Career.

Gal began his equestrian career as a jumper at age 14, beginning with ponies and graduating to larger horses at age 20. However, when he discovered his horse did not like jumping, he switched to dressage. While enjoying solid success in national and international competition, he did not become a truly dominant rider until he began competing with Totilas in 2008. Gal would later say that he and his team understood that Totilas was a special horse after their first Grand Prix competition.  At the time, Gal replaced his countrywoman Anky van Grunsven as the dominant rider on the world dressage circuit. In July 2009, Gal and Totilas broke van Grunsven's world record score in Grand Prix Freestyle with an 89.50% mark at Hickstead, England, and shortly thereafter followed it up with another record score of 90.75% in the same discipline at that year's European Championships. In December 2009, at the fourth leg of the 2009–10 FEI World Cup Dressage series at Olympia in London, they extended their record in GP Freestyle to 92.30%, more than 10 points above the second-place finisher. While not setting a world record, they easily won that season's FEI World Cup final in GP Freestyle at home in the Netherlands, winning by more than 7 points with a score better than their first world record. The pair also had a world-record score in the Grand Prix Special discipline to their credit, having recorded 86.460% at Aachen in July 2010.  Gal and Totilas were installed as the overwhelming favorites in the 2010 FEI World Games in Lexington, Kentucky, their first competition outside Europe. Klaus Röser, head of the German dressage team that has long dominated the discipline, said about Gal, "That we can beat Edward; I don't think so, I don't believe so. We have to be realistic." Röser's assessment proved correct, with Gal and Toto first leading the Dutch team to gold in the team competition, and then easily winning gold in Grand Prix Special and Grand Prix Freestyle.  In a piece in "The Courier-Journal" of Louisville, Kentucky that ran before the 2010 Games, dressage trainer Susan Posner pointed out that Totilas was only in his second year in grand prix dressage despite being 10 years old, and said that his success illustrated how capable Gal was as a rider.  He also competed at the 2015 European Dressage Championships in Aachen where he won a gold medal in team dressage. The Dutch national dressage coach Wim Ernes died on 1 November 2016 due to a brain tumor. Gal, together with the other gold medal winners Patrick van der Meer, Hans Peter Minderhoud and Diederik van Silfhout, carried his coffin during the funeral on 5 November 2016.

Personal life.

Gal is in a long-term relationship with teammate Hans Peter Minderhoud. Gal has been interviewed in several Dutch media outlets about his relationship with Minderhoud.

Edward Gal (born 4 March 1970 in Rheden) is a Dutch dressage rider. He and the stallion Totilas (nicknamed "Toto"), were triple gold medalists at the 2010 FEI World Equestrian Games, becoming the first horse-rider partnership ever to sweep the three available dressage gold medals at a single FEI World Games. Going into the 2010 Games, they had amassed multiple world-record scores in international competition, leading one American journalist to call them "rock stars in the horse world". After the World Equestrian Games, Totilas was sold to German trainer Paul Schockemöhle. Gal continues to be successful training and competing dressage horses at the international level.

Edward Gal (né le 4 mars 1970 à Rheden aux Pays-Bas) est un cavalier de dressage néerlandais. Il a été triple médaillé d'or aux Jeux équestres mondiaux FEI 2010 avec l'étalon Totilas devenant ainsi le premier cavalier à remporter les trois médailles d'or de dressage possibles lors d'un seul et même Jeux Mondial FEI. À l'approche des Jeux de 2010, le couple avait accumulé de nombreux records du monde en compétitions internationales, ce qui a conduit un journaliste américain à les appeler "stars du rock dans le monde du cheval". Après les Jeux équestres mondiaux, Totilas a été vendu à l’entraîneur allemand Paul Schockemöhle. Depuis, Edward Gal continue à être un entraîneur et un compétiteur de dressage au niveau international.


Baroque palaces.

In a Baroque palace, access down an enfilade suite of state rooms typically was restricted by the rank or degree of intimacy of the visitor. The first rooms were more public, and usually at the end was the bedroom, sometimes with an intimate cabinet or boudoir beyond. Baroque protocol dictated that visitors of lower rank than their host would be escorted by servants down the enfilade to the farthest room their status allowed. If the visitor was of equal or higher rank, the host would advance down the enfilade to meet their guest, before taking the visitor back.  At parting, the same ritual would be observed, although the host might pay their guest a compliment by taking them back farther than their rank strictly dictated. If a person of much higher rank visited, these rituals extended beyond the enfilade to the entrance hall, the gates to the palace, or beyond (in modern State visits, to the airport).  Memoirs and letters of the period often note the exact details of where meetings and partings occurred, even to whether they were in the centre of the room, or at the door.

Royal palaces.

Royal palaces often had separate enfiladed state apartments for the king and queen, as at the Palace of Versailles, with the grand appartement du roi and the grand appartement de la reine (not to mention the petit appartement du roi), or at Hampton Court Palace. Such suites also were used for entertaining.  Noblemen's houses, especially if a visit from the monarch was hoped for, often feature enfiladed suites, as at Chatsworth House, Blenheim Palace, the Château de Louveciennes, or Boughton House. The bedrooms in such suites were often only slept in on royal visits, although as with many grand bedrooms before the nineteenth century, they might be used for other purposes. Other enfilades culminated in a room used as a throne room. The Palace of Westminster, shown below, comes into this category, as the monarch sits on a throne in the chamber of the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament.

Palace of Westminster.

Sir Charles Barry's Palace of Westminster, more commonly known as the Houses of Parliament, has an enfilade of three Royal apartments that continues through the two legislative Chambers of the Lords and Commons. The enfilade of State Rooms presents a view from the Robing Room and Royal Gallery – B and C on the plan at right – through to the Prince's Chamber. From the throne in the adjacent Lords' Chamber (D) there is an uninterrupted view through three lobbies – Lords', Central, and Members' Lobby – to the Speaker's Chair in the Commons Chamber at the other end of the Palace. (Lords' Lobby and Members' Lobby are the round and square spaces to the left and right of E on the Plan)

National Gallery, London.

Barry also used a number of enfilades in his extension to the National Gallery, London, built as an art gallery. These have been extended and added to in the recent Sainsbury Wing (despite the wing being at an angle to the earlier building), so that now the view down the longest enfilade traverses fifteen rooms.

In architecture, an enfilade is a suite of rooms formally aligned with each other. This was a common feature in grand European architecture from the Baroque period onward, although there are earlier examples, such as the Vatican stanze. The doors entering each room are aligned with the doors of the connecting rooms along a single axis, providing a vista through the entire suite of rooms. The enfilade may be used as a processional route and is a common arrangement in museums and art galleries, as it facilitates the movement of large numbers of people through a building.

Une enfilade en termes de mobilier est un meuble composé d'au moins trois éléments à la suite l'un de l'autre et sur le même plan. C'est le cas des meubles de cuisine intégrée, des bahuts de salle de séjour, des meubles de rangement, etc.


History.

1905–08.

The first tramline opened for public service on 15 July 1905. It was in effect an extension of the service provided by the existing "L.B.I.H.i.T" which had been operating a one-meter gauge between the south-western edge of Innsbruck and Hall in Tirol, ten kilometers to the east, since 1891. The new tramline was long, connecting the Südbahnhof ("south station") with the Staatsbahnhof ("main station" - today known as the "west station"). A branch line led from the Staatsbahnhof, over an iron bridge across the Arlberg railway line, to the on the edge of the city. Initially the tram service operated only between 07.00 and 20.00 hrs. The trams were powered by DC electricity from 500 Volt overhead wires.  Even before the first line opened, work was already under way on an extension. The long "Saggen" line opened on 18 November 1905. This section branched off the city tramline at Museum Street, followed the "Südbahn" viaduct in the direction of the mainline railway, continuing on to "Adolf Pichler Street" (today "Conrad Street"). Once the Saggen line had opened, it was operated by a shuttle service, which met up with the city tramline at Museum Street.  Ten two-axle electric tramcars were purchased from the to operate the new network, and these came into service with the fleet numbers 36–42 for the tramcars serving the city line and 43–45 for the three tramcars operating the "Saggen" branch shuttle service. Passenger numbers increased rapidly and several small unpowered carriages were taken from the (still at this stage steam powered) "L.B.I.H.i.T" railway, to be used in combination with the new tramcars for the city tram services. The "L.B.I.H.i.T" service between Innsbruck and Hall in Tirol ("Solbad Hall") could not easily spare these cars, and in 1906 the company acquired four new unpowered-trailer tramcars. Additionally, two open-ended "summer" cars were transferred from another local one-meter mountain railway and adapted for use with the trams. These were already kitted-out with electric lighting and electric heating.  The opening in 1906 of the Hungerburg funicular provided a reason for a further extension of the tram network and also the occasion for arguments involving the city council over the route to be followed. In the end a new line was constructed, which opened in 1908, between the Andreas Hofer Street, along Maximilian Street, to the South Station, effectively incorporating the former "Saggen" line from Museum Street. Two additional powered tramcars (46 and 47) were acquired to serve the extended line.

1909–11.

In 1909 work finally started on electrification of the. At the same time there was a more general reconfiguration involving the routes into the city of other local meter gauge mountain railways, which also involved an expansion of the city tram network. A new tram line was constructed linking local termini of mountain railways with the city centre. This line ran from the Staatsbahnhof ("main station") to the Dollinger Inn at the "Chain Bridge".  With the opening of the new line, the network acquired route numbers. The new line was Line 2, while the "Saggen" line from Museum Street became Line 1. The original city line became Line 3 and the meter gauge railway to Hall in Tirol was integrated into the tram network as Line 4, although it continued to be known locally as ""The Haller" [line]", "Haller" being the adjective form of the placename Hall. For the newly electrified Line 4, eight four-axle powered tramcars were ordered from the, and these took over the identity numbers 1–8 from the steam locomotives which they replaced. For Line 2 a further six powered two-axle city tramcars were acquired. These used the numbers 48–54. (Tramcar 53 can be seen at the nearby railway museum.) This latest batch used so-called "Fast running motors" (""Schnellläufermotoren"") which were more powerful than the motors of the existing twin axle city trams.  By the start of 1910 the electrification of Line 4 had been completed. The last steam train ran on the line on 6 January 1910, to be replaced with a 1000 V direct current electric traction. Then 29 carriages that had served the line were adapted for use as unpowered-trailer-tramcars on the same route. Within the city centre the tram service was ever more popular, and Line 1, originally the "Saggen" line, was often operated with a three-tramcar train.

1911–14: The Pradl extension and other enhancements.

In 1911, detailed planning for an extension of Line 3 to, the south-eastern quarter on Innsbruck, resumed. The idea dated back at least to 1908 but had then been deferred, partly due to a lack of suitable street layout, but this was a period of urban expansion and renewal on the eastside of the city. The preferred route for the extension started from Museum Street, and passed over the river at the Gas Works Bridge, and along Defregger Street, Pradler Street and the Amraser Street to Amras. The streets along the entire route were still not suitable, so initially work was started only on a line extension as far as, on the eastern side of the city centre. The new Gas Works Bridge had been built to an extra strong specification in order to be able to take the weight of a tram, but after the bridge it turned out that, due to miscalculations at the design stage, although the bridge was indeed strong enough to take the weight of a tram, it was not strong enough to support the greater weight of a tram with people on it. What resulted, therefore, was a shuttle service between the Gas Works Bridge and the tram terminus at on one side of the bridge, and the rest of Line 3 running from the other side of the Gas Works Bridge along Maximilian Street. In the middle, passengers had to quit the tram and cross the bridge on foot.  Nevertheless, for the extra length of line four more city tramcars with the numbers 32–35 were purchased. As matters turned out, this would be the city's last significant purchase of new tramcars for fifty years.  In 1911, a new tramcar numbering scheme was introduced. Powered tramcars retained their existing numbers. Unpowered-trailer-tramcars were each allocated a three-digit number starting with a "1". Some trailer-tramcars taken over from local mountain railway systems retained their existing numbers which already conformed to this scheme, while trailer-tramcars acquired for the city tramway or for the old had their numbers changed. The goods wagons operating on the tram network were all renumbered with a new three-digit code, starting with a "2".  In 1912, the "L.B.I.H.i.T" was operating four single-track tramlines, using 31 powered tramcars, 33 unpowered trailer-tramcars, 6 goods wagon and a snow plow wagon. In 1913, a new bridge was planned over the River Sill, strong enough to take the weight of a tram and its passengers, so that Line 3 could run all the way to without a break: the bridge was ready in 1914. By 1914 work had also been completed on the first stage of replacing the single-track city tram lines with twin tracks.

1914–18: War.

For the Innsbruck trams, the immediate impact of the outbreak of war in July 1914 was economic. It became hard to obtain replacement parts. There was a shortage of working-age people to operate the trams, and there were difficulties with regard to funding. In 1914, many workers were taken off the trams to work on railways of greater strategic importance, and for two months Lines 2 and 3 had to stop running. Also in 1914 an extra siding was built at the South Station to facilitate the transfer of wounded soldiers, and in 1916 Line 3 was lengthened in order to provide a tram link from this station to the health facility (today the Conrad Barracks) at. In 1916 two additional tram trailer-cars were purchased second hand from the mountain railway. Maintenance staff became ever more inventive at finding ways to keep the trams operating despite the absence of replacement parts.  In 1918, the "L.B.I.H.i.T." purchased four secondhand steam-powered tram engines from Geneva in order to free up more electric tramcars for transporting wounded soldiers in the city centre. However, beyond a few trial runs on the Hall line these were little used before the war ended at the end of 1918.

1919–38: Between wars.

Despite acute financial austerity following the war, talk of expanding the Innsbruck tram network resurfaced. Line 3 was extended to the Pradler Cemetery, and more of the remaining single-track stretches of tramline in the city centre were replaced with double track. At the end of 1920 parts of the track along Line 2 had to be replaced due to the use of defective parts during the years of parts shortages. From 1921, the route taken by Line 3 was shortened again, no longer going all the way to the Cemetery. On 27 June 1923, the "L.B.I.H.i.T." opened a new line, identified as "Line 0". This was a ring line round the central part of Innsbruck, sharing track with existing lines and opened in response to demands from the city council for a permanent uninterrupted tram connection from the main station to the city centre. However, for some reason the line was not a success and two months later services on Line 0 were withdrawn, and alternative options were considered. Line 0 services returned on 1 May 1924, but the subject of the ring route continued to generate disagreement, and there followed further withdrawals and restorations of the service. 1924 was also the year in which Line 1 - once known as the Saggen branch line - was extended and integrated with Line 3, reducing the need for people to change trams. In 1925, Line 5 was introduced which partly compensated for the withdrawal (again) of the Line 0 service, and in this year it was also possible to return Line 2 to operation, briefly, before the frequency of technical breakdowns led to it being suspended again. New track was installed extending Line 3 from the Regional Court Building (""Landesgericht"") to Wiltener Square, and the next year an "as necessary" service replaced the scheduled service on the route of Line 5.  In 1928, the city end terminus halt of Line 4 was repositioned from Bergisel to Wiltener Square. In 1930, traffic in Innsbruck switched to driving on the right side of the road, which necessitated numerous costly adaptations to the tram network. A reconfiguration in 1930/31 involved the removal of Line 5 and a compensating forking for Line 1, with the branch from Bergisel to the main station now designated as Line 1B. Further reconfigurations followed in 1932 in the backwash from the world economic crisis.

1939–45: More war.

The rebuilding of the Mühlauer Bridge was completed during the Nazi years, creating a major new road approach for the city. In 1939 the rails for the local line to Solbad Hall (as Hall in Tirol had recently been renamed) were added to the new road over the bridge, and from now Line 4 used the rails of Line 1 to approach the Mühlauer Bridge. In 1941, old rails were recycled to double the rest of Line 3 and build a new double-track section for it, now extending to Rudolf Greinz Street where a turning loop was created. 1941 was also the year in which the "Innsbruck Transport Company" (""Innsbrucker Verkehrsbetriebe""), incorporating the former "L.B.I.H.i.T." along with several local bus operations, was founded.  The war years saw a sharp increase in passenger numbers, with 14.5 million tram journeys recorded annually by 1942. Plans to purchase new tramcars had to be abandoned, however, because armaments production took priority for the manufacturers. Nevertheless, supplies of replacement parts continued to be available. In 1944, a tramcar joined the fleet that had been intended for the Belgrade tram network. This high-capacity tram produced by the Ernesto Breda company of Milan entered service as tramcar No.60; its modern features quickly made it a particular favourite with drivers and passengers alike.  During the war years the route of Line 6 was on several occasions badly damaged by bombers. Towards the end of the war a growing number of tramcars were damaged by the fighting, and non-availability of replacement parts became more of a problem. One powered tramcar had to be rebuilt as an unpowered trailer-tramcar. Nevertheless, the majority of tramcars were spared from bomb damage.

1945–60: Reconstruction during austerity.

After the war the destroyed sections of line were rapidly reconstructed, so that trams were again operating on all lines by August 1945. Restoring a complete tram fleet took longer however. In 1947, Winterthur donated a powered tramcar to Solbad Hall, which was its Swiss "partner city"; this started a necessary increase in the stock of usable powered tramcars. There were plans to buy new tramcars in 1949, but these had to be deferred due to lack of money. In 1950, however, seven powered tramcars were purchased from Basel, which eased the pressure. For the next two years the green ex-Basel trams stood out from the rest because there were no funds available for paint to paint them in the livery of the Innsbruck tram fleet. Two more trams came from Basel in 1952, and in 1953 several more secondhand Swiss tramcars were purchased, this time from Thun. However, these were found unsuitable for the longer Line 4 (the Hall line), so the unpowered trailer-trams were used on the local Stubai Valley Railway, and the powered tramcars were used chiefly for shunting work. In 1955, it was possible to get hold of another four powered tramcars: these came from Zürich. Little by little during the 1950s the newer tramcars from Switzerland were used to replace Innsbruck's original tram fleet, much of which still dated back to the early decades of the 20th century. As they were acquired the newer trams were themselves modernised, being fitted with up-to-date compact coupling mechanisms. Brakes were fitted to any unbraked axles. Less- antiquated tramcars in the Innsbruck fleet that were not scheduled to be pensioned-off received similar upgrades to their coupling mechanisms and brakes.  In 1956, the new "Concert Bridge" was ready, and it was possible to remove the old iron tram bridge that had crossed over the Arlberg railway line, all of which allowed for further minor rationalisation of the tramline layout in this part of the city centre.

1960–75: Further modernisation and more buses.

The 1960s were years of strong economic growth supported by (relatively) stable oil prices. The continued to upgrade the tram fleet. In 1960, six high-capacity tramcars from the Vienna Lohner were purchased and placed in service. company entered service, allocated the tramcar numbers 61–66. At the Bergisel terminus halt a "triangular platform" was installed in June 1960 in order to enable trams to turn around: four months later, in October, the "triangular platform" was replaced by a more conventional terminal loop. Further detailed reconfiguration and rationalisation of the network in the city centre took place, and Line 4 now terminated at the Main Railway station rather than Wiltner Place. In 1964, the track along Leopold Street to Wiltener Place was lifted, after which Line 3 also traveled by way of the Main station. The last network expansion for thirty years took place in 1965 with the extension of Line 3 to what is still its terminus halt at. The acquisition in 1966 and 1967 of seven Lohner articulated trams, similar to those being introduced in Vienna around the same time, and numbered 71–77, made it possible to retire the last of the old pre-war Innsbruck powered tramcars. Plans for the 1976 Winter Olympics placed the future of Line 4 (the Hall-in-Tirol line) in question. The Reichenauer Bridge had to be renewed and the Haller Street widened to four lanes, which would require a major rebuild for the tramlines using it. The decision was instead taken to remove the rail tracks from the road and operate the service with buses. The last tram ran on Line 4 on 6 June 1974 and the bus service along the route was inaugurated on 7 June 1974. Much of the rolling stock used for the former Hall-in-Tirol line had become very old and was now retired. Other tramcars were reallocated to Line 6, while one had already been rendered inoperable when one of its bogies had been cannibalised to replace a damaged sub-assembly on another vehicle.

1976–83: Winter Olympics and aftermath.

A major review of transport led, in 1976, to the publication of a "General Transport Plan" for Innsbruck (""Generalverkehrsplans""). The detailed improvements to the street layouts which the plan envisaged involved a costly list of track rearrangements and realignments: consideration was given to replacing Innsbruck's trams with Articulated buses. Line 6 and the Stubai Valley Railway would need to be repositioned on the south side of the city because of the route selected for the Inn Valley Autobahn extension. In the end the city council decided to fund the construction projects necessary to incorporate the trams into the city's updated streetscape. The necessary changes were implemented during the summer of 1976, following which the network was configured as follows:  The urban transport administrative offices at the Bergisel Station were considered badly outdated. For the 1976 Winter Olympics a nearby Press centre was built nearby, and the decision was taken to design and construct the press centre so that after the Olympics were over, the should take it over. In 1977, the IVB moved in, and some of the buildings at the Bergisel Station could be taken down.  1976 was also the year in which eight secondhand bi-directional powered tram cars were purchased from in northern Germany. This made it possible, in 1977, to retire the last of the timber-frame tramcars from the network. The only "old-style" tramcars remaining were two powered cars originally from Zürich and one unpowered-trailer-tram originally used on the nearby, which remained available for special duties including festive/Christmas work. By 1980, the launch of the city's "Transport concept" (""Verkehrskonzept"") signaled a realisation that oil prices could not be expected to return to 1960s levels: trams were no longer so readily to be written off as yesterday's solutions. There was talk of a new line for the Olympic Village and another for the Reichenau quarter. There was also a plan for reinstating Line 4 which had been replaced by a bus service in 1976 in response to the widening of the Haller Street. To service this expansion new six- and eight-axle articulated tramcars were purchased from Bielefeld, and a large new tram depot would be built.  In 1984, the transport authority wanted to buy more of the originally Hagen. The idea was to add these to the trams used on Line 6, to support an extension of the line to meet up with the Hungerburg funicular. This plan fell through, however, and in 1985 the line and its tram halts were modified so that it required bi-directional trams (with passenger access possible from either side). It was the trams originally from Bielefeld that ended up operating the service. Because of the lower passenger numbers on Line 6, this also now became the first Innsbruck tramline to be adapted for "driver-only" operation.

1983–99: Modern times.

The "Transport concept" (""Verkehrskonzept"") was redirected in 1986 with a decision by the city authorities to use trolleybuses rather than trams in the eastern part of the city. Several trams that had already been ordered and paid for were scrapped, and the short-bodied Lohner trams were retired. During the 1990s the time came to by new stock for the Stubai Valley Railway. This proved unaffordable, however, so the powered tramcars originally from Hagen were overhauled and upgraded by Bombardier, a Canadian-based engineering company which had acquired the venerable Vienna-based Lohner tram manufacturer in 1970. Sufficient work was done to make the old Hagen city trams legally compliant for working the Stubai Valley Railway.  In 1995, after thirty years during which no new tramlines had actually been constructed in Innsbruck, there was a modest investment in new tracks. This involved returning a second track to the Museum Street section which again became a twin track line, and a loop round the market place. In 1996, Line 6 was threatened with closure not for the first time, but the financial support needed to keep it running was found following a deluge of signatures targeting the city authorities. In order to sustain passenger involvement at a time when nostalgia was becoming a mainstream marketing tool, the old timber-frame trailer-car 147 was now recalled from the railway museum and, twice each day, towed behind a tram operating Line 6.  Questions about the future for trams in Innsbruck returned at the end of the 1990s. Using three different types of vehicle for inner city mass transportation – trams, trolleybuses and motor buses – was seen as unnecessarily costly, and there was talk of abandoning with the trolleybuses or the trams. The discussions led to a "new regional rail (1999) and trams (2001) strategy" (""Straßenbahnkonzept"" und ""Regionalbahnkonzept"") which broadly favoured of the trams, however.

1999–present: The regional strategy and low-floor trams.

The decision of the city authorities, in 1999, to retain and expand the tram network triggered an ongoing programme of construction and renovation. This involved a certain amount of disruption during summer months because of extensive upgrade of track beds and tracks, involving much pouring of concrete. Part of the strategy called for wider tramcars: new trams would be wide. Hitherto, tram widths in Innsbruck had been restricted to. While the track gauge was unaffected, the loading gauge was not, so that twin tracks had to be farther apart and greater clearance was needed for buildings and street furniture. This necessitated the largest re-laying of track since 1911. Some of the deports were also to be renewed, rescaled, and brought up to date.  The new trams strategy was formally adopted by the Innsbruck City Council in September 2001. By 2004, the tram terminus in front of the main station had been reconstructed, with the terminus for the Stubai Valley Railway and other regional meter-gauge mountain railways now moved to within the main station building. In 2005 a new "workshop-tramcar" and two new trailer trucks were acquired, removing dependency on the vehicles used for line construction work over almost a century. In 2005, work was completed on preparing the tracks in Andreas Hofer Street and Anich Street for the wider trams, and the first tram halts were adapted for use with low-floor trams so that, for the first time, passengers would be able to access new trams without having to negotiate one or more steps. At the end of 2005 Innsbruck ordered 22 new tram sets from Bombardier, who had taken over the city's Vienna-based tram supplier 35 years earlier. Further tram halt changes, manhole cover renewals and other track adaptions for increased axle weights followed during 2006. During 2007 nearly all the city trams were equipped with new radio control units. (Radio communication had previously depended on a system that used the overhead wires themselves). By 2007, almost all the tram halts had been adapted for use in combination with the new low-floor trams.  The first low-floor tram was delivered on 17 October 2007. A few weeks later services ceased, the stretch of line in the northern part of Maria-Theresia Street, one of the oldest continually operated stretches of line on the network. At the end of 2007 the authorities issued the final version of their plan for the reconstruction of the city and regional tram and rail networks, and this was agreed by the city council at the start of 2008. At the start of July 2008 the first "old-style" Innsbruck tramcar, Number 53, was taken away to Bielefeld During 2008/2009 a further eleven of the city's old tramcars found new work in Arad, Romania, while five of the tramcars previously acquired secondhand from Hagen now found their way to Łódź. After this, there remained in Innsbruck only four of the old which had formed the backbone of the city fleet during the closing years of the 20th century.  The first of the low-floor Bombardier trams was certified on 11 March 2008 and entered service on Line 1 on 27 March 2008. Frequency on the Stubai Valley Railway was improved, with departures on the busy part of the line as far as Kreith every 30 minutes. Further service improvements and further retirements of the old stock followed, so that by July 2009 all the tramlines were operated exclusively by low-floor tramcars. At the same time the voltage was increased to 900 V. For Lines 1, 3 and 6 this involved replacing the transformers in all the sub-stations. At the same time the overhead wires for the trams and for the city centre trolleybuses were integrated to provide a more reliable supply.  In 2010, work began on tackling further upgrades on the lines at the heart of the old network, with new tracks at the interchange area around Brunecker Street and Museum Street. Brunecker Street again received a second usable track. In 2012, steps were also taken to prepare Anich Street and along the Uni Bridge to strengthen the underpinnings for further track extensions, and steps were taken to adapt the 900 V electric power supply so that energy could be recovered during braking.

Passenger numbers.

Tram transport gained rapid acceptance in Innsbruck after 1905 and passenger growth was strong, requiring investment in additional new tramcars. The positive trends continued till the outbreak of the First World War. Staff shortages were caused by personnel being called up for military service in 1914, which enforced an initial falling off in tram use, but once new staff, including women, had been recruited the staffing issue was addressed, while increasingly inventive solutions were found for the shortages of replacement parts caused by the military redeployment of heavy industry. By the end of the war, in 1918, passenger numbers had more than doubled when set against their pre-war peak.  After the war there was no longer massive tram-use in connection with transporting wounded soldiers back from the front line and overall tram usage fell back, but through the 1920s and 1930 the trams were nevertheless the heart of Innsbruck's transport provision, although during the middle part of the 1920s motor bus operators appeared on the scene, and started to undercut the trams on price. During the middle 1930s passenger numbers sank in response to the reduced living standards and incomes that followed the economic crash at the start of the decade. Following the union with Germany early in 1938 prosperity returned, however, and passenger numbers recovered to pre-crisis levels.  Innsbruck became popular as a tourist destination, and nearby health resorts such as Igls and Solbad Hall boomed. In 1940, it was necessary to order a new batch of tramcars. However, war had resumed the previous year: wartime materials shortages meant that the trams ordered in 1940 could not be delivered. Nevertheless, the early years of the war saw a rapid increase in tram use. During the final years of the war air raids and the deteriorating availability of replacement parts caused cut-backs, and passenger numbers probably declined, but data for 1944 and 1945 has not been accessed.  After the war tram use fell back. During the 1950s and 1960s there was a massive surge in private car ownership, and with almost all of the city's tramcars fifty or more years old it was hard to attract investment in the network. Higher oil prices and growing city centre traffic congestion changed minds in the 1970s, and the major modernisation programme launched at the time of the 1976 Winter Olympics triggered a sustained increase in passenger numbers during the 1970s, which then reached a plateau in the early 1980s.

The Innsbruck tram network is currently organised over three routes (numbered 1, 3 and 6) and has a total length of.

Le tramway d'Innsbruck est un réseau de tramway desservant la ville d'Innsbruck, capitale du Tyrol, en Autriche. La première ligne de tramway, à traction à vapeur, a été mise en service en 1891.


Preparations.

The first child to be born to Anne and James after James succeeded Elizabeth I of England, her birth was thus awaited with much excitement among both the Scottish and the English. Disputes among nobility as to the distribution of places in the establishment for the unborn child were very common. In January 1605 Sir Richard Leveson talked to one of the royal physicians, and had courtiers praise Anne Newdigate to the queen in an unsuccessful attempt to get her made nurse. Samuel Calvert said there would be 40 or more nurses and women to rock the cradle and other positions. The cost of rich fabrics ordered by the king for the christening went up to £300, currently worth around £790,000. Linen provided by Audrey Walsingham to be used by the queen in childbed and by the baby in the first year cost £600.  Even a few days before the birth, Anne had not decided who would be the midwife and kept three women near her, without making a choice. Finally, Alice Dennis was chosen and received a reward of £100.

Life.

Finally, on 8 April 1605, at Greenwich Palace, Anne of Denmark delivered a girl. Although the peoples of King James were slightly disappointed, the birth of the first princess of the two united realms was a cause for celebration. Throughout the realms, bonfires were lit and church bells rung all day long; the celebrations were encouraged by the fact that 68 years had elapsed since the birth of a child to an English sovereign, the last being Edward VI. The next day, King James drank health to his wife and new daughter. In letters announcing Mary's birth to his relatives, James described her as "a most beautiful infant" and punned on her not-yet-revealed name, saying that "if I would not pray "to" the Virgin Mary, I would pray "for" the Virgin Mary."  Preparations for a royal christening started immediately after the birth. The location decided upon was the chapel at Greenwich Palace and the date, 5 May. Mary was carried by Elizabeth de Vere, Countess of Derby, who was supported by the Dukes of Holstein and Lennox. The infant's clothing, a train of purple velvet, embroidered with gold and furred with ermines, was supported by two countesses, being so long that it fell to the ground. The archbishop of Canterbury, Richard Bancroft, christened the child with the name Mary, as her godparents, Ulrik of Denmark, brother to the queen, Lady Arbella Stuart, first cousin to the king, and Dorothy Percy, Countess of Northumberland, had decided to name her. Immediately after the ceremony was complete, the noblemen put on their coats and the trumpets sounded. As a way to further celebrate this joyful occasion, the king presented Queen Anne with new jewelry and created several new peerages.  On the 19 May 1605, Anne of Denmark, who had no role at the christening, was "churched". This ceremony took place at Greenwich Palace. The king and the lords heard a sermon in the King's Closet. He then went into the Chapel. The Queen came from her private lodging, where she had had her "laying in", to her Closet with a train of ladies. Some of the lords came to bring her into the Chapel, and she came to the altar supported by the Dukes of Holstein and Lennox., then went to her seat in a canopy called a "traverse" opposite the king. After prayers and music the king and queen came to the altar together and embraced, then walked to the door of the King's Presence Chamber.  Mary was given into the care of Sir Thomas Knyvet, afterwards Lord Knyvet, who helped arrest Guy Fawkes and stop the Gunpowder Plot. On 1 June 1605, Mary was sent to Stanwell, Middlesex, to Knyvet's residence. He built new lodgings for the women of Mary's household. He was given £20 per week for the infant princess's diet and that of her suite, consisting of six rockers and several inferior attendants; but the King himself paid their wages, the expenses of moving young Mary from house to house, of her coach and horses and other such costs. Elizabeth Hayward, Knyvet's wife, took great care of her "royal charge" during her short life.

Death and burial.

At 17 months old, Mary contracted a violent cold that developed into pneumonia. She was constantly feverish and Queen Anne was called to Stanwell and frequently visited her young child. An eyewitness account later preached at her funeral stated that "such was the manner of her death, as bred a kind of admiration in us all that were present to behold it. For, whereas the new-tuned organs of her speech, by reason of her wearisome and tedious sickness, had been so greatly weakened, that for the space of twelve or fourteen hours at the least, there was no sound of any word heard breaking from her lips; yet when it sensibly appeared that she would soon make a peaceful end of a troublesome life, she sighed out these words, 'I go, I go!' and when, not long after, there was something to be ministered unto her by those that attended her in the time of her sickness, fastening her eye upon them with a constant look, again she repeated 'Away, I go!' And yet, a third time, almost immediately before she offered up herself, a sweet virgin sacrifice, unto Him that made her, faintly cried 'I go, I go!' The more strange did this appear to us that heard it, in that it was almost incredible that so much vigor should still remain in so weak a body; and whereas she had used many other words in the time of her extremity, yet now at last, as if directed by supernatural inspiration, she did so aptly utter these, and none but these."  As soon as Mary died, the Earl of Worcester, the Earl of Leicester and the Earl of Totnes went to Hampton Court Palace, to inform the queen of her daughter's death. Seeing the three men before her, Queen Anne realized what had happened and spared the men the task of telling her. After showing the normal maternal signs of sorrow, she demanded that the king be told of Mary's death, an autopsy performed and a funeral prepared. Thus, a private ceremony took place at Westminster Abbey's Henry VII Lady Chapel on 23 September and Mary's embalmed body was buried opposite of her sister Sophia's tomb.  Her effigy, created by Maximilian Colt, represented a young girl, clad in a mature dress, with the traditional ruff, carved in ivory. It reads (or read in the nineteenth century) "I, Mary, daughter of James, King of Great Britain, France and Ireland and of Queen Anne, received into heaven in early infancy, found joy for myself, but left longings for my parents, on the 16th of September, 1607. Ye congratulators, condole: she lived only 1 year [sic, according to Everett Green] 5 months and 88 days."

Mary Stuart (8 April 1605 16 September 1607) was the third daughter and sixth child of James VI and I, the first king of a unified England, Scotland and Ireland, by Anne of Denmark, daughter of Frederick II of Denmark and sister of Christian IV of Denmark; her birth was much anticipated. She developed pneumonia at 17 months and died the following year.

Marie Stuart (née le à Greenwich et morte le ) est la troisième fille et la septième enfant des huit du roi Jacques d'Angleterre et de la reine Anne de Danemark. Elle est morte âgée de 2 ans de causes inconnues. Elle fut enterrée dans l'abbaye de Westminster. Sa tombe est un petit monument conçu par.


Career.

Early career.

Fajr was born in the city of Rouen and began his career with local amateur club Sottevillais Cheminots. In 2000, he joined the youth academy of professional club Le Havre. After three years, Fajr was released after being told he lacked the physical requirements to remain. He, subsequently, returned home to join hometown club Rouen. Fajr spent two years at the club and, in 2005, signed a contract with CMS Oissel. With Oissel, he played in the Championnat de France amateur 2, the fifth division of French football.  After two seasons playing on the senior team of Oissel, in 2008, Fajr moved up one division to sign with Étoile Fréjus Saint-Raphaël, then known as ES Fréjus. In his first season with the club, he appeared in 29 matches scoring four goals. Fréjus finished second in its group, however, due to the "Direction Nationale du Contrôle de Gestion" ("National Directorate of Management Control") (DNCG) imposing sanctions on several clubs in the Championnat National, the club was given a spot in the third division. After playing mainly as a substitute in his inaugural season with the club, Fajr became a starter in the club's first season in National. He appeared in 29 league matches as Fréjus finished mid-table. In his final season with the club, Fajr became the club's primary play-maker. He posted career-highs in appearances (34) and goals (8). Fréjus finished the campaign in sixth place.

Caen.

After a successful campaign with Fréjus, Fajr was linked to several professional clubs, most notably Nice, Dijon, Lens, and Reims. On 18 July 2011, it was confirmed that he would be joining Ligue 1 club Caen on a three-year contract. The transfer was completed the following day. Fajr was assigned the number 29 shirt and simultaneously made his professional and club debut on 28 August in a league match against Rennes. Three days later, in a Coupe de la Ligue match against Brest, he scored his first goal for Caen in a 3–2 victory. Caen were relegated to the Ligue 2 in his first season, but he helped them back up two seasons later. In the 2013–14 season, he scored 8 league goals in 35 games and Caen were promoted to the top-flight Ligue 1.

Spain.

On 24 June 2014, Fajr passed his medical and completed the move to the La Liga side Elche. He made his debut in the category on 24 August, coming on as a substitute for Ferrán Corominas in a 0–3 away loss against FC Barcelona.  On 6 August 2015 Fajr was loaned to fellow league team Deportivo de La Coruña, for one year. Ahead of the 2016–17 campaign, he signed a permanent contract with the club.  On 20 July 2017, Fajr signed a two-year deal with Getafe CF, still in the first division.

Return to Caen.

On 3 August 2018, after spending four years in La Liga, Fajr returned to his former club Caen.

International career.

Despite being born and raised in France, Fajr joined the Royal Moroccan Football Federation. He made his senior debut for the Morocco national football team in a 2018 World Cup qualifying game against Equatorial Guinea in a 1–0 loss.  In May 2018 he was named in Morocco’s 23-man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. Morocco’s national football team played against Iran, Portugal, and Spain in the group stage. During Morocco’s match against Spain, Fajr made the corner kick that led to Youssef En-Nesyri’s goal with nine minutes remaining.

Fayçal Fajr (; born 1 August 1988) is a French-born Moroccan professional footballer who plays as an attacking midfielder for La Liga club Getafe.

Fayçal Fajr, né le à Rouen (France), est un footballeur international marocain qui évolue au poste de milieu de terrain à Getafe.


Publication history.

The black-and-white weekly comic paper "Ally Sloper's Half Holiday", typically of eight tabloid pages and priced one penny, was first published on 3 May 1884, a short time after Ross, had sold the rights to the character to Gilbert Dalziel, an engraver and the publisher of "Judy". Initially launching the paper with proprietor W. J. Sinkins, Dalziel was soon in full control, publishing it from "The Sloperies", 99 Shoe Lane, EC. Alongside the strips featuring Sloper, the magazine also featured prose stories and cartoons and strips of other characters.  Sales of the magazine have been estimated as being as high as 350,000, the magazine describing itself as "the largest selling paper in the world". The paper found a mixed audience: aimed at adults it captured both a loyal working class, male base, as well as attracting a cult following amongst the middle class of the time.  Although the weekly initially ceased publication on 9 September 1916, after 1,679 issues, it was later revived between 5 November 1922 and 14 April 1923, again from 1948 to 1949, and finally from 1976 to 1977, each attempt failing to capture the imagination of the British public as the original once had.  In 2001, a copy of the first issue fetched £3,600 at an English auction house.

Contributors.

William Giles Baxter took over art duties for the Sloper character with issue 13.  William Fletcher Thomas became the artist on the Ally Sloper strips following Baxter's death in 1888.  James Gibbins contributed his expertise in the field of handwriting, a skill he put forward to the police at the time of the Jack the Ripper murders, offering to analyse items thought to be authored by the Ripper.  Thomas Burke contributed stories.

Influence.

The weekly comic paper is widely cited as being the first comic book or magazine to feature a regular character, and is also often cited as the first comic as well. "Half Holiday" helped established the financial viability of the medium and codified the British form to an extent visible many years later in publications such as "Viz". During 1908 C. H. Chapman illustrated the Ally Sloper character. Chapman was better known as the artist that drew Billy Bunter from 1911 until "The Magnet" folded in 1940. He continued to illustrate Billy Bunter in books through the 1950s.

Ally Sloper's Half Holiday was a British comics magazine, first published on 3 May 1884. It is regarded to be the first comic strip magazine to feature a recurring character. Star Ally Sloper, a blustery, lazy schemer often found "sloping" through alleys to avoid his landlord and other creditors, had debuted in 1867 in the humour magazine "Judy" — created by writer and fledgling artist Charles Henry Ross and inked and later fully illustrated by his French wife Emilie de Tessier under the pseudonym "Marie Duval" (or "Marie DuVal"; sources differ).

Ally Sloper's Half Holiday est un hebdomadaire humoristique britannique à un penny lancé en 1884 par Gilbert Dalziel, directeur de "Judy", et disparu définitivement en 1923, après une première interruption en 1916. Tout à la gloire d'Ally Sloper, c'est le premier périodique nommé d'après un personnage créé pour la bande dessinée, même si ce sont surtout des textes et des illustrations qui y sont publiés. Il était long de huit pages et était au format tabloïd.


History.

The gallery was founded in 1889 by Robert Dukinfield Darbishire with a donation from Sir Joseph Whitworth, as "The Whitworth Institute and Park". The first building was completed in 1908. In 1958 the gallery became part of the University of Manchester.  In October 1995 the mezzanine court in the centre of the building was opened. The new gallery, designed chiefly for the display of sculpture, won a RIBA regional award. In 2010 the art gallery received 172,000 visitors, making it one of Greater Manchester's ten most-visited tourist attractions.  In February 2015, the Whitworth reopened after a £15 million capital redevelopment and received over 440,000 visitors in its first reopening year. It was shortlisted for the Stirling Prize and won the Art Fund’s Museum of the Year in 2015.

2003 theft.

On Saturday 26 April 2003, three paintings — Van Gogh's "The Fortification of Paris with Houses", Picasso's "Poverty" and Gauguin's "Tahitian Landscape" – were stolen from the gallery. They were later found rolled up in a nearby public toilet and were subsequently put back on display.

Architecture.

The Grade II listed gallery was built between 1895 and 1900 in a free Jacobean style to the designs of J.W. Beaumont. The gallery consisting two storeys and a basement is constructed of red brick with bands and dressings of matching terracotta and has green slate roofs. Its nine-bay main range has two towers and a large projecting semi-circular porch with a screen of paired stone Ionic columns and a stone frieze below a balustraded parapet.

Refurbishment and extension.

An architectural competition was launched by RIBA Competitions to design an extension in 2008 and funding was secured in February 2011. In September 2013 the gallery closed for refurbishment and extension works. The £15 million redevelopment was supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund and the University of Manchester. The refurbishment works, undertaken by architects MUMA envisaged the gallery reopening to the public by summer 2014, but complications delayed the opening.  The development includes expanded gallery areas, a learning studio, study centre, an art garden and cafe. Developers have constructed a glass, stainless steel and brick extension consisting of two wings which extend into Whitworth Park from the back of the gallery building. The wings are connected by a glass promenade. The extension means the gallery is a third larger than previously.  The extension, which opened on 14 February 2015 doubles the gallery's public space. It will provide more space for displaying the 55,000 items in the gallery's collection and link the building to Whitworth Park.  The refurbishment and extension work resulted in the development winning a RIBA National Award in 2015 and subsequently being shortlisted for the RIBA Stirling Prize. The Whitworth won the Art Fund’s Museum of the Year award in 2015.

Collections.

The Whitworth has notable collections of watercolours, sculptures, wallpapers and textiles. The gallery focuses on modern artists, and the art collections include works by Henry Moore, Barbara Hepworth, Ford Madox Brown, Eduardo Paolozzi, Francis Bacon, William Blake, David Hockney, L. S. Lowry, Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh and Pablo Picasso, and a fine collection of works by J. M. W. Turner. One of its most famous works is the marble sculpture "Genesis" (1929–31) by Sir Jacob Epstein. It also houses the Musgrave Kinley Outsider Art Collection.

The Whitworth is an art gallery in Manchester, England, containing about 55,000 items in its collection. The gallery is located in Whitworth Park and is part of the University of Manchester.

La Whitworth Art Gallery est une galerie d'art de Manchester, en Angleterre, qui contient objets dans sa collection. Le musée est situé au Sud du campus de l'université de Manchester à Whitworth Park.


Classification.

Kutenai is typically considered a language isolate. There have been attempts to place Kutenai in either a Macro-Algonquian or Macro-Salishan language family, most recently with Salish, but they have not been generally accepted as proven.

Typology.

Like other languages in the area, Kutenai has a rich inventory of consonants and a small inventory of vowels, though there are allophones of the three basic phonemic vowels. The lack of a phonemic distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants is much as in other languages of the area. Because Kutenai is on the periphery of this linguistic area, the loss of a rich lateral inventory is consistent with other nearby languages, which now have only one or two lateral consonants. One such language group contains the Sahaptian languages, which have had a similar loss of laterals. Nez Perce has, believed to be the lateral affricate in the proto-language. Nez Perce, like Kutenai, lies in the eastern periphery of the Northwest Linguistic area.  Another typological analysis investigates the lexical category of preverbs in Kutenai. This lexical category distinguishes neighboring Algonquian languages, found to the east of the Kootenay Rocky Mountains and near the Kutenai linguistic area. Another typological relationship Kutenai could have is the presence of its obviation system.

Current status.

As of 2012, the Ktunaxa people in Canada are working on a language revitalization effort. Tribal councils from the separate communities of the Ktunaxa nation have contributed a selection of audio recordings of Kutenai words and phrases to the FirstVoices website, an online catalogue of the indigenous languages of North America. As of November 2017, the Ktunaxa webpage had 2500 words and 1114 phrases archived, stories and songs recorded, a language learning app available, and First Voices tutor. The FirstVoices Tutor provides lessons and practices in the given language. The Ktunaxa Language app, accessible for iOS devices, is a Ktunaxa dictionary which uses the audio recordings of words and phrases, and provides flashcards with audio, of the vocabulary found on the FirstVoices website.The Ktunaxa nation aims to target younger generations with the FirstVoices materials to teach fluency in the Kutenai language.  One such example is the ʔAq̓am community of the Ktunaxa Nation, also known as St.Mary's band in Cranbrook B.C, which has a private elementary school called the ʔaq̓amnikSchool. This school, as well as providing standard BC curriculum, teaches the Ktunaxa language and cultural traditions of the people to younger generations. It also has an after school program and a program called Headstart, which helps adults of children up to the age of six learn about teaching the Ktunaxa culture and language to their children.  The Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation have founded the Salish Kootenai College, a tribal college on the Flathead reservation in Pablo, Montana. The college offers a certificate program in Native American studies, which requires that students have knowledge of the history and culture of the Salish and Ktunaxa people. The curriculum also offers classes in basic Kutenai language pronunciation and grammar. Some sources suggest that the knowledge and preservation of the native communities culture will contribute to the preservation of the communities language, but there is no evidence yet from the Salish Kootenai College to support this claim.  College of the Rockies main campus is in Cranbrook B.C on the territory of the Ktunaxa people. As such, the college has collaborated with the Ktunaxa people for 40 years as of 2015. As well as offering indigenous studies classes, the College of the Rockies offers basic Ktunaxa classes online, KTUN-101 and KTUN-102, using the FirstVoices website as the primary learning resource. They also offer a Ktunaxa Workshop for beginner learners providing basic phrases and pronunciation, and cultural information of the Ktunaxa people.

History of description.

The first grammar of Kutenai was compiled by Roman Catholic missionary Philippo Canestrelli, and was published in 1894 in Latin.(Online text here)  In 1918 Franz Boas published The Kutenai Tales, a transcription and translation of multiple Ktunaxa stories. The stories were gathered by Alexander F. Pierce in 1891 and Boas in 1914, and told by members of the Ktunaxa people including Andrew Pierre, Numan Pierre, Joe Mission, Andrew Felix, and the major contributor from the community, a man referred to as Barnaby.  Paul L. Garvin did various descriptive work describing the phonemics, morphology, and syllabification in Ktunaxa. He also has two sources of transcriptions of speakers talking.  In 1991 Lawrence Richard Morgan wrote a description of the Kutenai Language as his PhD dissertation through the University of California, Berkeley. This description is focused on how the language works and specifically defining the working parts of the language. Morgan's work is an exhaustive list of each grammatical particle, morpheme, and affix, with their respective environments and their varying forms.

Sounds.

Consonant phonemes.

Kutenai has no phonemic distinction between voiced and voiceless consonants.

Vowel phonemes.

Vowel length in Ktunaxa is also contrastive, so two words can be differentiated just by lengthening or shortening a vowel. Some such minimal pairs are the verbal stem 'to dig something up' and the noun '(steel animal) trap' and the verbal stem for 'to fall out in this direction/to fall out from somewhere' and 'the place where (someone is) sitting, one's place at a table'. Both pairs differ only in the length of the first vowel, [a] vs [a:].

Grammar.

In general terms, Kutenai is an agglutinative language, with many grammatical functions being served by both prefixes and suffixes, primarily on the verb, though some affixes select nouns as well. As mentioned above, a distinctive feature of Kutenai is its use of an obviation system as a way to track which entities and concepts are particularly central/salient to a story being told and as a grammatical way of clarifying the roles of each entity in sentences with two third-person arguments: "Pronouns, nouns, verbs, and adverbs all take obviative markers", making it particularly different from some more well-known obviation systems (like the Algonquian one, which allows for obviation only on third-person animate nouns). Kutenai also makes use of an inverse system." The language has an overt copula, "?in" `to be'.

Syntax.

Word order.

Word order in Kutenai can be flexible in response to discourse and pragmatic concerns. As is the case with many head-marking languages, it is rare to have both an overt subject and an overt object in a sentence since the morphology of the verb makes it clear who is acting on whom. Morgan states that if it "is" appropriate to express both arguments of a verb in a "neutral" context, VOS word order is preferred; however, it also alternates with VSO order. The pre-verbal position can be occupied by adverbs, as seen in these three examples:  One aspect of Kutenai that complicates word order somewhat is the fact that the verb is marked for first- or second-person subjects by "affixal or clitic pronouns" that precede the stem, "hu/hun" for 'I' and "hin" for 'you'. It is common in the orthography to write the pronouns as separate words, making it seem as if the word order is Subject Pronoun + Verb (+ Object).

Inverse.

In many languages, conditions for inverse include situations in which the first or second person is in the "object" role, and the third person is the "subject" as in 'She saw you/me.' In Kutenai, however, the situations use specific "first-/second-person object" morphology, separate from the inverse. As a consequence, Kutenai's inverse system is most clearly observable in interactions between third persons. The following two examples (from Dryer 1991) show the direct and inverse, respectively:

Clause typing.

Kutenai subordinate/dependent clauses are marked with a "k" and a lack of indicative morphology on the verb, as are questions, nominalizations, and relative clauses. The "k" can cliticize to the material that follows it, as can be seen in this example.

The Kutenai language (), also Kootenai, Kootenay, Ktunaxa, and Ksanka, is the native language of the Kutenai people of Montana and Idaho in the United States and British Columbia in Canada. It is typically considered a language isolate, unrelated to the Salishan family of languages spoken by neighboring tribes on the coast and in the interior Plateau. The Kutenai also speak "ʾa·qanⱡiⱡⱡitnam", Ktunaxa Sign Language.

Le kutenai (ou kootenai) est une langue amérindienne isolée parlée aux États-Unis, dans l'Idaho et au Canada, en Colombie-Britannique. Elle est parlée par le peuple Kootenay.


History.

The station was opened in together with the rest of the Moselle line, which formed part of the Kanonenbahn () (Berlin–Metz).  Earlier, upon the opening of the Saar route in 1860, Trier had acquired a station on the left bank of the Moselle, the present day Trier-West station, which, in 1871, had also been linked with Cologne via the Eifel Railway. However, in view of its convenient location close to Trier's city centre, the present day Hauptbahnhof soon became the city's most important station.

Station facilities.

Building and platforms.

The main entrance of the station leads directly to the station lobby. In the southwestern part of the lobby, there are a FotoFix automat and two pay phones; in the southern half (with its own access) are luggage lockers, ticket machines, the toilet and the DB travel centre. In the north-west wing is a candy kiosk and in the eastern half an ATM, a bakery / café and a newsagent.  In 2005, renovation work began in the station area with the objective of adapting it to the standard of other ICE-train stations.

Forecourt and surroundings.

The station forecourt is overwhelmingly dominated by retail outlets. At the southern end, it is bordered by the "Alleencenter" shopping centre. An expert workshop organised by the city of Trier has put forward comprehensive plans for the redevelopment of the station forecourt, and in particular for the reorganisation of the parking and traffic control systems. Under these plans, there would be a generally clearly visible station building, with a new bus terminal, and either an overpass or underpass to Trier-Gartenfeld.

Road connections.

Trief Hbf is connected to its west, via the Bahnhofstrasse with the Alleenring, which gathers together all the traffic from the Ost- and Theodor-Heuss-Allee, Christoph- und Balduinstraße, as well as the streets in the Reichsabtei.  The forecourt in front of the main building offers short-term parking and parking for motorcycles. Further parking can be found at the western end of the building and in the parking garage to the south of the "Ostalleencenter".

Traffic.

At Trier Hbf, more than 170 trains stop daily. The trains calling at Trier include RE and RB services.  One can arrive in Trier from:  Both of these last two railways merge with the Saar Railway in Konz.

Long distance traffic.

From Trier, IC trains formerly operated every two hours via Koblenz, Andernach, Bonn, Köln, Düsseldorf, Oberhausen, Münster (Westf) and Rheine to Emden/Norddeich Mole, and every two hours from Emden/Norddeich-Mole on the same itinerary in reverse, then onwards to Luxembourg. After the timetable change for 2005, Trier had an ICE connection with Berlin, by an ICE train that started its journey at the Trier Hauptbahnhof. That ICE train operated via Koblenz, Andernach, Bonn (the Linke Rheinstrecke), Köln, Wuppertal, Hamm and Hannover.  In November 2011, ICE services were discontinued and long-distance services were reduced to only two IC trains per day on the line. These services ended on 13 December 2014 with the introduction of the Rhineland-Palatinate integrated regular interval service ("Rheinland-Pfalz-Taktes 2015") on the line.

Bus traffic.

In the evenings and on weekends, Trier Hbf is the focal point of Trier's bus traffic. Each district of Trier can be reached from there without any need to change buses.

External links.

"This article is based upon a translation of the as at December 2010."

Trier Hauptbahnhof is a railway station for the city of Trier, in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate. It is a through station, about east of the inner city and the Porta Nigra.

La gare de Trèves est une gare ferroviaire de la ville de Trèves dans le Land de Rhénanie-Palatinat en Allemagne.


History.

After its invasion by Germany in June 1940, Belgium was initially placed under a "temporary" military government, in spite of more radical factions within the German government such as the SS urging for the installation of another Nazi civil government as had been done in Norway and the Netherlands. It was joined together with the two French départements of "Nord" and "Pas-de-Calais" (included on the grounds that part of this territory belonged to Germanic Flanders, as well as the fact that the entire region formed an integral economic unit) as the Military Administration in Belgium and North France ("Militärverwaltung in Belgien und Nordfrankreich").  In spite of this uncompromising attitude at the time, it was decided that the entire area should someday be assimilated into the Third Reich and divided into three new Reichsgaue of the Greater Germanic Reich: "Flandern" and "Brabant" for the Flemish territories, and "Wallonien" for the Walloon parts. On 12 July 1944, a Reichskommissariat Belgien-Nordfrankreich was established to accomplish precisely this goal, derived from the previous military administration. This step was curiously only taken at the very end of World War II, when Germany's armies were already in full retreat. The new government was already ousted by the Allied advances in Western Europe in September 1944, and the authority of the Belgian government-in-exile was restored. The actual incorporation into the Nazi state of these new provinces therefore only occurred "de jure" and with its leaders already in exile in Germany. The only place where any notable gain was made in re-establishing Reich authority occurred in parts of southern Wallonia during the Ardennes Campaign. The collaborators merely achieved a Pyrrhic victory since when the Allied tanks had rolled into Belgium several months before, this already signalled the end of their personal domains in the Reich. Many of their supporters fled to Germany where they were conscripted into the Waffen-SS to participate in the final military campaigns of the Third Reich.  In December 1944, Belgium (theoretically including the two French departments) was split up into a "Reichsgau Wallonien", a "Reichsgau Flandern", and a "Distrikt Brüssel", all of which were nominally annexed by the Greater German Reich (therefore excluding the proposed Brabant province). In Wallonia, the Rexist Party under the leadership of Léon Degrelle became the sole political party, in Flanders, it was the DeVlag party under the leadership of Jef van de Wiele. Degrelle was appointed as "Leader of the Walloon people" ("Chef-du-People Wallon", "Volksführer der Wallonen" in German), in addition to the usual titles of "Gauleiter und Reichsstatthalter" bestowed upon Nazi German regional administrators.  The Walloons, in spite of their French national and linguistic identity, were regarded as Romanized Germanics by the Nazis, and therefore as a racial kindred-people of the Germans. After initially refusing entry to French and Walloon volunteers in the Waffen-SS for their perceived racial inferiority, Heinrich Himmler later changed his position, stating that he regarded the Walloon SS "as the renaissance movement of a fundamentally Germanic people ("als die Erneuerungsbewegung eines in Kern germanischen Volkes")." Racial planners therefore proposed the Germanization and Batavianization of the Walloons and the integrated parts of northern France.  Even before the actual incorporation of all of Wallonia, the Germans also seriously considered annexing, in addition to Luxembourg, the small German-speaking (Lëtzebuergesh) area centered on Arlon to a "bordering region of the Reich", presumably under the civil administrator of Gau Koblenz-Trier (from 1942 Moselland). In May and June 1940, the German occupiers also discussed annexing, "according to the principle of national traditions", the Low Dietsch-speaking region west of Eupen (so called "Platdietse streek") centered on the town of Limbourg, which was the historic core of the Duchy of Limburg.

The Reichsgau Wallonia (German: "Reichsgau Wallonien"; French: "Gau du Reich Wallonie") was a short-lived "Reichsgau" of Nazi Germany established in 1944. It encompassed present-day Wallonia in its old provincial borders, excluding Comines-Warneton but including Voeren. Eupen-Malmedy and Moresnet were also omitted, both of which had already been incorporated into Germany after its victory in the Battle of France in 1940.

Le Reichsgau de Wallonie (en allemand : "Reichsgau Wallonien"; en français: "Gau du Reich de Wallonie") fut un éphémère Reichsgau de l'Allemagne nazie établi en 1944. Il comprenait l'actuelle Wallonie dans ses anciennes frontières provinciales, excluant donc Comines-Warneton mais incluant Fourons. Étaient aussi exclus Eupen-Malmedy et le territoire du Moresnet, qui avaient tous deux été déjà incorporés au sein de l'Allemagne après sa victoire lors de la bataille de France en 1940.


Plot.

The film opens with a Star Wars style text scroll, which tells the main situation: "In year 80 AM Anno Mickey Mouse, the mice of Planet X are threatened by humiliation and total apocalypse. The well-organized, fully equipped gangs of evil cats are aiming to wipe out the mouse civilization totally, not caring for the old conventions between mice and cats. But in the last moment, when the mouse leaders are beginning to consider leaving the planet, a new hope rises..."  The film is a parody of several famous feature films, mainly the James Bond series. The main plot is about a special spy who is sent to the city of "Pokyo" to get the secret plan of a machine which could save the mouse civilization. Of course, the cats don't want this to happen, and send some rat gangsters to stop him, who don't always prove as efficient as their presentation showed.

In the US and Canada.

In United States and Canada the movie was distributed on VHS by Sefel Pictures in 1987 under the name "Cat City". The names of almost all characters were changed to avoid any associations with countries of Socialist bloc. The songs were recorded also in different arrangement, and the song of "Four Gangsters" (which was written to Jimmy Giuffre's "Four Brothers" melody) was replaced completely.

In the USSR.

In the Soviet Union this cartoon enjoyed a big success in the box office in 1988 and got a truly cult status among kids after being shown multiple times on TV, dubbed in Russian by Soyuzmultfilm studio. The Russian title is "Ловушка для кошек (Lovushka dlia koshek)" (literally: Cat Trap). In spite of the Russian version being completely dubbed, the songs were left in their original Hungarian version with brief voiceover translations of the first few lines.

After fall of the USSR.

Since movie had cult status in post-Soviet countries, it was also dubbed in Ukrainian by studio Omikron in 2016. Film title in Ukrainian is "Пастка для котів (Pastka dlya kotiv)", it comes from Hungarian title. Unlike Russian edition, in which some scenes were censored, Ukrainian translation covers the whole movie.

Sequel: "Cat City 2: The Cat of Satan".

The movie was made on a limited budget of about 3 million USD, with the characters drawn and animated by hand, while objects and backgrounds were derived from 3D models and computer simulation. The visual world of the movie is said to be influenced by the first Matrix trilogy movie and Sin City, but softened for a younger audience. The former working title of Cat City 2 was retained as the final subtitle: "Cat of Satan", which would be translated literally as "The Tabby of the Baskervilles" if translated into English in its original context. The project was led by the original Nepp and Ternovszky duo, who directed the first film.  The story of Cat City 2 centers around an investigative journalist named Stanley Mouse, who wants to find out about the legend of an ancient "cat tribe" lost in Africa. He finds them and much more, once again threatening the continued existence of mouse civilization. Special Agent Grabowsky will act to save the day, however. The events are supposed to take place at least 10, possibly 20 years after the first episode, as one of the already leaked cells shows the titular Cat-Catcher mecha rusting away in a shelter.  Premiering on December 20, 2007, by January 2008 it had made the Hungarian Box Office Top Ten for 6 consecutive weeks, topping the chart at 6th place. International release was restricted to DVD due to a lack of distribution partners.

Cat City () is a 1986 Hungarian animated film, directed by Béla Ternovszky and written by József Nepp. The title "Cat City" was used in the United States distribution. The original Hungarian version contains a number of puns which can be hardly rendered in any other edition. The film was selected as the Hungarian entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 59th Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee.

Macskafogó est un long métrage d'animation hongrois réalisé par Béla Ternovszky et sorti en Hongrie en 1986. C'est une coproduction entre la Hongrie, le Canada et l'Allemagne de l'Ouest. Le film, qui emploie la technique du dessin animé en deux dimensions, développe une intrigue policière humoristique dont les principaux protagonistes sont des souris et des chats, et contient plusieurs allusions parodiques à des films à succès.


Definition.

The IRU "shall mean the exclusive, unrestricted, and indefeasible right to use the relevant capacity (including equipment, fibers or capacity) for any legal purpose". It refers to the bandwidth purchased after, for example, a submarine cable system has been sealed at the end of construction, and to the maintenance agreement (C&MA) among the owners. It is a way for the owners to capitalize the unused capacity or any unowned capacity, after the system comes into service.  In short, buying an IRU gives the purchaser the right to use some capacity on a telecommunications cable system, including the right to lease that capacity to someone else. Smaller companies that need a leased line between, say, London and New York do not buy an IRU – they lease capacity from a telecommunications company that themselves may lease a larger amount of capacity from another company (and so on), until at the end of the chain of contracts there is a company that has an IRU, or wholly owns a cable system.  Today, so-called IRUs allow a telecom carrier to buy all types of telecom capacity and gear at low rates, typically for periods of 20 to 25 years. Since IRUs are technically rights to a physical part of an underground cable, they can be considered an asset. That means their cost isn't part of a company's operating results, but of the property, plant, and equipment line listed on a firm's balance sheet.  According to the "Wall Street Journal", dark fiber was pioneered decades ago by AT&T, when it still enjoyed monopoly power. IRUs allowed AT&T's competitors to gain access to the expensive undersea cables that only AT&T could afford to build. There remains some controversy over booking IRUs as assets in an asset-swap transaction between companies. Since IRU's are technically rights to a physical part of a cable, they can be considered an asset, which means their cost isn't part of the company's operating results, but shows up under tangible assets. The IRU is counted as though it is a part of the physical plant of the business buying the IRU.

Dark fiber IRU.

The Dark fiber (DF) IRU "shall mean the exclusive, unrestricted, and indefeasible right to use one, a pair, or more strands of fiber of a fiber cable for any legal purpose". With an IRU contractual arrangement the buyer of the IRU can unconditionally, and exclusively, use the fibers of the IRU for a long time period, around 25–30 years.  In this case dark fiber is called "dark" since it has to be lit by the IRU owner, not the cable's owner. The wholesale purchase of dark fiber has normally been accomplished by means of IRUs. Fiber cable owners do not normally sell their fiber but offer IRUs for up to 20 years for unrestricted use. 10 to 25 years corresponds to a typical lifetime of the Optical fiber cable systems. The upfront cost for the purchase of a 20-year IRU can be a one-time investment. It will normally be associated with ongoing obligations for shared maintenance. Usually, the IRU can be considered to be a physical asset, which can be resold, traded or used as collateral.  For regulatory reasons, generally only licensed carriers are allowed access to support structures, and to municipal rights of way.  The IRU contract defines detailed technical and performance specifications for the IRU fibers. More specifically, it includes dark fiber acceptance and testing procedures, the description of the dark fiber physical route, operating specifications for the dark fiber infrastructure, performance specifications (attenuation, Chromatic Dispersion, Polarization Mode Dispersion, Optical Return Loss), maintenance and restoration terms. These terms must be valid for the full duration of the IRU contract. Moreover, it includes specific actions and procedures in cases of changes on the IRU grantor’s fiber network, degradation of fiber performance etc.

Indefeasible right of use (IRU) is a type of telecommunications lease permanent contractual agreement, that cannot be undone, between the owners of a communications system and a customer of that system. The word "indefeasible" means "not capable of being annulled, or voided, or undone". The customer purchases the right to use a certain amount of the capacity of the system, for a specified number of years. IRU contracts are almost always long term, commonly lasting 20 to 30 years. The communication system can be a wire cable, such as a submarine communications cable, fiber-optic cable, or satellite. An IRU owner can unconditionally and exclusively use the relevant capacity of the IRU grantor’s network for the specified time period.

Le Droit irrévocable d'usage (DIU), est un droit régi par contrat entre les opérateurs d'un câble de communication — tel qu'un câble sous-marin ou un réseau de fibre optique — et un client.


History.

When Fauré was director of the Paris Conservatoire (from 1905 to 1920) he customarily left Paris for several weeks at the end of the academic year to compose in peace in quiet resorts. After his retirement he continued to retreat from Paris for bouts of sustained composition. The quartet was composed at Annecy-le-Vieux, and in Paris and Divonne-les-Bains between September 1923 and September 1924.  Throughout his career Fauré had composed for chamber forces. His works by 1923 included two piano quartets, two piano quintets, a piano trio, two violin sonatas, two cello sonatas and numerous smaller-scale chamber pieces. He had, however, always declined to attempt a string quartet. His pupil Maurice Ravel had dedicated his 1903 String Quartet to Fauré, and he and others urged Fauré to compose one of his own; Fauré refused, calling the task too difficult for him. On 9 September 1923 he wrote from Annecy to his wife, who remained in Paris, "I've started a Quartet for strings, without piano. This is a genre which Beethoven in particular made famous, and causes all those who are not Beethoven to be "terrified" of it." He worked on the piece, on and off for a year, finishing it on 11 September 1924, working long hours towards the end to complete it.  The first movement of the quartet to be completed was the central "andante", which he wrote at Annecy between 9 and 13 September 1923. The music critic Roger Nichols comments that the sober, meditative tone of the "andante" is reflected in the two other movements that Fauré wrote later. After returning to Paris, Fauré began work on the first movement, for which he reused two themes from an unfinished violin concerto that he had begun and abandoned in 1878. He resumed work on the piece in the summer of the following year, first at Divonne-les-Bains and finally at Annecy, where he had begun work on it a year earlier. When the three movements were finished, he contemplated adding a separate scherzo, but decided against it, telling his wife, "The quartet is completed, unless I decide to have a little fourth movement which might have a place between the first and the second. But since it is in no way a necessity I shall not tire myself by searching for it, at least not at the moment."  The quartet was premiered after Fauré's death; he declined an offer to have it performed privately for him in his last days, as his hearing had deteriorated to the point where musical sounds were horribly distorted in his ear.  The first movement, in 2/2 time, is in sonata form. The opening theme, played by the viola, is answered by the first violin. The normal sonata pattern follows, with the viola's original theme omitted from the recapitulation. The second movement, in 4/4 time, is in no discernible traditional form. The opening theme is reprised half-way through the movement, but otherwise the andante winds a contemplative course through meandering scales and occasional octave jumps. The dynamics constantly change, with crescendos or diminuendos in the majority of bars. The Fauré scholar Jean-Michel Nectoux said of the movement, "The "Andante" is one of the finest pieces of string quartet writing. From start to finish it bathes in a supernatural light. There is nothing that is not beautiful in this movement with its subtle variations of light-play, a sort of white upon white.... The sublime music sinks out of sight, where it carries on, rather than seeming to come to an end". Like the opening movement, the finale is in sonata form, and like the "andante" it is in 4/4 time. It combines the function of scherzo as well as finale. The cello introduces and develops the scherzo theme over a "pizzicato" accompaniment. The central development section, unusually long in relation to the rest of the movement, combines the themes heard at the beginning of the movement. The work ends in a jubilant E major conclusion.

Structure.

Timings.

In performance, string quartets have varied widely in their "tempi" for the work. Of recordings in the CD catalogues in 2011, an example of a swift performance is that by the Amati Quartet, a 1993 performance on the Divox label, which plays for a total of 22 minutes and 18 seconds. Among the slower versions is that by the Medici Quartet (Nimbus, 1989) which is nearly seven minutes longer, at 29:10.

The String Quartet in E minor, Op. 121, is the only string quartet by Gabriel Fauré. Completed in 1924 shortly before his death at the age of 79, it is his last composition. His pupil Maurice Ravel had dedicated his String Quartet to Fauré in 1903, and he and others urged Fauré to compose one of his own; he declined, on the grounds that it was too difficult. When he finally decided to write it, he did so in trepidation.

Le Quatuor à cordes en mi mineur opus 121 est l'ultime opus de Gabriel Fauré. Composé de septembre 1923 à septembre 1924 à Annecy et Divonne et dédié à Camille Bellaigue, il est créé le au Conservatoire de Paris avec Jacques Thibaud, Robert Krettly au violon, Maurice Vieux à l'alto, André Hekking au violoncelle. Sur les raisons pour lesquelles Fauré attendit le crépuscule de sa vie pour écrire un quatuor, il confie à sa femme: « c'est un genre que Beethoven a particulièrement illustré, ce qui fait que tous ceux qui ne sont pas Beethoven en ont la frousse... alors tu peux penser si j'ai peur à mon tour. Je n'en ai parlé à personne ».


History.

One of the first 16 Universities in India and the first in the state of Kerala, the University of Kerala was founded as the University of Travancore in the erstwhile princely state of Travancore (now southern part of Kerala and some neighboring parts of state of Tamil Nadu) in 1937. During the 7 decades since the University of Kerala grew and shrunk physically and transformed itself in many ways.  The earliest origins of the University may be traced back to two institutions of modern learning in Kerala, the University College, Thiruvananthapuram and the Trivandrum Observatory. The University College was initially founded as the Maharaja's Free School by Maharaja Swathi Thirunal in 1834, with Mr John Roberts. A Christian Missionary as Headmaster, and soon grew into a college in 1866, affiliated to the Madras University. When the University of Travancore was founded, the Departments of the college became the University Departments, only to switch back again when the transformation to University of Kerala happened in 1957. The University College still retains its connection with the University as an affiliated college. The Trivandrum Observatory was founded in 1838 and had an internationally reputed scientist, John Caldecott FRS as its first Director. It became a part of the Travancore University, but for some time was administered as an independent government institution. It is now the oldest institution under the Kerala University.  The University of Travancore was established in 1937 by a promulgation of the Maharajah of Travancore, Sri Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma who was also the first Chancellor of the University. Sir C. P Ramaswamy Ayyar, the then Diwan (Prime minister) of the State was the first Vice-Chancellor. He was an eminent scholar and an able administrator. It is said the Government made an unsuccessful attempt to invite Albert Einstein to be the first Vice-Chancellor. The University was modelled after the best Universities of the United Kingdom, and even today retains some of these features. The affiliating system of the University however evolved to be different from the college system in British Universities.  Only ten colleges within the State of Travancore, which were at that time affiliated to the Madras University, became the affiliated colleges of the University of Travancore. In 1954, the unified state of Kerala came into being with most of Travancore and whole of state of Cochin and Malabar area of Madras presidency becoming part of it. The Kerala University Act (Act 14 of 1957) was brought into force and the University of Travancore was renamed University of Kerala. The University had three campuses located in three different parts of the State viz. Thiruvananthapuram, Ernakulam and Kozhikode. The number of affiliated colleges grew phenomenally. However, in 1968, the University Centre at Kozhikode became a full-fledged University, the University of Calicut, affiliating the colleges located in Thrissur, Palakkad, Kozhikode and Kannur districts of Kerala and transforming the Kozhikkode Centre into University Departments. The Cochin University of Science and Technology - CUSAT -(1971), Kerala Agricultural University (1971) and Mahatma Gandhi University (1983) were subsequently established, with CUSAT taking over the University's centre at Cochin. These developments have shrunk the jurisdiction of the University of Kerala to Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha Districts and some parts of Pathanamthitta District.

Departments.

At present, the University has sixteen faculties and forty one departments of teaching and research in addition to study centres and other departments. Teaching, Research and Knowledge extension are the mandate of the Departments. They primarily focus on post-graduate (masters) programmes, MPhil programmes (1-year research degree) and doctoral research. In 2007, the University awarded over 100 PhDs. (University's research activities are also going on in select affiliated colleges and other recognised research centres in and outside the state). The University has had in its faculties eminent scholars who were trained under legendary figures (Sir C V Raman's student in Dept of Physics, Prof S R Ranganathan's student in Library Science and Prof Benjamin Bloom's student in Dept of Education). Some of the faculty members themselves were legends, such as famous poet K Ayyappa Panciker, Oriental scholar T Ganapathi Sasthri etc.

Study centres.

The University has also a number of study centres in specialised areas such as Nano-technology, Kerala Studies, Bioinformatics, Women's Studies, Learning Difficulties, Sree Narayana Studies, Gandhian Studies etc. Some of these centres have taught programmes (Certificate/Diploma/Masters/Mphil) and many offer PhD programmes. The University has also established 10 University College of Teacher Education (UTEC) and 8 University Institute of Technologies (UIT) both of which offer under-graduate programmes (BEd in UTECs and BSc Computer Science/IT, Electronics/BBA in UITs), although masters programmes are available in select UITs. The University College of Engineering at Karyavattom offers Engineering Education at Undergraduate level.

Affiliated colleges.

The University has over 150 affiliated colleges. The role of the University is in prescribing courses of study and conducting examinations and issuing certificates. The day-to-day administration of these institutions is not under the purview of the University. However, these institutions form a major part of the University. Of these 60 are Arts and Science colleges. There are 2 Law colleges, 17 Engineering Colleges, 9 MBA/MCA Colleges, 37 Teacher Training Colleges, 4 Medical Colleges, 4 Ayurveda colleges, 2 Homeopathy Colleges, one Siddha Medical College, 3 Dental colleges, 10 Nursing Colleges, 4 Pharmacy Colleges, 2 Fine Arts Colleges, and a Music College. The University also has a National College of Physical Education affiliated to it. The total number of students in these colleges crosses 84,000.

Rankings.

University of Kerala was ranked 801-1000 in the world by the "Times Higher Education World University Rankings" of 2018 and 251-300 in Asia. It was ranked 47 in India overall by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2018 and 30 among universities.

Notable alumni.

Sports.

!Name!Class Year!Degree!College!Notability!References

University of Kerala (UoK), formerly the University of Travancore, is an affiliating university located in Thiruvananthapuram, capital of the state of Kerala, India. It was established in 1937, long before the birth of the state of Kerala in India, by a promulgation of the Maharajah of Travancore, Sri Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma who was also the first Chancellor of the university. C. P. Ramaswami Iyer, the then Diwan (Prime Minister) of Travancore, was the first governor.

L’université du Kerala (en sanskrit : कर्मणि व्यज्यते प्रज्ञा ; en anglais : "University of Kerala" ou UoK) est une université publique de l'État indien du Kerala, fondée en 1937 à Thiruvananthapuram (anciennement Trivandrum).