Branches.

This page focuses on finitary first order model theory of infinite structures. Finite model theory, which concentrates on finite structures, diverges significantly from the study of infinite structures in both the problems studied and the techniques used. Model theory in higher-order logics or infinitary logics is hampered by the fact that completeness and compactness do not in general hold for these logics. However, a great deal of study has also been done in such logics.  Informally, model theory can be divided into classical model theory, model theory applied to groups and fields, and geometric model theory. A missing subdivision is computable model theory, but this can arguably be viewed as an independent subfield of logic.  Examples of early theorems from classical model theory include Gödel's completeness theorem, the upward and downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorems, Vaught's two-cardinal theorem, Scott's isomorphism theorem, the omitting types theorem, and the Ryll-Nardzewski theorem. Examples of early results from model theory applied to fields are Tarski's elimination of quantifiers for real closed fields, Ax's theorem on pseudo-finite fields, and Robinson's development of non-standard analysis. An important step in the evolution of classical model theory occurred with the birth of stability theory (through Morley's theorem on uncountably categorical theories and Shelah's classification program), which developed a calculus of independence and rank based on syntactical conditions satisfied by theories.  During the last several decades applied model theory has repeatedly merged with the more pure stability theory. The result of this synthesis is called geometric model theory in this article (which is taken to include o-minimality, for example, as well as classical geometric stability theory). An example of a proof from geometric model theory is Hrushovski's proof of the Mordell–Lang conjecture for function fields. The ambition of geometric model theory is to provide a "geography of mathematics" by embarking on a detailed study of definable sets in various mathematical structures, aided by the substantial tools developed in the study of pure model theory.

Universal algebra.

Fundamental concepts in universal algebra are signatures σ and σ-algebras. Since these concepts are formally defined in the article on structures, the present article is an informal introduction which consists of examples of the way these terms are used.  This is a very efficient way to define most classes of algebraic structures, because there is also the concept of σ-homomorphism, which correctly specializes to the usual notions of homomorphism for groups, semigroups, magmas and rings. For this to work, the signature must be chosen well.  Terms such as the σ-term "t"("u","v","w") given by are used to define identities but also to construct free algebras. An equational class is a class of structures which, like the examples above and many others, is defined as the class of all σ-structures which satisfy a certain set of identities. Birkhoff's theorem states:  An important non-trivial tool in universal algebra are ultraproducts formula_1, where "I" is an infinite set indexing a system of σ-structures "A", and "U" is an ultrafilter on "I".  While model theory is generally considered a part of mathematical logic, universal algebra, which grew out of Alfred North Whitehead's (1898) work on abstract algebra, is part of algebra. This is reflected by their respective MSC classifications. Nevertheless, model theory can be seen as an extension of universal algebra.

Finite model theory.

Finite model theory is the area of model theory which has the closest ties to universal algebra. Like some parts of universal algebra, and in contrast with the other areas of model theory, it is mainly concerned with finite algebras, or more generally, with finite σ-structures for signatures σ which may contain relation symbols as in the following example:  A σ-homomorphism is a map that commutes with the operations and preserves the relations in σ. This definition gives rise to the usual notion of graph homomorphism, which has the interesting property that a bijective homomorphism need not be invertible. Structures are also a part of universal algebra; after all, some algebraic structures such as ordered groups have a binary relation <. What distinguishes finite model theory from universal algebra is its use of more general logical sentences (as in the example above) in place of identities. (In a model-theoretic context an identity "t"="t<nowiki>'</nowiki>" is written as a sentence formula_3.)  The logics employed in finite model theory are often substantially more expressive than first-order logic, the standard logic for model theory of infinite structures.

First-order logic.

Whereas universal algebra provides the semantics for a signature, logic provides the syntax. With terms, identities and quasi-identities, even universal algebra has some limited syntactic tools; first-order logic is the result of making quantification explicit and adding negation into the picture.  A first-order formula is built out of atomic formulas such as "R"("f"("x","y"),"z") or "y" = "x" + 1 by means of the Boolean connectives formula_4 and prefixing of quantifiers formula_5 or formula_6. A sentence is a formula in which each occurrence of a variable is in the scope of a corresponding quantifier. Examples for formulas are φ (or φ(x) to mark the fact that at most x is an unbound variable in φ) and ψ defined as follows:  (Note that the equality symbol has a double meaning here.) It is intuitively clear how to translate such formulas into mathematical meaning. In the σ-structure formula_9 of the natural numbers, for example, an element "n" satisfies the formula φ if and only if "n" is a prime number. The formula ψ similarly defines irreducibility. Tarski gave a rigorous definition, sometimes called "Tarski's definition of truth", for the satisfaction relation formula_10, so that one easily proves:  A set "T" of sentences is called a (first-order) theory. A theory is satisfiable if it has a model formula_13, i.e. a structure (of the appropriate signature) which satisfies all the sentences in the set "T". Consistency of a theory is usually defined in a syntactical way, but in first-order logic by the completeness theorem there is no need to distinguish between satisfiability and consistency. Therefore, model theorists often use "consistent" as a synonym for "satisfiable".  A theory is called categorical if it determines a structure up to isomorphism, but it turns out that this definition is not useful, due to serious restrictions in the expressivity of first-order logic. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem implies that for every theory "T" having a countable signature which has an infinite model for some infinite cardinal number, then it has a model of size κ for any infinite cardinal number κ. Since two models of different sizes cannot possibly be isomorphic, only finitary structures can be described by a categorical theory.  Lack of expressivity (when compared to higher logics such as second-order logic) has its advantages, though. For model theorists, the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem is an important practical tool rather than the source of Skolem's paradox. In a certain sense made precise by Lindström's theorem, first-order logic is the most expressive logic for which both the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and the compactness theorem hold.  As a corollary (i.e., its contrapositive), the compactness theorem says that every unsatisfiable first-order theory has a finite unsatisfiable subset. This theorem is of central importance in infinite model theory, where the words "by compactness" are commonplace. One way to prove it is by means of ultraproducts. An alternative proof uses the completeness theorem, which is otherwise reduced to a marginal role in most of modern model theory.

Categoricity.

As observed in the section on first-order logic, first-order theories cannot be categorical, i.e. they cannot describe a unique model up to isomorphism, unless that model is finite. But two famous model-theoretic theorems deal with the weaker notion of κ-categoricity for a cardinal κ. A theory "T" is called κ-categorical if any two models of "T" that are of cardinality κ are isomorphic. It turns out that the question of κ-categoricity depends critically on whether κ is bigger than the cardinality of the language (i.e. formula_14 + |σ|, where |σ| is the cardinality of the signature). For finite or countable signatures this means that there is a fundamental difference between formula_14-cardinality and κ-cardinality for uncountable κ.  A few characterizations of formula_14-categoricity include:  This result, due independently to Engeler, Ryll-Nardzewski and Svenonius, is sometimes referred to as the Ryll-Nardzewski theorem.  Further, formula_14-categorical theories and their countable models have strong ties with oligomorphic groups. They are often constructed as Fraïssé limits.  Michael Morley's highly non-trivial result that (for countable languages) there is only "one" notion of uncountable categoricity was the starting point for modern model theory, and in particular classification theory and stability theory:  Uncountably categorical (i.e. κ-categorical for all uncountable cardinals κ) theories are from many points of view the most well-behaved theories. A theory that is both formula_14-categorical and uncountably categorical is called totally categorical.

Set theory.

Set theory (which is expressed in a countable language), if it is consistent, has a countable model; this is known as Skolem's paradox, since there are sentences in set theory which postulate the existence of uncountable sets and yet these sentences are true in our countable model. Particularly the proof of the independence of the continuum hypothesis requires considering sets in models which appear to be uncountable when viewed from "within" the model, but are countable to someone "outside" the model.  The model-theoretic viewpoint has been useful in set theory; for example in Kurt Gödel's work on the constructible universe, which, along with the method of forcing developed by Paul Cohen can be shown to prove the (again philosophically interesting) independence of the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis from the other axioms of set theory.  In the other direction, model theory itself can be formalized within ZFC set theory. The development of the fundamentals of model theory (such as the compactness theorem) rely on the axiom of choice, or more exactly the Boolean prime ideal theorem. Other results in model theory depend on set-theoretic axioms beyond the standard ZFC framework. For example, if the Continuum Hypothesis holds then every countable model has an ultrapower which is saturated (in its own cardinality). Similarly, if the Generalized Continuum Hypothesis holds then every model has a saturated elementary extension. Neither of these results are provable in ZFC alone. Finally, some questions arising from model theory (such as compactness for infinitary logics) have been shown to be equivalent to large cardinal axioms.

Other basic notions.

Reducts and expansions.

A field or a vector space can be regarded as a (commutative) group by simply ignoring some of its structure. The corresponding notion in model theory is that of a reduct of a structure to a subset of the original signature. The opposite relation is called an "expansion" - e.g. the (additive) group of the rational numbers, regarded as a structure in the signature {+,0} can be expanded to a field with the signature {×,+,1,0} or to an ordered group with the signature {+,0,<}.  Similarly, if σ' is a signature that extends another signature σ, then a complete σ'-theory can be restricted to σ by intersecting the set of its sentences with the set of σ-formulas. Conversely, a complete σ-theory can be regarded as a σ'-theory, and one can extend it (in more than one way) to a complete σ'-theory. The terms reduct and expansion are sometimes applied to this relation as well.

Interpretability.

Given a mathematical structure, there are very often associated structures which can be constructed as a quotient of part of the original structure via an equivalence relation. An important example is a quotient group of a group.  One might say that to understand the full structure one must understand these quotients. When the equivalence relation is definable, we can give the previous sentence a precise meaning. We say that these structures are interpretable.  A key fact is that one can translate sentences from the language of the interpreted structures to the language of the original structure. Thus one can show that if a structure "M" interprets another whose theory is undecidable, then "M" itself is undecidable.

Using the compactness and completeness theorems.

Gödel's completeness theorem (not to be confused with his incompleteness theorems) says that a theory has a model if and only if it is consistent, i.e. no contradiction is proved by the theory. This is the heart of model theory as it lets us answer questions about theories by looking at models and vice versa. One should not confuse the completeness theorem with the notion of a complete theory. A complete theory is a theory that contains every sentence or its negation. Importantly, one can find a complete consistent theory extending any consistent theory. However, as shown by Gödel's incompleteness theorems only in relatively simple cases will it be possible to have a complete consistent theory that is also recursive, i.e. that can be described by a recursively enumerable set of axioms. In particular, the theory of natural numbers has no recursive complete and consistent theory. Non-recursive theories are of little practical use, since it is undecidable if a proposed axiom is indeed an axiom, making proof-checking a supertask.  The compactness theorem states that a set of sentences S is satisfiable if every finite subset of S is satisfiable. In the context of proof theory the analogous statement is trivial, since every proof can have only a finite number of antecedents used in the proof. In the context of model theory, however, this proof is somewhat more difficult. There are two well known proofs, one by Gödel (which goes via proofs) and one by Malcev (which is more direct and allows us to restrict the cardinality of the resulting model).  Model theory is usually concerned with first-order logic, and many important results (such as the completeness and compactness theorems) fail in second-order logic or other alternatives. In first-order logic all infinite cardinals look the same to a language which is countable. This is expressed in the Löwenheim–Skolem theorems, which state that any countable theory with an infinite model formula_20 has models of all infinite cardinalities (at least that of the language) which agree with formula_20 on all sentences, i.e. they are 'elementarily equivalent'.

Types.

Fix an formula_22-structure formula_23, and a natural number formula_24. The set of definable subsets of formula_25 over some parameters formula_26 is a Boolean algebra. By Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras there is a natural dual notion to this. One can consider this to be the topological space consisting of maximal consistent sets of formulae over formula_26. We call this the space of (complete) formula_24-types over formula_26, and write formula_30.  Now consider an element formula_31. Then the set of all formulae formula_32 with parameters in formula_26 in free variables formula_34 so that formula_35 is consistent and maximal such. It is called the "type" of formula_36 over formula_26.  One can show that for any formula_24-type formula_39, there exists some elementary extension formula_40 of formula_23 and some formula_42 so that formula_39 is the type of formula_44 over formula_26.  Many important properties in model theory can be expressed with types. Further many proofs go via constructing models with elements that contain elements with certain types and then using these elements.  Illustrative example: Suppose formula_23 is an algebraically closed field. The theory has quantifier elimination. This allows us to show that a type is determined exactly by the polynomial equations it contains. Thus the space of formula_24-types over a subfield formula_26 is bijective with the set of prime ideals of the polynomial ring formula_49. This is the same set as the spectrum of formula_49. Note however that the topology considered on the type space is the constructible topology: a set of types is basic open iff it is of the form formula_51 or of the form formula_52. This is finer than the Zariski topology.

History.

Model theory as a subject has existed since approximately the middle of the 20th century. However some earlier research, especially in mathematical logic, is often regarded as being of a model-theoretical nature in retrospect. The first significant result in what is now model theory was a special case of the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, published by Leopold Löwenheim in 1915. The compactness theorem was implicit in work by Thoralf Skolem, but it was first published in 1930, as a lemma in Kurt Gödel's proof of his completeness theorem. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and the compactness theorem received their respective general forms in 1936 and 1941 from Anatoly Maltsev.  The development of model theory can be traced to Alfred Tarski, a member of the Lwów–Warsaw school during the interbellum. Tarski's work included logical consequence, deductive systems, the algebra of logic, the theory of definability, and the semantic definition of truth, among other topics. His semantic methods culminated in the model theory he and a number of his Berkeley students developed in the 1950s and '60s. These modern concepts of model theory influenced Hilbert's program and modern mathematics.

In mathematics, model theory is the study of classes of mathematical structures (e.g. groups, fields, graphs, universes of set theory) from the perspective of mathematical logic. The objects of study are models of theories in a formal language. A set of sentences in a formal language is one of the components that form a theory. A model of a theory is a structure (e.g. an interpretation) that satisfies the sentences of that theory.

La théorie des modèles est une branche de la logique mathématique qui traite de la construction et de la classification des structures. Elle définit en particulier les modèles des théories axiomatiques, l'objectif étant d'interpréter les structures syntaxiques (termes, formules, démonstrations...) dans des structures mathématiques (ensemble des entiers naturels, groupes, univers...) de façon à leur associer des concepts de nature sémantique (comme le sens ou la vérité).


Birth and family.

Ashley was born in Sherman Oaks, California, the daughter of Jarnette (née Jones), a personal manager, and David Olsen, a real estate developer and mortgage banker. Along with her twin, Mary-Kate, they have an older brother, Trent Olsen, a younger sister, Elizabeth Olsen (who is also an actress), and younger half siblings, Taylor and Jake, from their father's second marriage. Olsen's parents divorced in 1996. The twins and their siblings have Norwegian ancestry while their mother is of French, German, and Italian ancestry.  She attended the Campbell Hall School in Los Angeles. Mary-Kate and Ashley attended New York University's Gallatin School of Individualized Study, beginning in 2004.

Acting career.

Career beginnings.

She began her acting career at the age of nine months old when she and her twin sister, Mary-Kate Olsen, were hired to share the role of Michelle Tanner on the popular television sitcom "Full House" (1987–1995).  She starred alongside Mary-Kate in the films, "To Grandmother's House We Go" (1992), "Double, Double, Toil and Trouble" (1993), "How the West Was Fun" (1994), "It Takes Two" (1995), "Billboard Dad" (1998) and in the television series, "Two of a Kind" (1998–1999).

Dualstar.

In the 1990s, she and her twin sister founded a production company, Dualstar Entertainment Group, which produced a successful long string of TV movies and direct-to-video releases featuring the girls. They starred in "Passport to Paris" (1999), "Switching Goals" (1999), "Our Lips Are Sealed" (2000), "Winning London" (2001), "Holiday in the Sun" (2001) and in the television series, "So Little Time" (2001–2002).  She and her twin sister became household names and a popular figures in the preteen market during the late 1990s and early 2000s, with her likeness seen in clothes, books, fragrances, magazines, movies, and posters, among others. There were fashion dolls of her made by Mattel from 2000 to 2005. They also starred in the films "Getting There" (2002), "When in Rome" (2002), "The Challenge" (2003) and made cameos in "" (2003). In 2004, the twins appeared in the theatrical light-hearted romantic comedy, "New York Minute".  In 2004, both Ashley and Mary-Kate Olsen became co-presidents of their company Dualstar (created in 1993 following the success of "Full House"), the brand currently selling in over 3,000 stores in America and 5,300 stores worldwide.

Retirement.

In 2007, when Mary-Kate and Ashley were 21, they said that if they got involved in movies together again it would be as producers.  In 2009, Olsen contemplated returning to acting and said, "Never say never."  She made appearances in the films "The Jerk Theory" (2009) and "I'm Still Here" (2010).  In March 2012, both Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen indicated their interest to retire as actresses in order to focus on their careers in fashion. Mary-Kate and Ashley felt that their futures were in fashion, and not in acting. They discussed wanting to open a store as one of their future fashion-based endeavors.  In October 2013, she appeared in the music video for "City of Angels" by Thirty Seconds to Mars.  In 2015, it was announced that John Stamos had signed on with Netflix to produce and co-star in "Fuller House", a spin-off "Full House" that would reunite the original cast members. Mary-Kate and Ashley originally announced in May that they would not reprise their role as Michelle Tanner; however, in July, according to Netflix's Ted Sarandos, the Olsen twins were "teetering" on an agreement to join the series. The twins eventually declined to join the cast of "Fuller House", with Ashley saying she would not feel comfortable in front of the camera after a 12-year absence from acting and Mary-Kate saying the timing was bad. Nickelodeon acquired the rights to Mary-Kate and Ashley's video library in 2015.

Net worth and influence.

She and her sister were jointly ranked number three on the VH1 program "100 Greatest Child Stars". Ashley and her twin Mary-Kate's success has been marked by their inclusion on every Forbes The Celebrity 100 list since 2002. In 2007, Forbes ranked the twins as the eleventh-richest women in entertainment, with an estimated combined net worth of $100 million. Forbes had the twins on their 30 Under 30: All-Star Alumni list in 2017.

Fashion career.

Career beginnings.

Following a high volume of public interest in their fashion choices, both worked in collaboration on a string of fashion lines available to the public. They started a clothing line in Walmart stores across America for girls ages 4 to 14 as well as a beauty line called Mary-Kate and Ashley: Real Fashion for Real Girls.  In 2004, they made news by signing a pledge to allow all the workers that sew their line of clothing in Bangladesh full maternity leave. The National Labor Committee, which organized the pledge, later praised the twins for their commitment to worker rights.

Business and philanthropy.

The idea for The Row started as a personal project in 2005 when Ashley Olsen challenged herself to create a perfect T-shirt. She tested the design on a variety of women of all body shapes and ages in an attempt to find a "commonality in fit and attitude."  By 2006, the sisters had created a 7-piece collection that included the T-shirt, a pair of cotton sateen leggings, and a cashmere wool tank dress. Barneys New York bought the entire first collection. The brand has expanded to include ready-to-wear, resort, handbags, sunglasses, and shoes.  In 2006, they were selected as the faces of the upscale fashion line Badgley Mischka.  In 2008, the Olsens published "Influence", a book featuring interviews with fashion designers that have inspired their fashion lines.  In 2011, the Olsen twins teamed up with TOMS Shoes to design footwear for children without shoes in more than 20 countries worldwide.  As adults, the Olsens have devoted much of their attention to the world of fashion. They head a couture fashion label, The Row, as well as the Elizabeth and James, Olsenboye, and StyleMint retail collections.  The Olsens designed an Olsenboye change purse in 2011 and donated the money to "Pennies From Heaven".  In October 2012, the Olsens won the "WSJ" magazine Innovator of The Year Award.  The Olsens released an Elizabeth and James perfume in early 2013.  Ashley Olsen has appeared on best-dressed lists.  The Olsens are members of the Council of Fashion Designers of America, CFDA a not-for-profit trade association of over 450 prominent American fashion and accessory designers. The Olsens are now the creative directors for the Italian fashion shoe brand Superga.

Personal life.

In 2005, Olsen filed a $40 million lawsuit against tabloid magazine "National Enquirer" for depicting her as being involved in a drug scandal. The "National Enquirer" later apologized and stated it did not intend to suggest she was involved in the scandal. Olsen is currently dating artist Louis Eisner.

Ashley Fuller Olsen (born June 13, 1986) is an American fashion designer, businesswoman, author, and former actress and producer. She began her acting career one year after her birth, sharing the role of Michelle Tanner with her twin sister Mary-Kate Olsen in the television sitcom, "Full House" (1987–1995). They also starred in numerous films together.

Ashley Olsen, née le à Sherman Oaks (Californie), est une actrice, créatrice de mode, productrice et femme d'affaires américaine.


The name.

The old name of the Oslofjord was "Fold"; "Østfold" means 'the region east of the Fold' (see also Vestfold). The name was first recorded in 1543; in the Middle Ages the name of the county was "Borgarsysla" 'the county/sýsla of the city Borg (now Sarpsborg)'. Later, when Norway was under Danish rule, the Danish king divided the area into many baronies. These were merged into one county (amt) in 1662 - and it was then named "Smaalenenes Amt" 'the amt consisting of small len'. The name was changed back to "Østfold" in 1919.

History.

Østfold is among the nation's oldest inhabited regions, with petroglyphs (rock drawings) and burial mounds throughout the area.  In the Viking Age, the area was part of Vingulmark, which in turn was part of Viken and included Båhuslen. It was partly under Danish rule until the time of Harald Fairhair.  Later, when Norway was under Danish rule, the Danish king divided the area into many baronies. The barony of "Heggen og Frøland", consisting of the municipalities Askim, Eidsberg and Trøgstad, originally belonged to Akershus - but it was transferred to Østfold in 1768.

Geography.

Østfold sits between the Oslo Fjord and Sweden. It is dominated by flat landscape with a lot of woodland in the north and along the Swedish border, a major lake system in the central part, and densely populated lowland area along the coast, with a relatively large archipelago.  Norway’s longest river, the Glomma, flows through the county and out into the Oslo Fjord in Fredrikstad.

Demography.

Most of the county's population is located in the coastal area. The cities of Moss, Sarpsborg, Fredrikstad and Halden are situated here, along with some relatively highly populated rural municipalities. Including these coastal cities, Østfold also has another two cities, Askim and Mysen.

Transport and infrastructure.

Østfold is located strategically between Oslo and Sweden. The main highway E6 between Oslo and Gothenburg runs as a motorway through the county from the southern border with Sweden and the border with Akershus county. The main highway E18 between Oslo and Stockholm goes through the county from the Swedish border in a southeast-northwest direction. The railway from Oslo to Gothenburg runs roughly parallel with E6, and there is also a railway between Ski and Sarpsborg that covers the inner part. There is no public airport in the county. Moss Airport was one but is now closed. The main airport for Østfold is the Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, with a population of more than 2 million people within two hours distance.

Health care.

Aimed at covering general medical needs of Østfold County and [Vestby Municipality] Østfold Hospital provides medical services, diagnostics, treatment and rehabilitation to the population of the area. Hospitals, clinics or health stations are located in all municipalities of the county.

Municipalities.

Østfold had 18 municipalities:  | style="padding-left:20px;" |

Coat of arms.

The coat of arms is from modern times (1958). The lines represent sunrays at sunrise in the east. (See above under the name.) They also represent the worship of the Sun in the Bronze Age (depicted in several rock carvings found in the county).

Østfold is a traditional region, a former county and a current electoral district in southeastern Norway. It borders Akershus and southwestern Sweden (Västra Götaland County and Värmland), while Buskerud and Vestfold are on the other side of Oslofjord. The county's administrative seat was Sarpsborg. The county controversially became part of the newly established Viken County on 1 January 2020.

Le comté d’Østfold est un comté norvégien situé au sud du pays. Il est voisin du comté d’Akershus. Il partage également une frontière commune avec les comtés suédois de Västra Götaland et Värmland. Son centre administratif se situe à Sarpsborg.


Temperature dependence and the relation to the Arrhenius equation.

The Arrhenius equation gives the quantitative basis of the relationship between the activation energy and the rate at which a reaction proceeds. From the equation, the activation energy can be found through the relation  where "A" is the pre-exponential factor for the reaction, "R" is the universal gas constant, "T" is the absolute temperature (usually in kelvins), and "k" is the reaction rate coefficient. Even without knowing "A", "E" can be evaluated from the variation in reaction rate coefficients as a function of temperature (within the validity of the Arrhenius equation).  At a more advanced level, the net Arrhenius activation energy term from the Arrhenius equation is best regarded as an experimentally determined parameter that indicates the sensitivity of the reaction rate to temperature. There are two objections to associating this activation energy with the threshold barrier for an elementary reaction. First, it is often unclear as to whether or not reaction does proceed in one step; threshold barriers that are averaged out over all elementary steps have little theoretical value. Second, even if the reaction being studied is elementary, a spectrum of individual collisions contributes to rate constants obtained from bulk ('bulb') experiments involving billions of molecules, with many different reactant collision geometries and angles, different translational and (possibly) vibrational energies—all of which may lead to different microscopic reaction rates.

Catalysts.

A substance that modifies the transition state to lower the activation energy is termed a catalyst; a catalyst composed only of protein and (if applicable) small molecule cofactors is termed an enzyme. A catalyst increases the rate of reaction without being consumed in the reaction. In addition, the catalyst lowers the activation energy, but it does not change the energies of the original reactants or products, and so does not change equilibrium. Rather, the reactant energy and the product energy remain the same and only the "activation energy" is altered (lowered).  A catalyst is able to reduce the activation energy by forming a transition state in a more favorable manner. Catalysts, by nature, create a more "comfortable" fit for the substrate of a reaction to progress to a transition state. This is possible due to a release of energy that occurs when the substrate binds to the active site of a catalyst. This energy is known as Binding Energy. Upon binding to a catalyst, substrates partake in numerous stabilizing forces while within the active site (i.e. Hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces). Specific and favorable bonding occurs within the active site until the substrate forms to become the high-energy transition state. Forming the transition state is more favorable with the catalyst because the favorable stabilizing interactions within the active site "release" energy. A chemical reaction is able to manufacture a high-energy transition state molecule more readily when there is a stabilizing fit within the active site of a catalyst. The binding energy of a reaction is this energy released when favorable interactions between substrate and catalyst occur. The binding energy released assists in achieving the unstable transition state. Reactions otherwise without catalysts need a higher input of energy to achieve the transition state. Non-catalyzed reactions do not have free energy available from active site stabilizing interactions, such as catalytic enzyme reactions.

Relationship with Gibbs energy of activation.

In the Arrhenius equation, the term activation energy ("E") is used to describe the energy required to reach the transition state, and the exponential relationship "k" = "A" exp(-"E"/"RT") holds. In transition state theory, a more sophisticated model of the relationship between reaction rates and the transition state, a superficially similar mathematical relationship, the Eyring equation, is used to describe the rate of a reaction: "k" = ("k""T" / "h") exp(–Δ"G" / "RT"). However, instead of modeling the temperature dependence of reaction rate phenomenologically, the Eyring equation models individual elementary step of a reaction. Thus, for a multistep process, there is no straightforward relationship between the two models. Nevertheless, the functional forms of the Arrhenius and Eyring equations are similar, and for a one-step process, simple and chemically meaningful correspondences can be drawn between Arrhenius and Eyring parameters.  Instead of also using "E", the Eyring equation uses the concept of Gibbs energy and the symbol Δ"G" to denote the Gibbs energy of activation to achieve the transition state. In the equation, "k" and "h" are the Boltzmann and Planck constants, respectively. Although the equations look similar, it is important to note that the Gibbs energy contains an entropic term in addition to the enthalpic one. In the Arrhenius equation, this entropic term is accounted for by the pre-exponential factor "A". More specifically, we can write the Gibbs free energy of activation in terms of enthalpy and entropy of activation: Δ"G" = Δ"H" – "T" Δ"S". Then, for a unimolecular, one-step reaction, the "approximate" relationships "E" = Δ"H" + "RT" and "A" = ("k""T"/"h") exp(1 + Δ"S"/"R") hold. Note, however, that in Arrhenius theory proper, "A" is temperature independent, while here, there is a linear dependence on "T". For a one-step unimolecular process whose half-life at room temperature is about 2 hours, Δ"G" is approximately 23 kcal/mol. This is also the roughly the magnitude of "E" for a reaction that proceeds over several hours at room temperature. Due to the relatively small magnitude of "T"Δ"S" and "RT" at ordinary temperatures for most reactions, in sloppy discourse, "E", Δ"G", and Δ"H" are often conflated and all referred to as the "activation energy".  The enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs energy of activation are more correctly written as Δ"H", Δ"S" and Δ"G" respectively, where the o indicates a quantity evaluated between standard states. However, some authors omit the o in order to simplify the notation.  The total free energy change of a reaction is independent of the activation energy however. Physical and chemical reactions can be either exergonic or endergonic, but the activation energy is not related to the spontaneity of a reaction. The overall reaction energy change is not altered by the activation energy.

Negative activation energy.

In some cases, rates of reaction "decrease" with increasing temperature. When following an approximately exponential relationship so the rate constant can still be fit to an Arrhenius expression, this results in a negative value of "E". Elementary reactions exhibiting these negative activation energies are typically barrierless reactions, in which the reaction proceeding relies on the capture of the molecules in a potential well. Increasing the temperature leads to a reduced probability of the colliding molecules capturing one another (with more glancing collisions not leading to reaction as the higher momentum carries the colliding particles out of the potential well), expressed as a reaction cross section that decreases with increasing temperature. Such a situation no longer leads itself to direct interpretations as the height of a potential barrier.

In chemistry and physics, activation energy is the energy which must be provided to a chemical or nuclear system with potential reactants to result in: a chemical reaction, nuclear reaction, or various other physical phenomena.

L'énergie d'activation est une notion introduite en 1889 par le scientifique suédois Svante August Arrhenius, après avoir constaté la loi empirique qui porte son nom et qui décrit l’évolution d’une vitesse de réaction chimique avec la température. Dans sa loi (voir ci-dessous), il apparaît un terme qui possède la dimension d’une énergie molaire et qu’il appelle énergie d’activation.


Infrastructure.

The Internet backbone consists of many networks owned by numerous companies. Optical fiber trunk lines consists of many fiber cables bundled to increase capacity, or bandwidth. Fiber-optic communication remains the medium of choice for Internet backbone providers for several reasons. Fiber-optics allow for fast data speeds and large bandwidth, they suffer relatively little attenuation, allowing them to cover long distances with few repeaters, and they are also immune to crosstalk and other forms of electromagnetic interference which plague electrical transmission. The real-time routing protocols and redundancy built into the backbone is also able to reroute traffic in case of a failure. The data rates of backbone lines have increased over time. In 1998, all of the United States' backbone networks had utilized the slowest data rate of 45 Mbit/s. However, technological improvements allowed for 41 percent of backbones to have data rates of 2,488 Mbit/s or faster by the mid 2000s.

History.

The first packet-switched computer networks, the NPL network and the ARPANET were interconnected in 1973 via University College London. The ARPANET used a backbone of routers called Interface Message Processors. Other packet-switched computer networks proliferated starting in the 1970s, eventually adopting TCP/IP protocols, or being replaced by newer networks. The National Science Foundation created the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) in 1986 by funding six networking sites using interconnecting links, with peering to the ARPANET. In 1987, this new network was upgraded to T1 links for thirteen sites. These sites included regional networks that in turn connected over 170 other networks. IBM, MCI and Merit upgraded the backbone to bandwidth (T3) in 1991. The combination of the ARPANET and NSFNET became known as the Internet. Within a few years, the dominance of the NSFNet backbone led to the decommissioning of the redundant ARPANET infrastructure in 1990.  In the early days of the Internet, backbone providers exchanged their traffic at government-sponsored network access points (NAPs), until the government privatized the Internet, and transferred the NAPs to commercial providers.

Modern backbone.

Because of the overlap and synergy between long-distance telephone networks and backbone networks, the largest long-distance voice carriers such as AT&T Inc., MCI (acquired in 2006 by Verizon), Sprint, and CenturyLink also own some of the largest Internet backbone networks. These backbone providers sell their services to Internet service providers (ISPs).  Each ISP has its own contingency network and is equipped with an outsourced backup. These networks are intertwined and crisscrossed to create a redundant network. Many companies operate their own backbones which are all interconnected at various Internet exchange points (IXPs) around the world. In order for data to navigate this web, it is necessary to have backbone routers—routers powerful enough to handle information—on the Internet backbone and are capable of directing data to other routers in order to send it to its final destination. Without them, information would be lost.

Economy of the backbone.

Peering agreements.

Backbone providers of roughly equivalent market share regularly create agreements called peering agreements, which allow the use of another's network to hand off traffic where it is ultimately delivered. Usually they do not charge each other for this, as the companies get revenue from their customers regardless.

Regulation.

Antitrust authorities have acted to ensure that no provider grows large enough to dominate the backbone market. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission has decided not to monitor the competitive aspects of the Internet backbone interconnection relationships as long as the market continues to function well.

Transit agreements.

Backbone providers of unequal market share usually create agreements called transit agreements, and usually contain some type of monetary agreement.

Regional backbone.

Egypt.

The government of Egypt shut down the four major ISPs on January 27, 2011 at approximately 5:20 p.m. EST. Evidently the networks had not been physically interrupted, as the Internet transit traffic through Egypt was unaffected. Instead, the government shut down the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) sessions announcing local routes. BGP is responsible for routing traffic between ISPs.  Only one of Egypt's ISPs was allowed to continue operations. The ISP Noor Group provided connectivity only to Egypt's stock exchange as well as some government ministries. Other ISPs started to offer free dial-up Internet access in other countries.

Europe.

Europe is a major contributor to the growth of the international backbone as well as a contributor to the growth of Internet bandwidth. In 2003, Europe was credited with 82 percent of the world's international cross-border bandwidth. The company Level 3 Communications began to launch a line of dedicated Internet access and virtual private network services in 2011, giving large companies direct access to the tier 3 backbone. Connecting companies directly to the backbone will provide enterprises faster Internet service which meets a large market demand.

Caucasus.

Certain countries around the Caucasus have very simple backbone networks; for example, in 2011, a woman in Georgia pierced a fiber backbone line with a shovel and left the neighboring country of Armenia without Internet access for 12 hours. The country has since made major developments to the fiber backbone infrastructure, but progress is slow due to lack of government funding.

Japan.

Japan's Internet backbone needs to be very efficient due to high demand for the Internet and technology in general. Japan had over 86 million Internet users in 2009, and was projected to climb to nearly 91 million Internet users by 2015. Since Japan has a demand for fiber to the home, Japan is looking into tapping a fiber-optic backbone line of Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT), a domestic backbone carrier, in order to deliver this service at cheaper prices.

China.

In some instances the companies that own certain sections of the Internet backbone's physical infrastructure depend on competition in order to keep the Internet market profitable. This can be seen most prominently in China. Since China Telecom and China Unicom have acted as the sole Internet service providers to China for some time, smaller companies cannot compete with them in negotiating the interconnection settlement prices that keep the Internet market profitable in China. This imposition of discriminatory pricing by the large companies then results in market inefficiencies and stagnation, and ultimately effects the efficiency of the Internet backbone networks that service the nation.

The Internet backbone may be defined by the principal data routes between large, strategically interconnected computer networks and core routers of the Internet. These data routes are hosted by commercial, government, academic and other high-capacity network centers, the Internet exchange points and network access points, that exchange Internet traffic between the countries, continents, and across the oceans. Internet service providers, often Tier 1 networks, participate in Internet backbone traffic by privately negotiated interconnection agreements, primarily governed by the principle of settlement-free peering.

Une dorsale Internet ("Internet backbone" en anglais) est un réseau informatique faisant partie des réseaux longue distance de plus haut débit d'Internet.


Geography.

Downstream of Le Thillot and upstream of Ferdrupt, Ramonchamp is positioned in a narrow section of the upper Moselle valley. The only main road is the National road which connects with Remiremont some to the south west and the into Alsace en route for Mulhouse to the east-southeast.  In other directions, the mountain slopes are too steep to afford easy access to Saulxures-sur-Moselotte, positioned in an adjacent valley to the north, though for the intrepid a relatively direct route exists courtesy of the 791-meter-high Morbieux Pass "(Col de Morbieux)".  Ramonchamp traditionally featured mountain style agriculture, but in recent decades many of the little family farms have been purchased by outsiders and transformed into second homes.

History.

First recorded under the Latin name 'Romanici Campus', Ramoncamp was at one stage the administrative centre of a "ban" (medieval territory) and then of a canton, but that was before the commune of Le Thillot had come into being.  The territory of Ramonchamp ("Le ban de Ramonchamp") originally covered the entire upper valley of the Moselle, upstream of Ferdrupt. It fell under the bailiwick of Remiremont while the church, dedicated to Saints Rémi and Blaise, was within the Diocese of Saint-Dié in the deanery of Remiremont.  Around 1730 the parish was divided up into the parishes of Le Ménil and Fresse-sur-Moselle.  Civil boundary changes were imposed by a decree of 30 June 1860 which at the same time created the new commune of Le Thillot, 4 kilometres upstream of Ramonchamp. By the same decree Ramonchamp lost to Le Thillot its status as the cantonal capital.  The textile industry arrived in the 1830s: it received a boost after 1871, thanks to the arrival of refugees from Alsace wishing to avoid becoming Germans.  For two months in 1944 the commune found itself on the frontline between German and US forces: Ramonchamp suffered considerably from the bombardments involved.  The second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century were a golden for the textile businesses, but after the Second World War the industry faced a difficult period of restructuring and modernisation, which involved large scale job losses: there was some compensating increase in employment opportunities involving newer business sectors such as plastic and metal manufacturing, however.

Personalities.

Jean-Joseph Brice, famous for his height of 2.45 meters, was born at Ramonchamp in 1835.

Twin towns.

Since 1972 Ramonchamp has been twinned with Ober-Olm (near Mainz).

Ramonchamp is a large commune in the Vosges department in Grand Est in northeastern France. Inhabitants are called "Ramoncenais". Inhabitants are called "Ramoncenais".

Ramonchamp est une commune française de moyenne montagne située dans le département des Vosges en région Grand Est. Elle est située dans la Vallée de la Haute Moselle.


Club career.

Bossis was born in Saint-André-Treize-Voies, Vendée. A longtime starter for FC Nantes during the club's most successful period during the 1970s and 1980s, he was noted chiefly as a full-back on the left flank, but filled in at various roles in defence. Bossis spent much of his time at right back during Nantes' championship-winning seasons in 1977 and 1980, in which Thierry Tusseau normally started on the left, but made the left back position his own beginning in 1981. Bossis helped Nantes to finish first or second in every season between 1976 and 1981. The club added a third title in 1983, finishing ten points ahead of second-place Girondins Bordeaux. In 1985, Bossis moved to the ambitious RC Paris, but the Parisian club achieved only modest success in spite of heavy spending that acquired such players as Enzo Francescoli and Pierre Littbarski. Bossis returned to Nantes for one final season in 1990, lining up next to future French international Marcel Desailly before retiring from play.  Bossis was named Footballer of the Year by France Football in 1979 and 1981.

International career.

Bossis also represented France for ten years, appearing at the 1978, 1982, and 1986 World Cups, reaching the semifinals of the latter two editions of the tournament. He is mostly remembered for missing France's last penalty in the 1982 World Cup semifinal against West Germany. While the score was tied at 4–4, Bossis missed the next penalty, allowing Horst Hrubesch to score the last penalty and send the Germans to the final. Bossis was also an important member of the French team that won the European Championship on home soil in 1984. From 1985 to 1992, he held the French record of caps, before fellow defender Manuel Amoros established a new mark with 82 caps. He also held the French record of matches played in the FIFA World Cup with 15, which was subsequently surpassed by Fabien Barthez in 2006.

Personal life.

Bossis' younger brother, Joël, also played professional football and holds the all-time record for most goals scored for Chamois Niortais.

After retirement.

After he retired in 1991, Bossis briefly embraced a career as a football executive, heading the Coupe de France Central Commission (1993–1995) before he joined Saint-Étienne as sporting director (1996–1997). He then reinvented himself as a TV commentator, working first for TPS, then for Orange Sport and since 2014 for BeIn Sport.

Honours.

Club.

Nantes

International.

France

Maxime Jean Marcel Bossis (; born 26 June 1955) is a French former professional footballer who played as a defender.

Maxime Bossis est un footballeur international français, né le à Saint-André-Treize-Voies en Vendée. Surnommé « le grand Max », il évolue au poste de défenseur du début des années 1970 au début des années 1990.


Plot summary.

For most of its brief run, "Zorro"'s episodes were part of continuing story arcs, each about thirteen episodes long, which made it almost like a serial. The first of these chronicles the arrival of Zorro / Diego to California in 1820 and his battle with the greedy and cruel local Commandante, Captain Enrique Sánchez Monasterio. After Monasterio's final defeat, in the second storyline, Zorro must uncover and counter the machinations of the evil Magistrado Carlos Galindo, who is part of a plot to rule California. The third story arc concerns the leader of that conspiracy, the shadowy figure of "The Eagle", revealed as vain and insecure José Sebastián de Vargas. It is revealed that the plot to gain control of California is so that he can turn it over to another country, implied to be Russia, for a huge profit. Season one concludes with Vargas' death.  Season two opens with Diego in Monterey, the colonial capital, where privately collected money to bring a supply ship to California is consistently diverted to a gang of bandits. Diego stays to investigate, both as himself and as Zorro, and becomes interested in Ana Maria Verdugo, the daughter of the man organizing the effort. Once Zorro defeats the thieves, he enters into a rivalry with his old friend Ricardo del Amo, a practical joker who is also interested in Ana Maria. Ana Maria, in turn, is in love with Zorro. While in Monterey, Zorro and Sergeant Demetrio López García also get involved in a dispute between the people and a repressive Lieutenant Governor. Diego is on the verge of giving up his mask to marry Ana Maria, but Don Alejandro talks him out of it. Zorro (and Diego) says goodbye to Ana Maria and returns to Los Angeles, where he gets involved in a series of shorter adventures.  In one three-episode story arc, guest-starring Annette Funicello, Zorro must solve the mystery of Anita Cabrillo's father, a man who does not seem to exist. Other storylines late in the series involve Diego's never-do-well uncle (Cesar Romero), a plot against the governor of California, an encounter with an American "mountain man" (Jeff York, reprising a role from "The Saga of Andy Burnett"), and outwitting a greedy emissary from Spain.

Other appearances.

Guy Williams was introduced to the Disney audience as Zorro in a segment of the Disney anthology television series, "The Fourth Anniversary Show". During this episode, which starred the Mouseketeers and featured upcoming shows, Moochie (Kevin Corcoran) repeatedly asks Walt Disney, "What about Zorro?" Finally, Zorro appears, but not in the same shot with the Mouseketeers. Zorro explains who he is, and coyly answers the question of whether he is "real".  Williams and other key cast members also made a number of live appearances at Disneyland in 1958. Some of their shows involved Zorro and Monastario battling each other on the rooftops of Frontierland.  Another Mouseketeer, Robert L. Crawford, Jr., prior to being cast on NBC's "Laramie" in the role of Andy Sherman, appeared on "Zorro" in the role of Pogo Bastinado in the episodes "The Well of Death" and "The Cross of the Andes" in May 1958.  George J. Lewis, who portrayed Diego's father Don Alejandro, had previously appeared in the 1944 serial "Zorro's Black Whip" as Vic Gordon, an ally of the Black Whip.

Broadcast history.

The show was very popular, especially with children, and its theme song (written by Norman Foster and George Bruns and first recorded by the Mellomen) was a hit recording for The Chordettes, peaking at #17 on the Hit Parade. It also created a problem with "Z" graffitiing on school desks and walls across the United States.  Despite good ratings (#30 in Season 1 with a 26.6 rating), the series ended after two seasons due to a financial dispute between Disney and the network over ownership of "Zorro", "Mickey Mouse Club", and the Disney anthology television series (at the time titled "Disneyland"). During the legal battle, however, Disney kept the franchise going for a few years in the form of four new hour-long "Zorro" adventures aired on the anthology series: "Zorro: El Bandido" (October 30, 1960); "Zorro: Adios El Cuchillo" (November 6, 1960); "Zorro: The Postponed Wedding" (January 1, 1961); and "Zorro: Auld Acquaintance" (April 2, 1961). Guy Williams was kept on full salary during this period, but by the time Disney and ABC resolved their differences, Walt Disney decided that public interest in the character had flagged. Nevertheless, Disney continued to pay $3,500 per year for the television rights until 1967.  Reruns of the series aired on The Disney Channel starting on the day the channel launched on April 18, 1983, and continued until September 9, 2002.  The 1957–1959 episodes were colorized in 1992, and appeared in that format for a time on The Disney Channel and elsewhere, often alternating with the original black-and-white versions. It aired for ten years.  Cozi TV aired reruns of the series from January 5, 2015, to December 31, 2016.

Revivals.

In 1983 a comedy follow-up, "Zorro and Son", aired on CBS. The series was shot in color on many of the same studio lots where the original was filmed. Featuring none of the original cast (Guy Williams walked out after a script dispute), the show performed poorly in the ratings.

Media.

Comics.

Comics based on the "Zorro" character had already appeared before the Disney TV series. But when the Disney TV show became popular new comics were published under the banner "Walt Disney Presents: Zorro" and the artwork reflected the way the characters looked in the TV version. The "Disney: Zorro" comics were drawn by Alex Toth. In the Netherlands Hans G. Kresse also drew a comic strip version based on this particular TV series.

Theatrical.

Two film compilations from the series were released theatrically:

VHS.

Several compilations from the series were issued on VHS over the years, but are now out of print. It released on video in 1985, and 1993. They are as follows:  VHS television episodes

DVD releases.

Two volumes from season one of "Zorro" were released on DVD in the United States in 2006, representing the entire Monastario storyline and the beginning of Magistrado Galindo storyline. Three more volumes soon followed, completing the season, which was then reissued as a boxed set entitled "Zorro, the Complete First Season". All of the DVDs were only available from the Disney Movie Club. Each volume contains the 1992 colorized version of about eight episodes. No special features are included.  The Disney Movie Club released the second season in a boxed set, also consisting of five volumes and also colorized.  Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the entire series on DVD in Region 1 on November 3, 2009 under their "" banner featuring several bonus features. however like many other Disney releases it was available for a limited time, before entering moratorium and put back in the Disney Vault along with the other "Walt Disney Treasures" DVD sets.

International releases.

The following international regions are available:

Zorro (also known as Disney's Zorro) is an American Spanish action-adventure western series produced by Walt Disney Productions. Based on the Zorro character created by Johnston McCulley, the series premiered on October 10, 1957 on ABC. The final network broadcast was July 2, 1959. Seventy-eight episodes were produced, and four hour-long specials were aired on the Walt Disney anthology series between October 30, 1960, and April 2, 1961.

Zorro est une série télévisée américaine en 78 épisodes de 25 minutes tournée en noir et blanc puis colorisée en 1992, et 4 épisodes de 50 minutes, créée d'après le personnage éponyme de Johnston McCulley paru sous forme de roman-feuilleton sous le titre de "Le Fléau de Capistrano". La série a été produite par les studios Disney et diffusée en noir et blanc entre le et le sur le réseau ABC.


History.

Cornell University was founded on April 27, 1865; the New York State (NYS) Senate authorized the university as the state's land grant institution. Senator Ezra Cornell offered his farm in Ithaca, New York, as a site and $500,000 of his personal fortune as an initial endowment. Fellow senator and educator Andrew Dickson White agreed to be the first president. During the next three years, White oversaw the construction of the first two buildings and traveled to attract students and faculty. The university was inaugurated on October 7, 1868, and 412 men were enrolled the next day. Cornell developed as a technologically innovative institution, applying its research to its own campus and to outreach efforts. For example, in 1883 it was one of the first university campuses to use electricity from a water-powered dynamo to light the grounds. Since 1894, Cornell has included

Campuses.

Ithaca campus.

Cornell's main campus is on East Hill in Ithaca, New York, overlooking the city and Cayuga Lake. Since the university was founded, it has expanded to about 2,300 acres (9.3 km), encompassing both the hill and much of the surrounding areas. Central Campus has laboratories, administrative buildings, and almost all of the campus' academic buildings, athletic facilities, auditoriums, and museums. North Campus is composed of ten residence halls that primarily house first-year students, although the Townhouse Community occasionally houses transfer students. The five main residence halls on West Campus make up the West

New York City campuses.

Weill Cornell.

Cornell's medical campus in New York, also called Weill Cornell, is on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, New York City. It is home to two Cornell divisions: Weill Cornell Medical College and Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, and has been affiliated with the NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital since 1927. Although their faculty and academic divisions are separate, the Medical Center

Cornell Tech.

On December 19, 2011, Cornell University and Technion-Israel Institute of Technology won a competition for rights to claim free city land and $100 million in subsidies to build an engineering campus in New York City. The competition was established by New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg to increase entrepreneurship and job growth in the city's technology sector.

Other New York City programs.

In addition to the tech campus and medical center, Cornell maintains local offices in New York City for some of its service programs. The Cornell Urban Scholars Program encourages students to pursue public service careers, arranging assignments with organizations working with New York City's poorest children, families, and communities. The NYS College of Human Ecology and the NYS College of Agriculture and Life Sciences enable students to reach out to local communities by gardening and building with the Cornell Cooperative Extension. Students with the NYS School of Industrial and Labor Relations' Extension & Outreach Program make workplace expertise available to organizations, union members, policymakers, and working adults. The College of Engineering's Operations Research Manhattan, in the city's financial district, brings together business optimization research and decision support services addressed to both financial applications and public health logistics planning. The College of Architecture, Art, and Planning has an 11,000 square foot Gensler-designed facility in 26 Broadway (The Standard Oil Building) in the Financial District that opened in 2015.

Qatar campus.

Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar is in Education City, near Doha. Opened in September 2004, this is the first American medical school to be established outside the United States. The college is part of Cornell's program to increase its international influence. The college is a joint initiative with the Qatar government, which seeks to improve the country's academic programs and medical care. Along with its full four-year MD program, which mirrors the curriculum

Other facilities.

Cornell University owns and/or operates other facilities. The Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico, site of the world's largest single-dish radio telescope, was operated by Cornell under a contract with the National Science Foundation from its construction until 2011. The Shoals Marine Laboratory, operated in conjunction with the University of New Hampshire, is a seasonal marine field station dedicated to undergraduate education and research on the 95-acre (0.4 km) Appledore Island off the Maine–New Hampshire coast.  Cornell has facilities devoted to conservation and ecology. The New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, operated by the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, is in Geneva, New York, 50 miles (80 km) northwest of the main campus. It operates three substations: The Cornell Lake Erie Research and Extension Laboratory (CLEREL) in Portland, New York, Hudson Valley Laboratory in Highland, and the Long Island Horticultural Research Laboratory in Riverhead.  The Cornell Lab of Ornithology in Ithaca's Sapsucker Woods performs research on biological diversity, primarily in birds. On April 18, 2005, the lab announced that it had rediscovered the

Organization and administration.

Cornell is a non-profit organization governed by a 64-member Board of Trustees consisting of both privately and publicly appointed trustees. Three trustees are appointed by the Governor of New York: one seat is reserved for the eldest lineal descendant of Ezra Cornell; two members from each of the fields of agriculture, business, and labor in New York state; eight trustees to be elected from among and by the alumni of the university; two trustees to be elected from among and by the faculty of the university at Ithaca and Geneva; two trustees to be elected from among and by the membership of the university's student body at Ithaca (one undergraduate and one graduate student); and one trustee to be elected from among and by the nonacademic staff and employees of the university at Ithaca and Geneva, 37 trustees at large and finally, the Governor, Temporary President of the Senate, Speaker of the Assembly, and president of the university serve in an "ex officio" voting capacity. Robert Harrison has served as the chairman of the board since 2014. The board elects a President to serve as the chief executive and educational officer.  Martha E. Pollack was inaugurated as Cornell's fourteenth president on August 25, 2017. She succeeded Elizabeth Garrett, who served from July 2015 until her death from colon cancer on March 6, 2016 — the first Cornell president to die while in office.  The Board of Trustees hold four regular meetings each year, and portions of those meetings are subject to the New York State Open Meetings Law.  Cornell consists of nine privately endowed and four publicly supported "statutory colleges": the New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, College of Human Ecology, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, and College of Veterinary Medicine. These statutory colleges

Academics.

Cornell is a large, primarily residential research university with a majority of enrollments in undergraduate programs. The university has been accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education since 1921. Cornell operates on a 4–1–4 academic calendar with the fall term beginning in late August and ending in early December, a three-week winter session in January, and the spring term beginning in late January and ending in early May.  Cornell, Oregon State University, Pennsylvania State University, University of Georgia, and University of Hawaii at Manoa are the only institutions to be members of all four Land Grant, Sea Grant, Space Grant, and Sun Grant programs.

Admissions.

Admission to the university is highly competitive. For Fall 2019, Cornell received 49,114 applications; 5,330 were admitted, a 10.9% acceptance rate, and 3,189 enrolled. For the Fall 2019 enrolling freshmen, the middle 50% range of SAT scores were 680-760

Financial aid.

Section 9 of the original charter of Cornell University ensured that the university "shall be open to applicants for admission... at the lowest rates of expense consistent with its welfare and efficiency, and without distinction as to rank, class, previous occupation or locality". The University Charter provided for free instruction to one student chosen from each Assembly district in the state.  Starting in the 1950s Cornell coordinated with other Ivy League schools to provide a consistent set of financial aid. However, in 1989, a consent decree to end a Justice Department antitrust investigation ended such coordination. Even after the decree, all Ivy League schools continue to award aid on financial need without offering any athletic scholarships. In December 2010, Cornell announced a policy of matching any grant component of financial aid offers from other Ivy League schools, MIT, Duke University or Stanford, if an

International programs.

Cornell University is a member of the United Nations Academic Impact aligning institutions of higher education to the United Nations and promoting international cooperation.  Cornell offers undergraduate curricula with international focuses, including the Africana Studies, Asian-Pacific American Studies French Studies, German Studies, Jewish Studies, Latino Studies, Near Eastern Studies, Romance Studies, and Russian Literature majors. In addition to traditional academic programs, Cornell students may study abroad on any of six continents.  The Asian Studies major, South Asia Program, South East Asia Program and China and Asia-Pacific Studies (CAPS) major provide opportunities for students and researchers in Asia. Cornell has an agreement with Peking University allowing students in the CAPS major to spend a semester in Beijing. Similarly, the College of Engineering has an agreement to exchange faculty and graduate students with Tsinghua University in Beijing, and

Rankings.

Cornell is ranked 12th on average over the past 30 years by "U.S. News & World Report" National Universities ranking. In 2020 Cornell University ranked 7th in the US according to QS World University Rankings and 9th according to Times Higher Education World University Rankings. In 2015, Cornell ranked 8th domestically and 10th internationally in the CWUR rankings. Cornell ranked 14th in the 2018 edition of the QS World University Rankings and 19th in the 2017 edition of the Times Higher Education World University Rankings. The university ranked 10th in the 2013 "Business Insider" Best Colleges in America ranking, 13th globally in an academic ranking of world universities by Academic Ranking of World Universities in 2015, and tied 6th in the United States by the U.S. News Academic Reputation peer assessment score in 2020. Cornell was ranked 27th nationally in "The Washington Monthly"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s 2016 ranking of universities' contributions to research, community service, and social mobility. In 2017, the university was

Library.

The Cornell University Library is the 11th largest academic library in the United States, ranked by number of volumes held. Organized into 20 divisions, in 2005 it held 7.5 million printed volumes in open stacks, 8.2 million microfilms and microfiches, and a total of 440,000 maps, motion pictures, DVDs, sound recordings, and computer files in its collections, in addition to extensive digital resources and the University Archives. It

Press and scholarly publications.

The Cornell University Press, established in 1869 but inactive from 1884 to 1930, was the first university publishing enterprise in the United States. Today, the press is one of the country's largest university presses. It produces approximately 150 nonfiction titles each year in various disciplines including anthropology, Asian studies, biological sciences, classics, history, industrial relations, literary criticism and theory, natural history, politics and international relations, veterinary science, and women's studies.  Cornell's academic units and student groups

Research.

Cornell, a research university, is ranked fourth in the world in producing the largest number of graduates who go on to pursue PhDs in engineering or the natural sciences at American institutions, and fifth in the world in producing graduates who pursue PhDs at American institutions in any field. Research is a central element of the university's mission; in 2009 Cornell spent $671 million on science and engineering research and development, the 16th highest in the United States.  For the 2016–17 fiscal year, the university spent $984.5 million on research. Federal sources constitute the largest source of research funding, with total federal investment of $438.2 million. The agencies contributing the largest share of that investment are the Department of Health and Human Services and the National Science Foundation, accounting for 49.6% and 24.4% of all federal investment, respectively. Cornell was on the top-ten list of U.S. universities receiving the most patents in 2003, and was one of the nation's top five institutions in forming start-up companies. In 2004–05, Cornell received 200 invention disclosures, filed 203 U.S. patent applications, completed 77 commercial license agreements, and distributed royalties of more than $4.1 million to Cornell units and inventors.  Since 1962, Cornell has been involved in unmanned missions to Mars. In the 21st century, Cornell had a hand in the Mars Exploration Rover Mission. Cornell's Steve Squyres, Principal Investigator for the Athena Science Payload, led the selection of the landing zones and requested data collection features for the Spirit and Opportunity rovers. Jet Propulsion Laboratory engineers took those requests and designed the rovers to meet them. The rovers, both of which have operated long past their original life expectancies, are responsible for the discoveries that were awarded 2004 Breakthrough of the Year honors by "Science". Control of the Mars rovers has shifted between NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory at Caltech

Student life.

Activities.

For the 2016–2017 academic year, Cornell had over 1,000 registered student organizations. These clubs and organizations run the gamut from kayaking to full-armor jousting, from varsity and club sports and a cappella groups to improvisational theatre, from political clubs and publications to chess and video game clubs. The Cornell International Affairs Society sends over 100 Cornellians to collegiate Model United Nations conferences across North America and hosts the Cornell Model United Nations Conference each spring for over 500 high school students. The Cornell University Mock Trial Association regularly sends teams to the national championship and is ranked 11th in the nation. Additionally, the Cornell International Affairs Society's traveling Model United Nations team is ranked number 16 in the nation. Cornell United Religious Work is a collaboration among many diverse religious traditions, helping to provide spiritual resources throughout a student's time at college. The Cornell Catholic Community

Greek life, professional, and honor societies.

Cornell hosts a large and controversial fraternity and sorority system, with 70 chapters involving 33% of male and 24% of female undergraduates. Alpha Phi Alpha, the first intercollegiate Greek-letter organization established for African Americans, was founded at Cornell in 1906. Alpha Zeta fraternity, the first Greek-lettered organization established for Latin Americans in the United States, was also founded at Cornell on January 1, 1890. Alpha Zeta served the wealthy international Latin American students that came to the United States to study. This organization led a movement of fraternities that catered to international Latin American students that was active from 1890 to 1975. On February 19, 1982, La Unidad Latina, Lambda Upsilon Lambda fraternity was established; it would eventually

Press and radio.

The Cornell student body produces several works by way of print and radio. Student-run newspapers include "The Cornell Daily Sun", an independent daily; "The Cornell Review", a conservative newspaper published fortnightly; and "The Cornell Progressive (newspaper)", a liberal newspaper published every month.  Other press outlets include "The Cornell Lunatic", a campus humor magazine; the "Cornell Chronicle", the university's newspaper of record; and "Kitsch Magazine", a feature

Housing.

University housing is broadly divided into three sections: North Campus, West Campus, and Collegetown. Cornell University began experiments with co-ed dormitories in 1971 and continued the tradition of residential advisors (RAs) within the campus system. In 1991, new students could be found throughout West Campus, including at the historic Baker and Boldt Hall complexes; since a 1997 residential initiative, West Campus houses transfer and returning students, whereas North Campus is almost entirely populated by freshmen as well as sorority and fraternity houses.  The options for living on North Campus for upperclassmen are the program houses and co-op houses. Program houses include Risley Residential

Athletics.

Cornell has 36 varsity intercollegiate teams that have the nickname of the Big Red. An NCAA Division I institution, Cornell is a member of the Ivy League and ECAC Hockey and competes in the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC), the largest athletic conference in North America. (ECAC Hockey is no longer affiliated with the ECAC.) Cornell's varsity athletic teams consistently challenge for NCAA Division I titles in a number of sports, including men's wrestling, men's lacrosse,

Cornell Outdoor Education.

Cornell University runs one of the largest collegiate outdoor education programs in the country, serving over 20,000 people every year. The program runs over 130 different courses including but not limited to: Backpacking and Camping, Mountain Biking, Bike Touring, Caving, Hiking, Rock and Ice Climbing, Wilderness First Aid, and tree climbing. COE also oversees one of the

Cornelliana.

Cornelliana is a term for Cornell's traditions, legends, and lore. Cornellian traditions include Slope Day, a celebration held on the last day of classes of the spring semester, and Dragon Day, which includes the burning of a dragon built by architecture students. Dragon Day is one of the school's oldest traditions and has been celebrated annually since 1901, typically on or near St. Patrick's Day. The dragon is built secretly by the architecture students, and taunting messages are left for the engineering students for the week before Dragon Day. On Dragon Day, the dragon is paraded across the Arts Quad and then set afire.  According to legend, if a virgin crosses the Arts Quad at midnight, the statues of Ezra Cornell and Andrew Dickson White will walk off their pedestals, meet in the center of the Quad, and shake hands, congratulating themselves on the chastity

Health.

Cornell offers a variety of professional and peer counseling services to students. Formerly called Gannett Health Services until its name change in 2016, Cornell Health offers on-campus outpatient health services with emergency services and residential treatment provided by Cayuga Medical Center. For most of its history, Cornell provided residential medical care for sick students, including at the historic Sage Infirmary. Cornell offers specialized reproductive health and family planning services. The university also has a student-run Emergency Medical Service (EMS) agency. The squad provides emergency response to medical emergencies on Cornell University campus and surrounding university-owned properties. Cornell EMS

Campus police.

Cornell University Police protect the campus and are classified as peace officers and have the same authority as the Ithaca city police. They are similar to the campus police at Ithaca College and Syracuse University because those campus police are

People.

Cornell counts numerous notable individuals who have either come to the university as faculty to teach and to conduct research, or as students who have gone on to do noteworthy things. As of October 2019, 59 Nobel laureates were either faculty members, researchers, or students at Cornell.

Faculty.

, Cornell had 1,639 full-and part-time faculty members affiliated with its main campus, 1,235 affiliated with its New York City divisions, and 34 affiliated with its campus in Qatar. Cornell's faculty for the 2005–06 academic year included three Nobel laureates, a Crafoord Prize winner, two Turing Award winners, a Fields Medal winner, two Legion of Honor recipients, a World Food Prize winner, an Andrei Sakharov Prize winner, three National Medal of Science winners, two Wolf Prize winners, five MacArthur award winners, four Pulitzer Prize winners, a Carter G. Woodson Scholars Medallion recipient, 20 National Science Foundation career grant holders, a recipient of the National Academy of Sciences Award, a recipient of the American Mathematical Society's Steele Prize for Lifetime Achievement, a recipient of the Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics, and three Packard Foundation grant holders.  Kurt Lewin taught at Cornell from 1933 to 1935 and is considered the "father of social psychology". Norman Borlaug taught at the university from 1982 to 1988 and is considered the "father of the Green Revolution", being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Congressional Gold Medal, and 49 honorary doctorates. Frances Perkins joined the Cornell faculty in 1952 after serving as the first female member of the United States Cabinet and served until her death in 1965. Perkins was a witness to the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in her adolescence and went on to champion the

Alumni.

Cornell counted 245,027 living alumni as of August 2008. Its alumni constitute 34 Marshall Scholars and 31 Rhodes Scholars, and Cornell is the only university with three female winners (Pearl S. Buck, Barbara McClintock, and Toni Morrison) of unshared Nobel Prizes among its graduates. Many alumni maintain university ties through Homecoming's reunion weekend, through "Cornell Magazine", and through the Cornell Club of New York. In 2015, Cornell ranked No. 5 nationwide for gifts and bequests from alumni.  Cornell alumni are noted for their accomplishments in public, professional, and corporate life. Lee Teng-hui was the president of Taiwan, Tsai Ing-wen was elected to be the first female president of Taiwan, Mario García Menocal was president of Cuba, Jamshid Amuzegar ('50) was prime minister of Iran, Hu Shih (1914) was a Chinese reformer and representative to the United Nations, Janet Reno ('60) was the first female United States Attorney General, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg ('54) serves on the Supreme Court. Alumnus David Starr Jordan (1872) was the founding president of Stanford University, and M. Carey Thomas (1877) founded Bryn Mawr College. Additionally, alumnus Matt Urban ('41), a Medal of Honor recipient, holds the distinction as one of the most decorated soldiers in World War II.  Cornellians in business include: Citigroup CEO Sanford Weill ('55), Goldman Sachs Group Chairman Stephen Friedman ('59), Kraft Foods CEO Irene Rosenfeld ('75, '77, '80), Autodesk CEO Carl Bass ('83), Aetna CEO Mark Bertolini ('84), S.C. Johnson & Son CEO Fisk Johnson ('79, '80, '82, '84, '86), Cargill Chairman Warren Staley ('67), Chevron Chairman Kenneth T. Derr ('59), Sprint Nextel CEO Dan Hesse ('77), Verizon CEO Lowell McAdam ('76), MasterCard CEO Robert Selander ('72), Coors Brewing Company CEO Adolph Coors ('37), Loews Corporation Chairman Andrew Tisch ('71), Burger King founder James McLamore ('47), Hotels.com founder David Litman ('79), PeopleSoft founder David Duffield ('62), Priceline.com founder Jay Walker ('77), Staples founder Myra Hart ('62), Qualcomm founder Irwin M. Jacobs ('56), Tata Group CEO Ratan Tata ('62),Nintendo of America President and COO Reggie Fils-Aimé, and Johnson & Johnson worldwide chairman Sandi Peterson.  In medicine, alumnus Robert Atkins ('55) developed the Atkins Diet, Henry Heimlich ('47)

Cornell University ( ) is a private and statutory Ivy League research university in Ithaca, New York. Founded in 1865 by Ezra Cornell and Andrew Dickson White, the university was intended to teach and make contributions in all fields of knowledge—from the classics to the sciences, and from the theoretical to the applied. These ideals, unconventional for the time, are captured in Cornell's founding principle, a popular 1868 Ezra Cornell quotation: "I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study."

L'université Cornell (en anglais, "Cornell University" ou plus simplement Cornell) est une université privée américaine située principalement dans la petite ville d'Ithaca dans l’État de New York (États-Unis). Elle possède également un campus dans la ville de New York ainsi qu'un autre au Qatar. Fondée en 1865, Cornell fait partie du groupe des huit prestigieuses universités de l'Ivy League (comprenant notamment Harvard, Yale, Columbia et Princeton) et compte dans ses rangs 59 lauréats du prix Nobel, 1 médaille Fields, 18 prix Pulitzer, 5 chefs d'État, 27 médaillés olympiques, 8 astronautes de la NASA et enfin 14 milliardaires qui lui sont affiliés (étudiants ou professeurs).


Franchise history.

Early years (1926–1949).

Following the 1926 Stanley Cup playoffs, during which the Western Hockey League (WHL) was widely reported to be on the verge of folding, the NHL held a meeting on April 17 to consider applications for expansion franchises, at which it was reported that five different groups sought a team for Detroit. During a subsequent meeting on May 15, the league approved a franchise to the Townsend-Seyburn group of Detroit and named Charles A. Hughes as governor. Frank and Lester Patrick, the owners of the WHL, made a deal to sell the league's players to the NHL and cease league operations. The new Detroit franchise purchased the players of the WHL's Victoria Cougars, who had won the Stanley Cup in 1925 and had made the Finals the previous winter, to play for the team.

Gordie Howe era (1950–1966).

During the 1950 Stanley Cup semi-finals, Leo Reise Jr. scored the winning goal in overtime, which prevented the Maple Leafs from winning four straight championships. In the Finals, the Red Wings defeated the New York Rangers in seven games. In Game 7, Pete Babando scored the game winner in double overtime. After the game, Lindsay skated around the Olympia ice with the Stanley Cup.  After being upset by the Montreal Canadiens in the 1951 semi-finals, Detroit won its fifth Stanley Cup, in 1952, sweeping both the

"Dead Wings" era (1967–1982).

Only a year after making the Finals, the Red Wings finished a distant fifth, 24 points out of the playoffs. It was the beginning of a slump that they would not emerge from in almost 20 years. This period is derisively known as the "Dead Wings" era.  One factor in the Red Wings' decline was the end of the old development system. Another factor was Ned Harkness, who was hired as coach in 1970 and was promoted to general manager midway through the season. A successful college hockey coach, Harkness tried to force his two-way style of play on a veteran Red Wings team resistant

Steve Yzerman era (1983–2006).

In 1983, the Red Wings drafted Steve Yzerman, a center from the Peterborough Petes, with their first-round pick. He led the team in scoring in his rookie year. That season, with John Ogrodnick, Ivan Boldirev, Ron Duguay, and Brad Park, Detroit made the playoffs for the first time in six years. Park ended up winning the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy. Park was later asked to coach the Red Wings, only to be sacked after just 45 games in 1985–86. They did end up in last place with a 17–57–6 record for only 40 points. This was the same year that the Red Wings added enforcer Bob Probert, one of the most familiar faces of the team in the 1980s and 1990s.  In the 1986–87 season, with Yzerman, now the captain following the departure of Danny Gare, joined by Petr Klima, Adam Oates, Gerard Gallant, defenseman Darren Veitch and new head coach Jacques Demers, the Red Wings

The Russian Five and back-to-back Stanley Cups (1994–1998).

In 1993, former Montreal Canadiens coach Scotty Bowman was hired as the new head coach. In his second season, the lockout-shortened 1994–95 NHL season, Bowman guided Detroit to its first Finals appearance in 29 years, only to be swept by the New Jersey Devils.  During the 1995–96 season, they won an NHL record 62 games. After defeating the St. Louis Blues in seven games, the Red Wings would fall in the Western Conference finals to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Colorado Avalanche.  The following season, the Red Wings acquired Brendan Shanahan and Larry

Superstar acquisitions and more success (1999–2006).

The following season, the Red Wings appeared to be poised to win a third consecutive Stanley Cup when they acquired three-time top blueliner Chris Chelios from his hometown Chicago Blackhawks in March 1999. Also acquired at the trade deadline were defenseman Ulf Samuelsson, winger Wendel Clark, and goaltender Bill Ranford. Despite high aspirations, however, Detroit would end up losing in the Western Conference semi-finals to Colorado in six games. In 2000, the Red Wings would finish second in the Central Division. Just like the previous season, however, they would lose to the Avalanche in the Western Conference semi-finals.  In 2001, Detroit, the NHL's second-best team in the regular season, were upset in the playoffs by the Los Angeles Kings. During the ensuing offseason, the team acquired goaltender Dominik Hasek (the defending Vezina Trophy winner) and forwards Luc Robitaille and Brett Hull. Russian prospect Pavel Datsyuk also joined the team. Strengthened by the additions, the Red Wings posted the league's best record in the 2001–02 regular season and defeated Colorado in seven games in the Western Conference finals after beating the Vancouver Canucks and St. Louis Blues in rounds one and two. The Red Wings then went on to capture another Stanley Cup, in five games, over the Carolina Hurricanes, with Nicklas Lidstrom winning the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs' MVP. Bowman and Hasek both retired after the season.  The off-season saw the Red Wings promote associate coach Dave Lewis to the head coach position after Bowman's retirement. In the market for a new starting goaltender after Hasek's retirement, they signed Curtis Joseph from the Toronto Maple Leafs to a three-year, $24 million deal. Also new to the lineup

Nicklas Lidstrom and the "Euro-Twins" era (2006–2012).

The Red Wings opened the 2006–07 season with Nicklas Lidstrom as the new captain. The team retired Yzerman's jersey number 19 on January 2, 2007. The Red Wings finished first in the Western Conference and tied for first in the NHL with the Buffalo Sabres, but the Sabres were awarded the Presidents' Trophy because they had more wins. Detroit advanced to the third round of the 2007 playoffs after defeating Calgary and the San Jose Sharks both in six games, coming back to win three-straight after the Sharks had a 2–1 series lead. The Red Wings would then lose to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Anaheim Ducks in the Western Conference finals in six games.  To start the 2007–08 campaign, Zetterberg recorded at least a point in each of Detroit's first 17 games, setting a club record.

The final seasons at Joe Louis Arena (2012–2017).

Zetterberg was named successor to Lidstrom as team captain. On July 1, 2012, the first day of the NHL free agency period, the Red Wings signed Swiss forward Damien Brunner to a one-year, entry-level contract; forward Jordin Tootoo to a three-year, $5.7 million contract; and goaltender Jonas Gustavsson to a two-year, $3 million deal.  The team won their final four games of the 2012–13 season to earn the seventh seed of the playoffs. The Red Wings' 3–0 victory over the Dallas Stars on April 27, 2013 preserved their streak of 22 consecutive playoff appearances. As the seventh seed in the 2013 playoffs, the Red Wings faced the second-seeded Anaheim Ducks. They survived a fierce battle that included four overtime games, winning the series 4–3 after a 3–2 Game 7 victory in Anaheim. The next round pitted the Red Wings against the top-seeded Chicago Blackhawks. Despite jumping out to a 3–1 series lead, the Red Wings would ultimately lose to the eventual Stanley Cup champions in seven games.  On July 5, 2013, the Red Wings signed long time Ottawa Senators captain Daniel Alfredsson to a one-year contract and long

The opening of Little Caesars Arena and rebuilding (2017–present).

The Red Wings played their first regular season game at Little Caesars Arena on October 5, 2017, winning 4–2 over the Minnesota Wild. The Red Wings finished the 2017–18 season with a 30–39–13 record. They missed the playoffs for the second season in a row, marking the first time since the early 1980s the team missed the playoffs in consecutive years. The Red Wings finished the 2018–19 season with a 32–40–10 record, missing the playoffs for a third consecutive season.  On April

Team information.

Logo and uniforms.

The Red Wings' jerseys (traditionally known in hockey as "sweaters") have been more or less the same since the 1930s – a white or red base with red or white piping. The only significant changes have been the replacement of the word "Detroit" with the "winged wheel" logo in 1932, and vertical arch lettering for the players' names and block letters in 1983. The Red Wings only wear the vertical arched letters in the regular season and playoffs, while using straight serifed nameplates during the preseason.  "The Hockey News" voted the Red Wings' "winged wheel" logo the second best in the league in 2008. The Red Wings, like all NHL teams, updated their jerseys to the new standard for the 2007–08 NHL season. The Red

Fan traditions.

The "Legend of the Octopus" is a sports tradition during Detroit Red Wings playoff games, in which an octopus is thrown onto the ice surface for good luck. During the playoffs, Joe Louis Arena was generally adorned with a giant octopus with red eyes, nicknamed "Al" after head ice manager Al Sobotka.  The 1952 playoffs featured the start of the octopus throw. The owner of a local fish market, Peter Cusimano, threw one from the stands onto the ice. The eight legs are symbolic of the eight wins it took to win the Stanley Cup at the time. The Red Wings went on to sweep both of their opponents that year en route to a Stanley Cup championship. The NHL has, at various times, tried to eliminate this tradition but it continues to this day.

Broadcasters.

The Red Wings' flagship radio stations are Detroit sister stations WXYT-AM 1270 and WXYT-FM 97.1. Games are carried on both stations unless there is a conflict with Detroit Tigers baseball. There are several affiliate stations throughout Michigan and Southwestern Ontario.  The Red Wings' exclusive local television rights are held by Fox Sports Detroit.  Announcers:

Honored broadcasters.

Four members of the Red Wings organization have received the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award:  Lynch called the first locally televised game at Olympia for the original WWJ-TV in 1949. He remained with the organization for

Season-by-season record.

"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Detroit Red Wings. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Detroit Red

Players.

Hall of Fame members.

The Detroit Red Wings acknowledge an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Red Wings inductees include 64 former players and 11 builders of the sport. The 11 individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame includes former Red Wings executives, general managers, head

Retired numbers.

The Red Wings have retired eight numbers. The first number the Red Wings retired was No. 9 in 1972 in honor of Gordie Howe, who played right wing for the team from 1946 to 1971. Howe won both the Art Ross Trophy and the Hart Memorial Trophy six times each and won the Stanley Cup as a Red Wing four times. In 2007, the Red Wings retired Steve Yzerman's No. 19. During Yzerman's career, he won the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, the Conn Smythe Trophy, the Frank J. Selke Trophy, the Lester Patrick Trophy, and the Ted Lindsay Award. Yzerman served as Detroit's captain for 19

Team captains.

All the players who have

Franchise leaders.

All-time leading scorers.

These players rank in the top ten in franchise history in scoring as of the end of the 2018–19 season.

All-time leading goaltenders.

These players rank in the top ten in franchise history for wins as of the end of the 2018−19 season. Figures are updated after each completed NHL season. There is a four-way tie for ninth place in postseason wins, resulting in 12 players listed in that table. "Note: GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; T = Ties; OT = Overtime losses; SO = Shutouts; GAA = Goals against average; * = current Red Wings player"

References.

Footnotes  Citations

The Detroit Red Wings are a professional ice hockey team based in Detroit. They compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference, and are one of the Original Six teams of the league. Founded in 1926, the team was known as the Detroit Cougars until 1930. For the 1930–31 and 1931–32 seasons the team was called the Detroit Falcons, and in 1932 changed their name to the Red Wings.

Les <dfn>Red Wings de Détroit</dfn> (en anglais ') sont une franchise professionnelle de hockey sur glace des États-Unis. Ils évoluent dans le championnat principal d'Amérique du Nord : la Ligue nationale de hockey (souvent désignée par le sigle LNH). Les'– littéralement en français les « Ailes Rouges » – font partie de l'Association de l'Est dans la Division Atlantique.