Architecture.

The processor was a significant evolution in the x86 architecture, and extended a long line of processors that stretched back to the Intel 8008. The predecessor of the 80386 was the Intel 80286, a 16-bit processor with a segment-based memory management and protection system. The 80386 added a three-stage instruction pipeline, extended the architecture from 16-bits to 32-bits, and added an on-chip memory management unit. This paging translation unit made it much easier to implement operating systems that used virtual memory. It also offered support for register debugging.  The 80386 featured three operating modes: real mode, protected mode and virtual mode. The protected mode, which debuted in the 286, was extended to allow the 386 to address up to 4 GB of memory. The all new virtual 8086 mode (or "VM86") made it possible to run one or more real mode programs in a protected environment, although some programs were not compatible.  The ability for a 386 to be set up to act like it had a flat memory model in protected mode despite the fact that it uses a segmented memory model in all modes was arguably the most important feature change for the x86 processor family until AMD released x86-64 in 2003.  Several new instructions have been added to 386: BSF, BSR, BT, BTS, BTR, BTC, CDQ, CWDE, LFS, LGS, LSS, MOVSX, MOVZX, SETcc, SHLD, SHRD.  Two new segment registers have been added (FS and GS) for general-purpose programs, single Machine Status Word of 286 grew into eight control registers CR0–CR7. Debug registers DR0–DR7 were added for hardware breakpoints. New forms of MOV instruction are used to access them.  Chief architect in the development of the 80386 was John H. Crawford. He was responsible for extending the 80286 architecture and instruction set to 32-bit, and then led the microprogram development for the 80386 chip.  The 80486 and P5 Pentium line of processors were descendants of the 80386 design.

Datatypes of 80386.

The following data types are directly supported and thus implemented by one or more 80386 machine instructions; these data types are briefly described here.:

Example code.

The following 80386 assembly source code is for a subroutine named codice_1 that copies a null-terminated ASCIIZ character string from one location to another, converting all alphabetic characters to lower case. The string is copied one byte (8-bit character) at a time.  The example code uses the EBP (base pointer) register to establish a call frame, an area on the stack that contains all of the parameters and local variables for the execution of the subroutine. This kind of calling convention supports reentrant and recursive code and has been used by Algol-like languages since the late 1950s. A flat memory model is assumed, specifically, that the DS and ES segments address the same region of memory.

Chip variants.

The 80386SX variant.

In 1988, Intel introduced the 80386SX, most often referred to as the 386SX, a cut-down version of the 80386 with a 16-bit data bus mainly intended for lower-cost PCs aimed at the home, educational, and small-business markets, while the 386DX remained the high-end variant used in workstations, servers, and other demanding tasks. The CPU remained fully 32-bit internally, but the 16-bit bus was intended to simplify circuit-board layout and reduce total cost. The 16-bit bus simplified designs but hampered performance. Only 24 pins were connected to the address bus, therefore limiting addressing to 16 MB, but this was not a critical constraint at the time. Performance differences were due not only to differing data-bus widths, but also due to performance-enhancing cache memories often employed on boards using the original chip.  The original 80386 was subsequently renamed 80386DX to avoid confusion. However, Intel subsequently used the "DX" suffix to refer to the floating-point capability of the 80486DX. The 80387SX was an 80387 part that was compatible with the 386SX (i.e. with a 16-bit databus). The 386SX was packaged in a surface-mount QFP and sometimes offered in a socket to allow for an upgrade.

The i386SL variant.

The i386SL was introduced as a power-efficient version for laptop computers. The processor offered several power-management options (e.g. SMM), as well as different "sleep" modes to conserve battery power. It also contained support for an external cache of 16 to 64 kB. The extra functions and circuit implementation techniques caused this variant to have over 3 times as many transistors as the i386DX. The i386SL was first available at 20 MHz clock speed, with the 25 MHz model later added.

Business importance.

The first company to design and manufacture a PC based on the Intel 80386 was Compaq. By extending the 16/24-bit IBM PC/AT standard into a natively 32-bit computing environment, Compaq became the first third party to implement a major technical hardware advance on the PC platform. IBM was offered use of the 80386, but had manufacturing rights for the earlier 80286. IBM therefore chose to rely on that processor for a couple more years. The early success of the Compaq 386 PC played an important role in legitimizing the PC "clone" industry and in de-emphasizing IBM's role within it.  Prior to the 386, the difficulty of manufacturing microchips and the uncertainty of reliable supply made it desirable that any mass-market semiconductor be multi-sourced, that is, made by two or more manufacturers, the second and subsequent companies manufacturing under license from the originating company. The 386 was for "a time" (4.7 years) only available from Intel, since Andy Grove, Intel's CEO at the time, made the decision not to encourage other manufacturers to produce the processor as second sources. This decision was ultimately crucial to Intel's success in the market. The 386 was the first significant microprocessor to be single-sourced. Single-sourcing the 386 allowed Intel greater control over its development and substantially greater profits in later years.  AMD introduced its compatible Am386 processor in March 1991 after overcoming legal obstacles, thus ending Intel's 4.7-year monopoly on 386-compatible processors. From 1991 IBM also manufactured 386 chips under license for use only in IBM PCs and boards.

Early problems.

Intel originally intended for the 80386 to debut at 16 MHz. However, due to poor yields, it was instead introduced at 12 MHz.  Early in production, Intel discovered a marginal circuit that could cause a system to return incorrect results from 32-bit multiply operations. Not all of the processors already manufactured were affected, so Intel tested its inventory. Processors that were found to be bug-free were marked with a double sigma (ΣΣ), and affected processors were marked "16 BIT S/W ONLY". These latter processors were sold as good parts, since at the time 32-bit capability was not relevant for most users. Such chips are now extremely rare and became collectible.  The i387 math coprocessor was not ready in time for the introduction of the 80386, and so many of the early 80386 motherboards instead provided a socket and hardware logic to make use of an 80287. In this configuration the FPU operated asynchronously to the CPU, usually with a clock rate of 10 MHz. The original Compaq Deskpro 386 is an example of such design. However, this was an annoyance to those who depended on floating-point performance, as the performance advantages of the 80387 over the 80287 were significant.

Pin-compatible upgrades.

Intel later offered a modified version of its 80486DX in 80386 packaging, branded as the Intel RapidCAD. This provided an upgrade path for users with 80386-compatible hardware. The upgrade was a pair of chips that replaced both the 80386 and 80387. Since the 80486DX design contained an FPU, the chip that replaced the 80386 contained the floating-point functionality, and the chip that replaced the 80387 served very little purpose. However, the latter chip was necessary in order to provide the FERR signal to the mainboard and appear to function as a normal floating-point unit.  Third parties offered a wide range of upgrades, for both SX and DX systems. The most popular ones were based on the Cyrix 486DLC/SLC core, which typically offered a substantial speed improvement due to its more efficient instruction pipeline and internal L1 SRAM cache. The cache was usually 1 kB, or sometimes 8 kB in the TI variant. Some of these upgrade chips (such as the 486DRx2/SRx2) were marketed by Cyrix themselves, but they were more commonly found in kits offered by upgrade specialists such as Kingston, Evergreen and Improve-It Technologies. Some of the fastest CPU upgrade modules featured the IBM SLC/DLC family (notable for its 16 kB L1 cache), or even the Intel 486 itself. Many 386 upgrade kits were advertised as being simple drop-in replacements, but often required complicated software to control the cache or clock doubling. Part of the problem was that on most 386 motherboards, the A20 line was controlled entirely by the motherboard with the CPU being unaware, which caused problems on CPUs with internal caches.  Overall, it was very difficult to configure upgrades to produce the results advertised on the packaging, and upgrades were often not very stable or not fully compatible.

Models and variants.

Early 5 V models.

80386DX.

Original version, released in October 1985.

RapidCAD.

A specially packaged Intel 486DX and a dummy floating point unit (FPU) designed as pin-compatible replacements for an Intel 80386 processor and 80387 FPU.

Versions for embedded systems.

80376.

This was an embedded version of the 80386SX which did not support real mode and paging in the MMU.

i386EX, i386EXTB and i386EXTC.

System and power management and built in peripheral and support functions: Two 82C59A interrupt controllers; Timer, Counter (3 channels); Asynchronous SIO (2 channels); Synchronous SIO (1 channel); Watchdog timer (Hardware/Software); PIO. Usable with 80387SX or i387SL FPUs.

i386CXSA and i386SXSA (or i386SXTA).

Transparent power management mode, integrated MMU and TTL compatible inputs (only 386SXSA). Usable with i387SX or i387SL FPUs.

i386CXSB.

Transparent power management mode and integrated MMU. Usable with i387SX or i387SL FPUs.

The Intel 80386, also known as i386 or just 386, is a 32-bit microprocessor introduced in 1985. The first versions had 275,000 transistors and were the CPU of many workstations and high-end personal computers of the time. As the original implementation of the 32-bit extension of the 80286 architecture, the 80386 instruction set, programming model, and binary encodings are still the common denominator for all 32-bit x86 processors, which is termed the "i386-architecture", "x86", or "IA-32", depending on context.

L’Intel 80386, souvent abrégé i386, est un microprocesseur CISC fabriqué par Intel. Il est utilisé dans de nombreux ordinateurs personnels de 1986 à 1994. Lors de sa création, le processeur est nommé « P3 » — la troisième génération de processeurs x86. Il s'agit du premier processeur Intel à implémenter l'architecture de processeur IA-32, qui deviendra par la suite omniprésente dans le monde des ordinateurs personnels. On parle parfois, par métonymie, d"'i386" pour désigner l'architecture IA-32. En, Intel annonce qu'il mettrait fin à la production du 80386 en.


Artistic hub.

In the 18th century, students recited poems at the foot of an artificial hillock of rock rubble from the catacombs, a near-by network of underground galleries. Ironically, they decided to baptize this mound "Mount Parnassus", named after the one celebrated by Greek poets. In early 20th century, many Bretons driven out of their region by poverty arrived by train at Montparnasse station, the heart of the district, and settled near-by. Montparnasse became famous in the 1920s, referred to as "les Années Folles" (the Crazy Years), and the 1930s as the heart of intellectual and artistic life in Paris. From 1910 to the start of World War II, Paris' artistic circles migrated to Montparnasse as alternative to the Montmartre district which had been the intellectual breeding ground for the previous generation of artists. The Paris of Zola, Manet, France, Degas, Fauré, a group that had assembled more on the basis of status affinity than actual artistic tastes, indulging in the refinements of Dandyism, was at the opposite end of the economic, social, and political spectrum from the emigrant artists who peopled Montparnasse.  Virtually penniless painters, sculptors, writers, poets and composers came from around the world to thrive in the creative atmosphere and for the cheap rent at artist communes such as La Ruche. Living without running water, in damp, unheated "studios", many sold their works for a few francs just to buy food. Jean Cocteau once said that poverty was a luxury in Montparnasse. First promoted by art dealers such as Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, today works by those artists sell for millions of euros.  In post-World War I Paris, Montparnasse was a euphoric meeting ground for the artistic world. Fernand Léger wrote of that period: "man...relaxes and recaptures his taste for life, his frenzy to dance, to "spend money"...an explosion of "life-force fills the world"." They came to Montparnasse from all over the globe, from Europe, including Russia, Hungary and Ukraine, from the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central and South America, and from as far away as Japan. Manuel Ortiz de Zárate, Camilo Mori and others made their way from Chile where the profound innovations in art spawned the formation of the Grupo Montparnasse in Santiago. A few of the other artists who gathered in Montparnasse were Jacob Macznik, Pablo Picasso, Guillaume Apollinaire, Ossip Zadkine, Julio Gonzalez, Moise Kisling, Jean Cocteau, Erik Satie, Marios Varvoglis, Marc Chagall, Nina Hamnett, Jean Rhys, Fernand Léger, Jacques Lipchitz, Max Jacob, Blaise Cendrars, Chaim Soutine, James Joyce, Ernest Hemingway, Michel Kikoine, Pinchus Kremegne, Amedeo Modigliani, Ford Madox Ford, Toño Salazar, Ezra Pound, Max Ernst, Marcel Duchamp, Suzanne Duchamp-Crotti, Henri Rousseau, Constantin Brâncuși, Paul Fort, Juan Gris, Diego Rivera, Federico Cantú, Angel Zarraga, Marevna, Tsuguharu Foujita, Marie Vassilieff, Léon-Paul Fargue, Alberto Giacometti, René Iché, André Breton, Alfonso Reyes, Pascin, Nils Dardel, Salvador Dalí, Henry Miller, Samuel Beckett, Emil Cioran, Reginald Gray, Endre Ady poet and journalist, Joan Miró, Hilaire Hiler and, in his declining years, Edgar Degas.  Montparnasse was a community where creativity was embraced with all its oddities, each new arrival welcomed unreservedly by its existing members. When Tsuguharu Foujita arrived from Japan in 1913 not knowing a soul, he met Soutine, Modigliani, Pascin and Léger virtually the same night and within a week became friends with Juan Gris, Picasso and Matisse. In 1914, when the English painter Nina Hamnett arrived in Montparnasse, on her first evening the smiling man at the next table at "La Rotonde" graciously introduced himself as "Modigliani, painter and Jew". They became good friends, Hamnett later recounting how she once borrowed a jersey and corduroy trousers from Modigliani, then went to "La Rotonde" and danced in the street all night.  Between 1921 and 1924, the number of Americans in Paris swelled from 6,000 to 30,000. While most of the artistic community gathered here were struggling to eke out an existence, well-heeled American socialites such as Peggy Guggenheim, and Edith Wharton from New York City, Harry Crosby from Boston and Beatrice Wood from San Francisco were caught in the fever of creativity. Robert McAlmon, and Maria and Eugene Jolas came to Paris and published their literary magazine "Transition". Harry Crosby and his wife Caresse would establish the Black Sun Press in Paris in 1927, publishing works by such future luminaries as D. H. Lawrence, Archibald MacLeish, James Joyce, Kay Boyle, Hart Crane, Ernest Hemingway, John Dos Passos, William Faulkner, Dorothy Parker and others. As well, Bill Bird published through his "Three Mountains Press" until British heiress Nancy Cunard took it over.  The cafés and bars of Montparnasse were a meeting place where ideas were hatched and mulled over. The cafés at the centre of Montparnasse's night-life were in the Carrefour Vavin, now renamed Place Pablo-Picasso. In Montparnasse's heyday (from 1910 to 1920), the cafés "Le Dôme", "La Closerie des Lilas", "La Rotonde", "Le Select", and "La Coupole"—all of which are still in business— were the places where starving artists could occupy a table all evening for a few "centimes". If they fell asleep, the waiters were instructed not to wake them. Arguments were common, some fuelled by intellect, others by alcohol, and if there were fights, and there often were, the police were never summoned. If you couldn't pay your bill, people such as La Rotonde's proprietor, Victor Libion, would often accept a drawing, holding it until the artist could pay. As such, there were times when the café's walls were littered with a collection of artworks.  There were many areas where the artists congregated, one of them being near Le Dôme at no. 10 rue Delambre called the Dingo Bar. It was the hang-out of artists and expatriate Americans and the place where Canadian writer Morley Callaghan came with his friend Ernest Hemingway, both still unpublished writers, and met the already-established F. Scott Fitzgerald. When Man Ray's friend and Dadaist, Marcel Duchamp, left for New York City, Man Ray set up his first studio at l'Hôtel des Ecoles at no. 15 rue Delambre. This is where his career as a photographer began, and where James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Jean Cocteau and the others filed in and posed in black and white.  The "rue de la Gaité" in Montparnasse was the site of many of the great music-hall theatres, in particular the famous "Bobino". On their stages, using then-popular single name pseudonyms or one birth name only, Damia, Kiki, Mayol and Georgius, sang and performed to packed houses. And here too, Les Six was formed, creating music based on the ideas of Erik Satie and Jean Cocteau.  The poet Max Jacob said he came to Montparnasse to "sin disgracefully", but Marc Chagall summed it up differently when he explained why he had gone to Montparnasse: "I aspired to see with my own eyes what I had heard of from so far away: this revolution of the eye, this rotation of colours, which spontaneously and astutely merge with one another in a flow of conceived lines. That could not be seen in my town. The sun of Art then shone only on Paris."  While the area attracted people who came to live and work in the creative, bohemian environment, it also became home for political exiles such as Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, Porfirio Diaz, and Simon Petlyura. But, World War II forced the dispersal of the artistic society, and after the war Montparnasse never regained its splendour. Wealthy socialites like Peggy Guggenheim, an art collector who married artist Max Ernst, lived in the elegant section of Paris but frequented the studios of Montparnasse, acquiring pieces that would come to be recognized as masterpieces that now hang in the Peggy Guggenheim Museum in Venice, Italy.  The Musée du Montparnasse opened in 1998 at 21 Avenue du Maine and closed in 2015. Although operating with a tiny city grant, the museum was a non-profit operation. The Gallery of Montparnasse was one of the firsts to introduce abstract expressionism in France in the 1940s, and still holds contemporary art exhibitions today.

Economy.

SNCF, the French rail company, has its head office in Montparnasse near the 14th arrondissement.  Prior to the completion of the current Air France head office in Tremblay-en-France in December 1995, Air France was headquartered in a tower located next to the Gare Montparnasse rail station in Montparnasse and in the 15th arrondissement; Air France had its headquarters in the tower for about 30 years.

Education.

The Vandamme Library (Bibliothèque Vandamme) is located in the neighbourhood.

Montparnasse () is an area of Paris, France, on the left bank of the river Seine, centered at the crossroads of the Boulevard du Montparnasse and the Rue de Rennes, between the Rue de Rennes and boulevard Raspail. Montparnasse has been part of Paris.

Le quartier du Montparnasse est le quartier administratif de Paris situé dans le, sur la rive gauche de la Seine, au sud de l'intersection du boulevard du Montparnasse et du boulevard Raspail. La partie sud-ouest du quartier a été absorbée par la ville avec d'autres communes et divisions administratives en 1860.


History of the office.

The first poll in the history of Montreal was held on the day the first charter of Montreal came into effect – June 3, 1833. On June 5, 1833 city council chose Jacques Viger as the first mayor of Montreal. The same day that Jacques Viger was elected mayor of Montreal, city council adopted a series of administrative by-laws, as well as ordinances to improve cleanliness in city districts. Andrew Steven Fox was appointed as the mayor's medical advisor.  The first coat of arms of Montreal and the motto "Concordia Salus" were adopted on July 19, 1833 as proposed by Viger, incorporating the emblems of the main ethnic groups in the city. The rose represented England, the thistle referred to Scotland, the clover corresponded to Ireland, and the beaver, the French Canadians; this latter was replaced by the fleur de lys in 1938.  In 1851 city council decided to provide the first magistrate of the city with a sumptuous chain; it is an old English practice. The coat of arms of Montreal figured prominently in the centre of the gold chain. On October 2, 1851, that chain was passed on to Mayor Charles Wilson at a ceremony presided over by Lord Elgin, Governor General of Canada. The chain is now worn by each new mayor at the swearing-in ceremony. At the election in February 1852, Wilson became the first mayor elected by citizens.  Starting with the 2009 Montreal municipal election, the mayor of Montreal is also the mayor of the borough of Ville-Marie.  On November 5, 2017, Valérie Plante became the first woman to be elected as Mayor of Montreal.

Vacancies.

If an incumbent mayor dies in office or resigns, the office is temporarily assumed by the deputy mayor, a position which rotates among different city councillors during the course of a normal council term. In 2012 councillor Jane Cowell-Poitras became acting mayor of the city following the resignation of Gérald Tremblay.  Under provincial law governing municipal election processes, if the vacancy occurs more than one year before the next regularly scheduled municipal election, then a by-election is held to choose the replacement mayor. However, if the vacancy occurs less than a year before the next election, council has up to 30 days to hold an internal vote to choose one of its own members as the new mayor until the regular election. As Tremblay's resignation occurred less than a year before the 2013 municipal election, his formal successor Michael Applebaum was chosen by the latter method, in a vote which took place on November 16. Applebaum resigned on June 18, 2013, and Cowell-Poitras again became acting mayor until Laurent Blanchard was selected in a council vote on June 25.

The Mayor of Montreal is head of the executive branch of the Montreal City Council. The current mayor is Valérie Plante, who was elected into office on November 5, 2017, and sworn in on November 16. The office of the mayor administers all city services, public property, police and fire protection, most public agencies, and enforces all city and provincial laws within Montreal, Quebec. The mayor is directly elected by citizens, by a plurality of votes, for a four-year term (unless a vacancy occurs). The mayor's office is located in Montreal City Hall.

Le maire de Montréal est le chef de l'exécutif de la Ville de Montréal, au Québec. Valérie Plante exerce la fonction depuis le. Elle est la première femme à occuper le poste.


Prelude to the battle.

Two days before the battle, on 14 November (in the Gregorian calendar, 4th in the Julian calendar) the Roman Catholic general Albrecht von Wallenstein decided to split his men and withdraw his main headquarters back towards Leipzig. He expected no further move that year from the Swedish army, since unseasonably wintry weather was making it difficult to camp in the open countryside.  However, Gustavus Adolphus' army marched out of camp towards Wallenstein's last known position and attempted to catch him by surprise. This attempted trap was sprung prematurely on the afternoon of 15 November, by a small force left by Wallenstein at the Rippach stream, about 5–6 kilometres south of Lützen. The resulting skirmish delayed the Swedish advance by two or three hours, thus when night fell the two armies were still separated by about 2–3 kilometres (1–2 miles). In their attempt to achieve surprise the Swedes had abandoned the 3 pounder cannons that normally were attached to each of their infantry brigades, denying them the crucial firepower advantage that they had enjoyed in previous battles.  Wallenstein had learned of the Swedish approach on the afternoon of 15 November. Seeing the danger, he dispatched a note to General Pappenheim ordering him to return as quickly as possible with his army corps. Pappenheim received the note after midnight, and immediately set off to rejoin Wallenstein with most of his troops. During the night, Wallenstein deployed his army in a defensive position along the main Lützen-Leipzig road, which he reinforced with trenches. He anchored his right flank on a low hill, on which he placed his main artillery battery.

Battle.

Morning mist delayed the Swedish army's advance, but by 9 am the rival armies were in sight of each other. Because of a complex network of waterways and further misty weather, it took until 11 am before the Protestant force was deployed and ready to launch its attack.  Gustavus Adolphus rode his war-horse, a brown Oldenburg that he had purchased from Colonel for the sum of 1000 riksdaler (the sum for a regular horse was about 70-80 riksdaler). Its saddle of gold embroidered red velvet was a gift from the King's wife, Maria Eleonora. Protecting the King's body was a buff coat made of moose hide - the old musket wound on his shoulder blade making it impossible for him to wear the pistol-proof plate cuirass normally worn by important officers at that time. This would have serious consequences later.

Pappenheim's return and fall.

Initially, the battle went well for the Protestants, who managed to outflank Wallenstein's weak left wing. After a while, Pappenheim arrived with 2,000–3,000 cavalry and halted the Swedish assault. However, during the charge, Pappenheim was fatally wounded by a small-calibre Swedish cannonball. At the same time, Pappenheim's counterattack collapsed. He died while being evacuated from the field in a coach.

Gustavus Adolphus' disappearance and death.

The cavalry action on the open Imperial left wing continued, with both sides deploying reserves in an attempt to gain the upper hand. Soon afterwards, towards 1:00 pm, Gustavus Adolphus was himself killed while leading a cavalry charge on this wing. First, a bullet crushed his left arm below the elbow, while simultaneously his horse suffered a shot to the neck that made it hard to control. In the mix of fog and smoke from the burning town of Lützen the king and his small escort rode astray behind enemy lines and were attacked by a squadron of Imperial cuirassiers. He sustained yet another shot in the back, suffered several sword stabs through the torso and fell from his horse. As he lay dying on the ground, he received a final, fatal shot to the temple.  His fate remained unknown for some time. However, when the gunnery paused and the smoke cleared, his horse was spotted between the two lines, Gustavus himself not on it and nowhere to be seen. His disappearance stopped the initiative of the hitherto successful Swedish right wing, while a search was conducted. His partly stripped body was found an hour or two later, and was secretly evacuated from the field in a Swedish artillery wagon.

Struggle in the center.

Meanwhile, the veteran infantry of the Swedish center had continued to follow orders and tried to assault the strongly entrenched Imperial center and right wing. Their attack was a catastrophic failure. A gap opened in the centre of the Swedish line, which was exploited by Imperial cavalry charging from behind the cover of their own infantry. Two of the oldest and most experienced infantry units of the Swedish army, the 'Old Blue' Regiment and the Yellow or 'Court' Regiment were effectively wiped out in these assaults; remnants from them streamed to the rear. Soon most of the Swedish front line was in chaotic retreat.  The royal preacher, Jakob Fabricius, rallied a few Swedish officers around him and started to sing a psalm. This act had many of the soldiers halt in hundreds. The foresight of Swedish third-in-command Major General Dodo zu Innhausen und Knyphausen also helped stanch the rout: he had kept the Swedish second or reserve line well out of range of Imperial gunfire, and this allowed the broken Swedish front line to rally.

Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar.

By about 3 PM, the Protestant second-in-command Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, having learned of the king's death, returned from the left wing and assumed command over the entire army. He vowed to win the battle in retribution for Gustavus or die trying, but contrary to popular legend tried to keep the king's fate secret from the army as a whole. (Although rumours were circulating much earlier, it was only the following day that Bernhard collected his surviving officers together and told them the truth.)  The result was a grim struggle, with terrible casualties on both sides. Finally, with dusk falling, the Swedes captured the linchpin of Wallenstein's position, the main Imperial artillery battery. The Imperial forces retired back out of its range, leaving the field to the Swedes. At about 6 pm, Pappenheim's infantry, about 3,000–4,000 strong, after marching all day towards the gunfire, arrived on the battlefield. Although night had fallen, they wished to counterattack the Swedes. Wallenstein, however, believed the situation hopeless and instead ordered his army to withdraw to Leipzig under cover of the fresh infantry.

After the battle.

The body of Gustav II Adolf was plundered of its clothes and gold jewellery and left on the battlefield dressed only in his shirts and long stockings.  His buff coat was taken as a trophy to the emperor in Vienna. It was returned to Sweden in 1920, in recognition of relief efforts by the Swedish Red Cross during and after the First World War.  The king's horse, Streiff, followed the procession with the king's body through northern Germany. When Streiff died at Wolgast in 1633, his hide was saved and sent to Stockholm and Sweden where it was mounted on a wooden model. "The Hero-king's war horse" would soon be displayed in the Royal Armoury as a monument to the King. Today Streiff is permanently displayed in the Royal Armoury in Stockholm, Sweden.

Gustavus Adolphus' funeral cortege from Lützen to Stockholm.

After the fateful Battle of Lützen the dead Gustavus Adolphus was first taken to Meuchen to be cleaned and then to Weissenfels for embalming. The embalmed body was dressed in a beautiful gold and silver woven dress and brought in solemn procession to the port town Wolgast. The corpse was kept there for several months. Not until the summer 1633 it was time for the departure to Sweden. The dead king was then brought in a procession down to the sea side. It consisted of people from Sweden and the nearby areas. Banners from all counties and principalities, the blood banner and the head banner were carried. The armor (kyrisset), the sword and the horse (livhästen) functioned as symbols for the dead king. The widow, Maria Eleonora, rode in a coach, but Gustavus Adolphus young daughter Christina did not participate. The procession ended by the water, where the ship Stora Nyckeln was to bring the dead across the sea to the Swedish town Nyköping.  When the ship arrived to Nyköping, there were rumours of dreadful portents. A shoemaker's wife was said to have given birth to a freak and a calf with two heads had been born. The royal corpse was kept in Nyköping until the funeral in summer 1634. When it was time for the final journey to Stockholm, a ceremony was held at Nyköping Castle where the king's old teacher Johan Skytte held a speech and the bishop Johannes Rudbeckius read a sermon dedicated to the king's daughter Christina.  In the procession to Stockholm there were eight war trophies from Lützen and several trophy banners from Leipzig, marking Sweden's status as a superpower. Five black-dressed members of the privy council (riksämbetsmän) carried the regalia before the royal corpse, which lay on a bier adorned with black cloth. Right behind the bier came the king's brother in law, the Count Palatine Johan Casimir with his sons Karl Gustav and Adolf Johan. This time both the grieving Dowager Queen, Maria Eleonora and the king's seven-year-old daughter Christina attended. The sorrowful procession moved slowly across the country towards the capital.

Gustavus Adolphus's funeral in Stockholm 1634.

The streets of Stockholm were arranged for the funeral. The burghers had been told to white lime the houses along the procession route and trophies from Lützen and Leipzig had been placed out. On the funeral day, June 22, the participants gathered outside town. The dead king was taken off his coach and carried into the capital to the Church. Bishops and priests welcomed the procession in the outskirts of the town and along the road from the gate to the church money were thrown to the people. When the procession reached the Riddarholms church the blood banner was placed over the entrance to the tomb and the bier with Gustavus Adolphus was placed in the middle of the choir. A grand ceremony was held by the Bishop Johannes Botvidi, with a sermon dedicated to the Dowager Queen Maria Eleonora. When the ceremony was over the dead king was placed in the tomb. The end of the ceremony was promulgated by cannons firing over the town for two hours.

Aftermath.

Strategically and tactically speaking, the Battle of Lützen was a Protestant victory. Having been forced to assault an entrenched position, Sweden lost about 6,000 men including badly wounded and deserters, many of whom may have drifted back to the ranks in the following weeks. The Imperial army probably lost slightly fewer men than the Swedes on the field, but because of the loss of the battlefield and general theatre of operations to the Swedes, fewer of the wounded and stragglers were able to rejoin the ranks.  The Swedish army achieved the main goals of its campaign. The Imperial onslaught on Saxony was halted, Wallenstein chose to withdraw from Saxony into Bohemia for the winter, and Saxony continued in its alliance with the Swedes. However, without Gustavus Adolphus to unify the German Protestants, their war effort lost direction. As a result, the Catholic Habsburgs were able to restore their balance and subsequently regain some of the losses Gustavus Adolphus had inflicted on them.  Crucially, Gustavus Adolphus's death enabled the Catholic French to gain much firmer control of the anti-Habsburg alliance. Sweden's new regency was forced to accept a far less dominant role than it had held before the battle. The war was eventually concluded at the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

Memorial.

Near the spot where Gustavus Adolphus fell, a granite boulder was placed in position on the day after the battle. A canopy of cast iron was erected over this “Swedes' stone” () in 1832, and close by, a chapel, built by Oskar Ekman, a citizen of Gothenburg (d. 1907), was dedicated on 6 November 1907. The fallen king is remembered every year in Sweden, on Gustavus Adolphus Day the 6 November, with serene celebrations and special pastries.

Archaeology.

In 2011, a mass grave containing the remains of 47 soldiers were found in an area where a Swedish unit known as the Blue Brigade was reportedly defeated in a surprise attack by a Catholic cavalry unit. Examination of the remains determined that more than half of the soldiers had been hit by gunfire, an unusually high number for this time period.

Date.

At this time, the Catholic Holy Roman Empire used the Gregorian calendar, but Protestant Sweden still used the Julian calendar. Hence the Battle of Lützen occurred on 16 November for the Catholics but on 6 November for the Swedes. In Sweden, the death of Gustavus Adolphus has a long tradition of being commemorated on 6 November, Gustavus Adolphus Day, despite the country's adoption of the Gregorian calendar in the 18th century.

Napoleon.

In May 1813, the Emperor Napoleon was visiting the 1632 battlefield, playing tour guide with his staff by pointing to the sites and describing the events of 1632, in detail from memory. When he heard the sound of cannon, he immediately cut the tour short and went to conduct his own Battle of Lützen.

The Battle of Lützen (16 November 1632) was one of the most important battles of the Thirty Years' War. Though losses were about equally heavy on both sides, the battle was a Protestant victory, but cost the life of one of the most important leaders of the Protestant side, the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus, which caused the Protestant cause to lose direction. The Imperial field marshal Pappenheim was also fatally wounded.

La bataille de la Marfée est une bataille qui a eu lieu sur les hauteurs de Sedan, le, entre le royaume de France et la principauté de Sedan, alliée au Saint-Empire et aux Pays-Bas Espagnols.


Biography.

Satrapi was born in Rasht, Iran. She grew up in Tehran in a middle-class Iranian family. Both her parents were politically active and supported Marxist causes against the monarchy of the last Shah. When the Iranian Revolution took place in 1979, they were oppressed by the Muslim fundamentalists who took power.  During her youth, Marjane was exposed to the growing brutalities of the various regimes. Many of her family friends were persecuted, arrested, and even murdered. She found a hero in her paternal uncle, Anoosh, who had been a political prisoner and lived in exile in the Soviet Union for a time. Young Marjane greatly admired her uncle, and he in turn doted on her, treating her more as a daughter than a niece. Once back in Iran, Anoosh was arrested again and sentenced to death. Anoosh was only allowed one visitor the night before his execution, and he requested Marjane. His body was buried in an unmarked grave in the prison.  Although her parents encouraged Marjane to be strong-willed and defend her rights, they grew concerned for Marjane's safety. Barely in her teens by this time, she was skirting trouble with police for disregarding modesty codes and buying music banned by the regime.  They arranged for her to live with a family friend to study abroad, and in 1983 she arrived in Vienna, Austria, to attend the Lycée Français de Vienne. She stayed in Vienna through her high school years, often moving from one residence to another as situations changed, and sometimes stayed at friends' homes. Eventually, she was homeless and lived on the streets for three months, until she was hospitalized for an almost deadly bout of pneumonia. Upon recovery, she returned to Iran. She studied visual communication, eventually obtaining a master's degree from Islamic Azad University in Tehran.  Satrapi married Reza, a veteran of the Iran–Iraq War, when she was 21, whom she later divorced. She then moved to Strasbourg, France. Her parents told her that Iran was no longer the place for her, and encouraged her to stay in Europe permanently.  Satrapi is married to Mattias Ripa, a Swedish national. They live in Paris. Apart from her native language, Persian, she speaks French, English, Swedish, German, and Italian.

Career.

Comic books.

Satrapi became famous worldwide because of her critically acclaimed autobiographical graphic novels, originally published in French in four parts in 2000–2003 and in English translation in two parts in 2003 and 2004, respectively, as "Persepolis and Persepolis 2", which describe her childhood in Iran and her adolescence in Europe. "Persepolis" won the "Angoulême "Coup de Coeur" Award" at the Angoulême International Comics Festival. In 2013, Chicago schools were ordered by the district to remove "Persepolis" from classrooms because of the work's graphic language and violence. This incited protests and controversy. Her later publication, "Embroideries" ("Broderies"), was also nominated for the Angoulême Album of the Year award in 2003, an award that her novel "Chicken with Plums" ("Poulet aux prunes") won. She has also contributed to the Op-Ed section of "The New York Times".  Comics Alliance listed Satrapi as one of 12 women cartoonists deserving of lifetime achievement recognition.  Satrapi prefers the term "comic books" to "graphic novels." "People are so afraid to say the word 'comic'," she told the "Guardian" newspaper in 2011. "It makes you think of a grown man with pimples, a ponytail and a big belly. Change it to 'graphic novel' and that disappears. No: it's all comics."

Films.

"Persepolis" was adapted into an animated film of the same name. It debuted at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival in May 2007 and shared a Special Jury Prize with Carlos Reygadas's "Silent Light" ("Luz silenciosa"). Co-written and co-directed by Satrapi and director Vincent Paronnaud, the French-language picture stars the voices of Chiara Mastroianni, Catherine Deneuve, Danielle Darrieux, and Simon Abkarian. The English version, starring the voices of Gena Rowlands, Sean Penn, and Iggy Pop, was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature in January 2008. Satrapi was the first woman to be nominated for the award. However, the Iranian government denounced the film and got it dropped from the Bangkok International Film Festival. Otherwise, "Persepolis" was a very successful film both commercially (with over a million admissions in France alone) as well as critically, winning Best First Film at the César Awards 2008. The film reflects many tendencies of first-time filmmaking in France (which makes up around 40% of all French cinema each year), notably in its focus on very intimate rites of passage, and quite ambivalently recounted coming-of-age moments.  Satrapi and Paronnaud continued their successful collaboration with a second film, a live-action adaptation of "Chicken with Plums", released in late 2011. In 2012, Satrapi directed and acted in the comedy crime film "Gang of the Jotas", from her own screenplay.  In 2014 Satrapi directed the comedy-horror film "The Voices", from a screenplay by Michael R. Perry.  In 2019, Satrapi directed a biopic of two-time Nobel Prize winner Marie Sklodowska Curie, the Polish scientist. Curie was merely her surname by marriage to Pierre, by convention of that era. She patriotically named her second discovered element as Polonium in honour of her country of birth. The film title is "Radioactive".

Appearances.

Following the Iranian elections in June 2009, Satrapi and Iranian filmmaker Mohsen Makhmalbaf appeared before Green Party members in the European Parliament to present a document allegedly received from a member of the Iranian electoral commission claiming that the reform candidate, Mir Hossein Mousavi, had actually won the election, and that the conservative incumbent Mahmoud Ahmedinejad had received only 12% of the vote.

Marjane Satrapi (; born 22 November 1969) is an Iranian-born French graphic novelist, cartoonist, illustrator, film director, and children's book author. Her most famous works are the comic book "Persepolis" and its film adaptation, and "Chicken with Plums".

Marjane Satrapi, née le à Rasht (Iran), est une artiste franco-iranienne d'expression francophone surtout connue comme auteure de bande dessinée et réalisatrice.


Personal life.

George Sand – known to her friends and family as "Aurore" – was born in Paris and was raised for much of her childhood by her grandmother, Marie-Aurore de Saxe, Madame Dupin de Francueil, at her grandmother's estate, Nohant, in the French province of Berry (see House of George Sand). Sand later used the estate setting in many of her novels. Her father, Maurice Dupin, was the grandson of the Marshal General of France, Maurice, Comte de Saxe, an out-of-wedlock son of Augustus II the Strong, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, and a cousin to the sixth degree to Kings Louis XVI, Louis XVIII and Charles X of France. She was also more distantly related to King Louis Philippe of France through common ancestors from German and Danish ruling families. Sand's mother, Sophie-Victoire Delaborde, was a commoner.

Gender expression.

Sand was one of many notable 19th-century women who chose to wear male attire in public. In 1800, the police issued an order requiring women to apply for a permit in order to wear male clothing. Some women applied for health, occupational, or recreational reasons (e.g., horseback riding), but many women chose to wear pants and other traditional male attire in public without receiving a permit. They did so as well for practical reasons, but also at times to subvert dominant stereotypes. Sand was one of the women who wore men's clothing without a permit, justifying them as being less expensive and far sturdier than the typical dress of a noblewoman at the time. In addition to being comfortable, Sand's male attire enabled her to circulate more freely in Paris than most of her female contemporaries, and gave her increased access to venues from which women were often barred, even women of her social standing. Also scandalous was Sand's smoking tobacco in public; neither peerage nor gentry had yet sanctioned the free indulgence of women in such a habit, especially in public (though Franz Liszt's paramour Marie d'Agoult affected this as well, smoking large cigars). While there were many contemporary critics of her comportment, many people accepted her behaviour until they became shocked with the subversive tone of her novels. Those who found her writing admirable were not bothered by her ambiguous or rebellious public behaviour. As Victor Hugo commented, “George Sand cannot determine whether she is male or female. I entertain a high regard for all my colleagues, but it is not my place to decide whether she is my sister or my brother.”

Notable relationships.

In 1822, at the age of eighteen, Sand married Casimir Dudevant (1795–1871; first name "François"), out-of-wedlock son of Baron Jean-François Dudevant. She and Dudevant had two children: Maurice (1823–1889) and Solange (1828–1899). In 1825 she had an intense but perhaps platonic affair with the young lawyer Aurélien de Sèze. In early 1831, she left her husband and entered upon a four- or five-year period of "romantic rebellion." In 1835, she was legally separated from Dudevant, and took custody of their children.  Sand had romantic affairs with Jules Sandeau (1831), Prosper Mérimée, Alfred de Musset (summer 1833 – March 1835), Louis-Chrysostome Michel, Pierre-François Bocage, Charles Didier, Félicien Mallefille, Louis Blanc, and composer Frédéric Chopin (1837–1847). Later in her life, she corresponded with Gustave Flaubert, and despite their differences in temperament and aesthetic preference, they eventually became close friends. She engaged in an intimate friendship with actress Marie Dorval, which led to widespread but unconfirmed rumours of a romantic affair.

Relationship with Chopin.

Sand spent the winter of 1838–1839 with Chopin in Majorca at the (formerly abandoned) Carthusian monastery of Valldemossa. The trip to Majorca was described in her "Un hiver à Majorque" ("A Winter in Majorca"), first published in 1841. Chopin was already ill with incipient tuberculosis at the beginning of their relationship, and spending a cold and wet winter in Majorca where they could not get proper lodgings exacerbated his symptoms. They separated two years before his death for a variety of reasons. In her novel "Lucrezia Floriani", Sand used Chopin as a model for a sickly Eastern European prince named Karol. He is cared for by a middle-aged actress past her prime, Lucrezia, who suffers a great deal through her affection for Karol. Though Sand claimed not to have made a cartoon out of Chopin, the book's publication and widespread readership may have exacerbated their later antipathy towards each other. The tipping point in their relationship involved her daughter Solange. Chopin continued to be cordial to Solange after she and her husband, Auguste Clésinger, had a falling out with Sand over money. Sand took Chopin's support of Solange to be extremely disloyal, and confirmation that Chopin had always "loved" Solange. Sand's son Maurice also disliked Chopin. Maurice wanted to establish himself as the "man of the estate" and did not wish to have Chopin as a rival. Chopin was never asked back to Nohant; in 1848, he returned to Paris from a tour of the United Kingdom, to die at the Place Vendôme in the following year. Chopin was penniless at that time; his friends had to pay for his stay there, as well as his funeral at the Madeleine. The funeral was attended by over 3,000 people, including Eugène Delacroix, Franz Liszt, Victor Hugo and other notables. George Sand was notably absent.

Death.

Sand died at Nohant, near Châteauroux, in France's Indre "département" on 8 June 1876, at the age of 71. She was buried in the private graveyard behind the chapel at Nohant-Vic. In 2003, plans that her remains be moved to the Panthéon in Paris resulted in controversy.

Career and politics.

George Sand was the most popular writer (of any gender) in Europe by the age of 27, more popular than both Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s, and she remained immensely popular as a writer throughout her lifetime and long after her death. Early in her career, her work was in high demand and already by 1836, the first of several compendia of her writings was published in 24 volumes. In total, 4 separate editions of her "Complete Works" were published during her lifetime. In 1880 her children sold the rights to her literary estate for 125,000 Francs (equivalent to 36 kg worth of gold, or 1.3 million dollars in 2015 USD)  Drawing from her childhood experiences of the countryside, Sand wrote the pastoral novels "La Mare au Diable" (1846), "François le Champi" (1847–1848), "La Petite Fadette" (1849), and "Les Beaux Messieurs de Bois-Doré" (1857). "A Winter in Majorca" described the period that she and Chopin spent on that island from 1838 to 1839. Her other novels include "Indiana" (1832), "Lélia" (1833), "Mauprat" (1837), "Le Compagnon du Tour de France" (1840), "Consuelo" (1842–1843), and "Le Meunier d'Angibault" (1845). Theatre pieces and autobiographical pieces include "Histoire de ma vie" (1855), "Elle et Lui" (1859, about her affair with Musset), "Journal Intime" (posthumously published in 1926), and "Correspondence". Sand often performed her theatrical works in her small private theatre at the Nohant estate.  Sand was well-known around the world, while her social practices, writings, and beliefs prompted much commentary, often by other members of the world of arts and letters.  Sand's literary debut came as a result of a collaboration with the writer Jules Sandeau. They published several stories together, signing them "Jules Sand." Sand's first published novel, "Rose et Blanche" (1831), was written in collaboration with Sandeau. She subsequently adopted, for her first independent novel, "Indiana" (1832), the pen name that made her famous – George Sand.

Political views.

In addition, Sand authored literary criticism and political texts. In her early life, she sided with the poor and working class as well as women's rights. When the 1848 Revolution began, she was an ardent republican. Sand started her own newspaper, which was published in a workers' co-operative.  Politically, she became very active after 1841 and the leaders of the day often consulted with her and took her advice. She was a member of the provisional government of 1848, and during Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte’s coup d’état of December 1851, she negotiated pardons and reduced sentences for her friends.  Sand was known for her implication and writings during the Paris Commune, where she took a position for the Versailles assembly against the "communards," urging them to take violent action against the "rebels." She was appalled by the violence of the Paris Commune. She wrote: "The horrible adventure continues. They ransom, they threaten, they arrest, they judge. They have taken over all the city halls, all the public establishments, they’re pillaging the munitions and the food supplies."

Criticism.

Opinions on her writings.

Sand's writing was immensely popular during her lifetime and she was highly respected by the literary and cultural elite in France. Victor Hugo, in the eulogy he gave at her funeral, said "the lyre was within her."  Eugène Delacroix was a close friend and respected her literary gifts. Flaubert, by no means an indulgent or forbearing critic, was an unabashed admirer. Honoré de Balzac, who knew Sand personally, once said that if someone thought she wrote badly, it was because their own standards of criticism were inadequate. He also noted that her treatment of imagery in her works showed that her writing had an exceptional subtlety, having the ability to "virtually put the image in the word." Alfred de Vigny referred to her as "Sappho".  Not all of her contemporaries admired her or her writing: poet Charles Baudelaire was one contemporary critic of George Sand: "She is stupid, heavy and garrulous. Her ideas on morals have the same depth of judgment and delicacy of feeling as those of janitresses and kept women... The fact that there are men who could become enamoured of this slut is indeed a proof of the abasement of the men of this generation."

Influences on literature.

Fyodor Dostoevsky "read widely in the numerous novels of George Sand" and translated her "La dernière Aldini" in 1844, but "discovered to his dismay that the work had already appeared in Russian". In his novel "Demons" (1871), the character of Stepan Verkhovensky takes to translating the works of George Sand in his periodical, before the periodical was subsequently seized by the ever-cautious Russian government of the 1840s. The English poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806–61) wrote two poems: "To George Sand: A Desire" (1853) and "To George Sand: A Recognition". The American poet Walt Whitman cited Sand's novel "Consuelo" as a personal favorite, and the sequel to this novel, "La Comtesse de Rudolstadt", contains at least a couple of passages that appear to have had a very direct influence on him. In the first episode of the "Overture" to "Swann's Way"—the first novel in Marcel Proust's "In Search of Lost Time" sequence—a young, distraught Marcel is calmed by his mother as she reads from "François le Champi", a novel which (it is explained) was part of a gift from his grandmother, which also included "La Mare au Diable", "La Petite Fadette", and "Les Maîtres Sonneurs". As with many episodes involving art in "À la recherche du temps perdu", this reminiscence includes commentary on the work. Sand is also referred to in Virginia Woolf's book-length essay "A Room of One's Own" along with George Eliot and Charlotte Brontë as "all victims of inner strife as their writings prove, sought ineffectively to veil themselves by using the name of a man."  Frequent literary references to George Sand can be found in "" (1990) by A. S. Byatt and in the play "Voyage", the first part of Tom Stoppard's "The Coast of Utopia" trilogy (2002). George Sand also makes an appearance in Isabel Allende's "Zorro", going still by her given name, as a young girl in love with Diego de la Vega, "i.e.", Zorro.

In film.

George Sand is portrayed by Merle Oberon in "A Song to Remember", by Patricia Morison in "Song Without End", by Rosemary Harris in "Notorious Woman", by Judy Davis in James Lapine's 1991 British-American film "Impromptu"; and by Juliette Binoche in the 1999 French film "Children of the Century (Les Enfants du siècle)".

References.

Notes Sources

Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin (; 1 July 1804 – 8 June 1876), best known by her pen name George Sand (), was a French novelist, memoirist, and Socialist. One of the most popular writers in Europe in her lifetime, being more renowned than both Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s, Sand is recognised as one of the most notable writers of the European Romantic era.

George Sand, pseudonyme d'Amantine Aurore Lucile Dupin, par mariage baronne Dudevant, est une romancière, dramaturge, épistolière, critique littéraire et journaliste française, née à Paris le et morte au château de Nohant-Vic le. Elle compte parmi les écrivains les plus prolifiques, avec plus de 70 romans à son actif et 50 volumes d'œuvres diverses dont des nouvelles, des contes, des pièces de théâtre et des textes politiques.


Alphabet.

The French alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, uppercase and lowercase, with five diacritics and two orthographic ligatures. The letters and are rarely used except in loanwords and regional words. The phoneme sound is usually written ; the sound is usually written anywhere but before, before, and sometimes at the ends of words. However, is common in the metric prefix kilo- (originally from Greek "khilia" "a thousand"): "kilogramme, kilomètre, kilowatt, kilohertz," etc.

Diacritics.

The usual diacritics are the acute (, "accent aigu"), the grave (, "accent grave"), the circumflex (, "accent circonflexe"), the diaeresis (, "tréma"), and the cedilla (, "cédille"). Diacritics have no effect on the primary alphabetical order.  The tilde diacritical mark ( ̃ ) above n is occasionally used in French for words and names of Spanish origin that have been incorporated into the language (e.g., "El Niño"). Like the other diacritics, the tilde has no impact on the primary alphabetical order.  Diacritics are often omitted on capital letters, mainly for technical reasons. It is widely believed that they are not required; however both the Académie française and the Office québécois de la langue française reject this usage and confirm that "in French, the accent has full orthographic value", except for acronyms but not for abbreviations (e.g., "CEE", "ALENA", but "É.-U."). Nevertheless, diacritics are often ignored in word games, including crosswords, Scrabble, and "Des chiffres et des lettres".

Ligatures.

The two ligatures "œ" and "æ" have orthographic value. For determining alphabetical order, these ligatures are treated like the sequences "oe" and "ae".

Œ.

( or "o, e collés/liés") This ligature is a mandatory contraction of in certain words. Some of these are native French words, with the pronunciation or, e.g., "chœur" "heart", "cœur" "heart", "mœurs" "moods (related to moral)", "nœud" "knot", "sœur" "sister", "œuf" "egg", "œuvre" "work (of art)", "vœu" "vow". It usually appears in the combination "œu"; "œil" "eye" is an exception. Many of these words were originally written with the digraph "eu"; the "o" in the ligature represents a sometimes artificial attempt to imitate the Latin spelling: Latin "bovem" > Old French "buef"/"beuf" > Modern French "bœuf".  "Œ" is also used in words of Greek origin, as the Latin rendering of the Greek diphthong "οι", e.g., "cœlacanthe" "coelacanth". These words used to be pronounced with the vowel, but in recent years a spelling pronunciation with has taken hold, e.g., "œsophage" or, "Œdipe" or etc. The pronunciation with is often seen to be more correct.  When "œ" is found after the letter "c", the "c" can be pronounced in some cases ("cœur"), or in others ("cœlacanthe").  The ligature œ is not used when both letters contribute different sounds. For example, when is part of a prefix ("coexister"), or when is part of a suffix ("minoen"), or in the word "moelle" and its derivatives.

Æ.

( or "a, e collés/liés") This ligature is rare, appearing only in some words of Latin and Greek origin like "tænia", "ex æquo", "cæcum", "æthuse" (as named "dog’s parsley"). It generally represents the vowel, like.  The sequence appears in loanwords where both sounds are heard, as in "maestro" and "paella".

Digraphs and trigraphs.

French digraphs and trigraphs have both historical and phonological origins. In the first case, it is a vestige of the spelling in the word's original language (usually Latin or Greek) maintained in modern French, for example, the use of in words like "téléphone", in words like "théorème", or in "chaotique". In the second case, a digraph is due to an archaic pronunciation, such as,,,, and, or is merely a convenient way to expand the twenty-six-letter alphabet to cover all relevant phonemes, as in,,,,, and. Some cases are a mixture of these or are used for purely pragmatic reasons, such as for in "il mangeait" ('he ate'), where the serves to indicate a "soft" inherent in the verb's root.

Words from Greek.

The spelling of French words of Greek origin is complicated by a number of digraphs which originated in the Latin transcriptions. The digraphs,, and normally represent,, and in Greek loanwords, respectively; and the ligatures and in Greek loanwords represent the same vowel as (). Further, many words in the international scientific vocabulary were constructed in French from Greek roots and have kept their digraphs (e.g., "stratosphère", "photographie").

History.

The Oaths of Strasbourg from 842 is the earliest text written in the early form of French called Romance or Gallo-Romance.

Roman.

The Gaulish language of the inhabitants of Gaul disappeared progressively over the course of Roman rule as the Latin languages began to replace it: written (Classical) Latin and spoken (vulgar) Latin. Classical Latin, taught in schools, remained the language of religious services, of scientific works, of legislative acts and of certain literary works. Vulgar Latin, spoken by the Roman soldiers and merchants, and adopted by the natives, evolved slowly, taking the forms of different spoken Roman vernaculars according to the region of the country.  Eventually the different forms of Vulgar Latin would evolve into three branches in the Gallo-Romance language sub-family, the langues d'oïl north of the Loire, the langues d'oc in the south, and the Franco-Provençal languages in part of the east.

Old French.

In the 9th century, the Romance vernaculars were already quite far from Latin. For example, to understand the Bible, written in Latin, footnotes were necessary. With consolidation of royal power, beginning in the 13th century, the "Francien" vernacular, the langue d'oil variety in usage then on the Île-de-France, brought it little by little to the other languages and evolved toward Classic French.  The languages found in the manuscripts dating from the 9th century to the 13th century form what is known as Old French or "ancien français." These languages continued to evolve until, in the 14th century to the 16th century, Middle French ("moyen français") emerged.

Middle French.

During the Middle French period (c. 1300–1600), modern spelling practices were largely established. This happened especially during the 16th century, under the influence of printers. The overall trend was towards continuity with Old French spelling, although some changes were made under the influence of changed pronunciation habits; for example, the Old French distinction between the diphthongs "eu" and "ue" was eliminated in favor of consistent "eu", as both diphthongs had come to be pronounced or (depending on the surrounding sounds). However, many other distinctions that had become equally superfluous were maintained, e.g. between "s" and soft "c" or between "ai" and "ei". It is likely that etymology was the guiding factor here: the distinctions "s/c" and "ai/ei" reflect corresponding distinctions in the spelling of the underlying Latin words, whereas no such distinction exists in the case of "eu/ue".  This period also saw the development of some explicitly etymological spellings, e.g. "temps" ("time"), "vingt" ("twenty") and "poids" ("weight") (note that in many cases, the etymologizing was sloppy or occasionally completely incorrect; "vingt" reflects Latin "viginti", with the "g" in the wrong place, and "poids" actually reflects Latin "pensum", with no "d" at all; the spelling "poids" is due to an incorrect derivation from Latin "pondus"). The trend towards etymologizing sometimes produced absurd (and generally rejected) spellings such as "sçapvoir" for normal "savoir" ("to know"), which attempted to combine Latin "sapere" ("to be wise", the correct origin of "savoir") with "scire" ("to know").

Classical French.

Modern French spelling was codified in the late 17th century by the Académie française, based largely on previously established spelling conventions. Some reforms have occurred since then, but most have been fairly minor. The most significant changes have been:

Modern French.

In October 1989, Michel Rocard, then-Prime Minister of France, established the High Council of the French Language () in Paris. He designated experts — among them linguists, representatives of the Académie française and lexicographers — to propose standardizing several points, a few of those points being:  Quickly, the experts set to work. Their conclusions were submitted to Belgian and Québécois linguistic political organizations. They were likewise submitted to the Académie française, which endorsed them unanimously, saying: "Current orthography remains that of usage, and the'recommendations' of the High Council of the French language only enter into play with words that may be written in a different manner without being considered as incorrect or as faults."  The changes were published in the "Journal officiel de la République française" in December 1990. At the time the proposed changes were considered to be suggestions. In 2016, schoolbooks in France began to use the newer recommended spellings, with instruction to teachers that both old and new spellings be deemed correct.

Punctuation.

In France, the exclamation mark, question mark, semicolon, colon, percentage mark, currency symbols, hash, and guillemet all require a non-breaking space before and after the punctuation mark. Outside of France, this rule is often ignored. Computer software may aid or hinder the application of this rule, depending on the degree of localisation, as it is marked differently from most other Western punctuation.

French orthography encompasses the spelling and punctuation of the French language. It is based on a combination of phonemic and historical principles. The spelling of words is largely based on the pronunciation of Old French c. 1100–1200 CE and has stayed more or less the same since then, despite enormous changes to the pronunciation of the language in the intervening years. This has resulted in a complicated relationship between spelling and sound, especially for vowels; a multitude of silent letters; and many homophones (e.g., "/////" (all pronounced ), "//" (all pronounced )). Later attempts to respell some words in accordance with their Latin etymologies further increased the number of silent letters (e.g.,'vs. older'– compare English "tense", which reflects the original spelling – and'vs. older '). Nevertheless, there are rules governing French orthography which allow for a reasonable degree of accuracy when pronouncing French words from their written forms. The reverse operation, producing written forms from a pronunciation, is much more ambiguous.

Par orthographe du français, on entend l'écriture en français. Il s'agit formellement de la transcription graphique, scripturale, d'éléments langagiers si non oraux, issus par leur histoire de l'oral (mots). En français, comme dans de nombreuses langues à écriture phonémique, l'écrit code pour des sons, lesquels assemblés forment des mots (à la différence des écritures logographiques ou idéographiques dans lesquelles l'écrit encode directement des mots, des concepts).


Overview.

Namibia is a higher middle income country with an estimated annual GDP per capita of US$5,828 but has extreme inequalities in income distribution and standard of living. It leads the list of countries by income inequality with a Gini coefficient of 59.7 (CIA) and 74.3 (UN), respectively.  Since independence, the Namibian Government has pursued free-market economic principles designed to promote commercial development and job creation to bring disadvantaged Namibians into the economic mainstream. To facilitate this goal, the government has actively courted donor assistance and foreign investment. The liberal Foreign Investment Act of 1990 provides guarantees against nationalisation, freedom to remit capital and profits, currency convertibility, and a process for settling disputes equitably. Namibia also is addressing the sensitive issue of agrarian land reform in a pragmatic manner. However, Government runs and owns a number of companies such as Air Namibia, Transnamib and NamPost, most of which need frequent financial assistance to stay afloat.  The country's sophisticated formal economy is based on capital-intensive industry and farming. However, Namibia's economy is heavily dependent on the earnings generated from primary commodity exports in a few vital sectors, including minerals, especially diamonds, livestock, and fish. Furthermore, the Namibian economy remains integrated with the economy of South Africa, as the bulk of Namibia's imports originate there.  In 1993, Namibia became a signatory of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) signatory, and the Minister of Trade and Industry represented Namibia at the Marrakech signing of the Uruguay Round Agreement in April 1994. Namibia also is a member of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and has acceded to the European Union's Lomé Convention.

Regional integration.

Given its small domestic market but favourable location and a superb transport and communications base, Namibia is a leading advocate of regional economic integration. In addition to its membership in the Southern African Development Community (SADC), Namibia presently belongs to the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) with South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland. Within SACU, there is no customs on goods produced in, and being transported amidst, its members. Namibia is a net receiver of SACU revenues; they are estimated to contribute 13.9 billion NAD in 2012.  The Namibian economy is closely linked to South Africa with the Namibian dollar pegged to the South African rand. Privatisation of several enterprises in coming years may stimulate long-run foreign investment, although with the trade union movement opposed, so far most politicians have been reluctant to advance the issue. In September 1993, Namibia introduced its own currency, the Namibia Dollar (N$), which is linked to the South African Rand at a fixed exchange rate of 1:1. There has been widespread acceptance of the Namibia Dollar throughout the country and, while Namibia remains a part of the Common Monetary Area, it now enjoys slightly more flexibility in monetary policy although interest rates have so far always moved very closely in line with the South African rates.  Namibia imports almost all of its goods from South Africa. Many exports likewise go to the South African market, or transit that country. Namibia's exports consist mainly of diamonds and other minerals, fish products, beef and meat products, karakul sheep pelts, and light manufactures. In recent years, Namibia has accounted for about 5% of total SACU exports, and a slightly higher percentage of imports.  Namibia is seeking to diversify its trading relationships away from its heavy dependence on South African goods and services. Europe has become a leading market for Namibian fish and meat, while mining concerns in Namibia have purchased heavy equipment and machinery from Germany, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. The Government of Namibia is making efforts to take advantage of the American-led African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), which will provide preferential access to American markets for a long list of products. In the short term, Namibia is likely to see growth in the apparel manufacturing industry as a result of AGOA.

Data.

The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1990–2017.

Sectors.

Namibia is heavily dependent on the extraction and processing of minerals for export. Taxes and royalties from mining account for 25% of its revenue. The bulk of the revenue is created by diamond mining, which made up 7.2% of the 9.5% that mining contributes to Namibia's GDP in 2011. Rich alluvial diamond deposits make Namibia a primary source for gem-quality diamonds. Namibia is a large exporter of uranium and over the years the mining industry has seen a decline in the international commodity prices such as uranium, which has led to the reason behind several uranium projects being abandoned. Experts say that the prices are expected to rise in the next 3 years because of an increase in nuclear activities from both Japan and China. The mining industry in Namibia is supposedly going to reach US1.79bn by the year 2018.

Mining and energy.

Diamond production totalled 1.5 million carats (300 kg) in 2000, generating nearly $500 million in export earnings. Other important mineral resources are uranium, copper, lead, and zinc. The country also extracts gold, silver, tin, vanadium, semiprecious gemstones, tantalite, phosphate, sulphur, and mines salt.  Namibia is the fourth-largest exporter of nonfuel minerals in Africa, the world's fifth-largest producer of uranium, and the producer of large quantities of lead, zinc, tin, silver, and tungsten. Namibia has two uranium mines that are capable of providing 10% of the world mining output. The mining sector employs only about 3% of the population while about half of the population depends on subsistence agriculture for its livelihood. Namibia normally imports about 50% of its cereal requirements; in drought years food shortages are a major problem in rural areas.  During the pre-independence period, large areas of Namibia, including off-shore, were leased for oil prospecting. Some natural gas was discovered in 1974 in the Kudu Field off the mouth of the Orange River, but the extent of this find is only now being determined.

Agriculture.

About half of the population depends on agriculture (largely subsistence agriculture) for its livelihood, but Namibia must still import some of its food. Although per capita GDP is five times the per capita GDP of Africa's poorest countries, the majority of Namibia's people live in rural areas and exist on a subsistence way of life. Namibia has one of the highest rates of income inequality in the world, due in part to the fact that there is an urban economy and a more rural cash-less economy. The inequality figures thus take into account people who do not actually rely on the formal economy for their survival. Although arable land accounts for only 1% of Namibia, nearly half of the population is employed in agriculture.  About 4,000, mostly white, commercial farmers own almost half of Namibia's arable land. Agreement has been reached on the privatisation of several more enterprises in coming years, with hopes that this will stimulate much needed foreign investment. However, reinvestment of environmentally derived capital has hobbled Namibian per capita income. One of the fastest growing areas of economic development in Namibia is the growth of wildlife conservancies. These conservancies are particularly important to the rural generally unemployed population.  An aquifer called "Ohangwena II" has been discovered, capable of supplying the 800,000 people in the North for 400 years. Experts estimate that Namibia has 7720 km of underground water.  Agriculture is increasingly under pressure, due to factors such as frequent and prolonged droughts as well as bush encroachment. These render conventional agriculture unsustainable for a growing number of land owners, with many diverting their economic activities to alternative of additional sources of income. Frequently farms are turned into guestfarms, providing accommodation facilities targeted at international and local tourists.  In recent years the utilisation of woody biomass from encroacher bush has gained traction with many land owners diversifying their income through charcoal and firewood production and substituting commercial animal fodder with on-farm production of bush-based animal fodder. In 2019 it was estimated that 10,000 workers were employed in the growing sub-sector of biomass utilisation, rendering it one of the biggest sub-sectors in terms of employment. Biomass utilisation bears significant potential for income diversification in rural areas and can serve to increase climate change resilience.

Fishing.

The clean, cold South Atlantic waters off the coast of Namibia are home to some of the richest fishing grounds in the world, with the "potential" for sustainable yields of 1.5 million metric tonnes per year. Commercial fishing and fish processing is the fastest-growing sector of the Namibian economy in terms of employment, export earnings, and contribution to GDP.  The main species found in abundance off Namibia are pilchards (sardines), anchovy, hake, and horse mackerel. There also are smaller but significant quantities of sole, squid, deep-sea crab, rock lobster, and tuna.  At the time of independence, fish stocks had fallen to dangerously low levels, due to the lack of protection and conservation of the fisheries and the over-exploitation of these resources. This trend appears to have been halted and reversed since independence, as the Namibian Government is now pursuing a conservative resource management policy along with an aggressive fisheries enforcement campaign. The government seeks to develop fish-farming as an alternative.  On 12 November 2019, WikiLeaks published thousands of documents and email communication by Samherji's employees, called the Fishrot Files, that indicated hundreds of millions ISK had been paid to high ranking politicians and officials in Namibia with the objective of acquiring the country’s coveted fishing quota.

Manufacturing and infrastructure.

In 2000, Namibia's manufacturing sector contributed about 20% of GDP. Namibian manufacturing is inhibited by a small domestic market, dependence on imported goods, limited supply of local capital, widely dispersed population, small skilled labour force and high relative wage rates, and subsidised competition from South Africa.  Walvis Bay is a well-developed, deepwater port, and Namibia's fishing infrastructure is most heavily concentrated there. The Namibian Government expects Walvis Bay to become an important commercial gateway to the Southern African region.  Namibia also boasts world-class civil aviation facilities and an extensive, well-maintained land transportation network. Construction is underway on two new arteries—the Trans-Caprivi Highway and Trans-Kalahari Highway—which will open up the region's access to Walvis Bay.  The Walvis Bay Export Processing Zone operates in the key port of Walvis Bay.

Tourism.

Tourism is a major contributor (14.5%) to Namibia's GDP, creating tens of thousands of jobs (18.2% of all employment) directly or indirectly and servicing over a million tourists per annum. The country is among the prime destinations in Africa and is known for ecotourism which features Namibia's extensive wildlife.  There are many lodges and reserves to accommodate eco-tourists. Sport Hunting is also a large, and growing component of the Namibian economy, accounting for 14% of total tourism in the year 2000, or $19.6 million US dollars, with Namibia boasting numerous species sought after by international sport hunters. In addition, extreme sports such as sandboarding, skydiving and 4x4ing have become popular, and many cities have companies that provide tours. The most visited places include the Caprivi Strip, Fish River Canyon, Sossusvlei, the Skeleton Coast Park, Sesriem, Etosha Pan and the coastal towns of Swakopmund, Walvis Bay and Lüderitz.

Labour.

While many Namibians are economically active in one form or another, the bulk of this activity is in the informal sector, primarily subsistence agriculture. A large number of Namibians seeking jobs in the formal sector are held back due to a lack of necessary skills or training. The government is aggressively pursuing education reform to overcome this problem.  Namibia has a high unemployment rate. "Strict unemployment" (people actively seeking a full-time job) stood at 20.2% in 1999, 21.9% in 2002, and spiraled to 29,4 per cent in 2008. A 2012 study by the Namibia Statictics Agency (NSA) determined the rate of unemployment to be 27.4%. This study included subsistence farmers, work without pay, and any non-zero amount of weekly working hours, and did not count as unemployed people not actively seeking for a job.  Under a much broader definition (including people that have given up searching for employment) two different studies determined the unemployment rate to be 36.7% (2004) and 51.2% (2008), respectively. This estimate considers people in the informal economy as employed. 72% of jobless people have been unemployed for two years or more. Labour and Social Welfare Minister Immanuel Ngatjizeko praised the 2008 study as "by far superior in scope and quality to any that has been available previously", but its methodology has also received criticism. The total number of formally employed people stood at 400,000 in 1997 and fell 330,000 in 2008, according to a government survey. The NSA 2012 study counted 396,000 formal employees. Of annually 25,000 school leavers only 8,000 gain formal employment—largely a result of a failed education system.  Namibians in the informal sector as well as in low-paid jobs like homemakers, gardeners or factory workers are unlikely to be covered by medical aid or a pension fund. All in all only a quarter or the working population have medical aid, and about half have a pension fund.  Namibia's largest trade union federation, the National Union of Namibian Workers (NUNW) represents workers organised into seven affiliated trade unions. NUNW maintains a close affiliation with the ruling SWAPO party.

Household wealth and income.

In the financial year March 2009 – February 2010, every Namibian earned 15,000 N$ (roughly 2,000 US$) on average. Household income was dominated by wages (49.1%) and subsistence farming (23%), with further significant sources of income being business activities (8.1%, farming excluded), old-age pensions from government (9.9%), and cash remittance (2.9%). Commercial farming only contributed 0.6%.  Every Namibian resident had on average 10,800 US$ of wealth accumulated in 2016, putting Namibia on third place in Africa. Individual wealth is, however, distributed very unequally; the country's Gini coefficient of 0.61 is one of the highest in the world. There are 3,300 US$-millionaires in Namibia, 1,400 of which live in the capital Windhoek.

The economy of Namibia has a modern market sector, which produces most of the country's wealth, and a traditional subsistence sector. Although the majority of the population engages in subsistence agriculture and herding, Namibia has more than 200,000 skilled workers and a considerable number of well-trained professionals and managerials.

La Namibie se classe au mondial pour le PIB par habitant. Au niveau du continent africain, elle se classe en termes de revenu par habitant et au niveau de l'indicateur de développement humain. C'est une économie stable et ouverte qui repose principalement sur ses ressources minières. Du fait de la faiblesse de son marché intérieur, elle est très dépendante de son commerce extérieur ce qui la rend très dépendante de l'économie sud-africaine. Par ailleurs comme l'économie namibienne n'est guère diversifiée, elle est donc fortement exposée aux fluctuations des cours des matières premières. Elle reste confrontée à de grosses disparités sociales issues de l'apartheid subie lors de l'occupation de l'Afrique du Sud. Par ailleurs, la pandémie de sida qui sévit en Namibie est un réel frein pour son développement économique.


Early life and education.

Justus Liebig was born in Darmstadt into the middle-class family of Johann Georg Liebig and Maria Caroline Möser in early May 1803. His father was a drysalter and hardware merchant who compounded and sold paints, varnishes, and pigments, which he developed in his own workshop. From childhood, Justus was fascinated with chemistry.  At the age of 13, Liebig lived through the year without a summer, when the majority of food crops in the Northern Hemisphere were destroyed by a volcanic winter. Germany was among the hardest-hit nations in the global famine that ensued, and the experience is said to have shaped Liebig's later work. Due in part to Liebig's innovations in fertilizers and agriculture, the 1816 famine became known as "the last great subsistence crisis in the Western world".  Liebig attended grammar school at the

Research and development.

Liebig left Paris to return to Darmstadt in April 1824. On 26 May 1824, at the age of 21 and with Humboldt's recommendation, Liebig became a professor "extraordinarius" at the University of Giessen. Liebig's appointment was part of an attempt to modernize the University of Giessen and attract more students. He received a small stipend, without laboratory funding or access to facilities.  His situation was complicated by the presence of existing faculty: Professor Wilhelm Zimmermann (1780–1825) taught general chemistry as part of the philosophy faculty, leaving medical chemistry and pharmacy to Professor Philipp Vogt in the medical faculty. Vogt was happy to support a reorganization in which pharmacy was taught by Liebig and became the responsibility of the faculty of arts, rather than the faculty of medicine. Zimmermann found himself competing unsuccessfully with Liebig for students and their lecture fees. He refused to allow Liebig to use existing space and equipment, and finally committed suicide on 19 July 1825. The deaths of Zimmermann and a Professor Blumhof who taught technology and mining opened the way for Liebig to apply for a full professorship. Liebig was appointed to the "Ordentlicher" chair in chemistry on 7 December 1825, receiving a considerably increased salary and a laboratory allowance.  Liebig married Henriette "Jettchen" Moldenhauer (1807–1881), the daughter of a state official, in May 1826. They had five children, Georg (1827–1903), Agnes (1828–1862), Hermann (1831–1894), Johanna (1836–1925), and Marie (1845–1920). Although Liebig was Lutheran and Jettchen Catholic, their differences in religion appear to have been resolved amicably by bringing their sons up in the Lutheran religion and their daughters as Catholics.

Transforming chemistry education.

Liebig and several associates proposed to create an institute for pharmacy and manufacturing within the university. The Senate, however, uncompromisingly rejected their idea, stating that training "apothecaries, soapmakers, beer-brewers, dyers and vinegar-distillers" was not the university's task. As of 17 December 1825, they ruled that any such institution would have to be a private venture. This decision actually worked to Liebig's advantage. As an independent venture, he could ignore university rules and accept both matriculated and unmatriculated students. Liebig's institute was widely advertised in pharmaceutical journals, and opened in 1826. Its classes in practical chemistry and laboratory procedures for chemical analysis were taught in addition to Liebig's formal courses at the university.  From 1825 to 1835, the laboratory was housed in the guardroom of a disused barracks on the edge of town. The main laboratory space was about in size and included a small lecture room, a storage closet, and a

Instrumentation.

A significant challenge facing 19th-century organic chemists was the lack of instruments and methods of analysis to support accurate, replicable analyses of organic materials. Many chemists worked on the problem of organic analysis, including French Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Swedish Jöns Jacob Berzelius, before Liebig developed his version of an apparatus for determining the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen content of organic substances in 1830. It involved an ingenious array of five glass bulbs, called a "Kaliapparat" to trap the oxidation product of the carbon in the sample, following combustion of the sample. Before reaching the "Kaliapparat", the combustion gases were conducted through a tube of hygroscopic calcium chloride, which absorbed and retained the oxidation product of the hydrogen of the sample, namely water vapor. Next, in the "Kaliapparat", carbon dioxide was absorbed in a potassium hydroxide solution in the three lower bulbs, and used to measure the weight of carbon in the sample. For any substance consisting only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the percentage of oxygen was found by subtracting the carbon and hydrogen percentages from 100%; the remainder must be the percentage of oxygen. A charcoal furnace (a sheet-steel tray

Organic chemistry.

One of Liebig's frequent collaborators was Friedrich Wöhler. They met in 1826 in Frankfurt, after independently reporting on the preparation of two substances, cyanic acid and fulminic acid, that apparently had the same composition, but very different characteristics. The silver fulminate investigated by Liebig, was explosive, whereas the silver cyanate found by Wöhler, was not. After reviewing the disputed analyses together, they agreed that both were valid. The discovery of these and other substances led Jöns Jacob Berzelius to suggest the idea of isomers, substances that are defined not simply by the number and kind of atoms in the molecule, but also by the arrangement of those atoms.  In 1832, Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler published an investigation of the oil of bitter almonds. They transformed pure oil into several halogenated compounds, which were further transformed in other reactions. Throughout these transformations, "a single compound" (which they named benzoyl) "preserves its nature and composition unchanged in nearly all its associations with other bodies." Their experiments proved that a group of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms can behave like an element, take the place of an element, and can be exchanged

Plant nutrition.

By the 1840s, Liebig was attempting to apply theoretical knowledge from organic chemistry to real-world problems of food availability. His book "Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie" ("Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology") (1840) promoted the idea that chemistry could revolutionize agricultural practice, increasing yields and lowering costs. It was widely translated, vociferously critiqued, and highly influential.  Liebig's book discussed chemical transformations within living systems, both plant and animal, outlining a theoretical approach to agricultural chemistry. The first part of the book focused on plant nutrition, the second was on chemical mechanisms of putrefaction and decay. Liebig's awareness of both synthesis and degradation led him to become an early advocate of conservation, promoting ideas such as the recycling of sewage.  Liebig argued against prevalent theories about role of humus in plant nutrition, which held that decayed plant matter was

Plant and animal physiology.

Liebig's work on applying chemistry to plant and animal physiology was especially influential. By 1842, he had published "Chimie organique appliquée à la physiologie animale et à la pathologie", published in English as " Animal Chemistry, or, Organic Chemistry in its Applications to Physiology and Pathology", presenting a chemical theory of metabolism. The experimental techniques used by Liebig and others often involved controlling and measuring diet, and monitoring and analyzing the products of animal metabolism, as indicators of internal metabolic processes. Liebig saw similarities between plant and animal metabolism, and suggested

Liebig and the chemistry of food.

Methods of cookery.

Liebig drew upon his work in plant nutrition and plant and animal metabolism to develop a theory of nutrition, which had significant implications for cookery. In his "Researches on the Chemistry of Food" (1847) Liebig argued that eating not only meat fibre, but also meat juices, which contained various inorganic chemicals, was important. These vital ingredients would be lost during conventional boiling or roasting in which cooking

Liebig's Extract of Meat Company.

Building on his theories of the nutritional value of meat fluids, and seeking an inexpensive nutrition source for Europe's poor, Liebig developed a formula for producing beef extract. The details were published in 1847 so that "the benefit of it should... be placed at the command of as large a number of persons as possible by the extension of the manufacture, and consequently a reduction in the cost".  Production was not economically feasible in Europe, where meat was expensive, but in Uruguay and New South Wales, meat was an inexpensive byproduct of the leather industry. In 1865, Liebig partnered with Belgian engineer George Christian Giebert, and was named scientific director of the Liebig's Extract of Meat Company, located in Fray Bentos, Uruguay.  Other companies also attempted to market meat extracts under the name "Liebig's Extract of Meat". In Britain, a competitor's right to use the name was successfully defended on the grounds that the name

Marmite.

Liebig studied other foods, as well. He promoted the use of baking powder to make lighter bread, studied the chemistry of coffee-making, and developed a breast-milk substitute for babies who could not suckle. He is considered to have made possible the invention of Marmite, because of his discovery that yeast could be concentrated.

Major works.

Liebig founded the journal "Annalen der Chemie", which he edited from 1832. Originally titled "Annalen der Pharmacie", it became "Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie" to more accurately reflect its content. It became the leading journal of chemistry, and still exists. The volumes from his lifetime are often referenced just as "Liebigs Annalen"; and following his death the title was officially changed to "Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie".  Liebig published widely in "Liebigs Annalen" and elsewhere, in newspapers and journals. Most of his books were published

Later life.

In 1852, Liebig accepted an appointment from King Maximilian II of Bavaria to the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. He also became scientific advisor to King Maxilimian II, who hoped to transform the University of Munich into a center for scientific research and development. In part, Liebig accepted the post because, at age 50, he was finding supervision of large numbers of laboratory students increasingly difficult. His new accommodations in Munich reflected this shift in focus. They included a

Awards and honors.

Liebig was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1837.  He became a first-class member of the Ludwig Order, founded by Ludwig I, and awarded by Ludwig II on 24 July 1837.  In 1838, he became correspondent of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands; when that became the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1851, he joined as foreign member.  The British Royal Society awarded him the Copley Medal "for his discoveries in organic chemistry, and particularly for his development of the composition and theory of organic radicals" in 1840.  Ludwig II of Bavaria conveyed the title of "Freiherr" von Liebig on 29 December 1845. In English, the closest translation is "Baron".  In 1850, he received the French "Légion d'honneur", presented by chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas, the French trade minister.  He was honored with the Prussian Order of Merit for Science by Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia in 1851.  In 1869, he was awarded the Albert Medal by the Royal Society of Arts, "for his numerous valuable researches and writings, which have contributed most importantly to the development of food-economy and agriculture, to the advancement of chemical science, and to the benefits derived from that science by Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce."

Posthumous honors.

In 1946, after the end of World War II, the University of Giessen was officially renamed after him, ""Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen"".  In 1953, the West German post office issued a stamp in his honor.  In 1953, the third General Assembly of the

Liebig medals.

Some organizations have granted medals in honor of Justus von Liebig. In 1871, the Versammlung deutscher Land- und Forstwirte (Assembly of German Farmers and Foresters) first awarded a Liebig Gold Medal, given to Theodor Reuning. The image was struck from a portrait commissioned in 1869 from Friedrich Brehmer.  For several years, the Liebig Trust Fund, established by Baron Liebig, was administered by the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences at Munich and members of the Liebig family. They

Justus Freiherr von Liebig (12 May 1803 – 18 April 1873) was a German scientist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and is considered one of the principal founders of organic chemistry. As a professor at the University of Giessen, he devised the modern laboratory-oriented teaching method, and for such innovations, he is regarded as one of the greatest chemistry teachers of all time. He has been described as the "father of the fertilizer industry" for his emphasis on nitrogen and trace minerals as essential plant nutrients, and his formulation of the law of the minimum, which described how plant growth relied on the scarcest nutrient resource, rather than the total amount of resources available. He also developed a manufacturing process for beef extracts, and with his consent a company, called Liebig Extract of Meat Company, was founded to exploit the concept; it later introduced the Oxo brand beef bouillon cube. He popularized an earlier invention for condensing vapors, which came to be known as the Liebig condenser.

Justus Liebig (en allemand : ), à Darmstadt, Allemagne – à Munich, Allemagne, baron von Liebig à partir de 1845, est un chimiste allemand. Par son travail de chercheur mais aussi d'enseignant et de propagandiste, il fit des contributions majeures à la chimie organique et à l'agronomie. Il est considéré comme un des fondateurs de l'agriculture industrielle, fondée sur la chimie organique. L'apport de Liebig à la science agronomique a toutefois été réévalué ; au lieu d'opérer une rupture, comme l'historiographie l'a longtemps présenté, il est plutôt désormais considéré comme un remarquable effort de mise en forme de travaux préexistants. Quoi qu'il en soit, tant par ses erreurs que par ses découvertes Liebig, parfois par les outrances mêmes de ses attaques, contribua de façon éminente au développement des recherches dans le domaine agricole.