Concept.

The phrase "Wizard of Oz" (originally "OZ Paradigm") has come into common usage in the fields of experimental psychology, human factors, ergonomics, linguistics, and usability engineering to describe a testing or iterative design methodology wherein an experimenter (the “wizard”), in a laboratory setting, simulates the behavior of a theoretical intelligent computer application (often by going into another room and intercepting all communications between participant and system). Sometimes this is done with the participant's prior knowledge and sometimes it is a low-level deceit employed to manage the participant's expectations and encourage natural behaviors.  For example, a test participant may think he or she is communicating with a computer using a speech interface, when the participant's words are actually being secretly entered into the computer by a person in another room (the “wizard”) and processed as a text stream, rather than as an audio stream. The missing system functionality that the wizard provides may be implemented in later versions of the system (or may even be speculative capabilities that current-day systems do not have), but its precise details are generally considered irrelevant to the study. In testing situations, the goal of such experiments may be to observe the use and effectiveness of a proposed user interface by the test participants, rather than to measure the quality of an entire system.

Origin.

John F. (“Jeff”) Kelley coined the phrases “Wizard of OZ” and “OZ Paradigm” for this purpose circa 1980 to describe the method he developed during his dissertation work at Johns Hopkins University. (His dissertation advisor was the late professor Alphonse Chapanis, the “Godfather of Human Factors and Engineering Psychology”.) Amusingly enough, in addition to some one-way mirrors and such, there literally was a blackout curtain separating Jeff, as the “Wizard”, from view by the participant during the study.  The “Experimenter-in-the-Loop” technique had been pioneered at Chapanis’ Communications Research Lab at Johns Hopkins as early as 1975 (J. F. Kelley arrived in 1978). W. Randolph Ford used the experimenter-in-the-loop technique with his innovative CHECKBOOK program wherein he obtained language samples in a naturalistic setting. In Ford's method, a preliminary version of the natural language processing system would be placed in front of the user. When the user entered a syntax that was not recognized, they would receive a “Could you rephrase that?” prompt from the software. After the session, the algorithms for processing the newly obtained samples would be created or enhanced and another session would take place. This approach led to the eventual development of his natural language processing technique, "Multi-Stage Pattern Reduction". Dr. Ford's recollection was that Dr. Kelley did in fact coin the phrase "Wizard of Oz Paradigm" but that the technique had been employed in at least two separate studies before Dr. Kelley had started conducting studies at the Johns Hopkins Telecommunications Lab. A similar early use of the technique to model a Natural Language Understanding system being developed at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center was done by Allen Munro and Don Norman around 1975 at the University of California, San Diego. Again, the name "Wizard of Oz" had not yet been applied to this technique. The results were published in a 1977 paper by the team (Bobrow, et al.).  In that employment the experimenter (the “Wizard”) sat at a terminal in an adjacent room separated by a one-way mirror so the subject could be observed. Every input from the user was processed correctly by a combination of software processing and real-time experimenter intervention. As the process was repeated in subsequent sessions, more and more software components were added so that the experimenter had less and less to do during each session until asymptote was reached on phrase/word dictionary growth and the experimenter could “go get a cup of coffee” during the session (which at this point was a cross-validation of the final system's unattended performance).  A final point: Dr. Kelley's recollection of the coinage of the term is backed up by that of the late professor Al Chapanis. In their 1985 University of Michigan technical report, Green and Wei-Haas state the following: "The first appearance of the "Wizard of Oz" name in print was in Jeff Kelley's thesis (Kelley, 1983a, 1983b, 1984a). It is thought the name was coined in response to a question at a graduate seminar at Hopkins (Chapanis, 1984; Kelley, 1984b). "What happens if the subject sees the experimenter [behind the "curtain" in an adjacent room acting as the computer]?" Kelley answered: "Well, that's just like what happened to Dorothy in the Wizard of Oz." And so the name stuck." (Cited by permission.)  There is also a passing reference to planned use of the "Wizard of Oz experiments" in a 1982 proceedings paper by Ford and Smith.  One fact, presented in Kelley's dissertation, about the etymology of the term in this context: Dr. Kelley did originally have a definition for the “OZ” acronym (aside from the obvious parallels with the 1900 book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L Frank Baum). “Offline Zero” was a reference to the fact that an experimenter (the “Wizard”) was interpreting the users’ inputs in real time during the simulation phase.  Similar experimental setups had occasionally been used earlier, but without the "Wizard of Oz" name. Design researcher Nigel Cross conducted studies in the 1960s with "simulated" computer-aided design systems where the purported simulator was actually a human operator, using text and graphical communication via CCTV. As he explained, "All that the user perceives of the system is this remote-access console, and the remainder is a black box to him.... one may as well fill the black box with people as with machinery. Doing so provides a comparatively cheap simulator, with the remarkable advantages of the human operator's flexibility, memory, and intelligence, and which can be reprogrammed to give a wide range of computer roles merely by changing the rules of operation. It sometimes lacks the real computer's speed and accuracy, but a team of experts working simultaneously can compensate to a sufficient degree to provide an acceptable simulation." Cross later referred to this as a kind of Reverse Turing test.

Significance.

The Wizard of OZ method is very powerful. In its original application, Dr. Kelley was able to create a simple keyboard-input natural language recognition system that far exceeded the recognition rates of any of the far more complex systems of the day.  The thinking current among many computer scientists and linguists at the time was that, in order for a computer to be able to “understand” natural language enough to be able to assist in useful tasks, the software would have to be attached to a formidable “dictionary” having a large number of categories for each word. The categories would enable a very complex parsing algorithm to unravel the ambiguities inherent in naturally produced language. The daunting task of creating such a dictionary led many to believe that computers simply would never truly “understand” language until they could be “raised” and “experience life” as humans, since humans seem to apply a life's worth of experiences to the interpretation of language.  The key enabling factor for the first use of the OZ method was that the system was designed to work in a single context (calendar-keeping), which constrained the complexity of language encountered from users to the extent where a simple language processing model was sufficient to meet the goals of the application. The processing model was a two-pass keyword/keyphrase matching approach, based loosely on the algorithms employed in Weizenbaum's famous Eliza program. By inducing participants to generate language samples in the context of solving an actual task (using a computer that they believed actually understood what they were typing), the variety and complexity of the lexical structures gathered was greatly reduced and simple keyword matching algorithms could be developed to address the actual language collected.  This first use of OZ was in the context of an iterative design approach. In the early development sessions, the experimenter simulated the system "in toto", performing all the database queries and composing all the responses to the participants by hand. As the process matured, the experimenter was able to replace human interventions, piece by piece, with newly created developed code (which, at each phase, was designed to accurately process all the inputs that were generated in preceding steps). By the end of the process, the experimenter was able to observe the sessions in a “hands-off” mode (and measure the recognition rates of the completed program).  OZ was important because it addressed the obvious criticism:  The answer turned out to be:  "By using an empirical approach like OZ, anyone can afford to do this; Dr. Kelley’s dictionary and syntax growth reached asymptote (achieving from 86% to 97% recognition rates, depending on the measurements employed) after only 16 experimental trials and the resulting program, with dictionaries, was less than 300k of code."  In the 23 years that followed initial publication, the OZ method has been employed in a wide variety of settings, notably in the prototyping and usability testing of proposed user interface designs in advance of having actual application software in place.

Fictional references.

The name of the experiment comes from "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz" story, in which an ordinary man hides behind a curtain and pretends, through the use of "amplifying" technology, to be a powerful wizard.  In David Lodge's novel, a university lecturer in English literature is introduced to a computer program named ELIZA, which he believes is capable of conducting a coherent conversation with him. It transpires that a computer lecturer is operating the computer and providing all the responses. The original ELIZA program, providing basic but often surprisingly human-like responses to questions, was written at MIT by Joseph Weizenbaum in the 1960s.

References.

Here are some of the original (and subsequent) references on the subject (the method has been picked up in many research domains, and there are numerous subsequent references, only a few of which are listed here).  Summary of the technical aspects of the work:  Kelley, J. F., “CAL – A Natural Language program developed with the OZ Paradigm: Implications for Supercomputing Systems”. First International Conference on Supercomputing Systems (St. Petersburg, Florida, 16–20 December 1985), New York, ACM, pp. 238–248.  Brief description of the method:  Kelley, J. F., “An empirical methodology for writing user-friendly natural language computer applications”. Proceedings of ACM SIG-CHI ’83 Human Factors in Computing systems (Boston, 12–15 December 1983), New York, ACM, pp. 193-196.  The best description of the method:  Kelley, J. F., “An iterative design methodology for user-friendly natural language office information applications”. ACM Transactions on Office Information Systems, March 1984, 2:1, pp. 26–41.  The unpublished dissertation itself:  Kelley, J. F., “Natural Language and computers: Six empirical steps for writing an easy-to-use computer application”. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the Johns Hopkins University, 1983. (Item 8321592 can be obtained from University Microfilms International; 300 North Zeeb Road; Ann Arbor; Michigan; 48106; USA.)  The University of California, San Diego work:  Bobrow, D., Kaplan, R., Kay, M., Norman, D., Thompson, H., & Winograd, T. (1977). GUS, a frame-driven dialog system. "Artificial Intelligence, 8:2 (April 1977) 155-173., 8"(2), 155–173.  Subsequent references and implementations (a sampling of approximately 30 years of citations):  Schieben, A., "et al." 2009, "The theater-system technique: agile designing and testing of system behavior and interaction, applied to highly automated vehicles." In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications (Essen, Germany, 2009). ACM Press, New York, USA. Akers, D. 2006. Wizard of Oz for participatory design: inventing a gestural interface for 3D selection of neural pathway estimates. In CHI ’06 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Montréal, Québec, Canada, April 22–27, 2006). CHI ’06. ACM Press, New York, USA, 454-459. Höysniemi, J., Hämäläinen, P., and Turkki, L. 2004. Wizard of Oz prototyping of computer vision based action games for children. In Proceedings of the 2004 Conference on interaction Design and Children: Building A Community (Maryland, June 1–03, 2004). IDC ’04. ACM Press, New York, USA, 27-34. Molin, L. 2004. Wizard-of-Oz prototyping for co-operative interaction design of graphical user interfaces. In Proceedings of the Third Nordic Conference on Human-Computer interaction (Tampere, Finland, October 23–27, 2004). NordiCHI ’04, vol. 82. ACM Press, New York, USA, 425-428. Lai, J., and Yankelovich, N. 2003. Conversational speech interfaces. In the Human-Computer interaction Handbook: Fundamentals, Evolving Technologies and Emerging Applications, J. A. Jacko and A. Sears, Eds. Human Factors And Ergonomics. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, USA, 698-713.  Gleicher, M. L., Heck, R. M., and Wallick, M. N. 2002. A framework for virtual videography. In Proceedings of the 2nd international Symposium on Smart Graphics (Hawthorne, New York, June 11–13, 2002). SMARTGRAPH ’02, vol. 24. ACM Press, New York, USA, 9-16. Klemmer, S. R., Sinha, A. K., Chen, J., Landay, J. A., Aboobaker, N., and Wang, A. 2000. Suede: a Wizard of Oz prototyping tool for speech user interfaces. In Proceedings of the 13th Annual ACM Symposium on User interface Software and Technology (San Diego, California, United States, November 06–08, 2000). UIST ’00. ACM Press, New York, USA, 1-10. Hewett, Thomas T. (et al.), “Curricula for Human-Computer Interaction”, ACM SIGCHI, 1992, 1996, Chapter 2. Piernot, P. P., Felciano, R. M., Stancel, R., Marsh, J., and Yvon, M. 1995. Designing the PenPal: blending hardware and software in a user-interface for children. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Denver, Colorado, United States, May 7–11, 1995). I. R. Katz, R. Mack, L. Marks, M. B. Rosson, and J. Nielsen, Eds. Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. ACM Press/Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., New York, USA, 511–518. Prager, J. M., Lamberti, D. M., Gardner, D. L., and Balzac, S. R. 1990. REASON: an intelligent user assistant for interactive environments. IBM Syst. J. 29, 1 (Jan. 1990), 141–164.  Dahlbäck, N. and Jönsson, A. 1989. Empirical studies of discourse representations for natural language interfaces. In Proceedings of the Fourth Conference on European Chapter of the Association For Computational Linguistics (Manchester, England, April 10–12, 1989). European Chapter Meeting of the ACL. Association for Computational Linguistics, Morristown, New Jersey, USA, 291–298. Carroll, J., and Aaronson, A. 1988. Learning by doing with simulated intelligent help. Commun. ACM 31, 9 (Aug. 1988), 1064–1079. Gould, J. D. and Lewis, C. 1985. Designing for usability: key principles and what designers think. Commun. ACM 28, 3 (Mar. 1985), 300–311. Green, P., and Wei-Haas, L. 1985. The Rapid Development of User Interfaces: Experience with the Wizard of OZ Method. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, volume 29, number 5, 1985, pp. 470 – 474 (5). Embley, D. W., and Kimbrell, R. E. 1985. A scheme-driven natural language query translator. In Proceedings of the 1985 ACM Thirteenth Annual Conference on Computer Science (New Orleans, Louisiana, United States). CSC ’85. ACM Press, New York, USA, 292–297. Good, M. D., Whiteside, J. A., Wixon, D. R., and Jones, S. J. 1984. Building a user-derived interface. Commun. ACM 27, 10 (Oct. 1984), 1032–1043. Several dozen references here.

In the field of human–computer interaction, a Wizard of Oz experiment is a research experiment in which subjects interact with a computer system that subjects believe to be autonomous, but which is actually being operated or partially operated by an unseen human being.

L'expérience du magicien d'Oz (ou technique) est une expérience dans le domaine de l'interaction homme-machine et de l'ergonomie informatique dans laquelle les sujets interagissent avec un système informatisé qu'ils croient autonome, mais qui est en fait totalement ou partiellement contrôlé par un humain.


Club career.

Wright was born at 33 Belmont Road, Ironbridge, Shropshire. His association with Wolves began in 1938 when, after being encouraged by his school teacher to respond to a newspaper advertisement inviting boys for trials, he was taken on as a member of their ground staff. He was only 14 years old when he made his debut for Wolves in a B team game against Walsall Wood in the Walsall Minor League.  He had been accepted on an eight-month trial by Major Frank Buckley, who initially told Wright he was "too small" but changed his mind. He made his first team debut for the club aged just 15 in a 2–1 win at Notts County in 1939. This game was played shortly after the start of World War II, so it is not counted as the official debut. His official debut came in the 1945–46 FA Cup in a two legged tie against Lovells Athletic.  He signed as a professional at 17, but the deepening effects of World War II soon forced Wolves to suspend competitive football. Wright turned out as a guest for Leicester City, playing as both a forward and a defender before he returned to Molineux in 1942. A bad ankle break put his sporting career in doubt but he recovered, joined the army in 1943 as a physical training instructor, and played for Wolves whenever possible, making over 100 appearances in wartime football.  He became club captain soon after the end of the conflict, with the playing retirement of Stan Cullis. With Wright leading the team, they won the First Division title three times (1953–54, 1957–58 and 1958–59) as well as the FA Cup in 1949. He was a virtual ever-present, missing only 31 games for Wolves during the 1950s. He retired from playing in 1959, a year before Wolves won another FA Cup. He made a total of 541 appearances both at and away from Molineux for Wolves.

International career.

His performances for club saw him earn a call-up to the England team. He made his international debut on 19 January 1946 in a 2–0 win over Belgium in a (post-war) 'Victory International'. His full debut came on 28 September 1946 in a thumping 7–2 win against Ireland. He was made captain in 1948, a role he held for 90 games until his retirement (an all-time record shared subsequently with Bobby Moore). In 1952, with his 42nd cap, he surpassed Bob Crompton's appearance record for England, which had stood since 1914. In total, he made 70 consecutive full international appearances with 105 in all, scoring three times. He was also the first football player in the world to earn 100 caps, and it was more than a decade before his record was broken by another player, Bobby Charlton. As of present, Wright remains the ninth most capped player ever to have played for England being in possession of more caps than players such as Bryan Robson, Kenny Sansom, John Barnes, Martin Peters, Ray Wilkins, Kevin Keegan and Alan Shearer.  He retired as a player in August 1959. During his total of 105 games for England, his disciplinary record was excellent as he was never cautioned or sent off. The football he was given at the end of his 100th international match, between England and Scotland on 11 April 1959 at Wembley Stadium, was due to be auctioned in May 2015 after being held by an Arsenal player who after an injury was unable to play professionally. The player had been given the ball by Wright's widow after being trialled by the club.

Managerial career.

He became manager of England's youth team in 1960, before being appointed manager of Arsenal in 1962, replacing George Swindin. Initially Arsenal started strongly under Wright, finishing seventh in 1962–63 and qualifying for Europe for the first time in their history, but failed to build on this. Wright enjoyed mixed success with his signings, who included successes such as Bob Wilson, Joe Baker and Frank McLintock, but also less successful players such as Ian Ure.  Arsenal were unable to improve on their seventh in Wright's first season in charge, and their form gradually declined. Wright won only 38.46% of his matches in charge, the lowest rate for any post-war Arsenal manager (caretaker managers excepted). After a poor 1965–66 season – where Arsenal finished 14th and were knocked out of the FA Cup by Blackburn Rovers (who finished bottom of the First Division) — Wright was dismissed by the Arsenal board in the summer of 1966.  Football writer Brian Glanville, discussing Billy Wright's time at Arsenal, wrote: "he had neither the guile nor the authority to make things work and he reacted almost childishly to criticism".

Life after football.

Wright was a minor media personality, and his marriage to Joy Beverley of the Beverley Sisters occurred at a time long before the era of footballers being known for having celebrity girlfriends. This was in July 1958, by which time Wright was 34, and proved one of the most successful showbiz marriages.  After leaving management, he became a television pundit and Head of Sport for ATV and Central Television, before retiring in 1989. The following year, he joined the board of directors at Wolverhampton Wanderers as part of the takeover by Sir Jack Hayward.  On 7 August 1993, he presented Manchester United with the FA Charity Shield, which they won on penalties against Arsenal at Wembley Stadium. On 7 December that year he was present for the friendly game against Honved of Hungary which commemorated the re-opening of Molineux as a rebuilt 28,525-seat stadium. The redevelopment saw three new stands built at the stadium in the space of two years, with the one replacing the Waterloo Road Stand being designated the Billy Wright Stand.  Wright was the subject of "This Is Your Life" on two occasions: in May 1961 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews, and in January 1990, when Michael Aspel surprised him at Thames Television's Teddington Studios.  Wright went on to be appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 13 June 1959.

Illness and death.

He died from pancreatic cancer on 3 September 1994, aged 70, having been diagnosed with the illness earlier in the year. He was cremated and his ashes were scattered on the pitch at Molineux.

Legacy.

In 2009, English football agent Bryan Yeubrey began a public campaign to obtain a posthumous knighthood for Wright. The campaign received support from several thousand fans and many former professional players.  Tram Number 7 of the Midland Metro is named "Billy Wright" in his honour. The tram received the name in 2008 following a public vote.

Honours.

As a player.

Wolverhampton Wanderers

William Ambrose Wright, CBE (6 February 1924 – 3 September 1994) was an English footballer, who played as a centre half. He spent his entire club career at Wolverhampton Wanderers. The first footballer in the world to earn 100 international caps, Wright also holds the record for longest unbroken run in competitive international football. He also made a total of 105 appearances for England, captaining them a record 90 times, including during their campaigns at the 1950, 1954 and 1958 World Cup finals.

William Ambrose Wright dit Billy Wright, né le à Ironbridge et mort le à Londres, était un footballeur anglais. Évoluant au poste de défenseur, il a effectué toute sa carrière dans un unique club : Wolverhampton Wanderers FC avec lequel il a notamment remporté trois Championnats d'Angleterre (1954, 1958 et 1959). Il a également disputé 105 matchs en équipe nationale d'Angleterre dont il fut capitaine à 90 reprises, il participe avec la sélection en tant que capitaine à trois Coupes du monde (1950, 1954 et 1958).


Section 33 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Article 33 de la Charte canadienne des droits et libertés

Text.

The section states:

Function.

The Parliament of Canada, a provincial legislature or a territorial legislature may declare that one of its laws or part of a law applies temporarily ("notwithstanding") countermanding sections of the "Charter", thereby nullifying any judicial review by overriding the "Charter" protections for a limited period of time. This is done by including a section in the law clearly specifying which rights have been overridden. A simple majority vote in any of Canada's 14 jurisdictions may suspend the core rights of the "Charter". However, the rights to be overridden must be either a "fundamental right" guaranteed by Section 2 (such as freedom of expression, religion, and association), a "legal right" guaranteed by Sections 7–14 (such as rights to liberty and freedom from search and seizures and cruel and unusual punishment) or a Section 15 "equality right". Other rights such as section 6 mobility rights, democratic rights, and language rights are inviolable.  Such a declaration lapses after five years or a lesser time specified in the clause, although the legislature may re-enact the clause any number of times. The rationale behind having a five-year expiry date is that it is also the maximum amount of time the Parliament or legislature may sit before an election must be called. Therefore, if the people wish for the law to be repealed, they have the "right" to elect representatives that will carry out the wish of the electorate. (The provisions of the "Charter" that deal with elections and democratic representation (§§3–5) are not among those that can be overridden with the notwithstanding clause (§§2,7–15).)  The notwithstanding clause reflects the hybrid character of Canadian political institutions. In effect, it protects the British tradition of parliamentary supremacy under the American-style system of written constitutional rights and strong courts introduced in 1982. Former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien also described it as a tool that could guard against a Supreme Court ruling legalizing hate speech and child pornography as freedom of expression.

History.

The idea for the clause was proposed by Peter Lougheed as suggested by Merv Leitch. The clause was a compromise reached during the debate over the new constitution in the early 1980s. Among the provinces' major complaints with the "Charter" was its effect of shifting power from elected officials to the judiciary, giving the courts the final word. Section 33, in conjunction with the limitations clause in section 1, was intended to give provincial legislators more leverage to pass law. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau at first strongly objected to the clause, but eventually consented to its inclusion under pressure from the provincial premiers. The clause was included as part of what is known as "The Kitchen Accord". At the end of a conference on the constitution that was poised to end in deadlock, Jean Chrétien, the federal justice minister, as well as Roy McMurtry and Roy Romanow, both provincial ministers, met in a kitchen in the Government Conference Centre in Ottawa and sowed the seeds for a deal. This compromise ultimately caused two major changes to the constitution package: the first was that the "Charter" would include the "notwithstanding clause", and the second was an agreed-upon amending formula. They then worked through the night with consultations from different premiers, and agreement from almost everybody. However, they notably excluded René Lévesque, the premier of Quebec, in the negotiations. At any rate, he refused to agree to the deal, and ultimately the Quebec government declined to endorse the constitutional amendment. Chrétien would later say on the notwithstanding clause, "Canada probably wouldn't have had any "Charter" without it."  According to Chrétien, in 1992, Trudeau blamed him for the notwithstanding clause, saying "you gave them that". Chrétien replied, "Sorry, Pierre. I recommended it. "You" gave it."  During the January 9, 2006, party leaders' debate for the 2006 federal election, Prime Minister Paul Martin unexpectedly pledged that his Liberal government, if returned, would support a constitutional amendment to prevent the federal government from invoking section 33, and challenged Conservative leader Stephen Harper to agree. This sparked a debate as to how the notwithstanding clause can be amended. Some argued that the amending formula required the federal government to gain the approval of at least seven provinces with at least half the national population (the standard procedure). Others argued that since the proposal would only limit the federal Parliament's powers, Parliament could make the change alone.

Usages of the override.

Two provinces have used the power of override. Saskatchewan used it to force provincial employees to work and to allow the government to pay for non-Catholics to attend a Catholic school, and Quebec used it to allow the government to restrict language of signage. Neither of the usages were renewed, and they each therefore expired after five years. Both Saskatchewan and Quebec have introduced new legislation that invokes the override and may still come into effect.  Three jurisdictions—Yukon, Alberta, and Ontario—have introduced bills that invoked the override but never came into effect for various reasons. Other provinces and territories, and the federal government, have not used it.

Alberta.

Same-sex marriage.

Alberta has never successfully invoked the notwithstanding clause, but in March 2000, the Legislature of Alberta passed Bill 202, which amended the province's "Marriage Act" to include an opposite-sex-only definition of marriage as well as the notwithstanding clause in order to insulate the definition from "Charter" challenges. However, a legislature may only use the "notwithstanding clause" on legislation it would otherwise have the authority to enact, and the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in "Reference re Same-Sex Marriage" that the definition of marriage is within the exclusive domain of the Parliament of Canada, thus finding the legislation "ultra vires", or beyond the constitutional powers of the Alberta Legislature.

Compensation for forced sterilization.

In 1998, Alberta introduced, but later abandoned, a bill that would attempt to use the notwithstanding clause to limit lawsuits against the government for past forced sterilizations approved by the Alberta Eugenics Board before the "Sexual Sterilization Act" was repealed.

Other discussions of its use in Alberta.

There were also discussions to invoke the notwithstanding clause following the Supreme Court of Canada's 1998 decision in "Vriend v Alberta", but were resisted by Premier Ralph Klein at the time.

New Brunswick.

Mandatory Vaccinations.

On November 22, 2019, Education Minister Dominic Cardy introduced a bill in the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick to end non-medical exemptions to vaccinations in school children, known as Bill 39 which includes invoking the notwithstanding clause. The purpose of this in the minister's words was to pre-empt any court and charter challenges to the bill by "an organized, well-financed lobby out there that's intent on derailing efforts to protect vulnerable children".

Ontario.

Municipal elections.

In August 2018, the government of Ontario passed the "Better Local Government Act", which, among other things, ordered the Toronto City Council to change its electoral ward boundaries for the upcoming municipal election to match the boundaries used for federal and provincial electoral ridings, thus reducing the number of wards from 47 to 25. Premier of Ontario Doug Ford stated that the current council had "failed to act on the critical issues facing the city", and claimed cost savings of $25 million over the next four years. The bill was controversial for both its intent and its timing, as it came in the midst of a municipal election campaign. The electoral boundaries had already been realigned for the 2018 election to expand it from 44 to 47 wards, by consolidating several existing wards and adding new ones.  On September 10, 2018, the Act was struck down by Superior Court Justice Edward Belobaba as unconstitutional, ruling that the larger wards infringed voters' rights to an election whose outcome provides "effective representation", and that unilaterally changing electoral boundaries in the middle of a campaign infringed on candidates' freedom of expression. Shortly afterward, Ford announced his intent to table legislation authorizing an invocation of the notwithstanding clause to overturn the ruling, which, if passed, would have been the first time that the notwithstanding clause would ever be invoked in Ontario. However, on September 19, the Court of Appeal for Ontario granted a stay of the Superior Court's decision, allowing the province to again enact a 25-ward structure for the City of Toronto. During the oral argument for that case, the counsel for the Attorney General stated that the provincial government would not proceed with the legislation to invoke the notwithstanding clause if the stay was granted.

Quebec.

Blanket application.

After the Charter came into force in 1982, the Parti Québécois government in Quebec inserted wording pursuant to section 33 into every law passed by the National Assembly of Quebec, as well as retroactively amending every existing law, in an attempt to ensure that no provincial law could ever be challenged in the courts. This stopped in 1987, when the newly elected Quebec Liberals discontinued the practice.  The way the Quebec legislature deployed the clause in the late 1980s diminished public respect in the rest of the country for section 33. Due to the mass opposition that its use, or even threatened use, as in the case of Alberta (listed below), would evoke, the act of invoking the notwithstanding clause would be more politically costly even than had always been apprehended, according to some.

Sign laws.

On December 21, 1988, after the decision of the Supreme Court of Canada in "Ford v Quebec (AG)", the National Assembly of Quebec employed section 33 and the equivalent section 52 of the "Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms" in their Bill 178. This allowed Quebec to continue to restrict the posting of certain commercial signs in languages other than French. In 1993, after the law was criticized by the United Nations Human Rights Committee, the Bourassa government had the National Assembly rewrite the law to conform to the "Charter" and the notwithstanding clause was removed.

An Act Respecting the Laicity of the State.

On March 28, 2019, the recently elected Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ) government applied the notwithstanding clause in Bill 21 (An Act respecting the Laicity of the State). The bill was passed on June 16, 2019 and prevents public workers in positions of authority from wearing religious symbols. It also prevents people from receiving public services with their faces covered.

Saskatchewan.

Back-to-work order.

In 1986, the Legislature of Saskatchewan enacted a law, the "SGEU Dispute Settlement Act", in which workers were ordered back to work. The Court of Appeal for Saskatchewan had previously held that a similar back-to-work law was unconstitutional because it infringed workers' freedom of association. The government appealed that decision to the Supreme Court of Canada. Since the Court of Appeal decision was still the statement of law at the time of the "SGEU Dispute Settlement Act", a clause was written into the act, invoking the section 33 override. The earlier law was later found by the Supreme Court to be consistent with the "Charter", meaning the use of the clause had been unnecessary.

Catholic school funding.

In May 2018, the Saskatchewan Legislature invoked the notwithstanding clause to overrule the Court of Queen's Bench ruling in "Good Spirit School Division No 204 v Christ The Teacher Roman Catholic Separate School Division No 212", 2017 SKQB 109, which stated the government could not provide funding for non-Catholic students to attend Catholic separate schools.

Other discussions of its use in Saskatchewan.

Following a Supreme Court of Canada decision of January 30, 2015, which struck down Saskatchewan essential service legislation, Premier Brad Wall publicly considered using the notwithstanding clause to protect the province's ability to force essential service employees back to work.

Yukon.

Committee appointments.

In 1982, the legislature of Yukon made use of the notwithstanding clause in the "Land Planning and Development Act". This was the first use, by any Canadian legislature, of the section 33 override. However, as constitutional scholar Peter Hogg notes, the "statute... was never brought into force and so scarcely counts as an example".

Comparison with other human rights instruments.

Constitutional scholar Peter Hogg has remarked that the notwithstanding clause "seems to be a uniquely Canadian invention". The United States Constitution gives no such powers to the states (see: Nullification), but Article III, sect. 2 does authorize the Congress to remove jurisdiction from the Federal Courts. Not since World War II has Congress mustered the requisite majority.  However, the concept of the notwithstanding clause was not created with the "Charter". The presence of the clause makes the "Charter" similar to the "Canadian Bill of Rights" (1960), which, under section 2, states that "an Act of the Parliament" may declare that a law "shall operate notwithstanding the Canadian Bill of Rights". A primary difference is that the "Bill of Rights" notwithstanding clause could be used to invalidate "any" right, not just specified clauses as with the "Charter". The Saskatchewan "Human Rights Code" (1979), the "Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms" (1977) and the Alberta "Bill of Rights" (1972) also contain devices like the notwithstanding clause.  Outside Canada, Israel added a device similar to the notwithstanding clause to one of its Basic Laws in 1992. However, this power could be used only in respect of the right to work.  In Victoria, Australia, section 31 of the "Victorian Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities" fulfils a similar purpose.

Section 33 of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" is part of the Constitution of Canada. It is commonly known as the notwithstanding clause (or in French), or as the override power, and it allows Parliament or provincial legislatures to temporarily override certain portions of the "Charter.

L'article 33 de la Charte canadienne des droits et libertés est une disposition de la Loi constitutionnelle de 1982 qui permet à un Parlement d'éviter l'application de certains droits prévus de la Charte canadienne des droits et libertés.


Luis Firmín de Carvajal, Conde de la Unión

Early career and 1793.

Luis Fermín De Carvajal was born in 1752 in Lima. King Charles III of Spain conferred upon him the title Conde de la Unión on 2 August 1778. At the outbreak of the War of the Pyrenees in 1793, he commanded the fortress of San Fernando at Figueres. Under the command of Antonio Ricardos the Spanish army was generally successful in 1793, capturing and holding part of French Rousillon. As a Lieutenant General, De la Unión led a division under Ricardos in a victory at the Battle of Truillas on 22 September 1793. When Ricardos died in Madrid in early 1794, and his successor Alejandro O'Reilly expired soon after, King Charles IV of Spain appointed de la Unión to command the army.

In command.

In April 1794, the newly organized and reinforced French Army of the eastern Pyrenees under Jacques François Dugommier launched a powerful offensive against the Spanish foothold in France. On 30 April and 1 May, the French defeated de la Unión at the Battle of Boulou, forcing the Spanish army south of the Pyrenees. The French recaptured the port of Collioure at the end of May, and blockaded the Spanish garrison of the Fort de Bellegarde at the Pass of Le Perthus. De la Unión made two attempts to break through the blockade. The first try was repulsed at La Junquera on 7 June. The second attempt ended in failure at the Battle of San Lorenzo de la Muga on 13 August and Bellegarde fell on 17 September. De la Unión built a chain of 90 redoubts running from Sant Llorenç de la Muga to the coast. The lines were designed to protect the Alt Emporda from French invasion, but were manned by troops of uneven quality. The best units were the Spanish Guard and Walloon Guard, with three battalions each. Regular line infantry and provincial militia also manned the defenses.  The French blow fell in the early hours of 17 November and the Battle of the Black Mountain ensued. On the first day, the French gained ground on the western flank, but were repulsed in the center and on the eastern flank. A Spanish artillery shell killed Dugommier on the 18th and his successor Dominique Catherine de Pérignon ordered a temporary halt in the fighting. On 20 November, Pérignon resumed the attack and the French rapidly broke through the first and second Spanish lines. The French assaulted the 25-gun Notre-Dame-del-Roure redoubt for three hours, finally seizing the key position at 3:00 PM. Arriving at Pont de Molins, de la Unión led a counterattack by 1,300 cavalry against two brigades of French infantry. During the subsequent struggle, he fell, fatally hit by two bullets.  The battle ended in a rout of the Spanish army. The French inflicted 10,000 casualties on the Spanish, while suffering only 3,000 losses. Jerónimo Girón-Moctezuma, Marquis de las Amarillas succeeded to the army command and retreated south of the Rio Fluvià where he was unable to save the fortress of San Fernando from capture. Girón was soon replaced in command by José de Urrutia y de las Casas. Pérignon and Pierre Sauret successfully concluded the Siege of Roses in early February. The Peace of Basel ended the conflict in July 1795.

Luis Fermín de Carvajal, Conde de la Unión (1752 – 20 November 1794) became a general officer in the army of the Kingdom of Spain. In 1794 during the French Revolutionary Wars, he commanded the Spanish Army in a mostly unsuccessful effort to hold back the army of the First French Republic. He died in battle fighting the French.

Luis Firmin de Carvajal y Vargas, comte de la Union, ou de l'Union, général espagnol, né en 1752 à Lima. Il décède le à San Lorenzo de la Muga.


History.

Origins.

The first Hungarian Grand Prix was held on 21 June 1936 over a track laid out in Népliget, a park in Budapest. The Mercedes-Benz, Auto Union, and the Alfa Romeo-equipped Ferrari teams all sent three cars and the event drew a very large crowd. However, politics and the ensuing war meant the end of Grand Prix motor racing in the country for fifty years.

Hungaroring.

A major coup by Bernie Ecclestone, the 1986 Hungarian Grand Prix was the first Formula One race to take place behind the Iron Curtain. Held at the twisty Hungaroring in Mogyoród near Budapest, the race has been a mainstay of the racing calendar ever since. It was the only current Grand Prix venue that had never seen a wet race up until the 2006 Hungarian Grand Prix. The first Grand Prix saw 200,000 people spectating, although tickets were expensive at the time. Today, the support is still very enthusiastic, particularly from Finns.  Due to the nature of the track, narrow, twisty and often dusty because of under-use, the Hungarian Grand Prix is associated with processional races, with sometimes many cars following one another, unable to pass. Thierry Boutsen demonstrated this in 1990, keeping his slower Williams car in front of championship leader Ayrton Senna, unable to find a way by. Pit strategy is often crucial; in 1998, Michael Schumacher's Ferrari team changed his strategy mid-race before Schumacher built up a winning margin after all the stops had been made. Passing is a rarity here, although the 1989 race saw a bullish performance from Nigel Mansell in the Ferrari, who started from 12th on the grid and passed car after car, finally taking the lead when Ayrton Senna was baulked by a slower runner. The circuit was modified slightly in 2003 in an attempt to allow more passing.  Other notable occasions in Budapest include first Grand Prix wins for Damon Hill (in 1993), Fernando Alonso (in 2003, the first Grand Prix winner from Spain, and the youngest ever Grand Prix winner at the time), Jenson Button (in an incident-packed race in 2006), and Heikki Kovalainen (in 2008, who also became the 100th winner of a World Championship race). In 1997, Damon Hill came close to winning in the technically inferior Arrows-Yamaha, but his car lost drive on the last lap causing him to coast in second place. In 2014, Lewis Hamilton finished in third, six seconds behind winner Daniel Ricciardo, despite starting the race from the pit lane.  In 2001, Michael Schumacher equalled Alain Prost's then record 51 Grand Prix wins at the Hungaroring, in the drive which also secured his fourth Drivers' Championship which also matched Prost's career tally.  The 2006 Grand Prix was the first to be held here in wet conditions. Button took his first victory from 14th place on the grid.  At the 2013 Hungarian Grand Prix, it was confirmed that Hungary would continue to host a Formula 1 race until 2021. The track was completely resurfaced for the first time in early 2016, and it was announced the Grand Prix's deal was extended for a further 5 years, until 2026. In 2020 the contract was also extended one year further to 2027.

Winners of the Hungarian Grand Prix.

Repeat winners (drivers).

"Drivers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season."

Repeat winners (constructors).

"Teams in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season."

Repeat winners (engine manufacturers).

"Manufacturers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season." <nowiki>*</nowiki> Between 1999 and 2005 built by Ilmor, funded by Mercedes

Year by year.

"A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship."

The Hungarian Grand Prix () is a motor race held annually in Mogyoród, Hungary. Since 1986, the race has been a round of the FIA Formula One World Championship.

Le Grand Prix automobile de Hongrie est un événement sportif de course automobile qui compte depuis 1986 pour le championnat du monde de Formule 1 et se dispute sur le Hungaroring, près de Budapest.


Types of chemical paint remover.

Chemical paint removers work only on certain types of finishes, and when multiple types of finishes may have been used on any particular surface, trial-and-error testing is typical to determine the best stripper for each application. Two basic categories of chemical paint removers are caustic and solvent.

Caustics.

Caustic paint removers, typically sodium hydroxide (also known as lye or caustic soda), work by breaking down the chemical bonds of the paint, usually by hydrolysis of the chain bonds of the polymers forming the paint. Caustic removers must be neutralized or the new finish will fail prematurely. In addition, several side effects and health risks must be taken into account in using caustic paint removers. Such caustic aqueous solutions are typically used by antique dealers who aim to restore old furniture by stripping off worn varnishes, for example.

Solvents.

Solvent paint strippers penetrate the layers of paint and break the bond between the paint and the object by swelling the paint.  The principal active ingredient in common solvent paint strippers is dichloromethane, also called methylene chloride. Methylene has serious health risks including death and is likely a carcinogen.  Solvent strippers may also have formulations with limonene from orange peel (or other terpene solvents), n-methylpyrrolidone, esters such as dibasic esters (often dimethyl esters of shorter dicarboxylic acids, sometimes aminated, for example, adipic acid or glutamic acid), aromatic hydrocarbons, dimethylformamide, and other solvents are known as well. The formula differs according to the type of paint and the character of the underlying surface. Nitromethane is another commonly used solvent. Dimethyl sulfoxide is a less toxic alternative solvent used in some formulations.  Paint strippers come in a liquid, or a gel ("thixotropic") form that clings even to vertical surfaces.  The principle of paint strippers is penetration of the paint film by the molecules of the active ingredient, causing it to swell; this volume increase causes internal strains, which, together with the weakening of the layer's adhesion to the underlying surface, leads to separation of the layer of the paint from the substrate.

Other components.

Various co-solvents are added to the primary active ingredient. These assist with penetration into the paint and its removal and differ according to the target paint. Ethanol is suitable for shellac, methyl ethyl ketone is used for cellulose nitrate, and phenol and cresols are employed in some industrial formulas. Benzyl alcohol is used as well.  Activators increase the penetration rate; for dichloromethane water is suitable, other choices are amines, strong acids or strong alkalis. The activator's role is to disrupt the molecular and intermolecular bonds in the paint film and assist with weakening this. Its composition depends on the character of the paint to be removed. Mineral acids are used for epoxy resins to hydrolyze their ether bonds. Alkaline activators are usually based on sodium hydroxide. Some cosolvents double as activators. Amine activators, alkalines weaker than inorganic hydroxides, are favored when the substrate could be corroded by strong acids or bases.  Surfactants assist with wetting the surface, increasing the area of where the solvent can penetrate the paint layer. Anionic surfactants (e.g., dodecyl benzenesulfonate or sodium xylene sulfonate) are used for acidic formulas, cationic or non-ionic are suitable for alkaline formulas. Paint strippers containing surfactants are excellent brush cleaners.  Thickeners are used for thixotropic formulas to help the mixture form gel that adheres to vertical surfaces and to reduce the evaporation of the solvents, thus prolonging the time the solvent can penetrate the paint. Cellulose-based agents, e.g., hydroxypropyl cellulose, are commonly used for mixtures that are not extremely acidic or basic; under such conditions cellulose undergoes hydrolysis and loses effectiveness, so fumed silica is used for these instead. Another possibility is using waxes (usually paraffin wax or polyethylene or polypropylene derivatives), or polyacrylate gels.  Corrosion inhibitors are added to the formula to protect the underlying substrate and the paint stripper storage vessel (usually a steel can) from corrosion. Dichloromethane decomposes with time to hydrochloric acid, which readily reacts with propylene oxide or butylene oxide and therefore is removed from the solution. Chromate-based inhibitors give the mixture a characteristic yellow color. Other possibilities include polyphosphates, silicates, borates, and various antioxidants.  Sequestrants and chelating agents are used to "disarm" metal ions present in the solution, which could otherwise reduce the efficiency of other components, and assist with cleaning stains, which often contain metal compounds. The most common sequestrants used in paint strippers are EDTA, tributyl phosphate, and sodium phosphate.  Colorants may be added.

Petroleum hydroxide.

Petroleum hydroxide was a chemical used by the New York City Transit Authority to remove graffiti from subway trains. Graffiti vandals first started calling it "orange crush" naming it in reference to defoliant Agent Orange. They later called it "the buff".

History.

In 1977, the Transit Authority built a graffiti removal station in its Coney Island train yard, in an attempt to discourage graffiti artists. Costing the city US$400,000 annually, trains were sprayed with petroleum hydroxide, after which the graffiti was buffed off. However, the removal process often failed to completely remove graffiti. Those in contact with the chemical experienced nausea and breathing difficulties, leading to the closing of a nearby public school. The chemical also corroded the trains, and contaminated the city's water supply, through unsafe dumping. In 1985, transit workers were awarded US$6.3 million for "health problems stemming from exposure to fumes from cleaning solvents".

Alternatives.

Heat guns are an alternative to chemical paint strippers. When heated, softened paint clumps and is easier to contain. High-temperature heat guns at or more create toxic lead fumes in lead-based paint, but low-temperature heat guns and infrared paint removers do not create lead fumes. Fire is a possible hazard of using heat guns.  Steam can be used on large surfaces or items to be stripped, such as window sash, can be placed inside a steam box.

Paint stripper, or paint remover, is a chemical product designed to remove paint, finishes, and coatings while also cleaning the underlying surface.

Un décapant est un produit chimique utilisé dans l'industrie et pour le bricolage et destiné à éliminer des couches minces de peintures, vernis, oxydes, etc.


Life.

He was born in Lodi to an aristocratic family. Early in life he entered a Benedictine monastery, where he acquired his early musical training; later he became a priest. Later he lived in Mantua and Verona before settling in Milan as the "maestro di cappella" at the cathedral there, a position which he accepted in January 1484.  During the previous decade the Sforza family, using the composer Gaspar van Weerbeke as a recruiter, had built the choir at their chapel in Milan into one of the largest and most distinguished musical ensembles in Europe: composer-singers such as Alexander Agricola, Loyset Compère and Johannes Martini had all been employed there. While the membership of the choir at the Milan cathedral was mostly Italian, the cross-influence between his choir and the group at the Sforza chapel was significant. Gaffurius retained the post at the cathedral for the rest of his life, and it was in Milan that he knew both Josquin des Prez and Leonardo da Vinci.

Writings.

Gaffurius was widely read, and showed a strong humanist bent. In addition to having a thorough understanding of contemporary musical practice, he met composers from all over Europe, since he had the good fortune to be living and working at one of the centers of activity for the incoming Netherlanders. His books have a pedagogical intent, and provide a young composer with all the techniques necessary to learn his art.  The major treatises of his years in Milan are three: "Theorica musicae" (1492), "Practica musicae" (1496), and "De harmonia musicorum instrumentorum opus" (1518). The second of these, the "Practica musicae", is the most thorough, proceeding through subjects as diverse as ancient Greek notation, plainchant, mensuration, counterpoint, and tempo. One of his most famous comments is that the "tactus", the tempo of a semibreve, is equal to the pulse of a man who is breathing quietly—presumably about 72 beats per minute.

Music.

Gaffurius wrote masses, motets, settings of the Magnificat, and hymns, mainly during his Milan years. Some of the motets were written for ceremonial occasions for his ducal employer; many of the masses show the influence of Josquin, and all are in flowing Netherlandish polyphony, though with an admixture of Italian lightness and melody. His music was collected in four codices under his own direction.

Franchinus Gaffurius (Franchino Gaffurio; 14 January 1451 – 25 June 1522) was an Italian music theorist and composer of the Renaissance. He was an almost exact contemporary of Josquin des Prez and Leonardo da Vinci, both of whom were his personal friends. He was one of the most famous musicians in Italy in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

Franchini ou Franchino Gaffurio, (ou encore Franchinus Gaffurius) (né à Lodi, – mort à Milan en 1522), né dans une ancienne famille noble de Padoue, est un compositeur et théoricien italien de la musique.


Life and career.

Early life and career beginnings.

Born in Madrid, Mai is the junior of six siblings. Due to her parent's itinerant work, she grew up in Zaragoza and Jaen, and later settled in Madrid to attend college, where she received in 2000 a JD degree (law) from Universidad San Pablo CEU (Madrid).  She first rose to fame as a contestant of the second season of "Operación Triunfo" (Spanish TV singing contest). After her participation, she released her first single, titled "Vuelve".  In 2005, Mai Meneses formed the band Nena Daconte in Barcelona along with musician Kim Fanlo. Mai. In 2010, Fanlo left the formation and Mai Meneses continues as the lead singer and songwriter of Nena Daconte.

He perdido los zapatos (2006).

In 2006, Mai, acting as the lead singer and songwriter of Nena Daconte, released its debut album titled "He Perdido Los Zapatos" (I Have Lost My Shoes) under their own label, Daconte Music. The following year, she signed a record deal with Universal Music Spain and the album was re-released with a new bonus track (a remix of the song "Idiota").  "Idiota" (Idiot) was the first single of the record. Later editions of the album included a new version of "Idiota" produced by Carlos Jean and mastered in New York City. "Idiota" reached number 25 of the Spanish billboard charts.  The second single was "En que estrella estará" (In What Star Will It Be). The song was selected to be the official theme for the "Vuelta Ciclista a España" (Spanish Cycling Tour) of 2006. "En que estrella estará" reached the number 1 position on the Spanish billboard charts for 5 weeks.  Nena Daconte ́s debut album went Gold in Spain. Later on that same year, Nena Daconte was nominated for an MTV Europe Music Awards. "He Perdido Los Zapatos" became the 3rd best selling album in Spain in 2006 and "En que estrella estará" also became, that same year, the most downloaded song in Spain.

Retales de carnaval (2008).

Their second album, titled "Retales De Carnaval" (Carnival Leftovers), was released two years later, on September 30, 2008. The first single, "Tenia Tanto que Darte" (I Had a Lot To Give You), premiered on August 23, 2008. As with the first record, this second album was entirely composed by Mai. In November 2008, "Tenia tanto que darte" reached the No.1 position on the Spanish billboard chart (40 Principales), clinching it for two consecutive weeks. The song ́s music video has over 5 million views on YouTube "Tenia tanto que darte" became Spain's Best Selling song of 2008 on iTunes. Likewise, record sales made the album become Platinum in September 2009.

Una mosca en el cristal (2010).

In 2010, Nena Daconte released its third album titled "Una mosca en el cristal" (A Fly in the Window), produced by Alejo Stivel. The single "No te invite a dormir" (I Didn ́t Invite You Over) reached number 17 on the Spanish billboard charts (40 Principales). In February 2011, "Perdida" (Lost) was released as the second single. On that same year, Nena Daconte started an acoustic tour throughout Spain under the name Nena Daconte Club. Likewise, in late 2011, Mai Meneses participated on a tribute album for Antonio Vega, giving voice to the song Tesoros along with composer LA (native singer from Mallorca). In 2012, Mai took a role in the single "Pero si tu no estás", which was the main theme and soundtrack of "La Fuga", a Spanish TV series.

Solo muerdo por ti (2013).

On April 30, 2013, Nena Daconte released in Spain their fourth studio álbum titled ""Solo muerdo por ti"". It was recorded in Madrid at estudios Sonobox and produced by Manuel Colmenero and Jabibu Carretero (also produced of Spanish groups Vetusta Morla, Eladio y los seres queridos).  The álbum contains 13 new tracks (plus two more tracks in their digital edition), all composed by Mai Meneses. The album takes its title from the nursery rhyme that Mai composed for her son (track number 13). On the same day of its debut, "Solo muerdo por ti" became number 1 in sales in iTunes Spain.  According to Mai Meneses “"I feel that this album is more mature and I have meditated each phrase for almost two years... there is nothing left to chance, everything is measured: every lyric, step, there is lots of work".”  As per the critics, the album is ""clear and direct"". As for its sound, it is as genuine as the origins of Nena Daconte. The first single is titled ""Dispare"" and its on-air debut was on March 5, 2013. The music video was recorded at the abandoned factory of Pegaso, at the outskirts of Madrid and produced by Zoo and SevenSenses.

María Isabel González-Meneses García-Valdecasas (; born January 4, 1978), known mononymously as Mai Meneses (), is a Spanish singer and songwriter and leader of the Spanish pop band Nena Daconte.

María Isabel González-Meneses García-Valdecasas plus connue comme Mai Meneses (Madrid, ), est une chanteuse espagnole. Elle est la benjamine d'une famille avec 6 enfants. Elle a une en droit et a travaillé comme assistante administrative. Elle participe à la de Star Academy en Espagne. Après ça, elle édita le single "Vuelve" et collabora dans l'album "Soy capaz & Pequeñas cosas" d'Inma Serrano. Au côté du musicien Kim, elle a formé récemment le groupe Nena Daconte.


History.

Aside from a spell in Serie B in the 1940s, Pescara had a relatively undistinguished history until promotion to Serie B in 1974. With players like Giorgio Repetto and Bruno Nobili in the midfield, they managed to win their first promotion to Serie A in 1977 after winning the promotion play-off, but ultimately finished their first season in Serie A in last place. A second promotion after a play-off followed, but once more they would be relegated from the top flight and then descended to Serie C1 within two years.  Nonetheless, after returning to Serie B after a year, Pescara would enjoy a revival after the appointment of Giovanni Galeone as coach in 1986. His philosophy of attacking football saw the "Biancazzurri" promoted to Serie A as champions in 1987, where they lasted two years with players such as Júnior and Blaž Slišković among the club's star players. Galeone would return during the 1990–91 season and oversaw another promotion the following year.  After relegation, Pescara remained in Serie B side throughout the 1990s, narrowly missing promotion in 1999. Relegation to C1 followed in 2001, with promotion in 2003 being followed by two revoked relegations in a row due to bankruptcy and scandals affecting other clubs. Pescara was ultimately relegated in the 2006–07 season, with three presidential and managerial changes during the season. In December 2008, the debt-ridden club was legally declared out of business and its control passed to a bankruptcy trustee appointed by the Court of Pescara. In February 2009, a takeover from a group named Delfino Pescara 1936 was finalized with Deborah Caldora becoming the first woman to serve as chairman of the club. In the meantime, results did not improve significantly and in March, Giuseppe Galderisi was dismissed from the head coaching post with Antonello Cuccureddu being appointed as the new boss.  At the beginning of the 2009–10 season, Eusebio Di Francesco was appointed as the new coach. Pescara finished second in Girone B of Lega Pro Prima Divisione and qualified for the promotional play-offs. They defeated Reggiana in the semi-final and Verona in the final and subsequently returned to Serie B after a three-year absence. The following season started with the appointment of Zdeněk Zeman as new head coach; the Czech manager immediately brought Pescara back into national coverage thanks to his well-known all-attacking playing style that turned out to match perfectly with promising youngsters such as Marco Verratti, Ciro Immobile and Lorenzo Insigne, who guided the squad to promotion to Serie A. Pescara secured promotion to the top-level after a 19-year absence after defeating Sampdoria with a 3–1 score in an away match on 20 May 2012. In the last minute of the final game of the regular season, Pescara striker Riccardo Maniero netted the winner in a match against Nocerina to claim Pescara's second Serie B title after Torino's draw away to AlbinoLeffe.  Pescara's 2012–13 campaign in Serie A – after losing Zeman, Verratti, Immobile and Insigne – ended with relegation back to the second tier. Three years later, under World Cup winner Massimo Oddo, the team returned to Serie A with a 3–1 aggregate win over Trapani in the playoff final. Zeman returned in February 2017 to the team, who again lasted just one year at the top before being relegated in last place.  In August 2018, Pescara launched a public mini-bond investment opportunity via sports investment platform Tifosy to raise a minimum of €2,000,000. The investment scheme raised a total of €2,300,000 to develop the club's youth sector and facilities.  Following an online competition to ease children's boredom during the coronavirus lockdown, the team adopted six-year-old Luigi D'Agostino's shirt design for the 2020 season.

Supporters.

One of Pescara's main rivals is AS Bari.

Delfino Pescara 1936, commonly referred to as Pescara, is a professional Italian football club based in Pescara, Abruzzo. The club was formed in 1936 and currently plays in Serie B. Pescara has competed in seven seasons in Serie A, 1977–78, 1979–80, 1987–88, 1988–89, 1992–93, 2012–13 and last participated in 2016–17. The team's official colors are white and light blue.

Le Delfino Pescara 1936 (souvent seulement Pescara, ancien Pescara Calcio) est un club de football italien basé à Pescara, dans les Abruzzes. Le club évolue depuis la saison 2017-2018 en Serie B.


Story.

"Nash Bridges" debuted on March 29, 1996 on the CBS television network. The show starred Don Johnson as the eponymous Nash Bridges, an inspector (and later captain) with the San Francisco Police Department's elite "Special Investigations Unit". As the show begins, he's in his 40s, twice-divorced, and dealing with a feisty teenage daughter, Cassidy (Jodi Lyn O'Keefe). Nash convinces recently retired Inspector Joe Dominguez (Cheech Marin) to return to the force to partner with him. Nash and Joe cruise the streets of San Francisco in Nash's "curious yellow" 1971 Plymouth Barracuda convertible, a gift from Nash's brother Bobby just before Bobby left for the Vietnam War.  Bobby Bridges was reported as MIA, but turns up in the season 3 episode 'Revelations,' played by Jan-Michael Vincent. Nash's father Nick (James Gammon) suffers from mild dementia and has a habit of getting kicked out of nursing homes. He eventually moves in with Nash, and is often involved in comic subplots.  Aiding Nash in his police work is the technically savvy Harvey Leek (Jeff Perry), a middle-aged "Deadhead" (a diehard Grateful Dead fan), and young, hotheaded Evan Cortez (Jaime P. Gomez), who has an off-and-on, stormy relationship with Cassidy. In later seasons, other inspectors and supporting characters were added to and subtracted from the cast.  For the first sixteen episodes, the commander of the SIU was Lieutenant A.J. Shimamura (Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa), a character who was said to have returned to his native Hawaii after failing to be promoted to captain. Shimamura's departure opened the door for Bridges to be promoted to captain and given command of the SIU.

Production.

The show was produced and filmed on location in the San Francisco Bay Area. The show shot on the streets of San Francisco including The Embarcadero and Piers 30 through 32. Neighboring Treasure Island was used as the headquarters for the show. Hangar 2 on Treasure Island was the location of permanent sets including Nash's apartment The show employed several hundred local workers including production crews and staff members, carpenters, electricians, set designers, grips, set dressers, props, scenic artists, location managers, costumers, drivers, cameramen, special effects, soundmen, makeup and hair stylists and production assistants. Episode production was nearly $2 million per episode. The show premiered on March 29, 1996 at 10:00pm on CBS.  The show was produced by the Don Johnson Company and Carlton Cuse Productions in association with Rysher Entertainment for the first 4 seasons. In 1999, Paramount Network Television took over Rysher's spot after acquiring that company.  The show used three different theme songs during its initial run. Season 1 used a primarily instrumental piece. Seasons 2–5 used a musical piece most well known by the lyrics "I got a friend in you to lead me out of the cold." Season 6 changed the song again, using another primarily instrumental piece, written by Velton Ray Bunch, with a bit of a techno beat to it. A fourth song, written by first season composer Elia Cmiral and which was Don Johnson's original choice, sometimes replaces the first season song in syndication.

Cancellation.

The sixth season of "Nash Bridges" would be its last; however, the show was obtaining fair ratings from Nielsen. Following its Friday night ratings battle (which it was losing to NBC's ""), the show was canceled. Paramount Network Television, which was producing the show, felt that its $2 million per episode production cost was just too much. CBS was hoping to get a seventh season out of "Nash Bridges", but that failed because Paramount wasn't willing to pay, even though at the time, Viacom had owned both CBS and Paramount. Another factor that led to the ending of the series was that Don Johnson wanted out. Johnson was getting tired, and CBS and Paramount had enough episodes to put the series into syndication.  Carlton Cuse went on to become the showrunner for "Lost". "Lost" co-creator Damon Lindelof had started his television writing career on "Nash Bridges". He sought out Cuse's advice on how to run "Lost".

Revival.

On July 18, 2019, it was announced that USA Network was working to revive "Nash Bridges" with series star Don Johnson as one of the showrunners and reprising his titular role. The revival will be a two-hour special which, if successful, could launch into a full-on reboot of the series. The revival will follow Nash, still running the SFPD's SIU and working to adjust a new boss and the changes of 2020 San Francisco.

Broadcast.

The show has aired in over 70 countries. It currently airs in the Middle East on MBC's newly launched Action block MBC Action, DR2 in Denmark, Crime & Investigation Network, WGN America, Universal HD in the United States, TV1 in Australia, 13th Street in The Netherlands and Universal Channel in Serbia and on CBS Action in the United Kingdom. The series currently airs on H&I every Monday from 11/10c to 8/7c as part of their "Day Shift" block.

Home media.

CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) released the first three seasons of "Nash Bridges" on DVD in Region 1 in 2008/2009. As of September 2014, these releases have been discontinued and are now out of print.  On September 10, 2014, it was announced that Visual Entertainment (VEI) has sub-licensed the rights to the series from CBS in Region 1 and would release a complete series collection in early 2015. It was subsequently released on November 18, 2014. The 27-disc set contains all 122 episodes of the series. The complete series was reissued by VEI as a 22-disc set in November 2016 to coincide with the anticipated blu-ray release.  VEI is releasing the complete series on Blu-ray in late 2016 as a 16-disc set.  On February 10, 2015, VEI released season 4 on DVD as a separate season set. They also re-released the first three seasons on DVD on March 3, 2015.  In Region 4, Shock Entertainment has released the first three seasons on DVD in Australia.  King Records is releasing all of the seasons on DVD in Region 2, specifically through the Japanese market.  The show is rated PG for Parental Guidance in Australia and PG in New Zealand for sex scenes.

Nash Bridges is an American police crime drama television series created by Carlton Cuse starring Don Johnson and Cheech Marin as two Inspectors with the San Francisco Police Department's Special Investigations Unit. The series ran for six seasons on CBS from March 29, 1996, to May 4, 2001, for a total of 122 episodes.

En France, la série a été diffusée entre le et le sur France 2 et rediffusée sur, et au Québec à partir du à Séries+.


Biography.

Naur began his career as an astronomer for which he received his Doctor of Philosophy (Ph,D.) degree in 1957, but his encounter with computers led to a change of profession. From 1959 to 1969, he was employed at Regnecentralen, the Danish computing company, while at the same time giving lectures at the Niels Bohr Institute and the Technical University of Denmark. From 1969 to 1998, Naur was a professor of computer science at University of Copenhagen.  He was a member of the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) IFIP Working Group 2.1, which supports and maintains the languages ALGOL 60 and ALGOL 68.  Naur's main areas of inquiry were design, structure, and performance of computer programs and algorithms. He also pioneered in software engineering and software architecture. In his book "Computing: A Human Activity" (1992), which is a collection of his contributions to computer science, he rejected the formalist school of programming that views programming as a branch of mathematics. He did not like being associated with the Backus–Naur form (attributed to him by Donald Knuth) and said that he would prefer it to be called the "Backus normal form".  Naur was married to computer scientist Christiane Floyd.  Naur disliked the term "computer science" and suggested it be called "datalogy" or "data science". The former term has been adopted in Denmark and Sweden as "datalogi", while the latter term is now used for data analysis, including statistics and databases.  Since the middle of the 1960s, computer science has been practiced in Denmark under Peter Naur's term datalogy, the science of data processes. Starting at Regnecentralen and the University of Copenhagen, the Copenhagen Tradition of Computer Science has developed its own special characteristics by means of a close connection with applications and other fields of knowledge. The tradition is not least visible in the area of education. Comprehensive project activity is an integral part of the curriculum, thus presenting theory as an aspect of realistic solutions known primarily through actual experience. Peter Naur early recognized the particular educational challenges presented by computer science. His innovations have shown their quality and vitality also at other universities. There is a close connection between computer science training as it has been formed at Copenhagen University, and the view of computer science which characterized Peter Naur's research.  In later years, he was quite outspoken of the pursuit of science as a whole: Naur can possibly be identified with the empiricist school, that tells that one shall not seek deeper connections between things that manifest themselves in the world, but keep to the observable facts. He has attacked both certain strands of philosophy and psychology from this viewpoint. He was also developing a theory of human thinking which he called "Synapse-State Theory of Mental Life".  Naur won the 2005 Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) A.M. Turing Award for his work on defining the programming language ALGOL 60. In particular, his role as editor of the influential "Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 60" with its pioneering use of BNF was recognized. Naur is the only Dane to have won the Turing Award.  Naur died on 3 January 2016 after a short illness.

Bibliography.

Numbers refer to the published bibliography. Naur published a large number of articles and chapters on astronomy, computer science, issues in society, classical music, psychology, and education.

Peter Naur (25 October 1928 – 3 January 2016) was a Danish computer science pioneer and Turing award winner. He is best known as a contributor, with John Backus, to the Backus–Naur form (BNF) notation used in describing the syntax for most programming languages. He also contributed to creating the language ALGOL 60.

Peter Naur est un pionnier danois de l'informatique né le à Frederiksberg (Danemark) et mort le à Herlev (Danemark). Son nom se retrouve notamment dans la « Forme de Backus-Naur », une notation souvent utilisée pour décrire les règles syntaxiques des langages informatiques.


History.

DeviantArt started as a site connected with people who took computer applications and modified them to their own tastes, or who posted the applications from the original designs. As the site grew, members in general became known as artists and submissions as arts. DeviantArt was originally launched on August 7, 2000, by Scott Jarkoff, Matt Stephens, Angelo Sotira and others, as part of a larger network of music-related websites called the Dmusic Network. The site flourished largely because of its unique offering and the contributions of its core member base and a team of volunteers after its launch, but was officially incorporated in 2001 about eight months after launch.  DeviantArt was loosely inspired by projects like Winamp facelift, customize.org, deskmod.com, screenphuck.com, and skinz.org, all application skin-based websites. Sotira entrusted all public aspects of the project to Scott Jarkoff as an engineer and visionary to launch the early program. All three co-founders shared backgrounds in the application skinning community, but it was Matt Stephens whose major contribution to DeviantArt was the suggestion to take the concept further than skinning and more toward an art community. Many of the individuals involved with the initial development and promotion of DeviantArt still hold positions with the project, from administrators to volunteers serving as gallery directors and Message Network Administration. Angelo Sotira currently serves as the chief executive officer of DeviantArt, Inc.  On November 14, 2006, DeviantArt gave its users the option to submit their works under Creative Commons licenses giving the artists the right to choose how their works can be used. A Creative Commons license is one of several public copyright licenses that allow the distribution of copyrighted works. On September 30, 2007, a film category was added to DeviantArt, allowing artists to upload videos. An artist and other viewers can add annotations to sections of the film, giving comments or critiques to the artist about a particular moment in the film. In 2007, DeviantArt received $3.5 million in Series A (first round) funding from undisclosed investors, and in 2013, it received $10 million in Series B funding.  On December 4, 2014, the site unveiled a new logo and announced the release of an official mobile app on both iOS and Android, released on December 10, 2014.  On February 23, 2017, DeviantArt was acquired by Wix.com, Inc. for $36 million. The site plans to integrate DeviantArt and Wix functionality, including the ability to utilize DeviantArt resources on websites built with Wix, and integrating some of Wix's design tools into the site.  As of March 1, 2017, Syria was banned from accessing DeviantArt's services entirely, citing US and Israeli sanctions and aftermath on February 19, 2018. After Syrian user Mythiril used a VPN to access the site and disclosed the geoblocking in a journal, titled "The Hypocrisy of Deviantart", DeviantArt ended the geoblocking except for commercial features.  Since autumn of 2018, spambots have been hacking into an indeterminately large number of long-inactive accounts and placing spam Weblinks in their victims' DeviantIDs, or widgets where users of the site display their public profile information. An ongoing investigation into this matter began in January 2019.

Copyright and licensing issues.

There is no review for potential copyright and Creative Commons licensing violations when a work is submitted to DeviantArt, so potential violations can remain unnoticed until reported to administrators using the mechanism available for such issues. Some members of the community have been the victims of copyright infringement from vendors using artwork illegally on products and prints, as reported in 2007. The reporting system in which to counteract copyright infringement directly on the site has been subject to a plethora of criticism from members of the site, given that it may take weeks, or even a month before a filed complaint for copyright infringement is answered.

Contests for companies and academia.

Due to the nature of DeviantArt as an art community with worldwide reach, companies use DeviantArt to promote themselves and create more advertising through contests. "CoolClimate" is a research network connected with the University of California, and they held a contest in 2012 to address the impact of climate change. Worldwide submissions were received, and the winner was featured in "The Huffington Post".  Various car companies have held contests. Dodge ran a contest in 2012 for art of the Dodge Dart and over 4,000 submissions were received. Winners received cash and item prizes, and were featured in a gallery at Dodge-Chrysler headquarters. Lexus partnered with DeviantArt in 2013 to run a contest for cash and other prizes based on their Lexus IS design; the winner's design became a modified Lexus IS and was showcased at the SEMA 2013 show in Los Angeles, California.  DeviantArt also hosts contests for upcoming movies, such as "Riddick". Fan art for "Riddick" was submitted, and director David Twohy chose the winners, who would receive cash prizes and some other DeviantArt-related prizes, as well as having their artwork made into official fan-art posters for events. A similar contest was held for Dark Shadows where winners received cash and other prizes.  Video games also conduct contests with DeviantArt, such as the 2013 "Tomb Raider" contest. The winner had their art made into an official print sold internationally at the Tomb Raider store, and received cash and other prizes. Other winners also received cash and DeviantArt-related prizes.

Website.

The site has over 358 million images which have been uploaded by its over 35 million registered members. By July 2011, DeviantArt was the largest online art community. Members of DeviantArt may leave comments and critiques on individual deviation pages, allowing the site to be called "a [free] peer evaluation application". Along with textual critique, DeviantArt now offers the option to leave a small picture as a comment. This can be achieved using an option of DeviantArt Muro, which is a browser-based drawing tool that DeviantArt has developed and hosts. However, only members of DeviantArt can save their work as deviations. Another feature of Muro is what is called "Redraw"; it records the user as they draw their image, and then the user can post the entire process as a film deviation. Some artists in late 2013 began experimenting with the use of breakfast cereal as the subject of their pieces, although this trend has only started spreading.  Individual deviations are displayed on their own pages, with a list of statistical information about the image, as well as place for comments by the artist and other members, and the option to share through other social media (Facebook, Twitter, etc.). Deviations are required to be organized into categories when a member uploads an image and this allows DeviantArt's search engine to find images concerning similar topics.  Individual members can organize their own deviations into folders on their personal pages. The member pages (profiles) show a member's personally uploaded deviations and journal postings. Journals are like personal blogs for the member pages, and the choice of topic is up to each member; some use it to talk about their personal or art-related lives, others use it to spread awareness or marshal support for a cause. Also displayed are a member's favorites, a collection of other users' images from DeviantArt that a member saves to its own folder. Another thing found on the profile page is a member's watchers; a member adds another member to their watch list in order to be notified when that member uploads something. The watcher notifications are gathered in a member's Message Center with other notices, like when other users comment on that member's deviations, or when the member's image has been put in someone's favorites.  Members can build groups that any registered member of the site can join. These groups are usually based on an artist's chosen medium and content. Some examples of these are Literature (poetry, prose, etc.), Drawing (traditional, digital, or mixed-media), Photography (macro, nature, fashion, stills), and many others. Within these groups are where they do collaborations and have their art featured and introduced to artists of the same kind.  In order to communicate on a more private level, Notes can be sent between individual members, like an email within the site. The other opportunities for communication between members are DeviantArt's forums, for more structured, long-term discussions, and chatrooms, for group instant messaging.

Versions.

DeviantArt has been revising the website in "versions", with each version releasing multiple new features. Coincidentally, the third, fourth and fifth versions of the site were all released on August 7, the "birthday" of the website's founding.

Eclipse (Version 9).

In early November 2018, DeviantArt released a promo site showcasing a new update, titled 'Eclipse'. The site showed that the update would include a minimalist design strategy, a dark mode option, modified CSS editing, improved filtering through a 'Love Meter,' profile headers, and other cosmetic changes and improvements. The update would also include no third-party advertisements and improved features for the site's CORE users.  On November 14, 2018, a beta version of the Eclipse site was made available for CORE members who had marked their accounts for beta testing. As of November 21, 2018, the site has reported that over 4,000 users have tried Eclipse and that the site has received almost 1,700 individual feedback reports; these include bug reports, feature requests, and general commentary. On March 6, 2019, DeviantArt officially released Eclipse to all users, with a toggle to switch back to the old site. On May 20, 2020, the old site was discontinued from access, leaving only Eclipse available.

Live events.

deviantART Summit.

On June 17 and 18, 2005, DeviantArt held their first convention, the deviantART Summit, at the Palladium in the Hollywood area of Los Angeles, California, United States. The summit consisted of several exhibitions by numerous artists, including artscene groups old and new at about 200 different booths. Giant projection screens displayed artwork as it was being submitted live to DeviantArt, which was receiving 50,000 new images daily at the time.

deviantART World Tour.

Starting May 13, 2009, DeviantArt embarked on a world tour, visiting cities around the world, including Sydney, Singapore, Warsaw, Istanbul, Berlin, Paris, London, New York City, Toronto and Los Angeles. During the world tour, the new "Portfolio" feature of DeviantArt was previewed to attendees.

"Birthday Bashes" and deviantMEET.

Occasionally, DeviantArt hosts a meeting for members to come together in real life and interact, exchange, and have fun. There have been meetings for the birthday of DeviantArt, called "Birthday Bashes", as well as simple general get-togethers around the world. In 2010, European DeviantArt members held a deviantMEET to celebrate DeviantArt's birthday in August. There was also a celebration that year in the House of Blues in Hollywood, California.

DeviantArt (formerly stylized as deviantART) is an American online community featuring artwork, videography, and photography. It was launched on August 7, 2000 by Angelo Sotira, Scott Jarkoff, Matthew Stephens, and others. Artworks are organized in a category structure, including photography, digital art, traditional art, literature, Flash, filmmaking, skins for applications, operating system customization utilities and others, along with downloadable resources such as tutorials and stock photography. Additional features include journals, polls, groups, and portfolios.

' (stylisé'de 2001 à 2014) est une communauté artistique en ligne, où chacun peut s'inscrire et exposer ses propres créations, graphiques ou littéraires. Le jour de son (7 août 2015), le site comptait plus de millions d'inscrits et plus de millions de ".