Life.

Nikolaus Pevsner was born in Leipzig, Saxony, the son of Anna and her husband Hugo Pevsner, a Russian-Jewish fur merchant. He attended St. Thomas School, Leipzig, and went on to study at several universities, Munich, Berlin, and Frankfurt am Main, before being awarded a doctorate by Leipzig in 1924 for a thesis on the Baroque architecture of Leipzig. In 1923, he married Carola ("Lola") Kurlbaum, the daughter of distinguished Leipzig lawyer, Alfred Kurlbaum. He worked as an assistant keeper at the Dresden Gallery (1924–28). He converted to Lutheranism early in life.  During this period he became interested in establishing the supremacy of German modernist architecture after becoming aware of Le Corbusier's Pavillon de l'Esprit Nouveau at the Paris Exhibition of 1925.  In 1928 he contributed the volume on Italian baroque painting to the "Handbuch der Kunstwissenschaft", a multi-volume series providing an overview of the history of European art. He taught at the University of Göttingen (1929–33), offering a specialist course on English art and architecture. According to biographer Stephen Games, Pevsner welcomed many of the economic and cultural policies of the early Hitler regime. However, due to Nazi race laws he was forced to resign his lectureship in 1933.  Later that year Pevsner moved to England, settling in Hampstead, where poet Geoffrey Grigson was his next-door neighbour in Wildwood Terrace. Pevsner's first post was an 18-month research fellowship at the University of Birmingham, found for him by friends in Birmingham and partly funded by the Academic Assistance Council. A study of the role of the designer in the industrial process, the research produced a generally critical account of design standards in Britain which he published as "An Enquiry into Industrial Art in England" (Cambridge University Press, 1937). He was subsequently employed as a buyer of modern textiles, glass and ceramics for the Gordon Russell furniture showrooms in London.  By this time Pevsner had also completed "Pioneers of the Modern Movement: from William Morris to Walter Gropius", his influential pre-history of what he saw as Walter Gropius's dominance of contemporary design. "Pioneers" ardently championed Gropius's first two buildings (both pre–First World War) on the grounds that they summed up all the essential goals of 20th-century architecture; in England, however, it was widely taken to be the history of England's contribution to international modernism, and a manifesto for Bauhaus (i.e. Weimar) modernism, which it was not. In spite of that, the book remains an important point of reference in the teaching of the history of modern design, and helped lay the foundation of Pevsner's career in England as an architectural historian. Since its first publication by Faber & Faber in 1936, it has gone through several editions and been translated into many languages. The English-language edition has also been renamed "Pioneers of Modern Design".

Second World War.

Pevsner was "more German than the Germans" to the extent that he supported "Goebbels in his drive for 'pure' non-decadent German art". He was reported as saying of the Nazis (in 1933): "I want this movement to succeed. There is no alternative but chaos.... There are things worse than Hitlerism." Nonetheless, he was included in the Nazi Black Book as hostile to the Hitler regime.  In 1940, Pevsner was taken to the internment camp at Huyton, Liverpool, as an enemy alien. Geoffrey Grigson later wrote in his "Recollections" (1984): "When at last two hard-faced Bow Street runners arrived in the early hours of the morning to take [him]... I managed, clutching my pyjama trousers, to catch them up with the best parting present I could quickly think of, which was an elegant little edition, a new edition, of Shakespeare's Sonnets." Pevsner was released after three months on the intervention of, among others, Frank Pick, then Director-General of the Ministry of Information. He spent some time in the months after the Blitz clearing bomb debris, and wrote reviews and art criticism for the Ministry of Information's "Die Zeitung", an anti-Nazi publication for Germans living in England. He also completed for Penguin Books the Pelican paperback "An Outline of European Architecture", which he had begun to develop while in internment. "Outline" would eventually go into seven editions, be translated into 16 languages, and sell more than half a million copies.  In 1942, Pevsner finally secured two regular positions. From 1936 onwards he had been a frequent contributor to the "Architectural Review" and from 1943 to 1945 he stood in as its acting editor while the regular editor J. M. Richards was on active service. Under the "AR"s influence, Pevsner's approach to modern architecture became more complex and more moderate. Early signs of a lifelong interest in Victorian architecture, also influenced by the "Architectural Review", appeared in a series written under the pseudonym of "Peter F. R. Donner": Pevsner's "Treasure Hunts" guided readers down selected London streets, pointing out architectural treasures of the 19th century. He was also closely involved with the "Review"s proprietor, H. de C. Hastings, in evolving the magazine's theories on picturesque planning.  In 1942, Pevsner was also appointed a part-time lecturer at Birkbeck College, London; he would eventually retire from the college in 1969 as its first professor of art history. He lectured at Cambridge University for almost 30 years, having been Slade professor there for a record six years from 1949 to 1955, and would also become the Slade professorship at Oxford in 1968.  Framing all this was his career as a writer and editor. After moving to England, Pevsner had found that the study of architectural history had little status in academic circles, and the amount of information available, especially to travellers wanting to inform themselves about the architecture of a particular district, was limited. Invited by Allen Lane, founder of Penguin Books, for whom he had written his "Outline" and also edited the King Penguin series, to suggest ideas for future publications, he proposed a series of comprehensive county guides to rectify this shortcoming.  Work on the "Buildings of England" series began in 1945, and the first volume was published in 1951. Pevsner wrote 32 of the books himself and 10 with collaborators, with a further four of the original series written by others. Since his death, work has continued on the series, which has been extended to cover the rest of the United Kingdom, under the title Pevsner Architectural Guides (now published by Yale University Press). After updating and correcting "London 1: the Cities of London and Westminster" for its reissue in 1962, Pevsner delegated the revision and expansion of further volumes to others, beginning with Enid Radcliffe for "Essex" (1965). The gazetteer descriptions of revised volumes do not routinely distinguish between Pevsner's original text and any new writing, but more recent books sometimes supply his words in quotation when the revising author's judgement differs, where a building has since been altered, or where the old text is no longer topical.  As well as "The Buildings of England", Pevsner proposed the "Pelican History of Art" series (began 1953), a multi-volume survey on the model of the German "Handbuch der Kunstwissenschaft", which he would himself edit. Many individual volumes are regarded as classics.

Postwar.

In 1946, Pevsner made the first of several broadcasts on the BBC Third Programme, presenting nine talks in all up to 1950, examining painters and European art eras. By 1977 he had presented 78 talks for the BBC, including the Reith Lectures in 1955 – a series of six broadcasts, entitled "The Englishness of English Art", for which he explored the qualities of art which he regarded as particularly English, and what they said about the English national character. His A. W. Mellon lectures in Fine Art at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., were published in 1976 as "A History of Building Types".  Pevsner was a founding member in 1957 of the Victorian Society, the national charity for the study and protection of Victorian and Edwardian architecture and other arts. In 1964 he was invited to become its chairman, and steered it through its formative years, fighting alongside John Betjeman, Hugh Casson and others to save houses, churches, railway stations and other monuments of the Victorian age. He served for ten years (1960–70) as a member of the National Advisory Council on Art Education (or Coldstream Committee), campaigning for art history to be a compulsory element in the curriculum of art schools. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1965 and awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1967.  Having assumed British citizenship in 1946, Pevsner was appointed a CBE in 1953 and was knighted in 1969 "for services to art and architecture".  Pevsner also received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 1975.

Death and legacy.

Pevsner died at home in Wildwood Terrace, Hampstead, London, in August 1983. His wife predeceased him by 20 years.  His memorial service was held at the Church of Christ the King, Bloomsbury, the following December, with the memorial address being given by Alec Clifton-Taylor, a friend of 50 years. He is buried in the churchyard of St Peter, Clyffe Pypard, in Wiltshire. His elder son, Dieter, was an editor at Penguin Books and co-founder with Oliver Caldecott of the publishing company Wildwood House in the 1970s. His younger son, Tom, was a film producer and director who went on to work on several James Bond films.  In 2007, a blue plaque was erected by English Heritage at the house that had been Pevsner's home since 1936. Although Pevsner oversaw the publication of the initial volumes of the Scottish, Welsh and Irish counterparts of "The Buildings of England" (and in each was credited as "Editor-in-Chief", "Founding Editor" and "Editorial Adviser" respectively) he did not write any of them. As with the revisions of his earlier works, many of these volumes were the work of several contributors. Coverage of the whole of Great Britain was completed in 2016, with the Irish series still in progress.  A fictionalised Pevsner appears in the 1998 novel "The Spell" by Alan Hollinghurst.

Archive.

In 1984 the Getty Research Institute acquired the Nikolaus Pevsner Papers, an archive that includes 143 boxes of typed and handwritten notes, clippings, photographs, books, lecture notes, and manuscripts.

Further reading.

Papers.

Papers relating to Pevsner's departure from Germany and efforts to obtain work in England are contained within the archives of the Society for the Protection of Science and Learning (now the Council for At-Risk Academics) in the Bodleian Library. Index to the Catalogue of the SPSL. A substantial collection of his papers is held at the Pevsner archive in the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles. Nikolaus Pevsner papers, 1919–1979. Research Library at the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California. Documents relating to his various projects for Penguin, including the King Penguin series, the "Pelican History of Art" and the "Buildings of England", are held by the Penguin Archive at the University of Bristol.Papers relating to the work of the Victorian Society during his years as chairman are held by the Victorian Society themselves and the London Metropolitan Archives. (Victorian Society archives)

Sir Nikolaus Bernhard Leon Pevsner (30 January 1902 – 18 August 1983) was a German-British art historian and architectural historian best known for his monumental 46-volume series of county-by-county guides, "The Buildings of England" (1951–74).

Nikolaus Pevsner, né le à Leipzig (Saxe) et mort le à Hampstead (Londres), est un critique et historien de l'art, particulièrement de l'architecture et du design, britannique né allemand.


history.

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 29. It tracked slowly westward, and first showed signs of development two days later. On August 31, a second tropical wave exited the coast of Africa at a faster speed than its predecessor. The two waves interacted, and by September 2 combined to form a large area of disturbed weather across the eastern Atlantic Ocean. Convection increased within the system, and it developed a concentrated area of convection in conjunction with a well-defined low pressure area. By late on September 3, the system maintained a broad closed circulation and enough convective organization to be classified Tropical Depression Six while located about midway between the Lesser Antilles and Africa.  Upon becoming a tropical cyclone, the depression maintained multiple cloud swirls within a common center. Banding features increased, though southwesterly wind shear and the lack of a well-defined circulation prevented initial strengthening. Dry air encountered the depression, and as such it developed very slowly; forecasters maintained considerable difficulty in determining a center of circulation. It continued its motion to the west-northwest while tracking around the southern periphery of a deep-layer subtropical ridge to its north. Though convection remained focused near the outer periphery of the system, the overall organized continued to steadily increase, and it is estimated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Florence on September 5 while located about 1,120 miles (1,800 km) east-northeast of Anguilla. After attaining tropical storm status, the maximum sustained winds fluctuated for three days between 40 mph (65 km/h) and 50 mph (85 km/h). This was due to the large size of Florence; the overall wind field reached a diameter of 460 miles (745 km), and the radius of maximum winds reached about 110 miles (170 km). By September 6, a well-defined cloud swirl became evident, with thin rainbands developing in the southeast and northwest quadrants. As a result, hurricane forecasters anticipated Florence would develop significantly and attain major hurricane status. Though convection gradually migrated closer to the center of the storm, forecasters could not detect a well-defined center of circulation by late on September 6. On September 7, convection developed over and to the west of the center for the first time in its duration. However, Florence failed to intensify further, as its wind field had increased to more than 1,035 miles (1,670 km) in diameter. This led to difficulties in forecasting, as its environment favored further strengthening; the storm tracked through an area of 84° F (29° C) water temperatures and light shear, and the system maintained a large low-level cyclonic envelop with abundant convection. By early on September 8, the storm consisted of an elongated, shapeless cloud pattern atypical of a tropical cyclone. Later that day, as an anticyclone developed over Florence, the storm began to consolidate around a vorticity center on the western side of the large cyclonic envelope. It began to strengthen more steadily as it turned to the northwest. Early on September 10, an eye began developing within a round central dense overcast over the center, and shortly thereafter Florence attained hurricane status while located about 390 miles (630 km) south of Bermuda.  Hurricane Florence turned to the north and north-northeast through a break in the subtropical ridge. Though its eyewall was open on the north side, favorable conditions led forecasters to predict Florence passing near Bermuda as a strong Category 2 hurricane. The inner core of convection became ragged-looking on satellite imagery, and based on reports from Hurricane Hunters it is estimated the hurricane attained peak winds of 90 mph (150 km/h) late on September 10. Subsequent to further erosion of the eyewall, the hurricane weakened, and on September 11 passed about 60 miles (95 km) west of Bermuda with winds of 85 mph (135 km/h). The overall cloud pattern became slightly better organized, and Florence briefly re-strengthened before encountering increased upper-level winds and cooler waters. Dry air wrapping around the southern periphery of the cyclone eroded most of the deep convection by early on September 12. The cloud shield became asymmetrically displaced to the north of the center, and frontal-like features began to form. It continued to lose tropical characteristics, and on September 13 Florence transitioned into an extratropical cyclone about 485 miles (780 km) south-southwest of Cape Race, Newfoundland. Initially maintaining hurricane-force winds, the extratropical remnant passed near Cape Race before turning to the east-northeast, and on September 14 the winds weakened to gale force. The storm executed a broad cyclonic half-loop to the southwest of Iceland over the subsequent days, and after turning to the west the extratropical remnants of Florence were absorbed to the east of Greenland by a developing extratropical cyclone to its south.

Preparations.

The government of Bermuda issued a hurricane watch for the island on September 8, which was followed by a tropical storm warning on September 9. These were replaced by a hurricane warning on September 10, coinciding with the storm's strengthening to hurricane intensity. The government urged the potentially impacted citizens to take preparations for the storm, many of whom bought supplies at local hardware stores. Residents installed storm shutters, while boat owners moved their yachts to safer locations. An emergency shelter was prepared on the island. Prior to the arrival of the storm, officials canceled bus and ferry service, and also closed all schools and government offices on the day of impact. The Bermuda International Airport was also closed.

Impact.

Hurricane Florence produced strong swells and dangerous surf conditions along the northern Lesser Antilles, Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, and Bermuda. Later in its duration, the tight pressure gradient between Florence and a high-pressure system over southeastern Canada produced strong winds and rough waves along the East Coast of the United States. The hurricane also caused strong swells and rough ocean conditions, including rip currents, in the Bahamas and Atlantic Canada. In South Carolina, high waves produced severe beach erosion on several beaches.  Passing a short distance west of Bermuda, Hurricane Florence produced strong winds on the island; sustained winds peaked at 82 mph (132 km/h) on St. David's Island at an elevation of 157 feet (48 m), while gusts reached 115 mph (185 km/h) at the Maritime Operations Centre in St. George's Parish at an elevation of 256 feet (78 m). The winds knocked down trees and power lines, leaving over 25,000 homes and businesses without electricity during the peak of the storm. The powerful winds damaged ten houses, including destroying the roofs of three, and blew out windows across the island. A few people were injured by flying glass, though none required hospital care. Rainfall on the island reached 1.32 inches (34 mm) at the Bermuda International Airport. A possible tornado in Southampton Parish downed trees and caused light property damage. At the Bermuda Zoo and Aquarium, two flamingos died due to falling branches. During the peak of the storm, police officials advised citizens to remain indoors away from harm, though there were several reports of looting throughout the territory. On the island, the storm's damage totaled over $200,000 (2006 USD). Shortly after the storm passed through, BELCO began restoring power, and by six hours after the peak of the storm power had been restored to 7,000 homes and businesses. By the day after the storm, about 3,000 remained without electricity on the island. The storm damaged the causeway between St. David's Island and Hamilton Parish, temporarily limiting traffic to one lane in each direction.  As an extratropical storm over Newfoundland, Florence produced powerful winds peaking at 101 mph (163 km/h) and moderate amounts of rainfall of up to 2.6 inches (67 mm). Flooding and power outages were reported, although they were isolated. The hurricane caused flight interruptions at St. John's International Airport and also to the Trans Canada ferry between Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island in eastern Nova Scotia. Strong winds destroyed a house in the small Newfoundland village of Francois. Residents in Francois agreed to rebuild the wrecked home while the family temporarily resided in a summer home of another family. The winds also caused damage to shingles and sides of homes, while the strong waves damaged roads and boats along the Burin Peninsula.

Hurricane Florence was the first North Atlantic hurricane to produce hurricane-force winds on the island of Bermuda since Hurricane Fabian in September 2003. The seventh tropical storm and second hurricane of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season, Florence developed from a tropical wave in the eastern Atlantic Ocean on September 3. Due to unfavorable conditions, the system failed to organize initially, and as a result, the storm grew to an unusually large size. After several days, Florence encountered an area of lesser wind shear and intensified into a hurricane on September 10. It passed just west of Bermuda while recurving northeastward, and on September 13 it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone.

L'ouragan Florence est la tempête tropicale et le ouragan de la saison cyclonique 2006 pour le bassin de l'océan Atlantique. Le nom Florence a aussi été utilisé en 1988, 1994, 2000 et 2018.


North America at the end of the 17th century.

The English settlers were more than 154,000 at the beginning of the war, outnumbering the French 12 to 1. However, they were divided in multiple colonies along the Atlantic coast, which were unable to cooperate efficiently, and they were engulfed in the Glorious Revolution, creating tension among the colonists. In addition, the English lacked military leadership and had a difficult relationship with their Iroquois allies.  New France was divided into three entities: Acadia on the Atlantic coast; Canada along the Saint Lawrence River and up to the Great Lakes; and Louisiana from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, along the Mississippi River. The French population amounted to 14,000 in 1689. Although the French were vastly outnumbered, they were more politically unified and contained a disproportionate number of adult males with military backgrounds. Realizing their numerical inferiority, they developed good relationships with the indigenous peoples in order to multiply their forces and made effective use of hit-and-run tactics.

Causes of the war.

England's Catholic King James II was deposed at the end of 1688 in the Glorious Revolution, after which Protestants William III and Mary II took the throne. William joined the League of Augsburg in its war against France (begun earlier in 1688), where James had fled.  In North America, there was significant tension between New France and the northern English colonies, which had in 1686 been united in the Dominion of New England. New England and the Iroquois Confederacy fought New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy. The Iroquois dominated the economically important Great Lakes fur trade and had been in conflict with New France since 1680. At the urging of New England, the Iroquois interrupted the trade between New France and the western tribes. In retaliation, New France raided Seneca lands of western New York. In turn, New England supported the Iroquois in attacking New France, which they did by raiding Lachine.  There were similar tensions on the border between New England and Acadia, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. English settlers from Massachusetts (whose charter included the Maine area) had expanded their settlements into Acadia. To secure New France's claim to present-day Maine, New France established Catholic missions among the three largest native villages in the region: one on the Kennebec River (Norridgewock); one further north on the Penobscot River (Penobscot) and one on the Saint John River (Medoctec). For their part, in response to King Philip's War, the five Indian tribes in the region of Acadia created the Wabanaki Confederacy to form a political and military alliance with New France to stop the New England expansion.

Course of war.

New England, Acadia and Newfoundland Theatre.

The New England, Acadia and Newfoundland Theatre of the war is also known as Castin's War and Father Jean Baudoin's War.  In April 1688, Governor Andros plundered Castine's home and village on Penobscot Bay (Castine, Maine). Later in August, the English raided the French village of Chedabouctou. In response, Castin and the Wabanaki Confederacy engaged in the Northeast Coast Campaign of 1688 along the New England/Acadia border. They began August 13, 1688, at New Dartmouth (Newcastle), killing a few settlers. A few days later they killed two people at Yarmouth in the first battle. At Kennebunk, in the fall of 1688, members of the Confederacy killed two families.  The following spring, in June 1689, several hundred Abenaki and Pennacook Indians under the command of Kancamagus and Mesandowit raided Dover, New Hampshire, killing more than 20 and taking 29 captives, who were sold into captivity in New France. In June, they killed four men at Saco. In response to these raids, a company of 24 men was raised to search for the bodies and pursue the natives. They were forced to return after they lost a quarter of their men in conflicts with the natives.  In August 1689, Jean-Vincent d'Abbadie de Saint-Castin and Father Louis-Pierre Thury led an Abenaki war party that captured and destroyed the fort at Pemaquid (in present-day Bristol, Maine). The fall of Pemaquid was a significant setback to the English. It pushed the frontier back to Casco (Falmouth), Maine.  New England retaliated for these raids by sending Major Benjamin Church to raid Acadia. During King William's War, Church led four New England raiding parties into Acadia (which included most of Maine) against the Acadians and members of the Wabanaki Confederacy. On the first expedition into Acadia, on September 21, 1689, Church and 250 troops defended a group of English settlers trying to establish themselves at Falmouth (present-day Portland, Maine). The tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy killed 21 of his men, but Church's defense was successful and the natives retreated. Church then returned to Boston, leaving the small group of English settlers unprotected. The following spring over 400 French and native troops, under the leadership of Castin, destroyed Salmon Falls (present-day Berwick, Maine), then returned to Falmouth and massacred all the English settlers in the Battle of Fort Loyal. When Church returned to the village later that summer he buried the dead. The fall of Fort Loyal (Casco) led to the near depopulation of Maine. Native forces were then able to attack New Hampshire frontier without reprisal.

Battle of Port Royal (1690).

The New Englanders, led by Sir William Phips, retaliated by attacking Port Royal, the capital of Acadia. The Battle of Port Royal began on May 9, 1690. Phips arrived with 736 New England men in seven English ships. Governor de Meneval fought for two days and then capitulated. The garrison was imprisoned in the church, and Governor de Meneval was confined to his house. The New Englanders levelled what was begun of the new fort. The residents of Port Royal were imprisoned in the church and administered an oath of allegiance to the King.  Phips left, but warships from New York City arrived in June, which resulted in more destruction. The seamen burned and looted the settlement, including the parish church. The New Englanders left again, and Villebon, the governor of Acadia, moved the capital to safer territory inland at Fort Nashwaak (present-day Fredericton, New Brunswick). Fort Nashwaak remained the capital until after the war, when Port Royal was restored as the capital in 1699.  In Church's second expedition to Acadia, he arrived with 300 men at Casco Bay on 11 September 1690. His mission was to relieve the English Fort Pejpescot (present-day Brunswick, Maine), which had been taken by the Wabanaki Confederacy. He went up the Androscoggin River to Fort Pejepscot. From there he went upriver to Livermore Falls and attacked a native village. Church's men shot three or four native men when they were retreating. Church discovered five English captives in the wigwams. Church butchered six or seven natives and took nine prisoners. A few days later, in retaliation, the members of the Wabanaki Confederacy attacked Church at Cape Elizabeth on Purpooduc Point, killing seven of his men and wounding 24 others. On September 26, Church returned to Portsmouth, New Hampshire.  During King William's War, when the town of Wells contained about 80 houses and log cabins strung along the Post Road, it was attacked on June 9, 1691, by about 200 Native Americans commanded by the sachem Moxus. But Captain James Converse and his militia successfully defended Lieutenant Joseph Storer's garrison, which was surrounded by a gated palisade. Another sachem, Madockawando, threatened to return the next year "and have the dog Converse out of his den".  As the natives withdrew, they went to York off Cape Neddick and boarded a vessel, killing most of the crew. They also burned a hamlet.  In early 1692, an estimated 150 Abenakis commanded by officers of New France returned to York, killing about 100 of the English settlers and burning down buildings in what would become known as the Candlemas Massacre.  Church's third expedition to Acadia during the war was in 1692 when he raided Penobscot (present-day Indian Island, Maine) with 450 men. Church and his men then went on to raid Taconock (Winslow, Maine).  In 1693, New England frigates attacked Port Royal again, burning almost a dozen houses and three barns full of grain.  On July 18, 1694, French soldier Claude-Sébastien de Villieu with about 250 Abenakis from Norridgewock under command of their sagamore (paramount chief) Bomazeen (or Bomoseen) raided the English settlement of Durham, New Hampshire, in the Oyster River Massacre. In all, the French and native force killed 45 inhabitants and took 49 captive, burning half the dwellings, including five garrisons. They also destroyed crops and killed livestock, causing famine and destitution for the survivors.

Siege of Pemaquid (1696).

In 1696, New France and the tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy, led by St. Castine and Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, returned and fought a naval battle in the Bay of Fundy before moving on to raid Pemaquid. After the Siege of Pemaquid, d'Iberville led a force of 124 Canadians, Acadians, Mi'kmaq and Abenakis in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign. They destroyed almost every English settlement in Newfoundland, over 100 English were killed, many times that number captured, and almost 500 deported to England or France.  In retaliation, Church went on his fourth expedition to Acadia and carried out a retaliatory raid against Acadian communities on the Isthmus of Chignecto and Fort Nashwack (present-day Fredericton, New Brunswick), which was then the capital of Acadia. He led his troops personally in killing inhabitants of Chignecto, looting their household goods, burning their houses and slaughtering the livestock.

Quebec and New York Theatre.

Also in August 1689, 1,500 Iroquois, seeking revenge for Governor General Denonville's actions, attacked the French settlement at Lachine. Count Frontenac, who replaced Denonville as governor general, later attacked the Iroquois village of Onondaga. New France and its Indian allies then attacked English frontier settlements in early 1690, most notably at Schenectady in New York.  This was followed by two expeditions. One, on land under Connecticut provincial militia general Fitz-John Winthrop, targeted Montreal; the other, led by Sir William Phips, targeted Quebec. Winthrop's expedition failed due to disease and supply issues, and Phips was defeated in the Battle of Quebec. The Quebec and Port Royal expeditions were the only major New England offensives of King William's War; for the remainder of the war the English colonists were primarily engaged in defensive operations, skirmishes and retaliatory raids.  The Iroquois Five Nations suffered from the weakness of their English allies. In 1693 and 1696, the French and their Indian allies ravaged Iroquois towns and destroyed crops while New York colonists remained passive. After the English and French made peace in 1697, the Iroquois, now abandoned by the English colonists, remained at war with New France until 1701, when a peace was agreed at Montreal between New France and a large number of Iroquois and other tribes.

Hudson Bay Theatre.

The war also served as a backdrop for an ongoing economic war between French and English interests in Arctic North America. The Hudson's Bay Company had established trading outposts on James Bay and the southern reaches of Hudson Bay by the early 1680s. In a series of raids, beginning with the so-called Hudson Bay expedition, organized by Governor Denonville and continuing through the time of the Nine Years' War (1688-1697), most of these outposts, including Moose Factory, York Factory and Fort Albany, were taken by French raiders, primarily led by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville.  But the French forces were small, and their hold on the captured posts quite weak — York Factory was recaptured by the English in 1695. In 1697, in the Battle of Hudson's Bay, one of the war's major naval battles, d'Iberville, with a single ship, defeated three English ships and went on to again capture York Factory.

Aftermath.

The Treaty of Ryswick signed in September 1697 ended the war between the two colonial powers, reverting the colonial borders to the "status quo ante bellum". The peace did not last long; and within five years, the colonies were embroiled in the next phase of the colonial wars, Queen Anne's War. After their settlement with France in 1701, the Iroquois remained neutral in that conflict, never taking part in active hostilities against either side. Tensions remained high between the English and the tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy, who again fought with the French in Queen Anne's War, with conflict characterized by frequent raids in Massachusetts, including one on Groton in 1694, in which children were kidnapped, and the Deerfield Massacre in 1704, in which more than 100 captives were taken north to Montreal for ransom or adoption by Mohawk and French. By the end of the war, natives were successful in killing more than 700 English and capturing over 250 along the Acadia/ New England border.  The Ryswick treaty was unsatisfactory to representatives of the Hudson's Bay Company. Since most of its trading posts in Hudson Bay had been lost to the French before the war began, the rule of "status quo ante bellum" meant that they remained under French control. The company recovered its territories at the negotiating table when the Treaty of Utrecht ended Queen Anne's War.  Scholars debate whether the war was a contributing factor to the Salem witch trials. King William's War as well as King Philip's War (1675–78) led to the displacement of many refugees in Essex County. The refugees carried with them fears of the Indians, which is debated to have led to fears of witchcraft, especially since the devil was arguably closely associated with Indians and magic. Of course, Cotton Mather also wrote that it was going to lead to an age of sorrow and is arguably a proponent in leading Salem into the witchcraft crisis of 1692. Scholars debate this theory and one scholar, Jenny Hale Pulsipher, maintains that King William's War was more of a cause. Other scholars that have written on the theory of the wars being a leading cause of the Salem Witchcraft Trials include Mary Beth Norton, James Kences, and Emerson Baker.

King William's War (1688–1697, also known as the Second Indian War, Father Baudoin's War, Castin's War, or the First Intercolonial War in French) was the North American theater of the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), also known as the War of the Grand Alliance or the War of the League of Augsburg. It was the first of six colonial wars (see the four French and Indian Wars, Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War) fought between New France and New England along with their respective Native allies before France ceded its remaining mainland territories in North America east of the Mississippi River in 1763.

La première guerre intercoloniale (1688-1697), appelée par l'historiographie anglaise « "" », se rattachant en Europe à la guerre de la Ligue d'Augsbourg, est un conflit qui a en Amérique des enjeux différents. Ici, les affrontements se produisent pour le contrôle de la pêche du golfe du Saint-Laurent et de la fourrure des Grands Lacs et de la baie d'Hudson. C'est la première des guerres coloniales entre les colons français de la Nouvelle-France et les colons anglais de la Nouvelle-Angleterre, série presque ininterrompue de conflits qui prendront fin avec la défaite définitive des premiers à l'issue de la guerre de la Conquête en 1763.


Overview.

APM uses a layered approach to manage devices. APM-aware applications (which include device drivers) talk to an OS-specific APM driver. This driver communicates to the APM-aware BIOS, which controls the hardware. There is the ability to opt out of APM control on a device-by-device basis, which can be used if a driver wants to communicate directly with a hardware device.  Communication occurs both ways; power management events are sent from the BIOS to the APM driver, and the APM driver sends information and requests to the BIOS via function calls. In this way the APM driver is an intermediary between the BIOS and the operating system.  Power management happens in two ways; through the above-mentioned function calls from the APM driver to the BIOS requesting power state changes, and automatically based on device activity.

Power management events.

There are 12 power events (such as standby, suspend and resume requests, and low battery notifications), plus OEM-defined events, that can be sent from the APM BIOS to the operating system. The APM driver regularly polls for event change notifications.  Power Management Events: Power management functions:

APM functions.

There are 21 APM function calls defined that the APM driver can use to query power management statuses, or request power state transitions. Example function calls include letting the BIOS know about current CPU usage (the BIOS may respond to such a call by placing the CPU in a low-power state, or returning it to its full-power state), retrieving the current power state of a device, or requesting a power state change.

Power states.

The APM specification defines system power states and device power states.

System power states.

APM defines five power states for the computer system:

Device power states.

APM also defines power states that APM-aware hardware can implement. There is no requirement that an APM-aware device implement all states.  The four states are:

CPU.

The CPU core (defined in APM as the CPU clock, cache, system bus and system timers) is treated specially in APM, as it is the last device to be powered down, and the first device to be powered back up. The CPU core is always controlled through the APM BIOS (there is no option to control it through a driver). Drivers can use APM function calls to notify the BIOS about CPU usage, but it is up to the BIOS to act on this information; a driver cannot directly tell the CPU to go into a power saving state.

In ATA drives.

The ATA specification defines APM provisions for hard drives via the subcommand, which specifies a trade-off between spin-down frequency and always-on performance. Unlike the BIOS-side APM, the ATA APM has never been deprecated.

Advanced power management (APM) is an API developed by Intel and Microsoft and released in 1992 which enables an operating system running an IBM-compatible personal computer to work with the BIOS (part of the computer's firmware) to achieve power management.

L ́Advanced Power Management ou APM (gestion étendue de l'alimentation) est une interface de programmation (API) développée en collaboration par Intel et Microsoft.


Club career.

Born in Oliveira do Bairro, Aveiro District, João Tomás achieved some notability playing for Académica de Coimbra, earning the nickname of "O Jardel de Coimbra" (Coimbra's Jardel) after Mário Jardel.  He subsequently played for S.L. Benfica, Real Betis – joining in summer 2001 alongside teammate José Calado, he scored seven La Liga goals in his debut season, but appeared scarcely in his second year – Vitória de Guimarães and S.C. Braga, to where he returned after a Qatari stint in 2006–07, where he represented Al-Arabi SC, netting eight times in seventeen games before switching to Al Rayyan SC in 2007, leaving for Asia for free.  In 2004–05 and the following campaign, while with Braga, Tomás was the second best goalscorer in the Primeira Liga. In 2007–08, however, he was very rarely used, due to injuries and the emergence of Austrian Roland Linz, and would sign on July 2008 with Boavista FC, relegated after irregularities to the second division.  Two matches into the 2008–09 season, Tomás entailed negotiations with another Qatari club, Al-Ahli (Doha), but quickly returned to Boavista. In June 2009, as his team suffered a second consecutive drop, he left for Rio Ave F.C. at age 34.  João Tomás fared well in his return to the top level, scoring six goals in the league and eight overall, but moved abroad once again in February 2010, joining United Arab Emirates side Al-Sharjah SCC. In July he returned to Rio Ave, signing a one-year contract.  On 30 October 2010, 35-year-old Tomás scored in a 2–0 home win against former club Braga, as Rio Ave won its first game of the campaign – earlier, in the first half, he missed a penalty kick. In the first year in his second spell in Vila do Conde he finished second in the goal scorers chart, only trailing FC Porto's Hulk.  Tomás moved abroad again in January 2013, penning a contract with C.R.D. Libolo in Angola.

International career.

João Tomás played four times for Portugal. His first game was in the 2–1 win over Israel in a friendly match, on 15 November 2000.  On 22 May 2007, after a -year absence, Tomás was recalled to the national team by Luiz Felipe Scolari, playing in the 1–1 draw with a Kuwaiti club on 5 June in Kuwait City and scoring the Portuguese goal.

João Henrique Pataco Tomás (born 27 May 1975) is a Portuguese retired footballer who played as a striker. He represented mostly Braga (three seasons) and Rio Ave (four) during his 19-year senior career. In his only full season with Benfica he scored 17 goals in 31 games, going on to amass Primeira Liga totals of 261 matches and 98 goals over ten campaigns.

João Henrique Pataco Tomás est un footballeur portugais né le à Oliveira do Bairro. Il évolue au poste d'attaquant. Il est considéré comme étant l'un des attaquants les plus constants du championnat portugais.


History.

Middle Ages.

The first documentary mention of the city, in 1050, mentions Nuremberg as the location of an Imperial castle between the East Franks and the Bavarian March of the Nordgau. From 1050 to 1571 the city expanded and rose dramatically in importance due to its location on key trade-routes. King Conrad III (reigning as King of Germany from 1138 to 1152) established the Burgraviate of Nuremberg, with the first burgraves coming from the Austrian House of Raab. With the extinction of their male line around 1190, the last Raabs count's son-in-law, Frederick I from the House of Hohenzollern, inherited the burgraviate in 1192.  From the late 12th century to the Interregnum (1254–73), however, the power of the burgraves diminished as the Hohenstaufen emperors transferred most non-military powers to a castellan, with the city administration and the municipal courts handed over to an Imperial mayor () from 1173/74. The strained relations between the burgraves and the castellans, with gradual transferral of powers to the latter in the late 14th and early 15th centuries, finally broke out into open enmity, which greatly influenced the history of the city. Nuremberg is often referred to as the "unofficial capital" of the Holy Roman Empire, particularly because the Imperial Diet ("Reichstag") and courts met at Nuremberg Castle. The Diets of Nuremberg played an important role in the administration of the empire. The increasing demands of the Imperial court and the increasing importance of the city attracted increased trade and commerce in Nuremberg. In 1219 Emperor Frederick II granted the ('Great Letter of Freedom'), including town rights, Imperial immediacy (), the privilege to mint coins, and an independent customs policy - almost wholly removing the city from the purview of the burgraves. Nuremberg soon became, with Augsburg, one of the two great trade-centers on the route from Italy to Northern Europe.  In 1298 the Jews of the town were falsely accused of having desecrated the host, and 698 of them were killed in one of the many Rintfleisch massacres. Behind the massacre of 1298 was also the desire to combine the northern and southern parts of the city, which were divided by the Pegnitz. The Jews of the German lands suffered many massacres during the plague pandemic of the mid-14th century.  In 1349 Nuremberg's Jews suffered a pogrom. They were burned at the stake or expelled, and a marketplace was built over the former Jewish quarter. The plague returned to the city in 1405, 1435, 1437, 1482, 1494, 1520 and 1534. The largest growth of Nuremberg occurred in the 14th century. Charles IV's Golden Bull of 1356, naming Nuremberg as the city where newly elected kings of Germany must hold their first Imperial Diet, made Nuremberg one of the three most important cities of the Empire. Charles was the patron of the Frauenkirche, built between 1352 and 1362 (the architect was likely Peter Parler), where the Imperial court worshipped during its stays in Nuremberg. The royal and Imperial connection grew stronger in 1423 when the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg granted the Imperial regalia to be kept permanently in Nuremberg, where they remained until 1796, when the advance of French troops required their removal to Regensburg and thence to Vienna.  In 1349 the members of the guilds unsuccessfully rebelled against the patricians in a ('Craftsmen's Uprising'), supported by merchants and some by councillors, leading to a ban on any self-organisation of the artisans in the city, abolishing the guilds that were customary elsewhere in Europe; the unions were then dissolved, and the oligarchs remained in power while Nuremberg was a free city (until the early-19th century). Charles IV conferred upon the city the right to conclude alliances independently, thereby placing it upon a politically equal footing with the princes of the Empire. Frequent fights took place with the burgraves - without, however, inflicting lasting damage upon the city. After fire destroyed the castle in 1420 during a feud between Frederick IV (from 1417 Margrave of Brandenburg) and the duke of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, the city purchased the ruins and the forest belonging to the castle (1427), resulting in the city's total sovereignty within its borders.  Through these and other acquisitions the city accumulated considerable territory. The Hussite Wars (1419-1434), a recurrence of the Black Death in 1437, and the First Margrave War (1449-1450) led to a severe fall in population in the mid-15th century. Siding with Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria-Munich, in the Landshut War of Succession of 1503-1505 led the city to gain substantial territory, resulting in lands of, making it one of the largest Imperial cities.  During the Middle Ages, Nuremberg fostered a rich, varied, and influential literary culture.

Early modern age.

The cultural flowering of Nuremberg, in the 15th and 16th centuries, made it the centre of the German Renaissance. In 1525, Nuremberg accepted the Protestant Reformation, and in 1532, the Nuremberg Religious Peace was signed there, preventing war between Protestants and Catholics for 15 years. During the 1552 revolution against Charles V, Nuremberg tried to purchase its neutrality, but the city was attacked without a declaration of war and was forced into a disadvantageous peace. At the Peace of Augsburg, the possessions of the Protestants were confirmed by the Emperor, their religious privileges extended and their independence from the Bishop of Bamberg affirmed, while the 1520s' secularisation of the monasteries was also approved. The state of affairs in the early 16th century, increased trade routes elsewhere and the ossification of the social hierarchy and legal structures contributed to the decline in trade. Frequent quartering of Imperial, Swedish and League soldiers, the financial costs of the war and the cessation of trade caused irreparable damage to the city and a near-halving of the population. In 1632, the city, occupied by the forces of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, was besieged by the army of Imperial general Albrecht von Wallenstein. The city declined after the war and recovered its importance only in the 19th century, when it grew as an industrial centre. Even after the Thirty Years' War, however, there was a late flowering of architecture and culture – secular Baroque architecture is exemplified in the layout of the civic gardens built outside the city walls, and in the Protestant city's rebuilding of St. Egidien church, destroyed by fire at the beginning of the 18th century, considered a significant contribution to the baroque church architecture of Middle Franconia.  After the Thirty Years' War, Nuremberg attempted to remain detached from external affairs, but contributions were demanded for the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War and restrictions of imports and exports deprived the city of many markets for its manufactures. The Bavarian elector, Charles Theodore, appropriated part of the land obtained by the city during the Landshut War of Succession, to which Bavaria had maintained its claim; Prussia also claimed part of the territory. Realising its weakness, the city asked to be incorporated into Prussia but Frederick William II refused, fearing to offend Austria, Russia and France. At the Imperial diet in 1803, the independence of Nuremberg was affirmed, but on the signing of the Confederation of the Rhine on 12 July 1806, it was agreed to hand the city over to Bavaria from 8 September, with Bavaria guaranteeing the amortisation of the city's 12.5 million guilder public debt.

After the Napoleonic Wars.

After the fall of Napoleon, the city's trade and commerce revived; the skill of its inhabitants together with its favourable situation soon made the city prosperous, particularly after its public debt had been acknowledged as a part of the Bavarian national debt. Having been incorporated into a Catholic country, the city was compelled to refrain from further discrimination against Catholics, who had been excluded from the rights of citizenship. Catholic services had been celebrated in the city by the priests of the Teutonic Order, often under great difficulties. After their possessions had been confiscated by the Bavarian government in 1806, they were given the Frauenkirche on the Market in 1809; in 1810 the first Catholic parish was established, which in 1818 numbered 1,010 souls.  In 1817, the city was incorporated into the district of Rezatkreis (named for the river Franconian Rezat), which was renamed to Middle Franconia () on 1 January 1838. The first German railway, the Bavarian Ludwigsbahn, from Nuremberg to nearby Fürth, was opened in 1835. The establishment of railways and the incorporation of Bavaria into Zollverein (the 19th-century German Customs Union), commerce and industry opened the way to greater prosperity. In 1852, there were 53,638 inhabitants: 46,441 Protestants and 6,616 Catholics. It subsequently grew to become the more important industrial city of Southern Germany, one of the most prosperous towns of southern Germany, but after the Austro-Prussian War it was given to the Prussia as part of their telegraph stations they had to give up. In 1905, its population, including several incorporated suburbs, was 291,351: 86,943 Catholics, 196,913 Protestants, 3,738 Jews and 3,766 members of other creeds.

Nazi era.

Nuremberg held great significance during the Nazi Germany era. Because of the city's relevance to the Holy Roman Empire and its position in the centre of Germany, the Nazi Party chose the city to be the site of huge Nazi Party conventions — the Nuremberg rallies. The rallies were held in 1927, 1929 and annually from 1933 through 1938. After Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933 the Nuremberg rallies became huge Nazi propaganda events, a centre of Nazi ideals. The 1934 rally was filmed by Leni Riefenstahl, and made into a propaganda film called "Triumph des Willens" ("Triumph of the Will").  At the 1935 rally, Hitler specifically ordered the Reichstag to convene at Nuremberg to pass the Nuremberg Laws which revoked German citizenship for all Jews and other non-Aryans. A number of premises were constructed solely for these assemblies, some of which were not finished. Today many examples of Nazi architecture can still be seen in the city. The city was also the home of the Nazi propagandist Julius Streicher, the publisher of "Der Stürmer". During the Second World War, Nuremberg was the headquarters of "Wehrkreis" (military district) XIII, and an important site for military production, including aircraft, submarines and tank engines. A subcamp of Flossenbürg concentration camp was located here, and extensively used slave labour. The city was severely damaged in Allied strategic bombing from 1943 to 1945. On 29 March 1944, the RAF endured its heaviest losses in the bombing campaign of Germany. Out of more than 700 planes participating, 106 were shot down or crash-landed on the way home to their bases, and more than 700 men were missing, as many as 545 of them dead. More than 160 became prisoners of war.  On 2 January 1945, the medieval city centre was systematically bombed by the Royal Air Force and the U.S. Army Air Forces and about ninety percent of it was destroyed in only one hour, with 1,800 residents killed and roughly 100,000 displaced. In February 1945, additional attacks followed. In total, about 6,000 Nuremberg residents are estimated to have been killed in air raids.  Nuremberg was a heavily fortified city that was captured in a fierce battle lasting from 17 to 21 April 1945 by the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division, 42nd Infantry Division and 45th Infantry Division, which fought house-to-house and street-by-street against determined German resistance, causing further urban devastation to the already bombed and shelled buildings. Despite this intense degree of destruction, the city was rebuilt after the war and was to some extent restored to its pre-war appearance, including the reconstruction of some of its medieval buildings. However, over half of the historic look of the center, and especially the northeastern half of the old Imperial Free City was not restored.

Nuremberg trials.

Between 1945 and 1946, German officials involved in war crimes and crimes against humanity were brought before an international tribunal in the Nuremberg trials. The Soviet Union had wanted these trials to take place in Berlin. However, Nuremberg was chosen as the site for the trials for specific reasons:  Following the trials, in October 1946, several prominent German Nazi politicians and military leaders were executed in Nuremberg.  The same courtroom in Nuremberg was the venue of the Nuremberg Military Tribunals, organized by the United States as occupying power in the area.

Geography.

Several old villages now belong to the city, for example Grossgründlach, Kraftshof, Thon, and Neunhof in the north-west; Ziegelstein in the northeast, Altenfurt and Fischbach in the south-east; and Katzwang, Kornburg in the south. Langwasser is a modern suburb.

Climate.

Nuremberg has an oceanic climate (Köppen: "Cfb") with a certain humid continental influence ("Dfb"), categorized in the latter by the 0 °C isotherm. The city's climate is influenced by its inland position and higher altitude. Winters are changeable, with either mild or cold weather: the average temperature is around to, while summers are generally warm, mostly around at night to in the afternoon. Precipitation is evenly spread throughout the year, although February and April tend to be a bit drier whereas July tends to have more rainfall.

Demographics.

Nuremberg has been a destination for immigrants. 39.5% of the residents had an immigrant background in 2010 (counted with MigraPro).

Economy.

Nuremberg for many people is still associated with its traditional gingerbread ("Lebkuchen") products, sausages, and handmade toys. Pocket watches — "Nuremberg eggs" — were made here in the 16th century by Peter Henlein. Only one of the districts in the 1797-1801 sample was early industrial; the economic structure of the region around Nuremberg was dominated by metal and glass manufacturing, reflected by a share of nearly 50% handicrafts and workers. In the 19th century Nuremberg became the "industrial heart" of Bavaria with companies such as Siemens and MAN establishing a strong base in the city. Nuremberg is still an important industrial centre with a strong standing in the markets of Central and Eastern Europe. Items manufactured in the area include electrical equipment, mechanical and optical products, motor vehicles, writing and drawing paraphernalia, stationery products and printed materials.  The city is also strong in the fields of automation, energy and medical technology. Siemens is still the largest industrial employer in the Nuremberg region but a good third of German market research agencies are also located in the city. The Nuremberg International Toy Fair is the largest of its kind in the world.

Tourism.

Nuremberg is Bavaria’s second largest city after Munich, and a popular tourist destination for foreigners and Germans alike. It was a leading city 500 years ago, but 90% of the town was destroyed in 1945 during the war. After World War II, many medieval-style areas of the town were rebuilt.

Attractions.

Beyond its main attractions of the Imperial Castle, St. Lorenz Church, and Nazi Trial grounds, there are 54 different museums for arts and culture, history, science and technology, family and children, and more niche categories, where visitors can see the world's oldest globe (built in 1492), a 500-year-old Madonna, and Renaissance-era German art. There are several types of tours offered in the city, including historic tours, those that are Nazi-focused, underground and night tours, walking tours, sightseeing buses, self guided tours, and an old town tour on a mini train. Nuremberg also offers several parks and green areas, as well as indoor activities such as bowling, rock wall climbing, escape rooms, cart racing, and mini golf, theaters and cinemas, pools and thermal spas. There are also six nearby amusement parks. The city's tourism board sells the Nurnberg Card which allows for free use of public transportation and free entry to all museums and attractions in Nuremberg for a two-day period.

Culinary Tourism.

Nuremberg is also a destination for food lovers. Culinary tourists can taste the city's famous lebkuchen, gingerbread, local beer, and Nürnberger Rostbratwürstchen, or Nuremberg sausages. There are hundreds of restaurants for all tastes, including traditional franconian restaurants and beer gardens. Also offers 17 vegan and vegetarian restaurants, seven fully organic restaurants. Nuremberg also boasts a two Michelin Star rated restaurant, Essigbrätlein.

Pedestrian zones.

Like many European cities, Nuremberg offers a pedestrian-only zone covering a large portion of the old town, which is a main destination for shopping and specialty retail, including year-round Christmas stores where tourists and locals alike can purchase Christmas ornaments, gifts, decorations, and additions to their toy Christmas villages. The Craftsmen's Courtyard, or Handwerkerhof, is another tourist shopping destination in the style of a medieval village. It houses several local family-run businesses which sell handcrafted items from glass, wood, leather, pottery, and precious metals. The Handwerkerhof is also home to traditional German restaurants and beer gardens.  The Pedestrian zones of Nuremberg host festivals and markets throughout the year, most well known being Christkindlesmarkt, Germany's largest Christmas market and the gingerbread capital of the world. Visitors to the Christmas market can peruse the hundreds of stalls and purchase local wood crafts, nutcrackers, smokers, and prune people, while sampling Christmas sweets and traditional gluhwein.

Hospitality.

In 2017, Nuremberg saw a total of 3.3 million overnight stays, a record for the town, and is expected to have surpassed that in 2018, with more growth in tourism anticipated in the coming years. There are over 175 registered places of accommodation in Nuremberg, ranging from hostels to luxury hotels, bed and breakfasts, to multi-hundred room properties. As of 19 April 2019, Nuremberg had 306 AirBnB listings.

Culture.

Nuremberg was an early centre of humanism, science, printing, and mechanical invention. The city contributed much to the science of astronomy. In 1471 Johannes Mueller of Königsberg (Bavaria), later called Regiomontanus, built an astronomical observatory in Nuremberg and published many important astronomical charts.  In 1515, Albrecht Dürer, a native of Nuremberg, created woodcuts of the first maps of the stars of the northern and southern hemispheres, producing the first printed star charts, which had been ordered by Johannes Stabius. Around 1515 Dürer also published the "Stabiussche Weltkarte", the first perspective drawing of the terrestrial globe.  Printers and publishers have a long history in Nuremberg. Many of these publishers worked with well-known artists of the day to produce books that could also be considered works of art. In 1470 Anton Koberger opened Europe's first print shop in Nuremberg. In 1493, he published the "Nuremberg Chronicles", also known as the "World Chronicles" ("Schedelsche Weltchronik"), an illustrated history of the world from the creation to the present day. It was written in the local Franconian dialect by Hartmann Schedel and had illustrations by Michael Wohlgemuth, Wilhelm Pleydenwurff, and Albrecht Dürer. Others furthered geographical knowledge and travel by map making. Notable among these was navigator and geographer Martin Behaim, who made the first world globe.  Sculptors such as Veit Stoss, Adam Kraft and Peter Vischer are also associated with Nuremberg.  Composed of prosperous artisans, the guilds of the Meistersingers flourished here. Richard Wagner made their most famous member, Hans Sachs, the hero of his opera "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg". Baroque composer Johann Pachelbel was born here and was organist of St. Sebaldus Church.  The academy of fine arts situated in Nuremberg is the oldest art academy in central Europe and looks back to a tradition of 350 years of artistic education.  Nuremberg is also famous for its Christkindlesmarkt (Christmas market), which draws well over a million shoppers each year. The market is famous for its handmade ornaments and delicacies.

Performing arts.

The Nuremberg State Theatre, founded in 1906, is dedicated to all types of opera, ballet and stage theatre. During the season 2009/2010, the theatre presented 651 performances for an audience of 240,000 persons. The State Philharmonic Nuremberg (Staatsphilharmonie Nürnberg) is the orchestra of the State Theatre. Its name was changed in 2011 from its previous name: The Nuremberg Philharmonic ("Nürnberger Philharmoniker"). It is the second-largest opera orchestra in Bavaria. Besides opera performances, it also presents its own subscription concert series in the Meistersingerhalle. Christof Perick was the principal conductor of the orchestra between 2006–2011. Marcus Bosch heads the orchestra since September 2011.  The Nuremberg Symphony Orchestra ("Nürnberger Symphoniker") performs around 100 concerts a year to a combined annual audience of more than 180,000. The regular subscription concert series are mostly performed in the "Meistersingerhalle" but other venues are used as well, including the new concert hall of the "Kongresshalle" and the "Serenadenhof". Alexander Shelley has been the principal conductor of the orchestra since 2009.  The Nuremberg International Chamber Music Festival ("Internationales Kammermusikfestival Nürnberg") takes place in early September each year, and in 2011 celebrated its tenth anniversary. Concerts take place around the city; opening and closing events are held in the medieval "Burg". The Bardentreffen, an annual folk festival in Nuremberg, has been deemed the largest world music festival in Germany and takes place since 1976. 2014 the Bardentreffen starred 368 artists from 31 nations.

Cuisine.

Nuremberg is known for Nürnberger Bratwurst, which is shorter and thinner than other bratwurst sausages.  Another Nuremberg speciality is Nürnberger Lebkuchen, a kind of gingerbread eaten mainly around Christmas time.

Education.

Nuremberg offers 51 public and 6 private elementary schools in nearly all of its districts. Secondary education is offered at 23 Mittelschulen, 12 Realschulen, and 17 Gymnasien (state, city, church, and privately owned). There are also several other providers of secondary education such as Berufsschule, Berufsfachschule, Wirtschaftsschule etc.

Higher education.

Nuremberg hosts the joint university Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, two Fachhochschulen (Technische Hochschule Nürnberg and "Evangelische Hochschule Nürnberg"), an art school ("Akademie der Bildenden Künste Nürnberg"), and a music conservatoire (Hochschule für Musik Nürnberg). There are also private schools such as the "Akademie Deutsche POP Nürnberg" offering higher education.

Transport.

The city's location next to numerous highways, railways, and a waterway has contributed to its rising importance for trade with Eastern Europe.

Railways.

Nürnberg Hauptbahnhof is a stop for IC and ICE trains on the German long-distance railway network. The Nuremberg–Ingolstadt–Munich high-speed line with operation opened 28 May 2006, and was fully integrated into the rail schedule on 10 December 2006. Travel times to Munich have been reduced to as little as one hour. The Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway opened in December 2017.

City and regional transport.

The Nuremberg tramway network was opened in 1881., it extended a total length of, had six lines, and carried 39.152 million passengers annually. The first segment of the Nuremberg U-Bahn metro system was opened in 1972. Nuremberg's trams, buses and metro system are operated by the VAG Nürnberg ("Verkehrsaktiengesellschaft Nürnberg" or Nuremberg Transport Corporation), itself a member of the VGN ("Verkehrsverbund Grossraum Nürnberg" or Greater Nuremberg Transport Network).  There is also a Nuremberg S-Bahn suburban metro railway and a regional train network, both centred on Nürnberg Hauptbahnhof. Since 2008, Nuremberg has had the first U-Bahn in Germany (U2/U21 and U3) that works without a driver. It also was the first subway system worldwide in which both driver-operated trains and computer-controlled trains shared tracks.

Motorways.

Nuremberg is located at the junction of several important Autobahn routes. The A3 ("Netherlands"–Frankfurt–Würzburg–"Vienna") passes in a south-easterly direction along the north-east of the city. The A9 (Berlin–Munich) passes in a north–south direction on the east of the city. The A6 ("France"–Saarbrücken–"Prague") passes in an east–west direction to the south of the city. Finally, the A73 begins in the south-east of Nuremberg and travels north-west through the city before continuing towards Fürth and Bamberg.

Airport.

Nuremberg Airport has flights to major German cities and many European destinations. The largest operators are currently Eurowings, TUI fly Deutschland and SunExpress Deutschland, while the low-cost Ryanair and Wizz Air companies connect the city to various European centres. A significant amount of the airport's traffic flies to and from mainly touristic destinations during the peak winter season. The airport (Flughafen) is the terminus of subway line 2; it is the only airport in Germany served by a subway.

Canals.

Nuremberg is an important port on the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal.

Sport.

Football.

1. FC Nürnberg, known locally as "Der Club" (English: "The Club"), was founded in 1900 and currently plays in the Bundesliga. The official colours of the association are red and white, but the traditional colours are red and black. They won their first regional title in the Southern German championship in 1916 closely followed by their first national title in 1920. Besides the eleven regional championships they won they were the German championship for a total of seven times. With this they held the record for the most German championship titles until 1986 when the current record holder FC Bayern München surpassed them. The current chairmen are Nils Rossow and Robert Palikuca. They play in Max-Morlock-Stadion which was refurbished for the 2006 FIFA World Cup and accommodates 50,000 spectators.  TuS Bar Kochba is a league that was founded in 1913 as a social-sport club for the Jewish community in Nürnberg. Established as the "Jewish Gymnastics and Sports Club Nuremberg", the league was dissolved by the Nazi party in 1939. It was reformed in 1966. The club plays in the senior A-league of the Bavarian Football Association.

Basketball.

The "SELLBYTEL Baskets Nürnberg" played in the Basketball Bundesliga from 2005 to 2007. Since then, teams from Nuremberg have attempted to return to Germany's elite league. The recently founded Nürnberg Falcons BC have already established themselves as one of the main teams in Germany's second division ProA and aim to take on the heritage of the SELLBYTEL Baskets Nürnberg. The Falcons play their home games at the "Halle im Berufsbildungszentrum (BBZ)".

International relations.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Nuremberg is twinned with:

Associated cities.

Apart from the official twin towns (sister cities), there are a number with which Nuremberg maintains "cordial relations":

Cooperation.

Nuremberg also engages in cooperation with various other cities internationally:

Nuremberg ( ; ; ; East Franconian: or, locally ) is the second-largest city of the German federal state of Bavaria after its capital Munich, and its 511,628 (2016) inhabitants make it the 14th largest city in Germany. On the Pegnitz River (from its confluence with the Rednitz in Fürth onwards: Regnitz, a tributary of the River Main) and the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, it lies in the Bavarian administrative region of Middle Franconia, and is the largest city and the unofficial capital of Franconia. Nuremberg forms a continuous conurbation with the neighbouring cities of Fürth, Erlangen and Schwabach with a total population of 798,867 (2018), while the larger Nuremberg Metropolitan Region has approximately 3.6 million inhabitants. The city lies about north of Munich. It is the largest city in the East Franconian dialect area (colloquially: "Franconian"; ), Nuremberg was one of the host cities of the 2006 FIFA World Cup.

Nuremberg ("" ) est une ville de Bavière, en Allemagne. Avec habitants en, c'est la deuxième ville de Bavière après Munich. Elle est le centre économique du district de Moyenne-Franconie et l'un des principaux centres industriels d'Allemagne du Sud. La rivière Pegnitz sépare la vieille ville en deux quartiers, celui de Sebald et celui de Lorenz, nommés d'après les deux principales églises de Nuremberg.


Themes.

Francophones have been criticized by their Anglophone counterparts who feel discriminated against because the law requires French as the only working-language (in large companies, since 1977). The expression "pure laine" ("pure wool"), used to denote Quebecers of French descent, has often been cited as a manifestation of discriminatory attitudes. "Pure laine" has been portrayed as an expression of racial exclusion in Quebec, while counter-critics deem the term obsolete.  Critics note the low percentage of minority participation in any level of the Quebec public services. While some efforts have been made to increase the percentage of minorities (i.e. Montreal Police Force), the public service of Quebec (Société de l'assurance automobile

Context.

Quebec context.

Quebec is a Canadian province with a French-speaking majority (81% cite French alone as their mother tongue while 95% are either fluent in French or have a working knowledge of French as a second or third language). In contrast the rest of Canada has a majority of English speakers (75% cite English alone as their mother tongue while 98% have a working knowledge in the last census), compared to 11% who have a working knowledge of French.  Before 1763, most of the land that is currently the Province of Quebec was part of New France, an area of North America colonized by France. After the defeat of France in the Seven Years' War, the territory was

English-Canadian context.

George Brown, a prominent Canada West politician, Father of Confederation and founder of "The Globe" newspaper, said before Confederation: "What has French-Canadianism been denied? Nothing. It bars all it dislikes—it extorts all its demands—and it grows insolent over its victories." Quebec has pursued a distinctive national identity, English Canada tried to adopt multiculturalism. Pierre Trudeau was prime minister during much of the period from 1968 until 1984, a French Canadian who seemed until the early 1980s to have some degree of support among the Quebec people. He believed that the nation needed to abandon the "two nations" theory in favour of multiculturalism and insisted on treating all provinces as inherently equal to one another. He did not want to accord a constitutional veto or distinct society status to Quebec. Professor Kenneth McRoberts of York University says that the Trudeau legacy has led the "rest of Canada" to misunderstand Quebec nationalism. They resent or get angry about the federal and Quebec governments in relation to issues of language, culture and national identity. In 1991, McRoberts argued that the effect of Trudeau's policies of official bilingualism, multiculturalism, and the entrenchment of a Charter of

Examples.

Within Canada, people such as Howard Galganov, a former radio personality, and the journalist Diane Francis have gained a reputation for their anti-Quebec opinions. The author Mordecai Richler, an Anglophone Quebecer known for his fiction as well as essays, wrote a number of articles published in the United States and Great Britain that many Québécois separatists considered offensive. Before entering politics, former B.C. NDP candidate Dayleen Van Ryswyk made comments on a local website blog in 2009: "Seems the only group of people universally hated around the world other than the Americans are the French and French-Canadians. The bigots are the French and not us." Van Ryswyk herself was forced to resign on the first day of her 2013 campaign, over comments she posted to her blog about First Nations people that were widely interpreted as racist.  Outside the English-speaking world, three articles harshly critical of Quebec were published in German newspapers during the 1990s: "A Quebec as antisemite as 50 years ago" in the "Süddeutsche Zeitung"; "Empty shop windows, barricaded doors and hate graffitis" in the "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung;" and "Hello Montreal, and goodbye forever!" in "Die Welt", three of the largest newspapers in Germany.  Unfavourable depictions of Quebec have been made in books such as "Bilingual Today, French Tomorrow", as well as political cartoons. Another example of Quebec bashing is found in pop culture: Don Cherry, a sports commentator on the CBC, has occasionally been accused of Quebec bashing. In 2006, articles labeled as "Quebec bashing" sparked controversies: Barbara Kay's August 9 "The rise of Quebecistan" in "The National Post" and Jan Wong's September 16 "Get under the desk" in "The Globe and Mail". "The Globe and Mail" and "The National Post", Canada's two national newspapers, are both Toronto-based publications.

Robert Guy Scully.

On Sunday, April 17, 1977, five months after the first accession of the Parti Québécois to power, "The Washington Post" published an OpEd piece entitled "What It Means To Be French In Canada" by the journalist Robert Guy Scully. Scully wrote: "French Quebec is a culturally deprived, insecure community whose existence is an accident of history." He described Québécois society as incurably "sick" and pointed to the economic poverty found in the French-speaking eastern part of

Esther Delisle.

Esther Delisle, a French-Canadian PhD student at Université Laval, wrote a thesis that discussed the "fascist" and anti-semitic published writings by intellectuals and leading newspapers in Quebec in the decade before World War II. She published a book, "The Traitor and the Jew" (1992) based on that work, which examined the articles and beliefs of Lionel Groulx, an important intellectual in the history of French-Canadian Catholicism and nationalism. Groulx is a revered figure to many French Quebecers, who consider him a father of Quebec nationalism, although

Mordecai Richler.

The well-known Montreal author Mordecai Richler wrote essays in which he decried what he perceived as racism, tribalism, provincialism, and anti-semitism among nationalist politicians in French-speaking Quebec, notably in a 1991 article in "The New Yorker" and his 1992 book "Oh Canada! Oh Quebec!." His negative portrayal of some Quebec government policies was given international coverage in the United States and Great Britain, where French-speaking Quebecers were heard and read much less often than English Canadians. Richler's views were strongly criticized in Quebec and, to

Don Cherry.

Don Cherry, a longtime commentator on "Hockey Night in Canada" has made a few comments interpreted by many Québécois as Quebec bashing. For example, in 1993 he said the Anglo residents of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario "speak the good language"; during the 1998 Winter Olympic Games he called Quebec separatists "whiners", after Bloc MPs had complained there were too many Canadian flags in the Olympic village. He said that Jean-Luc Brassard shouldn't

Richard Lafferty.

In a 1993 financial analysis bulletin sent to 275 people, broker Richard Lafferty compared the leader of the Bloc Québécois, Lucien Bouchard, and the leader of the Parti Québécois, Jacques Parizeau, to Adolf Hitler, and said their tactics were similar to his. Parizeau was said to have been especially offended, as he is the widower of Alice Poznanska, a Polish author who saw the horrors of the Third Reich first hand. The two politicians sued

Appointment of David Levine.

In 1998 David Levine, a former candidate for the Parti Québécois, was appointed as head of the newly amalgamated Ottawa Hospital. The appointment was opposed in English Canada because Levine had been a separatist, which was

Lawrence Martin.

In 1997 Lawrence Martin published "The Antagonist: Lucien Bouchard and the Politics of Delusion". In it he created a psychobiography of Lucien Bouchard, then premier of Quebec. He described Bouchard as "mystical", and his culture as "most uncanadian". Martin based his book on the psychological analysis of Bouchard made by

Barbara Kay.

On August 6, 2006, leaders of Parti Québécois and Québec solidaire participated in a rally in support of Lebanon during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict. The rally was billed as being for "justice and peace," but journalist

Jan Wong.

On September 13, 2006, a perpetrator at Dawson College in Westmount, Quebec, committed murder-suicide after wounding several other people. Three days later, the national newspaper, "The Globe and Mail", published a front-page article by Jan Wong titled, "Get under the desk". In the article, she linked all three school shootings of the last decades in Montreal, including those in 1989 at the École Polytechnique and the 1992 shootings at Concordia University, to the purported alienation brought about by "the decades-long linguistic struggle."  A number of Quebec journalists denounced Wong's article. Michel Vastel, a native Frenchman, wrote in his blog for the news magazine "L'Actualité",

Yeux bridés.

In March 2007, during a discussion with students at l'Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, the PQ leader André Boisclair recalled his studies in Boston. He said he had been surprised to see that a third of the students registered for the first-year program of the university had "les yeux bridés." This was translated as "slanted eyes" by

Disunited States of Canada documentary.

In 2012, the documentary film "Disunited States of Canada" (Les États-Désunis du Canada) created quite a stir in Quebec media. It recorded anti-Quebec sentiment expressed by Western Canadians and by

Reaction to Anti-Quebec criticism.

Reaction by Quebec media and public figures.

Quebec-bashing has been denounced as dishonest, false, defamatory and sometimes prejudiced, racist, colonialist, or hate speech by many people of all origins and political colours in Quebec. When Prime Minister Stephen Harper commented

Reaction by English Canadian media and public figures.

Just as the francophone media is capable of responding to tenuous allegations of Quebec-bashing, the mainstream media in English Canada have taken issue with virulent attacks on Quebec and the Québécois. The former Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper, was particularly critical about the Jan Wong article that linked the Dawson College shooting incident to allegations of racist attitudes on the part of Québécois. Critics

Allegations of English Canadian racism.

Quebec nationalists assert that English-speaking Canada was antisemitic. Jews, who as a national minority, faced persecution across Canada, were subject to quotas at McGill University. The federal government notoriously refused entry to Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi persecution in Europe in the 1930s and 1940s, and seeking to dock in Quebec City, despite the fact that it was at the behest of French Quebec. As a French Roman Catholic ethnic and religious minority in the British Empire, Lower Canada was first in the British Empire to grant Jews full civil and political rights in the Act of June 5, 1832, after the debate over Jewish Trois-Rivières resident Ezekiel Hart.  Journalist Normand Lester wrote three polemic volumes of "The Black Book of English Canada" in which "Quebec bashing" is denounced and acts of discrimination, racism and intolerance, towards people who were not white Anglo-Saxon

Complaints by Quebecers to international forums.

Organizations, such as the Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society (SSJB) often lodge formal complaints about perceived misrepresentation. In 1999 Guy Bouthillier, then president of the SSJB, lamenting the phenomenon, pointed out that the "right to good reputation" was a recognized right in the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, inspired by the international human rights

Petition against Francophobia.

The Société Saint-Jean-Baptiste de Montréal had released a report on December 12, 2013, called "United Against Francophobia". In total of 101 cosignatories including Bernard Landry and Pierre Curzi are against francophobia, an increased worldwide trend according

Debate.

While examples of anti-Quebec coverage in English Canada are recognized by a number of French-speaking people in Quebec, whether this represents a wide phenomenon and an opinion held by many people in English Canada is subject to debate. Certainly the print examples cited here constitute only a tiny portion of English-Canadian print journalism during the period covered. Chantal Hébert noted that commentators such as Graham Fraser, Jeffrey Simpson and Paul Wells, who are more positive about Quebec, were often called upon by the Canadian media since the 1995 referendum. She also mentioned Edward Greenspon, who, however, as editor-in-chief of "The Globe and Mail", ended up defending an alleged instance of Quebec bashing in 2006, "Globe and Mail" columnist Jan Wong's "Get under the desk".  Graham

Other depictions.

Other English-speaking journalists, such as Ray Conlogue, Peter Scowen or Graham Fraser, have earned notable reputations for a more fair and sympathetic views of Quebec, in both sovereigntist and federalist circles.

Anti-Quebec sentiment () is opposition or hostility expressed toward the government, culture, or the francophone people of Quebec. French-language media in Quebec have termed Quebec bashing (using the English words) what it perceives as defamatory anti-Quebec coverage in the English-language media. They cite examples mostly from the English-Canadian media, and occasionally in coverage from other countries, often based on Canadian sources. Some sovereignist journalists and academics noted that unfavourable depictions of the province by the media increased in the late 1990s after the unsuccessful 1995 Quebec referendum on independence.

Le Québec est une attitude de dénigrement du Québec, son gouvernement, sa culture, son fonctionnement, mais plus particulièrement, des francophones et des souverainistes qui y vivent. Cette attitude s'exprime surtout dans le Canada anglais, mais on la retrouve aussi au Québec chez certains fédéralistes, principalement anglophones, mais parfois francophones.


Liste des chaînes de télévision sportive

Americas.

Brazil.

National sports networks

Mexico.

In Mexico the Viva Sports channel of Dish will become Claro Sports and transmit the contents of América Móvil, forward Arturo Elias Ayub, CEO of UnoTV.  "There is a sports channel now called Dish Viva Sports changed from to 16 December for 12:00 AM (Local Time) and will be called Claro Sports and be a channel that is in all countries where America Movil has pay TV systems and in that channel transmit complete the Olympic Winter Games," said Arturo Elias Ayub during the presentation of the alliance transmission of the Olympic Winter Games.  The manager said UnoTV have no regulatory restrictions to bring their content to a channel with a pay-TV company.  "What we can not do is directly offer pay television or broadcast television, but nowhere prohibits us create content that is just what we are doing", said the director of UnoTV.  The concession of Telefonos de Mexico (Telmex ) does not allow the telco to offer services restricted audio and video until it complies with the Convergence Agreement issued in 2006, which requires the phone to provide interoperability, interconnection and information.  Coverage by public transport JO  America Movil has 28 agreements with means for transmitting the Sochi Winter Olympics 2014 will reach 90 million viewers.  Of the 28 media, 25 are state and local television stations, one more is the Promoter Agency Broadcasting (OPMA) with coverage in 16 cities and another is the Clear Channel Sports pay TV and UnoTV channel online, reported America Movil conference.  Carlos Slim's company obtained the exclusive rights to broadcast the Olympic Winter Games Sochi, Russia 2014 and Olympic Games in Brazil in 2016 to 17 countries in Latin America, except for Brazil.  The manager explained that they have several agreements in accordance with the type of concession of the television.  "There concessionaires and licensees, a concession by title can not pass if advertising and the other, then each of them there are different arrangements, in both cases there is no direct charge for the rights, but there is an agreement for broadcasting revenues," explained Elias Ayub.  Octavio Juan Pavón, Radio and Television of Veracruz, said that this transmission confirms that public media are an alternative and becomes the third country national network for its coverage.  Meanwhile, Monica Ramirez of Radio and Television of Querétaro, generous scored the agreement between America Movil and the various public media so that the latter can transmit the Olympics.  America Movil reiterated that remain open to provide to anyone interested the transmission of the Olympic Games.

United States.

National sports networks  Regional sports networks

Sports channels are television speciality channels (usually available exclusively through cable and satellite) broadcast sporting events, usually live, and when not broadcasting events, sports news and other related programming.

Une chaîne de télévision sportive consacre ses programmes au sport. Les premiers exemples de télévisions sportives furent SportsChannel à New York en 1977 et ESPN sur les réseaux câblés américains en 1979. En Europe, Screensport commence à diffuser en 1987 puis Eurosport est créée en 1989. Ces chaînes sont toutes omnisports. Les années 1990 marque l'apparition de trois catégories de stations sportives : informations sportives (L'Équipe TV ou InfoSport par exemple), unisport (TPS Foot ou Équidia par exemple) et chaîne de club (OM TV ou Manchester United TV par exemple).


Early life, marriage and family.

Born at Montagu House, Whitehall, Westminster, London, into a family of four boys and three girls, William Henry Walter Montagu Douglas Scott was the eldest son of Walter Montagu Douglas Scott, 5th Duke of Buccleuch & 7th Duke of Queensberry and Lady Charlotte Anne Thynne, daughter of Sir Thomas Thynne, 2nd Marquess of Bath, and the Hon. Isabella Elizabeth Byng. He was educated at Eton College and at Christ Church, Oxford.  On Tuesday 22 November 1859 at London, England, he married Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton, the third daughter of Sir James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Abercorn and Lady Louisa Jane Russell, daughter of Sir John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford. As heir apparent to his father's title, William was already "Earl of Dalkeith" by courtesy, and thus his new bride was immediately styled "Countess of Dalkeith". They had six sons and two daughters:

Career.

He sat as Conservative Member of Parliament for Midlothian from 1853–1868 and from 1874–1880. He was also lieutenant colonel of the Midlothian Yeomanry from 1856–1872, as well as serving as Justice of the Peace (JP) for Selkirkshire, Deputy Lieutenant (DL) of Selkirkshire, and Deputy Lieutenant (DL) of Roxburghshire.  The "Political Achievements of the Earl of Dalkeith" was a political pamphlet that was published and circulated in Edinburgh during the 1880 United Kingdom general election. It was well presented but inside the neatly printed cover there were just thirty-two blank pages, making it an early empty book. The publication was thought to be an effective attack on William Montagu Douglas Scott, 6th Duke of Buccleuch, who lost the seat to William Gladstone by 211 votes.

Death.

William Henry Walter Montagu Douglas Scott, 6th Duke of Buccleuch & 8th Duke of Queensberry, died at Montagu House, Whitehall, London, England on Thursday 5 November 1914, in his 83rd year. He had survived his wife, Lady Louisa Jane, by little more than two years. He was survived by seven of his eight children and their families.  He was buried on Tuesday 10 November 1914 in the family crypt of the Buccleuch Memorial Chapel in St. Mary's Episcopal Church, Dalkeith, Midlothian. The church is located on Dalkeith's High Street, at the entrance to Dalkeith Country Park.

William Henry Walter Montagu Douglas Scott, 6th Duke of Buccleuch and 8th Duke of Queensberry (9 September 1831 – 5 November 1914) was a Scottish Member of Parliament and peer. He was the paternal grandfather of Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, and the maternal great-grandfather of Prince William of Gloucester and Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester.

William Henry Walter Montagu-Douglas-Scott ( – ), duc de Buccleuch et duc de Queensberry, fut un parlementaire et un pair écossais.