Music.

Sounds and references.

It was seen as Pink Floyd's first foray into space rock (along with "Interstellar Overdrive"), although band members later disparaged this term. The song opens with the voice of one of their managers at the time, Peter Jenner, reading the names of planets, stars and galaxies through a megaphone. A barely audible line, "Pluto was not discovered till 1930", can be heard in the megaphonic mix. Barrett's Fender Esquire emerges and grows louder. At 0:19, a rapid beeping sound is heard. At 0:26, Nick Mason's drum fills begin and Barrett plays the enigmatic introductory figure. Keyboard player Richard Wright's Farfisa organ is mixed into the background. Barrett's incantatory lyrics about space support the theme in the song, mentioning the planets Jupiter, Saturn and Neptune as well as Uranian moons Oberon, Miranda and Titania, and Saturn's moon Titan. Barrett and Wright provide lead vocals. Roger Waters' bass guitar line, Wright's Farfisa organ and Barrett's slide guitar then dominate, with Jenner's megaphone recitation re-emerging from the mix for a time.

Music progression.

The verse has an unusual chord progression, all in major chords: E, E♭, G and A. The chorus is entirely chromatic, descending directly from A to D on guitar, bass guitar and falsetto singing, down one semitone every three beats. Strangest of all may be the introduction, in which Barrett takes an ordinary open E major chord and moves the fretted notes down one semitone, resulting in an E♭ major chord superimposed onto an open E minor chord, fretting E♭ and B♭ notes along with the open E, G, B and high-E strings of the guitar; the G functions both as major third to the E♭ chord and minor third to the E chord. In the live version heard on "Ummagumma" (1969), the post-Barrett band, with David Gilmour on guitar, normalised the introduction into straight E and E♭ major chords, also normalising the timing of the introduction, but, beginning in 1994, began performing a more faithful version (as heard on "Pulse"), which Gilmour carried into his solo career.  Barrett's Fender Esquire is played through a Binson echo machine, creating psychedelic delay effects. The track is the band's only overt "space rock" song, though a group-composed, abstract instrumental was titled "Interstellar Overdrive". Waters, in an interview with Nick Sedgewick, described "Astronomy Domine" as "the sum total" of Barrett's writing about space, "yet there's this whole fucking mystique about how he was the father of it all".

Alternative and live versions.

It was a popular live piece, regularly included in the band's concerts. It is the first track on the live side of the album "Ummagumma", released in 1969. This version reflects the band's more progressive style of that era. The song is extended by including the first verse twice, and the instrumental middle section, before becoming louder again by the last verse. The lead vocals are shared between Gilmour and Wright. While Wright sang the higher harmony in the studio version, Gilmour sang the higher harmony live. The "Ummagumma" version can also be found on the American release of "A Nice Pair", a compilation album released in 1973.  It was dropped from the live sets in mid-1971, but reappeared as the first song in some sets on the band's 1994 tour. The last time the song was performed with Waters was on 20 June 1971 at the Palaeur in Rome, Italy. A version from a concert in Miami appears as the B-side on the band's "Take It Back" single, and a version from one of the London concerts appears on the live album "Pulse". Gilmour played the song at some of his appearances during his solo 2006 tour, again sharing the lead vocal with fellow Floyd member Wright. He said of playing the song live for the first time in over 20 years:  The track is also on the 2001 Pink Floyd compilation album, "".  The "Pulse" version reverts to the original 4-minute length, with Gilmour and Wright taking lead vocals as in "Ummagumma". This was the only song on the 1994 tour with Gilmour, Mason and Wright performing without backing musicians, with only Guy Pratt adding bass guitar and vocals.  The song was also played by Gilmour and his solo band (which included Wright with Pratt on bass guitar and Steve DiStanislao on drums) at the Abbey Road Studios sessions, which has been released as part of a CD/DVD "On an Island" package. "Astronomy Domine" was performed during the last few dates of Gilmour's "On an Island" tour, and is on his "Remember That Night" and "Live in Gdańsk" DVDs.  Gilmour has inserted the song in the setlist of his last solo "Rattle That Lock" world tour.  The song was played by Nick Mason's Saucerful of Secrets in 2018.

Music video.

In 1968, Pink Floyd travelled to Belgium where they filmed a lip-synched promotional film for "Astronomy Domine", as well as "See Emily Play", "The Scarecrow", "Apples and Oranges", "Paint Box", "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" and "Corporal Clegg". Barrett does not appear in these films, as he had been replaced by Gilmour who lip-synced Barrett's voice in the "Astronomy Domine" video.

Personnel.

The Piper at the Gates of Dawn version  Ummagumma live version Pulse live version  with:  Live in Gdańsk live version  with:

"Astronomy Domine" is a song by the English rock band Pink Floyd. The song, written and composed by the original vocalist/guitarist Syd Barrett, was the first track on their first album, "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" (1967). The lead vocal was sung by Barrett and the keyboard player Richard Wright. Its working title was "Astronomy Domine (An Astral Chant)". "Domine" (the vocative of "Lord" in Latin) is a word frequently used in Gregorian chants.

Astronomy Domine est une chanson du groupe britannique Pink Floyd. La chanson, écrite et composée par Syd Barrett, est la première chanson de l'album "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn", où les paroles sont chantées par Syd Barrett et Rick Wright. Peter Jenner, le manager du groupe à l'époque, apparaît dans l'introduction de la chanson lisant des noms d'astres dans un mégaphone.


Overview.

The register machine gets its name from its use of one or more "registers". In contrast to the tape and head used by a Turing machine, the model uses multiple, uniquely addressed registers, each of which holds a single positive integer.  There are at least four sub-classes found in literature, here listed from most primitive to the most like a computer:  Any properly defined register machine model is Turing equivalent. Computational speed is very dependent on the model specifics.  In practical computer science, a similar concept known as a virtual machine is sometimes used to minimise dependencies on underlying machine architectures. Such machines are also used for teaching. The term "register machine" is sometimes used to refer to a virtual machine in textbooks.

Formal definition.

A register machine consists of:

Historical development of the register machine model.

Two trends appeared in the early 1950s—the first to characterize the computer as a Turing machine, the second to define computer-like models—models with sequential instruction sequences and conditional jumps—with the power of a Turing machine, i.e. a so-called Turing equivalence. Need for this work was carried out in context of two "hard" problems: the unsolvable word problem posed by Emil Post—his problem of "tag"—and the very "hard" problem of Hilbert's problems—the 10th question around Diophantine equations. Researchers were questing for Turing-equivalent models that were less "logical" in nature and more "arithmetic" (cf Melzak (1961) p. 281, Shepherdson–Sturgis (1963) p. 218).  The first trend—toward characterizing computers—seems to have originated with Hans Hermes (1954), Rózsa Péter (1958), and Heinz Kaphengst (1959), the second trend with Hao Wang (1954, 1957) and, as noted above, furthered along by Zdzislaw Alexander Melzak (1961), Joachim Lambek (1961), Marvin Minsky (1961, 1967), and John Shepherdson and Howard E. Sturgis (1963).  The last five names are listed explicitly in that order by Yuri Matiyasevich. He follows up with:  It appears that Lambek, Melzak, Minsky and Shepherdson and Sturgis independently anticipated the same idea at the same time. See Note On Precedence below.  The history begins with Wang's model.

(1954, 1957) Wang's model: Post–Turing machine.

Wang's work followed from Emil Post's (1936) paper and led Wang to his definition of his Wang B-machine—a two-symbol Post–Turing machine computation model with only four atomic instructions:  To these four both Wang (1954, 1957) and then C.Y. Lee (1961) added another instruction from the Post set { ERASE }, and then a Post's unconditional jump { JUMP_to_ instruction_z } (or to make things easier, the conditional jump JUMP_IF_blank_to_instruction_z, or both. Lee named this a "W-machine" model:  Wang expressed hope that his model would be "a rapprochement" (p. 63) between the theory of Turing machines and the practical world of the computer.  Wang's work was highly influential. We find him referenced by Minsky (1961) and (1967), Melzak (1961), Shepherdson and Sturgis (1963). Indeed, Shepherdson and Sturgis (1963) remark that:  Martin Davis eventually evolved this model into the (2-symbol) Post–Turing machine.  Difficulties with the Wang/Post–Turing model:  Except there was a problem: the Wang model (the six instructions of the 7-instruction Post–Turing machine) was still a single-tape Turing-like device, however nice its "sequential program instruction-flow" might be. Both Melzak (1961) and Shepherdson and Sturgis (1963) observed this (in the context of certain proofs and investigations):  Indeed, as examples at Turing machine examples, Post–Turing machine and partial function show, the work can be "complicated".

Minsky, Melzak-Lambek and Shepherdson–Sturgis models "cut the tape" into many.

So why not 'cut the tape' so each is infinitely long (to accommodate any size integer) but left-ended, and call these three tapes "Post–Turing (i.e. Wang-like) tapes"? The individual heads will move left (for decrement) and right (for increment). In one sense the heads indicate "the tops of the stack" of concatenated marks. Or in Minsky (1961) and Hopcroft and Ullman (1979, p. 171ff) the tape is always blank except for a mark at the left end—at no time does a head ever print or erase.  We just have to be careful to write our instructions so that a test-for-zero and jump occurs "before" we decrement otherwise our machine will "fall off the end" or "bump against the end"—we will have an instance of a partial function. Before a decrement our machine must always ask the question: "Is the tape/counter empty? If so then I can't decrement, otherwise I can."  Minsky (1961) and Shepherdson–Sturgis (1963) prove that only a few tapes—as few as one—still allow the machine to be Turing equivalent "IF" the data on the tape is represented as a Gödel number (or some other uniquely encodable-decodable number); this number will evolve as the computation proceeds. In the one tape version with Gödel number encoding the counter machine must be able to (i) multiply the Gödel number by a constant (numbers "2" or "3"), and (ii) divide by a constant (numbers "2" or "3") and jump if the remainder is zero. Minsky (1967) shows that the need for this bizarre instruction set can be relaxed to { INC (r), JZDEC (r, z) } and the convenience instructions { CLR (r), J (r) } if two tapes are available. A simple Gödelization is still required, however. A similar result appears in Elgot–Robinson (1964) with respect to their RASP model.

(1961) Melzak's model is different: clumps of pebbles go into and out of holes.

Melzak's (1961) model is significantly different. He took his own model, flipped the tapes vertically, called them "holes in the ground" to be filled with "pebble counters". Unlike Minsky's "increment" and "decrement", Melzak allowed for proper subtraction of any count of pebbles and "adds" of any count of pebbles.  He defines indirect addressing for his model (p. 288) and provides two examples of its use (p. 89); his "proof" (p. 290-292) that his model is Turing equivalent is so sketchy that the reader cannot tell whether or not he intended the indirect addressing to be a requirement for the proof.  Legacy of Melzak's model is Lambek's simplification and the reappearance of his mnemonic conventions in Cook and Reckhow 1973.

Lambek (1961) atomizes Melzak's model into the Minsky (1961) model: INC and DEC-with-test.

Lambek (1961) took Melzak's ternary model and atomized it down to the two unary instructions—X+, X- if possible else jump—exactly the same two that Minsky (1961) had come up with.  However, like the Minsky (1961) model, the Lambek model does execute its instructions in a default-sequential manner—both X+ and X- carry the identifier of the next instruction, and X- also carries the jump-to instruction if the zero-test is successful.

Elgot–Robinson (1964) and the problem of the RASP without indirect addressing.

A RASP or random-access stored-program machine begins as a counter machine with its "program of instruction" placed in its "registers". Analogous to, but independent of, the finite state machine's "Instruction Register", at least one of the registers (nicknamed the "program counter" (PC)) and one or more "temporary" registers maintain a record of, and operate on, the current instruction's number. The finite state machine's TABLE of instructions is responsible for (i) fetching the current "program" instruction from the proper register, (ii) parsing the "program" instruction, (iii) fetching operands specified by the "program " instruction, and (iv) executing the "program" instruction.  Except there is a problem: If based on the "counter machine" chassis this computer-like, von Neumann machine will not be Turing equivalent. It cannot compute everything that is computable. Intrinsically the model is bounded by the size of its (very-) "finite" state machine's instructions. The counter machine based RASP can compute any primitive recursive function (e.g. multiplication) but not all mu recursive functions (e.g. the Ackermann function ).  Elgot–Robinson investigate the possibility of allowing their RASP model to "self modify" its program instructions. The idea was an old one, proposed by Burks-Goldstine-von Neumann (1946-7), and sometimes called "the computed goto." Melzak (1961) specifically mentions the "computed goto" by name but instead provides his model with indirect addressing.  Computed goto: A RASP "program" of instructions that modifies the "goto address" in a conditional- or unconditional-jump "program" instruction.  But this does not solve the problem (unless one resorts to Gödel numbers). What is necessary is a method to fetch the address of a program instruction that lies (far) "beyond/above" the upper bound of the "finite" state machine's instruction register and TABLE.  Minsky (1967) hints at the issue in his investigation of a counter machine (he calls them "program computer models") equipped with the instructions { CLR (r), INC (r), and RPT ("a" times the instructions m to n) }. He doesn't tell us how to fix the problem, but he does observe that:  But Elgot and Robinson solve the problem: They augment their P RASP with an indexed set of instructions—a somewhat more complicated (but more flexible) form of indirect addressing. Their P' model addresses the registers by adding the contents of the "base" register (specified in the instruction) to the "index" specified explicitly in the instruction (or vice versa, swapping "base" and "index"). Thus the indexing P' instructions have one more parameter than the non-indexing P instructions:

Hartmanis (1971).

By 1971 Hartmanis has simplified the indexing to indirection for use in his RASP model.  Indirect addressing: A pointer-register supplies the finite state machine with the address of the target register required for the instruction. Said another way: The "contents" of the pointer-register is the "address" of the "target" register to be used by the instruction. If the pointer-register is unbounded, the RAM, and a suitable RASP built on its chassis, will be Turing equivalent. The target register can serve either as a source or destination register, as specified by the instruction.  Note that the finite state machine does not have to explicitly specify this target register's address. It just says to the rest of the machine: Get me the contents of the register pointed to by my pointer-register and then do xyz with it. It must specify explicitly by name, via its instruction, this pointer-register (e.g. "N", or "72" or "PC", etc.) but it doesn't have to know what number the pointer-register actually contains (perhaps 279,431).

Cook and Reckhow (1973) describe the RAM.

Cook and Reckhow (1973) cite Hartmanis (1971) and simplify his model to what they call a random-access machine (RAM—i.e. a machine with indirection and the Harvard architecture). In a sense we are back to Melzak (1961) but with a much simpler model than Melzak's.

Precedence.

Minsky was working at the MIT Lincoln Laboratory and published his work there; his paper was received for publishing in the "Annals of Mathematics" on August 15, 1960 but not published until November 1961. While receipt occurred a full year before the work of Melzak and Lambek was received and published (received, respectively, May and June 15, 1961 and published side-by-side September 1961). That (i) both were Canadians and published in the Canadian Mathematical Bulletin, (ii) neither would have had reference to Minsky's work because it was not yet published in a peer-reviewed journal, but (iii) Melzak references Wang, and Lambek references Melzak, leads one to hypothesize that their work occurred simultaneously and independently.  Almost exactly the same thing happened to Shepherdson and Sturgis. Their paper was received in December 1961—just a few months after Melzak and Lambek's work was received. Again, they had little (at most 1 month) or no benefit of reviewing the work of Minsky. They were careful to observe in footnotes that papers by Ershov, Kaphengst and Peter had "recently appeared" (p. 219). These were published much earlier but appeared in the German language in German journals so issues of accessibility present themselves.  The final paper of Shepherdson and Sturgis did not appear in a peer-reviewed journal until 1963. And as they fairly and honestly note in their Appendix A, the'systems' of Kaphengst (1959), Ershov (1958), Peter (1958) are all so similar to what results were obtained later as to be indistinguishable to a set of the following:  Indeed, Shepherson and Sturgis conclude  By order of "publishing" date the work of Kaphengst (1959), Ershov (1958), Peter (1958) were first.

Bibliography.

Background texts: The following bibliography of source papers includes a number of texts to be used as background. The mathematics that led to the flurry of papers about abstract machines in the 1950s and 1960s can be found in van Heijenoort (1967)—an assemblage of original papers spanning the 50 years from Frege (1879) to Gödel (1931). Davis (ed.) "The Undecidable" (1965) carries the torch onward beginning with Gödel (1931) through Gödel's (1964) postscriptum (p. 71); the original papers of Alan Turing (1936-7) and Emil Post (1936) are included in "The Undecidable". The mathematics of Church, Rosser and Kleene that appear as reprints of original papers in "The Undecidable" is carried further in Kleene (1952), a mandatory text for anyone pursuing a deeper understanding of the mathematics behind the machines. Both Kleene (1952) and Davis (1958) are referenced by a number of the papers.  For a good treatment of the counter machine see Minsky (1967) Chapter 11 "Models similar to Digital Computers"—he calls the counter machine a "program computer". A recent overview is found at van Emde Boas (1990). A recent treatment of the Minsky (1961)/Lambek (1961) model can be found Boolos-Burgess-Jeffrey (2002); they reincarnate Lambek's "abacus model" to demonstrate equivalence of Turing machines and partial recursive functions, and they provide a graduate-level introduction to both abstract machine models (counter- and Turing-) and the mathematics of recursion theory. Beginning with the first edition Boolos-Burgess (1970) this model appeared with virtually the same treatment.  The papers: The papers begin with Wang (1957) and his dramatic simplification of the Turing machine. Turing (1936), Kleene (1952), Davis (1958) and in particular Post (1936) are cited in Wang (1957); in turn, Wang is referenced by Melzak (1961), Minsky (1961) and Shepherdson–Sturgis (1961-3) as they independently reduce the Turing tapes to "counters". Melzak (1961) provides his pebble-in-holes counter machine model with indirection but doesn't carry the treatment further. The work of Elgot–Robinson (1964) define the RASP—the computer-like random-access stored-program machines—and appear to be the first to investigate the failure of the bounded counter machine to calculate the mu-recursive functions. This failure—except with the draconian use of Gödel numbers in the manner of Minsky (1961))—leads to their definition of "indexed" instructions (i.e. indirect addressing) for their RASP model. Elgot–Robinson (1964) and more so Hartmanis (1971) investigate RASPs with self-modifying programs. Hartmanis (1971) specifies an instruction set with indirection, citing lecture notes of Cook (1970). For use in investigations of computational complexity Cook and his graduate student Reckhow (1973) provide the definition of a RAM (their model and mnemonic convention are similar to Melzak's, but offer him no reference in the paper). The pointer machines are an offshoot of Knuth (1968, 1973) and independently Schönhage (1980).  For the most part the papers contain mathematics beyond the undergraduate level—in particular the primitive recursive functions and mu recursive functions presented elegantly in Kleene (1952) and less in depth, but useful nonetheless, in Boolos-Burgess-Jeffrey (2002).  All texts and papers excepting the four starred have been witnessed. These four are written in German and appear as references in Shepherdson–Sturgis (1963) and Elgot–Robinson (1964); Shepherdson–Sturgis (1963) offer a brief discussion of their results in Shepherdson–Sturgis' Appendix A. The terminology of at least one paper (Kaphengst (1959) seems to hark back to the Burke-Goldstine-von Neumann (1946-7) analysis of computer architecture.

References.

Notes  Sources

In mathematical logic and theoretical computer science a register machine is a generic class of abstract machines used in a manner similar to a Turing machine. All the models are Turing equivalent.

En informatique, une machine à registres illimités ou URM (de l'anglais : "Unlimited Register Machine") est un modèle abstrait du fonctionnement des appareils mécaniques de calcul, tout comme les machines de Turing et le lambda-calcul. Une URM est Turing-complète.


Early life.

Lister was born to a prosperous Quaker family in Upton,West Ham, Essex, then near but now in London, England. He was the second son of six siblings to gentleman scientist and wine merchant Joseph Jackson Lister and Isabella Harris. His father was a pioneer in the design of achromatic object lenses for use in compound microscope. His spent father spent 30 years of his life, perfecting the microscope, discovering the Law of Aplanatic foci, building a microscope where the image point of one lens coincided with the focal point of another. Up until that point, the best higher magnification lenses produced an excessive secondary aberration known as a coma which interfered with normal use. His work built a reputation sufficient, to enable his being elected to the Royal Society in 1832.

Education.

At school, Lister became a fluent reader of French and German. A young Joseph Lister attended Benjamin Abbott's Isaac Brown Academy, a Quaker school in Hitchin in Hertfordshire. As a teenager, Lister attended Grove House School in Tottenham, studying mathematics, natural science, and languages.  Lister attended University College, London, one of only a few institutions which accepted Quakers at that time. He initially studied botany and obtained a bachelor of Arts degree in 1847. He registered as a medical student and graduated with honours as Bachelor of Medicine, subsequently entering the Royal College of Surgeons at the age of 26. In 1854, Lister became both first assistant to and friend of surgeon James Syme at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary in Scotland. There he joined the Royal Medical Society and presented two dissertations, in 1855 and 1871, which are still in the possession of the Society today.  Lister subsequently left the Quakers, joined the Scottish Episcopal Church, and eventually married Syme's daughter, Agnes. On their honeymoon, they spent three months visiting leading medical institutes (hospitals and universities) in France and Germany. By this time, Agnes was enamoured of medical research and was Lister's partner in the laboratory for the rest of her life.

Career and work.

Before Lister's studies of surgery, many people believed that chemical damage from exposure to "bad air", or "miasma", was responsible for infections in wounds. Hospital wards were occasionally aired out at midday as a precaution against the spread of infection via miasma, but facilities for washing hands or a patient's wounds were not available. A surgeon was not required to wash his hands before seeing a patient; in the absence of any theory of bacterial infection, such practices were not considered necessary. Despite the work of Ignaz Semmelweis and Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., hospitals practised surgery under unsanitary conditions. Surgeons of the time referred to the "good old surgical stink" and took pride in the stains on their unwashed operating gowns as a display of their experience.  While he was a professor of surgery at the University of Glasgow, Lister became aware of a paper published by the French chemist, Louis Pasteur, showing that food spoilage could occur under anaerobic conditions if micro-organisms were present. Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the micro-organisms responsible: filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to solution/chemical solutions. Lister confirmed Pasteur's conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop antiseptic techniques for wounds. As the first two methods suggested by Pasteur were unsuitable for the treatment of human tissue, Lister experimented with the third idea.  In 1834, Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge discovered phenol, also known as carbolic acid, which he derived in an impure form from coal tar. At that time, there was uncertainty between the substance of creosote – a chemical that had been used to treat wood used for railway ties and ships since it protected the wood from rotting – and carbolic acid. Upon hearing that creosote had been used for treating sewage, Lister began to test the efficacy of carbolic acid when applied directly to wounds.  Therefore, Lister tested the results of spraying instruments, the surgical incisions, and dressings with a solution of carbolic acid. Lister found that the solution swabbed on wounds remarkably reduced the incidence of gangrene. In August 1865, Lister applied a piece of lint dipped in carbolic acid solution onto the wound of a seven-year-old boy at Glasgow Royal Infirmary, who had sustained a compound fracture after a cart wheel had passed over his leg. After four days, he renewed the pad and discovered that no infection had developed, and after a total of six weeks he was amazed to discover that the boy's bones had fused back together, without suppuration. He subsequently published his results in "The Lancet" in a series of six articles, running from March through July 1867.  He instructed surgeons under his responsibility to wear clean gloves and wash their hands before and after operations with 5% carbolic acid solutions. Instruments were also washed in the same solution and assistants sprayed the solution in the operating theatre. One of his additional suggestions was to stop using porous natural materials in manufacturing the handles of medical instruments.  Lister left Glasgow University in 1869, being succeeded by Prof George Husband Baird MacLeod. Lister then returned to Edinburgh as successor to Syme as Professor of Surgery at the University of Edinburgh and continued to develop improved methods of antisepsis and asepsis. Amongst those he worked with there, who helped him and his work, was the senior apothecary and later MD, Dr Alexander Gunn. Lister's fame had spread by then, and audiences of 400 often came to hear him lecture. As the germ theory of disease became more understood, it was realised that infection could be better avoided by preventing bacteria from getting into wounds in the first place. This led to the rise of aseptic surgery. On the hundredth anniversary of his death, in 2012, Lister was considered by most in the medical field as "The Father of Modern Surgery".

Criticism.

Although Lister was so roundly honoured in later life, his ideas about the transmission of infection and the use of antiseptics were widely criticised in his early career. In 1869, at the meetings of the British Association at Leeds, Lister's ideas were mocked; and again, in 1873, the medical journal "The Lancet" warned the entire medical profession against his progressive ideas. However, Lister did have some supporters including Marcus Beck, a consultant surgeon at University College Hospital, who not only practiced Lister's antiseptic technique, but included it in the next edition of one of the main surgical textbooks of the time.  Lister's use of carbolic acid proved problematic, and he eventually repudiated it for superior methods. The spray irritated eyes and respiratory tracts, and the soaked bandages were suspected of damaging tissue, so his teachings and methods were not always adopted in their entirety. Because his ideas were based on germ theory, which was in its infancy, their adoption was slow. General criticism of his methods was exacerbated by the fact that he found it hard to express himself adequately in writing, so they seemed complicated, unorganised, and impractical.

Surgical technique.

Lister moved from Scotland to King's College Hospital, in London. He was elected President of the Clinical Society of London. He also developed a method of repairing kneecaps with metal wire and improved the technique of mastectomy. He was also known for being the first surgeon to use catgut ligatures, sutures, and rubber drains, and developing an aortic tourniquet. He also introduced a diluted spray of carbolic acid combined with its surgical use, however he abandoned the carbolic acid sprays in the late 1890s after he saw it provided no beneficial change in the outcomes of the surgeries performed with the carbolic acid spray. The only reported reactions were minor symptoms that did not affect the surgical outcome as a whole, like coughing, irritation of the eye, and minor tissue damage among his patients who were exposed to the carbolic acid sprays during the surgery.

Later life.

Lister's wife had long helped him in research and after her death in Italy in 1893 (during one of the few holidays they allowed themselves) he retired from practice. Studying and writing lost appeal for him and he sank into religious melancholy. Despite suffering a stroke, he still came into the public light from time to time. He had for several years been a Surgeon Extraordinary to Queen Victoria, and from March 1900 was appointed the Serjeant Surgeon to the Queen, thus becoming the senior surgeon in the Medical Household of the Royal Household of the sovereign. After her death the following year, he was re-appointed as such to her successor, King Edward VII. On 24 August 1902, the King came down with appendicitis two days before his scheduled coronation. Like all internal surgery at the time, the appendectomy needed by the King still posed an extremely high risk of death by post-operational infection, and surgeons did not dare operate without consulting Britain's leading surgical authority. Lister obligingly advised them in the latest antiseptic surgical methods (which they followed to the letter), and the King survived, later telling Lister, "I know that if it had not been for you and your work, I wouldn't be sitting here today."

Death.

Lister died on 10 February 1912 at his country home (now known as Coast House) in Walmer, Kent at the age of 84. After a funeral service at Westminster Abbey, his body was buried at Hampstead Cemetery in London in a plot to the south-east of central chapel.

Legacy and honours.

In 1890, Lister was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh.  Lister was president of the Royal Society between 1895 and 1900. Following his death, a memorial fund led to the founding of the Lister Medal, seen as the most prestigious prize that could be awarded to a surgeon.  Lister's discoveries were greatly praised and in 1883 Queen Victoria created him a Baronet, of Park Crescent in the Parish of St Marylebone in the County of Middlesex. In 1897 he was further honoured when Her Majesty raised him to the peerage as Baron Lister, of Lyme Regis in the County of Dorset. In the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902 (the original day of King Edward VII ́s coronation), Lord Lister was appointed a Privy Counsellor and one of the original members of the new Order of Merit (OM). He received the order from the King on 8 August 1902, and was sworn a member of the council at Buckingham Palace on 11 August 1902. Among foreign honours, he received the Pour le Mérite, one of Prussia's highest orders of merit. In 1889 he was elected as Foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Two postage stamps were issued in September 1965 to honour Lister for his pioneering work in antiseptic surgery.  Lister is one of the two surgeons in the United Kingdom who have the honour of having a public monument in London. Lister's stands in Portland Place; the other surgeon is John Hunter. There is a statue of Lister in Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow, celebrating his links with the city. In 1903, the British Institute of Preventive Medicine was renamed Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine in honour of Lister. The building, along with another adjacent building, forms what is now the Lister Hospital in Chelsea, which opened in 1985. In 2000, it became part of the HCA group of hospitals.  A building at Glasgow Royal Infirmary which houses cytopathology, microbiology and pathology departments was named in Lister's honour to recognise his work at the hospital. Lister Hospital in Stevenage, Hertfordshire is named after him. The "Discovery" Expedition of 1901–04 named the highest point in the Royal Society Range, Antarctica, Mount Lister.  In 1879, Listerine antiseptic (developed as a surgical antiseptic but nowadays best known as a mouthwash) was named after Lister. Microorganisms named in his honour include the pathogenic bacterial genus "Listeria" named by J. H. H. Pirie, typified by the food-borne pathogen "Listeria monocytogenes", as well as the slime mould genus "Listerella", first described by Eduard Adolf Wilhelm Jahn in 1906. Lister is depicted in the Academy Award winning 1936 film, "The Story of Louis Pasteur", by Halliwell Hobbes. In the film, Lister is one of the beleaguered microbiologist's most noted supporters in the otherwise largely hostile medical community, and is the key speaker in the ceremony in his honour.  Lister's name is one of twenty-three names featured on the Frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine – although the committee which chose the names to include on the frieze did not provide documentation about why certain names were chosen and others were not.

Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, (5 April 182710 February 1912), was a British surgeon and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery, whose research into bacteriology and infection in wounds, raised his skillful operative technique, that was similar to his peers, to a new plane where his observations, deductions and practices revolutionised surgery throughout the world.

Joseph Lister, né le à, Essex (aujourd'hui dans Newham, Londres) et mort le à, Kent, Lister, est un chirurgien britannique, un des pionniers et le vulgarisateur le plus efficace de l'antisepsie dans la chirurgie opératoire.


Background.

The founding line-up of Genesis consisted of lead vocalist Peter Gabriel, keyboardist Tony Banks, bassist Mike Rutherford, guitarist Anthony Phillips, and drummer Chris Stewart, all pupils of Charterhouse School in Godalming, Surrey. The five had played in the school's two active bands; Rutherford and Phillips were in Anon while Gabriel, Banks, and Stewart made up Garden Wall. In January 1967, after both groups had split, Phillips and Rutherford continued to write songs and invited Gabriel and Banks to participate. During the Easter school holiday the five entered a primitive recording studio run by Brian Roberts in Chiswick to record the material. They assembled a tape of six songs originally intended for someone else to perform as the group saw themselves foremost as a collection of songwriters. This included five songs from Rutherford and Phillips: "Don't Want You Back", "Try a Little Sadness", "That's Me", "Listen on Five", and "Patricia", an instrumental, plus one from Gabriel and Banks, "She's Beautiful". "Patricia" was later reworked into "In Hiding" and "She's Beautiful" was later known as "The Serpent". Banks described the material as "straight pop music" as it was the direction the band wanted to explore. At this point, the group were known as The New Anon.  The group sent the demo tape to two people, one being BBC radio presenter David Jacobs. The second was sent to former Charterhouse pupil Jonathan King who had scored commercial success as a singer-songwriter and producer with his UK top five single "Everyone's Gone to the Moon" in 1965, and therefore seemed a natural choice. King visited the school during Old Boys Day, so the group had a friend give the tape to him. He listened to the tape in his car on his drive home and, despite its roughness, was immediately enthusiastic, particularly to Gabriel's vocals.

Recording.

King offered his support to the band and paid them £40 to record four songs. He pressed for more simple arrangements, but maintained that his suggestion for the group to avoid playing electric instruments was because acoustic instruments were cheaper, rather than his personal taste. These early sessions took place between August and December 1967 at Regent Sound Studios on Denmark Street, London, with the intent on releasing them as singles. The four tracks put down were new arrangements of "She's Beautiful" and "Try a Little Sadness", with "Where the Sour Turns to Sweet" and "The Image Blown Out", the latter ultimately rejected from the album. King was happy with the results enough to sign them, offering a ten-year deal with his publishing company JonJo Music with a five-year option, and a five-year recording deal with Decca Records with an optional second year. However, the group's parents expressed concern as they were aged between 15 and 17 at the time, and preferred their children to pursue careers away from music. Upon their insistence for a one-year deal with an optional second, King agreed.  King noticed the band's tendency to expand and complicate their arrangements, which he disliked and suggested they stick to straightforward pop songs. This culminated in King either trimming Banks's solo spots or removing them entirely, much to his annoyance. In response, Gabriel and Banks wrote "The Silent Sun" as a pastiche of the Bee Gees, one of King's favourite bands, though King later clarified the Bee Gees pastiche description as inaccurate. The song was recorded at Regent Sound studio A in December 1967, with a section arranged and conducted by Arthur Greenslade added later in production. It was released on 22 February 1968 with "That's Me" on the B-side as the first Genesis single. King came up with the group's name, thinking it marked the beginning of a "new sound and a new feeling", and that it was the true start of his career as a producer. Other names included King's suggestion of Gabriel's Angels and Phillips's idea, Champagne Meadow. In May 1968, the second single of "A Winter's Tale" with "One-Eyed Hound", was released and, like their first, also flopped. Stewart then left the group to continue with his studies.  Despite their lack of success King continued to support the group and, by mid-1968, suggested that a studio album might reverse their fortunes. The group were a little overwhelmed in working with a greater amount of available time on an LP, so King suggested the idea of a loose concept album that told a story about the Book of Genesis at the start and the Book of Revelation at the end, with linked instrumental tracks. The idea worked, and the group began to write at a faster pace. The band recruited fellow Charterhouse pupil John Silver on the drums, and wrote and rehearsed their new material at his parents' country home in Oxford and the parents of school friend David Thomas.  In August 1968, during the school summer holidays, the band returned to Regent Sound studio 2 to record "From Genesis to Revelation". The music was recorded within two days, and the album was put together in ten. King was the producer and brought in former Charterhouse pupil Tom Allom, along with Brian Roberts, as recording engineers. The sessions involved two four-track recording machines, and marked Banks's first time playing an organ. The material put down, Greenslade and Lou Warburton then added more string and horn arrangements to one stereo channel while mixing the band's performance on the other. This was done without the band's knowledge, which they thought compromised the strength of the songs. Phillips was particularly angered at the decision and was the only member to express his feelings towards it by stomping out of the studio on the last day.

Release and reception.

The album was released in March 1969 and failed to chart. "Where the Sour Turns to Sweet" was released as a single on 27 June 1969 in an attempt to stimulate new interest. The album was released in the U.S. in 1974 after the group had grown in popularity, and peaked at No. 170 on the "Billboard" 200 in October of that year.  Prior to its release, Decca discovered that an American act had also called themselves Genesis and asked the band to change its name to avoid confusion. King reached a compromise so the band's name be omitted from the sleeve, leaving the album's title written in gold text in a Gothic style in order to evoke mystery when presented in music shops. The American Genesis in question was likely a Los Angeles-based group that released "In the Beginning" on the Mercury label in 1967. Banks later said that they remained Genesis in the UK and put themselves down as Revelation in the US, giving additional meaning to the album's title. However, King's idea for the sleeve failed after shops had placed the album in their religious sections, "and it sank without trace". He later said that Decca was unable to promote the album effectively and get the exposure it needed to succeed, leaving him to carry out much of the work himself which he lacked enough experience in at the time.  The album sold 650 copies. Many record shops filed the album in their religious music sections, since the title "From Genesis to Revelation" was the only descriptive text on the album. Banks later deemed the material as merely poor renditions of their songs, rating "Silent Sun" and "In the Wilderness" as the strongest cuts.  Noel Gallagher is a fan of the album, saying, "I became obsessed with early Genesis" despite being a frequent critic of the group's later work, particularly the Phil Collins-led era. The track "If Love is the Law" from his album "Who Built the Moon?" was written as a pastiche of "The Conqueror".

Aftermath.

When the album failed to become a success, the group decided to split and resume education. This marked the end of their association with King, who had grown increasingly dissatisfied with the band directing their material away from mainstream pop. In addition, Genesis had fulfilled their contractual obligation with Decca with the release of "Where the Sour Turns to Sweet", and neither they nor King were interested in renewing the deal. In September 1969, Gabriel, Banks, Rutherford, and Phillips decided to make Genesis a full-time band and write on their own musical terms which had developed to what Phillips described as "original and dramatic".They replaced Silver with drummer John Mayhew, and toured England for six months. Their residency at Ronnie Scott's club in Soho, London caught the attention of Tony Stratton-Smith who signed them to his label, Charisma Records. Genesis began formulating the music that would be recorded on their next album, "Trespass".  Material that was put onto tape during this time but remained unreleased was included on the "Genesis Archive 1967–75" box set, in 1998. This included tracks on "From Genesis to Revelation" without the string arrangements. Some of the tapes had been in storage in Phillips's attic, and he initially pleaded the group not to release them due to what he considered was poor guitar work.  On 27 July 1990, the album was reissued in a two disc set. The second disc included the four tracks included on "And the Word Was...", four early versions of songs on the album, and ten interviews. On 25 October 2010, the album was released as a special edition on iTunes. It includes the bonus tracks from the 1990 reissue.

Reissues.

Although King initially had "From Genesis to Revelation" licensed to Decca Records on a short term basis, he continues to hold the rights to the album and has re-released it several times under a variety of titles. He chooses to reissue it when there is demand for it, and claimed that Genesis have not attempted to purchase the rights from him. Banks said the group did attempt to purchase the rights but King wanted "vast sums" for it. The album was not included in their "Genesis 1970–1975" box set which covers the rest of the band's era with Gabriel.

Track listing.

All songs written by Tony Banks, Peter Gabriel, Anthony Phillips, and Mike Rutherford.

Personnel.

Credits are adapted from the original 1969 release.  Genesis  Additional musicians  Production

References.

Sources

From Genesis to Revelation is the debut studio album by the English rock band Genesis, released in March 1969 on Decca Records. The album originated from a collection of demos recorded in 1967 while the members of Genesis were pupils of Charterhouse in Godalming, Surrey. It caught the attention of Jonathan King who named the group, organised deals with his publishing company and Decca, and studio time at Regent Sound Studios to record a series of singles and a full album. A string section arranged and conducted by Arthur Greenslade was added later on some songs. By the time Genesis had finished recording, John Silver had replaced original drummer Chris Stewart.

Genesis, début 1967, est formé de Peter Gabriel, Anthony Phillips, Tony Banks et Mike Rutherford. Le batteur Chris Stewart, qui jouait avec Peter et Tony à l'époque de Garden Wall, se joignit à eux pour le single ". Sur l'album toutefois, John Silver joua la batterie.


Plot.

Stanley Yelnats IV is a 14-year-old boy from a hard-working but poor family that is allegedly cursed, for which they blame Stanley's "no-good-dirty-rotten-pig-stealing great-great-grandfather". Stanley's latest stroke of misfortune occurs when he is wrongfully convicted of stealing a pair of athletic shoes that belonged to the famous baseball player Clyde "Sweet Feet" Livingston, who donated the shoes for a charity auction. He is sent to Camp Green Lake, a juvenile corrections facility which is ironically located in the middle of a desert; the lake dried up decades ago and is crawling with highly venomous yellow-spotted lizards, whose bites are always lethal. The inmates are assigned to dig one cylindrical hole each day, five feet wide and five feet deep, which the Warden claims "builds their character". The novel alternates this story with two set in the past, with interrelated but distinct plot lines.

Elya Yelnats.

Stanley's Latvian great-great-grandfather, Elya Yelnats, is in love with Myra, the most beautiful girl in the village. However, her father Morris would rather she married the much older pig farmer Igor, who offers Morris his fattest pig. Elya goes to his friend Madame Zeroni, an old Egyptian fortune teller with a missing foot, for help. Despite not approving of Myra as a partner for Elya and describing the girl as being stupid, Zeroni gives Elya a tiny piglet, telling him to carry it up a mountain every day and let it drink from a stream while singing a special song to it. Each time, the pig will grow bigger. Zeroni says that in return, Elya must then carry her up the mountain and sing to her. She warns him that if he does not do this, his family will be cursed.  Elya follows her directions—except the direction to do the routine for a final time on Myra’s birthday—and the pig grows to be just as large as Igor’s. However, after realizing Zeroni was right about Myra's lack of intelligence when she's unable to choose between him or Igor, Elya leaves in disgust and instead moves to America. He forgets his promise to Zeroni. Though he falls in love with and marries the kind and intelligent Sarah Miller, he becomes beset by bad luck. Elya tells Sarah about the curse and tells her to leave him. Sarah refuses to leave Elya and the song that he sang to the pig becomes a lullaby that is passed down among his descendants.

Kissin' Kate Barlow.

In the year 1888, the town of Green Lake is a flourishing lakeside community. Katherine Barlow, the white local schoolteacher, falls in love with Sam, an African-American onion seller, while rejecting advances from the wealthy Charles "Trout" Walker. There is an uproar in the town after Katherine and Sam are seen kissing. Seeing a dangerous mob gather, Katherine finds Sam and they attempt an escape across the lake in Sam's rowboat, but Walker and the mob intercept them with Walker's motorboat. Sam is shot dead, while Katherine is "rescued" against her wishes. From then on, no rain falls upon Green Lake again.  Three days later, Katherine kills the town sheriff as revenge for his refusal to help. She then becomes a prominent outlaw called "Kissin' Kate Barlow", nicknamed so for her calling card of leaving a red lipstick kiss on the cheeks of the men she kills. For the next twenty years, she robs multiple banks across the state of Texas. Among her victims are Stanley's great-grandfather. He was left stranded in the desert, but survived after finding refuge on "God's thumb". She returns to the ruins of Green Lake and is found by a now-destitute Trout Walker and his wife Linda, one of Katherine's former students who married Trout for his money. They try to force her to reveal where she buried the money she'd stolen, but she refuses, telling them they and their descendants can spend the rest of their lives digging in the desert and never find her loot. She is then bitten by a yellow-spotted lizard. Right before she succumbs to its venom, Katherine laughs and tells them to start digging.

Camp Green Lake.

The Warden allows the inmates the rest of their day off if they find anything "interesting". Stanley begins to suspect the Warden is looking for something. During one dig, he finds one of Barlow's lipstick tubes. He gives it to X-Ray, the ringleader of his group, who pretends to find it the next day. The Warden is excited by the discovery and orders them to enlarge X-Ray's hole. Stanley befriends Zero, a street child and a descendant of Madame Zeroni. Stanley teaches Zero to read in return for Zero digging part of Stanley's holes. This leads to an argument with the other inmates, and then the staff. Zero then flees. The camp staff decide to erase their records of Zero, whose full name is Hector Zeroni, and let him die in the desert.  A few days later, Stanley escapes the camp to look for Hector and finds him taking refuge under the remains of Sam's boat, subsisting on preserved jars of Kate Barlow's spiced peaches, which he calls "Sploosh". Hector refuses to go back to the camp. Stanley then notices a mountain in the distance that resembles a thumbs up sign, and recalls his great-grandfather claimed to find "refuge on God’s thumb" after being stranded in the desert by Kate Barlow. They journey across the desert and up the mountain, where they discover a field of onions that was once Sam's. The boys eat the onions and find water by digging in the ground, and Stanley sings Madame Zeroni's song to Hector, breaking the family curse. Hector then reveals that he was the one who stole Clyde Livingston's shoes. Wondering if their meeting was destiny, Stanley asks Hector if he wants to help him dig one last hole.  They return to camp and dig in the hole where Stanley first found the lipstick tube, unearthing a suitcase and venomous lizards. The Warden and the staff appear and demand they hand it over, but retreat because of the lizards, which are passive to Stanley and Zero due to the onions they consumed. The Warden is revealed to be Trout Walker's granddaughter and she's been using the camp and the inmates to find Kate Barlow's stolen treasure. Stanley's attorney appears at the camp, explaining that Stanley has been exonerated. Hector reveals the suitcase belongs to the Yelnats family, stopping the Warden from taking it. Fearing that the Warden will kill Hector if they leave him behind, Stanley refuses to leave unless Hector can come along. The attorney asks for Hector's file, but the camp staff are naturally unable to find it, so Hector is also released. Stanley and Hector then say goodbye to the other campers, and as they drive away, the drought in Green Lake comes to an end.  The suitcase contains financial documents that are worth close to a million dollars. Stanley's family buys a new house and Zero hires a team of investigators to find his missing mother. Stanley's father makes further money by inventing an antidote to foot odor, made from peaches and onions, and named "Sploosh", which is endorsed by Clyde Livingston. Meanwhile, Camp Green Lake is closed and sold to become a Girl Scouts' camp.

Setting.

Camp Green Lake is located on a dried-up lake in the U.S. state of Texas. The name is a false description, as the area is a parched, barren desert. The only weather is the scorching sun. No rain has fallen since the day Sam was murdered. The only plants mentioned are two oak trees in front of the Warden's cabin; the book notes that "the Warden owns the shade." The abandoned town of Green Lake is located by the side of the lakebed. Camp Green Lake is a juvenile detention center, where inmates spend most of their time digging holes. The majority of the book alternates between the present day story of Stanley Yelnats, the story of Elya Yelnats in Latvia (mid-1800s) and the story of Katherine Barlow in the town of Green Lake (about a generation later). Later chapters focus less on the past stories.

Themes.

Fairy tales.

The themes typical of a folk or fairy tale are present throughout the novel, notable in both Stanley and Elya's narratives. Elya must go on an adventure to win his love's approval and prove his own worth and he is eventually placed under a witch's curse. Stanley's bad luck is blamed on the curse left on his great-great-grandfather and the Yelnats family easily believes in the power of this curse. Both Stanley and Elya are similar to fairy tale characters and are morally good, heroic protagonists who must overcome the challenges predestined for them. Both story lines are accompanied by a magic that is seen in the mountain stream, Madame Zeroni's song, and the healing power of the onions. Each of these elements in "Holes" mirror elements frequently found in fairy tales.

Names.

Throughout the novel, names act as a theme that allows the characters to disassociate their lives at Camp Green Lake from their lives back in the real world. Names also demonstrate irony—Camp Green Lake is not actually a camp, it's located in a desert, and there is no lake. The "campers" all label themselves differently and identify with names such as Armpit and X-Ray and the guards are referred to as counselors. One of the counselors is referred to by the boys as "Mom", representing the absent parents at Camp Green Lake. Only the woman in charge is referred to in a prison-like way and is called "Warden". The different names allow the boys to bond and form a team based in their hatred for their work and the counselors. Many of the characters also have names that connect them to their family history, like the passing down of "Stanley Yelnats" and Zero's last name of Zeroni, and remind them how the actions of their ancestors affect their modern-day lives. Stanley is the fourth "Stanley Yelnats" in his family, a name that is passed down due to its palindromic nature and adds to the connection to family history.

Labor.

Labor is seen throughout the novel as the children are forced to dig holes while at Camp Green Lake. This theme is unusual in children's literature as many authors portray children as carefree and without responsibility. If they do engage in work, it is synonymous with play. Critic Maria Nikolajeva contends that "Holes" is set apart through the not just manual, but forced labor Stanley and the other campers do daily. This is first referenced at the beginning of the book when the purpose of the camp is stated: "If you take a bad boy and make him dig a hole every day in the hot sun, it will turn him into a good boy".

Public reception.

"Holes" has won numerous awards, most notably the 1998 U.S. National Book Award for Young People's Literature and the 1999 Newbery Medal for the year's "most distinguished contribution to American literature for children". It also won the William Allen White Children's Book Award in 2001. It continues to be well received by critics and was ranked number 6 among all-time children's novels by "School Library Journal" in 2012.  Betsy Hearne of "The New York Times" applauded the novel's integration of mystery and humor that manages to keep "Holes" light and fresh, and she characterizes it as a "family read-aloud." Roger Sutton of "The Horn Book Magazine" called Sachar's declarative style effective, and argues that it helped make the novel more poignant. Sutton appreciated the positive ending and the suspense that leads the reader to it.

Film adaptation.

In 2003, Walt Disney Pictures released a film version of "Holes", which was directed by Andrew Davis and written by Louis Sachar.

Sequels.

Two companion novels have followed "Holes": "Stanley Yelnats' Survival Guide to Camp Green Lake" (2003) and "Small Steps" (2006).

"Stanley Yelnats's Survival Guide to Camp Green Lake".

As Louis Sachar states: "Should you ever find yourself at Camp Green Lake—or somewhere similar—this is the guide for you." Written from Stanley's point of view, the book offers advice on everything from scorpions, rattlesnakes, yellow-spotted lizards, etc.

"Small Steps".

In this sequel to "Holes", former inmate Armpit is now 17 and struggling with the challenges facing an African American teenager with a criminal history. A new friendship with Ginny, who has cerebral palsy, a reunion with former friend X-Ray, a ticket-scalping scheme, a beautiful pop singer, and a frame-up all test Armpit’s resolve to "Just take small steps and keep moving forward".

Yellow-spotted lizards.

Yellow spotted lizards are a major plot element in "Holes," and it is said that one bite from them, and you are done for. In the book, they dislike onions, are aggressive, and form nests. In reality, yellow-spotted lizards are not aggressive towards humans, and are in fact secretive, and do not form nests.

Holes is a 1998 young adult novel written by Louis Sachar and first published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux. The book centers on an unlucky teenage boy named Stanley Yelnats, who is sent to Camp Green Lake, a juvenile corrections facility in a desert in Texas, after being falsely accused of theft. The plot explores the history of the area and how the actions of several characters in the past have affected Stanley's life in the present. These interconnecting stories touch on themes such as racism, homelessness, illiteracy, and arranged marriage.

Le Passage (titre original : "Holes", aussi connu sous le titre "La Morsure du lézard") est le plus célèbre des romans de Louis Sachar. Publié en 1998, ce roman de littérature jeunesse fut très bien accueilli autant par les lecteurs que par les critiques. Il est récipiendaire en 1999 de la médaille Newbery, prix littéraire décerné chaque année à l'œuvre ayant apporté la contribution la plus distinguée à la littérature jeunesse américaine, et couronné en


Features.

The Dark Engine's renderer, originally created by Sean Barrett in 1995, supports graphics similar to that of the original "Quake", with "Unreal"-like skybox effects and colored lighting introduced in "Thief II". Due to the limited hardware of the time, the Dark Engine was not designed with scalability in mind, and can therefore only display 1024 terrain polygons onscreen at once, as well as various other limits on objects and lights. In terms of textures, the game supports palletized PCX and TGA textures, in powers of two up to 256x256. Textures are grouped in "families" which share the same palette. There is a maximum of 216 textures and independent palettes, excluding 8 animated water textures.  The engine does not natively support advanced game scripting, with AI and object behavior being controlled by "Object Script Module" (.OSM) files, which are DLLs that are loaded at runtime. As such, new modules can be written and plugged into the level editor, DromEd, but are limited due to the scope of the functions made available by the core engine. In order to overcome this, editors must resort to complicated Rube Goldberg machine-like effects using a combination of its other systems.  For its time, the Dark Engine offered advanced AI and sound features, as well as a powerful object-oriented object system. The designer has full control of sound propagation within the level, and the "artificial intelligence" of the non-player characters (NPCs) allows for three levels of awareness: vague acknowledgement caused by mild visual or auditive disturbances, which only prompts a startled bit of dialogue; definite acknowledgement caused by significant visual or auditive disturbances, which causes the NPC to enter "search mode", and definite acquisition (triggered by visual on the fully lit player, or face-first contact with a player regardless of the light level), prompting a direct attack.

Source code.

In 2009, a complete copy of the Dark Engine source code was discovered in the possession of an ex-Looking Glass Studios employee who was at the time continuing his work for Eidos Interactive. The code was a complete set of the engine's resources, and included the libraries needed to compile the code. Fans of the "Thief" and "System Shock" series subsequently petitioned the publisher to consider releasing the code.  In late April 2010, a user on the "Dreamcast Talk" forum disassembled the contents of a Dreamcast development kit he had purchased. The contents of the kit included, among other things, items pertaining to ports of "Thief 2" and "System Shock 2" to that system. By December 2010, it had been discovered by the user and subsequently the greater Looking Glass Studios fan community that a compact disc included with the kit - the contents of which had been uploaded to the Internet - included a second copy of the Dark Engine source, minus the libraries needed to compile the code.  In September 2012, a significant unofficial update to the Dark Engine was published anonymously in a French forum, most probably based on the leaked Dreamcast source code. This unofficial patch extended the limits of the engine, introduced support for recent graphics and sound hardware, as well as better support for newer versions of Windows.

DromEd.

DromEd is the level editor for the Dark Engine. It was originally used in the design of "Thief: The Dark Project", but after a petition from the fan community it was released to the public, as were later versions.  There are four different versions of DromEd: for "Thief: The Dark Project", for "Thief Gold", for "Thief II", and lastly for "System Shock 2", commonly called "ShockEd." DromEd for "Thief: The Dark Project" and "Thief Gold" use the same version of the Dark Engine and therefore can open levels created for each game, although "Thief Gold" levels may refer to in-game objects that are not found in "Thief". "Thief II" uses a revised version of the Dark Engine, and therefore it is difficult to open levels created for "Thief" with DromEd for "Thief II". ShockEd is not compatible with any Dark Engine games aside from "System Shock 2". However, basic level geometry can be moved between editors using a geometry export feature called "multibrush". "System Shock 2" levels can be loaded by DromEd 2 with some work.  The name of the level editor, DromEd, is a reference to the original project it was designed for — a game based on the Arthurian legend of Camelot — the Camel becoming Dromedary and thence Dromed. DromEd has been used by fans to create hundreds of fan missions for "Thief" and "Thief II", and several missions for "System Shock 2".

The Dark Engine is a game engine developed by Looking Glass Studios and was used from 1998 to 2000, mainly in the early "Thief" games.

Le Dark Engine est un moteur de jeu créé en 1995 par Sean Barrett. Il a été utilisé pour les jeux "" (1998), "" (2000) et "System Shock 2" (1999).


Population.

According to the preliminary 2011 census results Dominica has a population of 71,293. The population growth rate is very low, due primarily to emigration to more prosperous Caribbean Islands, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and Australia. The estimated mid-year population of is ().

Vital statistics.

Structure of the population.

Structure of the population (31.12.2006) (Estimates) :

Ethnic groups.

The vast majority of Dominicans are of African descent (75% at the 2014 census). There is a significant mixed population (19%) at the 2014 census due to intermarriage, along with a small European origin minority (0.8%; descendants of French, British, and Irish colonists), East Indians (0.1%) groups, and there are small numbers of Lebanese/Syrians (0.1%) and Asians.

Amerindians.

Dominica is the only Eastern Caribbean island that still has a population of pre-Columbian native Caribs (also known as Kalinago), who were exterminated, driven from neighbouring islands, or mixed with Africans and/or Europeans. According to the 2001 census there are only 2,001 Caribs remaining (2.9% of the total population). A considerable growth occurred since the 1991 census when 1,634 Caribs were counted (2.4% of the total population). The Caribs live in eight villages on the east coast of Dominica. This special Carib Territory was granted by the British Crown in 1903. The present number of Kalinago is estimated at 4% more than 3,000.

Other demographic statistics.

Demographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.

Languages.

English is the official language and universally understood; however, because of historic French domination, Antillean Creole, a French-lexified creole language, is also widely spoken.

Religion.

According to the 2001 census, 91.2% percent of the population of Dominica is considered Christian, 1.6% has a non-Christian religion and 6.1% has no religion or did not state a religion (1.1%).  Roughly two thirds of Christians are Roman Catholics (61.4% of the total population), a reflection of early French influence on the island, and one third are Protestant. The Evangelicals constitute the largest Protestant group, with 6.7% of the population. Seventh-day Adventists are the second largest group (6.1%). The next largest group are Pentecostals (5.6% of the population), followed by Baptists (4.1%). Other Christians include Methodists (3.7%), Church of God (1.2%), Jehovah's Witnesses (1.2%), Anglicanism (0.6%) and Brethren Christian (0.3%). During the past decades the number of Roman Catholics and Anglicans has decreased, while the number of other Protestants has increased, especially Evangelicals, Seventh-day Adventists, Pentecostals (5.6% of the population) and Baptists).  The number of non-Christians is small. These religious groups include the Rastafarian Movement (1.3% of the population), Hinduism (0.1%) and Muslims (0.2%).

This article is about the demographic features of the population of Dominica, including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.

Presque tous les habitants de la Dominique sont des descendants des esclaves africains achetés par les propriétaires de plantations coloniales au. La Dominique est la seule île de l'est de la mer des Caraïbes qui maintient une population précolombienne (le peuple Caraïbes), qui représentent environ qui vivent sur la côte est de l'île.


History.

This trick is an impressive show of skill, sometimes seen in street soccer or futsal. It is rarely used in modern professional football, as it has a relatively low success rate, but players with high confidence and skill may attempt it from time to time as a feint, to beat opposing players when dribbling. It has been used by top players such as Jay-Jay Okocha or Neymar. In fact, it was first executed in 1968 by Brazilian football player Alexandre de Carvalho "Kaneco". The rainbow kick was performed at the 2002 FIFA World Cup when Turkey's İlhan Mansız, in what was described as a "sombrero" move of "outrageous skill", flicked the ball over both his head and the head of Brazil's world-class side-back Roberto Carlos, forcing Carlos into a foul. Sometimes the use of tricks like the rainbow kick are seen as showboating and disrespectful to the opposing team. In March 2008, the Sheffield Wednesday player Franck Songo'o, on his debut loan appearance for the Championship side against Queens Park Rangers, attempted the trick in the closing minutes of the game, which Wednesday were leading, with one match report commenting that the referee "quickly called a halt to proceedings as Rangers players piled in threatening to lynch the Frenchman".  The rainbow kick appears in a famous sequence in the 1981 film "Escape to Victory", when the trick is used by the character played by Ossie Ardiles, which led to the name of "Ardiles flick". One review described it thus: "the all time special effects highlight being when Ossie Ardiles flicks the ball over his head".  The trick has also been featured in football computer games, including "FIFA 08", where it is described as "One of the most famous soccer moves". Brazilian Superstar Neymar is a notable exponent of the rainbow flick in the modern game.

The rainbow kick (also called the reverse flick-over, the rainbow flick, the Carretilha or the Lambreta in Brazil, the Lambretta in Italy, the Brazilian in Romanica, the Ardiles flick in the UK, the arco iris in Spain, the Okocha-Trick in Germany and the coup du sombrero in France) is a trick used in association football, in which a player steps to the side of the ball and flicks it up round from the side of them. The trajectory of the ball gives this trick its name. The trick is usually performed while running forward with the ball, and is done by rolling the ball up the back of one leg with the other foot, before flicking the standing foot upwards to propel the ball forward and over the head.

Le coup du sombrero est, au football, un geste technique consistant à faire passer le ballon par-dessus son adversaire pour l'éliminer en la coinçant pour qu'elle saute. La trajectoire du ballon s'apparente alors à un sombrero imaginaire que porterait l'adversaire.


Prelude to battle.

On 31 March 1844 news from French Admiral De Moges from the frigate "La Neréide", warned of a flotilla of Haitian vessels that had been raiding the coast of the Ocoa Bay and transporting supplies to the Haitian Army in Azua. He recommended President Tomás de Bobadilla y Briones of the Junta Central Gubernativa, to order all ships in Santo Domingo be used for war. Conscripts for the new navy gathered at "Puerta de la Misericordia", among them were Juan Alejandro Acosta, José Antonio Sanabia, Joaquín Orta, Teodoro Ariza, Pedro Tomás Garrido y Fermín González.  Juan Alejandro Acosta together with some fellow merchants, armed two schooners. Acosta received the schooner "Eleonore" (renamed "San José") from the British merchant Abraham Cohen and was followed by the Genoese merchant Juan Bautista Maggiolo who received the schooner "María Chica" from the Catalan merchants José and Francisco Ginebra. Both schooners set sail in early April to "Aguas de la Estancia", Baní to meet there with Commander Juan Bautista Cambiaso, another Genoese merchant.

The battle.

On 13 April 1844 three schooners led by Commander Juan Bautista Cambiaso set sail from "Aguas de la Estancia". Cambiaso leading the schooner "Separación Dominicana" (flagship), the Captain Juan Bautista Maggiolo led the "María Chica" and Lieutenant Juan Alejandro Acosta led the "San José".  Two days later, on 15 April 1844 Commander Cambiaso sighted three vessels off shore bombarding Puerto Tortuguero, Azua. The three vessels were the "Pandora", "La Mouche" and "Le Signifie". Cambiaso quickly decided to engage the fleet and after a combination of manoeuvres the enemy succumbed. All three enemy vessels were sunk. Almost all sailors died in the battle and there is no record of any survivor from the sinkings.

Aftermath.

News from this victory travelled fast and on 23 April 1844 the Junta Central Gubernativa authorised to incorporate these three schooners in the newly created Dominican Navy, and Commander Cambiaso was appointed to the rank of Admiral. Haitian presence at sea vanished after this engagement, which ensured naval supremacy for the newborn nation.

The Battle of Tortuguero was the first naval battle of the Dominican War of Independence and was fought on 15 April 1844 at Tortuguero, Azua Province. A force of three Dominican schooners led by Commander Juan Bautista Cambiaso defeated a force of three vessels of the Haitian Navy. Though it was a minor naval battle engagement, it determined the naval supremacy of the Dominican Republic over Haiti until the end of the war.

La Bataille de Tortuguero est une bataille navale livrée le pendant la guerre haïtiano-dominicaine (1844-1856). Trois goélettes dominicaines, commandées par le commandant Juan Batista Cambiaso, repoussent un brigantin et deux goélettes haïtiennes, lors du premier combat jamais livré par la marine dominicaine. Le 15 avril est célébré aujourd'hui par la marine dominicaine comme celui du jour de sa fondation.


Episodes.

Alternate ending.

The last episode of "Models Inc." ended with a cliffhanger that left multiple storylines unresolved. Later, the series aired in the European market with an alternate ending that featured Grayson's death and Hillary shuttering Models Inc. The series was subsequently aired on E! with the new ending.

Development.

"Models Inc." is the third series in the "Beverly Hills, 90210" franchise, and a direct spin-off of "Melrose Place". In its 1993–94 second season, "Melrose Place" was one of Fox's highest-rated shows, and had been called "arguably the hottest one-hour drama on television". In December 1993, Fox announced plans for a "Melrose Place" spin-off called "Models Inc.", set in a Los Angeles modeling agency. Spelling said, "[Fox] asked if we would do an eight-hour series. And we came up with "Models"." He initially explained that the series would center on "Melrose Place" character Jo Reynolds (Daphne Zuniga), and that two models would move into the titular apartment complex on "Melrose Place" before being transplanted into the new series. "Entertainment Weekly" also reported that the estranged mother of Amanda Woodward (Heather Locklear) would be introduced on "Melrose Place" to eventually lead "Models Inc.", and Locklear would not be headlining the new series as previously reported. Darren Star, the creator of both "Beverly Hills, 90210" and "Melrose Place", was not involved with "Models Inc.", which was created by Charles Pratt Jr. and Frank South, and executive produced by Aaron Spelling, Pratt, South, and E. Duke Vincent. Star said of the potential series, "It was one spin-off too many for me", though Spelling noted, "No one even thinks of "Melrose" as a spin-off anymore."  Farrah Fawcett was considered for the lead role in "Models Inc.", which ultimately went to Linda Gray. The rest of the cast were unknowns, and Spelling promised "a great deal of backbiting" on the new series. Gray's Hillary Michaels, Amanda's mother, was introduced in the last few episodes of "Melrose Place" second season to set up the new series.  After five months, producers were not satisfied with "Models Inc." Nielsen ratings, and Pratt said, "I'm willing to try anything to keep this show on the air." A new direction in the writing dropped implausible storylines and promised "more romance, more modeling, and more personal traumas". Brian Gaskill was written off, and Emma Samms was brought in as villainess Grayson Louder. With Fox promoting her as the Heather Locklear of "Models Inc.", Samms said, "I will do the best I can, but I can't concern myself with whatever expectations there are."

Broadcast.

"Models Inc." aired on the Fox television network during the 1994–95 television season, premiering on. Despite the presence of Gray and the mid-series introduction of Samms, the show's ratings remained poor, and it was canceled in 1995 when it placed 113th in the ratings with an average 7.1 rating.

Home media.

Reception.

Ken Tucker of "Entertainment Weekly" praised Kylie Travis, calling her the show's "major casting coup", but added that "Models Inc." was "trying much too hard to match "Melrose" for self-consciously outrageous campiness." Tony Scott wrote in "Variety", "No one does much acting, since not much is required, but the posturings are pretty. The couplings are so far uninviting, the script by creators South and Pratt off-the-rack material." David Hiltbrand of "People" described the show as "part underwear ad, part catfight, part "Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous" and part psycho ward" and noting that "so far it's also pretty stiff and strident, particularly in regard to the acting."

Models Inc. is an American prime time soap opera that aired on the Fox television network during the 1994–95 television season. It is the third series in the "Beverly Hills, 90210" franchise. "Models Inc." revolves around a Los Angeles modeling agency run by Hillary Michaels (Linda Gray), the mother of "Melrose Place" Amanda Woodward (Heather Locklear). The series was created by Frank South and Charles Pratt Jr., and executive produced by Aaron Spelling, South, Pratt, and E. Duke Vincent. "Models Inc." is the only series in the "Beverly Hills, 90210" franchise not to receive a DVD release to date.

Models Inc. est un feuilleton télévisé américain en 29 épisodes (un pilote de 90 minutes et 28 épisodes de 42 minutes), créé par Charles Pratt Jr. et Frank South, produit par Aaron Spelling et diffusé entre le et le sur le réseau FOX.


Biography.

Federico was son of Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua and Isabella d'Este. Due to the turbulent politics of the time, from the age of ten, he spent three years as a hostage in Rome under Pope Julius II. From 1515 to 1517, Federico was the hostage of King Francis I of France, to ensure Gonzaga assistance in Italy.  On 3 April 1519, Federico succeeded his father as Marquis of Mantua, initially under the regency of his mother and his uncles Sigismondo and Giovanni Gonzaga. He received the imperial investiture from emperor Charles V on 7 April 1521. Pope Leo X named him Captain General of the Church (commander in chief of the Papal Army) in July 1521, and he fought against the French at Parma in 1521 and at Piacenza in 1522.  Federico signed a marriage contract with the heir to the Marquisate of Monteferrat, Maria Palaeologina, with the aim of acquiring that land. Although in 1528, in exchange for two prisoners Pope Clement VII voided the marriage contract.  Federico then signed another marriage contract with Charles V's third cousin, Julia of Aragon. In lieu of this move, in 1530 he was granted the ducal title, whereby their dynasty became Dukes of Mantua. However, when Boniface died by a fall from horse on 25 March of that year, Federico paid 50,000 ducats to Charles in exchange for the annulment of the contract, and pushed the pope for the restoration of his earlier marriage agreement. When Maria also died, he was able to marry her sister Margaret on 3 October 1531. At the death of the last legitimate male heir of the Palaiologos family, Giovanni Giorgio (1533), the marquisate of Montferrat passed to the Gonzaga, who held it until the 18th century.  Like his parents, he was a patron of the arts; he commissioned the Palazzo Te, designed and decorated by Giulio Romano, as his summer palace just outside Mantua. Romano spent 16 years as court artist under Federico's patronage. He also bought and commissioned several paintings from Titian, and had his portrait painted by both Titian and Raphael.  Federico suffered long from syphilis, like his father. He died on 28 June 1540 at his villa at Marmirolo. His son Francesco briefly held the title of 2nd Duke of Mantua before dying in his teens; the second son, Gugliemo, became 3rd Duke of Mantua as well as Duke of Montferrat and carried on the line.

Family and issue.

Federico and Margaret were parents to seven children:

Federico II of Gonzaga (17 May 1500 – 28 August 1540) was the ruler of the Italian city of Mantua (first as Marquis, later as Duke) from 1519 until his death. He was also Marquis of Montferrat from 1536.

Frédéric II de Gonzague, en italien Federico II Gonzaga, est un noble italien de la Maison de Gonzague né le à Mantoue et mort le à Marmirolo. Il fut le cinquième marquis et de Mantoue (région de Lombardie en Italie), titré Frédéric II, et marquis de Montferrat (région du Piémont), titré Frédéric I.


Ritsuryō organization and hierarchy.

The eighth century ritsuryō innovations would prove to be remarkably durable and resilient across the span of centuries.  Any exercise of meaningful powers of court officials reached its nadir during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate, and yet the "Daijō-kan" did manage to persist intact through the initial years of the Meiji Restoration. It is not possible to assess or evaluate any individual office without assessing its role in the context of a durable yet flexible network and hierarchy of functionaries.  In the early Meiji period, the appointed Imperial "Daijo-kan" was filled with princes, aristocrats, loyalists domain lords ("daimyō"), and samurai.  Within months after Emperor Meiji's Charter Oath, the ancient ritsuryō structure was slightly modified with an express focus on the separation of legislative, administrative, and judicial functions within the "Daijō-kan" system. The evolution of a deliberative body within a modern constitutional system was gradual, and its constituent differences from the old "Daijō-kan" were not entirely self-evident at first, as revealed in an Imperial message in 1869:  Some months later, another major reform of the "Daijō-kan" re-united the legislative and executive functions which had been clearly separated earlier.  In 1871, The office of "Daijō-daijin" in the Great Council of State was briefly resurrected under the Meiji Constitution with the appointment of Sanjō Sanetomi. Despite the similarity of names for its constituent offices, this "Daijō-kan" would have been unrecognizable to Fujiwara courtiers of the Heian period. Nor would it have seemed at all familiar to those men who surrounded the emperor in the days of the Kenmu Restoration. In due course, it was decided that a modern integrated cabinet system would better serve a modern Japan. The "Daijō-kan" system, which had been divided into ministerial committees, would be replaced by a more modern model.  In December 1885, the old system was abolished completely; and yet, even afterwards, some elements of old system were adapted to new uses. For example, in that year, the title of "Naidaijin" was reconfigured to mean the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan in the Imperial Court. The man who had previously held the office of prime minister or chief minister of the initial restoration government was the "Daijō-daijin", Sanjō Sanetomi. Sanjō petitioned the emperor to be relieved of his ancient ritsuryō office; and he was then immediately appointed "Naidaijin", or Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal. The office of the Privy Seal was identical with the old "Naidaijin" only in its Japanese title—not in terms of function or powers.

Council of State.

This dry catalog does provide a superficial glimpse inside the complexity of what was initially designed as a pre-feudal court structure. What this list cannot easily explain is how or why the "Daijō-kan" turned out to be both flexible and useful across a span of centuries:

Ritsuryō Eight Ministries.

The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a multi-faceted bureaucracy focused on serving the needs of the Emperor, the Imperial family, the Imperial Household and the Imperial state.  Imperial power and prestige would wax and wane during the subsequent Kamakura-, Kenmu-, Muromachi-, Nanboku-chō-, Sengoku-, Azuchi–Momoyama-, and Edo-periods; nevertheless, the basic structure of the Imperial household remained largely unchanged. A mere list of the court titles cannot reveal nearly enough about the actual functioning of the "Daijō-kan"; but the hierarchical relationships sketch a general context.

Ministry of the Center.

The Taihō Code established a, sometimes identified as the "Ministry of Central Affairs." This ministry became the governmental agency for matters most closely pertaining to the emperor.  In the 18th century, the top "ritsuryō" official within this subdivision of the "daijō-kan" was the. This official had the responsibility to oversee the inspection of the interior apartments of the palace; and he was granted the privilege of retaining his swords in the presence of the emperor.  Considered central were the, 8 positions. There are 8 officials with this title, all equal in rank and in the confidence of the Emperor. In the Meiji period, a variant equerry was introduced as part of the Imperial retinue. As explained in an excerpt from the : " will perform attendant duties and will relay to him military matters and orders, be present at military reviews [in his name] and accompanying him to formal ceremonies and interviews."

Ministry of Civil Services.

The Taihō Code established a ; also known as the "Ministry of Legislative Direction and Public Instruction". This ministry collected and maintained biographical archives of meritorious subjects.  In the 18th century, the top "ritsuryō" official within this subdivision of the "daijō-kan" was the ; also known as "Chief minister of public instruction." This office is ordinarily filled by a son or close relative of the emperor. Two of the offices which were deemed to fit in this "civil services" context were the Imperial court's. and the Emperor's.

Ministry of Ceremonies.

The Taihō Code established a ; also known as the "Ministry of the Interior".  In the 18th century, the top "ritsuryō" official within this subdivision of the "daijō-kan" was the.

Ministry of Popular Affairs.

The Taihō Code established a. This ministry is concerned with the general populace, with police activities, and with land survey records. Registries for all towns and villages are maintained, including census records as well as birth and death records.  In the 18th century, the top "ritsuryō" official within this subdivision of the "daijō-kan" was the.

Ministry of War.

Ministry of Justice.

Ministry of the Treasury.

The Taihō Code established a.  In the 18th century, the top "ritsuryō" official within this subdivision of the "daijō-kan" was the. This official supervises the receipt of tributes from the provinces and imposes tribute on others.

Ministry of the Imperial Household.

The Taihō Code established a. The origins of the current can be traced back to structures which were put into effect during the reign of Emperor Monmu, with some subsequent modifications.  In 1702, the Taika era name for the palace organization, "kunai-kan" or "government" of the palace, was changed to the "kunai-shō" or "ministry" of the palace. Accompanying this modification, the chief administrative official was afterwards called "kunai-kyō". After the Meiji Restoration, the "kunai-shō" name remained unchanged. There were two other periods of modification and in 1889.  In the 18th century, the top "ritsuryō" officials within this hierarchic structure were:  The deliberate redundancies at the top were common features of each position in this stable hierarchic schema. Many positions typically mirrored the "-kyō," "-taifu," "-shō," "-jō," and "-sakan" pattern.

Tokugawa courtiers.

Even nominal administrative powers of court officials reached a nadir during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate. In this impoverished period, titles and court rank were still prized by those outside the traditional "kuge". The Tokugawa shōguns did not demur when the Emperor offered rank and an office in the court:

Geo-political sub-divisions.

The country was divided into provinces called, which were administered by governors appointed by the "Daijō-kan". The provinces were then further divided into districts called, under district governors who were appointed by the local nobility. At the beginning of the eighth century, there were 592 districts making up 66 provinces.

The, also known as the Great Council of State, was (i) ("Daijō-kan") the highest organ of Japan's premodern Imperial government under Ritsuryō legal system during and after the Nara period or (ii) ("Dajō-kan") the highest organ of Japan's government briefly restored to power after the Meiji Restoration, which was replaced by the Cabinet.

Le daijō-kan ou daijokan () était le département d'État du gouvernement japonais pendant les époques de Nara et de Heian. Créé par le code de Taihō (, "taihō ritsuryō") en 702, le "daijō-kan" était dirigé par le grand conseil d'État et par le "daijō-daijin" (, « chancelier du royaume »). Lui, ainsi que ses ministres, étaient chargés des affaires séculières et administratives du pays, alors que le "jingi-kan" (, « département du culte ») s'occupait des problèmes touchant aux rites shintō, au clergé et aux lieux de culte.