Gameplay.

"Mortal Kombat 3" builds further on the gameplay of the previous game. A "Run" button, accompanied by a "Run" meter, was introduced. This was primarily to address concern from fans who thought that the previous games gave too much of an advantage to the defending player. The Run meter is drained by running (the character cannot run backward, only forwards) and by performing combos.  "Chain combos", also known as pre-programmed combos (labeled "dial-a-combos") were also introduced. Chain combos are button sequences that cannot be interrupted once one hit connects; some chain combos end with an uppercut or another move that knocks the opponent into the air so that more damage can be dealt via a traditional juggle combo. To please players of various skill levels, a "Choose Your Destiny" screen appears in the single-player mode to allow player-selectable difficulty.  For the first time, certain levels were interactive by allowing characters to uppercut each other through the ceiling where both characters would continue the battle in a different stage. This could alter the game's level cycle. Both normal uppercuts and uppercuts that are part of a ground combo would result in a level change. Kung Lao's "Whirl Wind Spin" move would also have the same effect. However, if the character is defeated by an uppercut, there is no level change.  All of the different styles of finishing moves featured in "Mortal Kombat II" (Fatalities, including the non-lethal Babality and Friendship moves) return in "MK3". Additionally, the rumored Animality, where the character transforms into an animal in order to kill their opponent, is featured for the first time. Another new addition is the Mercy, where the character can give their opponent a small sliver of life if they have won two rounds and are at the "Finish Him/Her" screen. A Mercy is necessary for an Animality to occur. Finally, three new Stage Fatalities can be performed in the Subway, the Bell Tower and the Pit 3.  Another concept introduced in this game is the "Kombat Kode". A Kombat Kode is a six-symbol code entered at the VS screen in a two-player game to modify gameplay, fight hidden characters or display certain text messages. Also introduced in this game was the "Ultimate Kombat Kode", a 10-character code using symbols, that could be entered on the game over screen after the continue screen disappears in single-player mode. It was used to unlock a robotic version of the character Smoke; it can be done by either the player or the arcade operator. The arcade owner could reset this code by accessing the game's diagnostic menu by resetting to the factory settings within the "MK3" cabinet (except in version 2.1, which can only be done by accessing the EJB menu). The codes were revealed through gaming magazines, promotional material, and other "Mortal Kombat" media.

Characters.

The game includes 14 playable characters, with 1 additional secret character.  New player characters:  Returning player characters:  Boss characters:  Although the game's manual states both boss characters are unplayable, both Motaro and Shao Kahn can be enabled via secret cheat menus in the SNES and Genesis versions of the game. Noob Saibot (Richard Divizio) also returns as a hidden opponent.

Plot.

Weary of continuous losses in tournament battle, Shao Kahn, who lost to Liu Kang in the Outworld tournament in the previous game, enacts a 10,000-year-old plan. He would have his Shadow Priests, led by Shang Tsung, revive his former Queen Sindel, who unexpectedly died at a young age. However, she would not be revived in the Outworld, but in Earthrealm. This would allow Shao Kahn to cross the boundary lines and reclaim his queen. When Sindel is reincarnated in Earthrealm, Shao Kahn reaches across the dimensions to reclaim her, and as a result, Earthrealm gradually becomes a part of Outworld, instantly stripping billions of their souls. Only a few are spared, as Raiden protects their souls. He tells them that Shao Kahn must be stopped, but he cannot interfere; due to his status, he has no power in Outworld, and Earthrealm is partially merged with Outworld. Shao Kahn has unleashed extermination squads to kill any Earthrealm survivors. Also, Raiden's protection only extends to the soul, not to the body, so his chosen warriors have to fight the extermination squads and repel Shao Kahn. With his final defeat, every human on Earthrealm is restored.  "Mortal Kombat 3" follows "Mortal Kombat II" and shares continuity with both "Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3" and "Mortal Kombat Trilogy" which were both updates of this game. The next new chapter in the series was "Mortal Kombat 4".  The game also contains several subplots:

Development.

"Mortal Kombat 3" was originally considered to be made using 3D graphics, before reverting to sprite graphics of the previous games. Its overall style was envisioned differently from the previous "Mortal Kombat" games. Instead of the heavily-Oriental themes of "Mortal Kombat" and "Mortal Kombat II", the theme of "MK3" is more Western-inspired. The game's stages are set in modern locations (such as urban highways, churches, and a bridge—modeled after DuSable bridge in Chicago, Illinois), three of the characters are cyborgs, and traditional character designs (such as Sub-Zero's or Kano's) have been dropped or modified in favor of modern replacements. This change is also reflected in the soundtrack, in which all Oriental motifs have been dropped in favor of modern instrumentation.  Some of the characters from previous "Mortal Kombat" games who returned in "Mortal Kombat 3" were portrayed by new actors since their original portrayers left Midway due to royalty disputes over the use of their likenesses in console versions. Ho Sung Pak (Liu Kang in the first two games, as well as Shang Tsung in the first "Mortal Kombat"), Phillip Ahn (Shang Tsung in "Mortal Kombat II"), Elizabeth Malecki (Sonya Blade), Katalin Zamiar (Kitana/Mileena/Jade) and Daniel Pesina (Johnny Cage and Scorpion/Sub-Zero/Reptile/Smoke/Noob Saibot) were not involved in the production of "MK3". Prior to the release of "Mortal Kombat 3", Daniel appeared in an advertisement for another fighting game, "BloodStorm", which resulted in a false rumor that it got him fired by Midway. All this led to the use of new actors for Liu Kang (Eddie Wong), Sonya Blade (Kerri Hoskins), Shang Tsung and Sub-Zero (both played by John Turk) in "MK3". Richard Divizio (Kano) also took over the role of Noob Saibot (as the character was a recolored Kano in this version). Carlos Pesina, who played Raiden in the first two games, did not appear in "MK3" as a penalty for his involvement in the rival game "Tattoo Assassins", but was still employed by Midway and his character would return in "Mortal Kombat Trilogy", although through the use of recycled sprites from "MKII" and new sprites performed by Sal Divita.  The game has a different tone overall than its predecessors and uses a noticeably more muted and less vibrant color palette. Characters were heavily digitized, as opposed to the hybrid digitized/hand-drawn style of "MKII". Many of the game's backgrounds were created using pre-rendered 3D graphics for the first time.

Release.

Accompanied by a massive promotional campaign (given the world record for the "largest promotional campaign for a fighting video game" in the 2011 "Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition"), "Mortal Kombat 3" was originally released to the North American arcades on April 15, 1995. The game was soon ported to three home consoles, namely the Genesis, Super NES, and Sony PlayStation, but only the PlayStation version was identical to the arcade original, due to a deal with Midway which gave Sony exclusive worldwide rights for the 32-bit version of the game up through the end of the first quarter of 1996 (hence why the Sega Saturn, 3DO Interactive Multiplayer, and Atari Jaguar versions were all slated for release in the second quarter of 1996). According to a Sega spokesperson, Sony paid Midway $12 million for these timed exclusive rights. Continuing a tradition of simultaneous home version releases from the first two games in the series, it was announced that the Genesis, Super NES, Game Boy, and Game Gear versions would all be released on "Mortal Friday", October 13, 1995. However, not all of the versions made the planned date, and the Game Gear version was never released in North America at all.  On the Game Boy, only nine of the original 15 fighters (Kano, Sonya, Sub-Zero, Cyrax, Sektor, Sheeva, Sindel, Kabal, and Smoke) are available, only five stages exist, there are no button-link combos, and no finishers outside of Fatalities and Babalities. Shao Kahn uses his moves from "Mortal Kombat II", and Motaro is not included. The sole Game Boy game to be rated M by the ESRB, this version does not include much of the overt gore and violence seen in its parent systems but kept some of the "burning" Fatalities (immolating a defeated opponent down to a burnt skeleton).  A scaled-down Game Gear version of "Mortal Kombat 3" was released only in Europe. It is almost the same as the Game Boy version, although it includes blood and gore, it is in color and features Noob Saibot as a hidden character. There is also a port for the Master System, which is nearly identical to the Game Gear version, although it was only released in Brazil by Tectoy, distributor of Sega's products in that country.  There are two different versions of "Mortal Kombat 3" for the PC. The first was a DOS version, which does not closely resemble any of the other ports. This version contains a hidden redbook audio track () with a narration of a story in reverse. The second version was a Windows version, which was a direct port of the PlayStation version of the game, featuring the same menus, sprite sizes and qualities, and gameplay.  "Mortal Kombat 3" was originally slated to be released for the Atari Jaguar in the second quarter of 1996, according to a joint press release issued by Atari and Williams Entertainment on March 13, 1995, but was never released. A port for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer was also announced for an early 1996 release, touted on magazine covers, and reportedly complete, but was also never released. A port for the Sega Saturn was also announced for early 1996, but was canceled in favor of a port of "Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3".  "Mortal Kombat 3" is also included in "Midway Arcade Treasures 2" for the Nintendo GameCube, PlayStation 2 and Xbox; "Midway Arcade Treasures Deluxe Edition" for the PC (this title includes a'making of' documentary about the game); and "" for the PlayStation Portable.

Reception.

"Mortal Kombat 3" was one of three 1995 recipients of the American Amusement Machine Association's Diamond Awards (which are based strictly on sales achievements). Williams Entertainment, which published the Super NES and Genesis versions, reported combined sales of 250,000 copies in the first weekend they were available, placing them among the best-selling games of 1995. "Mortal Kombat 3" was nominated for the Video Software Dealers Association's "Video Game of the Year" for 1995, losing to "Donkey Kong Country 2".  Although "Mortal Kombat 3" was commercially successful, many disliked the inclusion of arguably less-appealing new characters (especially Stryker) in place of established stalwarts such as Scorpion and Kitana. The new combo system was also often criticized, as were, to a lesser degree, the run mechanics and some finishing moves. According to "PC Gamer" in 1998, "While "Mortal Kombat 2" managed to improve upon the fast-paced, gore-galore formula of the original, the third incarnation didn't fare nearly as well. "MK3" suffered from monkeywrenched gameplay, needlessly stupid finishing moves like 'Animalities,' and unbearably campy character designs." "Next Generation" reviewed the arcade version of the game, and stated that "in an industry which depends on innovation to keep it fresh and interesting, "MK III" just doesn't deliver." A "Retro Gamer" article on the history of the series stated in 2007: "Although many hardcore fans will decree Midway's third "Mortal Kombat" game to be the best in the series, just as many felt it was beginning of the end for the still massively popular franchise... While Midway had been constantly adding subtle gameplay tweaks to its franchise since the release of "Mortal Kombat", its once exciting series was suddenly looking rather tired."  Nevertheless, the game received largely positive reviews at the time. As of 2014, the review aggregator website GameRankings is giving it the averaged scores of 80.23% for the Super NES, 76.67% for the Genesis, and 70.33% for the Sony PlayStation. "Electronic Gaming Monthly" ("EGM") gave the PlayStation version their "Game of the Month" award. "EGM" and IGN both criticized the heavy lag during Shang Tsung's morphing while assessing the conversion overall as a near-perfect replication of the graphics, content, and controls of the arcade original. However, IGN gave it a negative assessment based on the shortcomings of "Mortal Kombat 3" itself, recommending "Street Fighter" 2D fighting games over it unless one is a "die-hard "MK" fan". According to a later IGN retrospective, "Despite the evolutions in gameplay, "Mortal Kombat 3" was simply not met with same kind of enthusiasm as its predecessor. While the new 'cyber-ninja' characters were popular, the loss of so many favorites from the roster left many players feeling left out. A new "Mortal Kombat" was impossible to ignore, but the response wasn't quite what Midway had hoped for."  Reviewing the Genesis version, a "Next Generation" critic remarked that the game actually looks better on a last-generation console, where it finds company with other 2D games and is better-looking than most of them, than it did in the arcade, where it seemed outdated against the increasingly prevalent polygon-based games. He complimented the game for delivering on the elements most important to the "Mortal Kombat" fanbase, but added as a final note that "as a whole, the "MK" series is getting stale and in dire need of some major reworking." In their review, "GamePro" similarly said that "Mortal Kombat 3" is "just not original enough (like "Tekken") or deep enough (like "Street Fighter") to warrant space on the casual Genesis gamer's shelf." They also criticized the Genesis version as being a weak approximation of the arcade version, particularly the character sprites and sound effects. They assessed the PlayStation version as a much more accurate conversion aside from the lag during Shang Tsung's morphing, but concluded it to be "An awesome home version of a game that wasn't so great to begin with." "Next Generation" similarly felt the arcade-perfect quality of the PlayStation version was overshadowed by the game's lack of innovation: "There is little, outside of a few new, conspicuously uninspired characters, a run feature, and a new combo system, which simply mirrors its competition, to differentiate "MK3" from its predecessors." "Maximum" praised the PlayStation version's wealth of customization options and "eerie combat music tracks", but remarked that the game was outdated with "Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3" already out in arcades and slated for release on the Saturn. They also took strong issue with the lack of PAL optimization, saying that as a result "The characters move very slowly as if wading through treacle, and this detracts from the overall feel of the game as well as changing the timing for the special moves and combos."  Reviewing the SNES version, the four reviewers of "Electronic Gaming Monthly" concurred it to be by far the best "16-bit version" of the game. They especially praised the challenging enemy AI, accurate graphics, and a high number of special options. While they listed some problems with the AI and sound, "GamePro" had a similar reaction, concluding that "Converting a mammoth arcade game like "MK 3" to the 16-bit Super NES is no easy task, and Williams has done a respectable job of keeping all the key elements intact." "PC Gamer" itself, despite the later negative opinion, gave the PC version of "MK3" a review score of 89% upon the release, calling it "yet another excellent arcade experience from the king of fighting games." "Next Generation" at the time called it "one of the best fighting games ever released for the PC" and "a title you must own" for the fans of the genre, awarding it four out of five stars. "GamePro" panned the Game Boy version in a brief review, venturing that "even portable power players will find the soft controls and eye-straining graphics unbearable."

Legacy.

"Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3" ("UMK3") was released to arcades in 1995. It is an update of "Mortal Kombat 3", featuring altered gameplay, additional characters, and new arenas. Various home versions of the game were released soon afterward, although none of these were completely identical to the arcade version. Several more home versions followed between 2002–2010, including "Mortal Kombat Advance" for the Game Boy Advance and "Ultimate Mortal Kombat" for the Nintendo DS (the DS version features the "Puzzle Kombat" minigame originally from "").  "UMK3" itself was updated to include content from previous games in the series to serve as the basis of the console-exclusive title "Mortal Kombat Trilogy" in 1996. It was also later remastered to be released as part of the "Mortal Kombat Arcade Kollection" in 2011.

Mortal Kombat 3 is a fighting video game developed by Midway Games and Atari Games and first released into arcades in 1995 as the third game in the "Mortal Kombat" series. As in the previous games, it has a cast of characters that players choose from and guide through a series of battles against other opponents. The game avoids the tournament storyline of its predecessors, as various warriors instead fight against the returning Shao Kahn, who has resurrected his bride Sindel and started an invasion of Earthrealm.

Mortal Kombat 3 (communément abrégé MK3) est un jeu vidéo de combat, développé par la société américaine Midway, et troisième titre de la série "Mortal Kombat", sorti sur borne d'arcade en 1995. En France, le titre a été publié sur consoles le. "Mortal Kombat 3" suit "Mortal Kombat II", et précède "Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3", puis "Mortal Kombat Trilogy", ces deux derniers étant plus ou moins des mises à jour de "MK3".


History.

Development of the domestic Kalashnikov variant began in 1959, and the first models submitted by Zastava for military field trials were with the early M64 (or M59) series of rifles with milled receivers, threaded barrels, familiar Zastava handguards, gas cutoffs for grenade launching, and several other diversities from the mainstay AK design, such as a bolt hold open device on the right side of the receiver, and a charging handle that appeared different from other AK models. Though performances were satisfactory, the Yugoslav military did not adopt the rifle as the standard infantry armament. In 1970, the green light was given to begin with army-funded mass production of the AP M70 and M70 A series ("Automatska Puška Model 1970", "Automatic Rifle Model 1970") of which the M70 A was the folding stock version. It became the standard issue weapon in the Yugoslav People's Army in 1970.  Before the larger models of these rifles were made, cost-cutting measures in production resulted in the removal of the internal bolt hold open, and relocation to the magazine follower. This change eliminated any possible speed up in the reloading procedure (due to the bolt closing upon removal of the magazine) but allowed the operator to more easily identify if the current magazine is empty. Some rifles were also equipped with a notched selector control which allowed you to lock the bolt rearward by closing the dust cover on the charging handle. In addition, the usual placement of the barrel through threading into the receiver was replaced by the cheaper method of pressing and pinning the barrel into the receiver. Rifles produced with these new features were known as models AP M70 B (fixed stock version), and M70 AB (folding stock version). As with the M70 series of automatic rifles, these models failed to be produced in larger quantities before further cost-efficiency production measures gave way to yet another model.  This time the milled receiver was replaced by a receiver stamped from a smooth thick sheet of steel, a firing rate reducer was added to the trigger group, and the muzzle brake replaced the muzzle nut that originally came on the two prior models; the produced models were AP M70B1 (fixed stock) and M70 AB1 (folding stock).  These models eventually failed to mass-produce as well, before final alterations to the M70 rifle design resulted in the AP M70 B2 (fixed stock) and M70AB2 (folding stock) models. These last two models featured a thicker stamped receiver and bulged front trunnion, which was intended to strengthen the rifle in order to make it more suitable for frequent grenade launching. These two models would become the most widely produced of the M70 series, and in turn, the most widely used model used by the JNA, as well as the other militaries and various armed groups fighting in the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s. Parts kits imported into the U.S. however, show markings that appear to contradict the final fixed stock model name. On these kits, the bulged, thicker stamped receiver model is actually the M70B1 model.  All of the M70 models share the grenade launching ability with gas cutoff, the lengthened wooden handguard with 3 cooling slots, iron sights with flip-up illuminating elements, initially filled with phosphorus and later with tritium (Which is used on the current production M70's), to improve aiming at night; the plunger that keeps the receiver cover in place during grenade launching, and a non-chrome lined barrel. Fire selectors have R markings for automatic fire (R for "rafalna", "burst fire") and J for semi-automatic fire (J for "jedinačna", "single"). In the US market, the notched safety lever and bolt hold open magazines have been emulated by many companies as aftermarket accessories for other AKs. There also has been at least one attempt to recreate the original internal bolt stop.  The M70 and all of its variations were well accepted by the professional soldiers and conscripts of the Yugoslav People's Army. It was nicknamed "Ciganka" and "Srpinkja" meaning "Gypsy" and "Serbian Girl" respectively, due to dark finish on its metallic parts.

Design and features.

The M70 is designed on the basis of Kalashnikov principle; however, it can easily be told apart from other AK rifles by the three cooling slots on the foregrip, the light-coloured elm wood furniture and, both, the black rubber buttplate and lack of receiver tangs on fixed-stock M70s. The M70s also have a grenade-launching sight and gas cut-off on the gas block, and are capable of launching rifle-grenades. To launch them a 22 mm diameter grenade launching adapter is screwed on in place of the slant brake or other muzzle device.  The receiver of the M70 is 1.5 mm thick, compared to the 1 mm thick receiver of the AKM, making it more rigid. The receiver has a bulge at the front to accommodate an enlarged trunnion similar to a RPK receiver, with the front trunnion rivet configuration likewise resembling a RPK and not an AKM. Much like the other AKs, the M70 experienced changes to other parts between the milled and stamped variants, such as moving the gas relief ports from the tube to the gas block, adding lightening cuts on the bolt and bolt carrier, moving the rear sling swivel from the back of the receiver to the buttstock and omission of the metal ferrules from the lower handguards and pistol grips. It however, like the Type 56, retained many milled features, such as the thicker barrel, front sight shape, bolt and bolt carrier "in the white", smooth dust cover, lack of a pistol grip reinforcement plate on underfolders, forward sling loop on the gas block and blued finish. Intriguingly, the M70 always used the AKM style bayonets with lug under the gas block even on milled versions. Likewise, the barrel is hammer forged and was never chrome-lined, making it a little more accurate than a standard AKM, but at the cost of increased susceptibility to corrosion and shorter barrel life. The lack of chrome lining is unique for an AK and consistent with other Zastava built rifles of Soviet design (such as the Yugoslavian M59 or M59/66). The fixed stock versions have a unique rear trunnion and stock attachment method, with the two rivets in a vertical strait line and a large bolt passing through the majority of the stock and connecting it to the rear trunnion. Like the East German "MPi-KM", the fixed stocks also lacked a storage compartment for the cleaning kit. It also has flip up tritium night sights like the RK 62 and IMI Galil. Unlike other AK variants, a lock button must be depressed on the left side of the receiver as the first step for field stripping, to enable depressing the rear spring guide to remove the receiver dust cover. It is probable this feature is intended to prevent the loss of the top cover due to recoil when firing rifle grenades.

The Zastava M70 () is a assault rifle developed and produced by Zastava Arms in Serbia (formerly Yugoslavia). The design of the M70 was based on the Soviet AKM rifle and it became the standard issue weapon in the Yugoslav People's Army in 1970. This weapon is also available as the ZPAPM70 (1.0 stamped receiver), ZPAPM70 Classic (1.5mm stamped receiver with bulged RPK style front trunnion, chrome lined bore), O-PAP (1.5mm stamped receiver with bulged RPK style front trunnion) or N-PAP (1.0mm stamped receiver, standard AKM style front trunnion) in the United States without select fire capabilities.

Le Zastava M64 / M70 est un fusil d'assaut yougoslave dérivé des AK-47 et AKM-59. Ses plus récentes variantes sont encore en production en 2006.


History.

Records of solar collectors in the U.S. date to before 1900, involving a black-painted tank mounted on a roof. In 1896 Clarence Kemp of Baltimore enclosed a tank in a wooden box, thus creating the first 'batch water heater' as they are known today. Frank Shuman built the world's first solar thermal power station in Maadi, Egypt, using parabolic troughs to power a engine that pumped of water per minute from the Nile River to adjacent cotton fields.  Flat-plate collectors for solar water heating were used in Florida and Southern California in the 1920s. Interest grew in North America after 1960, but especially after the 1973 oil crisis.  Solar power is in use in Australia, Canada, China, Germany, India, Israel, Japan, Portugal, Romania, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States.

Mediterranean.

Israel, Cyprus and Greece are the "per capita" leaders in the use of solar water heating systems supporting 30%–40% of homes.  Flat plate solar systems were perfected and used on a large scale in Israel. In the 1950s a fuel shortage led the government to forbid heating water between 10 pm and 6 am. Levi Yissar built the first prototype Israeli solar water heater and in 1953 he launched the NerYah Company, Israel's first commercial manufacturer of solar water heating. Solar water heaters were used by 20% of the population by 1967. Following the energy crisis in the 1970s, in 1980 Israel required the installation of solar water heaters in all new homes (except high towers with insufficient roof area). As a result, Israel became the world leader in the use of solar energy "per capita" with 85% of households using solar thermal systems (3% of the primary national energy consumption), estimated to save the country of oil a year.  In 2005, Spain became the world's first country to require the installation of photovoltaic electricity generation in new buildings, and the second (after Israel) to require the installation of solar water heating systems, in 2006.

Asia.

After 1960, systems were marketed in Japan.  Australia has a variety of national and state and regulations for solar thermal starting with MRET in 1997.  Solar water heating systems are popular in China, where basic models start at around 1,500 yuan (US$235), around 80% less than in Western countries for a given collector size. At least 30 million Chinese households have one. The popularity is due to efficient evacuated tubes that allow the heaters to function even under gray skies and at temperatures well below freezing.

Design requirements.

The type, complexity and size of a solar water heating system is mostly determined by:  The minimum requirements of the system are typically determined by the amount or temperature of hot water required during winter, when a system's output and incoming water temperature are typically at their lowest. The maximum output of the system is determined by the need to prevent the water in the system from becoming too hot.

Freeze protection.

Freeze protection measures prevent damage to the system due to the expansion of freezing transfer fluid. Drainback systems drain the transfer fluid from the system when the pump stops. Many indirect systems use antifreeze (e.g., propylene glycol) in the heat transfer fluid.  In some direct systems, collectors can be manually drained when freezing is expected. This approach is common in climates where freezing temperatures do not occur often, but can be less reliable than an automatic system as it relies on an operator.  A third type of freeze protection is freeze-tolerance, where low pressure water pipes made of silicone rubber simply expand on freezing. One such collector now has European Solar Keymark accreditation.

Overheat protection.

When no hot water has been used for a day or two, the fluid in the collectors and storage can reach high temperatures in all non-drainback systems. When the storage tank in a drainback system reaches its desired temperature, the pumps stop, ending the heating process and thus preventing the storage tank from overheating.  Some active systems deliberately cool the water in the storage tank by circulating hot water through the collector at times when there is little sunlight or at night, losing heat. This is most effective in direct or thermal store plumbing and is virtually ineffective in systems that use evacuated tube collectors, due to their superior insulation. Any collector type may still overheat. High pressure, sealed solar thermal systems ultimately rely on the operation of temperature and pressure relief valves. Low pressure, open vented heaters have simpler, more reliable safety controls, typically an open vent.

Systems.

Simple designs include a simple glass-topped insulated box with a flat solar absorber made of sheet metal, attached to copper heat exchanger pipes and dark-colored, or a set of metal tubes surrounded by an evacuated (near vacuum) glass cylinder. In industrial cases a parabolic mirror can concentrate sunlight on the tube. Heat is stored in a hot water storage tank. The volume of this tank needs to be larger with solar heating systems to compensate for bad weather and because the optimum final temperature for the solar collector is lower than a typical immersion or combustion heater. The heat transfer fluid (HTF) for the absorber may be water, but more commonly (at least in active systems) is a separate loop of fluid containing anti-freeze and a corrosion inhibitor delivers heat to the tank through a heat exchanger (commonly a coil of copper heat exchanger tubing within the tank). Copper is an important component in solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of its high heat conductivity, atmospheric and water corrosion resistance, sealing and joining by soldering and mechanical strength. Copper is used both in receivers and primary circuits (pipes and heat exchangers for water tanks).  Another lower-maintenance concept is the 'drain-back'. No anti-freeze is required; instead, all the piping is sloped to cause water to drain back to the tank. The tank is not pressurized and operates at atmospheric pressure. As soon as the pump shuts off, flow reverses and the pipes empty before freezing can occur. Residential solar thermal installations fall into two groups: passive (sometimes called "compact") and active (sometimes called "pumped") systems. Both typically include an auxiliary energy source (electric heating element or connection to a gas or fuel oil central heating system) that is activated when the water in the tank falls below a minimum temperature setting, ensuring that hot water is always available. The combination of solar water heating and back-up heat from a wood stove chimney can enable a hot water system to work all year round in cooler climates, without the supplemental heat requirement of a solar water heating system being met with fossil fuels or electricity.  When a solar water heating and hot-water central heating system are used together, solar heat will either be concentrated in a pre-heating tank that feeds into the tank heated by the central heating, or the solar heat exchanger will replace the lower heating element and the upper element will remain to provide for supplemental heat. However, the primary need for central heating is at night and in winter when solar gain is lower. Therefore, solar water heating for washing and bathing is often a better application than central heating because supply and demand are better matched. In many climates, a solar hot water system can provide up to 85% of domestic hot water energy. This can include domestic non-electric concentrating solar thermal systems. In many northern European countries, combined hot water and space heating systems (solar combisystems) are used to provide 15 to 25% of home heating energy. When combined with storage, large scale solar heating can provide 50-97% of annual heat consumption for district heating.

Heat transfer.

Direct.

"Direct" or "open loop" systems circulate potable water through the collectors. They are relatively cheap. Drawbacks include:  The advent of freeze-tolerant designs expanded the market for SWH to colder climates. In freezing conditions, earlier models were damaged when the water turned to ice, rupturing one or more components.

Indirect.

"Indirect" or "closed loop" systems use a heat exchanger to transfer heat from the "heat-transfer fluid" (HTF) fluid to the potable water. The most common HTF is an antifreeze/water mix that typically uses non-toxic propylene glycol. After heating in the panels, the HTF travels to the heat exchanger, where its heat is transferred to the potable water. Indirect systems offer freeze protection and typically overheat protection.

Propulsion.

Passive.

"Passive" systems rely on heat-driven convection or heat pipes to circulate the working fluid. Passive systems cost less and require low or no maintenance, but are less efficient. Overheating and freezing are major concerns.

Active.

"Active" systems use one or more pumps to circulate water and/or heating fluid"." This permits a much wider range of system configurations.  Pumped systems are more expensive to purchase and to operate. However, they operate at higher efficiency and can be more easily controlled.  Active systems have controllers with features such as interaction with a backup electric or gas-driven water heater, calculation and logging of the energy saved, safety functions, remote access and informative displays.

Passive direct systems.

An "integrated collector storage" (ICS or batch heater) system uses a tank that acts as both storage and collector. Batch heaters are thin rectilinear tanks with a glass side facing the sun at noon. They are simple and less costly than plate and tube collectors, but they may require bracing if installed on a roof (to support lbs of water), suffer from significant heat loss at night since the side facing the sun is largely uninsulated and are only suitable in moderate climates.  A "convection heat storage unit" (CHS) system is similar to an ICS system, except the storage tank and collector are physically separated and transfer between the two is driven by convection. CHS systems typically use standard flat-plate type or evacuated tube collectors. The storage tank must be located above the collectors for convection to work properly. The main benefit of CHS systems over ICS systems is that heat loss is largely avoided since the storage tank can be fully insulated. Since the panels are located below the storage tank, heat loss does not cause convection, as the cold water stays at the lowest part of the system.

Active indirect systems.

"Pressurized antifreeze" systems use a mix of antifreeze (almost always low-toxic propylene glycol) and water mix for HTF in order to prevent freeze damage.  Though effective at preventing freeze damage, antifreeze systems have drawbacks:  A "drainback system" is an active indirect system where the HTF (usually pure water) circulates through the collector, driven by a pump. The collector piping is not pressurized and includes an open drainback reservoir that is contained in conditioned or semi-conditioned space. The HTF remains in the drainback reseervoir unless the pump is operating and returns there (emptying the collector) when the pump is switched off. The collector system, including piping, must drain via gravity into the drainback tank. Drainback systems are not subject to freezing or overheating. The pump operates only when appropriate for heat collection, but not to protect the HTF, increasing efficiency and reducing pumping costs.

Do-it-yourself (DIY).

Plans for solar water heating systems are available on the Internet. DIY SWH systems are usually cheaper than commercial ones, and they are used both in the developed and developing world.

Components.

Collector.

Solar thermal collectors capture and retain heat from the sun and use it to heat a liquid. Two important physical principles govern the technology of solar thermal collectors:

Flat plate.

Flat plate collectors are an extension of the idea to place a collector in an 'oven'-like box with glass directly facing the Sun. Most flat plate collectors have two horizontal pipes at the top and bottom, called headers, and many smaller vertical pipes connecting them, called risers. The risers are welded (or similarly connected) to thin absorber fins. Heat-transfer fluid (water or water/antifreeze mix) is pumped from the hot water storage tank or heat exchanger into the collectors' bottom header, and it travels up the risers, collecting heat from the absorber fins, and then exits the collector out of the top header. Serpentine flat plate collectors differ slightly from this "harp" design, and instead use a single pipe that travels up and down the collector. However, since they cannot be properly drained of water, serpentine flat plate collectors cannot be used in drainback systems.  The type of glass used in flat plate collectors is almost always low-iron, tempered glass. Such glass can withstand significant hail without breaking, which is one of the reasons that flat-plate collectors are considered the most durable collector type.  Unglazed or formed collectors are similar to flat-plate collectors, except they are not thermally insulated nor physically protected by a glass panel. Consequently, these types of collectors are much less efficient when water temperature exceeds ambient air temperatures. For pool heating applications, the water to be heated is often colder than the ambient roof temperature, at which point the lack of thermal insulation allows additional heat to be drawn from the surrounding environment.

Evacuated tube.

Evacuated tube collectors (ETC) are a way to reduce the heat loss, inherent in flat plates. Since heat loss due to convection cannot cross a vacuum, it forms an efficient isolation mechanism to keep heat inside the collector pipes. Since two flat glass sheets are generally not strong enough to withstand a vacuum, the vacuum is created between two concentric tubes. Typically, the water piping in an ETC is therefore surrounded by two concentric tubes of glass separated by a vacuum that admits heat from the sun (to heat the pipe) but that limits heat loss. The inner tube is coated with a thermal absorber. Vacuum life varies from collector to collector, from 5 years to 15 years.  Flat plate collectors are generally more efficient than ETC in full sunshine conditions. However, the energy output of flat plate collectors is reduced slightly more than ETCs in cloudy or extremely cold conditions. Most ETCs are made out of annealed glass, which is susceptible to hail, failing given roughly golf ball -sized particles. ETCs made from "coke glass," which has a green tint, are stronger and less likely to lose their vacuum, but efficiency is slightly reduced due to reduced transparency. ETCs can gather energy from the sun all day long at low angles due to their tubular shape.

Pump.

PV pump.

One way to power an active system is via a photovoltaic (PV) panel. To ensure proper pump performance and longevity, the (DC) pump and PV panel must be suitably matched. Although a PV-powered pump does not operate at night, the controller must ensure that the pump does not operate when the sun is out but the collector water is not hot enough.  PV pumps offer the following advantages:

Bubble pump.

A bubble pump (also known as geyser pump) is suitable for flat panel as well as vacuum tube systems. In a bubble pump system, the closed HTF circuit is under reduced pressure, which causes the liquid to boil at low temperature as the sun heats it. The steam bubbles form a geyser, causing an upward flow. The bubbles are separated from the hot fluid and condensed at the highest point in the circuit, after which the fluid flows downward toward the heat exchanger caused by the difference in fluid levels. The HTF typically arrives at the heat exchanger at 70 °C and returns to the circulating pump at 50 °C. Pumping typically starts at about 50 °C and increases as the sun rises until equilibrium is reached.

Controller.

A "differential controller" senses temperature differences between water leaving the solar collector and the water in the storage tank near the heat exchanger. The controller starts the pump when the water in the collector is sufficiently about 8–10 °C warmer than the water in the tank, and stops it when the temperature difference reaches 3–5 °C. This ensures that stored water always gains heat when the pump operates and prevents the pump from excessive cycling on and off. (In direct systems the pump can be triggered with a difference around 4 °C because they have no heat exchanger.)

Tank.

The simplest collector is a water-filled metal tank in a sunny place. The sun heats the tank. This was how the first systems worked. This setup would be inefficient due to the equilibrium effect: as soon as heating of the tank and water begins, the heat gained is lost to the environment and this continues until the water in the tank reaches ambient temperature. The challenge is to limit the heat loss.

Insulated tank.

ICS or batch collectors reduce heat loss by thermally insulating the tank. This is achieved by encasing the tank in a glass-topped box that allows heat from the sun to reach the water tank. The other walls of the box are thermally insulated, reducing convection and radiation. The box can also have a reflective surface on the inside. This reflects heat lost from the tank back towards the tank. In a simple way one could consider an ICS solar water heater as a water tank that has been enclosed in a type of 'oven' that retains heat from the sun as well as heat of the water in the tank. Using a box does not eliminate heat loss from the tank to the environment, but it largely reduces this loss.  Standard ICS collectors have a characteristic that strongly limits the efficiency of the collector: a small surface-to-volume ratio. Since the amount of heat that a tank can absorb from the sun is largely dependent on the surface of the tank directly exposed to the sun, it follows that the surface size defines the degree to which the water can be heated by the sun. Cylindrical objects such as the tank in an ICS collector have an inherently small surface-to-volume ratio. Collectors attempt to increase this ratio for efficient warming of the water. Variations on this basic design include collectors that combine smaller water containers and evacuated glass tube technology, a type of ICS system known as an Evacuated Tube Batch (ETB) collector.

Applications.

Evacuated tube.

ETSCs can be more useful than other solar collectors during winter season. ETCs can be used for heating and cooling purposes in industries like pharmaceutical and drug, paper, leather and textile and also for residential houses, hospitals, nursing home, hotels, swimming pool etc.  An ETC can operate at a range of temperatures from medium to high for solar hot water, swimming pool, air conditioning and solar cooker.  ETCs higher operational temperature range (up to ) makes them suitable for industrial applications such as steam generation, heat engine and solar drying.

Swimming pools.

Floating pool covering systems and separate STCs are used for pool heating.  Pool covering systems, whether solid sheets or floating disks, act as insulation and reduce heat loss. Much heat loss occurs through evaporation, and using a cover slows evaporation.  STCs for nonpotable pool water use are often made of plastic. Pool water is mildly corrosive due to chlorine. Water is circulated through the panels using the existing pool filter or supplemental pump. In mild environments, unglazed plastic collectors are more efficient as a direct system. In cold or windy environments evacuated tubes or flat plates in an indirect configuration are used in conjunction with a heat exchanger. This reduces corrosion. A fairly simple differential temperature controller is used to direct the water to the panels or heat exchanger either by turning a valve or operating the pump. Once the pool water has reached the required temperature, a diverter valve is used to return water directly to the pool without heating. Many systems are configured as drainback systems where the water drains into the pool when the water pump is switched off.  The collector panels are usually mounted on a nearby roof, or ground-mounted on a tilted rack. Due to the low temperature difference between the air and the water, the panels are often formed collectors or unglazed flat plate collectors. A simple rule-of-thumb for the required panel area needed is 50% of the pool's surface area. This is for areas where pools are used in the summer season only. Adding solar collectors to a conventional outdoor pool, in a cold climate, can typically extend the pool's comfortable usage by months and more if an insulating pool cover is used. When sized at 100% coverage most solar hot water systems are capable of heating a pool anywhere from as little as 4 °C for a wind-exposed pool, to as much as 10 °C for a wind-sheltered pool covered consistently with a solar pool blanket.  An active solar energy system analysis program may be used to optimize the solar pool heating system before it is built.

Energy production.

The amount of heat delivered by a solar water heating system depends primarily on the amount of heat delivered by the sun at a particular place (insolation). In the tropics insolation can be relatively high, e.g. 7 kWh/m2 per day, versus e.g., 3.2 kWh/m2 per day in temperate areas. Even at the same latitude average insolation can vary a great deal from location to location due to differences in local weather patterns and the amount of overcast. Calculators are available for estimating insolation at a site.  Below is a table that gives a rough indication of the specifications and energy that could be expected from a solar water heating system involving some 2 m of absorber area of the collector, demonstrating two evacuated tube and three flat plate solar water heating systems. Certification information or figures calculated from those data are used. The bottom two rows give estimates for daily energy production (kWh/day) for a tropical and a temperate scenario. These estimates are for heating water to 50 °C above ambient temperature.  With most solar water heating systems, the energy output scales linearly with the collector surface area. The figures are fairly similar between the above collectors, yielding some 4 kWh/day in a temperate climate and some 8 kWh/day in a tropical climate when using a collector with a 2 m absorber. In the temperate scenario this is sufficient to heat 200 litres of water by some 17 °C. In the tropical scenario the equivalent heating would be by some 33 °C. Many thermosiphon systems have comparable energy output to equivalent active systems. The efficiency of evacuated tube collectors is somewhat lower than for flat plate collectors because the absorbers are narrower than the tubes and the tubes have space between them, resulting in a significantly larger percentage of inactive overall collector area. Some methods of comparison calculate the efficiency of evacuated tube collectors based on the actual absorber area and not on the space occupied as has been done in the above table. Efficiency is reduced at higher temperatures.

Costs.

In sunny, warm locations, where freeze protection is not necessary, an ICS (batch type) solar water heater can be cost effective. In higher latitudes, design requirements for cold weather add to system complexity and cost. This increases "initial" costs, but not life-cycle costs. The biggest single consideration is therefore the large initial financial outlay of solar water heating systems. Offsetting this expense can take years. The payback period is longer in temperate environments. Since solar energy is free, operating costs are small. At higher latitudes, solar heaters may be less effective due to lower insolation, possibly requiring larger and/or dual-heating systems. In some countries government incentives can be significant.  Cost factors (positive and negative) include:  Payback times can vary greatly due to regional sun, extra cost due to frost protection needs of collectors, household hot water use etc. For instance in central and southern Florida the payback period could easily be 7 years or less rather than the 12.6 years indicated on the chart for the U.S.  The payback period is shorter given greater insolation. However, even in temperate areas, solar water heating is cost effective. The payback period for photovoltaic systems has historically been much longer. Costs and payback period are shorter if no complementary/backup system is required. thus extending the payback period of such a system.

Subsidies.

Australia operates a system of Renewable Energy Credits, based on national renewable energy targets.  The Toronto Solar Neighbourhoods Initiative offers subsidies for the purchase of solar water heating units.

Energy footprint and life cycle assessment.

Energy footprint.

The source of electricity in an active SWH system determines the extent to which a system contributes to atmospheric carbon during operation. Active solar thermal systems that use mains electricity to pump the fluid through the panels are called 'low carbon solar'. In most systems the pumping reduces the energy savings by about 8% and the carbon savings of the solar by about 20%. However, low power pumps operate with 1-20W. Assuming a solar collector panel delivering 4 kWh/day and a pump running intermittently from mains electricity for a total of 6 hours during a 12-hour sunny day, the potentially negative effect of such a pump can be reduced to about 3% of the heat produced.  However, PV-powered active solar thermal systems typically use a 5–30 W PV panel and a small, low power diaphragm pump or centrifugal pump to circulate the water. This reduces the operational carbon and energy footprint.  Alternative non-electrical pumping systems may employ thermal expansion and phase changes of liquids and gases.

Life cycle energy assessment.

Recognised standards can be used to deliver robust and quantitative life cycle assessments (LCA). LCA considers the financial and environmental costs of acquisition of raw materials, manufacturing, transport, using, servicing and disposal of the equipment. Elements include: In terms of energy consumption, some 60% goes into the tank, with 30% towards the collector (thermosiphon flat plate in this case). In Italy, some 11 giga-joules of electricity are used in producing SWH equipment, with about 35% goes toward the tank, with another 35% towards the collector. The main energy-related impact is emissions. The energy used in manufacturing is recovered within the first 2–3 years of use (in southern Europe).  By contrast the energy payback time in the UK is reported as only 2 years. This figure was for a direct system, retrofitted to an existing water store, PV pumped, freeze tolerant and of 2.8 sqm aperture. For comparison, a PV installation took around 5 years to reach energy payback, according to the same comparative study.  In terms of CO emissions, a large fraction of the emissions saved is dependent on the degree to which gas or electricity is used to supplement the sun. Using the Eco-indicator 99 points system as a yardstick (i.e. the yearly environmental load of an average European inhabitant) in Greece, a purely gas-driven system may have fewer emissions than a solar system. This calculation assumes that the solar system produces about half of the hot water requirements of a household. But because methane (CH) emissions from the natural gas fuel cycle dwarf the greenhouse impact of CO, the net greenhouse emissions (COe) from gas-driven systems are vastly greater than for solar heaters, especially if supplemental electricity is also from carbon-free generation.  A test system in Italy produced about 700 kg of CO, considering all the components of manufacture, use and disposal. Maintenance was identified as an emissions-costly activity when the heat transfer fluid (glycol-based) was replaced. However, the emissions cost was recovered within about two years of use of the equipment.  In Australia, life cycle emissions were also recovered. The tested SWH system had about 20% of the impact of an electrical water heater and half that of a gas water heater.  Analysing their lower impact retrofit freeze-tolerant solar water heating system, Allen "et al." (qv) reported a production CO impact of 337 kg, which is around half the environmental impact reported in the Ardente "et al." (qv) study.

Standards.

Australia.

All relevant participants of the Large-scale Renewable Energy Target and Small-scale Renewable Energy Scheme must comply with the above Acts.

Solar water heating (SWH) is the conversion of sunlight into heat for water heating using a solar thermal collector. A variety of configurations is available at varying cost to provide solutions in different climates and latitudes. SWHs are widely used for residential and some industrial applications.

Un chauffe-eau solaire est un dispositif de captage de l'énergie solaire destiné à fournir partiellement ou totalement de l'eau chaude sanitaire (ECS).


Life.

Bürgi was born in 1552 Lichtensteig, Toggenburg, at the time a subject territory of the Abbey of St. Gall (now part of the canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland). Not much is known about his life or education before his employment as astronomer and clockmaker at the court of William IV in Kassel in 1579; it has been theorized that he acquired his mathematical knowledge at Strasbourg, among others from Swiss mathematician Conrad Dasypodius, but there are no facts to support this.  Although an autodidact, he was already during his lifetime considered as one of the most excellent mechanical engineers of his generation. His employer, William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, in a letter to Tycho Brahe praised Bürgi as a "second Archimedes" ("quasi indagine Archimedes alter est"). Another autodidact, Nicolaus Reimers, in 1587 translated Copernicus' "De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium" into German for Bürgi. A copy of the translation survived in Graz, it is thus called "Grazer Handschrift".  In 1604, he entered the service of emperor Rudolf II in Prague. Here, he befriended Johannes Kepler. Bürgi constructed a table of sines ("Canon Sinuum"), which was supposedly very accurate, but since the table itself is lost, it is difficult to be sure of its real accuracy (for instance, Valentinus Otho's "Opus Palatinum" had parts which were not as accurate as it was claimed). An introduction to some of Buergi's methods survives in a copy by Kepler; it discusses the basics of Algebra (or "Coss" as it was known at the time), and of decimal fractions. Some authors consider Bürgi as one of the inventors of logarithms. His legacy also includes the engineering achievement contained in his innovative mechanical astronomical models. During his years in Prague he worked closely with the astronomer Johannes Kepler at the court of Rudolf II.

Bürgi as a clockmaker.

It is undocumented where he learned his clockmaking skills, but eventually he became the most innovative clock and scientific instrument maker of his time. Among his major horological inventions were the cross-beat escapement, and the remontoire, two mechanisms which improved the accuracy of mechanical clocks of the time by orders of magnitude. This allowed for the first time clocks to be used as scientific instruments, with enough accuracy to time the passing of stars (and other heavenly bodies) in the crosshairs of telescopes to start accurately charting stellar positions.  Working as an instrument maker for the court of William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel in Kassel he played a pivotal role in developing the first astronomical charts. He invented logarithms as a working tool for himself for his astronomical calculations, but as a "craftsman/scholar" rather than a "book scholar" he failed to publish his invention for a long time.  In 1592 Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor in Prague received from his uncle, the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, a Bürgi globe and insisted that Bürgi deliver it personally. From then on Bürgi commuted between Kassel and Prague, and finally entered the service of the emperor in 1604 to work for the imperial astronomer Johannes Kepler.

Works.

The most significant artifacts designed and built by Burgi surviving in museums are:

Bürgi as a mathematician.

Bürgi's work on trigonometry.

By 1586, Bürgi was able to calculate sines at arbitrary precision, using several algorithms, one of which he called Kunstweg. He supposedly used these algorithms to calculate a «Canon Sinuum», a table of sines to 8 places in steps of 2 arc seconds. Nothing more is known on this table, and some authors have speculated that its range was only over 45 degrees. Such tables were extremely important for navigation at sea. Johannes Kepler called the Canon Sinuum the most precise known table of sines. Bürgi explained his algorithms in his work "Fundamentum Astronomiae" which he presented to Emperor Rudolf II in 1592.  Iterative table calculation through Bürgi's algorithm essentially works as follows: cells sum up the values of the two previous cells in the same column. The final cell's value is divided by two, and the next iteration starts. Finally, the values of the last column get normalized. Rather accurate approximations of sines are obtained after few iterations. Only recently, Folkerts et al. proved that this simple process converges indeed towards the true sines. Another of Buergi's algorithms uses differences in order to build up a table, and this was an anticipation of the famous Tables du cadastre.

Bürgi's work on logarithms.

Bürgi constructed a table of progressions what is now understood as antilogarithms independently of John Napier, through a method distinct from Napier's. Napier published his discovery in 1614, and this publication was widely disseminated in Europe by the time Bürgi published at the behest of Johannes Kepler. Bürgi may have constructed his table of progressions around 1600, but Bürgi's work is not a theoretical basis for logarithms, although his table serves the same purpose as Napier's. One source claims that Bürgi did not develop a clear notion of a logarithmic function and can therefore not be viewed as an inventor of logarithms. Bürgi's method is different from that of Napier and was clearly invented independently. Kepler wrote about Bürgi's logarithms in the introduction to his Rudolphine Tables (1627): "... as aids to calculation Justus Byrgius was led to these very logarithms many years before Napier's system appeared; but being an indolent man, and very uncommunicative, instead of rearing up his child for the public benefit he deserted it at birth."

Honors.

The lunar crater Byrgius is named in Bürgi's honor.

Jost Bürgi (also "Joost, Jobst"; Latinized surname "Burgius" or "Byrgius"; 28 February 1552 – 31 January 1632), active primarily at the courts in Kassel and Prague, was a Swiss clockmaker, a maker of astronomical instruments and a mathematician.

Jost Bürgi (né le à Lichtensteig dans le district de Toggenburg, décédé le à Cassel) était un horloger, et constructeur d'instruments suisse. De 1579 à 1604, il fut l'astronome du landgrave Guillaume IV de Hesse-Cassel, puis jusqu'en 1630 il travailla avec Kepler au service de l'empereur Rodolphe II à Prague. Il retourna à Cassel l'année précédant sa mort.


Origins.

The origins of the Russian Navy can be traced back to the period between the 4th and the 6th century. The first Slavic flotillas consisted of small sailing ships and rowboats, which had been seaworthy and able to navigate in riverbeds. During the 9th through 12th centuries, there were flotillas in the Kievan Rus' consisting of hundreds of vessels with one, two, or three masts. Riverine vessels in 9th century Kievan Rus guarded trade routes to Constantinople. The citizens of Novgorod are known to have conducted military campaigns in the Baltic Sea (e.g., the siege of Sigtuna in 1187)—although contemporary Scandinavian sources state that the fleet was from Karelia or Estonia. "Lad'ya" ("ладья" in Russian or sea boat) was a typical boat used by the army of Novgorod (length 30 meters with a width of five to six meters, and two or three masts, with the armament of battering rams and catapults, complement: 50 to 60 men). There were also smaller sailboats and rowboats, such as "ushkuys" ("ушкуи") for sailing in rivers, lakes and skerries, "kochis" ("кочи"), and "nosads" ("носады"), used for cargo transportation.  During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Cossacks conducted military campaigns against the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire, using sailboats and rowboats. The Don Cossacks called them "strugs" ("струг"). These boats were capable of transporting up to 80 men. The Cossack flotillas numbered 80 to 100 boats. The centralized Russian state had been fighting for its own access to the Baltic Sea, Black Sea and Sea of Azov since the 17th century. By the end of that century, the Russians had accumulated some valuable experience in using riverboats together with land forces.  Under Tsar Mikhail Feodorovich, the construction of the first three-masted ship to be built entirely within Russia was finished in 1636. She was built in Balakhna by Danish shipbuilders from Holstein with a European design. She was christened the "Frederick". In 1667–69, the Russians tried to build naval ships in a village of Dedinovo on the shores of the Oka River for the purpose of defending the trade routes along the Volga River, which led to the Caspian Sea. In 1668, they built a 26-gun ship, the "Oryol" ("Орёл", or eagle), a yacht, a boat with a mast and bowsprit, and a few rowboats.  During much of the seventeenth century Russian merchants and Cossacks, using koch boats, sailed across the White Sea, explored the rivers Lena, Kolyma and Indigirka, and founded settlements in the region of the upper Amur. Unquestionably the most celebrated Russian explorer was Semyon Dezhnev, who, in 1648, sailed the entire length of present-day Russia along the Arctic coast. Rounding the Chukotsk Peninsula, Dezhnev passed through the Bering Sea and sailed into the Pacific Ocean.

Structure.

Since 2012 the headquarters of the Russian Navy (Russian Navy Main Staff) is once again located in the Admiralty in Saint Petersburg. Russian naval manpower is a mixture of conscripts serving one-year terms and volunteers (Officers and Ratings). In 2006 the IISS assessed there were 142,000 personnel in the Russian Navy. As of 2008 the conscription term was reduced to one year and a major downsizing and reorganization were underway. In 2008, plans were announced to move the headquarters to the Admiralty building in St. Petersburg, the historic location of the headquarters of the Imperial Russian Navy. The Navy Staff finally relocated there in November 2012.  The Russian Navy is organised into four combat services - the Surface Forces, the Submarine Forces, the Naval Aviation and the Coastal Troops. Additionally the navy also includes support units afloat and ashore. It does not include special forces. The Naval Spetsnaz brigades are part of the Main Intelligence Directorate attached to the respective fleets and the Counter-Diversionary Forces and Assets ("ПДСС") (which are units, protecting the Navy from incursions of enemy special forces) fall within the Coastal Forces.  During the Cold War the Soviet Armed Forces made the distinction between the various naval commands. The main fleets were the Northern and the Pacific Fleet. They were tasked with independent operations on the high seas and for that reason included strategic surface, submarine and air forces, including the country's naval nuclear deterrent. Due to the limited geography of the Baltic and the Black Seas the respective Baltic and Black Sea Fleets were given a more circumspect role in support of adjacent ground formation (the Main Command of the Troops of the Western Direction in Legnica (Poland) and the Main Command of the Troops of the South-Western Direction in Chișinău. These two fleets were armed with shorter-range weapon systems than the main fleets (diesel-electric submarines, Sukhoi Su-24 fighter-bombers and a larger quantity of frigates and corvettes). Due to the closed nature of the Caspian Sea (still connected to the Baltic and Black Seas through the Volga River and the system of rivers and canals and navigable for ships of corvette size) its Caspian Flotilla had an even more limited role than the Fleets and played a defensive role supporting the Main Command of the Troops of the Southern Direction in Baku.  With the end of the Cold War a significant reduction in forces followed. Before the 2008 Russian military reform, the four fleets were ranked as equal in status to the six Military Districts. With the reform measures taking action four new Joint Strategic Commands were formed and the Fleets were subordinated to them with status equal to the Ground Forces and the Air Forces armies. Due to Russia's increased interests in the Arctic region the decision to put the Northern Fleet under the Joint Strategic Command West (later renamed to Western Military District) was reverted in 2014 and on December 12 it became the basis for the newly formed fifth Northern Fleet Joint Strategic Command.

Military districts and fleets.

The Russian Navy consists of four fleets and one flotilla with 3 of 4 fleets and the Caspian Flotilla subordinated to the newly formed Military Districts-Joint Operational Strategic Commands.

Joint Strategic Command Northern Fleet.

Northern Fleet.

The Russian Northern Fleet, established as a modern formation in 1933, is headquartered at Severomorsk and spread around various bases in the greater Murmansk area. It is the main fleet of the Russian Navy and currently comprises  The Northern Fleet also includes many corvettes, patrol ships, light amphibious ships and support and logistic ships.

Western Military District – Western Joint Strategic Command.

Baltic Fleet.

The Baltic Fleet, established on 18 May 1703, is based in Baltiysk and Kronshtadt, with its headquarters in the city of Kaliningrad, Kaliningrad Oblast. The Fleet consists of;  The Baltic Fleet also includes many corvettes, patrol ships, minehunters, light amphibious ships and support vessels.

Southern Military District – Southern Joint Strategic Command.

Black Sea Fleet.

The Black Sea Fleet, established on 2 May 1783, is based at the Sevastopol, Karantinnaya, and Streletskaya Bays in Sevastopol which is also the location of its headquarters, and at Novorossiysk

Caspian Flotilla.

The Caspian Flotilla, established on 4 November 1722, is based in Astrakhan and Makhachkala with its headquarters in Astrakhan. The Fleet consists of;  The Caspian Flotilla also includes 4 artillery and 3 rocket corvettes and some patrol ships.

Eastern Military District – Eastern Joint Strategic Command.

Pacific Fleet.

The Pacific Fleet, established on 10 May 1731, is headquartered in Vladivostok and based around Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy. The Fleet consists of;  The Pacific Fleet also includes coastal combatants such as corvettes, patrol ships, mine warfare ships, light amphibious ships, and support vessels. There are also naval aviation and coastal troops and naval infantry components.

Future and modernization.

Russia's military budget expanded from 1998 until 2015, but economic problems including a sharp decline in oils led to budget cuts in 2016. Higher expenditure led to an increase in numbers of ships under construction, initially focusing on submarines, such as the conventional "Petersburg" ("Lada")-class and nuclear "Severodvinsk" ("Yasen")-class. Some older vessels have been refitted as well. "Jane's Fighting Ships" commented in 2004 that the construction programme was too focused on Cold War scenarios, given the submarine emphasis. According to the Russian Defense Ministry, share of modern armament in the Navy has reached more than 50% in 2014. A report from December 2019 estimated the figure at 68%.  The "Steregushchiy"-class corvettes, the lead ship of which was laid down on 21 December 2001, is the first new surface construction since the collapse of the Soviet Union, while the new Admiral Sergei Gorshkov class frigates marks the first attempt of the Navy to return to the construction of large blue water capable vessels. The Russian Navy plans to procure two new classes of destroyer, the general-purpose Project 21956 in the 2010s and the Leader-class anti-air destroyer in the 2020s. The latter will likely carry the S-500 anti-ballistic missile system.  A rearmament program approved in 2007 placed the development of the navy on an equal footing with the Strategic Missile Forces for the first time in Soviet and Russian history.

Main Naval Parade in St. Petersburg.

Since 2017, by the decree of the President of Russia dated 27 July 2017, the tradition of holding the Main Naval Parade in St. Petersburg on the Navy Day has been restored. The parade

Deployments and increase in activity.

In the last years of the 1990s naval activity was very low. Even at the height of the Kosovo War, a planned task group deployment to the Mediterranean was reduced to the dispatch of the intelligence ship "Liman". 2003 saw a major increase in activity, including several major exercises. A May joint exercise with the Indian Navy saw two Pacific Fleet destroyers and four vessels from the Black Sea Fleet, led by the "Slava"-class cruiser "Moskva", deployed for three months into the Indian Ocean. The largest out-of-area deployment for a decade, the INDRA 2003 exercise, was highlighted by a series of missile launches by two Tu-160s and four Tu-95s, which made a round trip flight from Engels-2 air base near Saratov to the exercise area. In August 2003 the Navy also participated in the Far Eastern exercise Vostok 2003, which saw the "Slava"-class cruiser "Varyag" and the "Sovremennyy"-class destroyer "Bystryy" active, as well as an amphibious landing carried out by three Pacific Fleet Ropucha class landing ships. Warships and helicopters from the Japanese and South Korean navies also took part. The Northern Fleet followed in January 2004 when thirteen ships and seven submarines took part in exercises in the Barents Sea. The involvement of "Admiral Kuznetsov" and nuclear-powered cruiser "Pyotr Velikiy" was overshadowed however by two ballistic missile launch failures, made more embarrassing because President Vladimir Putin was afloat aboard the Typhoon-class SSBN "Arkhangelsk" to witness the tests. Neither of the "Delta IV"-class "Novomoskovsk" nor "Kareliya" were able to successfully launch what were apparently RSM-54 SLBMs. Former navy commander-in-chief Vladimir Kuroyedov's early dismissal may have resulted from these gaffes. He was replaced by Admiral Vladimir Masorin in September 2005.  Embarrassment for the navy had continued, with a mine accident during rehearsals for the Baltic Fleet's celebration of Navy Day in St. Petersburg in July 2005 and the "Priz-"class mini-submarine AS-28 having to be rescued by a joint British/U.S. effort using a Royal Navy unmanned submersible in the Far East in early August 2005. However exercises and operations continued; Peace Mission 2005 in August 2005 involved a new level of cooperation between Russia and the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy. Two months later the Slava-class cruiser "Varyag" led Russian participation in INDRA 2005, held off Visakhapatnam between 14 and 20 October 2005. It included surface firings, air defence, and anti-submarine warfare (ASW) exercises.  Admiral Vladimir Vysotskiy became Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Navy on 11 September 2007, having moved up from the Northern Fleet, which he had commanded since September 2005.  On 16 October 2008, the speaker of Russia's upper house of parliament did not preclude Russia asking for a resumption of a naval presence in Yemen. Authorities in the Middle East country had been calling on Moscow to help fight piracy and possible terrorist threats. The U.S.S.R. had a major naval support base on Socotra Island of the former socialist state of South Yemen, which merged with North Yemen in 1990 to form the present-day Yemen. Speaking to journalists in Sanaʽa, the capital of Yemen, Federation Council Speaker Sergey Mironov said the new direction of Russia's foreign and defense policies and an increase in its naval missions would be taken into consideration when making a decision on the request. "It's possible that the aspects of using Yemen ports not only for visits by Russian warships, but also for more strategic goals will be considered," he said. Mironov also said a visit to Russia by the president of Yemen, Ali Abdullah Saleh, could take place in the near future and that the issue of military technical cooperation could be raised during his visit. Security Council chief Nikolay Patrushev said on 6 August 2012 that Russia will build a string of naval bases along its northern coast in the Arctic zone to serve as resupply bases for Russian warships and border guard vessels.

Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea.

Main article:

The Russian Navy (, VMF) is the naval arm of the Russian Armed Forces. It has existed in various forms since 1696, the present iteration of which was formed in January 1992 when it succeeded the Navy of the Commonwealth of Independent States (which had itself succeeded the Soviet Navy following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in late December 1991).

La flotte maritime militaire de Russie (en - "Voïenno-Morskoï Flot" (VMF)) est la composante navale des Forces armées de la fédération de Russie. La désignation internationale des navires de guerre russes est RFS - "« Russian Federation Ship »".


Plot.

Steve Prefontaine, a Coos Bay, Oregon student, is too small to play most sports but becomes a talented distance runner. He enrolls at the University of Oregon in 1969, and meets fellow Oregon Ducks track and field athletes Pat Tyson and Mac Wilkins. With coaches Bill Bowerman and Bill Dellinger, "Pre" wins three national cross-country championships and four consecutive 5,000-meter runs, breaking the U.S. record in the latter. Prefontaine gains fame as an aggressive runner who likes to be out front from the start, rather than biding his time until a strong finish.  Prefontaine accompanies other top American runners including Frank Shorter and Jeff Galloway to the 1972 Munich Olympics, where they witness the terrorist attacks of the Munich Massacre which interrupt and almost cancel the games. In the 5,000-meter, after leading with only 150 meters to go, three different runners including the winner, Finland's Lasse Viren, pass Prefontaine and he does not win a medal.  After his college career ends, Prefontaine prepares for a rematch with Viren at the 1976 Montreal Olympics. The strict amateurism rules of American non-collegiate sports force Prefontaine to turn down a lucrative offer to become a professional runner, instead working as a bartender while living in a trailer home. He becomes an activist to help American athletes compete against better-funded international rivals. On May 30, 1975, after drinking alcohol at a post-meet party, Prefontaine is killed when his MG convertible flips while driving. After his death, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 gives athletes more control over their sports' governance.

Production.

The majority of the film was shot at the University of Puget Sound campus in Tacoma, Washington. Peyton Field was redecorated to resemble Hayward Field at the University of Oregon. For the role of Steve Prefontaine, Jared Leto immersed himself in the runner's life, meeting with members of the family and friends. He bore a striking resemblance to the real Prefontaine, also adopting the athlete's voice and upright running style. The transformation was so complete that when the runner's sister, Linda, first saw him in character, she broke down and cried. "Prefontaine" explores American athletes' amateur status and the conditions and lack of resources these athletes had to endure in their attempts to compete with the world's top athletes, who were provided all they needed to train and compete at a top level, while dealing with the pressure from their American fans who expected nothing but the best from them.

Critical reception.

Upon its premiere at the 1997 Sundance Film Festival, "Prefontaine" was positively received by critics and audiences, who greatly praised the film for Leto's acting and James' direction. As of March 2020, Rotten Tomatoes reports that 56% of critics gave the film a positive review, based on 36 reviews with an average score of 6.31 out of 10. On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 56 based on 15 reviews, indicating mixed or average reviews. Film critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert praised the film giving it "two thumbs up" on their television program.

Prefontaine is a 1997 American biographical film chronicling the life of the American long-distance runner Steve Prefontaine and his death at age 24. Jared Leto plays the title character and R. Lee Ermey plays Bill Bowerman. The film was written by Steve James and Eugene Corr, and directed by James. "Prefontaine" tells the story from the point of view of Bill Dellinger, played by Ed O'Neill, the assistant coach who was with him day-to-day, and Nancy Alleman, the runner's girlfriend at the time of his death.

Prefontaine est un film américain réalisé par Steve James, sorti en 1997. Ce film raconte la vie de Steve Prefontaine, coureur de fond américain.


Life and career.

Allam was born in Bow, London, England. He was educated at Christ's Hospital and Manchester University. His father was vicar of St Mary Woolnoth.  He played Mercutio for the Royal Shakespeare Company, in 1983.  He played Inspector Javert in the original London production of the stage musical "Les Misérables" from 1985 to 1986.  He has also appeared in many radio dramas for the BBC. In 2001, he starred in BBC Radio 4's adaptation of "Les Misérables", as Valjean. In 2000 he played Hitler at the Royal National Theatre in David Edgar's "Albert Speer". He won an Olivier Award as Best Actor 2001, for his role as Captain Terri Denis in a revival of "Privates on Parade", opening in December 2001 at the Donmar Warehouse, Covent Garden. In November 2002 at the Comedy Theatre he co-starred with Gillian Anderson in Michael Weller's romantic comedy "What the Night Is For".  In 2003, he appeared as former West German federal chancellor Willy Brandt in Michael Frayn's play "Democracy" which opened at the Cottesloe Theatre, in the Royal National Theatre. He stayed with the show for its transfer to the West End. In December 2004 and January 2005, Allam appeared as the villainous Abanazar in a pantomime of "Aladdin" at the Old Vic theatre, co-starring Ian McKellen, Maureen Lipman and Sam Kelly. He reprised this role at the Old Vic, once again with Ian McKellen and Frances Barber in 2006–07. In August 2005, Allam appeared in "Blackbird" by David Harrower alongside Jodhi May at the Edinburgh Festival in a production by German star director Peter Stein. The play transferred to the Albery Theatre in London in February 2006. "Blackbird" subsequently won a best new play award.  In 2006 he appeared in Stephen Frears's film "The Queen", starring Oscar-winner Dame Helen Mirren, as the Queen's private secretary. In February 2007, he performed in the 1960s farce "Boeing-Boeing" at the Comedy Theatre in the West End, co-starring Mark Rylance, Frances de la Tour and Tamzin Outhwaite. In 2007, he appeared for the first time as Peter Mannion MP in the special episodes of the BBC comedy "The Thick of It". He reprised the role in the third series (2009), and returned in the final series (2012) as part of the expanded regular cast.  In 2008, Allam played the role of Max Reinhardt, the Salzburg Festival impresario in Michael Frayn's play "Afterlife", the production staged by Michael Blakemore on the National Theatre's Lyttelton stage. In 2009, Allam played Albin/Zaza in "La Cage aux Folles" at the Playhouse in London. Allam played Falstaff in "Henry IV, Part 1" and "Henry IV, Part 2" at Shakespeare's Globe, in the 2010 season. He won the Olivier Award for Best Actor. In October 2010, Allam was reunited with his former cast mates from "Les Misérables" in the 25th anniversary concert for a performance of "One Day More".  In January 2012, British TV audiences found him in the first series of "Endeavour", the prequel to the long-running "Inspector Morse", playing the gruff but kind-hearted Detective Inspector Fred Thursday, young Endeavour Morse's mentor in a 1960s Oxford. By 2018 Allam had portrayed his central character in five additional well received series, which are also aired in America as part of the PBS Masterpiece Mystery! series. In March 2019, the show's sixth season had concluded on ITV, was scheduled for broadcast in the summer in the United States, and had been recommissioned for a seventh season to be set in 1970.  In April 2012 he also starred as Uncle Vanya in the play by Anton Chekhov at the Chichester Festival Theatre. In 2013 he played the role of Prospero in William Shakespeare's play "The Tempest" at Shakespeare's Globe theatre in London alongside Colin Morgan as Ariel. Allam presented Michael Frayn at the 2013 Olivier Awards with a Special Lifetime Award which was aired by ITV1. Allam has also reteamed with Stephen Frears in "Tamara Drewe", the film version of Posy Simmond's popular comic strip. He plays the crime novelist Nicholas Hardiment, who is bewitched by London journalist Tamara Drewe, played by Gemma Arterton. In the closing chapter of his "Timebends" autobiography (1987) Arthur Miller writes of Allam: "To play Adrian...in the 1986 Royal Shakespeare Company production of "The Archbishop's Ceiling", Roger Allam gave up the leading role as Javert in the monster hit "Les Misérables" because he had done it over sixty times and thought my play more challenging for him at that moment of his career. Nor did he consider his decision a particularly courageous one. This is part of what a theatre culture means and it is something few New York actors would have the sense of security even to dream of doing."  Allam narrated the Channel 4 series "The Auction House".  In October and November 2016 Allam appeared as Brigadier Adrian Stone in the BBC series "The Missing".

Personal life.

Allam is married to actress Rebecca Saire, with whom he has two sons, William, an actor, and Thomas.. He, Rebecca and William appeared together in the Endeavour episode Raga (series 7, episode 2, broadcast February 2020). In that episode, Rebecca and William played mother and son.

Audiobooks.

Allam has narrated several audiobooks, including "Solar" by Ian McEwan.

Roger William Allam (born 26 October 1953) is an English actor, known primarily for his stage career, although he has performed in film, television and radio.

Roger Allam est un acteur britannique né le à Londres (Royaume-Uni). Il a gagné le prestigieux Olivier Award à trois reprises : deux fois pour meilleur acteur et une fois pour meilleur second rôle. Il a aussi un Evening Standard Film Award. Allam est principalement connu pour son rôle dans le film "V for Vendetta", la série "Les Enquêtes de Morse" et les pièces de radio-théâtre, notamment Cabin Pressure.


Career.

Meins started out in the 'teens as a cartoonist for the Los Angeles Evening Herald before becoming a comedy writer for Fox in 1919.  In the 1920s, Meins directed a number of silent short subjects film series for Universal Pictures, including the "Buster Brown" comedies. He is best known as senior director of Hal Roach's "Our Gang" comedies from 1934 to 1936, and also as director of Laurel and Hardy's "Babes in Toyland" (1934). His assistant director was a young Gordon Douglas, who became senior director in 1936 when Meins left "Our Gang" for other directing jobs at Roach. Meins left Roach in 1937 over creative differences.

Death.

In the summer of 1940, Meins faced prosecution of "morals charges", having been accused of sex offenses against six youths. The director swore his innocence but stated that the case would ruin his career, regardless of the outcome. He left home on the night of Thursday, August 1 telling his son, Douglas: "You probably won't see me again." Meins was found dead in his car on August 4, reportedly having committed suicide by inhaling carbon monoxide days earlier. He was interred at Grand View Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California.  He was generally remembered as 'as a cheerful, convivial gentleman'. His son Douglas Meins (1918–1987) appeared in at least seven Republic and Warner films in the late 1930s-early 1940s; he then served in the U.S. Army Corps during World War II.

Selected filmography.

Feature films:  "Our Gang" shorts:

Gus Meins (March 6, 1893 – August 1, 1940), born Gustave Peter Ludwig Luley, was a German-American film director. He was born in Frankfurt, Germany.

Gus Meins est un réalisateur, producteur et scénariste américain, né le à Los Angeles, Californie (États-Unis), décédé le à La Crescenta-Montrose (Californie).