History.

At first, the band consisted solely of Willgoose. He made his public debut at The Selkirk pub in Tooting, London, England in August 2009. Shortly afterwards he issued "EP One". Teaming up with Wrigglesworth on drums the band played its first festival in September 2010, Aestival in Suffolk, and work began on a second EP, "The War Room", which was released in May 2012. Since then, the band has released three albums, "Inform-Educate-Entertain" (2013); "The Race for Space" (2015); and "Every Valley" (2017). The Race for Space was supported by two shows at the National Space Centre in Leicester celebrating the album's launch. The album charted just outside the top 10 in 11th place in the UK in its release week and reaching Number 1 in the UK Independent Charts for that week. A follow-up EP was released at the tail end of 2015 (Sputnik/Korolev) which was backed up by a UK tour, climaxing in the band's biggest headline show, a sold-out night at the O2 Academy Brixton, of which a live album was released in 2016. While writing "The War Room" the band formed a close relationship with the British Film Institute, using their material during live shows.  On 10 March 2017, PSB released a new single titled "Progress" featuring vocals from Tracyanne Campbell from Camera Obscura with photo shoots showing the band as a three-piece with new member JF Abraham featured on promotional photos. Their third studio album, entitled "Every Valley", about the coal mining industry's rise and fall in the Welsh Valleys between the 1950s and 1980s, was released on 7 July 2017. As with "The Race for Space", the band had two album launch concerts, this time in Ebbw Vale, where the LP was recorded.  In June 2018, PSB appeared at the BBC Music "Big Weekend", playing at the Titanic Quarter in Belfast. As part of this a series of four new pieces, based on the story of the, was debuted. These tracks were released as the EP White Star Liner on 26 October 2018.  They performed a "specially commissioned new arrangement" of "The Race for Space" on 25 July 2019 in a late-night Prom, joined by London Contemporary Voices and the Multi-Story Orchestra, the performance being shown on BBC television the following night.

Music style and live performances.

The band mostly plays instrumental music; Willgoose has said that "singing is never going to work. I'm not going to be happy with it, I'm not going to be comfortable playing it to other people." They take samples from old public information films, archive footage and propaganda material. Despite Willgoose's prior reservations about singing, he did later contribute vocals to the duet piece 'You + Me' from Every Valley, because the intended vocalist was not available.

Public Service Broadcasting are a London-based musical group consisting of J. Willgoose, Esq. on guitar, banjo, other stringed instruments, samplings and electronic musical instruments, Wrigglesworth on drums, piano and electronic musical instruments, and J F Abraham on flugelhorn, bass guitar, drums and assorted other instruments including a vibraslap. The band has toured internationally and in 2015 was announced as nominee in the Vanguard breakthrough category of the fourth annual Progressive Music Awards, staged by "Prog" magazine, which they won.

Public Service Broadcasting est un groupe de rock alternatif britannique, originaire de Londres, en Angleterre. Il est composé d'un ancien producteur de BBC World Service, J. Willgoose (guitare, banjo, divers instruments à cordes, samplings et instruments de musique électronique), de Wrigglesworth (percussions, piano et instruments de musique électronique) et de JF Abraham.


History.

The origin of Bayer Leverkusen women's football section lies at the SSG 09 Bergisch Gladbach, which in the 1970s and 1980s was the dominating club in German women's football. In that period Bergisch Gladbach won the national women's football championship nine times which today is still the record. They also won the DFB-Pokal three times. After the inception of the Bundesliga in 1990 their performance declined through the 1990s, eventually leading to relegation.  In 1996 the women's team moved from SSG 09 Bergisch Gladbach to TuS Köln rrh.. At Köln the team played mostly second-tier football with a few seasons in the third tier in between. Their greatest success was a semi-final appearance in the 2007–08 cup. However the team was not able to find sponsors, that would help to realize the team's ambitions of playing Bundesliga football again. Contemporaneously Bayer Leverkusen pronounced their interest to establish a women's football section of their own. On 25 June 2008 the women's football department of TuS Köln rrh. disbanded to join Bayer Leverkusen.  In their first season at Bayer Leverkusen the team finished 7th in the south group of the 2. Bundesliga. The following season Leverkusen became champions of the 2. Bundesliga and would thus play in the Bundesliga in the 2010–11 season. In its debut season the team finished 8th.  The following season the team finished 11th in the table, yet wasn't relegated as Hamburger SV announced its disestablishment of the women's section. Since the 2012–13 season, Leverkusen had been coached by Thomas Obliers, until his resignation in 2017. Leverkusen were relegated back to the 2. Bundesliga soon after.

Bayer 04 Leverkusen, also known as Bayer Leverkusen, Leverkusen, or simply known as Bayer, is a German women's football club based in Leverkusen, North Rhine-Westphalia. The club plays in the Frauen-Bundesliga, the top tier of German women's football.

L'équipe féminine de football du Bayer 04 Leverkusen est une des sections du Bayer 04 Leverkusen. Elle est créée en 2008 par l'absorption de l'équipe du Tus Koln rrh. L'équipe évolue en première division du championnat d'Allemagne de football féminin depuis la saison 2010-2011.


Early life and education.

Mohammad Mohammadi-Malayeri was born to Hedayatollah Najafi in 1911 in Malayer in western Iran. His father was the regional Marja' Taghlid and Hakem Shar' (religious leader and shari'a judge). In 1934 he enrolled in the Faculty of Theological Sciences at the newly established University of Tehran, majoring in Arabic literature. Ranked first in his class he received a bachelor's degree in 1937. Following an agreement with the American University of Beirut (AUB) to establish Persian Language Studies there, he was sent by the Ministry of Education and Culture to Beirut to teach Persian Language and Literature and to continue his studies in Arabic Literature. He obtained his Doctorate from AUB in 1942.

Career.

Upon return to Tehran he was initially asked by the Ministry of Education and Culture to prepare a plan to improve the teaching of Arabic in Iranian schools and the training of Arabic teachers. He then joined the Faculty of Theological Sciences, and continued this activity to modernize Arabic studies at the university level, which resulted in authoring a book titled ‘Dars al Loghah wal Adab’ in two volumes published by Tehran University in 1949 and 1951. The book continues to be taught in Iranian universities. He was Vice Dean of the Faculty from 1950 to 1957, when he was again sent to Beirut to establish the Department of Persian Language and Literature at the newly established Lebanese University. He chaired the Department for the next 10 years. While at Lebanese University he established a bilingual Persian/Arabic journal titled Al Derasat al Adabiyah (Literary Studies) which is still being published. During this period he also authored three books in Arabic: Persian Roots in Arabic Literature – Books of Taj and Ayeen, Translation and Transcription from Persian in the First Centuries of Islam, and Persian Literature – Its most Important Periods and Most Renowned Elements. Meanwhile, he also served as the Iranian Cultural Counsellor in Lebanon. He returned to Tehran in 1968 when he was appointed as the Dean of the Faculty of Theological Sciences of the University of Tehran, where he established the literary publication ‘Maghalaat va Barresiha’. He retired from academia in 1979.

Later life.

During retirement he organized more than forty years of research into the 5-volume book “Iranian Culture and History during the Period of Transition between the Sassanid and Islamic Eras”. This book was selected as Iran’s book of the Year in 2003.

Personal life.

He married Pari Mosavvar-Rahmani in 1942. They had three children: Nasrin (1944–1999), Shahrokh (born 1948), and Sousan (born 1949). Professor Mohammadi died at home in Tehran in 2002 at the age of 91.

Contributions.

Prof. Mohammadi’s focus in his lifetime studies was to explain the apparent 250-year break in Iranian literary history between the collapse of the Sassanid Empire in the seventh century AD and the reappearance of Persian poetry in the eleventh century AD. He refuted the general belief in such a break and argued that during the period of transition between the Sassanid and Islamic eras Iranian civilization and culture infiltrated and impacted Arab and Islamic life through the efforts of Iranian scholars and administrators who chose to produce their works in the language of the Quran, i.e. Arabic. He went on to describe why this period of transition and the Persian roots of Islamic civilization have so far been obscured. He identified the main reason as ta’arib (or Arabization), i.e. giving Persian names an Arabic format so that the roots of the original names are forgotten, or covering in history books only events and tales pertaining to Arab migrants and ignoring the coverage of the lives of non-Arab peoples within the territories of Iran, or avoiding references to Persian and Iranian sources in Arabic books of history, which collectively resulted in the gradual obscurity of the manifestations of Iranian civilization in reference books of the period of transition.

Mohammad Mohammadi-Malayeri () was an Iranian historian, linguist, and literary scholar. He authored numerous books and articles on comparative Persian and Arabic languages and literature as well as Iranian history specifically the period of transition between the Sassanid Empire and the Islamic era. He taught at the American University of Beirut, the Lebanese University, as well as the University of Tehran, where he was the Dean of the Faculty of Theological Sciences. He is best known for his 5-volume work titled “Iranian Culture and History during the Period of Transition between the Sassanid and Islamic Eras”

Mohammad Mohammadi-Malayeri, est un historien iranien, linguiste et spécialiste de littérature. Il est l'auteur de nombreux ouvrages et articles portant sur les langues (arabe et persan) et la littérature comparées et sur l'histoire iranienne notamment la période de transition entre l'Empire sassanide et l'ère islamique. Il a enseigné à l'Université Américaine de Beyrouth, l'Université Libanaise et l'Université de Téhéran, où il occupait le poste de doyen de la Faculté des sciences théologiques. Il est surtout connu pour son œuvre composée de cinq volumes intitulée "Culture et histoire iraniennes au cours de la période de transition entre l’ère sassanide et l'ère islamique".


In Theravada Buddhism.

Previous life.

According to the Pali Canon, in the time of Padumuttara Buddha, Subhūti was born a man named Nanda. Nanda was born into a wealthy family and decided to leave his life behind to become a hermit. The hermitage Nanda was staying at was then visited by Padumuttara Buddha, who had his monk who was skilled in the practice of "metta" and was foremost in being "worthy of gifts" give a thanks-giving (Pali: "anumodanā"). While all of the other hermits at the hermitage attained arahantship following the teaching, Nanda did not and instead made a resolution to become the disciple foremost in being worthy of gifts of a future Buddha. This wish was fulfilled in this lifetime when he was reborn as Subhūti.

Biography.

According to the Pali tradition, Subhūti was born into a wealthy merchant family. His father was the wealthy merchant Sumana, and his older brother was Anāthapiṇḍika, who would later become the Buddha's chief male lay disciple. Texts relate that Subhūti was present at the dedication of Jetavana Monastery, which his older brother Anāthapiṇḍika had purchased and built for the Buddha. Upon hearing the Buddha teach at the dedication, Subhūti became inspired and ordained as a monk under him. After mastering the monastic rules, he went to live in the forest where he attained "arahantship" while meditating on the "absorption of loving-kindness" (Pali: "mettā-jhāna"). Subhūti became known for teaching the Dhamma "without distinction or limitation", meaning regardless of the listener's potential, and was declared the disciple foremost in "living remote and in peace" (Pali: "araṇavihārīnaṃ" "aggo"). During alms rounds, where monks go house to house looking for food from laypeople, Subhūti had a habit of developing "mettā-jhāna" at every household, making it so people who gave him alms received the highest possible merit from the offerings. Because of this, the Buddha also declared him the disciple who was foremost in being worthy of gifts (Pali: "dakkhiṇeyyānaṃ").  In one story, Subhūti visited Rājagaha where King Bimbisara promised to build him a hut. However, the king forgot, thus forcing Subhūti to meditate in the open air. It is said that due to the power of his virtue rain would not fall, and when King Bimbisara found out about the cause of the lack of rain he had a leaf hut constructed for him. According to the text, when Subhūti sat down in the hut, rain began to fall.

In Mahāyāna Buddhism.

Among the Mahāyāna traditions, Subhūti is perhaps best known as the disciple with whom the Buddha speaks when imparting the Diamond Sūtra (Sanskrit: "Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra", Chinese: 金剛經 or 金剛般若經), an important teaching within the Prajñāpāramitā genre. This, along with the Heart Sūtra (Sanskrit: "Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya", Chinese: 心經 or 般若心經), is one of the most well-known sūtras among both practitioners and non-practitioners of Buddhism. Subhūti is also responsible for much of the exposition in earlier Prajñāpāramitā sūtras.  In the Lotus Sutra (Sanskrit: "Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra", Chinese: 法華(花)經 or 妙法蓮華(花)經), Chapter 6 (Bestowal of Prophecy), the Buddha bestows prophecies of enlightenment on Subhūti, along with other śrāvakas such as Mahākāśyapa, Mahākātyāyana, and Mahāmaudgalyāyana.

In Zen writings.

In Zen Buddhism, Subhūti appears in several koans, such as this one:  One day, in a mood of sublime emptiness, Subhuti was resting underneath a tree when flowers began to fall about him. "We are praising you for your discourse on emptiness," the gods whispered to Subhuti. "But I have not spoken of emptiness," replied Subhuti. "You have not spoken of emptiness, we have not heard emptiness," responded the gods. "This is the true emptiness." The blossoms showered upon Subhuti as rain.

Lineage of the Panchen Lamas.

In the lineage of the Panchen Lamas of Tibet there were considered to be four "Indian" and three Tibetan incarnations of Amitabha Buddha before Khedrup Gelek Pelzang, who is recognised as the first Panchen Lama. The lineage starts with Subhuti.

In Chinese literature.

A character based on Subhūti appears in the Chinese classical novel "Journey to the West", as the teacher of the Monkey King Sun Wukong. The story of Sun Wukong first meeting Subhūti was a play on the Zen story of Huineng meeting Hongren, as told in the Platform Sūtra of Zen Buddhism. Because of the role that Subhūti plays in the story, his name has remained familiar in Chinese culture.

Subhūti (Pali: Subhūti; ) was one of the ten principal disciples of the Buddha. It is said that due to his mastery of loving-kindness ("mettā") meditation, any gift offered to him bore the greatest merit for the donor. Because of this, the Buddha declared him the disciple that was foremost in being worthy of gifts ("dakkhiṇeyyānaṃ)." In Prakrit and Pāli, his name literally means "Good Existence" ("su": "good", "bhūti": "existence"). He is also sometimes referred to as "Elder Subhūti" (Subhūti Thera). He was a contemporary of such famous arahants as Śāriputra, Mahākāśyapa, Maudgalyayana, Mahākātyāyana and Ānanda.

Subhuti est un disciple important de Gautama Bouddha. Il devint un arhat, et était connu pour sa sérénité, sa paix intérieure. Il est également un personnage dans divers koans.


Background.

Kia has produced small and large trucks for the South Korean market for at least 25 years. Rear-wheel-drive Bongo trucks have been on the market in Korea since at least the late 1980s, and these were equipped with a four-cylinder diesel engine. The Kia Bongo Frontier was originally available in RV or pickup trucks. It was replaced by the Kia Bongo III in 2004. The Bongo Frontier was one of the first Kia Motors cars to be exported to Europe and South America.  In some markets, such as Europe, Australia and South America, the Bongo is branded as the Kia K-Series or the Kia Frontier, which includes the K2400 and K2700. In Taiwan, it is known as the Kia Kaon, while in Vietnam, it is manufactured under license by THACO and sold as the THACO Kia New Frontier.

First generation (1980–1993).

Production of the truck started in 1980 and the van started in 1981. Early Bongos had round headlights, although these were changed for square units in 1981. The first Bongos also used "Kiamaster" logos rather than simply "Kia". The Bongo originally came with the 2.2 liter "S2" engine with, although the 1.4 liter "UC" petrol engine was added in 1985. 'Wide Bongo' production started in 1987. Between 1987 and 1989 the Bongo was sold as the "Power Bongo", to reflect an upgrade to the 2.4 litre "SF" diesel engine. The Power Bongo also has wide rectangular headlights, rather than the smaller units used previously. The first generation Bongo was removed from production in December 1993, although the tougher Ceres version continued for another six years.

Kia Ceres.

The Kia Ceres was a special agricultural version, a one-ton truck. It shared a slightly longer front end with the Kia Titan. From 1986 this was also available with four-wheel drive; eventually the rear-wheel drive models were cancelled in the domestic market. The Ceres model was sold instead of the Bongo in some export markets where conditions are tough, such as the Philippines, Latin America, Australia and Turkey. The Ceres utilized the original BA2 cabin but with a unique front clip. It was facelifted in 1995 when it received a new front clip with round headlights and new Kia logo.

Second generation (1989–1997).

In January 1989 the second generation Bongo Wide (sold as plain "Bongo" in most export markets) appeared. It was largely a rebadged SR-series Mazda Bongo Brawny. In 1992, a 2.7-litre engine was introduced. In October 1994, Kia's new logo replaced the old "chimney" design. In 1995 a reengined and lightly facelifted version called the "Bongo J2" appeared; this reflected the name of the new engine. The second generation Bongo model for passengers (coach) is named the Kia "BestA", usually referred to as 'Besta'—a word that means "beast" (or "HiBesta") in Brazil. This did not stop the Besta from immediately becoming the highest selling minivan in the Brazilian market. The Besta name was also used for cargo van versions in many countries. The Besta originally had the 2.2 liter diesel engine with, but at the end of 1994 the 2.7 liter J2 unit was placed in the Besta as well. This version can reach.  The Bongo J2 also formed the basis for the new Kia Pregio, which replaced the Kia Besta (the coach version of the Bongo). The Besta 2.7 did continue in production alongside the Pregio until at least the summer of 1997 for markets where this lower priced model retained some popularity. Export models of the second generation Bongo often used the K2400 or K2700 labels.

Third generation (1997–2004).

The third generation Bongo appeared in April 1997, now with the "Bongo Frontier" name. The related van version, Pregio, was introduced in November 1995 and continued in production until 2006. A four-wheel drive version ("Bongo Frontier All Terrain") appeared in December 1999, this meant the final end of the Ceres trucks (with origins dating back to the 1977 Mazda Bongo BA2). The third Bongo had the same JS series 2.7 litre engine with as used in the previous model, although an optional 3 litre JT engine with was also made available from the beginning. In August 2001 this engine received an additional four horsepower.

Facelift.

A facelifted Bongo was introduced in 2000. The truck was discontinued in late 2003, while the Van and Coach models continued to be built until May 2005. With stricter emissions controls, the 4x4 dump truck model was discontinued at the same time.

Fourth generation (2005–present).

The fourth generation, known as the Kia Bongo III, was introduced in 2005, engines were modernized, featuring a common rail option, which is gradually becoming more environmentally friendly.  Due to tighter emissions rules, the 1.2-ton and 1.4-ton variants were discontinued in November 2006. The coachvan, van and trucks except the 1-ton and 1.3-ton models were ceased in production in December 31, 2007 due to low demand. The Bongo III went on hiatus between October 2011 and January 2012, due to tighter emissions rules, but reemerged with a Euro V compliant engine.  The Bongo III was exclusively available in the Philippines as the K2700, from May 2005 to August 2018. It was later replaced by the K2500 in September 2018, which it gained a driver airbag. The K2700 Panoramic was replaced in 2019 by the K2500 Karga, "karga" is the Filipino word for "carry".  In Indonesia, the Bongo III is known as the Kia Big-Up since 2004. It was also available as a coachvan variant, known as the Kia Travello. The Travello was discontinued since 2019, resulting the coachvan variant is limited as a custom built from the bodybuilders only.  European sales of the Kia K-Series (with an exception of Russia and Turkey) has been discontinued in late 2007.

Facelift.

Kia Bongo was updated 2014, with new gearbox 6-speed engine and much more efficient Euro IV standards, new body design that includes different front and added grille, and new tires ring size 15 in. The K2500, K2700 and K3000S have either a 2.5 litre turbocharged engine that delivers 130 hp, or an optional 2.7 litre engine that pushes out just 80 hp and another 3.0 liter that adds five more horsepower from the 2.7 litre. It provides all the sufficient loading capabilities, also they have three cab options: standard, super and double cabin. There is another model that is called the K400S and K4000G, which is the bigger van version of the K2500, the K2700 and the K3000II.  In January 2020, EV version was launched in South Korea. It can go up to 211km when charged.

The Kia Bongo (Hangul:기아 봉고), also known as the Kia K-Series or Kia Besta, is a cabover pickup truck and van produced by the South Korean automobile manufacturer Kia Motors since 1980.

Le Kia Bongo est un pick-up produit par Kia Motors en trois générations de 1980 à présent. Il concurrence le Hyundai Porter. Il est aussi nommé Kia Besta et Kia K Series.


Michael Hicks Beach (1er comte St Aldwyn)

Background and education.

Born at Portugal Street in London, Hicks Beach was the son of Sir Michael Hicks Beach, 8th Baronet, of Beverston, and his wife Harriett Vittoria, second daughter of John Stratton. He was educated at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated with a first class degree in the School of Law and Modern History in 1858. In 1854 he succeeded his father as ninth Baronet.

Political career, 1864–1888.

In 1864 he was returned to Parliament as a Conservative for East Gloucestershire. During 1868 he acted both as Parliamentary Secretary to the Poor Law Board and as Under-Secretary of State for Home Affairs. In 1874 he was made Chief Secretary for Ireland, and was included in the Cabinet in 1877. From 1878 to 1880 he was Secretary of State for the Colonies. In 1885 he was elected for Bristol West, and became Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons. After Gladstone's brief Home Rule Ministry in 1886 Hicks Beach entered Lord Salisbury's next Cabinet again as Irish Secretary, making way for Lord Randolph Churchill as Leader of the House; but troubles with his eyesight compelled him to resign in 1887.

Political career, 1888–1902.

From 1888 to 1892 Hicks Beach returned to active work as President of the Board of Trade, and in 1895, Goschen being transferred to the Admiralty, he again became Chancellor of the Exchequer. In 1899 he lowered the fixed charge for the National Debt from twenty-five to twenty-three million, a reduction imperatively required, apart from other reasons, by the difficulties found in redeeming Consols at their then inflated price. When compelled to find means for financing the war in South Africa, he insisted on combining the raising of loans with the imposition of fresh taxation; and besides raising the income-tax each year, he introduced taxes on sugar and exported coal (1901), and in 1902 reimposed the registration duty on corn and flour which had been abolished in 1869 by Lowe. The sale of his Netheravon estates in Wiltshire to the War Office in 1898 occasioned some acrid criticism concerning the valuation, for which, however, Sir Michael himself was not responsible. On Lord Salisbury's retirement in August 1902 Hicks Beach also left the government.  Following his resignation, Sir Michael and Lady Lucy Hicks Beach, with their family, visited Egypt in late 1902.

Other public appointments.

He accepted the chairmanship of the Royal Commission on Ritualistic Practices in the Church, and he did valuable work as an arbitrator; and though when the fiscal controversy arose he became the first president of the Unionist Free Food League, his parliamentary loyalty to Balfour did much to prevent the Unionist free-traders from precipitating a rupture. Hicks-Beach was appointed to be a Deputy Lieutenant for the county of Gloucestershire in 1861. In 1906 he was raised to the peerage as Viscount St Aldwyn, of Coln St Aldwyn, in the County of Gloucester, and in 1915 he was further honoured when he was made Viscount Quenington, of Quenington, in the County of Gloucester, and Earl St Aldwyn, of Coln St Aldwyn, in the County of Gloucester.

Family.

Lord St Aldwyn married firstly (6.1.1864, South Molton, Devon), Caroline Susan Elwes (3 Prior Buildings, Cheltenham 4 April 1845 – 41 Portman Square, Marylebone 14 August 1865), daughter of John Henry Elwes by Mary Bromley, sister of Henry John Elwes, and secondly Lady Lucy Catherine Fortescue, daughter of Hugh Fortescue, 3rd Earl Fortescue, in 1874. They had one son, Viscount Quenington, also a politician, and three daughters.  His second daughter, Susan Hicks Beach (1878-1965), was the sitter representing Britannia on the reverse of the Edward VII silver florins (two shilling pieces) issued from 1902 to 1910 and designed by George William de Saulles. She chose the single life residing with her mother for sundry years subsequent to World War II cultivating and caring for the family lands in the Cotswolds.  Lord St Aldwyn died in April 1916, aged 78, only a week after his son was killed in action in the First World War, and was succeeded in his titles by his grandson Michael, who also became a Conservative politician. Lucy, The Countess St Aldwyn had been involved with Elizabeth Malleson in the creating of a Rural Nursing Association in the 1880s. This organisation was successful and incorporated in similar initiatives by Queen Victoria. The countess died in March 1940. The coastal town of Beachport in the Australian state of South Australia was named after Lord St Aldwyn in 1878.

Michael Edward Hicks Beach, 1st Earl St Aldwyn, (23 October 1837 – 30 April 1916), known as Sir Michael Hicks Beach, Bt, from 1854 to 1906 and subsequently as The Viscount St Aldwyn to 1915, was a British Conservative politician. Known as "Black Michael", he notably served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1885 to 1886 and again from 1895 to 1902 and also led the Conservative Party in the House of Commons from 1885 to 1886. Due to the length of his service, he was Father of the House from 1901 to 1906, when he took his peerage.

Michael Edward Hicks Beach, de Saint Aldwyn, né le et mort le, connu en tant que "Sir Michael Hicks Beach", baronnet, de 1854 à 1906 puis en tant que vicomte de Saint Aldwyn de 1906 à 1915, est un homme politique britannique conservateur.


Characteristics.

The station building was fairly small in size and inconveniently located some distance from the Berlin city centre, south of the Landwehrkanal. The surrounding area in the "Tempelhofer Vorstadt" quarter (today part of the Kreuzberg district) was largely dominated by railway infrastructure. Close by were the approach tracks of the larger Anhalter Bahnhof and Potsdamer Bahnhof, and their associated goods stations and locomotive depots.

History.

As a passenger terminus, the Dresdner Bahnhof was inaugurated with the opening of the Berlin–Dresden railway line on 17 June 1875. Trains ran to the "Berliner Bahnhof" in Dresden's Friedrichstadt quarter, about in the south, with through coaches to Prague and Vienna. Only a provisional half-timbered station building had been erected so far; plans for a large entrance hall were never carried out.  The Dresdner Bahnhof was already closed on 15 October 1882. Following the recent rebuilding of both the Anhalter and Potsdamer passenger termini to cope with rapidly increasing traffic, all services were transferred from the Dresdner Bahnhof to these two other stations, the Anhalter Bahnhof receiving the lion's share. It took on all long-distance services, and it was largely through this that it became known as Berlin's "Gateway to the South," its trains ultimately reaching Rome, Naples and Athens. The Potsdamer Bahnhof inherited mainly short-haul and suburban traffic.  After standing apparently unused for more than 30 years, in 1913 the Dresdner Bahnhof was incorporated into a much larger facility - the Postbahnhof, dedicated to the handling of mail. By then there were even more rails in the immediate vicinity following the arrival of the U-Bahn. Its original route, opened in stages during 1902, comprised a through section from Warschauer Brücke to Knie, with a triangular junction between Möckernbrücke and Bülowstraße giving access to Potsdamer Platz. This triangle of lines gave its name to the area ("Gleisdreieck", literally meaning "railway triangle"), and also to the station constructed there. Following an accident on 26 September 1908, in which two trains collided on the triangle, killing 18 people and injuring 21 others, the layout was reorganised in 1912 into what can be seen today, with two lines crossing one over the other at right angles, and a split-level station with platforms on both lines. The Dresdner Bahnhof, and the Postbahnhof of which it became part, lay in the south-east quadrant, right in the angle between the two lines. In this guise it lasted for eight more decades, finally closing in 1997.  In the photograph on the top, taken in October 2005, the bridge carries U-Bahn lines 1 and 3. A train crossing it from left to right (east to west) will run into Gleisdreieck station (high level platforms) just seconds later. Just beyond the bridge, the Dresdner Bahnhof is the mainly red brick building on the left, while the Postbahnhof is straight ahead. Both are nowadays used for concerts, parties, exhibitions and cultural events (please note that this Postbahnhof should not be confused with another venue, apparently of the same name, about 3 km away near Berlin Ostbahnhof).

The Dresdner Bahnhof was a short-lived passenger railway terminus in Berlin, Germany, operating from 1875 to 1882 and handling train services to and from Dresden over the Berlin–Dresden railway.

La gare de Dresde à Berlin "(Berlin Dresdener Bahnhof)" est une ancienne gare ferroviaire située à Kreuzberg. Ouverte le par la compagnie de chemin de fer de Berlin à Dresde ("Berlin-Dresdener Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft"), elle ferme le, son trafic étant transféré dans la gare d'Anhalt située un peu plus au nord de l'autre côté du Landwehrkanal.


Early life and education.

Willie Soon was born in Kangar, Malaysia, in 1966. He attended Khoon Aik Primary School in Kangar, Perlis, then Sekolah Menengah Syed Sirajudin Secondary School in Jejawi, Perlis, and Sekolah Menengah Dato Sheikh Ahmad Secondary School in Arau, Perlis. To further his education he emigrated to the United States in 1980 and attended the University of Southern California, receiving a B.Sc. in 1985, followed by a M.Sc. in 1987 and then a Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering [with distinction] in 1991. His doctoral thesis was titled "Non-equilibrium kinetics in high-temperature gases". He received the IEEE Nuclear and Plasma Sciences Society Graduate Scholastic Award in 1989 and the Rockwell Dennis Hunt Scholastic Award from the University of Southern California in 1991.

Career.

After completing his Ph.D., Soon took up a post-doctoral research position at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. He has been doing research in astrophysics and Earth science there as an externally funded employee since 1991. He also was an astronomer at the Mount Wilson Observatory a senior scientist at the George C. Marshall Institute think tank, the chief science adviser to the oil industry-funded Science and Public Policy Institute, and an Adjunct Professor of the Faculty of Science and Environmental Studies of the University of Putra, Malaysia. In 2004, Soon received the "Petr Beckmann Award for outstanding contributions to the defense of scientific truth" from the conservative Doctors for Disaster Preparedness, which Bloomberg News describes as a forum on "fringe-science topics" such as global warming denial and "The Guardian" as a "fringe political group" and as a "truly bizarre lobby group". In 2014, Soon received the "Courage in Defense of Science award" from a conservative think tank, the now defunct George C. Marshall Institute.

2003: "Climate Research" controversy.

In 2003, Willie Soon was first author on a review paper in the journal "Climate Research", with Sallie Baliunas as co-author. This paper concluded that "the 20th century is probably not the warmest nor a uniquely extreme climatic period of the last millennium."  Shortly thereafter, 13 scientists published a refutation of the paper. They raised three main objections: (1) Soon and Baliunas used data reflective of changes in moisture, rather than temperature; (2) they failed to distinguish between regional and hemispheric mean temperature anomalies; and (3) they reconstructed past temperatures from proxy evidence not capable of resolving decadal trends. Soon, Baliunas and David Legates published a response to these objections.  After disagreement with the publisher and with other members of the editorial board, Hans von Storch, Clare Goodess, and two more members of the journal's ten-member editorial board resigned in protest against what they felt was a failure of the peer review process on the part of the journal. Otto Kinne, managing director of the journal's parent company, eventually stated that "CR ["Climate Research"] should have been more careful and insisted on solid evidence and cautious formulations before publication" and that "CR should have requested appropriate revisions of the manuscript prior to publication."  Soon and Baliunas have also been criticised because they did not disclose that their research budget was funded in part by the American Petroleum Institute.

2011: Funding controversy.

In 2011, it was revealed that Soon received over $1 million from petroleum and coal interests since 2001. Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics documents obtained by Greenpeace under the US Freedom of Information Act show that the Charles G. Koch Charitable Foundation gave Soon two grants totaling $175,000 in 2005–06 and again in 2010. Multiple grants from the American Petroleum Institute between 2001 and 2007 totalled $274,000, and grants from Exxon Mobil totalled $335,000 between 2005 and 2010. Other coal and oil industry sources which funded him include the Mobil Foundation, the Texaco Foundation and the Electric Power Research Institute. Soon has stated unequivocally that he has "never been motivated by financial reward in any of my scientific research" and "would have accepted money from Greenpeace if they had offered it to do my research."  Putting forward health reasons, in 2011 Soon went from full-time employment by the Smithsonian at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics to a part-time position. The Center's spokesman said "Willie's opinions regarding climate change are his personal views not shared within our research organization". Its former director Irwin Shapiro said no attempt had been made to suppress Soon's views, and there had been no complaints from other scientists there: "As far as I can tell, no one pays any attention to him." Soon has been defended by others agreeing with his views. In 2013, theoretical physicist Freeman Dyson wrote in an email to "The Boston Globe": "The whole point of science is to question accepted dogmas. For that reason, I respect Willie Soon as a good scientist and a courageous citizen." Republican Senator Jim Inhofe has cited Soon, and Inhofe's former director of communications Marc Morano said that "Willie Soon is a hero of the skeptical movement. When you are an early pioneer, you are going to face the scrutiny and attacks." Soon has links with conservative groups which promote his writings to influence the public debate on climate change, including The Heartland Institute, and the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow. In a speech at The Heritage Foundation, he accused the IPCC of being "a pure bully" engaged in "blatant manipulations of fact", and said "Stop politicizing science! Just stop!"

January 2015 Monckton et al. paper.

With William M. Briggs, geography professor David Legates, and journalist and British politician Christopher Monckton, Soon co-authored a paper published by the "Chinese Science Bulletin" in 2015. Climatologist Gavin Schmidt described the paper as "complete trash". He said that the model used is not new, "they arbitrarily restrict its parameters and then declare all other models wrong."

2015: Disclosure violations.

Soon, as a researcher at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA), is a part-time employee of the Smithsonian Institution, a government agency covered by the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA). Greenpeace worker Kert Davies made a succession of FOIA requests for Soon's correspondence and grant arrangements and in 2014 was given documents disclosing arrangements both Soon and the CfA had with funders. Later in 2014, Davies left Greenpeace to become executive director of a newly founded non-profit, Climate Investigations Center.  The Smithsonian does not fund Soon, who "pursues external grants to fund his research." This funding had exceeded US$1.5 million since 2001; under standard CfA procedures, more than half of the $1.2 million funding since 2005 had gone towards the Smithsonian's facility operating costs, with the remainder being passed on to Soon as his salary. Other researchers there have a similar arrangement, but nearly all of their funding comes through peer-reviewed award processes from government bodies such as NASA and the National Science Foundation, whereas Soon has received very little federal money. Soon's funding is highly unusual at the Smithsonian in its association with private interests. It included at least $230,000 from the Charles G. Koch Foundation which is associated with the oil industry and $469,560 from the Southern Company which uses coal to generate electricity. Exxon Mobil and the American Petroleum Institute also provided funding, which was later replaced by anonymous donors through the Donors Trust, a donor-advised fund that offers anonymity to clients who do not wish to make their donations public. The latter was identified by a 2013 Drexel University study as the largest single provider of money to political efforts to fight climate-change policy. A 2008 contract agreed to by the CfA required the institute to notify the Southern Company before disclosing that Southern had provided funding, and both the CfA and Willie Soon to provide Southern with advance copies of any publications "for comment and input", though the company could not block publications or require changes.  The "Chinese Science Bulletin" has a strict policy requiring disclosure of "all relationships or interests that could influence or bias the work", including "professional interests or personal beliefs that may influence your research", for example previous receipt of research grants. The Monckton et al. paper published in January 2015 included a statement by the authors, including Soon, that they had no conflict of interest, and Davies wrote to the journal about the undisclosed funding shown by the documents. On 24 January the journal replied that they would "look into the matter as appropriate". The story was published by "The Boston Globe" on 26 January with a statement by Monckton that allegations of failure to disclose a material conflict of interest were untrue, as the authors had not "received any funding whatsoever for our research, which was conducted in our own time". He said that the Heartland Institute had provided funding to make the paper available to the public on the journal's website.  On February 21, publications including "The Guardian" and "The New York Times" reported that Soon had failed to disclose conflicts of interest in at least 11 papers since 2008, and alleged that Soon had violated ethical guidelines of at least eight of those journals publishing his work. Charles R. Alcock, director of the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, described the disclosure violations as "inappropriate behavior" that they would "have to handle with Dr. Soon internally". On the same day, "Nature" reported that the CfA had launched an investigation into whether Soon had properly reported the funding arrangements shown in the documents. Alcock said "We want to get the facts straight. If there is evidence of failure to disclose, yes, we have a problem." He said that the contract with Southern preventing disclosure of their funding "was a mistake", and in a later email reply to questions said "We will not permit similar wording in future grant agreements". The Smithsonian announced that its Inspector General would investigate, and in addition there was to be a full review of the Smithsonian's ethics and disclosure policies about sponsored research, led by former NSF director Rita R. Colwell.  On March 2, 2015, The Heartland Institute conservative think tank released a statement by Soon, which said he had "been the target of attacks in the press by various radical environmental and politically motivated groups". He described this as "a shameless attempt to silence my scientific research and writings, and to make an example out of me as a warning to any other researcher who may dare question in the slightest their fervently held orthodoxy of anthropogenic global warming." Some of the journals that had published Soon's work had begun reviewing the papers in relation to their policies requiring disclosure: Soon said he had "always complied with what I understood to be disclosure practices in my field generally". He would be "happy to comply" if they required further disclosure, and "would ask only that other authors—on all sides of the debate—are also required to make similar disclosures."  He also requested that journalists who had reported on his actions similarly examined disclosure by other scientists. An investigation by "InsideClimate News" could find no cases where mainstream climatologists had failed to disclose the funding of their research. Unlike Soon, who had approached private funders directly, their funding was almost entirely obtained through open competitive peer-reviewed applications to public bodies. Climate scientist Andrew Dessler said "People always acknowledge their grants, and that's not really an issue". Though it was almost certain that a disclosure issue could arise, intentionally or otherwise, no instances were known. The nearest case was raised by Steven Milloy's "Junk Science" blog when "Nature Climate Change" published a 2012 study by Kerry Emanuel, who was paid a fixed amount by two companies to sit on their board. Although the companies did not fund his research, the journal then added disclosure of these board memberships. The blog raised the same concern about a paper published a year later, but "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences" decided this disclosure was not required.  In April 2015, a Southern Company spokesman said "Our agreement with the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory expires later this year and there are no plans to renew it". It still required Soon to produce a study on "Solar Activity Variation on Multiple Timescales" by November 2015.

Wei-Hock "Willie" Soon (born 1966) is a Malaysian astrophysicist and aerospace engineer employed as a part-time researcher at the Solar and Stellar Physics (SSP) Division of the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.

Willie Soon est un astronome et astrophysicien américain, né en 1966 à Kangar en Malaisie. Soon est employé par le Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. Au cours des années 2000, il s'engage dans les controverses sur le réchauffement climatique, qu'il attribue à l'activité solaire, et critique la position de la communauté scientifique. Des documents, découverts en 2011, démontrent que Soon a reçu 1,2 million de dollars de la part d'entreprises de production d'énergie d'origine fossile, traditionnellement hostiles à la théorie de l'origine humaine du réchauffement climatique, sans l'indiquer dans les articles qu'il a publiés dans des journaux scientifiques. À la date du, toutefois, les accusateurs de Willie Soon n'avaient pas présenté au public la preuve que les journaux en question avaient une politique de déclaration des conflits d'intérêt à l'époque où Soon y avait publié ses articles.


Biography.

Fleming was descended from a gentry family. His aunt, Cecily Fleming had married Robert Waterton, 'Henry IV's esquire and right-hand man'. His nephew, Robert Flemming, was likely an illegitimate son of Robert Flemming, esquire, of Wath, near Ripon (d.1459).  Fleming was educated at University College, Oxford. Having taken his degrees, he was made prebendary of York in 1406, and the next year was junior proctor of the university. In 1409 he was appointed to the committee of twelve censors who were commissioned to examine the writings of John Wyclif and determine the heretical ideas they contained. Later that year he was accused of supporting some of Wyclif's errors in a public disputation, for which he incurred the censure of Archbishop Arundel. Fleming must have either been exonerated or renounced his supposed heresy because he was still a member of the committee of censors when its list of Wycliffe's errors was published in 1411 (Nighman, 2003, pp.208-10).  Before 1415 Fleming was instituted to the rectory of Boston in Lincolnshire. He attended the Council of Constance from late 1416 to early 1418 where he delivered a number of sermons which survive, all of which reveal a strong concern for clerical reform (Nighman, 1997, 2000, 2003, 2008a, 2008b). He was nominated to the see of Lincoln by papal provision on 20 November 1419 and on 28 April 1420 he was consecrated as bishop of Lincoln by Martin V in Florence. He attended the Council of Pavia and Siena in 1428–1429 and, in the presence of the pope, reportedly made an eloquent speech in vindication of the rights of the English "nation" and in support of papal authority against the more radical proponents of conciliarism; this sermon apparently does not survive. It was probably on this occasion that he was named chamberlain to the pope.  In February 1424 the see of York being vacant, the pope conferred it on Fleming; but the regency council of the young king Henry VI refused to confirm the appointment, and Fleming resigned the appointment in July 1425. In 1427, Fleming obtained a royal licence empowering him to found a college at Oxford for the special purpose of training theologians to combat Wyclif's heresy. To Bishop Fleming was entrusted the execution of the decree of the Council of Constance for the exhumation and burning of Wycliffe's remains, though Fleming delayed fulfilling this duty for over a decade. He died at Sleaford, Lincolnshire, in January 1431. Although his foundation of Lincoln College, Oxford, was incomplete at the time of his death, the college's future was eventually secured and Fleming's manuscript books became the core collection of the collegiate library (de la Mare, 1962-3).

Richard Fleming (c. 1385 – 25 or 26 January 1431), Bishop of Lincoln and founder of Lincoln College, Oxford, was born at Crofton in Yorkshire.

Richard Fleming est un prélat anglais né vers 1385 à Crofton, dans le Yorkshire, et mort le 25 ou le au château de Sleaford, dans le Lincolnshire. Il s'opposa activement aux Lollards, et fonda Lincoln College à Oxford.


Buildings.

The Church of England parish church of Saint Mary has a flint and stone Norman tower and Tudor monuments. The tree-lined Village Road includes several old red brick houses with mature "Wisteria" on them, and has been used as a location in British films and television.  Southlands Manor is a Grade II listed building. Its entry on the English Heritage website states that it was built in the 16th century, with a variety of later changes including the addition of four chimney stacks in the early 17th-century. Analysis of a sample of timbers from the main building and its associated barn have found that they were felled in the winters of 1472/3 and 1473/4, indicating that the relevant parts of the building were erected in 1474 or soon after.  The Old Bakery, built in about C14, it is one of the earliest surviving buildings along the village High Street. It is located along, what would have been medieval burgage plots. The plots were for laying out a town. Built for the Abbot of Westminster, probably on instructions by Nicholas de Littlington, for his reeve. One survey suggests a very precise date of building of 1367 - 68, although no dendrochronology has been undertaken. The building phases and outlay are complex, with much alteration. Prior to the 1950s demolition of the former E wing the building formed three cottages/shops.  Denham Film Studios were near the village and where famous films, including "Brief Encounter" and "In Which We Serve" were produced. The buildings were demolished in 1980 and the site re-landscaped as a business park and later as a site for luxury homes.  InterContinental Hotels Group has its corporate headquarters and European head office in Denham. Bosch has its UK head office in Denham.

Transport.

Denham railway station has direct services to and and limited services to, and. Connecting services link to, and.  The 724 Green Line bus service links Harlow and Heathrow Airportpassing through St Albans, Watford, Rickmansworth, Denham and Uxbridgeand terminating at Heathrow Central bus station.  The 331 bus service between Uxbridge and Ruislip stations (operated by Metroline West for London Buses) calls at the Station Parade shops in Denham Green. The 581 circular bus service provides a link between the various areas of Denham and Uxbridge bus station. The Saturdays-only 582 service links the various Denhams with Iver, Slough and Windsor. The 101, 102, 105 and 580 run through the outskirts of Denham.  Denham Aerodrome is an operational general aviation aerodrome established in the early 1900s. Sited on higher land to the north of the village, it is the base of many private and executive aircraft and helicopters with several hangars and a hard runway. During the First World War in 1915, RAF Denham was established as a flying training school for Flight Cadets.

Schools.

Denham Village Infant School, in Cheapside Lane, is the original school for Denham, and has classes for Reception and Years 1 and 2. The school building dates from 1832 and is listed.  Denham Green E-ACT Primary Academy is located on Nightingale Way and opened in September 2013. Replacing the former Tilehouse Combined School, it is for children ages 4–11, and offers pre-school services. The school's current leadership team completed an Ofsted inspection shortly before converting to an Academy. Ofsted noted that the school was a Good school with Outstanding features. The academy accepts all children from the Denham area (including Denham Village, Denham Green, Maple Cross, Harefield and North Uxbridge) who wish to attend the school.

Twinning.

Twinned with Denham, Shark Bay, Western Australia

Denham is a village and civil parish in the Unitary Authority of Buckinghamshire, England, approximately from central London, northwest of Uxbridge and just north of junction 1 of the M40 motorway. The name is derived from the Old English for "homestead in a valley". It was listed in the Domesday Book of 1086 as "Deneham". Denham contains the Buckinghamshire Golf Club.

Denham est un village et une paroisse civile du Buckinghamshire, en Angleterre. Il est situé au sud-est du comté, à la frontière du borough londonien de Hillingdon, au nord-ouest de la ville d'Uxbridge. Administrativement, il relève du district de South Bucks, dont il est le chef-lieu. Au moment du recensement de 2011, il comptait.


Defining peacebuilding.

Of course, the exact definition of peacebuilding varies depending on the actor, with some definitions specifying what activities fall within the scope of peacebuilding or restricting peacebuilding to post-conflict interventions. Even if peacebuilding has remained a largely amorphous concept without clear guidelines or goals, common to all definitions is the agreement that improving human security is the central task of peacebuilding. In this sense, peacebuilding includes a wide range of efforts by diverse actors in government and civil society at the community, national, and international levels to address the root causes of violence and ensure civilians have freedom from fear (negative peace), freedom from want (positive peace) and freedom from humiliation before, during, and after violent conflict.  Although many of peacebuilding's aims overlap with those of peacemaking, peacekeeping and conflict resolution, it is a distinct idea. Peacemaking involves stopping an ongoing conflict, whereas peacebuilding happens before a conflict starts or once it ends. Peacekeeping prevents the resumption of fighting following a conflict; it does not address the underlying causes of violence or work to create societal change, as peacebuilding does. Peacekeeping also differs from peacebuilding in that it only occurs after conflict ends, not before it begins. Conflict resolution does not include some components of peacebuilding, such as state building and socioeconomic development.  While some use the term to refer to only post-conflict or post-war contexts, most use the term more broadly to refer to any stage of conflict. Before conflict becomes violent, preventive peacebuilding efforts, such as diplomatic, economic development, social, educational, health, legal and security sector reform programs, address potential sources of instability and violence. This is also termed conflict prevention. Peacebuilding efforts aim to manage, mitigate, resolve and transform central aspects of the conflict through official diplomacy; as well as through civil society peace processes and informal dialogue, negotiation, and mediation. Peacebuilding addresses economic, social and political root causes of violence and fosters reconciliation to prevent the return of structural and direct violence. Peacebuilding efforts aim to change beliefs, attitudes and behaviors to transform the short and long term dynamics between individuals and groups toward a more stable, peaceful coexistence. Peacebuilding is an approach to an entire set of interrelated efforts that support peace.  In 2007, the UN Secretary-General's Policy Committee defined peacebuilding as follows: "Peacebuilding involves a range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict by strengthening national capacities at all levels for conflict management, and to lay the foundations for sustainable peace and sustainable development. Peacebuilding strategies must be coherent and tailored to specific needs of the country concerned, based on national ownership, and should comprise a carefully prioritized, sequenced, and therefore relatively narrow set of activities aimed at achieving the above objectives."

History of peacebuilding.

As World War II ended in the mid-1940s, international initiatives such as the creation of the Bretton Woods institutions and The Marshall Plan consisted of long-term postconflict intervention programs in Europe with which the United States and its allies aimed to rebuild the continent following the destruction of World War II. The focus of these initiatives revolved around a narrative of "peacekeeping" & "peacemaking".  After several decades saturated in this narrative, in 1975 Norwegian sociologist Johan Galtung coined the term "peacebuilding" in his pioneering work "Three Approaches to Peace: Peacekeeping, Peacemaking, and Peacebuilding." In this article, he posited that "peace has a structure different from, perhaps over and above, peacekeeping and ad hoc peacemaking... The mechanisms that peace is based on should be built into the structure and be present as a reservoir for the system itself to draw up.... More specifically, structures must be found that remove causes of wars and offer alternatives to war in situations where wars might occur." Galtung's work emphasized a bottom-up approach that decentralized social and economic structures, amounting to a call for a societal shift from structures of coercion and violence to a culture of peace. He catalyzed a major shift in the post-WWII global narrative by emphasizing how political, economic, & social systems need to address the root causes of conflict and support local capacity for peace management and conflict resolution.  Then, as the Cold War and the various phenomena of its fizzling came to a close (e.g. civil wars between Third World countries, Reagonomics, "Bringing the State Back In"), American sociologist John Paul Lederach further refined the concept of peacebuilding through several 1990s publications that focus on engaging grassroots, local, NGO, international and other actors to create a sustainable peace process, especially with respect to cases of intractable deadly conflict where he was actively mediating between warring parties. From a political-institutional perspective, he does not advocate the same degree of structural change as Galtung. However, Lederach's influence in the conceptual evolution of peacebuilding still reflects Galtung's original vision for "positive peace" by detailing, categorizing, & expanding upon the sociocultural processes through which we address both direct and structural elements of violent conflict (see, for example, his short article "Justpeace").  Peacebuilding has since expanded to include many different dimensions, such as disarmament, demobilization and reintegration and rebuilding governmental, economic and civil society institutions. The concept was popularized in the international community through UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali's 1992 report An Agenda for Peace. The report defined post-conflict peacebuilding as an “action to identify and support structures which will tend to strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a relapse into conflict" At the 2005 World Summit, the United Nations began creating a peacebuilding architecture based on Kofi Annan's proposals. The proposal called for three organizations: the UN Peacebuilding Commission, which was founded in 2005; the UN Peacebuilding Fund, founded in 2006; and the UN Peacebuilding Support Office, which was created in 2005. These three organizations enable the Secretary-General to coordinate the UN's peacebuilding efforts. National governments' interest in the topic has also increased due to fears that failed states serve as breeding grounds for conflict and extremism and thus threaten international security. Some states have begun to view peacebuilding as a way to demonstrate their relevance. However, peacebuilding activities continue to account for small percentages of states' budgets.

Categorizing approaches to peacebuilding.

In a very broad sense, we can distinguish between three primary approaches to peacebuilding, which each correspond to three primary types of peace: (1) "negative peace vs. ("2) "positive peace" (Galtung) vs. (3) "justpeace ("Lederach, sometimes spelled ""just peace""). In turn, these three types of peace correspond respectively to three primary types of violence: (1) "direct violence" vs. (2) "structural violence" vs. (3) "cultural violence".

Negative peace: Direct violence.

"Negative peace" refers to the absence of direct, or "hot" violence, which refers to acts that impose immediate harm on a given subject or group. In this sense, ""negative peacebuilding"" (aimed at negative peace) intentionally focuses on addressing the "direct" factors driving harmful conflict. When applying the term "peacebuilding" to this work, there is an explicit attempt by those designing and planning a peacebuilding effort to reduce direct violence.

Positive peace: Structural violence.

"Positive peace" refers to the absence of "both direct violence as well as structural violence". Structural violence refers to the ways that systems & institutions in society cause, reinforce, or perpetuate direct violence. In this sense, ""positive peacebuilding"" (aimed at positive peace) intentionally focuses on address the "indirect" factors driving or mitigating harmful conflict, with an emphasis on engaging institutions, policies, and political-economic conditions as they relate to exploitation and repression.  While Galtung's original & subsequent literature on the concept of positive peace do include references to cultural violence, for encyclopedic purposes it is still useful to reserve its absence for a term that Lederach and others have since developed to remedy gaps in understanding that were not sufficiently addressed through scholarly discussion of positive peace until the mid-1990s: the term j"ustpeace." In proposing this term, Lederach identified "Three Gaps in Peacebuilding" this term could address: "The Interdependence Gap", "The Justice Gap", and the "Process-Structure Gap".

Justpeace: Cultural violence.

"Justpeace" (or "just peace") refers to the absence of all three types of violence enumerated above: direct, structural, & cultural. Cultural violence refers to aspects of culture that can be used to justify or legitimize direct or structural violence—the ways in which direct or structural violence look or feel "right" according to the moral fabric of society. In this sense, ""just peacebuilding"" (aimed at justpeace) intentionally combines the methods of "positive peacebuilding" (as described above) with a special focus on building and transforming sustainable relationships among conflicting sectors & cultures in such a way that promotes more alignment between each culture's "mores" (standards of "right" behavior or conditions) and the extent to which those "mores" are built/equipped to prevent, resolve, and heal patterns of direct and structural violence.  When Lederach first proposed the term in the late 1990s, he wrote:"Inspired by colleagues from the Justapaz Centre in Bogota, Colombia, I propose that by the year 2050 the word justpeace be accepted in everyday common language and appear as an entry in the Webster's Dictionary. It will read:""Justpeace \ jest pés \ n, vi, (justpeace-building) 1: an adaptive process-structure of human relationships characterized by high justice and low violence 2: an infrastructure of organization or governance that responds to human conflict through nonviolent means as first and last resorts 3: a view of systems as responsive to the permanency and interdependence of relationships and change."

Components of peacebuilding.

The activities included in peacebuilding vary depending on the situation and the agent of peacebuilding. Successful peacebuilding activities create an environment supportive of self-sustaining, durable peace; reconcile opponents; prevent conflict from restarting; integrate civil society; create rule of law mechanisms; and address underlying structural and societal issues. To accomplish these goals, peacebuilding must address functional structures, emotional conditions and social psychology, social stability, rule of law and ethics, and cultural sensitivities.  Preconflict peacebuilding interventions aim to prevent the start of violent conflict. These strategies involve a variety of actors and sectors in order to transform the conflict. Even though the definition of peacebuilding includes preconflict interventions, in practice most peacebuilding interventions are postconflict. However, many peacebuilding scholars advocate an increased focus on preconflict peacebuilding in the future.  There are many different approaches to categorization of forms of peacebuilding among the peacebuilding field's many scholars.  Barnett "et al." divides postconflict peacebuilding into three dimensions: stabilizing the post-conflict zone, restoring state institutions, and dealing with social and economic issues. Activities within the first dimension reinforce state stability post-conflict and discourage former combatants from returning to war (disarmament, demobilization and reintegration, or DDR). Second dimension activities build state capacity to provide basic public goods and increase state legitimacy. Programs in the third dimension build a post-conflict society's ability to manage conflicts peacefully and promote socioeconomic development. A mixture of locally and internationally focused components is key to building a long-term sustainable peace. Mac Ginty says that while different "indigenous" communities utilize different conflict resolution techniques, most of them share the common characteristics described in the table below. Since indigenous peacebuilding practices arise from local communities, they are tailored to local context and culture in a way that generalized international peacebuilding approaches are not.  The theorist I. William Zartman introduces the concept of a "ripe moment" for the commencement of peace negotiations in a conflict. Zartman's thesis outlines the necessary (but not sufficient) conditions that must be fulfilled before actors in a conflict will be willing to faithfully engage in peace negotiations. Institutions or countries looking to build peace must therefore "seize" upon these moments to begin the process of peace negotiations.  Approached in game-theoretical terms, Zartman argues that the presence of an MHS and a means of escaping the stalemate transform conflicts from a Prisoner's Dilemma, to a Chicken game.  Without these features, Zartman argues that belligerents will lack the necessary motivations to pursue peace. Therefore the sides in a conflict will either not engage in peace negotiation, or any peace will short-lived.

Peacebuilding and Cultural heritage.

In today's world, peacebuilding also means maintaining and protecting the economic and cultural foundations of a community and the population. The protection of culture and cultural assets is therefore becoming increasingly important nationally and internationally. United Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International deal with the protection of cultural heritage and therefore with peacebuilding. This also applies to the integration of United Nations peacekeeping.  In international law, the UN and UNESCO try to establish and enforce rules. It is not a question of protecting a person's property, but of preserving the cultural heritage of humanity, especially in the event of war and armed conflict. According to Karl von Habsburg, President Blue Shield International, the destruction of cultural assets is also part of psychological warfare. The target is the opponent's identity, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target. It is also intended to address the particularly sensitive cultural memory, the growing cultural diversity and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a state, a region or a municipality.

Major organizations.

Intergovernmental organizations.

The United Nations participates in many aspects of peacebuilding, both through the peacebuilding architecture established in 2005-6 and through other agencies.  The World Bank and International Monetary Fund focus on the economic and financial aspects of peacebuilding. The World Bank assists in post-conflict reconstruction and recovery by helping rebuild society's socioeconomic framework. The International Monetary Fund deals with post-conflict recovery and peacebuilding by acting to restore assets and production levels.  The EU's European Commission describes its peacebuilding activities as conflict prevention and management, and rehabilitation and reconstruction. Conflict prevention and management entails stopping the imminent outbreak of violence and encouraging a broad peace process. Rehabilitation and reconstruction deals with rebuilding the local economy and institutional capacity. The European Commission Conflict Prevention and Peace building 2001-2010 was subjected to a major external evaluation conducted by Aide a la Decisions Economique (ADE) with the European Centre for Development Policy Management which was presented in 2011. The European External Action Service created in 2010 also has a specific Division of Conflict Prevention, Peacebuilding and Mediation.

Governmental organizations.

France  Germany  Switzerland  United Kingdom  United States

Role of women.

Women have traditionally played a limited role in peacebuilding processes even though they often bear the responsibility for providing for their families' basic needs in the aftermath of violent conflict. They are especially likely to be unrepresented or underrepresented in negotiations, political decision-making, upper-level policymaking and senior judicial positions. Many societies' patriarchal cultures prevent them from recognizing the role women can play in peacebuilding. However, many peacebuilding academics and the United Nations have recognized that women play a vital role in securing the three pillars of sustainable peace: economic recovery and reconciliation, social cohesion and development and political legitimacy, security and governance.  In October 2000, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 (S/RES/1325) on women, peace, and security was adopted unanimously by the UN Security Council, after recalling resolutions 1261 (1999), 1265 (1999), 1296 (2000), and 1314 (2000). The resolution acknowledged the disproportionate and unique impact of armed conflict on women and girls. It calls for the adoption of a gender perspective to consider the special needs of women and girls during conflict, repatriation and resettlement, rehabilitation, reintegration, and post-conflict reconstruction.  In 2010, at the request of the Security Council, the Secretary-General issued an updated report on women's participation in peacebuilding. The report outlines the challenges women continue to face in participating in recovery and peacebuilding process and the negative impact this exclustion has on them and societies more broadly. To respond to these challenges, it advocates a comprehensive 7-point action plan covering the seven commitment areas: mediation; post-conflict planning; financing; civilian capacity; post-conflict governance; rule of law; and economic recovery. The action plan aims to facilitate progress on the women, peace and security agenda. The monitoring and implementation of this action plan is now being led jointly by the Peacebuilding Support Office and UN Women. In April 2011, the two organizations convened a workshop to ensure that women are included in future post-disaster and post-conflict planning documents. In the same year, the PBF selected seven gender-sensitive peacebuilding projects to receive $5 million in funding.  Porter discusses the growing role of female leadership in countries prone to war and its impact on peacebuilding. When the book was written, seven countries prone to violent conflict had female heads of state. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf of Liberia and Michelle Bachelet of Chile were the first female heads of state from their respective countries and President Johnson-Sirleaf was the first female head of state in Africa. Both women utilized their gender to harness "the power of maternal symbolism - the hope that a woman could best close wounds left on their societies by war and dictatorship."

Early twenty-first century examples.

The UN Peacebuilding Commission works in Burundi, Central African Republic, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia and Sierra Leone and the UN Peacebuilding Fund funds projects in Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Guatemala, Haiti, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Liberia, Nepal, Niger, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, South Sudan, Timor-Leste and Uganda. Other UN organizations are working in Haiti (MINUSTAH), Lebanon, Afghanistan, Kosovo and Iraq.  The World Bank's International Development Association maintains the Trust Fund for East Timor in Timor-Leste. The TFET has assisted reconstruction, community empowerment and local governance in the country.  After having carried out the War in Afghanistan and the War in Iraq, the United States followed its attacks on the two countries by investing $104 billion in reconstruction and relief efforts. The Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund alone received $21 billion during FY2003 and FY2004. The money came from the United States Department of State, United States Agency for International Development and the United States Department of Defense and included funding for security, health, education, social welfare, governance, economic growth and humanitarian issues.  Civil society organisations contribute to peacebuilding. This for example is the case in Kenya, according to the magazine D+C Development and Cooperation. After the election riots in Kenya in 2008, civil society organisations started programmes to avoid similar disasters in the future, for instance the Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission (TJRC) and peace meetings organised by the church and they supported the National Cohesion and Integration Commission.

Results.

In 2010, the UNPBC conducted a review of its work with the first four countries on its agenda. An independent review by the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting also highlighted some of the PBC's early successes and challenges.  One comprehensive study finds that UN peacebuilding missions significantly increase the likelihood of democratization.

Criticisms.

Jennifer Hazen contends there are two major debates relating to peacebuilding; the first centres on the role of the liberal democratic model in designing peacebuilding activities and measuring outcomes and the other one questions the role of third-party actors in peacebuliding.  Regarding the debate about the role of the liberal democratic model in peacebuilding, one side contends that liberal democracy is a viable end goal for peacebuilding activities in itself but that the activities implemented to achieve it need to be revised; a rushed transition to democratic elections and market economy can undermine stability and elections held or economic legislation enacted are an inappropriate yardstick for success. Institutional change is necessary and transitions need to be incremental. Another side contends that liberal democracy might be an insufficient or even inappropriate goal for peacebuilding efforts and that the focus must be on a social transformation to develop non-violent mechanisms of conflict resolution regardless of their form.  With regards to the role of third-party actors, David Chandler contends that external support creates dependency and undermines local and domestic politics, thus undermining autonomy and the capacity for self-governance and leaving governments weak and dependent on foreign assistance once the third-party actors depart. Since the logic of peacebuilding relies on building and strengthening institutions to alter societal beliefs and behaviour, success relies on the populations' endorsement of these institutions. Any third party attempt at institution building without genuine domestic support will result in hollow institutions - this can lead to a situation in which democratic institutions are established before domestic politics have developed in a liberal, democratic fashion, and an unstable polity.  Séverine Autesserre offers a different approach, which focuses on the role of everyday practices in peacebuilding. She argue that the foreign peace builders' everyday practices, habits, and narratives strongly influence peacebuilding effectiveness. Autesserre stresses that international peacebuilders do not fully understand the conflicts they are trying to resolve because they rarely include local leaders in decision making, do not speak the local languages, and do not stay posted long enough to oversee effective change. This leaves decision makers out of touch with the key players in the peacebuilding process.  Jeremy Weinstein challenges the assumption that weak and failing states cannot rebuild themselves. He contends that through the process of autonomous recovery, international peacekeeping missions can be unnecessary for recovery because they assume that conflicts cannot be resolved by the country internally. He describes autonomous recovery as a "process through which countries achieve a lasting peace, a systematic reduction in violence, and postwar political and economic development in the absence of international intervention". Through peace and institutions generated by allowing war to run its natural course, autonomous recovery can be viewed as a success. He claims that war leads to peace by allowing the naturally stronger belligerent gain power, rather than a brokered peace deal that leaves two sides still capable of fighting. Secondly he claims that war provides a competition among providers of public goods until one can control a monopoly. He says that war can create an incentive to create institutions at all levels in order to consolidate power and extract resources from the citizens while also giving some power to the citizens depending upon how much the institutions rely on them for tax revenues.  Virginia Fortna of Columbia University, however, holds that peacekeeping interventions actually do substantively matter following the end of a civil war. She claims that selection bias, where opponents point only to failed peacekeeping interventions and do not compare these missions to those situations where interventions do not occur, is partly to blame for criticisms. Fortna says that peacekeeping missions rarely go into easily resolvable situations while they are sent into tougher, more risky post war situations where missions are more likely to fail, and peace agreements are unlikely to be committed to. When all factors of a certain peacekeeping case study are properly considered, Fortna shows that peacekeeping missions do in fact help increase the chances of sustained peace after a civil war.

Implementation.

Barnett "et al." criticizes peacebuilding organizations for undertaking supply-driven rather than demand-driven peacebuilding; they provide the peacebuilding services in which their organization specializes, not necessarily those that the recipient most needs. In addition, he argues that many of their actions are based on organizations precedent rather than empirical analysis of which interventions are and are not effective. More recently, Ben Hillman has criticized international donor efforts to strengthen local governments in the wake of conflict. He argues that international donors typically do not have the knowledge, skills or resources to bring meaningful change to the way post-conflict societies are governed.

Perpetuation of cultural hegemony.

Many academics argue that peacebuilding is a manifestation of liberal internationalism and therefore imposes Western values and practices onto other cultures. Mac Ginty states that although peacebuilding does not project all aspects of Western culture on to the recipient states, it does transmit some of them, including concepts like neoliberalism that the West requires recipients of aid to follow more closely than most Western countries do. Barnett also comments that the promotion of liberalization and democratization may undermine the peacebuilding process if security and stable institutions are not pursued concurrently. Richmond has shown how 'liberal peacebuilding' represents a political encounter that may produce a post-liberal form of peace. Local and international actors, norms, institutions and interests engage with each other in various different contexts, according to their respective power relations and their different conceptions of legitimate authority structures. Knowles and Matisek adapt to the inherent problem of peacebuilding by arguing for a better vision of security force assistance (SFA) - donor states/actors trying to build effective host-nation security forces in a weak state - where they shift the focus from military effectiveness (a typical western hegemonic approach) to one that empowers local informal security actors to take ownership of their security and to be a part of the strategic vision of the state. Such an approach attempts to bypass the inherent flaws of SFA imposing a Western security architecture on a state that does not have the institutions, resources, or civil-military relations to support this 'alien' form of security sector reform (SSR).

Peacebuilding is an activity that aims to "resolve injustice in nonviolent ways" and "to transform the cultural & structural conditions that generate deadly or destructive conflict". It revolves around developing constructive personal, group, and political relationships across ethnic, religious, class, national, and racial boundaries. This process includes violence prevention; conflict management, resolution, or transformation; and post-conflict reconciliation or trauma healing, i.e., before, during, and after any given case of violence.

La consolidation de la paix (en anglais : "peacebuilding") désigne toute intervention destinée à prévenir la reprise ou le commencement d’un conflit violent en traitant les causes premières identifiées ou supposées et en créant une attente sociétale de résolution pacifique des conflits afin d’aboutir à une paix durable et de stabiliser la société politiquement et économiquement. Les ONG impliquées dans la paix ont commencé à utiliser le terme dans les années 1970. Il a ensuite été adopté par les Nations unies et par les gouvernements avec des sens parfois variables. Un point commun à toutes les définitions est que l’amélioration de la Sécurité humaine est l’objectif prioritaire de la consolidation de la paix.


Background and early life.

Chamberlain was born in Rio de Janeiro, the third son of Sir Henry Chamberlain, 1st Baronet, consul general and charge d'affaires in Brazil, and his second wife Anna Eugenia née Morgan. His elder brother, William Charles Chamberlain, was an admiral, while younger brothers Crawford Chamberlain, and Charles Francis Falcon Chamberlain, were also army officers.  He was raised in England and educated by a private tutor and at school in Shooter's Hill, London. In 1833 he entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, having been nominated for a cadetship by Lord Beresford but was withdrawn after a year when it became clear he was unlikely to pass the final examinations. During his time at Woolwich he earned a reputation for fighting and rebellious behaviour, and on his return home he threatened to join the British Legion, a body of troops leaving for Spain under Sir George de Lacy Evans. Instead, he was encouraged to pursue a career in India, and with help from his late father's contacts he was commissioned as an ensign in the Bengal Native Infantry on 24 February 1837.

India.

Chamberlain embarked for India on board the ship "George" and arrived at Madras in May 1837. He remained at Madras for a short time as the guest of the retired general Sir John Doveton before continuing on to Calcutta in June. In Calcutta, Chamberlain stayed with his uncle George and his aunt whilst he acclimatised to his new home. In November he left Calcutta to join the 12th Regiment at Barrackpore and three months later he was posted to Lucknow with the 55th Regiment.  In mid 1838, he was transferred to the 16th Regiment based at Delhi who were preparing for the First Anglo-Afghan War. His regiment was to become part of the Army of the Indus, serving in the 1st Brigade 1st Division under the command of Sir Willoughby Cotton. He was present at a number of engagements including the Battle of Ghazni in July 1839 and was wounded on several occasions. Promoted to lieutenant on 16 July 1842, he transferred to the 1st Cavalry of Shah Shujah's Contingent and took part in a march from Kandahar to Kabul in August 1842. During the withdrawal from Kabul he was again wounded at Landi Kotal in October 1842 and again at Ali Masjid in November 1842.  He became attached to the Governor-General's Bodyguard in January 1843 and took part in the Battle of Maharajpur in December 1843 during the Gwalior Campaign. Chamberlain became military secretary to the Governor of Bombay in late 1846 and then brigade major with the Bengal Irregular Cavalry in 1848.

Punjab.

He took part in the Battle of Chillianwala in January 1849 and the Battle of Gujrat in February 1849 during the Second Anglo-Sikh War. He became assistant adjutant-general of the Sirhind division in May 1849 and, having been promoted to captain in the 16th Bengal Native Infantry on 1 November 1849 and to brevet major on 2 November 1849, he became assistant commissioner in the Rawalpindi District in December 1849 and then assistant commissioner in the Hazara District in June 1850. Promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 28 November 1854, he was given the command of the Punjab Irregular Frontier Force and led several expeditions against the frontier tribes.

Indian Rebellion of 1857.

During the Indian Rebellion he served as Adjutant-General of the Indian Army and was severely wounded at the Siege of Delhi in July 1857. For this he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 11 November 1857 and promoted to colonel on 27 November 1857.  Chamberlain was reappointed to the command of the Punjab Irregular Frontier Force in 1858 and led it during the Ambela Campaign during which he was again severely wounded again in November 1863. Advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 11 April 1863, he returned to the United Kingdom and was promoted to major-general for distinguished service on 5 August 1864. He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India on 24 May 1866 and accompanied the Duke of Edinburgh on an official trip to India in 1869. He was promoted to lieutenant-general on 1 May 1872, advanced to Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India on 24 May 1873 and further advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 28 May 1875.  Chamberlain became Commander-in-chief of the Madras Army in February 1876 and, having been promoted to full general on 1 October 1877, was sent on a mission to the Emir of Afghanistan, Sher Ali Khan, whose refusal to allow him, along with Major Louis Cavagnari, to enter the country precipitated the Second Anglo-Afghan War in November 1878. He was a member of the Madras Legislative Council and, for several months, acting military member of the council of the Governor-General of India. He left India in February 1881 and retired to Lordswood near Southampton in February 1886.

Later life and death.

In retirement, Chamberlain was an active member of the Southampton Unitarian Church. He was a vocal critic of British policy during the Boer War between 1899 and 1901. He was promoted to field marshal on 25 April 1900, died at Lordswood on 18 February 1902 and was buried at Rownhams near Southampton.

Family.

In 1873, Chamberlain married Charlotte Cuyler Reid, daughter of Major-General Sir William Reid, who died in 1896; there were no children.

Field Marshal Sir Neville Bowles Chamberlain (10 January 1820 – 18 February 1902) was a distinguished British military officer in British India. He served in the Bengal Army and saw action in the First Anglo-Afghan War, Gwalior Campaign, Second Anglo-Sikh War, Indian Rebellion and Second Anglo-Afghan War. He later became Commander-in-chief of the Madras Army.

Neville Bowles Chamberlain, né le – mort le, est un général de l'Armée des Indes. Il s'illustra à la bataille de Ghazni au mois de pendant la Première guerre anglo-afghane, à la Bataille de Maharajpur au mois de pendant la Campagne de Gwalior, à la Bataille de Tchillianwala au mois de et à la Bataille du Goudjarat au mois de pendant la Seconde Guerre anglo-sikhe. Au cours de la Révolte des cipayes, il servit en tant qu’Adjutant-General de l'Armée des Indes et fut grièvement blessé au Siège de Delhi au mois de. Il fut promu commandant-en-chef de l’Armée de Madras en et envoyé en mission auprès de l’émir d'Afghanistan, Sher Ali Khan, dont le refus de recevoir la délégation britannique va précipiter le déclenchement de la Seconde guerre anglo-afghane en.


History.

The United States has had two main polar orbiting satellite programs which both began in the 1960s. NOAA's POES (Polar Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite) series and the USAF's DMSP (Defense Metrological Satellite Program). JPSS was created by the White House in February 2010 following the restructuring dissolution of the National Polar-orbiting Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) program. The original satellite orbit concept from the NPOESS program was divided between two sponsor agencies: NOAA was given responsibility for the afternoon orbit, while environmental measurements from morning orbit were to be obtained from the Defense Weather Satellite System (DWSS). DWSS was cancelled in April 2012. The military will continue to rely on the Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) constellation of satellites until the Weather System Follow-on satellites are operational.  An independent review team (IRT) was assigned to provide an independent assessment of the total NOAA satellite enterprise, including JPSS. Its findings were published in 2012.

Purpose.

Data imagery obtained from the Joint Polar Satellite System will increase timeliness and accuracy of public warnings such as predictions of climate, weather, and natural hazards, thus reducing the potential loss of human life, property and advancing the national economy.  JPSS will replace the current Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites (POES), managed by NOAA and the ground processing component of both POES and the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP). Operational environmental requirements from polar-orbit are also met by the NPOESS Preparatory Project (NPP) (now called the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership or Suomi NPP or S-NPP), which launched October 28, 2011.  Data from the JPSS system shall be made freely available, by the United States Government, to domestic and international users, in support of U.S. commitments for the Global Earth Observing System of Systems (GEOSS).

Instruments.

The JPSS satellites will carry a suite of sensors designed to collect meteorological, oceanographic, climatological, and solar-geophysical observations of the earth land, oceans, atmosphere, and near-earth space.  JPSS Sensors/Instruments:

Operations.

The ground communications and processing system for JPSS is known as the JPSS Common Ground System (JPSS CGS), and consists of a Command, Control, and Communications Segment (C3S) and the Interface Data Processing Segment (IDPS). Both are developed by Raytheon Intelligence and Information Systems (IIS). The IDPS will process JPSS satellite data to provide environmental data products (aka, Environmental Data Records or EDRs) to NOAA and DoD processing centers operated by the United States government. The IDPS has processed EDRs beginning with NPP and is slated to continue doing so through the lifetime of the JPSS and WSF-M systems.  The C3S is responsible for managing the overall JPSS (and potentially WSF-M) missions from control and status of the space and ground assets to ensuring delivery of timely, high-quality data from the Space Segments (SS) to IDPS for processing. In addition, the C3S provides the globally distributed ground assets necessary to collect and transport mission, telemetry, and command data between the satellites and the processing locations.  The JPSS Common Ground System (CGS) converges the NOAA-NASA civil polar environmental satellite program, NPOESS Preparatory Project (NPP), and the Air Force's Defense Weather Satellite System (DWSS) ground systems into a single, common system that will satisfy both U.S. and partner international environmental monitoring satellite needs from polar orbit.

Satellites.

There is only one operating satellite, NOAA-20, that was designed as part of JPSS, but there are two other satellites that are associated with the program.  The Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (Suomi NPP), previously known as the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) Preparatory Project (NPP) and NPP-Bridge, has a nearly identical design as NOAA-20 and shares some ground systems with it but it was not designed as a part of JPSS. It was originally proposed as a proof-of-concept satellite, and now supports NOAA and DoD operations. Suomi NPP was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California on 28 October 2011 at 09:48 GMT. It is the first in-flight use of the JPSS ground system and key sensors which are on NOAA-20 and it served as both risk-reduction and as an early-flight opportunity for the JPSS program.  In addition, the Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) Calibration Transfer Experiment, which was launched on the U.S. Air Force Space Test Program Satellite-3 (STPSat-3) on November 19, 2013, is an experimental payload under the JPSS system. It is an instrument that measures the sun's energy output and was launched as a ride-share opportunity as a way of maintaining the continuity of TSI observations.  NOAA-20 launched on November 18, 2017. NOAA-20 hosts the following instruments: (1) VIIRS, (2) CrIS, (3) ATMS, (4) OMPS-N, and (5) CERES.  JPSS-2 is scheduled for launch in 2022. The JPSS-2 spacecraft will host the following instruments: (1) VIIRS, (2) CrIS, (3) ATMS, and (4) OMPS-N.  JPSS-3 is scheduled for launch in 2026. JPSS-3 contains five similar instruments: (1) VIIRS, (2) CrIS, (3) ATMS, (4) OMPS-N, and (5) RBI.  JPSS-4 is scheduled for launch in 2031. JPSS-4 will host five instruments: (1) VIIRS, (2) CrIS, (3) ATMS, (4) OMPS-N, and (5) RBI.

Major contractors.

Ball Aerospace.

Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. (BATC) of Boulder, CO is the spacecraft contractor for both the JPSS-1 satellite and the Ozone instrument (OMPS) on the JPSS program and NPP.

Northrop Grumman.

Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems of Dulles, VA, has been selected to build the JPSS-2 spacecraft.  Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems (NGAS), of Azusa, CA is the developer and builder for the Advanced Technology Microwave Sounder (ATMS), a legacy instrument previously flown on the NPP mission.  Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems (NGAS) of Redondo Beach, CA is the developer and builder for the Clouds and Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES), a legacy instrument previously flown on the NASA Earth Observation System (EOS) satellites.

Raytheon Company.

Raytheon Intelligence and Information Systems (IIS) of Aurora, CO is the prime contractor for the JPSS Common Ground System (CGS), whose major components necessary for operation of the NPP spacecraft have been delivered. Interface Data Processing Systems (IDPS) have been installed at two U.S. government processing facilities, known as weather centrals.  Raytheon Space and Airborne Systems (SAS) of El Segundo, CA is the developer and builder for the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS).

L3Harris.

L3Harris Technologies Fort Wayne, Indiana division, is the developer and builder for the Cross-track Infrared Sounder (CrIS) instrument planned for flight on the first and second Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS-1 and JPSS-2).

The Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) is the latest generation of U.S. polar-orbiting, non-geosynchronous, environmental satellites. JPSS will provide the global environmental data used in numerical weather prediction models for forecasts, and scientific data used for climate monitoring. JPSS will aid in fulfilling the mission of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), an agency of the Department of Commerce. Data and imagery obtained from the JPSS will increase timeliness and accuracy of public warnings and forecasts of climate and weather events, thus reducing the potential loss of human life and property and advancing the national economy. The JPSS is developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), who is responsible for operation of JPSS. Three to five satellites are planned for the JPSS constellation of satellites. JPSS satellites will be flown, and the scientific data from JPSS will be processed, by the JPSS – Common Ground System (JPSS-CGS).

Joint Polar Satellite System ou JPSS est une série de quatre satellites météorologiques déployés en orbite polaire par la "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration" (NOAA) avec la participation de la NASA à compter de 2017. Ils doivent prendre la suite des satellites NOAA POES à la suite de l'échec du programme NPOESS. Ces satellites sont développés sur le modèle de Suomi NPP. Le premier exemplaire (NOAA 20) est placé en orbite le et les 3 suivants doivent l'être entre 2022 et 2031.