Background.

Although many European and European-American migrants to western North America had previously passed through the Great Plains on the Oregon and Santa Fe Trails, the California gold rush beginning in 1848 greatly increased traffic. The next year, both Thomas Fitzpatrick (agent of Upper Platte and Arkansas) and David D. Mitchell (superintendent at Saint Louis) recommended a council with the Indians to prevent a conflict. The United States government undertook negotiations with the Native American Plains tribes living between the Arkansas and Missouri rivers to ensure protected right-of-way for the migrants. The Congress had appropriated one hundred thousand dollars to the assembly, endorsed by Luke Lea (the Commissioner of Indian Affairs).  Because the area around Fort Laramie lacked forage for the Indians' horses, the treaty was negotiated and signed 30 miles downriver from the fort at the mouth of Horse Creek. Many Indians have referred to the treaty as the Horse Creek Treaty. Representatives from the Lakota, Cheyenne, Assiniboine, Gros Ventre, Mandan, Arikara, Hidatsa, Shoshone, Crow, and Arapaho took part in the treaty discussions.  The Comanche, Kiowa, and Kiowa Apache refused to send representatives to Fort Laramie because the fort was in Sioux territory. The Comanche, Kiowa, and Kiowa Apache considered the Sioux an enemy.  The United States Senate ratified the treaty, adding Article 5, to adjust compensation from fifty to ten years, if the tribes accepted the changes. Acceptance from all tribes, with the exception of the Crow, was procured. Several tribes never received the commodities promised as payments.

The Treaty Territories.

The Lakota got some rather new territorial claims recognized. In 1823, a number of Lakotas had helped the United States army attack an Arikara village at Grand River (present South Dakota). The Lakotas had kept on pushing the village tribe north, so they got treaty on the former Arikara homeland along the Grand.  The Lakota received exclusive treaty rights to the Black Hills (present South Dakota), to the consternation of the Cheyenne and the Arapahoe. "... the Sioux were given rights to the Black Hills and other country that the Northern Cheyennes claimed. Their home country was the Black Hills, declared a Cheyenne historian in 1967. Arapahoe chief Black Coal complained in 1875: "I have never got anything yet for my land [the Black Hills]. It is part mine, and part the Sioux... In the first place, they came from the Missouri River and reached this place, and now they have got up this far, and they claim all this land."  The Cheyenne and Arapaho, the southernmost of the treaty tribes, held an area southward of the North Platte in common (mainly in present Wyoming and Colorado).  The Crow treaty territory (in present Montana and Wyoming) included the area westward from Powder River. Little Bighorn River ran through the center of the Crow domain.

After the Treaty.

The treaty was broken almost immediately after its inception, by the Lakota and Cheyenne attacking the Crow over the next two years. In 1858, the failure of the United States to prevent the mass immigration of miners and settlers into Colorado during the Pike's Peak Gold Rush, also did not help matters. They took over Indian lands in order to mine them, "against the protests of the Indians," and founded towns, started farms, and improved roads. Before 1861, the Cheyenne and Arapahoe "had been driven from the mountain regions down upon the waters of the Arkansas." Such emigrants competed with the tribes for game and water, straining limited resources and resulting in conflicts with the emigrants. The U.S. government did not enforce the treaty to keep out the emigrants. In 1864 came the Sand Creek massacre on a camp of mostly Cheyennes by Colonel John M. Chivingtons army of one hundred days volunteers. The consequence was years of war between the Cheyennes and the United States.  The situation escalated with the Grattan affair in 1854, when a detachment of U.S. soldiers illegally entered a Sioux encampment to arrest those accused of stealing a cow, and in the process sparked a battle in which Chief Conquering Bear was killed.  Despite the peace treaty of 1851, Hunkpapa Lakota chief Running Antelope killed four Arikaras in 1853.  Around the same year, a joint Cheyenne and Lakota war party found a big Crow camp in the valley of the Little Bighorn River. The Lakota One Bear killed a Crow woman taken captive by the Cheyennes.  Around 1855, the Assiniboines and the Lakotas met on the battlefield more often than before. The Arikaras conquered horses from the Sioux at least in 1858, while war parties of Crows troubled Lakotas near the Upper Platte the same year.  Though intertribal fighting had existed before the arrival of white settlers, some of the post-treaty intertribal fighting can be attributed to mass killings of bison by white settlers and government agents. The U.S. army did not enforce treaty regulations and allowed hunters onto Native land to slaughter buffalo, providing protection and sometimes ammunition. One hundred thousand buffalo were killed each year, until they were on the verge of extinction, which threatened the tribes' subsistence. These mass killings affected all tribes thus the tribes were forced onto each other's hunting grounds, where fighting broke out.  The Lakota continued harassment of the Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara. By summer 1862, all three tribes had been forced out of their shared treaty territory. "We, the Arikara, have been driven from our country on the other side of the Missouri River by the Sioux", stated chief White Shield in 1864. The elimination of buffalo also meant that the Yanktonai Sioux moved into Assiniboine hunting grounds in North Dakota and Montana, where the Assiniboine made peace with them.  Before long, the Crows saw their western Powder River area flooded with trespassing Lakotas in search of bison, and "... large scale battles with invading Sioux" took place near present-day city of Wyola, Montana. The outnumbered Crows were displaced little by little. "The country from the Powder River to the Yellowstone River was their country [the Crows'], until 1859, when they were driven from it by the Sioux". In 1868, after a series of battles with the United States army in the contested area, the Lakotas finally succeeded in turning a part of the Crow Indian territory of 1851 into unceded Indian territory of their own.  Later again, huge parts of the different Indian territories would in one way or another be added to the holdings of the United States. Smaller areas of the initial Indian territories became separate reservations, usually populated with Indians from the tribe, which held the treaty right in 1851.  However, the Crow territory provided in the end acreage to "two" different reservations. The Crow Reservation was created in the center of the original territory in 1868. The reservation of the Northern Cheyennes became a reality in 1884. It is located entirely within the boundaries of the 1851 Crow territory, after the Indians in question had "earned the right to stay in the north" after the Fort Robinson outbreak.  The Arapahoe (Northern Arapaho) settled down on the reservation of their past enemies, the Shoshone, in present Wind River Reservation in Wyoming. The Southern Cheyenne and the Arapaho live in a common reservation in present Oklahoma, also far from their 1851 treaty land.  The Assiniboine in the United States has since 1888 lived in partly Fort Peck Reservation and partly Fort Belknap Reservation, both placed north of the Missouri in present Montana. The treaty territory of the Assiniboine south of the Missouri was just a small portion of the wide range used by these northern plains Indians.

The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 was signed on September 17, 1851, between United States treaty commissioners and representatives of the Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapaho, Crow, Assiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nations. The treaty was an agreement between nine more or less independent parties. The treaty set forth traditional territorial claims of the tribes as among themselves. The United States acknowledged that all the land covered by the treaty was Indian territory and did not claim any part of it. The boundaries agreed to in the Fort Laramie treaty of 1851 would be used to settle a number of claims cases in the 20th century. The Native Americans guaranteed safe passage for settlers on the Oregon Trail and allowed roads and forts to be built in their territories in return for promises of an annuity in the amount of fifty thousand dollars for fifty years. The treaty should also "make an effective and lasting peace" among the eight tribes, each of them often at odds with a number of the others.

Le traité de Fort Laramie de 1851, également connu sous le nom de traité de Horse Creek, fut signé le entre les États-Unis et les nations amérindiennes Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Crow, Shoshone, Assiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa et Arikara.


Plot.

Légionnaire Tom Brown meets nightclub singer Amy Jolly.

In Morocco in the late 1920s, the French Foreign Legion is returning from a campaign. Among them is Légionnaire Private Tom Brown (Gary Cooper). Meanwhile, on a ship bound for Morocco is the disillusioned nightclub singer Amy Jolly (Marlene Dietrich). Wealthy La Bessiere (Adolphe Menjou) attempts to make her acquaintance, offering to assist her on her first trip to Morocco. When she politely refuses any help, he gives her his calling card, which she later tears up and tosses away.  They meet again at the nightclub where she is a new headliner. Also in the audience is Private Brown. Amy, who comes out in a tophat and tails, is first greeted by boos, which she coolly ignores. Tom begins to clap, interrupting their jeers, and others follow suit. After the noise subsides, she sings her number (""Quand l'amour Meurt"" or "When Love Dies") and is met with ecstatic applause. Seeing a woman in the audience with a flower in her hair, she asks if she may keep it, to which the woman responds "of course". She playfully kisses the woman on the mouth, and throws the flower to Tom. Her second performance ("What am I bid for my Apple?"), this time in feminine dress, is also a hit. After the number, she sells apples to the audience, including La Bessière and Brown. When Amy gives the latter his "change", she slips him her key.

Tom's involvement with Adjutant Caesar's wife puts him in danger.

That night, Tom sets out to take Amy up on her offer. On the street he encounters Adjudant Caesar's wife (Eve Southern). She clearly has a past clandestine relationship with him, which she desires intensely to maintain, but Tom rejects her. Entering Amy's house, they become acquainted. Her house is plastered with photos from her past, of which she, like a Foreign Legion soldier, reveals nothing. He asks Amy if the man in the photographs is her husband, and she answers that she has never found someone good enough, a sentiment shared by Tom. She has become embittered with life and men after repeated betrayals, and asks if he can restore her faith in men. He answers that he is the wrong man for that, and that no one should have faith in him. As they talk, she finds herself coming to like him. Unwilling to risk heartbreak once again, she asks him to leave before anything serious happens. As he leaves, he encounters Caesar's wife again. Her husband, Tom's commanding officer, watches undetected from the shadows. Meanwhile, Amy changes her mind and seeks Tom out. With Amy in arm, Tom leaves Madame Caesar, who then hires two street ruffians to attack the couple. Tom manages to seriously wound both, while Amy and he escape unscathed.  The next day, Tom is brought before Adjutant Caesar (who had been watching them clandestinely) on the charge of injuring two allegedly harmless natives. Amy clears him, but Caesar makes him aware that he knows about Tom's involvement with his wife. La Bessiere, whose affections for Amy continue unabated, knows her concern for Tom and offers to use his weight with Caesar to lighten his punishment. Instead of a court martial, Tom is released from detention and ordered to leave for Amalfi Pass with a detachment commanded by Caesar. He suspects that Caesar intends to rid himself of his romantic rival, and fears for his life were he to go. Amy is saddened by the news that he is leaving. Meanwhile, Tom, war-weary and enamored with Amy, plans to desert to be with her.

Tom sacrifices his love for Amy surmising that her life would be better with La Bessiere.

That night at the nightclub, La Bessiere enters Amy's dressing room. He gives her a lavish bracelet, which she attempts to refuse, before setting it on her table. At the same time, Tom, intending to tell her of his plans, arrives at the door of her dressing room. Tom overhears La Bessiere offer to marry Amy, an offer she politely turns down. La Bessiere asks her if it is because she is in love, to which she responds that she does not think she is. Asking her if she would make the same choice if not for "a certain private in the Foreign Legion", she answers that she does not know. After hearing this, Tom knocks on the door, and La Bessiere kindly leaves them alone so Tom can say goodbye to her. As they embrace, Amy tells him not to go, and he responds that he intended to do just that. He will desert and board a train to Europe, but if she would join him. She agrees to this. A buzzer signals time for her to perform, and she asks him to wait for her to return. After she departs, he notices the lavish bracelet on her dressing room table. Though he has fallen in love with her himself, Tom decides that she would be better off with a rich man than with a poor Legionnaire. He writes on her mirror, "I changed my mind. Good luck!"  The next day Amy arrives with La Bessiere to see the company's departure, so she can bid Tom farewell. Adding further injury, he hides the depth of his feelings for her by having several women in his company, who cling to him so doggedly that Amy must maneuver herself between them to shake his hand. She asks La Bessiere about the women trailing after the company, who explains that they follow the men. She wonders how they keep pace with them, and he answers "Sometimes they catch up with them, and sometimes they don't. And very often when they do, they find their men dead." Amy remarks that the women must be mad to do such a thing, to which La Bessiere responds "I don't know. You see, they love their men."  On the march to Amalfi Pass, Tom's company detachment runs into a machine-gun nest. Caesar orders Tom to deal with it, and Tom suspects it is a suicide mission. To his surprise, Caesar decides to accompany him. Drawing his pistol (apparently to kill Tom), Caesar is killed by the enemy.

Amy gives up a life of luxury with La Bessiere to follow Tom into the desert.

Though in a relationship with La Bessiere, Amy pines for Tom. She is devastated by his treatment of her, and begins drinking heavily and acting erratically at work. La Bessiere enters her dressing room to find her singing gayly. He asks if she is in high spirits because she has heard news of Tom. She leads him to the mirror to show him the note Tom left, which she had hidden behind a flower pot. Still concealing her grief, she asks him to pour her a drink, before throwing its contents on the mirror and breaking the glass. La Bessière consoles her, and Amy eventually accepts his proposal.  Later, at their engagement party, La Bessiere and Amy learn that what's left of Tom's detachment has returned. Frantic, Amy rushes outside, but learns that Tom was wounded and left behind to recuperate in a hospital. She informs La Bessiere that she must go to Tom that very night, and wanting only her happiness, he drives her there.  She finds that Tom has been faking an injury to avoid combat. Instead of the hospital ward, he has been residing in a canteen. Accompanying him is a native woman, who attempts to console him, knowing he is brokenhearted over leaving his love. He has carved "AMY JOLLY" inside a heart, covered by a heap of cigarette butts from his chain smoking. When Amy arrives, Tom asks her if she is married, to which she answers in the negative. He then asks if she plans to marry La Bessiere, to which she replies with a yes. He encourages her to marry him, not revealing his feelings for her. As he prepares to join his new unit, she finds his knife on the table, which he has forgotten. When he returns to collect it, she remarks that he has also forgotten to say goodbye. He asks her to see the unit off as they leave at dawn. Alone and distraught, Amy sifts through the pile of playing cards and cigarettes, and finds the heart with her name in it. The next morning, she attends as his unit disembarks. Amy is torn in leaving him with the knowledge of his love for her, but when she sees a handful of native women stubbornly following the Legionnaires they love, she joins them.

Background.

Even before Josef von Sternberg's "The Blue Angel" was released to international acclaim in spring of 1930, Paramount Pictures took a keen interest in its new star, Marlene Dietrich. When the Berlin production was completed in January, Sternberg departed Germany before its premiere on April 1, confident that his work would be a success. Legend has it that Dietrich included a copy of author Benno Vigny's story "Amy Jolly" in a going-away gift package when he sailed for America. Sternberg and screenwriter Jules Furthman would write a script for "Morocco" based on the Vigny story.  On the basis of test footage from the yet unreleased "The Blue Angel" provided by Sternberg, producer B. P. Schulberg agreed to bring the German actress to Hollywood under a two-picture contract, in February 1930.  When Dietrich arrived in the United States to begin filming "Morocco" "[she] was subjected to the full power of Paramount's public relations machine" launching her into "international stardom" "before" American moviegoers had seen her as Lola Lola in "The Blue Angel", which appeared in U.S. theatres in 1931.

Reception.

Premiering in New York City on December 6, 1930, "Morocco"s success at the box office was "immediate and impressive".  Accolades for the film were issued by Soviet director Sergei Eisenstein, film critic Robert E. Sherwood, and filmmaker Charles Chaplin, who said of the film, "yes, [Sternberg] is an artist... it is his best film [to date]."  The film garnered nominations for Best Director (Sternberg), Best Actress (Dietrich), Best Art Direction (Hans Dreier), and Best Cinematography (Lee Garmes), though none of these won in their categories.

Production.

Sternberg's depiction of "picturesque" Morocco elicited a favorable response from the Moroccan government, which ran announcements in "The New York Times" inviting American tourists to enjoy "just as Gary Cooper [was seduced by the] unforgettable landscapes and engaging people." On the contrary, the movie was filmed entirely in Southern California, and Sternberg felt compelled to personally reassure the Pasha of Marrakesh that "Morocco "had not been shot in his domain.  Cinematographer Lee Garmes and Sternberg (himself a skilled camera technician) developed the distinctive lighting methods that served to enhance Dietrich's best facial features, while obscuring her slightly bulbous nose.  Shooting for "Morocco" was completed in August, 1930.  According to Robert Osborne of Turner Classic Movies, Cooper and von Sternberg did not get along. Von Sternberg filmed so as to make Cooper look up at Dietrich, emphasizing her at his expense. Cooper complained to his studio bosses and got it stopped.  When Dietrich came to the US, von Sternberg welcomed her with gifts, including a green Rolls-Royce Phantom II, which featured in some scenes of "Morocco". The final scene is recreated in the 1946's Mexican film "Enamorada", directed by Emilio Fernández.

Critical response.

Charles Silver, curator at the Museum of Modern Art's Department of Film, offers this assessment of "Morocco":

Theme.

With "Morocco", Sternberg examines the "interchange of masculine and feminine characteristics" in a "genuine interplay between male and female."

"When Love Dies": Dietrich's male impersonation.

Dietrich's "butch performance" dressed in "top hat, white tie and tails" includes a "mock seduction" of a pretty female cabaret patron, whom Dietrich "outrages with a kiss." Dietrich's costume simultaneously mocks the pretensions of one lover (Menjou's La Bessière) and serves as an invitation to a handsome soldier-of-fortune (Cooper's Tom Brown)... [Sternberg's] contrasting conceptions of masculinity."  This famous sequence provides an insight into Dietrich's character, Amy Jolly, as well as the director himself: "Dietrich's impersonation is an adventure, an act of bravado that subtly alters her conception of herself as a woman, and what begins as self-expression ends in self-sacrifice, perhaps the path also of Sternberg as an artist."

La Bessière's humiliation.

Dietrich's devoted swain, Menjou's La Bessiere, "part stoic, part sybarite, part satanist", is destined to lose the object of his desire. The La Bessiere character has autobiographical overtones for Sternberg (Menjou has looks and mannerisms that resemble the director).  Critic Andrew Sarris observes, "Sternberg has never been as close to any character as he is to this elegant expatriate..." Menjou's response to Dietrich's desertion reveals the nature of the man and presents a key thematic element of the film:

Dietrich's high-heeled march into the dunes.

The "absurdity" of the closing sequence, in which Dietrich, "sets out into the desert sands on spike heels in search of Gary Cooper", was noted by critics at the time of the film's release. The image, however odd, is part of the "dream décor" that abandoned "documentary certification" to create "a world of illusions." As Sarris points out, "The complaint that a woman in high heels would not walk off into the desert is nonetheless meaningless. A dream does not require endurance, only the will to act."  Film historian Charles Silver considers the final scene as one that "no artist today would dare attempt":

Awards and nominations.

The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

Morocco is a 1930 American pre-Code romantic drama film directed by Josef von Sternberg and starring Gary Cooper, Marlene Dietrich, and Adolphe Menjou. Based on the novel "Amy Jolly" (the on-screen credits state, "From the play 'Amy Jolly'") by Benno Vigny and adapted by Jules Furthman, the film is about a cabaret singer and a Legionnaire who fall in love during the Rif War, but their relationship is complicated by his womanizing and the appearance of a rich man who is also in love with her. The film is most famous for the scene in which Dietrich performs a song dressed in a man's tailcoat and kisses another woman (to the embarrassment of the latter), both of which were rather scandalous for the period.

Cœurs brûlés (titre original : "Morocco") est un film américain réalisé par Josef von Sternberg, sorti en 1930. Après "L'Ange bleu", "Morocco" est le deuxième film qui réunit le couple Marlene Dietrich / Josef von Sternberg. Ce film fut le Ier à étre doublé en français.


Description.

"Banksia conferta" is a shrub that typically grows to a height of but does not form a lignotuber. It has rough, grey, tessellated bark on the trunk and orange, red or brown stems that are hairy at first. The leaves are arranged in whorls and are elliptic to egg-shaped with the narrower end towards the base, long and wide with the edges curved downwards and sometimes serrated. The flowers are crowded in a cylindrical spike long with involucral bracts long at the base. The flowers are yellowish green to pinkish brown in the bud stage, turning golden yellow when open. The perianth is long and the pistil is long and slightly curved. Flowering occurs from late April to July and the fruit is a narrow elliptical follicle long, high and wide. More than 100 follicles often form in each spike, surrounded by the remains of the flowers. The follicles remain until the plant is burned, unlike those of the similar "B. integrifolia" which also has less crowded flowers.

Taxonomy and naming.

"Banksia conferta" was first formally described in 1981 by Alex George in the journal "Nuytsia" from specimens he collected from Mount Tibrogargan in the Glass House Mountains National Park in 1975. The specific epithet ("conferta") is a Latin word meaning "crowded".  In the same journal, George described variety "conferta" and var. "penicillata", and in 1996 he described subspecies "conferta" and subsp. "penicillata". He described subsp. "conferta" as being found in southern Queensland on the Lamington Plateau and the Glass House Mountains and subsp. "penicillata" from Bowral to north of Lithgow in New South Wales.  In 1996, Kevin Thiele raised subsp. "penicillata" to species status as "B. penicillata" in "Australian Systematic Botany", so that var. "conferta" and subsp. "conferta" became synonyms" of "B. conferta".

Distribution and habitat.

This banksia is known from the Lamington Plateau and the Glass House Mountains in southern Queensland where it grows on steep rocky slopes in scrub and open shrubland. As subspecies "conferta", it also occurs in the Coorabakh National Park in New South Wales where is listed as "critically endangered" under the "Threatened Species Conservation Act" in that state.

Banksia conferta, commonly known as the glasshouse banksia, is a species of shrub that is endemic to eastern Australia. It has rough, bark on the trunk, elliptic to egg-shaped leaves arranged in whorls, crowded yellow flowers in a cylindrical spike later forming a relatively large number of follicles.

Banksia conferta, le Banksia de Glasshouse, est une espèce de plante du genre "Banksia", famille des "Proteaceae". Il s'agit d'arbustes ou de petits arbres endémiques d'Australie.


Venus mission.

The descent module arrived at Venus on 11 June 1985, two days after being released from the Vega 1 flyby probe. The module, a 1500 kg, 240 cm diameter sphere, contained a surface lander and a balloon explorer. The flyby probe performed a gravitational assist maneuver using Venus, and continued its mission to intercept the comet.

Descent craft.

The surface lander was identical to that of Vega 2 as well as the previous six "Venera" missions. The objective of the probe was the study of the atmosphere and the exposed surface of the planet. The scientific payload included an ultraviolet spectrometer, temperature and pressure sensors, a water concentration meter, a gas-phase chromatograph, an X-ray spectrometer, a mass spectrometer, and a surface sampling device. Since the probe made a nighttime landing, no images were taken. Several of these scientific tools (the UV spectrometer, the mass spectrograph, and the devices to measure pressure and temperature) were developed in collaboration with French scientists.  The lander successfully touched down at in the Mermaid Plain north of Aphrodite Terra. Due to excessive turbulence, some surface experiments were inadvertently activated 20 km above the surface. Only the mass spectrometer was able to return data.

Balloon.

The Vega 1 Lander/Balloon capsule entered the Venus atmosphere (125 km altitude) at 2:06:10 UT (Earth received time; Moscow time 5:06:10 a.m.) on 11 June 1985 at roughly 11 km/s. At approximately 2:06:25 UT the parachute attached to the landing craft cap opened at an altitude of 64 km. The cap and parachute were released 15 seconds later at 63 km altitude. The balloon package was pulled out of its compartment by parachute 40 seconds later at 61 km altitude, at 8.1 degrees N, 176.9 degrees east. A second parachute opened at an altitude of 55 km, 200 seconds after entry, extracting the furled balloon. The balloon was inflated 100 seconds later at 54 km and the parachute and inflation system were jettisoned. The ballast was jettisoned when the balloon reached roughly 50 km and the balloon floated back to a stable height between 53 and 54 km some 15 to 25 minutes after entry.  The mean stable height was 53.6 km, with a pressure of 535 mbar and a temperature of 300–310 K in the middle, most active layer of the Venus three-tiered cloud system. The balloon drifted westward in the zonal wind flow with an average speed of about 69 m/s (248 km/hr) at nearly constant latitude. The probe crossed the terminator from night to day at 12:20 UT on 12 June after traversing 8500 km. The probe continued to operate in the daytime until the final transmission was received at 00:38 UT on 13 June from 8.1 N, 68.8 E after a total traverse distance of 11,600 km or about 30% of the circumference of the planet. It is not known how much farther the balloon traveled after the final communication.

Halley mission.

After their encounters, the Vegas' motherships used the gravity of Venus, also known as a gravity assist, to intercept Halley's Comet.  Images started to be returned on 4 March 1986, and were used to help pinpoint Giotto's close flyby of the comet. The early images from Vega showed two bright areas on the comet, which were initially interpreted as a double nucleus. The bright areas would later turn out to be two jets emitting from the comet. The images also showed the nucleus to be dark, and the infrared spectrometer readings measured a nucleus temperature of 300 K to 400 K, much warmer than expected for an ice body. The conclusion was that the comet had a thin layer on its surface covering an icy body.  Vega 1 made its closest approach on 6 March at around 8,889 kilometers (at 07:20:06 UT) of the nucleus. It took more than 500 pictures via different filters as it flew through the gas cloud around the coma. Although the spacecraft was battered by dust, none of the instruments were disabled during the encounter.  The data intensive examination of the comet covered only the three hours around closest approach. They were intended to measure the physical parameters of the nucleus, such as dimensions, shape, temperature and surface properties, as well as to study the structure and dynamics of the coma, the gas composition close to the nucleus, the dust particles' composition and mass distribution as functions of distance to the nucleus and the cometary-solar wind interaction.  The Vega images showed the nucleus to be about 14 km long with a rotation period of about 53 hours. The dust mass spectrometer detected material similar to the composition of carbonaceous chondrites meteorites and also detected clathrate ice.  After subsequent imaging sessions on 7 and 8 March 1986, Vega 1 headed out to deep space. In total Vega 1 and Vega 2 returned about 1500 images of Comet Halley. Vega 1 ran out of attitude control propellant on 30 January 1987, and contact with Vega 2 continued until 24 March 1987.  Vega 1 is currently in heliocentric orbit, with perihelion of 0.70 AU, aphelion of 0.98 AU, eccentricity of 0.17, inclination of 2.3 degrees and orbital period of 281 days.

Vega 1 (along with its twin Vega 2) is a Soviet space probe, part of the Vega program. The spacecraft was a development of the earlier "Venera" craft. They were designed by Babakin Space Centre and constructed as 5VK by Lavochkin at Khimki. The name VeGa (ВеГа) combines the first two letters Russian words for Venus (Венера: "Venera") and Halley (Галлея: "Galleya").

Vega 1 et 2 étaient des vaisseaux sœurs soviétiques développés à partir du programme Venera. La mission comprenait l'envoi d'un atterrisseur et d'un ballon sur Vénus et l'étude de la comète de Halley.


Time periods in Jewish history.

The history of the Jews and Judaism can be divided into five periods: (1) ancient Israel before Judaism, from the beginnings to 586 BCE; (2) the beginning of Judaism in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE; (3) the formation of rabbinic Judaism

Ancient Jewish history (c. 1500 BCE – 63 BCE).

Ancient Israelites (until c. 586 BCE).

The history of the early Jews, and their neighbors, centers on the Fertile Crescent and east coast of the Mediterranean Sea. It begins among those people who occupied the area lying between the river Nile and Mesopotamia. Surrounded by ancient seats of culture in Egypt and Babylonia, by the deserts of Arabia, and by the highlands of Asia Minor, the land of Canaan (roughly corresponding to modern Israel, the Palestinian Territories, Jordan and Lebanon) was a meeting place of civilizations.  According to the Hebrew Bible, Jews descend from the ancient people of Israel who settled in the land of Canaan between the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The Hebrew Bible refers to the "Children

Babylonian captivity (c. 587 – 538 BCE).

After revolting against the new dominant power and an ensuing siege, the Kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Babylonian army in 587 BCE and the First Temple was destroyed. The elite of the kingdom and many of their people were exiled to Babylon, where the religion developed outside their traditional temple. Others fled to Egypt. After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia (modern day Iraq), would become the focus of Judaism for some fourteen-hundred years. The first Judahite communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by Jehoiachin in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the center of Jewish life all the way up to the 11th century, when

Post-exilic period (c. 538 – 332 BCE).

Following their return to Jerusalem after the return from the exile, and with Persian approval and financing, construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE under the leadership of the last three Jewish Prophets Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.  After the death

Hellenistic period (c. 332 – 110 BCE).

In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great of Macedon defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the Seleucid Kingdom was formed.  The Alexandrian conquests spread

The Hasmonean Kingdom (110–63 BCE).

A deterioration of relations between Hellenized Jews and other Jews led the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes to issue decrees banning certain Jewish religious rites and traditions. Subsequently, some of the nonhellenized Jews revolted under the leadership of the Hasmonean family (also known as the Maccabees). This revolt eventually led to the

Roman rule in the land of Israel (63 BCE – 324 CE).

Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmoneans, but was conquered by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE and reorganized as a client state. Roman expansion was going on in other areas as well, and would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, Herod the Great was appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate, supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as the Herodian dynasty. Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, Herod Archelaus ruled the tetrarchy of Judea as ethnarch, the Romans denying him the title of King. After the Census of Quirinius in 6 CE, the Roman province of Judaea was formed as a satellite of Roman Syria under the rule of a prefect (as was Roman Egypt) until 41 CE, then procurators after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see Anti-Judaism in the pre-Christian Roman Empire). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), Jesus of Nazareth, an itinerant rabbi from Galilee, and the central figure of Christianity, was put to death by crucifixion in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of Judaea, Pontius Pilate. In 66 CE, the Jews began to revolt against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was defeated by the future Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. In the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Romans destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem and, according to some accounts, plundered artifacts from the temple, such as the Menorah. Jews continued to live in their land in significant numbers, the Kitos War of 115–117 CE notwithstanding, until Julius Severus ravaged Judea while putting down the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 CE. 985 villages were destroyed and most of the Jewish population of central Judaea was essentially wiped out, killed, sold into slavery, or forced to flee. Banished from Jerusalem, except for the day of Tisha B'Av, the Jewish population now centred on Galilee and initially in Yavne. Jerusalem was renamed Aelia Capitolina and Judea was renamed Syria Palestina, to spite the Jews by naming it after their ancient enemies, the Philistines. Jews were only allowed to visit Aelia Capitolina on the day of Tisha B'Av.

The diaspora.

The Jewish diaspora began during the Assyrian conquest and it continued on a much larger scale during the Babylonian conquest, during which the Tribe of Judah was exiled to Babylonia along with the dethroned King of Judah, Jehoiachin, in the 6th century BCE, and taken into captivity in 597 BCE. The exile continued after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the Bar Kokhba revolt and in the centuries after.  Many of the Judaean Jews were sold into slavery while

The diaspora community in India.

Cochin Jewish tradition holds that the roots of their community go back to the arrival of Jews at Shingly in 72 CE., after the Destruction of the Second Temple. It also states that a Jewish kingdom, understood to

Late Roman period in the Land of Israel.

The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. Constantine I allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on Tisha B'Av at the Western Wall. In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched yet another revolt, provoking heavy retribution. The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the Constantinian dynasty. In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the

Middle Ages.

Jews of Babylonia (219–1250 CE).

After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia (modern day Iraq) would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by Jehoiachin in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the Bar Kokhba revolt and in the centuries after. Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the center of Jewish life all the way up to the 13th century. By the first century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million

Byzantine period (324–638 CE).

Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and caesaropapism of the Byzantine Empire did not treat Jews well, and the condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically.  It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity, and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their Governor, Constantius Gallus. Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where the revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered.  In this period, the Nasi in Tiberias, Hillel II, created an official calendar,

Islamic period (638–1099).

In 638 CE the Byzantine Empire lost control of the Levant. The Arab Islamic Empire under Caliph Omar conquered Jerusalem and the lands of Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt. As a political system, Islam created radically new conditions for Jewish economic, social, and intellectual development. Caliph Omar permitted the Jews to reestablish their presence in Jerusalem–after a lapse of 500 years. Jewish tradition regards Caliph Omar as a benevolent ruler and the Midrash (Nistarot de-Rav Shimon bar Yoḥai) refers to

Jewish Golden Age in early Muslim Spain (711–1031).

The Golden Age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the Middle Ages in Europe, a period of Muslim rule throughout much of the Iberian Peninsula. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.  A period of tolerance thus dawned for the Jews of the Iberian Peninsula, whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest. Especially after 912, during the reign of Abd-ar-Rahman III and his son, Al-Hakam II, the Jews prospered, devoting themselves to the service of the Caliphate of Cordoba, to the study of the sciences, and to commerce and industry, especially

Crusaders period (1099–1260).

Sermonical messages to avenge the death of Jesus encouraged Christians to participate in the Crusades. The twelfth century Jewish narration from R. Solomon ben Samson records that crusaders en route to the Holy Land decided that before combating the Ishmaelites they would massacre the Jews residing in their midst to avenge the crucifixion of Christ. The massacres began at Rouen and Jewish communities in Rhine Valley were seriously affected.  Crusading attacks were made upon Jews in the territory around Heidelberg. A huge loss of Jewish life took place. Many were forcibly converted to Christianity and many committed suicide to avoid baptism. A

Mamluk period (1260–1517).

In the years 1260–1516, the land of Israel was part of the Empire of the Mamluks, who ruled first from Turkey, then from Egypt. The period was characterized by war, uprisings, bloodshed and destruction. Jews suffered persecution and humiliation, but the surviving records note at least 30 Jewish urban and rural communities at the opening of the 16th century.  Nahmanides is recorded as settling in the Old City of Jerusalem in 1267. He moved to Acre, where he was active in spreading Jewish learning, which was at that time neglected in the Holy Land. He gathered a circle of pupils around him, and people came in crowds, even from the district of the Euphrates, to hear him. Karaites were said to have attended his lectures,

Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East.

During the Middle Ages, Jews were generally better treated by Islamic rulers than Christian ones. Despite second-class citizenship, Jews played prominent roles in Muslim courts, and experienced a "Golden Age" in Moorish Spain about 900–1100, though the situation deteriorated after that time. Riots resulting in the deaths of Jews did however occur in North Africa through the centuries and especially in Morocco, Libya and Algeria, where eventually Jews were forced to live in ghettos.  During the 11th century, Muslims in Spain conducted pogroms

Europe.

According to the American writer James Carroll, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."  Jewish populations have existed in Europe, especially in the area of the former Roman Empire, from very early times. As Jewish males had emigrated, some sometimes took wives from local populations, as is shown by the various MtDNA, compared to Y-DNA among Jewish populations. These groups were joined by traders and later on by members of the diaspora. Records

Early Modern period.

Historians who study modern Jewry have identified four different paths by which European Jews were "modernized" and thus integrated into the mainstream of European society. A common approach has been to view the process through the lens of the European Enlightenment as Jews faced the promise and the challenges posed by political emancipation. Scholars that use this approach have focused on two social types as paradigms for the decline of Jewish tradition and as agents of the sea changes in Jewish culture that led to the collapse of the ghetto. The first of these two social types is the Court Jew who is portrayed as a forerunner of the modern Jew, having achieved integration with and participation in the proto-capitalist economy and court society of central European states such as the Habsburg Empire. In contrast to the cosmopolitan Court Jew, the second social type presented by historians of modern Jewry is the "maskil", (learned person), a proponent of the Haskalah (Enlightenment). This narrative sees the maskil's pursuit of secular scholarship and his rationalistic critiques of rabbinic tradition as laying a durable intellectual foundation for the secularization of Jewish society and culture. The established paradigm has been one in which Ashkenazic Jews entered modernity through a self-conscious process of westernization led by "highly atypical, Germanized Jewish intellectuals". Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of Zionism while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided. At around the same time that Haskalah was developing, Hasidic Judaism was spreading as a movement that preached a world view almost opposed to the Haskalah.  In the 1990s, the concept of the "Port Jew" has been suggested as an "alternate path to modernity" that was distinct from the European Haskalah. In contrast to the focus on Ashkenazic Germanized Jews, the concept of the Port Jew focused on the Sephardi conversos who fled the Inquisition and resettled in European port towns on the coast of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic and the Eastern seaboard of the United States.

Court Jew.

Court Jews were Jewish bankers or businessmen who lent money and handled the finances of some of the Christian European noble houses. Corresponding historical terms are "Jewish bailiff" and "shtadlan".  Examples of what would be later called court Jews emerged when local rulers used services of Jewish bankers for short-term loans. They lent money to nobles and in the process gained social influence. Noble patrons of court Jews employed them as financiers, suppliers, diplomats and trade delegates. Court Jews could use their family connections, and connections between each other, to provision their sponsors with, among other things, food, arms, ammunition and precious

Spain and Portugal.

Significant repression of Spain's numerous community occurred during the 14th century, notably a major pogrom in 1391 which resulted in the majority of Spain's 300,000 Jews converting to Catholicism. With the conquest of the Muslim Kingdom of Granada in 1492, the Catholic monarchs issued the Alhambra Decree whereby Spain's remaining 100,000 Jews were forced to choose between conversion and exile. As a result, an estimated 50,000 to 70,000 Jews left Spain,

Port Jew.

The Port Jew describes Jews who were involved in the seafaring and maritime economy of Europe, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries. Helen Fry suggests that they could be considered to have been "the earliest modern Jews". According to Fry, Port Jews often arrived as "refugees from the Inquisition" and the expulsion of Jews from Iberia. They were allowed to settle in port cities

Ottoman Empire.

During the Classical Ottoman period (1300–1600), the Jews, together with most other communities of the empire, enjoyed a certain level of prosperity. Compared with other Ottoman subjects, they were the predominant power in commerce and trade as well in diplomacy and other high offices. In the 16th century especially, the Jews were the most prominent under the "millets", the apogee of Jewish influence could arguably be the appointment of Joseph Nasi to Sanjak-bey ("governor", a rank usually only bestowed upon Muslims) of the island of Naxos.  At the time of the Battle of Yarmuk when the Levant passed under Muslim Rule, thirty Jewish communities existed in Haifa, Sh’chem, Hebron, Ramleh, Gaza, Jerusalem, and many in the north. Safed became a spiritual centre for the Jews and the Shulchan Aruch was compiled

Poland-Lithuania.

In the 17th century, there were many significant Jewish populations in Western Europe. The relatively tolerant Poland had the largest Jewish population in Europe that dated back to 13th century and enjoyed relative prosperity and freedom for nearly four hundred years; however the calm situation there ended when Polish and Lithuanian Jews were slaughtered in the hundreds of thousands by

The European Enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century).

During the period of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, significant changes occurred within the Jewish community. The Haskalah movement paralleled the wider Enlightenment, as Jews in the 18th century began to campaign for emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history and Hebrew, started to grow. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative movements and planted the seeds of Zionism while at the same time encouraging cultural assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided. At around the same time another movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, Hasidic Judaism. Hasidic Judaism began in the 18th century by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov, and quickly gained a following

Hasidic Judaism.

Hasidic Judaism is a branch of Orthodox Judaism that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalisation of Jewish mysticism as the fundamental aspects of the Jewish faith. Hasidism comprises part of contemporary Ultra-Orthodox Judaism, alongside the previous Talmudic Lithuanian-Yeshiva approach and the Oriental Sephardi tradition.  It was founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov as a reaction against overly legalistic Judaism. Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the

19th century.

Though persecution still existed, emancipation spread throughout Europe in the 19th century. Napoleon invited Jews to leave the Jewish ghettos in Europe and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under Napoleonic Law (see Napoleon and the Jews). By 1871, with Germany's emancipation of Jews, every European country except Russia had emancipated its Jews.  Despite increasing integration of the Jews with secular society, a new form of anti-Semitism emerged, based on the ideas of race and nationhood rather than the religious hatred of the Middle Ages. This form of anti-Semitism held that Jews were

20th century.

Modern Zionism.

During the 1870s and 1880s the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss immigration back to Israel and the re-establishment of the Jewish Nation in its national homeland, fulfilling the biblical prophecies relating to Shivat Tzion. In 1882 the first Zionist settlement—Rishon LeZion—was founded by immigrants who belonged to the "Hovevei Zion" movement. Later on, the "Bilu" movement established many other settlements in the land of Israel.  The Zionist movement was founded officially after the Kattowitz convention (1884) and the World Zionist Congress (1897), and it was Theodor Herzl who began the struggle to establish a state for the Jews.  After the First World War, it seemed that the conditions to establish such a state had arrived: The United Kingdom captured Palestine from the Ottoman Empire, and the Jews received the promise of a "National Home" from the British in the form of the Balfour Declaration of 1917, given to Chaim Weizmann.  In 1920 the British Mandate of Palestine began and the pro-Jewish

The Holocaust.

In 1933, with the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party in Germany, the Jewish situation became more severe. Economic crises, racial Anti-Jewish laws, and a fear of an upcoming war led many Jews to flee from Europe to Palestine, to the United States and to the Soviet Union.  In 1939 World War II began and until 1941 Hitler occupied almost all of Europe, including Poland—where millions of Jews were living at that time—and France. In 1941, following the invasion of the

The establishment of the State of Israel.

In 1945 the Jewish resistance organizations in Palestine unified and established the Jewish Resistance Movement. The movement began attacking the British authority. Following the King David Hotel bombing, Chaim Weizmann, president of the WZO appealed to the movement to cease all further military activity until a decision would be reached by the Jewish Agency. The Jewish Agency backed Weizmann's recommendation to cease activities, a decision reluctantly accepted by the Haganah, but not by the Irgun and the Lehi. The JRM was dismantled and each of the founding groups continued operating according to their own policy.  The Jewish leadership decided to center the struggle in the illegal immigration to Palestine and began organizing a massive number of Jewish war refugees from Europe, without the approval of the British authorities. This immigration contributed a great deal to the Jewish settlements in Israel in the world public opinion and the British authorities decided to let the United

21st century.

Israel is a parliamentary democracy with a population of over 8 million people, of whom about 6 million are Jewish. The largest Jewish communities are in Israel and the United States, with major communities in France, Argentina, Russia, England, and Canada. For statistics related to modern Jewish demographics see "Jewish population".  The Jewish Autonomous Oblast, created during the Soviet period, continues to be an autonomous oblast

Jewish history by country or region.

For historical and contemporary Jewish populations by country, see Jews by country.

Jewish history is the history of the Jews, and their nation, religion and culture, as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions and cultures. Although Judaism as a religion first appears in Greek records during the Hellenistic period (323 BCE – 31 BCE) and the earliest mention of Israel is inscribed on the Merneptah Stele dated 1213–1203 BCE, religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as c. 1500 BCE. The Jewish diaspora began with the Assyrian captivity and continued on a much larger scale with the Babylonian captivity. Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. In 638 CE the Byzantine Empire lost control of the Levant. The Arab Islamic Empire under Caliph Omar conquered Jerusalem and the lands of Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt. The Golden Age of Jewish culture in Spain coincided with the Middle Ages in Europe, a period of Muslim rule throughout much of the Iberian Peninsula. During that time, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed.

L'histoire du peuple juif est l'histoire des Juifs ou peuple d’Israël qui s'étend sur plus de, de -1200 à nos jours. La première mention de son existence hors contexte biblique apparaît sur la stèle de Mérenptah au Selon la tradition juive, ses racines remontent aux patriarches Abraham, Isaac et Jacob également appelé Israël.


Open event.

The open division was contested by 110 teams representing 106 nations. Russia, as hosts, fielded an unprecedented four teams (Russia "C" was referred to as "Team Kalmykia" and Russia "D" was a youth team), whilst the International Braille Chess Association provided one squad.  Even without their strongest players, the "Three Ks" (PCA world champion Garry Kasparov, FIDE champion Anatoly Karpov and Vladimir Kramnik), Russia were still favourites, and the team did win their fourth consecutive title. The United States improved another spot from the previous Olympiad and finished second, and Ukraine took the bronze medals, beating Israel on tiebreak.

Women's results.

The women's division was contested by 72 teams representing 69 nations. Russia, as hosts, fielded three teams, whilst the International Braille Chess Association entered one squad.  China finally broke the Eastern European dominance by winning the title, led by former (and future) world champion Xie Jun and future champion Zhu Chen. Russia took the silver, whilst defending quadruple champions Georgia had to settle for bronze.

Overall title.

The Nona Gaprindashvili Trophy is awarded to the nation that has the best average rank in the open and women's divisions. Where two or more teams are tied, they are ordered by best single finish in either division and then by total number of points scored.  The trophy, named after the former women's world champion (1961–78), was created by FIDE in 1997 and awarded for the first time in Elista.

The 33rd Chess Olympiad, organized by FIDE and comprising an open and a women's tournament, took place between September 26 and October 13, 1998, in Elista, Kalmykia, Russia. There were 110 teams in the open event and 72 in the women's event.

L'Olympiade d'échecs de 1998 est une compétition mondiale par équipes et par pays organisée par la FIDE. Les pays s'affrontent sur 4 échiquiers par équipe de 6 joueurs (4 titulaires et 2 suppléants). Les équipes féminines ont 4 joueuses sur 3 échiquiers.


Early life and education.

Lander was born in Brooklyn, New York, and raised in a Jewish family, the son of Harold and Rhoda Lander who were both lawyers. He was captain of the math team at Stuyvesant High School and an International Mathematical Olympiad Silver Medalist for the United States, graduating from high school in 1974. He attended and later taught at the Hampshire College Summer Studies in Mathematics program. At the age of seventeen, he wrote a paper on quasiperfect numbers for which he won the Westinghouse Science Talent Search.  Lander attended Princeton University, where he graduated in 1978 as valedictorian. He completed his senior thesis, titled "On the structure of projective modules", under supervision of John Coleman Moore. He then attended the University of Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar, and he wrote his Doctor of Philosophy thesis on algebraic coding theory and symmetric block designs, under the supervision of Peter Cameron.

Career.

Early mathematical career.

As a mathematician, Lander studied combinatorics and applications of representation theory to coding theory. He enjoyed mathematics, but did not wish to spend his life in such a "monastic" career. Unsure of what to do next, he took up a job teaching managerial economics at Harvard Business School; Lander also began writing a book on information theory. At the suggestion of his brother, developmental biologist Arthur Lander, he started to look at neurobiology "because there's a lot of information in the brain." In order to understand mathematical neurobiology, he felt he had to study cellular neurobiology; in turn, this led to studying microbiology and eventually, genetics. "When I finally feel I have learned genetics, I should get back to these other problems. But I'm still trying to get the genetics right."  He later became acquainted with David Botstein, a geneticist working at MIT. Botstein was working on a way to unravel how subtle differences in complex genetic systems can become disorders like cancer, diabetes, schizophrenia, and even obesity. The two collaborated to develop a computer algorithm to analyze the maps of genes. Lander then joined the Whitehead Institute in 1986; that same year, he became an assistant professor at MIT. Lander was awarded the prestigious MacArthur Fellowship in 1987. In 1990, he founded the Whitehead Institute/MIT Center for Genome Research (WICGR). The WICGR became one of the world's leading centers of genome research, and under Lander's leadership, it made great progress in developing new methods of analyzing mammalian genomes. It also made important breakthroughs in applying this information to the study of human genetic variation, and formed the basis for the foundation of the Broad Institute—a transformation that Lander spearheaded.

Contributions to genomics.

There were two main groups attempting to sequence the human genome: the first was the Human Genome Project (HGP), a publicly funded effort that intended to publish the information it obtained freely and without restrictions. Many research groups from countries all over the world were involved in this collaborative effort. The second effort was undertaken by Celera Genomics, which intended to patent the information obtained and charge subscriptions for use of the sequence data. (Celera has since abandoned this policy and has donated large amounts of sequence information for free public use.) Established first, the HGP moved slowly in the early phases of research as the role of the Department of Energy was unclear and sequencing technology was in its infancy. When Celera entered the race to discover the genome, the pressure was on the HGP to establish as much of the genome in the public domain as quickly as possible. This was a change of strategy for the HGP, because many scientists at the time wanted a more complete copy of the genome. Along with other members of the HGP, Lander pushed for quicker discovery so that genes would not be discovered and patented by Celera first.  In 2001, a draft of the human genome was published in the journal "Nature". The Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Center for Genome Research, was listed first (the order was according to total genomic sequence contributed). Lander was the first author named.  The WICGR has also made a leading contribution to the sequencing of the mouse genome. Aside from academic interest this is an important step in fully understanding the molecular biology of mice which are often used as model organisms in studies of everything from human diseases to embryonic development. Increased understanding of mice will thus facilitate many areas of research. The WICGR has also sequenced the genomes of "Ciona savignyi" (sea squirt), the pufferfish, the filamentous fungus "Neurospora crassa", and multiple relatives of "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", one of the most studied yeasts. The "Ciona savignyi" genome provides a good system for exploring the evolutionary origins of all vertebrates. Pufferfish have smaller-sized genomes compared to other vertebrates; as a result, their genomes are "mini" models for vertebrates. The sequencing of the yeasts related to "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" will ease the identification of key gene regulatory elements some of which may be common to all eukaryotes (including both plant and animal kingdoms).

Beyond genomics.

Sequence data is just that: a list of bases found in a given stretch of DNA. Its value lies in the discoveries and new technologies it allows. In Lander's case, one of these applications is the study of disease. He is the founder and director of the Broad Institute, a collaboration between MIT, Harvard, the Whitehead institute and affiliated hospitals. Its goal is "to create tools for genome medicine and make them broadly available to the scientific community; to apply these tools to propel the understanding and treatment of disease". To this end they are studying the variation in the human genome and have led an international effort which has assembled a library of 2.1 million single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP). These act as markers or signposts in the genome allowing the identification of disease susceptibility genes. They hope to construct a map of the human genome using blocks of these SNP called Linkage disequilibrium or LD. This map will be of significant help in medical genetics. It will allow researchers to link a given condition to a given gene or set of genes using the LD as a marker. This will allow for improved diagnostic procedures. Lander and his colleagues are hoping the LD map will allow them to test the Common Disease-Common Variant hypothesis which states that many common diseases may be caused by a small number of common alleles, for example 50% of the variance in susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease is explained by the common allele ApoE4. Lander's group have recently discovered an important association that accounts for a large proportion of population risk for adult onset diabetes.  Lander's most important work may be his development of a molecular taxonomy for cancers. The cancers are grouped according to gene expression and information like their response to chemotherapy is collected for each group. The division of cancers into homogeneous subgroups will allow increased understanding of the molecular origins of these cancers and aid the design of more effective therapies. They have also identified a new type of leukemia called MLL and have identified a gene which may serve as a target for a new drug.

Teaching.

In addition to his research, he has for several years co-taught MIT's required undergraduate introductory biology course (7.012) with Robert Weinberg. Since 2013, he is also teaching 2 online courses named "Quantitative Biology Workshop" and "7.00x Introduction to Biology - The Secret of Life" via the EdX platform by working together with the MITx Bio group headed by Mary Ellen Wiltrout.

Translational ventures.

Lander is a founding advisor of Foundation Medicine, a company that aims to bring comprehensive cancer genomic analysis to routine clinical care. He is also a co-founder of Verastem, biopharmaceutical company focused on discovering and developing drugs to treat cancer by targeting cancer stem cells.

Forensic Science and Criminal Justice.

In 1989, Lander provided expert testimony in a criminal case: "People v. Castro" in New York. He showed that the then-current method of interpreting DNA evidence was flawed, and liable to give false positive matches, implicating innocent defendants. Two of the defense lawyers in that case, Peter Neufeld and Barry Scheck, went on to found the Innocence Project, an organization which uses DNA analysis to exonerate wrongly-convicted prisoners. Lander is a member of the board of directors.

Media appearances.

Lander was named one of "Time" magazine's 100 most influential people of our time (2004) for his work on the HGP. Lander has also appeared in numerous PBS documentaries about genetics. He was listed at #2 on the MIT150 list of the top 150 innovators and ideas from MIT.  He was also seen in the legendary MIT Gangnam Style video  He has narrated a fantastic story about why he teaches on the MOTH stories

Recognition and service.

In 1999, Lander received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.  In December 2008, he was named, along with Harold E. Varmus, one of the co-chairs of the Council of Advisors on Science and Technology in the Obama administration. In 2012 he was awarded the Dan David Prize.  Lander is also a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Advisory Board.  In 2013, Lander was awarded the Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences.  On February 6, 2017, Lander received a "honoris causa" doctorate from the Université catholique de Louvain.  In 2017 he also received the William Allan Award from the American Society of Human Genetics.  On May 25, 2020, Pope Francis appointed him a member of the Pontifical Academy of Science.

Cathinone (also known as benzoylethanamine, or β-keto-amphetamine) is a monoamine alkaloid found in the shrub "Catha edulis" (khat) and is chemically similar to ephedrine, cathine, methcathinone and other amphetamines. It is probably the main contributor to the stimulant effect of "Catha edulis". Cathinone differs from many other amphetamines in that it has a ketone functional group. Other phenethylamines that share this structure include the stimulants methcathinone, MDPV, mephedrone and the antidepressant bupropion.

La cathinone ou β-kéto-amphétamine est un alcaloïde sympathicomimétique provenant des feuilles du "khat" ("Catha edulis"), un arbuste africain, dont elle constitue le principe actif. Elle possède des caractéristiques proches de celles des amphétamines.


Early years.

Gold was born in Kansas City, Missouri, as Jamie M. Usher and moved to Manhattan as a young child with his mother. His name was later changed by court order to Jamie M. Gold following his mother's divorce and remarriage to Dr. Robert Gold. The family moved to Paramus, New Jersey, where Gold was raised by his mother and her second husband. He graduated from Paramus High School in 1987. He later earned a bachelor's degree from the State University of New York at Albany in 1991, and studied entertainment law at UCLA.

Entertainment business.

At the age of 16, Gold began his career in the entertainment business as an intern at the J. Michael Bloom & Associates Talent Agency. He became a talent agent before he was 21, but soon moved into management/production. Gold's clients have included Jimmy Fallon and others.  In 2014, Jamie Gold was part of the launch of the "Island Breeze", a refurbished ship turned into a casino off the coast of Palm Beach, USA. He lent his name to the poker table, where he did play. However, the company ran into technical issues and shut down after 2 years.

Philanthropy.

For 10 years, Jamie Gold focused on philanthropy, and raised over half a billion dollars. He has hosted or worked closely on close to 300 celebrity charity events.  Gold has also participated in numerous poker tournaments that have been designed primarily to benefit charitable causes. Allowing himself to be auctioned off, making special appearances, or by purchasing buy-ins, Gold has been involved with a wide variety of causes, including WSOP “Ante Up For Africa”, Annie Duke's charity poker tournament, and a few others. He has also mentioned in several recent interviews his plans to create a charity poker tournament to benefit people affected with Lou Gehrig’s disease.

Poker.

Gold's interest in poker began as a youngster. His mother, Jane, was a keen poker player, and his grandfather was a champion gin rummy player. Gold's most serious efforts to improve his recreational poker exploits came about when he began working with former WSOP main event winners Johnny Chan and Chris Moneymaker on an upcoming television show, and Chan began to mentor Gold in poker. In 2005, Gold began regularly playing in poker tournaments. In April 2005 at the Bicycle Casino, he won his first major no limit Texas hold 'em tournament, earning $54,225. Over the next 12 months, Gold had seven more in the money finishes in California tournaments. A neighbor of 2000 WSOP main event winner Chris Ferguson, Gold has said in numerous interviews that Ferguson was one of the few professionals to endorse his poker style during the 2006 main event tournament, which he eventually won. While many pros criticized Gold's play in the later stages of the tournament, Ferguson urged him to stick with his own perfected style as he progressed deep into the money. Gold favored pressuring all of the players at the table especially when playing in position (being among the last to act in a betting round). "Bluff magazine", a major poker trade publication has analyzed Gold’s winning poker strategies as follows: “He forced his tablemates to risk their entire stack time after time. If they reraised him, he either knew they were holding the nuts and folded, or he sniffed out a bluff and forced them all in,” thus "he transformed this strategy into an art form."

2006 World Series of Poker.

At the 2006 WSOP, Gold maintained a significant chip lead from Day 4 onwards to win the World Series of Poker Main Event (No Limit Texas hold 'em, $10,000 buy-in), outlasting 8,772 other players. Excluding 4th-place finisher Allen Cunningham, Gold had more casino tournament final table finishes than the rest of his final table opponents combined. Gold eliminated 7 of his 8 opponents at the final table. Gold defeated Paul Wasicka heads-up, earning a record $12,000,000 when in the final hand his made a pair with the board of. Wasicka held and did not improve with the on the turn and on the river. Gold won the event despite earlier saying that he would prefer to finish second as he felt uncomfortable with the idea of being famous. Gold ate blueberries during the play of the 2006 WSOP main event final table and joked in a post-tournament interview that the blueberries were "brain food" and the reason he won. Gold's WSOP win was marked by an uncanny ability to goad his opponents into either calling his bets when he had an unbeatable hand or folding to him when he was weak. He consistently told his opponents that he was weak or strong, telling the truth sometimes, and sometimes lying, with the net result of successfully deceiving his opponents most of the time. Prior to the 2006 WSOP Main Event win, Gold had compiled a solid record in tournament competition, using lessons learned from poker legend and previous two-time WSOP main event winner and owner of 10 WSOP bracelets, Johnny Chan.  Gold's "table talk", though both an asset and a source of criticism for his tendency to tell opponents his actual hand during play, was contrary to WSOP rules. In one case at the final table, Gold actually flashed one of his hole cards to an opponent (a face card), creating enough uncertainty that his opponent folded the better hand. However, Gold was never penalized for any rules infraction. Prior to his elimination in the 2007 WSOP, Gold was issued a warning for his tactics.  As of the end of 2008, with just 13 in-the-money tournament finishes and only two wins, Gold's total live tournament winnings exceed a record $12,100,000, and he was the first person to eclipse the $10,000,000 mark in tournament poker. Most of his tournament winnings have come at the WSOP, where he has amassed $12,067,292 in cashes. Immediately after his WSOP win, Gold called his stepfather, Dr. Robert I. Gold, who could not attend as he was suffering from Lou Gehrig's disease. Gold pledged to use his winnings to make his stepfather more comfortable. His stepfather died four months later on December 13, 2006.

Winnings controversy.

Just prior to the 2006 WSOP, Bodog.com Entertainment and Gold entered into a business relationship when Gold agreed to find celebrities willing to play in the main event under the Bodog banner in exchange for a paid entry into the main event. Gold partnered with Crispin Leyser to help with this task in exchange for half of Gold's winnings, according to Leyser. After Gold won, Leyser says that Gold reneged on the deal and had decided to keep the entire $12 million prize. Leyser sued Gold on August 22, 2006 which resulted in Chief U.S. District Court Judge Kathy Hardcastle issuing a restraining order which prevented Gold from collecting $6 million of his winnings from Rio Hotel and Casino before the first hearing of the lawsuit on December 1, 2006. At the December court hearing, U.S. District Court Judge Roger L. Hunt rejected a motion by Gold's lawyers to lift the restraining order on the $6 million and ordered the frozen funds be moved into an interest-bearing account, saying that the "likelihood to prevail" lay with Leyser. Gold did a radio interview on Rounders the Poker Show following his Main Event win where he mentioned his deal with Leyser. It was later entered into evidence for the lawsuit. On February 6, 2007, Leyser and Gold released a joint statement stating they had settled the matter outside of court. The amount of the settlement was not disclosed. On January 25, 2007, Bodog ended their business relationship with Gold, citing their decision to cease all offline marketing initiatives in the U.S., and instead refocus their efforts on growing their entertainment brand in Europe and Asia.

Post 2006 Win.

Following his success at the 2006 WSOP, Gold said he would split his time between business and poker pursuits. In addition to television production deals in the hopper and Gold's frequent appearances on televised poker shows including episodes of NBC's Poker After Dark and in season 3 and 4 of GSN’s High Stakes Poker, Gold returned to defend his title at the 2007 WSOP, but was eliminated on the first day. He had more success in the 2007 WSOP Europe, where he finished 35th in the main event. Since then, he has been quiet on the poker scene playing mainly at the WSOP. Financial issues have plagued Gold in times since his main event victory and has resorted to playing smaller cash games at local casinos.. Since his Main Event victory in 2006, his greatest cash has come in the 2016 Los Angeles WSOP Circuit Main Event, where he finished runner-up and claimed $139,820.

Jamie M. Gold (born August 25, 1969) is an American television producer, a talent agent, and poker player, younger brother of Doug Gold, and who is based in Malibu, California. He is known for winning the 2006 World Series of Poker (WSOP) Main Event and currently divides his time between his activities as president of production for the entertainment company, Buzznation and poker competition, primarily major tournaments. His 2006 WSOP victory is the fifth largest single payout in poker tournament history.

Jamie Gold, né le est un producteur de télévision américain, joueur amateur de poker. Il est connu pour avoir remporté en 2006 le "Main Event" des World Series Of Poker.


Etymology.

The name comes from the three loops that would be formed by tying this knot.

Tying.

The knot is tied in the same way the original bowline is, except with a doubled rope (using a bight). An overhand loop is formed in the rope, the working end is passed back through that loop, behind the standing part of the rope, back through the loop and pulled tight. The working end (bight) forms a third loop, often larger than the two equal-sized loops. The size of the third loop depends on the length of the bight pulled through the loop.

Bowline on the bight.

A bowline on the bight is a similar knot to the triple bowline. Instead of wrapping the bight around the standing end and then passing it back through the nipping loop, the two loops are passed through the bight so that it tightens on the standing end. It has only two active or available loops. This is used in rescue situations, especially in a case where there might be an injured person or people, as it forms a "seat" in which the injured person can be raised or lowered safely. The full triple bowline is also used in rescue situations with the third loop passed around the waist or torso.

Double Bowline.

The triple bowline is often mistakenly referred to as the double bowline. The double bowline is in fact a bowline tied on a single strand with the nipping loop doubled up, and only has one loop.

The triple bowline knot is a variation of the bowline knot. The knot can be applied to emergency situations, such as mountain rescue.

Le nœud de chaise triple est un nœud de boucle qui comporte trois boucles. En fait c'est un nœud de chaise, mais réalisé avec une corde qu'on a prise en double (ganse). La boucle normale du nœud de chaise est donc doublée, et troisième boucle est constituée du courant (qui est, dans ce cas, le bout de la ganse qui a été formée au début).


High school.

Helton attended Central High School in Knoxville, Tennessee and was a letterman in football and baseball. In football, he posted 2,772 total yards as quarterback. In baseball, as a senior, Helton posted a.655 batting average and 12 home runs and was named the Regional Player of the Year. Baseball America also bestowed him with All-American honors for his senior season. Helton was drafted in the 2nd round (55th overall) by the San Diego Padres during the 1992 MLB draft. He did not sign and chose to attend college.

University of Tennessee.

Helton received an athletic scholarship from the University of Tennessee to play both football and baseball. He was named a Gatorade Player of the Year for football and baseball in Tennessee. As a freshman and sophomore, he backed up Heath Shuler at quarterback. Entering his junior season in 1994, he was the back-up to senior Jerry Colquitt and ahead of Peyton Manning (then a true freshman). After Colquitt tore knee ligaments in the season opener at UCLA, Helton took over as the starter. Three weeks later against Mississippi State, he suffered a knee injury and was replaced by Manning, who went on to break several records. Helton appeared in 12 games during his career with the Vols football team, completing 41 of 75 passes for 484 yards, four touchdowns and three interceptions.  In baseball, Helton was awarded the Dick Howser Trophy as National Collegiate Baseball Player of the Year, following his junior baseball season in 1995. During his career at Tennessee (1993–1995), he recorded a.370 batting average, with 38 home runs and 238 RBI (both school records). In 1995, he set the Tennessee saves record with 11, while posting a 0.89 ERA. During his career, he pitched 193 innings, registering an ERA of 2.24, with 172 strikeouts and 23 saves. Helton also has the NCAA Division I record for most consecutive scoreless innings, at 47.  Helton spent the summer of 1994 playing for the Orleans Cardinals of the Cape Cod Baseball League.

MLB career.

Draft and debut.

Helton was drafted in the first round, eighth overall, in the 1995 Major League Baseball draft by the Colorado Rockies. He was signed on August 1, 1995. Helton spent the next couple of years playing for the class-A Asheville Tourists, AA New Haven Ravens, and AAA Colorado Springs Sky Sox before moving on to the major leagues. He made his major-league debut on August 2, 1997, in a 6-5 road loss against the Pittsburgh Pirates. Helton started in left field and flied out in his first at-bat. He recorded his first hit, a single, in his second at-bat off Francisco Córdova. Helton also hit his first home run, a solo shot, that day off Marc Wilkins.

1997–1999: Early career.

During the 1997 season, Helton hit.280/.337/.484 (batting average, on-base percentage, slugging percentage), with five home runs, in 35 games played. When Rockies first baseman Andrés Galarraga went to the Atlanta Braves in 1998, Helton became the full-time starter at first base for Colorado during the 1998 season. The Rockies named Helton their club representative in 1998, the first time the team ever gave a rookie that role. He hit.315/.380/.530, with 25 home runs and 97 RBI, in 152 games played. Helton led all major-league rookies in average (.315), home runs (25), RBI (97), multi-hit games (49), total bases (281), slugging percentage (.530) and extra base hits (63). He also led all National League rookies in runs (78), hits (167) and on-base percentage (.380). At the time, only Mike Piazza (35), David Justice (28) and Darryl Strawberry (26) had hit more home runs as an NL rookie since 1972, and only Piazza had more RBI (112). Helton finished second to Kerry Wood of the Chicago Cubs in the voting for National League Rookie of the Year. The Tennessee Sports Hall of Fame named Helton its 1998 Professional Athlete of the Year.  In 1999, Helton had a.320 batting average,.395 on-base percentage and.587 slugging percentage. He also hit 35 home runs and 113 RBI, while drawing 68 walks. On June 19, 1999, in a 10–2 Rockies home win over the Florida Marlins, Helton hit for the cycle. He fell short of hitting a second cycle on four different occasions during the 1999 season, which would have made him only the second player since 1900 (Babe Herman was the first to do so in 1931) to hit two cycles in one season.

2000–2006: Mid-career.

Helton enjoyed arguably his best season in 2000, leading the major leagues in batting average (.372), RBI (147), doubles (59), total bases (405), extra base hits (103), slugging percentage (.698) and OPS (1.162). He led the National League in hits (216) and on-base percentage (.463). Helton hit a league-leading home batting average of.391 and placed third in the National League in road batting average (.353). Helton's MLB-leading 103 extra base hits tied for the fourth most in MLB history and the second most in NL history. His National League-leading numbers in on-base percentage, slugging percentage and batting average gave him the "percentage triple crown." Helton became the second Rockies player (Larry Walker in 1999) to accomplish that feat. Helton and Walker made the Rockies the first team in MLB history to record percentage triple crowns in consecutive seasons with different players. Helton became only the fourth player in National League history to lead the NL in both batting average and RBI. He became the first player in National League history and the fifth player in MLB history (Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Jimmie Foxx and Hank Greenberg are the others) to have at least 200 hits, 40 home runs, 100 RBI, 100 runs, 100 extra base hits and 100 walks in one season.  Helton was invited to his first career Major League Baseball All-Star Game in 2000. He also received National League Player of the Month honors for May and August. He finished fifth in voting for the MVP award. However, the Associated Press, The Sporting News, USA Baseball Alumni and Baseball Digest all named Helton the MLB Player of the Year. Buck O'Neil and the Negro Leagues Baseball Museum presented Helton with the Walter Fenner "Buck" Leonard Legacy Award. Helton was also given the team-honored version of the Roberto Clemente Man of Year Award, for his community contributions to Eastern Tennessee. Furthermore, he was the National League winner of the second annual Hank Aaron Award. Each season from 2000 to 2003, he was named the Rockies Player of the Year. For all of his success, the Colorado Rockies rewarded Helton with a nine-year, $141.5 million contract in April 2001 that took effect in 2003.  The following season, Helton posted a career-high 49 home runs (22 of them occurred away from Coors Field). The 49 home runs tied teammate Larry Walker for the most home runs ever by a Colorado Rockies player in a single season. Additionally, Helton had a.336 batting average,.432 on-base percentage and.685 slugging percentage. He also had 105 extra base hits, making him the first player in MLB history to have at least 100 total extra base hits in back-to-back seasons. Furthermore, Helton attained 402 total bases, making him only the fourth player in MLB history to do so in consecutive seasons (Chuck Klein, Gehrig and Foxx are the others).  Helton appeared in his second consecutive All-Star game in 2001 – his first as a starter. He won his first Gold Glove at first base and was once again a top candidate for MVP, but was overshadowed by Sammy Sosa and Barry Bonds.  In 2002, Helton had a.329 batting average, 30 home runs, 109 RBI, 98 walks, 107 runs,.577 slg % and 319 total bases. He became the first player in Rockies history to score at least 100 runs in four consecutive seasons. He was named Player of the Month for May, as he hit.347 with six doubles, one triple, 10 home runs and 28 RBI during the month. Helton was named to his third consecutive All-Star game – second straight as a starter. He also received his second consecutive Gold Glove.  2003 saw Helton involved in the closest NL batting race in history, as he hit.35849, while St. Louis Cardinals first baseman Albert Pujols finished first with a.35871 batting average. During the season, Helton also had 33 home runs, 117 RBI, 135 runs, 49 doubles and five triples. He won his fourth Player of the Month honor during the month of April, as he hit.337 with six home runs, 27 RBI, 28 runs, 11 doubles and 24 walks. He also appeared in his fourth consecutive All-Star game.  During the 2004 season, Helton again finished second in the NL batting race, as he hit.347, while San Francisco Giants left fielder Barry Bonds hit.362. Helton also had 32 home runs and 96 RBI on the season. He became the first player in MLB history to hit at least.315 with 25 HR and 95 RBI in each of his first seven full seasons in the majors. He became only the third player in MLB history to accomplish that feat during any seven-year stretch in a career (Lou Gehrig and Babe Ruth are the others). He set a franchise record by hitting at least 30 home runs in six consecutive seasons. Helton was named to his team-record fifth consecutive All-Star game and won his third Gold Glove during the season.  In 2005, Helton spent time on the disabled list (July 26 – August 9) for the first time in his career with a strained left calf muscle. He hit.320 with 20 home runs, 79 RBI, 92 runs and 45 doubles for the season. He was under 1.000 in OPS (finished with.979 OPS) for the first time since 1999. Helton also wasn't named to the National League All-Star team for the first time since 1999. However, he did end up joining Gehrig and Bill Terry as the only first basemen in MLB history to have at least a.315 batting average in eight consecutive seasons.  Also in 2005, St. Louis Cardinals radio broadcaster Wayne Hagin claimed manager Don Baylor said that Helton had "tried the juice" in the 1990s, implying steroid use. Helton vehemently denied the allegation and considered legal action against Hagin. Hagin later apologized clarifying his comments saying he was "referring to supplements, creatine, not steroids" when he said "juiced". Baylor said of his conversation with Hagin "We discussed creatine and that was the end of the conversation. Steroid use was never even a question with me in regards to Todd Helton. [Hagin] has his facts wrong."

2007–2013.

Helton's power and RBI production stayed relatively level to his previous year's stats during the 2007 season, as he managed 17 home runs and 91 RBI. Despite these numbers being below his career averages, Helton kept up his string of seven consecutive seasons with an on-base percentage higher than.400, nine consecutive seasons with a batting average above.300, and had also been walked more times than he had struck out (a feat he had accomplished in seven of his first ten full seasons).  Helton recorded his 1,000th career hit at Coors Field on June 20, 2007, in a 6–1 home win over the New York Yankees, becoming only the fifth active player to have 1,000 career hits in one ballpark.  On September 9, 2007, in 4–2 home victory over the San Diego Padres, Helton hit his 35th double of the season. This made him the only player in MLB history to have hit 35 or more doubles in at least 10 consecutive seasons (1998–2007).  Helton hit his 300th career home run on September 16, 2007, in a 13–0 home win over the Florida Marlins. He became the first player to hit 300 home runs for the Colorado Rockies.  Helton made what was arguably the most pivotal play of the Rockies' 2007 season in the second game of a doubleheader against the Los Angeles Dodgers on September 18, 2007. In the bottom of the ninth inning, with two outs and two strikes, Helton hit an emotional two-run walk-off home run off Dodgers closer Takashi Saito. The home run kept the Rockies alive in the bid to win the wild card or National League West title. The Rockies eventually clinched the National League wild card, in a 9–8 extra innings victory over the San Diego Padres in a wild card tiebreaker game, allowing Helton to appear in the playoffs for the first time in his career. Colorado went on to sweep the Philadelphia Phillies in three games of the National League Division Series. Helton hit a triple in the first pitch of his first career playoff at-bat in the opening game against the Phillies at Philadelphia. The Rockies also swept the Arizona Diamondbacks in four games of the National League Championship Series, sending the Rockies on their first trip to the World Series in franchise history. The Rockies went on to lose the World Series to the Boston Red Sox in a four-game sweep.  In August 2008, Helton was diagnosed with a degenerative back condition, putting his health and ability to continue play in question. On May 19, 2009, Helton got his 2,000th hit, a single, as part of an 8–1 road loss to the Atlanta Braves. On July 22, 2009, Helton hit his 500th career double in a 4–3 home victory over the Arizona Diamondbacks. He became the 50th player in MLB history to hit 500 career doubles and the fastest to do since 1954. Helton also joined Babe Ruth, Stan Musial, Lou Gehrig and Ted Williams as the only players in MLB history to have at least 500 doubles, 320 home runs and a.325 batting average for a career. On March 11, 2010, Helton signed a two-year contract extension through the 2013 season. The extension for 2012 and 2013 was worth a total of $9.9 million.  Helton's degenerative back condition sent him back to the disabled list in July 2010. Helton returned from the DL in August and hit.256 with 8 home runs and 37 RBI for the season. After the 2010 season, Helton said he would return to the Rockies in 2011, following rumors of a possible retirement. On February 15, 2011, Helton announced his intention to play baseball for three more years, preferably for the Rockies. On June 30 he played his 2,000th career game. On April 14, 2012, Helton hit a 2-run walk-off home run, his 7th of his career. On July 13, Helton was placed on the 15-day disabled list due to inflammation in his right hip. In 63 games, he was batting.235. After returning from the DL, Helton played only 6 games before announcing that he would have season ending hip surgery in order to prepare for the 2013 season. Helton was healthier in 2013, playing in 124 games while hitting 15 home runs with 61 RBIs.  On September 14, 2013, Helton announced that he would be retiring at the conclusion of the 2013 season. On September 25, 2013, before his last game at Coors Field, Helton was honored by the Rockies Organization in a pre-game ceremony. In the game, Helton hit a home run and three RBI versus the Boston Red Sox.  On Sunday, August 17, 2014, the Rockies retired Helton's number 17 before a 2:05 pm day game at Coors Field. Helton is the first Rockies player to have his number retired in the team's twenty-six year history.

Personal life.

Helton's jersey number, 17, is a tribute to former Chicago Cubs first baseman Mark Grace.  Helton and his family – wife Christy and daughters Gentry Grace and Tierney Faith – reside in Knoxville, Tennessee. Helton and his family are good friends with Helton's former Tennessee Volunteers football teammate and former National Football League (NFL) quarterback Peyton Manning.  In 2013, Helton was arrested in Colorado for driving under the influence of alcohol. He was fined $400, received a year of probation, and was ordered to undergo 24 hours of community service. In 2019, Helton was cited for another DUI after crashing his car. He subsequently entered a treatment program.

Todd Lynn Helton (born August 20, 1973) is an American retired professional baseball first baseman who played his entire 17-year career for the Colorado Rockies of Major League Baseball (MLB). A five-time All-Star, four-time Silver Slugger, and three-time Gold Glove Award winner, Helton holds the Colorado Rockies club records for hits (2,519), home runs (369), doubles (592), walks (1,335), runs scored (1,401), runs batted in (RBI, with 1,406), games played (2,247), and total bases (4,292), among others.

Todd Lynn Helton (né le à Knoxville, Tennessee, États-Unis) est un ancien joueur de la Ligue majeure de baseball qui évolue au premier but pour les Rockies du Colorado de 1997 à 2013.