Etymology.

The words "sastrugi" and "zastrugi" are Russian-language plurals; the singular is "zastruga". The form "sastruga" started as the German-language transliteration of the Russian word заструга (plural: заструги).  A Latin-type analogical singular "sastrugus" is used in various writings on exploration of the South Pole, including Robert Falcon Scott's expedition's diaries and Ernest Shackleton's "The Heart of the Antarctic".

Formation mechanism.

Under the action of steady wind, free snow particles accumulate and drift like the sand grains in barchan dunes, and the resulting drifting snow shapes are also popularly referred to as "barchans". Inuit of Canada call them "kalutoqaniq". When winds slacken, the drifted formations consolidate via sublimation and recrystallization. Subsequent winds erode kalutoqaniq into the sculptured forms of sastrugi. Inuit call large sculpturings "kaioqlaq" and small ripples "tumarinyiq". Further erosion may turn "kaioqlaq" back into drifting "kalutoqaniq". An intermediate stage of erosion is "mapsuk", an overhanging shape. On the windward side of a ridge, the base erodes faster than the top, producing a shape like an anvil tip pointing upwind.

Sastrugi on sea ice.

Sastrugi are more likely to form on first-year sea ice than on multiyear ice. First-year ice is smoother than multiyear ice, which allows the wind to pass uniformly over the surface without topographic obstructions. Except during the melt season, snow is dry and light in climates cold enough for sea ice, allowing the snow to be easily blown and create sastrugi parallel to the wind direction. The locations of sastrugi are fixed by March in the northern hemisphere and may be linked to the formation of melt ponds. Melt ponds are more likely to form in the depressions between sastrugi on first-year ice.

Sastrugi, or zastrugi, are features formed by erosion of snow by wind. They are found in polar regions, and in snowy, wind-swept areas of temperate regions, such as frozen lakes or mountain ridges. Sastrugi are distinguished by upwind-facing points, resembling anvils, which move downwind as the surface erodes. These points usually lie along ridges perpendicular to the prevailing wind; they are steep on the windward side and sloping to the leeward side. Smaller irregularities of this type are known as ripples (small, ~10 mm high) or wind ridges.

Un sastruga ou zastruga est une ligne de crête tranchante et irrégulière sur une étendue de neige résultant de l'érosion causée par le vent, de la saltation de particules de neige et de leur dépôt dans les régions enneigées, polaires comme tempérées. Les arêtes des sastrugi sont orientées dans la direction des vents dominants, ce qui les distingue des dunes. Les Sastrugi vont de formations de neige délicates et fragiles à de longues crêtes parallèles.


History.

CiteSeer and CiteSeer.IST.

CiteSeer was created by researchers Lee Giles, Kurt Bollacker and Steve Lawrence in 1997 while they were at the NEC Research Institute (now NEC Labs), Princeton, New Jersey, USA. CiteSeer's goal was to actively crawl and harvest academic and scientific documents on the web and use autonomous citation indexing to permit querying by citation or by document, ranking them by citation impact. At one point, it was called ResearchIndex.  CiteSeer became public in 1998 and had many new features unavailable in academic search engines at that time. These included:  CiteSeer was granted a United States patent # 6289342, titled ""Autonomous citation indexing and literature browsing using citation context"", on September 11, 2001. The patent was filed on May 20, 1998, and has priority to January 5, 1998. A continuation patent (US Patent # 6738780) was filed on May 16, 2001 and granted on May 18, 2004.  After NEC, in 2004 it was hosted as CiteSeer.IST on the World Wide Web at the College of Information Sciences and Technology, The Pennsylvania State University, and had over 700,000 documents. For enhanced access, performance and research, similar versions of CiteSeer were supported at universities such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Zürich and the National University of Singapore. However, these versions of CiteSeer proved difficult to maintain and are no longer available. Because CiteSeer only indexes freely available papers on the web and does not have access to publisher metadata, it returns fewer citation counts than sites, such as Google Scholar, that have publisher metadata. CiteSeer had not been comprehensively updated since 2005 due to limitations in its architecture design. It had a representative sampling of research documents in computer and information science but was limited in coverage because it was limited to papers that are publicly available, usually at an author's homepage, or those submitted by an author. To overcome some of these limitations, a modular and open source architecture for CiteSeer was designed – CiteSeer.

CiteSeer.

CiteSeer replaced CiteSeer and all queries to CiteSeer were redirected. CiteSeer is a public search engine and digital library and repository for scientific and academic papers primarily with a focus on computer and information science. However, recently CiteSeer has been expanding into other scholarly domains such as economics, physics and others. Released in 2008, it was loosely based on the previous CiteSeer search engine and digital library and is built with a new open source infrastructure, SeerSuite, and new algorithms and their implementations. It was developed by researchers Dr. Isaac Councill and Dr. C. Lee Giles at the College of Information Sciences and Technology, Pennsylvania State University. It continues to support the goals outlined by CiteSeer to actively crawl and harvest academic and scientific documents on the public web and to use a citation inquiry by citations and ranking of documents by the impact of citations. Currently, Lee Giles, Prasenjit Mitra, Susan Gauch, Min-Yen Kan, Pradeep Teregowda, Juan Pablo Fernández Ramírez, Pucktada Treeratpituk, Jian Wu, Douglas Jordan, Steve Carman, Jack Carroll, Jim Jansen, and Shuyi Zheng are or have been actively involved in its development. Recently, a table search feature was introduced. It has been funded by the National Science Foundation, NASA, and Microsoft Research.  CiteSeer continues to be rated as one of the world's top repositories and was rated number 1 in July 2010. It currently has over 6 million documents with nearly 6 million unique authors and 120 million citations.  CiteSeer also shares its software, data, databases and metadata with other researchers, currently by Amazon S3 and by rsync. Its new modular open source architecture and software (available previously on SourceForge but now on GitHub) is built on Apache Solr and other Apache and open source tools which allows it to be a testbed for new algorithms in document harvesting, ranking, indexing, and information extraction.  CiteSeer caches some PDF files that it has scanned. As such, each page include a DMCA link which can be used to report copyright violations.

Current features.

Automated information extraction.

CiteSeer uses automated information extraction tools, usually built on machine learning methods such ParsCit, to extract scholarly document metadata such as title, authors, abstract, citations, etc. As such, there are sometime errors in authors and titles. Other academic search engines have similar errors.

Focused crawling.

CiteSeer crawls publicly available scholarly documents primarily from author webpages and other open resources, and does not have access to publisher metadata. As such citation counts in CiteSeer are usually less than those in Google Scholar and Microsoft Academic Search who have access to publisher metadata.

Usage.

CiteSeer has nearly 1 million users worldwide based on unique IP addresses and has millions of hits daily. Annual downloads of document PDFs was nearly 200 million for 2015.

Data.

CiteSeer data is regularly shared under a Creative Commons BY-NC-SA license with researchers worldwide and has been and is used in many experiments and competitions.  Thanks to its OAI-PMH endpoint, CiteSeerX is an open archive and its content is indexed like an institutional repository in academic search engines, for instance BASE and Unpaywall consumers.

Other SeerSuite-based search engines.

The CiteSeer model had been extended to cover academic documents in business with SmealSearch and in e-business with eBizSearch. However, these were not maintained by their sponsors. An older version of both of these could be once found at BizSeer.IST but is no longer in service.  Other Seer-like search and repository systems have been built for chemistry, ChemSeer and for archaeology, ArchSeer. Another had been built for robots.txt file search, BotSeer. All of these are built on the open source tool SeerSuite, which uses the open source indexer Lucene.

CiteSeer (originally called CiteSeer) is a public search engine and digital library for scientific and academic papers, primarily in the fields of computer and information science. CiteSeer is considered as a predecessor of academic search tools such as Google Scholar and Microsoft Academic Search. CiteSeer-like engines and archives usually only harvest documents from publicly available websites and do not crawl publisher websites. For this reason, authors whose documents are freely available are more likely to be represented in the index.

CiteSeer est un moteur de recherche et une librairie numérique pour les articles scientifiques et académiques avec une attention portée sur l'informatique. Il est faiblement basé sur le précédent CiteSeer moteur de recherche et la bibliothèque numérique est construite grâce au nouveau logiciel libre SeerSuite et aux nouveaux algorithmes et leur implémentation. Il est développé par les chercheurs Isaac Concill et Lee Giles au Penn State College of Information Sciences and Technology, de l'université d'État de Pennsylvanie. Il continue de poursuivre les buts recherchés par CiteSeer de rechercher activement et de réunir les documents scientifiques et utilise un index de citation qui permet de rechercher par citation et d'ordonner les documents par l'impact des citations. Actuellement, Pradeep Teregowda, Juan Pablo Fernández Ramírez et Shuyi Zheng participent activement à son développement.


Strict constructionism.

Bret Boyce described the origins of the term "originalist" as follows: The term "originalism" has been most commonly used since the middle 1980s and was apparently coined by Paul Brest in "The Misconceived Quest for the Original Understanding". It is often asserted that "originalism" is synonymous with "strict constructionism". Both theories are associated with textualist and formalist schools of thought, however there are pronounced differences between them. Scalia differentiated the two by pointing out that, unlike an originalist, a strict constructionist would not acknowledge that "he uses a cane" means "he walks with a cane" (because, strictly speaking, this is not what "he uses a cane" means). Scalia averred that he was "not a strict constructionist, and no-one ought to be"; he goes further, calling strict constructionism "a degraded form of textualism that brings the whole philosophy into disrepute".  Originalism is a theory of "interpretation", not "construction". However, this distinction between "interpretation" and "construction" is controversial and is rejected by many nonoriginalists as artificial. As Scalia said, "the Constitution, or any text, should be interpreted [n]either strictly [n]or sloppily; it should be interpreted reasonably"; once originalism has told a Judge what the provision of the Constitution means, they are bound by that meaning—however the business of Judging is not simply to know what the text means (interpretation), but to take the law's necessarily general provisions and apply them to the specifics of a given case or controversy (construction). In many cases, the meaning might be so specific that no discretion is permissible, but in many cases, it is still before the Judge to say what a reasonable interpretation might be. A judge could, therefore, be both an originalist "and" a strict constructionist—but he is not one by virtue of being the other.

Forms.

Originalism is actually a family of related views. As a movement, originalism can be traced to Robert Bork's "Neutral Principles and Some First Amendment Problems", published in the "Indiana Law Journal" in January 1971. However, it was not until the 1980s, when conservative jurists began to take seats on the Supreme Court, that the debate really began in earnest. "Old originalism" focused primarily on "intent", mostly by default. But that line was largely abandoned in the early 1990s; as "new originalism" emerged; most adherents subscribed to "original meaning" originalism, though there are some intentionalists within new originalism.

Original intent.

The "original form of originalism" is sometimes called intentionalism, or "original intent" originalism, and looked for the subjective intent of a law's enactors. One problem with this approach is identifying the relevant "lawmaker" whose intent is sought. For instance, the authors of the U.S. Constitution could be the particular Founding Fathers that drafted it, such as those on the Committee of Detail. Or, since the Constitution purports to originate from the People, one could look to the various state ratifying conventions. The intentionalist methodology involves studying the writings of its authors, or the records of the Philadelphia Convention, or debates in the state legislatures, for clues as to their intent.  There are two kinds of "intent analysis", reflecting two meanings of the word "intent". The first, a rule of common law construction during the Founding Era, is "functional" intent. The second is "motivational" intent. To understand the difference, one can use the metaphor of an architect who designs a Gothic church with flying buttresses. The functional intent of flying buttresses is to prevent the weight of the roof from spreading the walls and causing a collapse of the building, which can be inferred from examining the design as a whole. The motivational intent might be to create work for his brother-in-law who is a flying buttress subcontractor. Using original intent analysis of the first kind, we can discern that the language of Article III of the U.S. Constitution was to delegate to Congress the power to allocate original and appellate jurisdictions, and not to remove some jurisdiction, involving a constitutional question, from all courts. That would suggest that the decision was wrong in "Ex Parte McCardle".

Problems with intentionalism.

However, a number of problems are inherent in intentionalism, and "a fortiori" when that theory is applied to the Constitution. For example, most of the Founders did not leave detailed discussions of what their intent was in 1787, and while a few did, there is no reason to think that they should be dispositive of what the rest thought. Moreover, the discussions of the drafters may have been recorded; however they were not available to the ratifiers in each state. The theory of original intent was challenged in a string of law review articles in the 1980s. Specifically, original intent was seen as lacking good answers to three important questions: whether a diverse group such as the framers even "had" a single intent; if they "did", whether it could be determined from two centuries' distance; and whether the framers themselves would have supported original intent.  In response to this, a different strain of originalism, articulated by (among others) Antonin Scalia, Robert Bork, and Randy Barnett, came to the fore. This is dubbed original "meaning".

Original meaning.

Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes argued that interpreting what was meant by someone who wrote a law was not trying to "get into his mind" because the issue was "not what this man meant, but what those words would mean in the mouth of a normal speaker of English, using them in the circumstances in which they were used." This is the essential precept of modern originalism.  The most robust and widely cited form of originalism, "original meaning", emphasizes how the text would have been understood by a reasonable person in the historical period during which the constitution was proposed, ratified, and first implemented. For example, economist Thomas Sowell notes that phrases like "due process" and "freedom of the press" had a long established meaning in English law, even before they were put into the Constitution of the United States." Applying this form involves studying dictionaries and other writings of the time (for example, Blackstone's "Commentaries on the Laws of England"; see "Matters rendered moot by originalism", "infra") to establish what particular terms meant. (See "Methodology", infra).  Justice Scalia, one of the most forceful modern advocates for originalism, defined himself as belonging to the latter category:  Though there is evidence that the Founding Fathers intended the Constitution to be like a statute, this fact does not matter under Scalia's approach. Adherence to original meaning is explicitly divorced from the intent of the Founders; rather, the reasons for adhering to original meaning derive from other justifications, such as the argument that the understanding of the ratifiers (the people of the several States at the time of the adoption of the Constitution) should be controlling, as well as consequentialist arguments about original meaning's positive effect on rule of law.  Perhaps the clearest example illustrating the importance of the difference between original intent and original meaning is the Twenty-seventh Amendment. The Twenty-seventh Amendment was proposed as part of the Bill of Rights in 1791, but failed to be ratified by the required number of states for two centuries, eventually being ratified in 1992. An original intent inquiry might ask what the framers understood the amendment to mean when it was written, though some would argue that it was the intent of the latter-day ratifiers that is important. An original-meaning inquiry would ask what the plain, public meaning of the text was in 1992 when it was eventually ratified.

Semantic originalism.

"Semantic-originalism" is Ronald Dworkin's term for the theory that the original meaning of many statutes implies that those statutes prohibit certain acts widely considered not to be prohibited by the statutes at the time of their passages. This type of originalism contrasts with "expectations originalism", which adheres to how the statutes functioned at the times of their passages, without any expectation that they would function in any other particular ways.  Justice Antonin Scalia and other originalists often claim that the death penalty is not "cruel and unusual punishment" because at the time of the Eighth Amendment's passage, it was a punishment believed to be neither cruel nor unusual. Dworkin and the semantic-originalists assert, however, that if advances in moral philosophy (presuming that such advances are possible) reveal that the death penalty is in fact "cruel and unusual", then the original meaning of the Eighth Amendment implies that the death penalty is unconstitutional. All the same, Justice Scalia purported to follow semantic originalism, although he conceded that Dworkin does not believe Scalia was true to that calling.

Framework originalism.

Framework Originalism is an approach developed by Jack Balkin, a professor of law at Yale Law School. Framework Originalism, or Living Originalism, is a blend of primarily two constitutional interpretive methods: originalism and Living Constitution. Balkin holds that there is no inherent contradiction between these two, aforementioned, interpretive approaches—when properly understood. Framework Originalists view the Constitution as an "initial framework for governance that sets politics in motion." This "framework" must be built-out or filled-out over time, successive generations, by the various legislative and judicial branches. This process is achieved, primarily, through building political institutions, passing legislation, and creating precedents (both judicial and non-judicial). In effect, the process of building out the Constitution on top of the framework of the original meaning is living constitutionalism, the change of and progress of law over time to address particular (current) issues. The authority of the judiciary and of the political branches to engage in constitutional construction comes from their "joint responsiveness to public opinion" over long stretches of time, while operating within the basic framework of the original meaning. Balkin claims that through mechanisms of social influence, both judges and the political branches inevitably come to reflect and respond to changing social mores, norms, customs and (public) opinions.  According to Framework originalism, interpreters should adhere to the original meaning of the Constitution, but are not necessarily required to follow the original expected application (although they may use it to create doctrines and decide cases). For example, states should extend the equal protection of the laws to all peoples, in cases where it would not originally or normally be applied to. Contemporary interpreters are not bound by how people in 1868 would have applied these words and meanings to issues such as racial segregation or (sexual) discrimination, largely due to the fact the fourteenth amendment is concerned with such issues (as well as the fact that the fourteenth amendment was not proposed or ratified by the founders). When the Constitution uses or applies principles or standards, like "equal protection" or "unreasonable searches and seizures," further construction is usually required, by either the judiciary, the executive or legislative branch. Therefore, Balkin claims, (pure, unadulterated) originalism is not sufficient to decide a wide range of cases or controversies. Judges, he posits, will have to "engage in considerable constitutional construction as well as the elaboration and application of previous constructions." For example, originalism (in and of itself), is not sufficient enough to constrain judicial behavior. Constraint itself does not just come from doctrine or canons, it also comes from institutional, political, and cultural sources. These constraints include: multi-member or panel courts (where the balance of power lies with moderate judges); the screening of judges through the federal judicial appointment process; social and cultural influences on the judiciary (which keep judges attuned and attentive to popular opinions and the political will of the people); and prevailing professional legal culture and professional conceptions of the role of the judiciary (which produce social norms or mores). These constraints ensure that judges act as impartial arbiters of the law and to try to behave in a principled manner, as it applies to decision making.  Professor Nelson Lund of George Mason University Law School has criticized Balkin's living originalism theory. Specifically, Lund argues that living originalism could be used to read the 26th Amendment to the United States Constitution in such a way that it allows for an 18-year-old U.S. President (with the argument being that the 26th Amendment implicitly amends the 35-year age requirement for the U.S. Presidency as well as all other age requirements for federal offices to make all of them 18 years). Also, Lund argues that if living originalism could be used to justify a constitutional right to same-sex marriage, then "it would be child's play to construct the Fourteenth Amendment into a shield for polygamy, prostitution, incest (at least among adults), polyamorous marriages, and a variety of other unorthodox sexual relationships." Finally, Lund argues that "[w]hatever one's reasons for accepting Balkin's proposal to marry originalism and living constitutionalism, doing so leaves originalism itself in a condition akin to the legal death that married women experienced under the old rules of coverture."

Methodology.

In "The Original Meaning of the Recess Appointments Clause", Michael B. Rappaport described the methodology associated with the "original meaning" form of originalism as follows:

Discussion.

Philosophical underpinnings.

Originalism, in all its various forms, is predicated on a specific view of what the Constitution "is", a view articulated by Chief Justice John Marshall in "Marbury v. Madison":  Originalism assumes that "Marbury" is correct: the Constitution is the "operating charter" granted to government by the people, as per the preamble to the United States Constitution, and its written nature introduces a certain discipline into its interpretation. Originalism further assumes that the need for such a written charter was derived from the perception, on the part of the Framers, of the abuses of power under the (unwritten) British Constitution, under which the Constitution was essentially whatever Parliament decided it should be. In writing out a Constitution which explicitly granted the government certain authorities, and withheld from it others, and in which power was balanced between multiple agencies (the Presidency, two chambers of Congress and the Supreme Court at the national level, and State governments of the United States with similar branches), the intention of the Framers was to restrain government, originalists argue, and the value of such a document is nullified if that document's meaning is not fixed. As one author stated, "If the constitution can mean anything, then the constitution is reduced to meaninglessness."

Function of constitutional jurisprudence.

Dissenting in "Romer v. Evans", Scalia wrote: This statement summarizes the role for the court envisioned by originalists, that is, that the Court parses what the general law and constitution says of a particular case or controversy, and when questions arise as to the meaning of a given constitutional provision, that provision should be given the meaning it was understood to mean when ratified. Reviewing Steven D Smith's book "Law's Quandary", Scalia applied this formulation to some controversial topics routinely brought before the Court:  In "Marbury", Chief Justice John Marshall established that the Supreme Court could invalidate laws which violated the Constitution (that is, judicial review), which helped establish the Supreme Court as having its own distinct sphere of influence within the federal government. However, this power was itself balanced with the requirement that the Court could only invalidate legislation if it was "unconstitutional". Originalists argue that the modern court no longer follows this requirement. They argue that—since "U.S. v. Darby", in which Justice Stone (writing for a unanimous Court) ruled that the Tenth Amendment had no legal meaning—the Court has increasingly taken to making rulings in which the Court has determined not what the Constitution "says", but rather, the Court has sought to determine what is "morally correct" at "this" point in the nation's history, in terms of "the evolving standards of decency" (and considering "the context of international jurisprudence"), and then justified that determination through a "creative reading" of the text. This latter approach is frequently termed "the Living constitution"; Scalia inveighed that "the worst thing about the living constitution is that it will destroy the constitution".

Matters rendered moot by originalism.

Originalists are sharply critical of the use of "the evolving standards of decency" (a term which first appeared in "Trop v. Dulles") and of reference to the opinions of courts in foreign countries (excepting treaties to which the United States is a signatory, per Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution) in Constitutional interpretation.  In an originalist interpretation, if the meaning of the Constitution is static, then any ex post facto information (such as the opinions of the American people, American judges, or the judiciaries of any foreign country) is inherently valueless for interpretation of the meaning of the Constitution, and should not form any part of constitutional jurisprudence. The Constitution is thus fixed and has procedures defining how it can be changed.  The exception to the use of foreign law is the English common law, which originalists regard as setting the philosophical stage for the US Constitution and the American common and civil law. Hence, an originalist might cite Blackstone's "Commentaries" to establish the meaning of the term "due process" as it would have been understood at the time of ratification.

Pros and cons.

Arguments for and against Originalism should be read in conjunction with alternative views and rebuttals, presented in footnotes.

In the context of United States law, originalism is a concept regarding the interpretation of the Constitution that asserts that all statements in the constitution must be interpreted based on the original understanding of the authors or the people at the time it was ratified. This concept views the Constitution as stable from the time of enactment, and that the meaning of its contents can be changed only by the steps set out in Article Five. This notion stands in contrast to the concept of the Living Constitution, which asserts that the Constitution should be interpreted based on the context of the current times, even if such interpretation is different from the original interpretations of the document.

L'originalisme est une théorie de l'interprétation juridique aux États-Unis, qui affirme que la Constitution américaine doit être interprétée en accord avec la signification qu'elle avait à l'époque de sa proclamation. Il s'agit d'une théorie de formalisme juridique, parfois corollaire du textualisme. Ce dernier affirme qu'un texte de loi doit être interprété en fonction de son sens évident et non en fonction de l'intention du législateur ou de quelque autre donnée.


Siege of Plevna.

The Pleven Panorama depicts the events of the Siege of Plevna, which consisted of four major battles over a five-month period (20 July–10 December 1877), focusing on the third battle. The siege was pivotal in the outcome in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, which eventually resulted in the liberation of Bulgaria as well as Serbia and Romania from 500 years of Ottoman control.  At the time, Plevna was under Turkish control as Field Marshal Osman Pasha had set up fortifications there following his defeat at the Nikopol on 16 July. Osman was successful at fending off the Russian attacks on them during the first two battles. In the third battle, which began on 31 August and culminated on 11 September 1877, Russian forces under the command of General Mikhail Skobelev took two Turkish redoubts and a Romanian division took a third, the Grivitsa redoubt. Osman's troops were able to recapture the two redoubts taken by the Russians, but they were unable to dislodge the Romanians from Grivitsa.  This battle was the bloodiest for the Russian forces, with roughly 20,000 losses, but was also the turning point in the Siege. By 24 October, Russian and Romanian forces had surrounded Plevna. Osman requested permission to retreat, but the Ottoman high command would not allow him to do so. On 9 December Osman and his troops made a brief sally, defeated after initial success and incurring losses of 5,000 men. Osman was wounded. The next day, Osman surrendered the city to Romanian colonel Mihail Cerchez.

Construction and unveiling.

Most of the historical landmarks in Pleven are related to the Russo-Turkish war, with around 200 monuments commemorating the bloodiest battles of the war. The Pleven Panorama was constructed in honor of the centennial of the surrender of Turkish forces to Russian and Romanian troops, ending the siege on Plevna. It was conceived and designed by N. Ovetchkin, an author from Moscow as a counterpart to the Borodin Panorama in Belgorod, Russia. The panorama is situated in Skobelev Park, named for the general who commanded the Russian forces and led them to victory over the Turks at Plevna, and the site upon which the deciding battle of the five-month siege on the city occurred.  Eleven Russian and two Bulgarian artists painted and constructed the panoramic painting which includes a 115×15-meter main canvas and 12-meter foreground. The goal of Ovetchkin and the artists who created the panorama was to create a feeling of empathy for the battle that was fought on the site as well as a feeling of authenticity of the events that occurred on 11 September 1877. The panorama opened to the public on 10 December 1977, 100 years to the day that Field Marshal Osman Pasha surrendered to Colonel Mihail Cerchez, ending the Pleven Epopee.

Composition.

The architectural unit is composed of four rooms: introductory, panoramic, diorame and finale. The six canvases of the introductory room discover the tragic destiny of the people, their dramatic fight and their compassion to the fellow Russian soldiers. The spectator is in the middle of the battlefield, surrounded by an attacking Russian regiment, smoking shells, a doctor and a nurse, the attack of the Turkish cavalry, burning fires in the city, and the Russian General Mikhail Skobelev conducting an attack against the Ottoman fortification.

Pleven Epopee 1877, more commonly known as Pleven Panorama, is a panorama located in Pleven, Bulgaria, that depicts the events of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877–78, specifically the five-month Siege of Plevna (Pleven Epopee) which made the city internationally famous and which contributed to the Liberation of Bulgaria after five centuries of Ottoman rule.

Le panorama de Pleven, ou "panorama de l'épopée de Plevna de 1877", est un musée situé à Pleven en Bulgarie retraçant le siège de la forteresse de Plevna (ancien nom de Pleven) qui eut lieu du au. Cette bataille, qui fut un épisode majeur de la guerre russo-turque de 1877-1878, ouvrit la voie à la libération de la Bulgarie du joug ottoman et à la défaite d'Osman Pacha par les Russes.


History.

The line was established on 1 January 1939, with an initial fleet of small Fiat 635F and 656F CGE trolleybuses. Responsibility for the management of the line was entrusted to SITA of Florence until 1959.  Classified as line 11, the system passed into the control of ATAM of Rimini by 1960.  Under ATAM's management, the Rimini–Miramare part of the line was numbered 10, which is now the number used to denote the Miramare–Fiera line, operated by diesel buses. However, the reversing loop in the overhead wires that allowed trolleybus services to terminate in Miramare was recently dismantled for the construction of a roundabout. At present, the only reversing loop on the system is at the Miramare Talassoterapico roundabout at Piazzale Giardini in Riccione.  The Miramare section also previously had unique rotating lights to indicate any malfunction on the line, but this feature has also been dismantled.  In the past, all substations serving the line (excluding the new Riccione Abissinia) were equipped with mercury vapor rectifiers, which were housed in buildings with a central chimney to assist with cooling. However, the substations are now all equipped with solid state low thermal output transformers.  In 1992, ATAM was renamed TRAM, and in 2001 its name was modified again, to "TRAM Servizi".  Until 2 November 1998, the Rimini terminus of line 11 was in the central Piazza Tre Martiri. On that date, following the conversion of the piazza into a pedestrian area, the terminus was moved to Piazzale San Girolamo, on Via Dante Alighieri. From 1 August 2001 the Riccione terminus, previously sited in Piazzale Giardini, was moved to the area of Riccione Terme, in Piazzale Marinai d'Italia, while the services limited to piazzale Curiel are shown as "11/".  In 2009, the trolleybus fleet was renewed: on 14 September that year, the Volvo B59 Mauri trolleybuses were taken out of service, as the USTIF had revoked their authorisations. From the following day, the trolleybus lines were temporarily operated by diesel fueled buses and articulated buses pending the completion of work to be performed on the Via Rodi underpass to allow the circulation of new Van Hool AG300T articulated trolleybuses, which entered service from June 2010. Five of these trolleybuses were purchased, with the first unit, delivered in June 2009, carrying out the line tests in the ensuing weeks.  Also beginning the same day, due to the inability of the new articulated buses to perform a U-turn in the narrow space of Piazzale San Girolamo, the terminus was moved to the nearby Piazzale Gramsci. However, the overhead wire was not extended, so the new articulated vehicles had to cover the portion of line separating the new terminal from the old one by using their auxiliary diesel engine. On 1 June 2011, the Via Aponia–Piazzale Gramsci route was closed; since that date the terminus has been at Via Dante.

Line description.

Especially in summer, the Rimini-Riccione trolleybus line plays an important role, connecting the Rimini town centre, including the Rimini railway station, with the city's southern coast and the city of Riccione. Also known as line 11, it is considered by Mobilità di Rimini as a "shoreline", with an urban section (at normal rate) between Rimini and Miramare and an inter-municipal section (with higher priced tickets) between Rimini and Riccione.  The critical point in the whole line is the railway underpass at the Rimini railway station. It has a tight bend and limited clearance, forcing the trolleybuses to flatten their trolley poles near their roofs, with the risk that the trolley poles will come off the wires.  In the section from Riccione Terme to Riccione Piazzale Curiel, the overhead wire is of a rigid type cable. From Piazzale Curiel onwards, after the reversing loop, the wire is a floating type, with Swiss-style articulated hangers to eliminate kickback movement. At Piazzale Curiel there is also an automated exchange with infrared remote control.  The line is supplied with current by the following substations: Centro (formerly an ATAM depot, now a car park), Bellariva, Riccione Alba and Riccione Abissinia.

Trolleybus fleet.

Retired trolleybuses.

The following trolleybuses previously used in Rimini have since been withdrawn from service:

Current fleet.

Rimini's trolleybus fleet presently consists of six Van Hool AG300T articulated vehicles (fleet numbers 36501-36506), the first of which entered service in June 2010.  (Note: this description was changed on June 18th, 2016. Actually I have seen busses No. 36502 - 06, so No. 501 still is not sure).

External links.

"This article is based upon a translation of the as at September 2011."

The Rimini trolleybus system (), also known as the Rimini–Riccione trolleybus line (), forms part of the public transport network of the city and "comune" of Rimini, in the region of Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy. In operation since 1939, the system links Rimini with the nearby seaside resort and "comune" of Riccione.

La ligne de trolleybus Filovia Rimini-Riccione est un service de transport intercommunal assuré par la société "TRAM Servizi" de Rimini, qui relie le chef-lieu de province Rimini avec la station thermale de Riccione, le long de la côte adriatique.


Early life.

The seventh Prince of San Severo was born at Torremaggiore into a noble family. His father was Antonio, Duke of Torremaggiore, and his mother was Cecilia Gaetani of Aragon. His mother died shortly after his birth. From the age of ten he was educated at the Jesuit College in Rome.

Career.

In 1730, at the age of 20, he returned to Naples. He became a friend of Charles Bourbon, who became king of Naples in 1734, for whom he invented a waterproof cape.  In 1744 he distinguished himself at the head of a regiment during the Battle of Velletri, in the war between the Habsburgs and the Bourbons. While in command of the military he built a cannon out of lightweight materials which had a longer range than the standard ones of the time, and wrote a military treatise on the employment of infantry ("Manuale di esercizi militari per la fanteria") for which he was praised by Frederick II of Prussia.  His real interests, however, were the studies of alchemy, mechanics and the sciences in general. Among his inventions were:

Publishing.

The Prince spoke several European languages, as well as Arabic and Hebrew. After returning to Naples he set up a printing press in the basement of his house where he printed both his own works and those of others, some of which he translated himself. As some of these were censored by the ecclesiastical authorities he also wrote anonymously. Some of his publications were clearly influenced by Freemasonry, and he communicated with fellow masons such as the Scot Andrew Michael Ramsay, whose "Voyages of Cyrus" he translated and published, and the English poet Alexander Pope, whose "Rape of the Lock" he translated and published (although, due to condemnations by the Jesuits, he had to deny these activities). He was head of the Neapolitan masonic lodge until he was excommunicated by the Church, making an enemy of the Neapolitan cardinal Giuseppe Spinelli. The excommunication was later revoked by Pope Benedict XIV, probably on account of the influence of the di Sangro family.  Whilst in Naples, he forged a friendship with Fortunato-Bartolommeo de Félice, 2nd Count di Panzutti, who had been appointed chair of experimental physics and mathematics at Naples University by Celestino Galiani and later set up the famous publishing press at Yverdon in 1762. Together the Prince and the Count translated the physicist John Arbuthnot's works from Latin.

Rumours.

Many legends grew up around his alchemical activities: that he could create blood out of nothing, that he could replicate the liquefaction of blood of San Gennaro, that he had people killed so that he could use their bones and skin for experiments. The Chapel of Sansevero was said to have been constructed on an old temple of Isis, and di Sangro was said to have been a Rosicrucian. To justify this, locals pointed to a massive Statue of the God of the Nile, located just around the corner from his home.  To add to the sense of dread, di Sangro's family home in Naples, the Palazzo Sansevero, was the scene of a brutal murder at the end of the 16th century, when the composer Carlo Gesualdo caught his wife and her lover "in flagrante delicto", and hacked them to death in their bed.

Later life.

The last years of his life were dedicated to decorating the Chapel of Sansevero with marble works from the greatest artists of the time, including Antonio Corradini, Francesco Queirolo, and Giuseppe Sanmartino (whose "Veiled Christ"'s detailed marble veil was thought by many to be created by di Sangro's alchemy) and preparing anatomical models. Two of the models, known as anatomical machines, are still on display in the Chapel, and have given rise to legends as to how they were constructed (even today the exact method is not known). Until recently many Neapolitans believed that the models were of his servant and a pregnant woman, into whose veins an artificial substance was injected under pressure, but the latest research has shown that the models are artificial.  He destroyed his own scientific archive before he died. After his death, his descendants, under threat of excommunication by the Church due to di Sangro's involvement with Freemasonry and alchemy, destroyed what was left of his writings, formulae, laboratory equipment and results of experiments.

Death.

Raimondo di Sangro died in Naples in 1771, his death being hastened by the continuous use of dangerous chemicals in his experiments and inventions. In 1794, the Swedish naturalist Carl Peter Thunberg named the plant genus "Sansevieria" after him.

Raimondo di Sangro, Prince of Sansevero (30 January 1710 – 22 March 1771) was an Italian nobleman, inventor, soldier, writer, scientist, alchemist and freemason best remembered for his reconstruction of the Chapel of Sansevero in Naples.

Raimondo di Sangro, prince de San Severo, né le à Torremaggiore (Royaume de Naples, aujourd'hui dans la province de Foggia, dans les Pouilles) et mort le à Naples, est un inventeur, anatomiste, militaire, écrivain et académicien italien. Il est également un occultiste versé dans l'alchimie et la franc-maçonnerie.


History.

During the Soviet period, RAF and UAZ were the only producers of vans and minibuses in Soviet Union. RAF vans and minibuses were used only by state enterprises, most often as ambulances and for public transit. Private persons were not allowed to own them, the only exception being for families with at least five children.  In 1949 the factory began producing van bodies on the site of the Riga auto repair factory No2 (commonly known as RARZ). In 1955, it was renamed the Riga Experimental Bus Factory (, ), and the products started to be abbreviated to RAF. It would become the main Soviet producer of minibuses.  RAF’s first product was the RAF-251, a 22-seat local bus, based on the GAZ-51 chassis (which RAF also built), with a wood and metal body. There was also a passenger- and freight version ("Kombi"), the 251T, with a payload of 14 passengers and cargo.  From 1958, the factory started to produce RAF-977 minibuses, based on GAZ-21 Volga engine (between the front seats, rather like the Dodge A100; the engine was accessible through an inside hatch), transmission, axles, and steering. It was planned to produce passenger ("route taxis" for airports, and for sporting teams), freight, mail, and ambulance versions of the vehicle, to replace the modified estates then in use. Drawing inspiration from the VW Type 2, it had a front-mounted water-cooled engine (based on the Volga's, with a lower compression ratio), and seated ten. It debuted in 1957, and ten were built for display at that year's Moscow Youth Festival, leading to a proposed name Festival. The first batch was produced in 1959, under the new RAF 977 name. It got and could reach, the majority of those being hand-built.  In 1965, RAF proposed two prototypes, with the hope of persuading "Minavtoprom" to finance a new factory: a conventional version, comparable to the Ford Transit (dubbed the RAF 962-I), or a forward control version, similar to the Renault Estafette (dubbed the 962-II). RAF management, in a rare move for a Soviet company, created two competing teams to individually design a new van. The conventional 962-I was selected, which seemed less likely to provide the money for an all-new facility. So RAF tried to persuade the selection committee to adopt the more radical 962-II, and did.  A one-tonne variant was based on a modernized 977D chassis. However, the factory size was not large enough to put this model into mass production, and therefore it was moved to ErAZ (Yerevan, Armenia).  Construction of a new factory in Jelgava (to build the new 962-II, now known as the RAF-2203 Latvia) was begun 25 July 1969, and finished in February 1976. It was designed to produce 17,000 vehicles per year. The factory produced several versions of the RAF-2203.  By the beginning of the 1990s, the RAF-2203 was completely outdated and the factory set about designing a new model. The original plan was to build a new RAF vehicle to be called the “Roksana”, designed with help from the British consultancy International Automotive Developments. The model was successfully displayed at several auto salons, but never got further than a prototype. The same thing happened to the front-wheel drive “Style” microbus.  After the collapse of the USSR, the new borders broke the supply chains and production fell drastically. An investment proposal came from the Russian GAZ company but it was rejected by the Latvian government which considered Russian capital a threat to Latvian independence. Although some Western and East Asian investors also showed their interest in RAF, all of them considered this investment too risky as the local market was too small to support large production and the Russian market was virtually closed due to the complicated political relationship of Russia and Latvia.  In 1997, the last batch of 13-seat RAF-22039s was released. The last automobile produced by the dying giant was the RAF-3311 — a hearse.  In 1998, RAF went bankrupt. The only part of the company that survived was RAF-Avia, a charter airline set up using the four airplanes owned by the plant. The manufacturing site, complete with machinery, is owned by JSC Balitva. They considered selling it to a western auto maker, but this proved unrealistic. As of 2002, the assembly shop was still in order and all the design documents existed, so production could be started again if there should be a need. ErAZ expressed interest, but probably only for the designs.  Rumors came out in 2018 of RAF being revived as "Rigas Autobusu Fabrika, RAF" was registered in a Latvian company data base. It is believed they will show of their first new model in 2019 and start production in 2020. It was also believed that RAF will now focus on electric powered vehicles like vans and trolleybuses.

The Riga Autobus Factory (RAF; ) was a factory in Jelgava, Latvia, making vans and minibuses under the brand name Latvija.

Rīgas Autobusu Fabrika ou abrégé en RAF (en français : "Usine d'autobus de Riga") est une entreprise domiciliée en Lettonie.


Biography.

Sadi-Lecointe was born on 11 July 1891 at Saint-Germain-sur-Bresle. He learned to fly at the Zenith school at Issy-les-Moulineaux in 1910 and was awarded French Aero Club license No. 431 on 3 May 1911. Before formally qualifying, he had taken Georges Clemenceau for a short flight.  During the First World War he saw active service with Escadrille BL.10 and later, flying Nieuport scouts, with Escadrille MS.48. He became a flying instructor in 1916 and in September 1917 he became a test pilot with Bleriot-SPAD, working on the development of the SPAD XIII.  After the war he became a test pilot for Nieuport-Delage, flying their aircraft in a number of races and also using them to set seven speed and three altitude records. He was the winner of the 1920 Gordon Bennett race, securing permanent possession of the trophy for the "Aero Club de France" and was to fly the French entry for the 1921 Schneider Trophy at Venice, but had to withdraw after an accident during practice.  Between 1925 and 1927 he returned to military service as a volunteer, taking part in the Rif War in Morocco, afterwards returning to his job as chief test pilot with Nieuport Delage.  In 1936 he was appointed Inspector General of Aviation by the French Air Ministry. Mobilised at the outbreak of the Second World War, he became the Inspector of Flying Schools. His political sympathies did not allow him to serve under the Vichy government after the fall of France in 1940, and instead he was active in the French Resistance. On 21 March 1944 he was arrested by the Gestapo and held in Fresnes prison. Released after two months, he died on 15 July 1944 as a result of being tortured while in prison.

Records.

Speed Altitude  There is a street in the XIXieme arrondissement of Paris named in his honour.

Joseph Sadi-Lecointe (1891 – 1944) was a French aviator, best known for breaking a number of speed and altitude records in the 1920s.

Joseph Sadi-Lecointe, né le à Saint-Germain-sur-Bresle (Somme) et mort le à Paris, est un aviateur français qui a établi plusieurs records du monde d'altitude et de vitesse et un Résistant.


Description.

This robust species grows to a length of ; the sexes are similar in appearance. The upper parts are a uniform bluish-grey or brownish-grey, the breast is grey and the belly orangey-buff. The beak is broad with a pale tip, the ear coverts are pale and there is a short crest on the nape. The underwing coverts are boldly streaked in black and white but the tail is unbanded. The legs are pink.

Distribution and habitat.

The range is restricted to the island of New Guinea. Its habitat is lowland forest at altitudes up to about. Although usually found in primary humid forest, it seems to be able to make use of partially cleared areas.

Ecology.

The thick-billed ground pigeon usually forages alone, but is sometimes seen in pairs. It is generally shy, staying mainly on the ground and running away into the undergrowth when disturbed, but launching itself vigorously into the air with rapidly beating wings when it feels threatened. It flicks its tail downwards frequently as it walks. It feeds on fruits and seeds that have fallen to the ground. It picks up fruit with its beak and hammers it on the ground to split it, exposing and eating the seeds. Small items are swallowed whole. It sometimes visits the display arenas of the magnificent bird-of-paradise in order to forage for regurgitated seeds.  This bird roosts at night on low branches. Breeding seems to take place at any time of year, with nests having been found between February and October. The nest is a hollow in the ground, perhaps concealed between the buttress roots of a large tree. It may be unlined or may incorporate a few twigs or leaves, or may be rather more elaborate. A single white egg is laid and is incubated by both parents, the male routinely sitting during the daytime. The fledged chick stays in its parents' territory for about a month.

Status.

The thick-billed ground pigeon is generally uncommon; in one area it was estimated that one bird was present in every. Their population trend is considered to be stable. However, it has a very wide range and does not seem to be subject to any particular threats, so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being of "least concern".

The thick-billed ground pigeon ("Trugon terrestris"), also known as the jungle pigeon or the slaty/grey ground pigeon, is a species of bird in the family Columbidae. It is monotypic within the genus Trugon. Native to New Guinea, its natural habitat is moist tropical lowland forest.

Le Trugon terrestre ("Trugon terrestris") est une espèce d'oiseaux de la famille des Columbidae, l'unique représentante du genre Trugon. Cet oiseau est répandu en Nouvelle-Guinée.


Life.

Early life.

Margherita was born to Prince Ferdinand, Duke of Genoa and Princess Elisabeth of Saxony. Her father died in 1855, and her mother remarried morganatically to Major Nicholas Bernoud, Marchese di Rapallo.  She was educated by countess Clelia Monticelli di Casalrosso and her Austrian governess Rosa Arbesser. Reportedly, she was given a more advanced education than most princesses at the time, and displayed a great deal of intellectual curiosity. As a person, she was described as sensitive, proud and with a strong force of will without being hard, as well as having the ability to be charming when she chose to. As to her appearance, she was described as a tall, stately blonde, but she was not regarded as a beauty.  Initially, she was suggested to marry Prince Charles of Romania. In 1867, however, the president of the royal council, L.F. Menabrea, pressed the king to arrange a marriage between Margherita and her cousin, the heir to the Italian throne.

Crown princess.

Margherita signed the wedding contract with her first cousin, Umberto, Prince of Piedmont, on 21 April 1868 in the ballroom of the royal palace in Turin, followed the next day by one civilian and one religious wedding ceremony. After the wedding, the crown prince couple settled in Naples. On 11 November 1869, Margherita gave birth to Victor Emmanuel, Prince of Naples, later Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, in Capodimonte in Naples.  The personal relationship between Margherita and Umberto was not a success in regards to personal feelings; before their wedding, Umberto was already involved in an affair with his long term lover, Eugenia Attendolo Bolognini, and two years after their wedding, the couple reportedly discontinued their marital relations. Their son was therefore to remain their only child. However, they never made their personal separation known to the public, and their relationship was in other aspects quite amiable: Margherita and Umberto worked together harmoniously as colleagues, Umberto even relying on her politically.  Margherita was raised with the idea of paternalistic monarchy and the ideal of enlightened despotism. Because of the lack of a queen, Margherita became the first lady of Italy immediately following her marriage, and she was given a lot of representational duties intended to make the new royal house of united Italy popular throughout the peninsula. She became a great asset in this role, with her ability to say and do the right things to effectively arouse public enthusiasm and feeling in her public appearances. During her representational tours through Italy, made to arouse popularity for the royal house and thereby the united nation of Italy, she was careful to wear local folk costumes and demonstrate enthusiasm for local customs, traditions and culture, a method which made her so popular that she eclipsed the popularity of her spouse.  In January 1871, after the final unification of Italy and the proclamation of Rome as the capital of Italy, the crown prince and crown princess settled in Rome. There, Margherita successfully continued her task by making her receptions at the royal court the center of Roman high society in her effort to subdue the opposition toward unification within the Roman aristocracy. She eventually succeeded in making her salon one of the most exclusive and famous in contemporary Europe.

Queen.

Margherita became Queen of Italy upon the succession of Umberto to the throne on 9 January 1878. In the critical situation that year, with the king and the pope, as well as an assassination attempt against the new king, Umberto reportedly asked Margherita for political advice.  The attempted assassination of the king by Giovanni Passannante in November 1878 reportedly made her work even more forcefully to strengthen the prestige of the crown and build loyalty to the institution by gathering followers and making connections. As when she was a crown princess, she was actively assisted in this networking and image building by her favorite courtiers, marchioness Paola Pes di Villamarina and marquis Emanuele Pes di Villamarina, who were appointed her "dama d’onore" (senior lady in waiting) and "cavaliere d’onore" (senior lord in waiting) respectively.  As queen, Margherita worked to protect the monarchy against republicans and socialists, and she gathered a circle of conservative intellectuals and artists known as the «Circolo della regina» (Circle of the Queen) in her famous literary salon known as «giovedì della regina» (Queen's Thursdays), where she benefited artists and writers. Among her circle of artists were the notoriously democratic and republican poet Giosuè Carducci, who famously wrote an ode to her when she became queen, and Marco Minghetti, who functioned somewhat as her guide in cultural circles, as well as her confidant. She founded cultural institutions, notably the Società del Quartetto, and the Casa di Dante.  Queen Margherita also fostered loyalty toward the monarchy by social and charitable work. She frequently visited and acted as the benefactor of hospitals, schools and institutions for children and the blind, founding the first library for the blind in Florence (1892). Her work was effective and already during the 1880s, she had become the center of a personal cult as a popular symbol of the Italian monarchy and celebrated by poets and authors, as well as by the press, as a symbol of moral reform.  King Umberto, by contrast, had love affairs with the so-called ""contessa fatale"" (Vincenza Publicola-Santacroce, contessa di Santa Fiora), besides duchess Litta, whom he reportedly also asked for political advice, which exposed the court to scandal. The queen, however, was close to her son and strengthened her relations to him even further after his wedding. Queen Margherita was also involved in state affairs: viewing democracy as a potential threat to the monarchy, she supported F. Crispi against parliament.  As a nationalist, she did not hesitate to support the First Italo-Ethiopian War in 1896, in contrast to Umberto, who was hesitant. As a central figure of the conservative forces, she supported the repressive actions toward the rioters in Milan in 1898, which lead to the Bava Beccaris massacre.  On 18 August 1893, in the company of various guides, porters, Alpini, politicians and aristocrats, Margherita climbed the Punta Gnifetti (or Signalkuppe), a peak of the Monte Rosa massif on the Swiss-Italian border, for the inauguration of the mountain hut named after her. At 4,554 metres, the "Capanna Regina Margherita" remains the highest hut in Europe. Margherita later accepted the position of Honorary President of the Ladies' Alpine Club.

Queen dowager.

On 29 July 1900, Umberto I, after the attempted murders by anarchists Giovanni Passannante and Pietro Acciarito, was killed by another anarchist, Gaetano Bresci. Margherita was met with an enormous amount of sympathy as the widow of an assassinated monarch, which created a veritable myth around her as the mourning widow. She was aware of this mythology and acted accordingly in this part to benefit the prestige of the monarchy.  As queen dowager, Margherita took a step back and allowed her daughter-in-law to take precedence, as this was a part of the monarchical system which was her ideal. However, this did not mean that she retired from public life, and she remained a dominant public figure, performing what she regarded as her dynastic duties by making official visits to hospitals and churches until her death.  She disliked the tolerance of democracy displayed by her son, the king, which she viewed as a form of socialistic monarchy, and worked to ensure the monarchical traditions as much as she could against democratic tendencies. Her son did not wish to allow her any influence in state affairs, but she remained involved in politics through her connections and remained a political figure. In contrast to most nationalists, however, Margherita opposed World War I. During the war, she made one of her residences into a hospital and engaged actively within the Red Cross.  After the end of World War I, Margherita feared a socialist revolution and the end of the monarchy. This, combined with her nationalism and social conservatism, led her to support Fascism under Benito Mussolini, for which she felt a personal regard, though she never explicitly expressed her support. In October 1922 the quadrumvirs (Emilio De Bono, Italo Balbo, Michele Bianchi and Cesare Maria de Vecchi) visited her at Bordighera to pay their respects prior to the March on Rome.

Legacy.

In 1879, the town of Margherita di Savoia, in Apulia, Italy, near Barletta, was named after her. In 1881, the mining town of Margherita in Assam, India, was named after her.  Also in 1881, a large glass-window was made of her by Studio Moretti Caselli in Perugia, which was then shown around Italy and Europe before returning.  According to legend, in 1889, the Margherita pizza, whose red tomatoes, green basil, and white cheese represent the Italian flag, was named after her.  In 1906, the Queen mother's nephew, Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi, made the first ascent of the highest summit of Mount Stanley (the third highest mountain in Africa) and named it Margherita Peak in her honour.  In 2011, some of the Queen's jewellery was auctioned at Christies.

Margherita of Savoy ("Margherita Maria Teresa Giovanna"; 20 November 1851 – 4 January 1926) was the Queen consort of the Kingdom of Italy by marriage to Umberto I.

Marguerite Thérèse Jeanne de Savoie-Gênes, princesse de Savoie (en italien Margherita Teresa Giovanna di Savoia-Genova, principessa di Savoia), (Turin, – Bordighera, ), fut la première reine d'Italie de la Maison de Savoie, par son mariage avec le roi Humbert.


Early life.

Born in Yamoussoukro, he started out playing barefoot street football at the age of 10, not owning a pair of boots until he was 15. He began his career with Ivorian minor league side FC Bibo.  In an interview with the Newcastle "Evening Chronicle", Tioté said he had nine brothers and sisters. Growing up in Abdijan, he gave up his studies at a young age, stating that, "Football has always been the biggest thing to me" and:

Club career.

Anderlecht.

In 2005, he was scouted by Belgian club Anderlecht and signed a three-year contract with the club. After spending months at the club's reserve, he made his debut for Anderlecht in a Belgian Cup match which they lost to Geel after Tioté missed his penalty. The following month, Tioté made his UEFA Champions League debut, where he made his first start in Matchday 6 Group Stage, in a 1–0 loss against Real Betis. It was not until 18 March 2006 that he made his league debut for the club, coming on as a late substitute, in a 4–0 win over Beveren. After making another league appearance, Tioté went on to make four appearances in all competitions in the 2005–06 season. The following season saw Tioté make three appearances in all competitions, due to spending the most of the season with injuries.  In the 2007–08 season, he played on loan for Roda JC on a season-long loan deal, where he played alongside his countryman Sekou Cissé. After making his first start on his Roda JC debut, in a 5–3 win over VVV-Venlo on 2 September 2007, he scored his first goal for the club, in a 3–1 loss against Feyenoord. Since making an impact at Roda JC, he became the club's fan favourite there. It wasn't until 27 December 2007 when he scored his second Roda JC goal, in a 1–0 win over Heerenveen. On 4 April 2008, however, Tioté was sent-off in the 33rd minutes, in a 2–0 loss against NEC, which turns out to be his last appearance. After serving two match suspension for the rest of the season, he went on to make thirty appearance and scoring two times in all competitions.

Twente.

At the end of the season, Roda JC expressed interest in signing Tioté, along with Cercle Brugge. Eventually, on 12 June 2008, Tioté signed for Dutch Eredivisie side Twente for a fee reported to be around €750,000, signing a four-year contract, with an option for another year. Upon joining the club, Tioté said he doubted of having first team football at Anderlecht should he have stayed.  Tioté made his competitive debut for the club on 13 August 2008, in a UEFA Champions League qualification round, in a 2–0 loss against Arsenal. Weeks later, on 30 August 2008, he made his league debut, making his first start, in a 1–1 draw against Roda JC in the opening game of the season. However, in a match against Feyenoord on 18 April 2009, he was sent-off after a second bookable offence, which saw Twente lose 1–0. After returning to the first team from suspension, Tioté played the whole game in the final of KNVB Cup against Heerenveen, but lost out in the penalty-shootout after the game played 120 minutes, drawing 2–2. Despite this, Tioté established himself in the first team in his first season, as he made forty-one appearances in all competitions.  Ahead of his second season at the club, Tioté was linked a move away from Twente, with French clubs expressing interest in signing him. After staying at the club throughout the summer, Tioté continued to be a first team regular and was sent-off on 20 September 2009, in a 3–2 win over Utrecht after a second bookable offence. On 10 April 2010, Tioté then scored his first goal for Twente, in a 2–0 win over Heerenveen. After receiving a yellow card during a 1–0 loss against AZ Alkmaar on 13 April 2010, Tioté served a one match suspension for this. Tioté made his return from suspension in the last game of the season, coming on as a second-half substitute, in a 2–0 win over NAC Breda to win the club's first ever league title. He also featured in the Europa League and Champions League, as he made forty-two appearances and scoring once in all competitions.  During his two years time at Twente, he gained his reputation for being a determined and resilient midfielder with a keen eye for a pass, making fifty-eight league appearances scoring one goal with fourteen assists. Following his performance in the World Cup, Tioté further attracted interests from clubs, including Birmingham City, but newly appointed manager Michel Preud'homme insisted on keeping him at the club. In the 2010–11 season, he went on to make two appearances, before signing for Newcastle United.

Newcastle United.

On 26 August 2010, Tioté joined English Premier League side Newcastle United for a fee of £3.5 million, after he was granted a work permit. Upon joining the club, Tioté spoke to the local newspaper, the "Evening Chronicle", about the move, saying: "It’s a great thrill for me to be joining such a famous club as Newcastle United." He was given the number 24 shirt.  He made his debut on 18 September against Everton at Goodison Park. He completed all of his 64 passes, made two interceptions, completed all five of his attempted tackles, and his only shot was on target. Tioté quickly became a favourite among supporters. On 8 January 2011, he was sent off during Newcastle's third round FA Cup match against Stevenage. Whilst Tioté managed to touch the ball before Jon Ashton, his unorthodox way of doing so meant Ashton collided with him, and referee Andre Marriner had little choice but to give him his marching orders. Newcastle attempted to appeal the decision, but the FA decided to uphold it, and Tioté was suspended for three matches. On 5 February, Tioté scored his first, and what was to be his only goal for the club, a 25-yard volley for the late equaliser in a 4–4 draw against Arsenal, after Newcastle had trailed 4–0 at half time. On 25 February 2011, Newcastle announced that Tioté had signed a new six-and-a-half-year contract to show his commitment to the club, keeping him at Newcastle until 2017. Upon signing his new deal, Tioté said: "The experience of playing in the Premier League has been better than I ever hoped it could be. This is a great club and the fans have been brilliant – I have never known support like it." Despite setback from suspensions, he went on to finish his first season, making twenty-eight appearances and scoring once in all competitions.  In the 2011–12 season, Tioté started the season well for the club when he set up two goals in two matches between 17 and 24 September 2011, against Aston Villa and Blackburn Rovers, which resulted in a draw and a win respectively. However, during a 1–0 win over Wigan Athletic on 22 October 2011, he suffered a broken nose and knee injury that resulted him out for two months. It wasn't until on 17 December 2011 when he returned to the first team from injury, playing 82 minutes before being substituted, in a 0–0 draw against Swansea City. After the end of the African Cup of Nations, Tioté returned to the first team, where he set up one of the goals, in a 2–2 draw against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 25 February 2012. As the 2011–12 season progressed, he went on to make 24 appearances in all competitions.  After two seasons at Newcastle, Tioté picked up 25 yellow cards from 50 league games, a return of one yellow card every two games, but only received one sending off, against local rivals Sunderland. He was sent off in Newcastle's 1–1 draw at the Stadium of Light on 21 October 2012, for a late challenge on Steven Fletcher. In a 1–0 win against Queens Park Rangers on 22 December 2012, Tioté received a yellow card, picking his fifth booking of the season and resulting him suspended for one match. However, throughout the 2012–13 season, Tioté suffered a setback, due to international commitment on two occasions and injury. Despite this, he went on to make thirty-one appearances in all competitions in the 2012–13 season.  In the 2013–14 season, Tioté captained Newcastle for the first time, replacing Fabricio Coloccini and Yohan Cabaye (both of whom were ruled out by injury), and performed well in a 2–2 draw on 19 October 2013. Following the match, his role as captain was praised by Manager Alan Pardew, who wanted him to captain another match. On 12 January 2014, and with Newcastle trailing 1–0 at home to Manchester City, Tioté had a goal controversially disallowed. In similar fashion to the leveller against Arsenal two years previous, Tioté struck a volley from outside the area, which went past City's goalkeeper Joe Hart. Referee Mike Jones thought that Yoan Gouffran (who had been in an offside position) had blocked Hart's line of vision, although replays showed that this was not the case. Like the Arsenal match, Tioté wildly celebrated the goal, running over to the bench. However, Hart, with some of his teammates, contested the decision to the referee and the linesman, and with most of the Newcastle players away from the pitch (only Cabaye was near the linesman), the goal was disallowed. Newcastle would concede deep into injury time, compounding a miserable afternoon. Football pundits largely criticised the decision to disallow Tioté's goal. Later that month, Cabaye left the club to join Paris Saint-Germain, thus disrupting the successful partnership between the two men. As a result, his form suffered, with replacement Dan Gosling not up to the preferred standard. However, Tioté was given the captain's armband in the absence of Coloccini, who had suffered a knee injury against West Bromwich Albion. At the end of the 2013–14 season, Tioté went on to make thirty-six appearances in all competitions.  A hamstring injury meant that Tioté started the following season later than his teammates; it would be in September that he finally made his first appearance, against Hull City, in which he set up one of the goals, in a 2–2 draw. He would go on to make eleven more appearances for in the league, before going on international duty for the 2015 African Cup of Nations. He sustained a knee injury, and had to have surgery on it, ruling him out for the rest of the season. This came as a blow for the player; he had stated to Ivorian press that he wanted to leave Newcastle. He had been previously linked with Arsenal and Manchester United, and admitted there had been contacts for him from Arsenal and an unnamed Russian club.  In the 2015–16 season, Tioté made twenty league appearances for the side, firstly under Steve McClaren, and then under Rafael Benítez. Despite this, he could not displace the midfield pairing of Moussa Sissoko and Georginio Wijnaldum, and often played in positions not suited to him. The following summer saw Tioté linked with moves to Turkey and China, but nothing came to fruition. Benítez decided to keep him on as a squad player, and he fell further down the pecking order with Jonjo Shelvey, Jack Colback and Isaac Hayden all starting ahead of him. He made three more appearances for the club – once in the league, in a 1–1 draw with Aston Villa, and twice in the FA Cup, in both third round ties against Birmingham City.

Beijing Enterprises.

On 9 February 2017, Tioté joined China League One side Beijing Enterprises for an undisclosed fee. Tioté made his Beijing Enterprises debut, in the opening game of the season, playing the whole game, in a 2–1 loss against Qingdao Huanghai. He appeared in 11 of 12 matches for the club until his last match on 3 June 2017 against Baoding Yingli Yitong with a 4–2 win.

International career.

On 23 March 2009, Tioté was called up by Ivory Coast for the first time, but did not play. After being called up once more in May, he made his international debut on 12 August in a friendly match against Tunisia. He was selected in the Ivory Coast's squad for the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations squad and given the squad number 9.  He started in all three of Les Éléphants' matches before their quarter final elimination by Algeria. Tioté also started each of the Ivory Coast's 2010 FIFA World Cup matches in South Africa. However, the team did not advance to the second round. During one of the match against Brazil, Tioté was involved in a challenge with Elano that saw him suffer an injury and sidelined for the rest of the tournament.  On 13 January 2012, Tioté was sent off for a "crazy challenge" in an 2012 Africa Cup of Nations warm up match against Tunisia However, he was in the starting line-up for the Ivory Coast's opening two group matches and both the semi final and final, in which he scored the team's first kick in the penalty shootout defeat to Zambia. Following the end of the tournament, Tioté revealed that he gave away his medal to his friend because of the loss  The following year, at the 2013 Africa Cup of Nations, Tioté scored his first international goal in the 50th minute of their 2–1 quarterfinal loss to Nigeria. The following year, at the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Tioté was featured in all three matches in the Group Stage.

Personal life.

Tioté was a devout Muslim. He observed fasting during the Islamic month of Ramadan.  In May 2011, Tioté's car was seized by the police for motoring offences. On 13 February 2013, he was arrested on suspicion of fraud, and had his car seized by the police. After admitting to possessing a forged Belgian driving licence, he was given a suspended sentence, as well as a six-month ban from driving.  He had two children with his first wife, Madah. During his time at Newcastle United, the couple lived in the village of Ponteland in Northumberland, and were married some time before his move to Newcastle. On 29 September 2014, it was reported by the "Newcastle Chronicle" that Tioté had married a second wife, Laeticia Doukrou, in the capital of the Ivory Coast, Abidjan. The marriage had taken place before the start of the season. His agent Jean Musampa, confirmed the marriage to the local newspaper, saying "I can say that he did get married and that it is his second marriage." Shortly afterwards, it was reported that his mistress Nkosiphile Mpofu, with whom he had a child, had ended their relationship.

Death.

On 5 June 2017, Tioté died in Beijing, China, after suffering a cardiac arrest in training. Demba Ba was amongst the first to pay tribute to the Ivorian via social media, and soon afterwards, many of his former Newcastle teammates followed suit. His former managers were similarly effusive with praise: Rafael Benítez labelled him "a true professional", Alan Pardew described him as "everything that you want in a Newcastle player", Steve McClaren (who had managed him at both Twente and Newcastle) remembered him as the toughest player he had ever seen, and Chris Hughton (who had brought him to Newcastle) spoke of his humility and called him "the perfect fit".  On 13 June, Tioté's memorial service was held in Beijing, which was attended by his Beijing Enterprises teammates and Papiss Cissé, who had played with him at Newcastle. On 15 June, his body was flown back to the Ivory Coast for a private funeral, amidst a dispute between his family and the Ivory Coast Football Federation over the location of his burial. He was given a military funeral in Abidjan on 18 June, attended by his national teammates and politicians including prime minister Amadou Gon Coulibaly. Beijing Enterprises retired Tioté's number 24 shirt on 24 June.

Honours.

Anderlecht  Twente  Ivory Coast

Cheick Ismaël Tioté (21 June 1986 – 5 June 2017) ) was an Ivorian professional footballer who played as a defensive midfielder.

Cheik Ismaël Tioté, né le à Yamoussoukro et mort le à Pékin (Chine), est un footballeur international ivoirien qui a évolué au poste de milieu de terrain.


History.

The M1877 was designed by one of the inventors of the M1873 Colt Single Action Army, William Mason, as Colt's first attempt at manufacturing a double-action revolver. The M1877 was the first successful US-made double-action cartridge revolver.  The M1877 was offered from the factory in two basic finishes: nickel-plated or a case-hardened frame with a blue barrel and cylinder. The revolver was available in barrel lengths from 2.5′′ to 7.5′′ and was available with or without the ejector rod and housing. The shorter barreled versions without the ejector rod were marketed as "shopkeeper's specials".  Neither "Lightning" nor "Thunderer" were Colt designations, nor used by the factory in any reference materials. Both terms were coined by Benjamin Kittredge, one of Colt's major distributors. Kittredge was responsible for the terms "Peacemaker" for the Single Action Army, "Omnipotent" for the Colt M1878 double-action (often known as the "Frontier" model), and nicknames for the various chamberings of the New Line models.  The M1877's early double-action mechanism proved to be both intricate and delicate, and thus prone to breakage. The design had a reputation for failure and earned the nickname "the gunsmith's favorite". Because of the intricate design and difficulty of repair, gunsmiths to this day dislike working on them. "Gun Digest" referred to it as "the worst double-action trigger mechanism ever made". Typically, the trigger spring would fail and this would reduce the revolver to single-action fire only. Outwardly, the Model 1877 shows a striking resemblance to the Colt Single Action Army revolver, however it is scaled down slightly and much thinner in dimension. The standard finishes were blued, with a case-colored frame or nickel plating. The bird's head grips were of checkered rosewood on the early guns and hard rubber on the majority of later-production guns.  The "Lightning" was the favored personal weapon of famous Manchester (UK) Victorian detective and then head of CID, Jerome Caminada. Old West outlaw John Wesley Hardin frequently used both "Lightning" and "Thunderer" versions of the Colt 1877 revolver. Likewise the 1877 "Thunderer" in.41 caliber was the preferred weapon of Billy the Kid and was his weapon of choice when he was killed by Pat Garrett in 1881. Doc Holliday was also known to carry a nickel plated colt thunder in his waistband as an accompanying gun to his nickel plated colt 1873. Both had ivory or pearl grips.

The Colt M1877 was a double-action revolver manufactured by Colt's Patent Fire Arms from January 1877 to 1909 for a total of 166,849 revolvers. The Model 1877 was offered in three calibers, which lent them three unofficial names: the "Lightning", the "Thunderer", and the "Rainmaker". The principal difference between the models was the cartridge in which they were chambered: the "Lightning" being chambered in.38 Long Colt; the "Thunderer" in.41 Colt. Both models had a six-round ammunition capacity. An earlier model in.32 Colt known as the "Rainmaker" was offered in 1877.

Les Colt 1877 Double Action Lightning/Thunderer (appellation changeant selon le calibre) furent les premiers revolvers de la firme Colt fonctionnant en double action.


Taxonomy.

The taxonomy of the "Cyanea" species is not fully agreed upon; some zoologists have suggested that all species within the genus should be treated as one. Two distinct taxa, however, occur together in at least the eastern North Atlantic, with the blue jellyfish ("Cyanea lamarckii" Péron & Lesueur, 1810) differing in color (blue, not red) and smaller size ( diameter, rarely ). Populations in the western Pacific around Japan are sometimes distinguished as "Cyanea nozakii", or as a subspecies, "C. c. nozakii". In 2015, Russian researchers announced a possible sister species, "Cyanea tzetlinii" found in the White Sea, but this has not yet been recognized by other authoritative databases such as WoRMS or ITIS.

Description.

Lion's mane jellyfish ("Cyanea capillata") are named for their showy, trailing tentacles reminiscent of a lion's mane. They can vary greatly in size: although capable of attaining a bell diameter of over, those found in lower latitudes are much smaller than their far northern counterparts, with a bell about in diameter.  Size seems to dictate coloration: larger specimens are a vivid crimson to dark purple while smaller specimens grade to a lighter orange or tan, occasionally colorless.  The bell of the lion's mane jellyfish is scalloped into eight lobes (lappets), each lobe containing from 70 to 150 tentacles, arranged in four fairly distinct rows. Along the bell margin is a balance organ at each of the eight indentations between the lobes – the rhopalium – which helps the jellyfish orient itself. From the central mouth extend broad frilly oral arms with many stinging cells. Closer to its mouth, its total number of tentacles is around 1,200.  The long, thin tentacles which emanate from the bell's subumbrella have been characterised as “extremely sticky”; they also have stinging cells. The tentacles of larger specimens may trail as long as or more, with the tentacles of the longest known specimen measured at in length, although it has been suggested that this specimen may actually have belonged to a different "Cyanea" species. This unusual length – longer than a blue whale – has earned it the status of one of the longest known animals in the world.

Ecology.

As coldwater species, these jellyfish cannot cope with warmer waters. The jellyfish are pelagic for most of their lives but tend to settle in shallow, sheltered bays toward the end of their one-year lifespan. In the open ocean, lion's mane jellyfish act as floating oases for certain species, such as shrimp, medusafish, butterfish, harvestfish, and juvenile prowfish, providing both a reliable source of food and protection from predators.  Predators of the lion's mane jellyfish include seabirds, larger fish such as ocean sunfish, other jellyfish species, and sea turtles. The leatherback sea turtle feeds almost exclusively on them in large quantities during the summer season around Eastern Canada. The jellyfish themselves feed mostly on zooplankton, small fish, ctenophores, and moon jellies.

Behavior and reproduction.

Lion's mane jellyfish remain mostly very near the surface, at no more than depth. Their slow pulsations weakly drive them forward, so they depend on ocean currents to travel great distances. The jellyfish are most often spotted during the late summer and autumn, when they have grown to a large size and the currents begin to sweep them to shore.  Like other jellyfish, lion's manes are capable of both sexual reproduction in the medusa stage and asexual reproduction in the polyp stage. Lion's mane jellyfish have four different stages in their year-long lifespan: a larval stage, a polyp stage, an ephyrae stage, and the medusa stage. The female jellyfish carries its fertilized eggs in its tentacle, where the eggs grow into larva. When the larva are old enough, the female deposits them on a hard surface, where the larva soon grow into polyps. The polyps begin to reproduce asexually, creating stacks of small creatures called ephyrae. The individual ephyrae break off the stacks, where they eventually grow into the medusa stage and become full-grown jellyfish.

Sting and human contact.

Most encounters cause temporary pain and localized redness. In normal circumstances, and in healthy individuals, their stings are not known to be fatal. Vinegar can be used to deactivate the nematocysts, but due to the large number of tentacles, medical attention is recommended after exposure.  There may be a significant difference between touching a few tentacles with fingertips at a beach and accidentally swimming into one. The initial sensation is more strange than painful and feels like swimming into warmer and somewhat effervescent water. Some minor pains will soon follow. Normally there is no real danger to humans (with the exception of people suffering from special allergies). But in cases when someone has been stung over large parts of their body by not just the longest tentacles but the entire jellyfish (including the inner tentacles, of which there are around 1,200), medical attention is recommended. Although rare, at deep water severe stings can also cause panic followed by drowning.  On a July day in 2010, around 150 beachgoers were stung by the remains of a lion's mane jellyfish that had broken up into countless pieces in Wallis Sands State Beach, Rye, New Hampshire, in the United States. Considering the size of the species, it is possible that this incident was caused by a single specimen.

In popular culture.

The lion's mane jellyfish appears in the Sherlock Holmes short story "The Adventure of the Lion's Mane" published in "The Case-Book of Sherlock Holmes". Holmes discovers at the end of the story that the true killer of a professor who died shortly after going swimming (shouting "the lion's mane" before he succumbed) was actually this jellyfish. Suspicion was originally laid upon the professor's rival in love, until the latter was similarly attacked (he survived, although badly stung). In the context of the story, it is only because the school professor has a weak heart that he succumbs, as is confirmed by the survival of the second victim.  A photograph widely distributed on the internet appears to show an anomalously large lion's mane dwarfing a nearby diver by several times. The photo was subsequently shown to be a hoax.  On the popular television program "QI" the show claimed that the longest animal in the world was the lion's mane jellyfish. This was later corrected – in 1864, a bootlace worm ("Lineus longissimus") was found washed up on a Scottish shore that was long. ("That" claim has its critics: because bootlace worms can easily stretch to several times their natural length, it is possible the worm did not actually grow to be that length.)

The lion's mane jellyfish, also known as the giant jellyfish or the hair jelly, is one of the largest known species of jellyfish. Its range is confined to cold, boreal waters of the Arctic, northern Atlantic, and northern Pacific Oceans. It is common in the English Channel, Irish Sea, North Sea, and in western Scandinavian waters south to Kattegat and Øresund. It may also drift into the southwestern part of the Baltic Sea (where it cannot breed due to the low salinity). Similar jellyfish – which may be the same species – are known to inhabit seas near Australia and New Zealand. The largest recorded specimen was measured by Alexander Agassiz off the coast of Massachusetts in 1865 and had a bell with a diameter of and tentacles around long. Lion's mane jellyfish have been observed below 42°N latitude for some time in the larger bays of the east coast of the United States.

La méduse à crinière de lion ou cyanée capillaire (Cyanea capillata) est une espèce de cnidaire de la famille des Cyaneidae.


History.

The monastery was founded by Dmitry Prilutsky, formerly a hegumen of the Nikolsky Monastery in Pereslavl-Zalessky. Dmitry left Pereslavl since he thought it was too crowded, and moved north. He first decided to settle down on the Obnora River, currently in Gryazovetsky District of Vologda Oblast, but he was not accepted warmly by the local population, and he moved further north. At the current location of the monastery, which was at the time relatively far from the city of Vologda, he built a wooden church and the cells.  The end of the 14th century was the time of rapid expansion of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and Dmitry Donskoy, the prince of Moscow, considered it very important as an influence point of the Moscow State in the north. The princes of Moscow and later tsars belonged to the main benefactors of the monastery. Vasily III visited the monastery personally in 1528, when he and his wife, Elena Glinskaya, childless for a long time, made a pilgrimage to a number of Russian monasteries in hope to get a child. (The child who was eventually born was Ivan the Terrible). On December 16, 1612, the monastery was captured and burned by Polish-Lithuanian brigands, the so-called Lisowczycy.  In August 1924, the monastery was abolished. The buildings were subsequently used for a variety of purposes, including living quarters, a prison, a depot, and a museum. All the buildings consisting the ensemble of the monastery were preserved though. In 1991, the monastery was re-established. The "selo" of Priluki, where the monastery was located, in 1993 was included into the city of Vologda.  As of January 2013, images of the monastery and grounds were available via Google Street View.

Architecture.

The monastery is built as a fortress, has an approximately rectangular shape, and is completely surrounded by a wall, which has four corner towers and three gates. The northern wall has the main gate and the gate Resurrection Church, the western wall has a gate leading to the Vologda River, and the southern wall has the third gate which is now defunct. The wall was completed in 1656. The construction started after the monastery was plundered by Polish armies in the Time of Troubles.  The main cathedral, located in the center of the monastery, is the Saint Saviour Cathedral, built in 1537-1542. It was the first stone building in Vologda. The bell-tower was built between 1639 and 1654. In 1811, the cathedral burnt down and was only restored in 1813-1817. In the meanwhile, during the French invasion of Russia, the Napoleon army occupied Moscow, and some of the treasures belonging to the church were speedily evacuated from Moscow. They were kept in Spaso-Prilutsky Monastery, in the cathedral which at the time was still not restored. The cathedral is connected to a set of buildings, including the Presentation Church, built before 1623.  The Church of All Saints was built in 1721, and the Church of Saint Catherine originates from 1830.  In 1962, the wooden Assumption Church, which was formerly located in the Alexandro-Kushtsky Monastery close to the selo of Ustye, was transferred to the Spaso-Prilutsky Monastery. This is one of the earliest surviving wooden buildings in Russia.

The Spaso-Prilutsky Monastery () is a Russian Orthodox monastery outside the old city of Vologda, Russia, on the bank of the Vologda River. As of 2011, it was one of the four monasteries still operating in the region. Its history goes back to the 14th-century missionary activities of St. Sergius of Radonezh and his disciples.

Le monastère Spasso-Priloutsky (en ), ou monastère du Sauveur de Prilouki, est un monastère orthodoxe russe situé dans le nord de la Russie dans la petite localité de Prilouki, partie intégrante de Vologda depuis 1993.


Selection of teams.

The AFC classed seventeen nations as "emerging associations", which need time to develop their football. They were selected in August 2005 to take part. Laos, Mongolia, and Timor-Leste were initially selected to participate, but were later replaced by Bangladesh and India of the "developing associations" class, reducing the number of participating teams to sixteen.

Hosts and stadia.

The AFC decided at its annual meeting, that Bangladesh would host the opening ceremony and that Nepal would host the final unless Bangladesh makes it into the last two, in which case it would be held in Dhaka, its capital. It was originally planned that the teams in Groups A and B would play their games in Nepal and that teams in Groups C and D would play in Bangladesh, but due to the political unrest that shook Nepal, it was decided that only Bangladesh would host the tournament. The Challenge Cup was originally scheduled to take place between 26 March to 9 April 2006 but was changed to avoid clashes with Bangladesh's Independence Day on 26 March. The two stadia that were selected to be used during this tournament were: the Bangabandhu Stadium in Dhaka and the MA Aziz Stadium in Chittagong. However, the Bangladesh Army Stadium in Dhaka was later used to make-up the matches that were abandoned due to heavy rain.

Teams.

Some teams did not take part with their'main' national squad, as noted below:

Group stage.

All times are Bangladesh Standard Time (BST) – UTC+6

Tie-breaking criteria.

Where two or more teams end the group stage with the same number of points, their ranking is determined by the following criteria:

Group A.

<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>

Group B.

<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>

Group C.

<onlyinclude></onlyinclude>

Group D.

<onlyinclude></onlyinclude

The 2006 AFC Challenge Cup was held between 1 and 16 April 2006 in Bangladesh. Sixteen teams were split into four groups, the top two in each group qualifying for the quarterfinals, and from then on a straight knockout contest. There was no qualification stage. The cup winner was Tajikistan. The fair play award was won by Sri Lanka and Tajikistani Ibrahim Rabimov won the most valuable player award.

L'AFC Challenge Cup 2006 est une compétition de football ayant lieu du au au Bangladesh. 16 équipes furent réparties en 4 groupes, les meilleurs de chaque groupes sont qualifiés pour les quarts de finale, dans une phase finale. Il n'y a pas de groupe de qualification. Le vainqueur est le Tadjikistan, le prix du fair-play est remporté par le Sri Lanka alors que le meilleur joueur du tournoi est le Tadjik Ibrahim Rabimov.