people of Nantes, a group called SELA (Société d'Equipement de Loire Atlantique) was put in charge of developing the project. SELA asked Claude Devorsine, a forgotten architect today, and Marcel André, an engineering advisor, to bring the project to reality. In 1968, the plan was to construct a six story parking garage at the base of the tower, completed with a gas station, which the cars could access via an exterior ramp. The next three levels were to be a shopping mall with space for 25 boutiques and a restaurant. The offices would occupy the rest of floors except for the top floor, which would house a restaurant that would give panoramic views of the surrounding area. The work began on September 30, 1971 and was to be finished by summer 1974. However, the construction is protracted by a number of delays, mainly due to an unforeseen number of changes to the plans during construction. Finally, after five years of work, the tower was opened in 1976.  Once completed, the tower was a failure. Ten years had been necessary to plan and build it and mentalities had changed since the 1960s. The building was then seen as a symbol of an inhuman urbanism focused on profit and as an architectural error distorting the traditional cityscape.  It was an economic failure as well, remaining mostly empty for a long time, in part due to the high rent. The restaurant on the 29th floor was soon closed due to technical problems and free visits to the observation deck were stopped after frequent suicides. Furthermore, no businesses opened at the base of the tower as had been initially envisioned. To utilize the of office space, the city government decided to move a part of its administrative offices to the tower.

Technical details.

The tower, which measures, has eight elevators, seven escalators and a water tank on the roof that can hold. Due to change in plans, the building now has seven levels of parking, three "ground floors", a "level zero" (which is situated above street level) and 29 floors of offices topped by a few floors containing machinery. The Tax Bureau, Nantes Metrocenter, and the offices of the city Employment Bureau occupy three-quarters of the buildings floorspace. Nearly 800 people work in the tower each day. The tower is managed by a group of co-owners composed of mainly banks but also the city government.

The tower today.

By the end of the 20th century, the inhabitants of Nantes, after long lamenting the tower's rigid and monolithic presence, have begun to begrudgingly accept the tower. One can see the gradual acceptance of the tower as it has begun to appear on a number of post cards, once thought unimaginable, and is mentioned on leaflets distributed by the tourism office.  The 32nd floor terrace was reopened on June 15, 2012 after being closed for more than 10 years. Fully refurbished and secured, it hosts a restaurant and its layout suggests a huge bird's nest, hence the restaurant's name, "Le Nid" ("The Nest"). The terrace gives a full 360-degree view on the city and its surroundings.

Tour Bretagne ("Brittany Tower" in English) opened on November 18, 1976 at 17:00, is a 37-story skyscraper situated in downtown Nantes between a main thoroughfare, Cours des 50 Otages, and Place Bretagne ("Brittany square").

La tour Bretagne, qui a été inaugurée le, est un immeuble de bureaux situé dans le centre-ville de Nantes, entre la place de Bretagne, les rues de l'Arche-Sèche et de l'Abreuvoir, et la place du Cirque (sur le cours des 50-Otages, ancien cours de l'Erdre).