History.

European Energy Charter.

The beginnings of the Energy Charter date back to a political initiative launched in Europe in the early 1990s. The end of the Cold War offered an unprecedented opportunity to overcome previous economic divisions between the nations on both sides of the Iron Curtain. The brightest prospect for mutually co-dependent beneficial cooperation was the energy sector, given Europe's growing energy demand and vast resource availability in post-Soviet nations. Additionally, there was a recognised need to establish a commonly accepted foundation for energy cooperation among the states of Eurasia. By these considerations, the Energy Charter process was born.  The original European Energy Charter declaration was signed in The Hague on 17 December 1991. It was a political declaration of principles for international energy cooperation in trade, transit and investment, together with the intention to negotiate a legally binding Treaty, setting the beginning of the development of the Energy Charter Treaty. One of the final hurdles was to find language to ensure national sovereignty over natural resources while enshrining the principle of international cooperation to allow outside access to those resources. Negotiators also succeeded in assuring Austria and Switzerland that they would not bear an undue transit burden for energy resources.

Energy Charter Treaty.

The treaty is a legally binding multilateral agreement covering investment promotion and protection, trade, transit, energy efficiency and dispute resolution. The treaty was signed in Lisbon in December 1994, together with a "protocol on energy efficiency and related environmental aspects" (PEEREA). The treaty and the protocol came into effect in April 1998. An amendment to the trade-related provisions reflecting the change from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade to World Trade Organization processes was also agreed at that time.

International Energy Charter.

The International Energy Charter is a non-binding political declaration underpinning key principles for international energy cooperation. The declaration attempts to reflect the changes in the energy world that have emerged since the development of the original Energy Charter Treaty in the early 1990s. The International Energy Charter was signed on 20 May 2015, by 72 Countries plus the EU, Euratom and ECOWAS at a Ministerial conference hosted by the government of The Netherlands.

Energy Charter Conference.

Article 33 of the treaty establishes the Energy Charter Conference, which is the governing and decision-making body of the Organisation and has United Nations General Assembly observers status in the resolution 62/75 adopted by the General Assembly on 6 December 2007. Members consist of Countries and Regional Economic Integration Organisations that have signed or acceded to the treaty and are represented in the Conference and its subsidiary bodies. The Conference meets on a regular basis to discuss issues affecting energy cooperation among Members and to review the implementation of the treaty and PEEREA provisions, and to consider new activities within the Energy Charter framework. The Energy Charter Conference has following subsidiary bodies:  Additionally, a consultative board—the Industry Advisory Panel—presents the private sector's views on relevant issues related to energy investments, cross-border flows and energy efficiency to the Conference and its groups.  The Legal Advisory Task Force was set up by the Energy Charter Secretariat in 2001 to assist in the drafting of balanced and legally coherent Model Agreements for cross-border oil and gas pipelines.

Legal scope of the treaty.

The treaty's provisions focus on four broad areas: Energy Trade, Investment, Energy Efficiency, Dispute Settlement, Energy Transit.

Trade.

The Energy Charter Treaty's purpose in Energy Trade is to create open and non-discriminatory energy markets throughout its member states. This framework follows the rules of the multilateral trading system as embodied in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which later became the World Trade Organization (WTO). The Energy Charter Treaty extends the GATT and later the WTO rules in the energy sector amongst its members. Additionally, the treaty covers the trade of all energy materials (e.g. crude oil, natural gas, wood fuel, etc.), all final energy products (e.g. petroleum, electricity, etc.) and energy-related equipment. The rules of trade only cover trade in goods, not trade in services, nor does it concern itself with intellectual property rights.

Investment.

The treaty is responsible for the protection of foreign direct investment. Its provisions protect investors and their investments from political risks involved in investing into a foreign country such as discrimination, expropriation, nationalisation, breach of contract, damages due to war, etc. The legally binding nature of the Energy Charter Treaty makes it the world's only multilateral framework for matters specifically related to Energy.

Dispute settlement.

Whereas Article 27 sets out the provisions for dispute resolution between two contracting states, Article 26 of the Energy Charter Treaty provides express provisions for resolving disputes arising under the treaty between an investor of a Contracting State and another Contracting State. This process is generally known as Investor State Dispute Settlement or ISDS. The choices of arbitration rules are:  The most significant claims against Russia, pertaining to the Yukos decision, arose under the provisions of Article 26.  The drafting of the treaty has raised some difficult questions in the area of Investor-State Disputes by academics and has been called ambiguous at instances by the courts. Some areas of discussion are:

Energy efficiency.

The Energy Charter's involvement in matters of energy efficiency and its relation to a cleaner environment was introduced in the 1991 European Energy Charter. The subsequent Energy Charter Treaty, and in particular Article 19 of the treaty, requires that each Contracting Party "... shall strive to minimise in an economically efficient manner, harmful Environmental Impacts arising from energy use."  Building on article 19 of the Energy Charter Treaty, the Protocol on Energy Efficiency and Related Environmental Aspects (PEEREA) defines in more detail the policy principles that can promote energy efficiency and provides guidance on the development of energy efficiency programmes. PEEREA was negotiated, opened for signature and entered into force at the same time (16 April 1998) as the Energy Charter Treaty.  In contrast to other activities in the Charter process, the emphasis in the work on energy efficiency is not legally binding, but rather on practical implementation of a political commitment to improve energy efficiency. This is promoted through policy discussions based on analysis and exchange of experience between the member countries, invited independent experts and other international organisations.  The implementation of PEEREA provides its member countries with a range of best practices and a forum in which to share experiences and policy advice on energy efficiency issues. Within this forum, particular attention is paid to national energy efficiency strategy, taxation, pricing policy in the energy sector, environmentally related subsidies and other mechanisms for financing energy efficiency objectives.

Energy transit.

The Energy Charter Treaty provides a set of rules that covers the entire energy chain, including not only investments in production and generation but also the terms under which energy can be traded and transported across various national jurisdictions to international markets. As such, the agreement is intended to prevent disruption of fuel passing between countries.

Transit Protocol.

The Energy Charter Transit Protocol is a draft protocol which negotiations are not finalised yet. The Protocol would amplify and strengthen the treaty provisions on energy transit issues to mitigate some specific operational risks that continue to affect energy transit flows. Negotiations on the text of the Transit Protocol began in early 2000 and a compromise text reflecting an extended discussion between the European Union and Russia was tabled for adoption at the meeting of the Energy Charter Conference on 10 December 2003. It became clear during the meeting that a unanimous decision could not be reached on the basis of the compromise text; a complicating factor was that energy issues, including transit, were a subject on the bilateral agenda for the European Union and Russia in the context of Russian negotiations for accession to the World Trade Organization. The Protocol negotiations were then temporarily suspended.  In December 2007, the Energy Charter Conference reaffirmed its support for the finalisation of negotiations and adoption of the Energy Charter Protocol on Transit to expand the existing provisions of the treaty. This work proceeded until October 2011, when the European Union argued that, given current developments in the international energy situation and the lack of progress in negotiations and consultations, it appeared no longer opportune to continue talks. A review of the issue at the end of 2015 noted the continued demand for a multilateral legally-binding framework for energy transit, and recommended further exploring the basis for negotiations of such an agreement, which could address various aspects of oil, gas and electricity transportation and transit.  The Energy Charter Treaty includes an obligation of member countries to facilitate energy transit across their territory, in line with the principle of freedom of transit, and to secure established transit flows. At the same time, the treaty provisions do not oblige any country to introduce mandatory third-party access.

The Principle of national sovereignty.

The principles of the Energy Charter are based on the idea that international flows of investments and technologies in the energy sector are mutually beneficial. But at the same time, national sovereignty over energy resources is a core principle of the treaty (ECT Article 18). An objective of the treaty is to promote transparency and efficiency in the operation of energy markets, but it is for governments to define the structure of their domestic energy sector. Each country is free to decide whether and how its national energy resources are developed, and the extent to which its energy sector is open to foreign investors. The treaty does not deal with the ownership issues of the energy companies–there is no obligation to privatise state-owned energy companies, or to break up vertically integrated energy companies.

Membership.

Members include countries and Regional Economic Integration Organisations that have signed or acceded to the Treaty. As 1 January 2018, the treaty has been signed or acceded to by fifty-four countries and Regional Economic Integration Organisations. All Members have ratified the treaty except for Australia, Belarus, Norway, and the Russian Federation. Belarus has accepted provisional application of the treaty,

Members of the Energy Charter Conference.

"Note: * – denotes state provisionally applying signed, but not yet ratified instruments"

Observers.

Observers status is granted to countries and Regional Economic Integration Organisations that have signed either the European Energy Charter or the International Energy Charter. Observers have the right to attend all Charter meetings and to receive all related documentation, reports and analysis, and to participate in the working debates taking place within the Energy Charter. Also, International Organisations can be granted Observer status by decision of the Energy Charter Conference. The intention is that Observer status should provide the chance for a country to familiarise itself with the Charter and its functions, to facilitate its assessment of the benefits of accession to the Energy Charter Treaty.

Russian participation.

The Russian Federation signed the treaty and applied it provisionally but did not ratify it. It linked the ratification of the treaty to negotiations on an Energy Charter Transit Protocol. In October 2006, German chancellor Angela Merkel and French president Jacques Chirac proposed the creation of a "balanced energy partnership" between France and Germany, representing the European Union, and Russia. Under the agreement, Russia would have to sign the European Energy Charter, something President Vladimir V. Putin, has said impinges on Russia's national interests.  In December 2006, Russia indicated that the ratification of the treaty was unlikely due to the provisions requiring third-party access to Russia's pipelines. On 20 August 2009, it officially informed the depository of the treaty (Government of Portugal) that it did not intend to become a contracting party to the treaty and the related protocol terminating the provisional application of the treaty and the PEEREA starting from 18 October 2009.  Notwithstanding the termination of provisional application of the treaty by Russia, the provisions regarding dispute settlements and investment protection are still in force for additional twenty years. On 30 November 2009, the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague, which had been considering this case since 2005 under the UNCITRAL Rules, ruled that former Yukos shareholders can move on to the merits phase of their arbitration claim against the Russian government. GML, previously known as Menatep, the principle shareholder in Yukos, is suing Russia for more than $100 billion in an international arbitration case under the treaty. The hearings took place in October 2012.  In July 2014, the international arbitration panel in The Hague unanimously ruled in favour of the shareholders, awarding $50 billion damages for the seizure of assets and dismantling of Yukos. The Russian government has vowed not to comply with the ruling, setting off an international legal dispute which has resulted in France and Belgium seizing Russian assets for possible use as restitution for the claimants. However, a French court ruled against the seizure by the French authorities, and a Dutch court later overturned the $50 billion ruling, arguing Russia had not ratified the Energy Charter Treaty and so was not bound by it.

Secretariat.

The Energy Charter Treaty established the creation of a permanent Secretariat that was originally set up to accommodate the dialogue amongst the contracting parties during the negotiation of the treaty. The Secretariat is mandated by the Energy Charter Conference Primarily to provide the Conference with all necessary assistance for the performance of its duties including promotion, organisation and legal support along with meeting space for subsidiary body meetings hosted at the Secretariat.  Since 1 January 2012, the Secretary General is Dr Urban Rusnák, and since January 2017, the Assistant Secretary General is Dr Masami Nakata.

Organisation.

One of the primary mandates given by the Energy Charter Conference to the Secretariat is to organise and administer meetings of the Conference and its subsidiary bodies. In addition, the Secretariat organises conferences and energy forums related to the global ongoing energy dialogues.

Monitor ECT and PEEREA obligations.

Article 19 of the treaty, requires that each Contracting Party minimise, in an economically efficient manner, harmful environmental impacts arising from energy use. The Secretariat monitors the enforcement of these obligations in the contracting parties of the treaty and creates various publicly available reports on each of the contracting parties such as energy efficiency and the investment climate.

Legal support.

The Energy Charter Treaty contains a comprehensive system for settling disputes on matters covered by the treaty. The two primary forms of binding dispute settlement are state-state arbitration on the interpretation or application of almost all aspects of the treaty (except for competition and environmental issues), and investor-state arbitration (Article 26) for investment disputes. There are special provisions, based on the WTO model, for the resolution of inter-state trade issues and the treaty also offers a conciliation procedure for transit disputes. The Secretariat maintains legal advice to these arbitrations as well as has responsibility for maintaining the Travaux préparatoires used to clarify the intentions of the treaty by Article 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.  The Secretariat maintains a publicly available list of cases that have been brought by investors to international arbitration. These cases have been litigated under the arbitration regulations of the ICSID, Arbitration Institute of the SCC, and UNCITRAL. The Arbitration Awards or Settlements are sometimes in the hundred of millions of dollars. Disputes concerning competition (Article 6) and environmental issues (Article 19) the Secretariat provides for bilateral (in the case of competition) or multilateral (in the case of environmental protection) non-binding consultation mechanisms.

The Energy Charter Treaty (ECT) is an international investment agreement that establishes a multilateral framework for cross-border cooperation in the energy industry. The treaty covers all aspects of commercial energy activities including trade, transit, investments and energy efficiency. The treaty is legally binding and includes dispute resolution procedures.

La charte énergétique européenne a été signée le et est entrée en vigueur en 1998. Elle constitue le fondement politique d'une coopération énergétique internationale basée sur un intérêt commun dans l'approvisionnement énergétique sûr et le développement économique durable. Ce préalable a permis l’entrée en vigueur, en 1998 également, du qui créé un marché libre et international d’énergie, contraignant juridiquement. La charte internationale de l'énergie signée le à la Conférence ministérielle de La Haye constitue son prolongement direct sur le plan international.


Description.

Maximum length is. The head is broad and flattened, the eyes are large and widely separated, and the mouth is curved with fleshy lips. There is no spine in front of the operculum (the bony flap that covers the gills), the branchiostegal membranes are fused to the isthmus (the fleshy projection separating the gill openings), and there are many small cirri (fleshy threads) scattered over the head and body. The operculum is poorly ossified and is covered by a gelatinous layer. Behind the head, the body tapers rapidly to the caudal peduncle and there is a gelatinous layer between the skin and the muscle. The dorsal fin has eight spines and nineteen to twenty soft rays, and the anal fin has no spines and twelve to fourteen soft rays. The pectoral fins are broad and in larger individuals, have fleshy pads near their tips. The upper parts of this fish are grey or black and the underparts pale, with some indistinct mottling.

Distribution.

The blob sculpin is native to the northeastern Pacific Ocean where it is found on or near the seabed at depths from.

Ecology.

Aggregations of blob sculpins have been observed by using a remotely operated underwater vehicle. The fish were at depths between on the Gorda Escarpment off the coast of California. They were brooding large pinkish eggs in nests, actually lying on the eggs or in contact with them in many instances. The eggs were free of sediment which makes it likely the adults were actively fanning them, the first known example of parental care in egg-laying deep sea fishes. Scattered around and among the sculpins were octopuses in the genus "Graneledone", also brooding their eggs. About half the octopuses were within 5 metres of an adult or breeding sculpin. At one site, 84 sculpins and 64 nests were observed as well as numerous brooding octopuses; the researchers described it as a "reproductive hot spot".  The diet of this fish consists mainly of such invertebrates as sea pens, crustaceans and gastropod molluscs. Other items consumed include cephalopods, crinoids, sea cucumbers and fish. Some of the species of fish are pelagic but researchers think they must have been swimming close to the seabed when consumed because the morphology of the blob sculpin is typical of a bottom dwelling fish. It is the host of skin parasites such as the copepods "Chondracanthus yanezi" and "Neobrachiella amphipacifica".

The blob sculpin ("Psychrolutes phrictus") is a species of deep-sea fish of the family Psychrolutidae. It feeds mainly on crustaceans, molluscs, and sea pens.

Le chabot blob ("Psychrolutes phrictus") est une espèce de poisson vivant dans les eaux profondes (entre -500 et ) dans le Pacifique Nord. En raison de son milieu de vie très inaccessible, il est rarement vu par les hommes. Il mesure tout au plus 70 cm de long.


Background and design.

Pioneering naval gunnery developments by Captain Percy Scott in the early 1900s were already pushing expected battle ranges out to an unprecedented, a distance great enough to force gunners to wait for the shells to arrive before applying corrections for the next salvo. A related problem was that the shell splashes from the more numerous smaller weapons tended to obscure the splashes from the bigger guns. Either the smaller-calibre guns would have to hold their fire to wait for the slower-firing heavies, losing the advantage of their faster rate of fire, or it would be uncertain whether a splash was due to a heavy or a light gun, making ranging and aiming unreliable. Another problem was that longer-range torpedoes were expected to soon be in service and these would discourage ships from closing to ranges where the smaller guns' faster rate of fire would become preeminent. Keeping the range open generally negated the threat from torpedoes and further reinforced the need for heavy guns of a uniform calibre.  After being appointed Director of Naval Construction in early 1902, Philip Watts and the Third Naval Lord and Controller of the Navy, Vice-Admiral William May conducted studies that revealed the destructive power of smaller guns such as the was far smaller than that of larger guns like the. The greater damage inflicted at greater range by larger guns meant that there was a very real chance that the lightly protected smaller guns would be destroyed before they could open fire and that thicker armour was required over a greater area to resist large-calibre shells. The Board of Admiralty wished to keep the size of the 1903–1904 Naval Programme battleships to about the of the earlier and also required them to be able to use the drydocks at Chatham, Portsmouth and Devonport, despite the fact that these were enlarged before the ships were completed. This latter requirement severely constrained the length and beam of the design. Preliminary design work began in mid-1902 and it became clear that a displacement at least equal to that of the preceding would be required. Lacking a consensus on the design, May called a conference in November to discuss the way forward. The participants agreed to increased the armour to a maximum of 12 inches, the maximum displacement to, eliminated the three-calibre gun armament that had proven so unpopular in the "King Edward VII"s in favour of a mix of 12-inch and guns, and rejected the version armed with only guns proposed by Watts.  The Admiralty formally approved a design armed with four 12-inch and a dozen 9.2-inch guns on 6 August 1903, but revoked it in October when they discovered that it could not be docked at Chatham. As it was now too late to revise the design in time for the 1903–1904 Programme, the Admiralty ordered three more "King Edward VII"-class ships instead. Watts refined the design to ensure that it could enter the Chatham docks, which required reducing the number of 9.2-inch guns to only 10, and it was approved on 10 February 1904.

Description.

The "Lord Nelson"-class ships had an overall length of, a beam of and an extra deep load draught of. They displaced at normal load and at deep load. "Lord Nelson" had a metacentric height of at extra deep load. The "Lord Nelson" class "proved good seaboats and steady gun platforms, with excellent manoeuvrabiling qualities." Their crew numbered 749–756 officers and ratings in peacetime and averaged 800 men during the war.  The ships were powered by a pair of four-cylinder inverted vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one four-bladed, screw, using steam provided by fifteen water-tube boilers that operated at a pressure of. The boilers were trunked into two funnels located amidships. The engines, rated at, were intended to give a maximum speed of, but both ships slightly exceeded their design speed, reaching during their sea trials. The "Lord Nelson"s were the first British battleships to be built with fuel oil sprayers to increase the burn rate of the coal. They carried a maximum of of coal and an additional of fuel oil in tanks in their double bottom. At a cruising speed of, the ships had a range of burning only coal and using coal and oil.

Armament.

The main armament of the "Lord Nelson"-class ships consisted of four 45-calibre breech-loading (BL) 12-inch Mark X guns in a pair of twin-gun turrets, one each fore and aft of the superstructure. The guns had a maximum elevation of +13.5° which gave them a range of. They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of at a rate of two rounds per minute. The ships carried 80 shells per gun.  Their secondary armament consisted of ten 50-calibre BL 9.2-inch Mk XI guns. They were mounted in four twin-gun turrets positioned at the corners of the superstructure and a pair of single-gun turrets amidships. The guns were limited to an elevation of +15° which gave their shells a range of. They had a muzzle velocity of and a maximum rate of fire of four rounds per minute. Each gun was provided with 100 rounds. For defence against torpedo boats, the ships carried two dozen 50-calibre quick-firing (QF) 12-pounder () 18 cwt guns in single mounts in the superstructure. At an elevation of +20°, their muzzle velocity gave the guns a range of with their projectiles. The ships were also fitted with 10 QF 3-pounder () Hotchkiss guns, two in the superstructure and the others on the turret roofs. They were equipped with five submerged 18-inch (450 mm) torpedo tubes, two on each broadside and one in the stern, and carried 23 torpedoes for them.

Armour.

The "Lord Nelson"s armour scheme was derived from that of the "King Edward VII" class, although the vertical armour was generally thicker and the deck armour slightly thinner. The waterline main belt was composed of Krupp cemented armour (KCA) 12-inches thick, although it thinned to at its lower edge. It was high of which was below the waterline at normal load. The thickest portion of the belt extended for approximately amidships, from the rear of the forward 12-inch barbette to abreast the rear main-gun barbette. It was thick from there to the stern while the portion abreast the forward barbette was thick and then reduced to 6 inches to the bow. Below the belt at the stem, a strake of armour projected downwards to support the ship's plow-type ram. The middle strake consisted of armour plates; it continued forward to the bow, albeit in 6- then 4-inch thicknesses. Aft it terminated in an oblique 8-inch bulkhead that connected the armour to the aft barbette. The upper strake of armour was also 8 inches thick, but only covered the area between the main-gun barbettes with oblique bulkheads of the same thickness connecting the side armour to the barbettes to form the armoured citadel.  The main gun turret faces and sides were 12 inches thick and their roofs were protected by 3- and 4-inch plates. Their barbettes also had 12 inches of armour on their external faces down to the main deck. Below this the forward barbette's armour reduced to 8 inches down to the middle deck while the aft barbette retained its full thickness down to the middle deck. The inner faces of the barbettes were 3 or 4 inches thick for the forward barbette and 3 inches thick for the aft barbette. The 9.2-inch gun turret faces had 8-inch armour plating, their sides were thick and they had 2-inch thick roofs. The turrets sat on 6-inch thick armoured bases and their ammunition hoists were protected by 2-inch armoured tubes.  The upper deck over the citadel was thick and the main deck forward of the citadel to the bow had a thickness of inches. The middle deck inside the citadel was thick on the flat, but 2 inches thick where it sloped downwards to meet the bottom edge of the waterline belt. The lower deck was 4 inches thick where it sloped upwards to meet the bases of the main-gun barbettes, but was otherwise 1 inch thick forward of the citadel. Aft it ranged in thickness from 2 inches on the flat and 3 inches on the slope to protect the steering gear. The forward conning tower was protected by 12 inches of armour on its sides and it had a 3-inch roof. The aft conning tower had 3-inch armour plates all around. The "Lord Nelson"s were the first British ships fitted with unpierced watertight bulkheads for all main compartments with access gained by using lifts. In service the inconvenience of this feature for the crew, especially in the engine and boiler rooms, led to its abandonment in the next generation of battleships.  Naval historian R. A. Burt assessed the greatest weaknesses of their armour scheme as the waterline belt being submerged at deep load and the reduction in the thickness of the barbette armour below the upper deck. He believed that this made the ships' magazines vulnerable to plunging fire from long range.

Modifications.

Modifications to the sisters before 1920 were relatively minor. In 1909 the number of 3-pounders was reduced to four in "Agamemnon" and two in "Lord Nelson". In 1910–1911 a rangefinder was installed of the roof of the forward turret in both ships and another was added to the spotting top in "Agamemnon". The following year "Lord Nelson" had her spotting top modified to accommodate one as well. In 1913–1914 the ship had an additional rangefinder added to her bridge. The remaining 3-pounders were removed from the ships in 1914–1915 as were the rooftop and bridge rangefinders. A pair of 12-pounders were removed from the after superstructure in exchange for a pair of 3-pounder Hotchkiss guns on high-angle mounts. In 1916–1917, four 12-pounders were removed from the forward superstructure in "Agamemnon" while "Lord Nelson" only lost two. That ship lost two more from her aft superstructure in 1918.  Early in 1919 the Admiralty decided that the Navy needed a radio-controlled target ship to properly train gunnery officers. It conducted tests to evaluate the effectiveness of shells on armour plates as thick as the typical pre-dreadnought deck armour. At an equivalent range of, the plates were completely destroyed and the Admiralty realized that 15-inch shells would do much the same to any of the surplus early dreadnoughts. It then limited all gunnery practice against the target ships to a maximum of 6-inch shells. "Agamemnon" was selected as the target ship in 1920 and was modified to suit her new role, including the installation of wireless equipment. She was disarmed and her 9.2-inch gun turrets were removed, but not her main-gun turrets. Most of her internal openings were plated over and much internal equipment was removed. Concerned about her stability with the loss of a lot of topweight, of ballast were added low in the ship and "Agamemnon" was inclined to measure her stability. With a displacement of, the ship had a metacentric height of.

Service history.

Construction of the ships was seriously delayed when their main-gun turrets were transferred to HMS "Dreadnought", then under construction, to allow her to be finished more quickly. Both ships commissioned in 1908, the last pre-dreadnoughts in the Royal Navy to do so, and were assigned to the Home Fleet until 1914. "Lord Nelson" became flagship of the vice-admiral commanding the Nore Division of the Home Fleet at the beginning of 1909, but became a private ship in early 1914. After the First World War began later that year, the sisters were assigned to the Channel Fleet, with "Lord Nelson" becoming the fleet flagship. The fleet was initially tasked with covering the passage of the British Expeditionary Force across the English Channel. Both ships were transferred to the Mediterranean in 1915 to support Allied forces in the Dardanelles Campaign and to help blockade the German battlecruiser. "Lord Nelson" became flagship of the Dardanelles Squadron, later redesignated as the Eastern Mediterranean Squadron in January 1916 and then the Aegean Squadron in August 1917, a few months after her arrival. The sisters participated in numerous bombardments of Turkish forts and positions between their arrival in February and May during which they were slightly damaged by Turkish guns. "Agamemnon" was withdrawn to Malta for repairs that lasted several months while "Lord Nelson" was repaired locally. After the evacuation of Gallipoli at the beginning of 1916 they were assigned to the Eastern Mediterranean Squadron which was tasked to guard against a breakout attempt by "Goeben" and "Breslau", now transferred to the Ottoman Navy and renamed "Yavûz Sultân Selîm" and "Mdilli", respectively, support the Allied forces in the Macedonian front and defend the various Greek islands occupied by the Allies. "Lord Nelson" was mostly based in Salonica, Greece, while "Agamemnon" was mainly based at Mudros on the island of Lemnos, although they sometimes alternated. The latter ship shot down the German Zeppelin "LZ85" during a bombing mission over Salonica in mid-1916. When "Yavuz Sultan Selim" and "Midilli" attempted to sortie into the Mediterranean at the beginning of 1918, neither battleship was able to reach Imbros before the Ottoman ships sank the two monitors based there during the Battle of Imbros. While heading towards Mudros, the ships entered a minefield; "Midilli" sank after striking multiple mines and "Yavuz Sultan Selim" struck several, but was able to withdraw back to the Dardanelles.  On 30 October 1918 the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on board "Agamemnon" and she participated in the occupation of Constantinople the following month. "Agamemnon" remained there until she returned home in March 1919, while "Lord Nelson" spent a short time in the Black Sea before returning two months later. Both ships were reduced to reserve upon their arrival. "Lord Nelson" was sold for scrap in June 1920, but "Agamemnon" was converted into a radio-controlled target ship in 1920–1921. She was sold for scrap in her turn in early 1927, the last surviving British pre-dreadnought.

The "Lord Nelson" class consisted of a pair of pre-dreadnought battleships built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the twentieth century. Although they were the last British pre-dreadnoughts, both were completed and commissioned well over a year after had entered service in late 1906. and were assigned to the Home Fleet when completed in 1908, with the former ship often serving as a flagship. The sister ships were transferred to the Channel Fleet when the First World War began in August 1914. They were transferred to the Mediterranean Sea in early 1915 to participate in the Dardanelles Campaign.

La classe Lord Nelson est la dernière classe de cuirassés de type Pré-Dreadnought, construite pour la "Royal Navy" au début du.


Background.

The march went through several versions before arriving at the popular orchestral version known today.  In September 1888 Chabrier wrote to his publisher that he would be orchestrating six piano pieces: four pieces from his piano suite "Pièces pittoresques" (which would become his "Suite pastorale"), as well as "La marche française" and the "Andante in F". Delage proposes that the "Andante" was originally performed in 1875 at the Cercle de l'Union artistique in Paris, with Jules Danbé conducting his orchestra. However, the pieces are also related to Chabrier's "Prélude et marche française" for piano 4-hands, completed by May 1885, the "Andante" having by then become a "Prélude".  The concert at which the premiere of the "Prélude pastoral" and "Joyeuse marche" took place also included the first performance of Chabrier's "Suite pastorale" and "Habañera", "España" (all conducted by the composer), plus Rossini's "William Tell Overture", Mozart's Divertimento No. 2 for two horns and strings and the Adagietto from Bizet's "L'Arlésienne".  By the time of the Paris premiere in April 1889, the title had changed to "Marche joyeuse". The piece was again enthusiastically received.  The final version of the work's title was reached at a Lamoureux concert on 16 February 1890, when the march became the "Joyeuse marche". However, the "Prélude" then disappeared until it surfaced among autographs belonging to Robert Brussel in 1943. The "Joyeuse marche" became particularly popular, and was also played in a piano duet version.  The tempo marking for the march is 'Tempo di marcia molto risoluto e giocoso'.

Instrumentation.

Strings; 2 flutes, 1 piccolo, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets in B flat, 4 bassoons; 4 horns in F, 2 cornets à piston, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba; timpani, percussion (bass drum, cymbals, side drum, triangle); harp.

Joyeuse marche is a popular orchestra piece by the French composer Emmanuel Chabrier. It is the second half of a pair of orchestral pieces (the other was "Prélude pastoral") first performed on 4 November 1888 in Angers, conducted by the composer. The "Joyeuse marche" is dedicated to Vincent d'Indy.

Joyeuse marche est une pièce orchestrale écrite par Emmanuel Chabrier (1841-1894). Elle est dédicacée à Vincent d'Indy. Son tempo est "Tempo di marcia molto risoluto e giocoso".


Appearances.

Before her introduction as a main character in "Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep", Aqua made small appearances in the secret endings from "Kingdom Hearts II" and its re-release, "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix", both events depicting Aqua, Terra, and Ventus confronting Xehanort at the Keyblade Graveyard. "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix" also contains an additional cutscene showing Aqua's Keyblade and armor to be stored in the "Chamber of Repose", a hidden room in Hollow Bastion that is frequented by Xemnas.  In "Birth by Sleep", Aqua and her friends are Keyblade apprentices in the Land of Departure, where she obtains the "Mark of Mastery" early in the game. Under Eraqus's orders, Aqua travels to various worlds to search for a missing Xehanort and defeat the Unversed, simultaneously monitoring Terra's vulnerability to darkness and trying to retrieve Ventus when he runs away to find Terra. However, both duties bring her into conflict with her friends when she confronts Terra over his questionable activities on their quest. Aqua later reunites with her friends at the Keyblade Graveyard, where Terra is possessed by Xehanort, while Ventus sacrifices his own heart to prevent the creation of the χ-blade. Aqua uses Eraqus's Keyblade to transform the Land of Departure into Castle Oblivion, leaving Ventus's catatonic body there, before confronting the possessed Terra at Radiant Garden. When Xehanort unlocks his own heart to subdue a resisting Terra and sinks into the realm of darkness, Aqua dives in and salvages Terra's body, remaining trapped in the dark realm. In the game's secret ending, she meets Ansem the Wise at the realm's edge, learning from him about the heroics of Sora, whom she had encountered as a young boy during her travels. Her time in the realm of darkness is depicted in the game's "Final Mix" release and "Kingdom Hearts 0.2: Birth by Sleep – A Fragmentary Passage"; in the latter, she encounters her friend Mickey Mouse by chance during the events of the first "Kingdom Hearts" game before remaining behind to fend off the Heartless attacking Riku.  Aqua makes cameo appearances in "", where she is revealed to be one of the many people connected with Sora's heart, and in "" as part of Sora's memories and in the ending where she is still at the shores in the dark realm. In "Kingdom Hearts III", Aqua becomes corrupted by darkness after being attacked by Xehanort's Heartless, but is purified after losing to Sora, who returns her to the realm of light. She subsequently restores the Land of Departure to wake Ventus, who revives when Sora returns his heart. The two join the other Keyblade wielders assembled as the seven guardians of light, who clash with Xehanort's reconstituted Organization XIII at the Keyblade Graveyard. There they battle the possessed Terra, whom Sora helps break free from Xehanort's control, reuniting the three friends. Aqua and the other Keyblade wielders later help keep the door to Kingdom Hearts closed, allowing Sora to defeat Xehanort. Afterwards, Aqua and her friends return home before joining their friends in a celebration on the Destiny Islands just before Sora disappears as a price for using the Power of Waking to revive Kairi after Xehanort killed her. In the "Kingdom Hearts III Re Mind" DLC, one year after Sora's disappearance, Aqua, alongside Terra and Ventus, head on a journey to the Realm of Darkness to look for clues to Sora's whereabouts.

Creation and development.

For Aqua's unnamed first appearance in the secret ending of "Kingdom Hearts II", director Tetsuya Nomura stated he did not design her appearance, but had instead focused on what her story would be. While unwilling say who the character was, Nomura pointed that new character's scenes occurred prior to the events from the first game. Following the release of "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix", Nomura revealed more details about Aqua such as a connection with the character Xemnas. Nomura also revealed her name as said by the Lingering Sentiment in "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix", and explained that her name follows the "water" theme brought by Kairi's name. However, a connection with Kairi was not intended, but rather with the series' main characters whose names bear various themes. In contrast to Terra and Ventus, Aqua did not have a reference point for the characters design, leading Nomura to create a completely new character from scratch. Her outfit was based on Terra's Japanese-inspired clothes which are meant to expand the student-and-teacher bond shown in the game. Aqua's outfit was altered three times during the game's development. Nomura felt the open back of Aqua's outfit presented at the Tokyo Game Show 2009 was too revealing and modified the design to be more conservative. As with Terra and Ventus, the making of Aqua's outfit created issues for Nomura like how she would be able to summon her armor. To remedy this, an "X" was added to her clothes as a means to activate her armor. When designing Aqua, Nomura was worried the character would be unpopular due to her weak connection with other "Kingdom Hearts" characters. This led to a push to make the character distinctly "strong", which Nomura also did with Xion for "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days", but in a different way. While Xion was also a "brave girl", Nomura wanted to retain Aqua's feminine qualities along with her strength. After design was completed, Nomura was still unsure of how Aqua would be received. After the game's release, however, Nomura noted her popularity with fans, and referenced Megumi Toyoguchi's work as her voice actress as one of the reasons. Toyoguchi had already worked with Nomura in "Final Fantasy X-2" voicing Paine, one of the game's protagonists. While Toyoguchi used a low tone with Paine, she used a tone closer to her original voice when performing as Aqua, which Nomura praised.  From the beginning of "Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s development, the staff decided its story would have three plot lines centered around three different characters, with Aqua's being the last one written. The original ending of Aqua's storyline showed her trapped in the realm of darkness, which was moved to the game's "Last Episode" in order to keep the game from being too negative in tone. In terms of gameplay, Aqua was designed to be a character that players would take some getting used to, and recommended them use her as the last one in order to understand the game's story better, pointing out the intention that Aqua would be the last character to leave the Land of Departure in her scenario. The staff developed her movements to reflect her personality as a serious and dignified young woman. In the making of "Kingdom Hearts 2.8", co-director Tai Yasue expressed the staff wanted to explore Aqua's torment in this title as she became trapped in the realm of darkness to the point they showed how the character wanted to escape from it as she became isolated. Nomura was surprised by people's reaction to Aqua falling into the darkness in the E3 2018 trailer for "Kingdom Hearts III", and expects her role in the upcoming game to surprise the audience more.

Reception.

Aqua's character has received mixed response from video game publications, with initial comments focused on her brief appearance in "Kingdom Hearts II". Writing for GamesRadar, Chris Antista commented that he did not understand the importance of Aqua and the other characters being briefly featured in "Kingdom Hearts II"; only later was their importance explored at the end of "Birth by Sleep". Prior to Aqua's appearance in "Birth by Sleep"'s trailers, 1UP.com's Jeremy Parish stated that fans speculated the character would be male. Having played a demo from "Birth by Sleep" as Aqua in the E3 2010, Ryan Clements from IGN enjoyed her character due to her gameplay mechanics.  While reviewing "Birth by Sleep", Adam Ghigiino from PALGN criticized her "idealistic" dialogues, finding them repetitive. PlayStation LifeStyle's Thomas Williams found the trio as welcome additions to the franchise, finding their stories enjoyable even though the three travel to the same worlds. Kevin VanOrd from GameSpot gave praise to Aqua's character, based on her personality and how it contrasts Ventus's, as well as Holland's voice acting. 1UP.com's Steve Watts found Aqua's gameplay as the weakest of all the three characters as she specializes in magic techniques, which are weak during the game's start. On the other hand, Bob Miur from Destructoid found her gameplay appealing due to how it contrasts previous fighting styles seen in the "Kingdom Hearts" series. He also found her story less entertaining than Ventus's, but also less predictable than Terra's. Following Square's advice of using Aqua as the last playable "Game Informer" writer Bryan Vore liked how her actions were played with Ventus's and Terra's. However, Bore still cited Aqua's playthrough as repetitive if played as the last one, adding that its plot was weakest from all of them. Alongside Ventus and Terra, X-Play found Aqua similar to the protagonists from "Kingdom Hearts", comparing her to Kairi. In contrast to Van Ord, RPGFan's Ashton Liu found Aqua's voice "bored for almost the whole game", citing how it is notable when comparing her with other voice actors such as Mark Hamill and Leonard Nimoy. In an ASCII Media Works poll, Aqua was voted as the twelfth most popular video game character from 2010. In a "Famitsu" poll from 2011, Aqua was voted as the fourth most popular "Kingdom Hearts" character.  Aqua's role in "Kingdom Hearts 0.2" was praised by Siliconera. The writer enjoyed how the game explores Aqua's vulnerability as well as her strength and sacrifice to protect her friends. Additionally, the writer commented that "We see that she's not some perfect heroine capable of accomplishing everything, but rather a strong woman who's willing to do what she has to for the greater good". Chris Carter from Destructoid expressed disappointment with the fact that none of the three protagonists of "Birth by Sleep" were saved by this game, but still wanted to play as any of them. Kimberly Wallace from "Game Informer" said Aqua was one of her favorite characters due to "her selflessness and determination to save the world, and getting some resolution to her story was satisfying". She also commented that she expected Aqua to play a bigger role in "Kingdom Hearts III".

Aqua is the only protagonist in "Birth by Sleep" whom Tetsuya Nomura did not have a point of reference to design from, and thus was designed from scratch. Later in the design process, Nomura became concerned that Aqua would not be popular, which drove his decision to make her more distinct in her personal bravery and combat abilities. Aqua is voiced by Megumi Toyoguchi in Japanese and Willa Holland in English. The character received mixed reviews from game critics upon her debut, citing boring plot lines and unenthusiastic voice acting combined with weak combat skills. However, her role in "Kingdom Hearts 0.2" has been more positively received, with critics favoring her stronger characterization over previous depictions.

Aqua est le seul personnage de "Kingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep" pour lequel Tetsuya Nomura n'avait pas de point de référence, c'est donc un personnage complètement orignal. Lors du processus de conception, Nomura craignait la réaction du public face au personnage, ce qui l’a poussé à la distinguer davantage par son courage et ses compétences de combat. Aqua est doublée par Megumi Toyoguchi (japonais) et par Willa Holland (anglais). À ses débuts, le personnage a reçu un accueil mitigé de la part des critiques, déplorant une intrigue ennuyeuse et un doublage peu enthousiaste, combiné à sa faiblesse en combat. Cependant, son rôle dans "Kingdom Hearts 0.2: Birth by Sleep - A Fragmentary Passage" a été reçu de manière plus positive, les critiques saluant une caractérisation plus appuyée par rapport à ses apparitions précédentes.


Biography.

Zhang Guohua was born in Yongxin, Jiangxi in 1914. He joined the Communist Party of China in 1931.

Career.

Tibet campaign.

As commander of the Southwest Eighteenth Army Corps of the People's Liberation Army, he led the main attack force in the 1950 Qamdo campaign against Tibetan forces. Zhang was chosen for his special knowledge of Tibetan culture; Mao Zedong did not want to alienate the Tibetans and gave strict instructions "to do united front work" by respecting the local religion and customs. In contrast to the leader of the Northwest Army, Fan Ming, he supported the Dalai Lama and avoided marching into the city after the victory. Zhang seized the position of Secretary of the CPC Tibet Committee from 1950 to 1952, until Mao Zedong, on learning of his power struggle with Fan, replaced him with Zhang Jingwu as Secretary. Still, Zhang headed the Tibet Work Committee, which would negotiate the items in the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet. Zhang only made passing reference to the negotiations in his memoirs. Zhang would resume his position as secretary from 1965 to 1967.

Sino-Indian War.

On October 10, 1962 Zhang attended a meeting of military leaders outside Beijing. There, he endorsed the summary by Zhou Enlai that because India chose to occupy disputed territory with China, instead of peacefully resolving the border demarcation with it like Nepal, Burma, and Mongolia, that "Nehru has closed all roads. This leaves us only with war." As the Commander of the Tibet military region, Zhang was present for the formal decision to go to war with India in "self-defense" at the politboro meeting of October 18. Mao asked for problems with this plan, and suggested that they were underestimating the Indian Armed Forces, but Zhang reassured him. Zhang was the People's Liberation Army Ground Force field commander during the Sino-Indian War.

Cultural Revolution.

In February 1967, at the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, three divisions of Red Guards tried to oust Zhang Guohua from the Governorship in Lhasa. Using armor, he succeeded in repressing them, and negotiated with the central government to be moved to Sichuan to form a revolutionary committee. He served as the Governor of Sichuan from 1968 to 1972.

Zhang Guohua (; October 1914-February 21, 1972) was a Chinese lieutenant general and a politician, serving during the Invasion of Tibet and the Sino-Indian War and later as a Communist Party secretary for the Tibet Autonomous Region.

Zhang Guohua (simplifié chinois : 张国华 ; chinois traditionnel : 張國華 ; pinyin : Guóhuá de Zhāng) (-) était le commandant de l'Armée de Libération du Peuple au cours de la Guerre sino-indienne ayant opposé la République populaire de Chine et l'Inde en 1962, pour le contrôle de territoires himalayens.


Geography.

Champlain River is flowing almost at the boundary between the manors of Batiscan and Champlain. Champlain river flows from north to south to empty in the St. Lawrence river at Champlain village. Champlain River rises at an altitude of about 130 meters in wetlands located at the foot of the moraine of Saint-Narcisse. Its watershed through the municipalities of Notre-Dame-du-Mont-Carmel, Trois-Rivières (Saint-Louis-de-France area), Saint-Maurice, Saint-Narcisse, Saint-Luc-de-Vincennes, Sainte-Geneviève-de-Batiscan, Batiscan and Champlain, all located, with the exception of Trois-Rivières, in the Les Chenaux Regional County Municipality.  Champlain river divides into four distinct branches that connect to the main branch. It is characterized by the presence of several meanders, a number of which are abandoned along the river near its mouth. The geographical coordinates of the mouth of the river are: -72.28194 West, 46.44695 North.  The watershed of the river Champlain is divided into five sub-basins, sub-basins upstream of the four branches of the main section, from west to east, the sub-basins of rivers Champlain (upstream) of burned with bacon and fork, and the sub-basin of the downstream portion of the Champlain River which flows in the four branches. The slope varies from 5.0 m/km in the sub-basin of the "rivière Brulée" (Burned River) to 0.7 m/km in the sub-basin of the river downstream of the Champlain portion.

Landslides.

The banks of the Champlain River are composed of marine clays, a variety that is very unstable compared to other types of clay, favoring landslides when water accumulates in the clay soil.  History of landslides in Saint-Luc-de-Vincennes]:  A major landslide occurred on the night of November 9 to 10, 2016, on a lot of land belonging to Luc Normandin, in the Saint-Joseph-Ouest range, within the limits of Saint-Luc-de-Vincennes. The field started to move around 9.30 pm on November 9. The slip site is approximately one kilometer from the 1986 slip site, which was twice as large as the one in 2016.  The slip stopped at about ten meters from the house of Luc Normandin and its barn sheltering about sixty cattle. This natural disaster generated a large crater of the size of a baseball field, about 160 meters wide and a depth of between 2 and 10 meters, between farm buildings and the edge of the Champlain River.  Thousands of tons of clay and earth slipped into the river bed completely blocking the flow of water over several tens of meters. The water has risen to make its way again.  Two houses were evacuated and a 200-meter security perimeter was established around the crater.

Toponymy.

Samuel de Champlain gave its name to this river. It is reported for the first time on the map in 1613 by Samuel de Champlain, shifted back to his card in 1632. This name, Champlain, was then given to the lordship (1664), the catholic parish (1665), the provincial county (1829), the municipality (1845) and the Federal county (1867).  The toponym "Champlain River" was officialized in the registry of places name at the Commission de toponymie du Québec as of December 5, 1968.

History.

In 1863, Stanislas Drapeau Champlain wrote that "Champlain river has enough water power in order to activate flour mills and saws, and the large tannery of Mr. Richardson, living in Quebec".  About 1800, Mathew Bell built a mill having 32 saws. Burned in 1850, it was replaced by a saw mill counting 20 saws and a tannery belonging to L. Osborne Richardson. The tannery was moved to the Eastern Townships in 1875.

The Champlain River is 66.7 km long flowing on the north shore of St. Lawrence river. This river flows between Saint-Maurice River and the Batiscan River watershed, in Les Chenaux Regional County Municipality, in administrative region of Mauricie, in the province of Quebec, Canada.

La rivière Champlain est un cours d'eau de situé sur la rive nord du fleuve Saint-Laurent, dans la région administrative de la Mauricie, au Québec, au Canada. Cette rivière coule du nord au sud pour se jeter dans l'estuaire du Saint-Laurent à la hauteur de Champlain, entre le cours de la rivière Saint-Maurice et de la rivière Batiscan. Elle traverse sept municipalités.


History.

Zoo Atlanta was founded in 1889, when businessman George V. Gress purchased a bankrupt traveling circus and donated the animals to the city of Atlanta. City leaders opted to house the collection in Grant Park, which remains the zoo's present location. Original residents of the zoo included a black bear, a raccoon, a jaguar, a hyena, a gazelle, a Mexican hog, lionesses, monkeys, and camels. The zoo's collection expanded in the 1930s with the personal donation of a private menagerie owned by Asa G. Candler, Jr.  The 1950s and 1960s were decades of renovation and construction at the zoo, but by the early 1970s, many of its exhibits and facilities were outdated and showing signs of disrepair. In 1970, a small group of concerned citizens founded the Atlanta Zoological Society in hopes of raising funds and awareness for the institution.  Following a period of decline in the mid-1980s, the zoo was privatized in 1985 with the creation of a nonprofit organization, Atlanta Fulton-County Zoo Inc., and was renamed Zoo Atlanta that same year. A 20-year period of aggressive restoration followed, marked by several high-profile exhibit openings, including "The Ford African Rain Forest", in the late 1980s and early 1990s. A pair of giant pandas, Lun Lun and Yang Yang, made their debut at Zoo Atlanta in 1999.

Habitats.

The Ford African Rain Forest.

Twenty-one gorillas have been born at the zoo since the opening of "The Ford African Rain Forest" in 1988. Kali and Kazi, a rare set of twins, were born at Zoo Atlanta on October 31, 2005.  Zoo Atlanta also remains home to offspring of its best-known gorilla, Willie B. (ca. 1959-2000). The zoo is also home to six of Willie B.'s grandchildren: Macy B (2005) and Merry Leigh (2011) and Mijadala (2016), born to Kudzoo; Gunther (2006) and Anaka (2013), born to Sukari; Andi (2013), born to Lulu.  "The Living Treehouse" is an extension of "The Ford African Rain Forest" completed in 2004. The exhibit houses an aviary of African birds, as well as black-and-white ruffed lemurs and ring-tailed lemurs, with adjacent habitats for Angolan colobus monkeys, drills, Schmidt's guenons, and Wolf's guenons. In 2017, Zoo Atlanta introduced two crowned lemurs.

Boundless Budgies: A Parakeet Adventure.

Opened in April 2009, "Boundless Budgies" houses free-flying parakeets which guests are permitted to hand-feed. This exhibit closed permanently in November 2016 to allow for development of the upcoming African Savannah project.

Trader's Alley and Complex Carnivores.

Opened in 2010, "Trader's Alley: Wildlife's Fading Footprints" is focused on species impacted by the international wildlife trade. The exhibit introduced Malayan sun bears and raccoon dogs to the collection. Opened in 2011, an adjacent series of exhibits, "Complex Carnivores", introduced bush dogs, binturong, and fossa.

African Savanna.

Zoo Atlanta’s "African Savanna", opened in 1989 as "African Plains" and reopened and renamed in 2019, houses wildlife native to the grasslands and desert of Africa, including lions, African bush elephants, southern ground hornbills, kori bustards, meerkats, and warthogs. Another savanna landscape is home to giraffes, zebras, and ostrich. Also featured is a naked mole rat colony housed in its own building for easy viewing. A giraffe feeding experience opened in 2012. The former elephant habitat will become an exhibit for a new species of animal, the Southern white rhinoceros. The rhinos will come here for the first time this year.

Giant pandas.

Zoo Atlanta is one of four institutions in the U.S. that house giant pandas. Lun Lun (female) and Yang Yang (male) arrived in Atlanta as juveniles in 1999 and reside at the zoo on loan from China. The pair's first cub, male Mei Lan, was born on September 6, 2006. A second cub, male Xi Lan, was born August 30, 2008. Female Po was born November 3, 2010. Po's name was announced by actor Jack Black in 2011; Po was named after Black's character in the DreamWorks films "Kung Fu Panda". A fourth and a fifth cub, both female, born July 15, 2013, were the first twin pandas to be born in the U.S. since 1987. Their names were announced on ABC's "Good Morning America" on October 23, 2013; 100 days after their birth, which is a Chinese tradition. The names are Mei Lun and Mei Huan. As of October 2015, Mei Lan, Xi Lan, Po, Mei Lun, and Mei Huan reside at the Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding in China.  A sixth and seventh cub, both female, were born September 3, 2016. Their names were announced on their 100th day of life: Ya Lun and Xi Lun. Like their older siblings, the twins will return to China once they are fully grown and weaned, likely between 3–5 years of age.

Asian Forest.

The "Asian Forest" is set in the forests of Asia and houses giant otters, sun bears, Komodo dragons, Sumatran tigers, giant pandas, tanukis, and red pandas, as well as Bornean orangutans and Sumatran orangutans.  The "Orangutan Learning Tree Project", launched at Zoo Atlanta in 2007, utilizes in-habitat touch screen technology to allow orangutans to engage in computer puzzles, games and problem-solving exercises while guests observe their activities on a linked monitor.

The World of Reptiles.

The Zoo Atlanta herpetology department manages more than 450 reptiles and amphibians representing over 100 species, though because of the size of the "World of Reptiles" exhibit building, not all of these animals can currently be displayed. The zoo is the only zoological institution to successfully breed Arakan forest turtles, a critically endangered species harvested nearly to extinction for food and traditional medicine. A rare Guatemalan beaded lizard hatched at Zoo Atlanta in March 2012.  The "World of Reptiles" was the zoo's oldest public building used for public exhibits, designed in the late 1950s and opened to the public in 1962. The building was home to hundreds of snakes, lizards, turtles, tortoises, frogs, toads, and salamanders from around the world. Exhibited species included black mamba, king cobra, indian star tortoise, Spider tortoise, Alligator snapping turtle, American alligator, and reticulated python. Georgia native species include eastern diamond-backed rattlesnake, timber rattlesnake, copperhead, water moccasin, Carolina pygmy rattlesnake, bog turtle, and gopher tortoise.  In 2009, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums noted that "the facility is a major concern primarily because of age." The "World of Reptiles" once housed critically endangered gharial (a species of crocodile from India), but because the aging facility could not maintain adequate heat, they were sent to other zoos.  Construction began in 2013 on "Scaly Slimy Spectacular: The Amphibian and Reptile Experience", replaced the World of Reptiles. The exhibit opened in 2015.

Outback Station Children’s Zoo.

Zoo Atlanta's "Outback Station" houses Australian wildlife, including red kangaroos, Major Mitchell's cockatoos, kookaburra and a double-watted cassowary. The petting zoo is home to Saanen goats, Oberhasli goats, Boer goats, Southdown babydoll sheep, Gulf Coast sheep, Nigerian dwarf goats, and two kunekune pigs.

Conservation.

Zoo Atlanta is a participant in the AZA Species Survival Plan for the following programs:  Zoo Atlanta also participates in several international conservation initiatives, among them the Asian Turtle Crisis and Global Amphibian Decline. Staff members from Zoo Atlanta and the Atlanta Botanical Garden have established captive assurance colonies of Panamanian frogs threatened by the spread of chytrid fungus. (Chytrid is the cause of the infectious amphibian disease chytridiomycosis.)

Leadership.

Dr. Terry Maple is Zoo Director Emeritus of Zoo Atlanta. In 1985, he assumed management responsibility for zoo operations of the Atlanta-Fulton County Zoo, Inc, which was privatized and rebranded as Zoo Atlanta.

Zoo Atlanta (sometimes referred as Atlanta Zoo) is an Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) accredited zoological park in Atlanta, Georgia. The current President and CEO of Zoo Atlanta is Raymond B. King.

Le Zoo d'Atlanta se situe en Géorgie, aux États-Unis. Fondé en 1889,. Il présente près de animaux de 250 espèces.


History.

Maté was first consumed by the indigenous Guaraní and also spread by the Tupí people who lived in that part of southern Brazil and northeast Argentina, including some areas that were Paraguayan territory before the Paraguayan War. Therefore, the scientific name of the yerba-maté is "Ilex paraguariensis". The consumption of yerba-mate became widespread with the European colonization in the Spanish colony of Paraguay in the late 16th century, among both Spanish settlers and indigenous Guaraní, who consumed it before the Spanish arrival. Maté consumption spread in the 17th century to the Río de la Plata and from there to Peru and Chile. This widespread consumption turned it into Paraguay's main commodity above other wares such as tobacco, cotton and beef. Aboriginal labour was used to harvest wild stands. In the mid-17th century, Jesuits managed to domesticate the plant and establish plantations in their Indian reductions in the Argentine province of Misiones, sparking severe competition with the Paraguayan harvesters of wild strands. After their expulsion in the 1770s, the Jesuit missions — along with the yerba-maté plantations — fell into ruins. The industry continued to be of prime importance for the Paraguayan economy after independence, but development in benefit of the Paraguayan state halted after the Paraguayan War (1864–1870) that devastated the country both economically and demographically.  Brazil then became the largest producer of mate. In Brazilian and Argentine projects in late 19th and early 20th centuries, the plant was domesticated once again, opening the way for plantation systems. When Brazilian entrepreneurs turned their attention to coffee in the 1930s, Argentina, which had long been the prime consumer, took over as the largest producer, resurrecting the economy of Misiones Province, where the Jesuits had once had most of their plantations. For years, the status of largest producer shifted between Brazil and Argentina.  Today, Argentina is the largest producer with 56–62%, followed by Brazil, 34–36%, and Paraguay, 5%. Uruguay is the largest consumer per capita, consuming around 19 liters per year.

Name.

The English word comes from the French "maté" and the American Spanish "mate", which means both maté and the vessel for drinking it, from the Quechua word "mati" for the vessel.  Both the spellings "maté" and "mate" are used in English. The acute accent indicates that the word is pronounced with two syllables, like café (both "maté" and "café" are stressed on the first syllable in the UK), rather than like the one-syllable English word "mate". An acute accent is not used in the Spanish spelling, because the first syllable is stressed and Spanish does not have silent letters. The Yerba Mate Association of the Americas points out that, in Spanish, "maté" with the stress on the second syllable means "I killed".  In Brazil, traditionally prepared maté is known as, although the word and the expression "" (bitter maté) are also used in Argentina and Uruguay. The Spanish means "rough", "brute", or "barbarian", but is most widely understood to mean "feral", and is used in almost all of Latin America for domesticated animals that have become wild. The word was then used by the people who colonized the region of the Río de la Plata to describe the natives' rough and sour drink, drunk with no other ingredient to soften the taste.

Culture.

Maté has a strong cultural significance both in terms of national identity and well as socially. Maté is the national drink of Argentina; Paraguay, where it is also consumed with either hot or ice cold water (see tereré); and Uruguay. Drinking maté is a common social practice in parts of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and eastern Bolivia. Throughout the Southern Cone, it is considered to be a tradition taken from the or, terms commonly used to describe the old residents of the South American,, or Patagonian grasslands, found principally in parts of Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, southeastern Bolivia, southern Chile and southern Brazil. Argentina has celebrated National Mate Day every 30 November since 2015.  Parque Histórico do Mate, funded by the state of Paraná (Brazil), is a park aimed to educate people on the sustainable harvesting methods needed to maintain the integrity and vitality of the oldest wild forests of maté in the world.  Maté is also consumed as an iced tea in various regions of Brazil, originating both from an industrialized form, produced by Matte Leão, and from artisanal producers. It is part of the beach culture in Rio de Janeiro, where it is widely sold by beach vendors; the hot infused variation being uncommon in the area.

Preparation.

The preparation of maté is a simple process, consisting of filling a container with yerba, pouring hot, but not boiling, water over the leaves, and drinking with a straw, the, which acts as a filter so as to draw only the liquid and not the yerba leaves. The method of preparing the maté infusion varies considerably from region to region, and which method yields the finest outcome is debated. However, nearly all methods have some common elements. The beverage is traditionally prepared in a gourd recipient, also called or in Spanish and in Portuguese, from which it is drunk. The gourd is nearly filled with, and hot water, typically at, never boiling, is added. The drink is so popular within countries that consume it, that several national electric kettle manufacturers just refer to the range 70 to 85 °C on its thermostat as "maté" temperature.  The most common preparation involves a careful arrangement of the within the gourd before adding hot water. In this method, the gourd is first filled one-half to three-quarters of the way with. Too much will result in a "short" maté; conversely, too little results in a "long" maté, both being considered undesirable. After that, any additional herbs (, in Portuguese ) may be added for either health or flavor benefits, a practice most common in Paraguay, where people acquire herbs from a local (herbalist) and use the maté as a base for their herbal infusions. When the gourd is adequately filled, the preparer typically grasps it with the full hand, covering and roughly sealing the opening with the palm. Then the maté is turned upside-down, and shaken vigorously, but briefly and with gradually decreasing force, in this inverted position. This causes the finest, most powdery particles of the to settle toward the preparer's palm and the top of the maté.  Once the has settled, the maté is carefully brought to a near-sideways angle, with the opening tilted just slightly upward of the base. The maté is then shaken very gently with a side-to-side motion. This further settles the inside the gourd so that the finest particles move toward the opening and the is layered along one side. The largest stems and other bits create a partition between the empty space on one side of the gourd and the lopsided pile of on the other.  After arranging the along one side of the gourd, the maté is carefully tilted back onto its base, minimizing further disturbances of the as it is re-oriented to allow consumption. Some settling is normal, but is not desirable. The angled mound of should remain, with its powdery peak still flat and mostly level with the top of the gourd. A layer of stems along its slope will slide downward and accumulate in the space opposite the (though at least a portion should remain in place).  All of this careful settling of the ensures that each sip contains as little particulate matter as possible, creating a smooth-running maté. The finest particles will then be as distant as possible from the filtering end of the straw. With each draw, the smaller particles would inevitably move toward the straw, but the larger particles and stems filter much of this out. A sloped arrangement provides consistent concentration and flavor with each filling of the maté.  Now the maté is ready to receive the straw. Wetting the by gently pouring cool water into the empty space within the gourd until the water nearly reaches the top, and then allowing it to be absorbed into the before adding the straw, allows the preparer to carefully shape and "pack" the <nowiki>'</nowiki>s slope with the straw's filtering end, which makes the overall form of the within the gourd more resilient and solid. Dry, though, allows a cleaner and easier insertion of the straw, but care must be taken so as not to overly disturb the arrangement of the. Such a decision is entirely a personal or cultural preference. The straw is inserted with one's thumb on the upper end of the gourd, at an angle roughly perpendicular to the slope of the, so that its filtering end travels into the deepest part of the and comes to rest near or against the opposite wall of the gourd. It is important for the thumb to form a seal over the end of the straw when it is being inserted, or the negative pressure produced will draw in undesirable particulates.

Brewing.

After the above process, the may be brewed. If the straw is inserted into dry, the maté must first be filled once with cool water as above, then be allowed to absorb it completely (which generally takes no more than two or three minutes). Treating the with cool water before the addition of hot water is essential, as it protects the from being scalded and from the chemical breakdown of some of its desirable nutrients. Hot water may then be added by carefully pouring it, as with the cool water before, into the cavity opposite the, until it reaches almost to the top of the gourd when the is fully saturated. Care should be taken to maintain the dryness of the swollen top of the beside the edge of the gourd's opening.  Once the hot water has been added, the maté is ready for drinking, and it may be refilled many times before becoming (washed out) and losing its flavor. When this occurs, the mound of can be pushed from one side of the gourd to the other, allowing water to be added along its opposite side; this revives the maté for additional refillings and is called "" (reforming the maté).

Etiquette.

Maté is traditionally drunk in a particular social setting, such as family gatherings or with friends. The same gourd () and straw () are used by everyone drinking. One person (known in Portuguese as the,, or, and in Spanish as the ) assumes the task of server. Typically, the fills the gourd and drinks the maté completely to ensure that it is free of particulate matter and of good quality. In some places, passing the first brew of maté to another drinker is considered bad manners, as it may be too cold or too strong; for this reason, the first brew is often called ( of the fool). The possibly drinks the second filling, as well, if he or she deems it too cold or bitter. The subsequently refills the gourd and passes it to the drinker to his or her right, who likewise drinks it all (there is not much; the maté is full of yerba, with room for little water), and returns it without thanking the server; a final (thank you) implies that the drinker has had enough. The only exception to this order is if a new guest joins the group; in this case the new arrival receives the next maté, and then the cebador resumes the order of serving, and the new arrival will receive his or hers depending on his placement in the group. When no more tea remains, the straw makes a loud sucking noise, which is not considered rude. The ritual proceeds around the circle in this way until the maté becomes (washed out), typically after the gourd has been filled about 10 times or more depending on the used (well-aged is typically more potent, so provides a greater number of refills) and the ability of the. When one has had one's fill of maté, he or she politely thanks the, passing the maté back at the same time. It is impolite for anyone but the cebador to move the bombilla or otherwise mess with the maté; the cebador may take offense to this and not offer it to the offender again. When someone takes too long, others in the round ( in Portuguese, in Spanish) will likely politely warn him or her by saying "bring the talking gourd" (); an Argentine equivalent, especially among young people, being ("it's not a microphone"), an allusion to the drinkers holding the maté for too long, as if they were using it as a microphone to deliver a lecture.  Some drinkers like to add sugar or honey, creating or (sweet maté), instead of sugarless (bitter maté), a practice said to be more common in Brazil outside its southernmost state. Some people also like to add lemon or orange peel, some herbs or even coffee, but these are mostly rejected by people who like to stick to the "original" maté. Traditionally, natural gourds are used, though wood vessels, bamboo tubes, and gourd-shaped, made of ceramic or metal (stainless steel or even silver) are also common. The gourd is traditionally made out of the porongo or cabaça fruit shell. Gourds are commonly decorated with silver, sporting decorative or heraldic designs with floral motifs. Some gourd mates with elaborated silver ornaments and silver bombillas are true pieces of jewelry and very sought after by collectors.

Health effects.

A review of a number of population studies in 2009 revealed evidence of an association between esophageal cancer and hot maté drinking, but these population studies may not be conclusive. Some research has suggested the correlation with esophageal cancer results almost entirely from damage caused to the esophagus by burns from the hot liquid as opposed to damage caused by chemicals in the maté; similar links to cancer have been found for tea and other beverages generally consumed at high temperatures. While drinking maté at very high temperatures is considered as "probably carcinogenic to humans" on the IARC Group 2A carcinogens list, maté itself is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.  Researchers from NCI (National Cancer Institutes) and Brazil found both cold- and hot-water extractions of popular commercial yerba-maté products contained high levels (8.03 to 53.3 ng/g dry leaves) of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (i.e. benzo[a]pyrene). However, these potential carcinogenic compounds originated from the commercial drying process of the maté leaves, which involves smoke from the burning of wood, much like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons found in wood-smoked meat. "Unsmoked" or steamed varieties of yerba-maté tea are also available.

Other properties.

Maté is a rich source of caffeine, although in some regions it was believed to contain a different substance called "mateína" (matein or mateine). It also contains B and C vitamins, polyphenol antioxidants, and has a slightly higher antioxidant capacity than green tea. On average, maté tea contains 92 mg of the antioxidant chlorogenic acid per gram of dry leaves, and no catechins, giving it a significantly different antioxidant profile from other teas.

Legendary origins.

The Guaraní people started drinking maté in a region that currently includes Paraguay, southern Brazil, southeastern Bolivia, northeastern Argentina and Uruguay. The Guaraní have a legend that says the Goddesses of the Moon and the Cloud came to the Earth one day to visit it, but they instead found a (jaguar) that was going to attack them. An old man saved them, and, in compensation, the goddesses gave the old man a new kind of plant, from which he could prepare a "drink of friendship".

Variants.

Another drink can be prepared with specially cut dry leaves, very cold water, and, optionally, lemon or another fruit juice, called. It is very common in Paraguay, northeastern Argentina and in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. After pouring the water, it is considered proper to "wait while the saint has a sip" before the first person takes a drink. In southern Brazil, is sometimes used as a derogatory term for a not hot enough.  In Uruguay and Brazil, the traditional gourd is usually big with a corresponding large hole. In Argentina (especially in the capital Buenos Aires), the gourd is small and has a small hole and people sometimes add sugar for flavor.  In Uruguay, people commonly walk around the streets toting a maté and a thermos with hot water. In some parts of Argentina, gas stations sponsored by producers provide free hot water to travelers, specifically for the purpose of drinking during the journey. Disposable maté sets with a plastic maté and straw and sets with a thermos flask and stacking containers for the yerba and sugar inside a fitted case are available.  In Argentina, (boiled maté), in Brazil, "chá mate", is made with a teabag or leaves and drunk from a cup or mug, with or without sugar and milk. Companies such as Cabrales from Mar del Plata and Establecimiento Las Marías produce teabags for export to Europe. Travel narratives, such as Maria Graham's "Journal of a Residence in Chile", show a long history of maté drinking in central Chile. Many rural Chileans drink maté, in particular in the southern regions, particularly Magallanes, Aysén and Chiloé.  In Peru, maté is widespread throughout the north and south, first being introduced to Lima in the 17th century. It is widespread in rural zones, and it is prepared with coca (plant) or in a sweetened tea form with small slices of lemon or orange.""  In some parts of Syria, Lebanon and other Eastern Mediterranean countries, drinking maté is common. The custom came from Syrians and Lebanese who moved to South America during the late 19th and early parts of the 20th century, adopted the tradition, and kept it after returning to Western Asia. Syria is the biggest importer of yerba-maté in the world, importing 15,000 tons a year. Mostly, the Druze communities in Syria and Lebanon maintain the culture and practice of maté.  According to a major retailer of maté in San Luis Obispo, California, by 2004, maté had grown to about 5% of the overall natural tea market in North America. Loose maté is commercially available in much of North America. Bottled maté is increasingly available in the United States. Canadian bottlers have introduced a cane sugar-sweetened, carbonated variety, similar to soda pop. One brand, Sol Mate, produces 10-ounce glass bottles available at Canadian and U.S. retailers, making use of the translingual pun (English'soul mate'; Spanish/Portuguese'sun mate') for the sake of marketing.  In some parts of the Southern Cone they prefer to drink bitter maté, especially in Paraguay, Uruguay, the south of Brazil, and parts of Argentina and Bolivia. This is referred to in Brazil and a large part of Argentina as – which also an archaic name for wild cattle, especially, to a horse that was very attached to a cowboy—which is understood as unsweetened maté. Many people are of the opinion that maté should be drunk in this form.  Unlike bitter maté, in every preparation of, or sweet maté, sugar is incorporated according to the taste of the drinker. This form of preparation is very widespread in various regions of Argentina, like in the Santiago del Estero province, Córdoba (Argentina), Cuyo, and the metropolitan region of Buenos Aires, among others. In Chile, this form of maté preparation is widespread in mostly rural zones. The spoonful of sugar or honey should fall on the edge of the cavity that the straw forms in the yerba, not all over the maté. One variation is to sweeten only the first maté preparation in order to cut the bitterness of the first sip, thus softening the rest. In Paraguay, a variant of "mate dulce" is prepared by first caramelizing refined sugar in a pot then adding milk. The mixture is heated and placed in a thermos and used in place of water. Often, chamomile (, in Spanish) and coconut are added to yerba in the gumpa.  In the sweet version artificial sweeteners are also often added. As an alternative sweetener, natural "ka’á he’é" ("Stevia rebaudiana") is preferred, which is an herb whose leaves are added in order to give a touch of sweetness. This is used principally in Paraguay.  The gourd in which bitter maté is drunk is not used to consume sweet maté due to the idea that the taste of the sugar would be detrimental to its later use to prepare and drink bitter maté, as it is said that it ruins the flavor of the maté.

Maté or mate (, ; spelled "mate" without the accent in both), also known as'() or'(), is a traditional South American caffeine-rich infused drink, that was consumed by the Guaraní and Tupí peoples. It is the National Beverage in Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay. It is also consumed in the Bolivian Chaco, Southern Chile, Southern Brazil, Syria—the largest importer in the world—and Lebanon, where it was brought from Argentina by immigrants.

Le maté ("mate" en espagnol et en portugais, également chimarrão dans le sud du Brésil) est une boisson traditionnelle sud-américaine issue de la culture des Amérindiens Guaranis, préparée en infusant des feuilles de yerba mate, une espèce amazonienne proche du houx. Le maté est un stimulant, améliorant la réactivité et les capacités de concentration, et sa consommation à long terme apporte plusieurs effets bénéfiques sur la santé.


History.

The original Brooker Avenue was constructed in 1954 as a 2 lane road from the end of Liverpool Street to Elwick Road. In 1965, the Hobart Area Transportation Study was released and entailed large development plans for the Brooker Highway. By 1968 the road had been duplicated and works reached Berriedale. In 1977 the highway was further extended, taking the road to the Claremont Link Road. By 1983 the highway that stands today was complete through to Granton and the Bridgewater bridge. The Brooker Highway was built as a replacement to the original Midland Highway route between Hobart city and Granton, which passed along Elizabeth Street, New Town Road and Main Road, through the built up areas of New Town, Moonah, Glenorchy, Rosetta, Montrose, Claremont and Berriedale. This was the first major highway construction in the Hobart City region, and was named the Brooker Highway, after the Minister for Transport at the time of the conception of the project, Edward Brooker. Between Davey Street and Stoke Street it's Brooker "Avenue", north from Stoke Street it's Brooker "Highway".

Lighting.

In April 2007, the Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources announced plans to replace the sub-standard rusted light poles between Risdon Road and Clearys Gates Road. These are over 40 years old and were the first lights on the Highway, which sparked some concern from the Hobart City Council. They argue that the light poles are in good condition and are a significant feature of the Brooker Highway entrance to Hobart. While the Hobart City Council supports the replacement, they have written to Infrastructure Minister Jim Cox asking him to consider retaining the ornate arms on modern pole bases.

2010 Emergency Landing Incident.

On 4 April 2010 18-year-old pilot Patrick Humphries made world headlines by using the normally busy highway as an emergency landing strip after running out of fuel. Humphries was unhurt from the accident and no vehicles were involved in the incident.

2016-17 Elwick Rd/Goodwood Rd and Howard Rd/Renfrew Cir intersection upgrades.

Before 2016, Elwick Road and Goodwood Road formed two separate t-junctions on opposite sides of the Brooker Hwy offset by around 100m. The upgrade undertaken between January 2016 and May 2017 aligned Elwick Road with Goodwood Road so that one set of traffic lights could be removed. Extra lanes were also added.  At the same time the adjacent Brooker Highway intersection, Howard Road / Renfrew Circuit was also converted from a five-exit two-lane roundabout to a traffic-lights controlled intersection. The fifth exit from the former Brooker Highway roundabout, Timsbury Road, is now accessed from Howard Rd. The contract for the works, awarded to Hazell Bros was worth $32 million.

Future.

In February 2011, the Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources revealed intentions to within 3 years "Finalise design options for Domain Highway intersection and increased lane capacity between Domain Highway and Risdon Road". This intention was reaffirmed in an October 2017 submission by the Tasmanian Government to Infrastructure Australia: "Brooker Highway - Risdon Road to Domain Highway - no cost estimate, concept designs to be prepared."  The Department of State Growth released a report titled Hobart Congestion Traffic Analysis 2016 prepared by traffic engineer Keith Midson. Under long-term solutions, the report considered the Liverpool St intersection with the Brooker Hwy, also known as the 'railway roundabout'. The report stated "The railway roundabout is a major cause of congestion... A possible solution is the grade separation of the roundabout."  Recently the government came under pressure from the community to improve pedestrian access over the highway at Goodwood and eliminate the stairs primarily for the benefit of the elderly and handicapped.

Route description.

The highway starts in the Hobart CBD at the junction with Eastern Outlet (A3, Tasman Highway), Davey Street (A6) and Macquarie Street (A6). The Tasman Highway heads east over the Tasman Bridge, past the Airport and eventually leads to the east coast of the state, while Davey Street leads towards the Southern Outlet (A6), which in turn heads south towards Kingston and Huonville (Davey and Macquarie are one-way streets - Davey Street flows south-west, and Macquarie Street flows north-east through the CBD).  Apart from the connection to Davey and Macquarie Streets, the major intersection with streets in the CBD is the three-lane roundabout at the north-east end of Liverpool Street. Because it was built in close proximity to the main railway station at the time, the roundabout was, and continues to be, called the "Railway Roundabout". The sunken garden in the centre of the roundabout functions as a pedestrian thoroughfare, with under-road tunnels connecting to the two sides of Liverpool Street, the original site of the railway station to the north-east, and to the Domain and the suburb of The Glebe to the north-west. The roundabout was originally just an un-controlled intersection, but with the gradual increase in traffic, particularly from the eastern shore of the Derwent, it was often in grid-lock at peak travel times. Traffic lights were introduced and alleviated the situation, and later construction of the direct links from the Tasman Bridge to Davey and Macquarie Streets further relieved the pressure. Other streets from the CBD provide access to the highway, but for much of its length to the city boundary at Risdon Road it is limited access road.  Through the City of Glenorchy the highway has large multi-lane intersections, at Risdon Road, Elwick Road and Derwent Park Road. The highway is in a reasonable condition for its age, and experiences congestion for only a few hours a day.  Trees line the middle nature strip for several kilometres, and fencing prevents pedestrian access at various points. The Highway makes its way past The Domain, Cornelian Bay Hockey Grounds, Rugby Park, The Royal Hobart Showgrounds, Tattersalls Park and the Derwent Entertainment Centre. At the northern end (at Granton) it connects to the Midland Highway (National Highway 1) (which heads north towards Launceston) and the Lyell Highway (A10) (which takes motorists towards the west coast).

The Brooker Highway (sometimes referred to as the Northern Outlet) is a highway in the State of Tasmania, Australia. As one of Hobart's 3 major radials, the highway connects traffic from the Hobart city centre with the northern suburbs and is the major road connection to the cities and towns of Northern Tasmania. With an AADT of 48,000, the highway is one of the busiest in Tasmania. The Brooker Highway has recently been declared part of the National Highway.

La Brooker Highway est une route longue de 17 km située en Tasmanie, en Australie. Située au nord de Hobart et de direction sensiblement sud-est-nord-ouest, elle est l'artère principale de la banlieue nord de Hobart et le principal axe routier reliant Hobart aux villes et villages du nord de la Tasmanie. Elle fait partie de la "National Highway" et est l'une des routes les plus fréquentées de Tasmanie.


Background.

The Northern Limit Line is considered by South Korea to be the maritime boundary between itself and North Korea, while North Korea disagrees and states that the boundary is farther south. North Korean fishing vessels often wander into the area and are frequently chased away by South Korean patrol vessels. Occasionally a North Korean patrol tries to enforce its southern claim by traversing the limit line. In 2002 one such incursion turned into a naval battle along the limit line.

Engagement.

On 29 June 2002, amid the festive atmosphere of the 2002 FIFA World Cup being held in South Korea, a North Korean patrol boat crossed the northern limit line and was warned to turn back. Shortly afterward, a second North Korean patrol craft crossed the line and it was also warned to retreat across the line. The North Korean boats began threatening and harassing the South Korean vessels following them.  After traveling south past the limit line, the North Korean vessels attacked the two South Korean patrol boats that had been monitoring them. At 10:25, the vessel that first crossed the line opened fire with its 85 mm gun and scored a direct hit on the wheelhouse of one of the South Korean craft causing several casualties.  The two squadrons then began a general engagement. The South Koreans using their 40 and 20 mm guns against the North Korean RPGs, 85 mm, and 35 mm guns. About ten minutes later, two more patrol boats and two corvettes reinforced the South Korean vessels and severely damaged one of the North Korean craft. Now heavily outnumbered and taking casualties, the North Korean vessels retreated back across the Limit Line at 10:59.

Aftermath.

Both the North Korean and South Korean flotillas took casualties from the action. Thirteen North Koreans were killed and twenty five wounded. The South Koreans suffered six fatalities, four during the battle, one 83 days later from wounds suffered during the battle, and one found dead at sea after the battle. The dead were Lt. Cmdr. Yoon Yeong-ha, Jo Cheon-hyung, Seo Hu-won, and Hwang Do-hyeon (during the battle), Park Dong-hyeok (days later), and Han Sang-guk (found at sea); Eighteen others were injured.  The damaged South Korean craft later sank while under tow, while the damaged North Korean vessel was able to limp its way back to port. Both sides laid blame on each other and South Korea demanded an apology from North Korea.  According to a North Korean defector's statement in 2012, the North Korean patrol boat crewmembers involved in the battle suffered extensive splinter injuries from the South Korean "Devastator" shells. The injured North Koreans were reportedly quarantined in a hospital in Pyongyang to hide the extent of the casualties suffered in the battle.  "PKM 357" is now a museum ship at Pyeongtaek Naval Base where it is placed near the destroyed corvette ROKS Cheonan, another museum ship.

The Second Battle of Yeonpyeong (Korean: 제2 연평해전, "Je I(2) Yeonpyeong Haejeon") was a confrontation at sea between North Korean and South Korean patrol boats along a disputed maritime boundary near Yeonpyeong Island in the Yellow Sea in 2002. This followed a similar confrontation in 1999. Two North Korean patrol boats crossed the contested border and engaged two South Korean Chamsuri-class patrol boats. The North Koreans withdrew before South Korean reinforcements arrived.

La seconde bataille de Yeonpyeong est une bataille navale livrée entre l'Armée populaire de Corée et la Marine de la République de Corée le, près de l'île de Yeonpyeong, en Corée du Sud. Elle résulte en une victoire sud-coréenne.