Nomenclature and Etymology.

'Vāmana' (Sanskrit वामन) means 'Dwarf','small' or'small or short in stature'. It also means 'dwarfish bull', which is notable as Vishnu is directly associated with dwarfish animals (including bulls) in the Vedas (see below). Stated in Puranic literature to be born of the great sage Kasyapa and his wife Aditi, other names or epithets referring to Vāmana include:

Bali.

'Bali' (बलि), also known as 'Mahabali' ('Great Bali'), 'Bali Mahārāja' ('King Bali'), and 'Baskali' ('of a teacher'), is the name of the noble Asura king defeated by the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. As evidenced below, Bali is stated in Puranic literature to be the great-great grandson of Kasyapa and Diti; great-grandson of Hiranyakashipu (son of Diti, defeated by the Narasimha avatar); grandson of Prahlada (a Vaishnava protected by Narasimha); and son of Virochana.  Bali is also stated to have had 100 sons (including Bana) as well as a daughter called Ratnamala. Ratnamala is particularly notable, as after seeing Vamana at her father's yajna, she desired to have a son just like Him

Summary.

As shown below, the basic premise is that after the Aditya called Indra (king of the gods, son of Kasyapa ahd Aditi) is defeated by the Daitya called Bali (King of the asuras, great-great grandson of Kasyapa and Diti), the gods ultimately seek refuge in Vishnu, who agrees restore Indra to power. To do so, Vishnu incarnates as the Aditya dwarf-Brahmin, Vamana (son of Kasyapa and Aditi). Noble-souled, Bali conducts sacrifices (partaken by the asuras but not the gods under Bali's rule), one of which is attended by Vamana, who requests only three steps of land (usually to build a fire-altar). Bali agrees despite being warned about Vamana's true nature and purpose as Vishnu (usually by his preceptor, the sage Sukra, a descendant of Bhrgu), whereby Vamana extends in size and in three strides encompasses all existence and beyond. The three worlds are restored to Indra, and Bali and the Asuras are banished to the netherworlds.  J. Roy states that the 'Dwarf or Vamana incarnation of Vishnu is purely an allegory and seems to be a development of the idea of Visnu's three strides, alluded to repeatedly in the Rigveda. The legend is also found in an enlarged form in the Shatapatha Brahmana, which refers to the story of Visnu, the Dwarf growing so large as to encompass the whole earth for the gods. [In the epics and Puranas] Though the episode of King Bali, associated with [the] Vamana incarnation, makes him appear anthropomorphic; the allegorical character of his three steps is hardly concealed. His exploits do not uphold the idea of the key functions of an incarnation, which are protection of the righteous, destruction of the wicked, and establishment of dharma'.  A.A. Macdonell states that the'reason why Visnu took his three steps is a secondary trait. He thrice traversed the earthly spaces for man in distress (6, 49); he traversed the earth to bestow it on man for a dwelling (7, 100); he traversed the earthly spaces for wide-stepping existence (1, 155); with Indra he took vast strides and stretched out the worlds for our existence (6, 69). To this feature in the [RigVeda] may ultimately be traced the myth of Visnu’s dwarf incarnation which appears in; the epics and Puranas. The intermediate stage is found in the Brahmanas ([Shatapatha Brahmana] 1, 2, 5; [Taittiriya Samhita] 2, 1, 3; [Taittiriya Brahmana] 1, 6, 1), where Visnu already assumes the form of a dwarf, in order by sacrifice to recover the earth for the gods from the Asuras'.

Symbolism.

Positions of the Sun: Roy states that 'Visnu's three strides alluded to in the Rigveda have been variously interpreted as meaning the three different positions of the sun at his rising, culmination, and setting. It is interesting to note in this connection the etymological explanation of the terms, "Vamana" and "Visnu" given in the puranas. Visnu is so-called from the verbal root "vis". meaning 'to enter' or 'to pervade' because he, in his dwarf form, has pervaded or penetrated everything. A similar idea is also found in the Upanisad, where the soul is described as of the size of a thumb, always seated in everyone's heart'.  Physical Reality: J. Muir relates the commentary of Sayana on the three steps of Vishnu mentioned in the White YajurVeda (5.15) as 'Vishnu, becoming incarnate as Trivikrama (the god who stepped thrice), strode over, - i.e. stepped by separate strides over, - this whole [universe]. It is this that [the rishi] expresses [in the worlds], 'In three places he planted his step,' i.e. one step on the earth, a second in the atmosphere, and a third in the sky: in the successive forms of Agni, Vayu, and Surya'. The meaning implied seems to be related to the fact that Agni (fire) is present on the ground, Vayu (air) is present in the atmosphere, and Surya (the sun) is present in the sky or heavens; thus the three steps symbolise the three worlds or planes of physical reality, i.e. the ground, the air, and the sky.  All-pervasiveness of Sacrifice: N. Aiyangar states that 'As Vishnu is the all-pervading invisible Deity of sacrifice, it is as it should be if he is symbolised by all the sacrificial implements and, above all, by light wherever seen, by the sacrificial fire Agni here, by the fire of lightening in the atmosphere, by all the luminaries in the sky, most markedly by the grandest of them, the sun. This is how Vishnu, seen as a little dwarf in the symbol of the sacrificial fire on earth, is the giant striding from there through all the regions of the universe'.  Three states of existence: S Chanda states that Mahabali symbolises "samriddhi" (prosperity), the three feet symbolize the three states of existence – Jagrat (awake), Swapna (dream sleep) and "sushupti" (deep sleep) and final step is on his head which elevates from these three states, unto moksha (spiritual liberation, release from rebirths).

The Vedas.

Rig Veda.

Samhita.

Roy states that the 'RigVedic passages referring to Visnu's three strides are obviously the nucleus, out of which the legend of the Dwarf was created. But the RigVeda, however, does not describe Visnu as dwarf or "Vamana"'. W.J. Wilkins agrees, stating that in regards to the Vishnu Strides of the RigVeda, 'in these verses there is probably the germ of the Dwarf Incarnation'.  In regards to the above-quoted verses, it is commonly accepted that there are seven continents or'regions of the earth'. A. Glucklich adds that 'In the Matsya Purana, for instance, there is a seven-part map of the world... [it has] one centre, where an immense mountain - Mt. Meru (or Maha Meru, Great Meru) - stands... The continents encircle the mountain in seven concentric circles... It

Aitareya Brahmana.

The concept of Vishnu obtaining the three worlds for the Devas from the Asuras in three steps is clearly explained in the Aitareya Brahmana. The RigVeda Samhita verse referred to (6.69.8) regarding Indra and Vishnu battling the Asuras states 'Ye Twain have conquered, ne’er have ye been conquered: never hath either of the Twain been vanquished. Ye, Indra-Viṣṇu, when ye fought the battle, produced this infinite with three divisions'.  The Maruts, referred to as 'the sons of Rudra' are frequently mentioned throughout the RigVeda, including in relation to the above quotation, producing rain (1.38.7). Indra is the god of rain and as stated in the Aitareya Brahmana, 'rain gives food' (2.5.41; pp. 106). This is elaborated upon in the Aitareya Aranyaka (Aranyaka 2, Adhyaya 3) which states <nowiki>"the seed of the gods is rain. The seed of rain is herbs. The seed of herbs is food'</nowiki>. Additionally, in the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna states 'All living bodies subsist on food grains, which are produced from rains. Rains are produced by performance of yajña' (3.14).

Sama Veda.

Samhita.

The translator, R.T.H. Griffith, states in his introduction to the SamaVeda that it 'is made up of

Pancavimsa Brahmana.

The terms'stoma' and'saman' from the above-quoted Pancavimsa Brahmana refer to mantras and hymns, such from the SamaVeda.  The Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa has a similar verse (1.3.3.2; also of the SamaVeda) which omits Visnu's strides but explains the Varavantiya saman as 'He who desired cattle should apply the Varavantiya Saman. Prajapati created the animals. Having been created they ran away from him. By means of the Varavantiya Saman he held them back. Because he held them back ("avarayat") therefore the Varavantiya is called the Varavantiya. The application of the Varavantiya as the agnistoma Saman is made in order that

Yajur Veda.

White YajurVeda: Vajasaneyi Samhita.

In regards to the above quotation, Aiyangar states that long (i.e. including braided) hair indicates Munis, and shaven hair indicates 'an ascetic of the order of sannyasin'. Roy argues that in 'the Satarudriya hymn of the Yajurveda [i.e. Vajasaneyi Samhita, Book 16, as quoted above], Rudra is referred to as "vamana". Rudra is said to preside over the asterism of Ardra and

White YajurVeda: Shatapatha Brahmana.

Muir states about this legend in the Shatapatha Brahmana that 'Vishnu is represented as a dwarf, and has having, under the form of sacrifice, conquered the whole earth... [this] contains the germ of the story of the Dwarf [i.e. Vamana] incarnation'. This legend is given in relation to the "Darsapûrnamâseshtî", or 'New and Full-moon Sacrifices'. The translator, Eggeling, states (footnote 59:1 of the given link) that the above-quoted legend'represents the "Purva-Parigraha", or first enclosing of the altar by a single line being drawn with the wooden sword [a sacrificial instrument called a "satasphyam"] on each of the three sides'. He also supposes (while admitting he cannot prove it) that the

Black YajurVeda: Taittiriya Samhita.

As per the above quote from the Taittirya Samhita, the sacrificial fee for Vishnu is a dwarf-animal (also stated in 1.8.1 (ox), 1.8.8, and 1.8.17). As D.A. Soifer states,

Black YajurVeda: Taittiriya Brahmana.

This quote shows that 'Bali' is used refer to taxes paid to the King. It seems possible that this is linked to the character of Bali being a king (of the Asuras) who - also consistent with the other meaning of'sacrificial offerings or oblations' - loved to perform sacrifices and give sacrificial offerings (such as land requested by dwarf-Brahmins).

Upanishads.

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is one of the Mukhya or Principal 108 Upanishads. From the last book of the Śatapatha Brāhmana (Kanva recension; this article cites the Madhyandina recension in the section above, which does not contain the Upanishad), it is a treatise on Ātman (soul or self), and has been commented upon by figures such as Adi Shankara and Madhvacharya.  According to this Sruti scripture, the concept of the 'three words' does not just refer to physical reality

Itihāsa (Epics).

Mahabharata.

The Mahabharata, ascribed to the sage Vyāsa, is one of two epic poems (Itihāsa) in the Hindu cannon. Most notably, of the 18 the books ("parvas") of the Mahabharata, the sixth (called the Bhishma Parva) is the Bhagavad Gita, containing the teachings of Krishna (synonymous with Vishnu / Hari, as evidenced by the Mahabharata itself). The main account of Vamana is quoted above from chapter 270 of the third book, the Vana Parva, in its entirety. All other references cited are either brief mentions of this legend or supplementary information such as blessings that can be obtained in relation to Vamana.  Notably, academics such as J.Melton and C.A. Jones state that 'Onam, an ancient rice harvest festival, is now tied to the story of King Mahabali as recounted in the epic Indian tale, the Mahabharata... Vishnu, impressed with Mahabali's devotion, granted him [Bali] the boon of being able to revisit his former subjects once a year'. However, no references were provided and no such account has been found in the Mahabharata (at least in the translation by K.M. Ganguli). Other notable details include:

Harivamsa.

Maha-Puranas.

Agni Purana.

The first brief account of the legend of Vamana in the Agni Purana, consisting of only 7 verses (or slokas), has been quoted above in

Bhagavata Purana.

The main account of the legend of Vamana in the Bhagavata Purana is narrated by Śukadeva Gosvāmī to King Parīkṣit (canto 8, chapters 15-22). Given its similarity to legends provided in the Harivamsa, as well as the Matsya, Vamana, and Skanda Purunas, it seems this account either shares a common source, or more likely (on the assumption the Bhagavata was written later) was derived from at least one of these other accounts. Quotes given below in the chapter summaries are taken from the chapter introductions provided by the Bhaktivedanta Book Trust (BBT) for conciseness.

Brahma Purana.

First account.

Although the first account of the legend of Vamana in Brahma Purana is brief and otherwise entirely typical in nature, it is notable that 20 of the 28 verses focus on detailing the names and

Second account.

The second account of the legend of Vamana consists of an entire chapter (Gautami-Mahatmya: 4; 68 verses). Narrated by Brahma to Narada, it differs from the usual accounts insofar as the gods led by Indra are 'defeated' not in a literal battle, but rather by the good and noble qualities of the invincible Bali, under whose rule 'there were no enemies, no ailments, no anxieties in any way.. While Bali was ruling over the kingdom, none of these was seen even in dream, viz. famine, evil, denial of God, [or] wickedness'. Jealous and miserable, the gods seek refuge in Vishnu, who states

Brahmanda Purana.

A brief account of the legend of Vamana is provided in the Brahmanda Purana (Part 3: 73.75-87). It is notable as one of the few accounts where Bali is neither forewarned nor aware of the true nature of Vamana, or the consequences for gifting a three

Brahmavaivarta Purana.

A Brahmanda is a cosmic egg. The legend of Vamana quoted above seems to be unique to the Brahmavaivarta Purana (Krsna-Janma-Khanda: Chapter 47). In this account, Visvakarma is employed by Indra to rebuild the city of "Amaravati" after it is destroyed. A year later, with Indra still not satisfied and unable to return to his abode, Visvakarma seeks the help of Brahma. Brahma in turn seeks the help of Vishnu, who incarnates in the 'form of a Brahmana boy... He wore a serene smile on his face which was quite charming'. Indra becomes arrogant and haughty after being asked about the length of time Visvakarma must be engaged, so as quoted above, Vamana points out there have been innumerable Indras in innumerable universes.  Countless thousands of ants appear, and Vamana

Garuda Purana.

Kurma Purana.

In the Kurma Purana, there are two accounts of Vamana.

First account.

In the first account, following the part quoted above, Vamana covering all three worlds in three steps splits the cosmic egg, and the consequent flow of water rushing into it is 'termed by Brahma' as the Ganges. Vamana then tells Bali that he will be banished to the netherworld until merging with Him at the time of dissolution (i.e. at the end of the Kalpa, which lasts 1,000 Yugas in total).

Second account.

In a second and much briefer account, it is stated that in 'this Vaivasvata Manuvantra, Visnu was born of Kasyapa and Aditi as Vamana. Winning the three worlds with his three steps, this high-souled lord gave in to Indra the triple world bereft of all obstacles... Since this entire world was entied by the high-souled Vamana, therefore he is called by all as Vishnu due to the root 'Vis' (to enter) involved herein' (49.33-36). Vaivasvata, also known as "Shraddhadeva Manu", is the current and seventh of fourteen total Manus that rule the current Kalpa in succession. Vaivasvata is also directly linked with the legend of Matsya, the first (fish) avatar of Vishnu, who rescued him from the deluge at the end of the reign of the sixth Manu, "Chakshusha".

Linga Purana.

In the Linga Purana, the legend of

Markandeya Purana.

It seems that in the Markandeya

Matsya Purana.

In the Matsya Purana, three chapters are dedicated to the legend of Vamana. It has elements and descriptions very similar to that of the Vamana Purana in particular. In this account, Shaunaka tells Arjuna that after Indra is vanquished by the Asuras, his mother, Aditi, 'the mother of the Devas began to practise rigid austerities... For one thousand years she worshipped Lord Krisna by living on air alone, and on seeing Her children oppressed by the [Asuras] she said to Herself that Her sons were born in vain'. Vishnu, pleased with the devotion of Aditi, agrees to her request to restore Indra to power and states 'I shall therefore be born of you through Kasyapa when I shall kill all the demons' (CCXLIV / 244).  After the demons lose their lustre, Bali enquiries from his grandfather and devotee of Vishnu, Prahlada, what the reason is. Meditating on Hari, Prahlada has a vision of Vamana and informs Bali, who initially scoffs but apologises after being cursed as 'indiscriminate, vicious and disrespectful'. Upon the birth of Vamana, 'all the Devas, even the Demons, men, earth, heaven, [and the] sky became peaceful', while Brahma

Narada Purana.

In the Narada Purana, the legend of Vamana is given in chapter eleven. The (anonymous) translator in footnote 12 to this chapter (p. 208) states that the 'gift of land has been highly praised as the most meritorious, from ancient times. Apararka quotes many verses from the Visnudharmottara, the Aditya Purana and Matsya Purana... and states that there is no gift comparable to the gift of land. Verses pertaining to land-grant are common not only in Puranas or Smrti works but are recorded on inscriptions and copper-plates of such grants all over India'.  In this account, Vishnu visits and offers Aditi a boon, being pleased with her penances. Aditi requests that her sons, the Devas, be restored to power, but without 'any harm unto [the] Daityas, since they too are my sons' (i.e. via her sister and co-wife of Kasyapa, Diti). Vishnu agrees, and promises to be born as her son, Vamana. Praised by Kasyapa upon His birth before taking 'leave of his

Padma Purana.

In the Padma Purana, two accounts of the legend of Vamana are given.

First Account.

The first is related by the sage Pulastya to Bhisma (Part 1: chapter 30), which took place 'formerly in the Krteyuga'. Similar to the legend of Vritra in the Bhagavata Purana, Baskali (i.e. Bali) conquers the gods led by Indra after attaining the boon of invincibility from Brahma, forcing them to ultimately seek Vishnu for refuge. Vishnu agrees to help, and Aditi (wife of Kasyapa) is pregnant for 1,000 divine years with the Vamana avatar. It is noted that Aditi 'entertained a malicious design' to destroy the demons during her pregnancy.  At 'the time as ordained, the god, the lord of lords (i.e. Visnu), kind to all beings, of pure and scanty hair, having the beauty of the moon, the conch and the (sun-) rise, became (i.e. was born as) Aditi's son'. Vamana later travels with Indra to the city of Baskali to request three steps of land. To the amazement of Indra, in the city there 'was no religious merit, no lore, no architecture, no art that did not exist (i.e. that was not found)', and even the Vedas were being

Second account and other details.

The second account, narrated by Mahadeva (i.e. Shiva), is much shorter and more typical in nature. In this, Vamana is implored by the gods to visit the sacrifice of Bali to request the three worlds from him. Vamana, this time alone without Indra, is greeted and worshipped by Bali, explains the merit of donating land, and requests three steps, which is granted despite the protests of Sukra. Vamana then 'abandoned his dwarfish form... extending up to fifty crores (of yojanas) he seized the earth along with the seas and mountains, along with the oceans, islands, gods, demons and human beings'. As Vishnu places his second and third steps, creating the sacred Ganges in the process, Bali is granted the ability to sees His universal 'Janardana-form' (similar to that witnessed by Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita). Other details include:

Shiva Purana.

It seems that the legend of Vamana is only briefly mentioned in the Shiva Purana. The translator, J.L.Shastri, notes in the fourth part (page 1659, footnote 93) that 'Patala is called Balisadman - the abode of Bali. According to a legend God Visnu in the form of a

Skanda Purana.

Notably, this above-quoted incident is not mentioned in either of the two legends of Vamana given in the Skanda Purana.

First account.

In the first account (part 1, chapters 18-19), after being defeated by the Daityas (led by Bali), the shamed Suras (led by Indra) disguise themselves as different animals and go to the hermitage of Kasyapa and Aditi for refuge. Aditi wishes to help the Suras, so on the advice of Kasyapa, she performs the "Ekabhakta" rite for Vishnu for a year (details and instructions are provided, including the most auspicious timings and star constellations). Pleased with Aditi's holy penance, Janardana (Vishnu), on 'the Dvadasi day which coincided with [the] Sravana constellation [appeared in] the

Second account and other details.

In the second account (part 12, chapter 63, verse 237 onward), after the request of the gods granted a boon by Vishnu, Vamana is born 'as the delighter of Aditi' some time later. At this time Bali was performing 'a hundred horse sacrifices with a desire to take away the kingdom of Indra'. Vamana, singing 'the Mantras of all the four Vedas', arrives at Bali's sacrifice officiated by figures such as Kasyapa and Bhrgu. Announced by the doorkeepers, Vamana is

Vamana Purana.

There are two main accounts of the legend of Vamana in the Vamana Purana. At least 18 chapters relate directly to Vamana and events or characters relating to the legend. H.H. Wilson summarises the legend of Vamana in this Purana as 'the birth of Krishna as a dwarf, for the purpose of humiliating Bali by fraud, as he was invincible by force. The story is told as usual; but the scene is laid at Kurukshetra'. This somewhat curt summation is fundamentally inaccurate and misleading since Bali is neither humiliated nor defrauded. As a general rule, Bali is a noble-souled and religious character fully aware of exactly who Vamana is and who knowingly grants three footsteps of land in spite of being warned of the consequences. This is the case in both accounts contained in the Vamana Purana, where far from being 'humiliated', Bali is installed as ruler of the netherworlds and is promised the post of Indra (i.e. King of the gods).

First account.

The first account is remarkably similar to that of the Matsya Purana (see above), and consists of 9 chapters (Saromabatmya: 2-10). It begins with the coronation of Bali as the King after defeating Indra. Noble and religious, Bali is congratulated for his victory and blessed by Sri (2). Meanwhile, Indra returns to his mother, Aditi, who states Bali can only be defeated by Vishnu. Aditi and the gods go to Kasyapa, 'the creator of beings, the Supreme Master of the entire progeny' who then takes them to Brahmaloka, the celestial abode of Brahma (3).  Brahma

Second account.

The second account - excluding chapters not directly related to the legend, such as Bali conquering the gods beforehand and the pilgrimage of Prahlada after cursing Bali - consists of at least 5 chapters (Saromabatmya: 50-51, 62, and 64-65). In this, Indra travels to Brahmaloka to confer with Brahma and Kasyapa, where he is told that he lost his Kingdom due to his sin of attempting to destroy the fetus of Diti (saved by Vishnu), another wife of Kasyapa and mother of the Daityas. Indra performs penances, of which he tells his mother, Aditi. Aditi in turn performs penances, and pleased, Vishnu agrees to be born as her son (i.e. Vamana) to restore Indra to power (50). Similar the first account, Bali is warned about the birth of Vamana and cursed after failing to take the threat seriously, albeit this time by his grandfather Prahlada (not Sukra), who then goes on a pilgrimage (51).  Vamana is born, and eulogised by Brahma who performs the Upanayana and Jatakarma ceremonies and others. Pulaha gives the sacred thread to Vamana, Pulastya two white garments, Agastya a deer skin, Bharadvaja a girdle, Marici a staff, Vasistha (son of Varuna) rosary beads, Angiras a broom of Kusa grass, King Raghu an umbrella, Nrga a pair of shoes, Brhaspati a water-jar, and

Varaha Purana.

In the Varaha Purana, it seems that the

Vayu Purana.

In the Vayu Purana, the legend of Vamana is briefly recounted in the second part (36.74-85), an excerpt of which is quoted above. A simplified version of the legend (in comparison to many others), after Vamana takes back the three worlds from the Asuras, 'he forced them to retreat to the bottom of the nether-world along with their sons and grandsons. Namuci,

Vishnu Purana.

It seems that the legend of Vamana is only briefly mentioned in the Vishnu Purana. According to the notes of the translator, H.H. Wilson, 'Fuller details occur in the Bhágavata, Kúrma, Matsya,

Festivals.

Balipratipada.

Balipratipada is an ancient festival observed during the five days of

Onam.

In one version of the Vamana legend, when Mahabali offered himself for Vishnu's third step, it was an act of Mahabali's devotion. Vishnu granted him a boon. Mahabali chose to revisit earth, once every year, the lands and people he previously ruled. This revisit marks the festival of Onam, as reminder of the virtuous rule and his humility in keeping his promise before Vishnu.  According to Nanditha Krishna, a simpler form of this legend, one without Mahabali, is found in the "Rigveda" and the Vedic text "Shatapatha

Iconography.

Vamana iconography varies by region. Three icons are common, one shows his left foot raised above his knee, the second shows

Temples.

The Vamana iconography and images are found in many Vaishnava temples. Some Vamana temples include:

Vamana (Sanskrit: वामन, IAST: "Vāmana", lit. "dwarf"), also known as Vāmanadeva ('dwarf-god'), Trivikrama ('having three steps'), Urukrama ('one of large step'), Upendra ('younger brother of Indra'), Dadhivamana (literally'milk-dwarf'; loosely 'a mystic person'), and Balibandhana ('who fettered the demon Bali') is a Brahmin avatar of the supreme almighty god Vishnu.

Dans l'hindouisme, Vâmana (वामन en devanāgarī, litt. « nain ») est le cinquième avatar de Vishnou. Il est descendu sur terre pour réfréner les envies de conquête du démon Bali, qui estimait régner sur les trois mondes (le ciel, la terre et les enfers). Vamana est représenté sous la forme d'un nain, et il dit à Bali : «Le monde sera partagé en deux parties : la première, aussi grande et étendue que trois pas de nain, sera sous la responsabilité des dieux, la deuxième partie te reviendra.» Bali accepta le marché, mais Vamana reprit sa forme initiale, celle de Vishnou et parcourut en trois pas les trois mondes. Dans sa grande bonté, il envoya Bali garder les enfers. Sous cette forme, Il est appelé Trivikrama, «celui qui fait trois pas». En tant que Vāmana, il est représenté avec un parasol, tenant un pot (kamaṇḍalu) et un rosaire (akṣamālā) dans les mains.


Origin of Barbadian fauna.

The island of Barbados was formed by tectonic uplift and is younger than surrounding lesser Antillean islands, which are primarily of volcanic origin. Avian colonization has therefore occurred recently relative to the geological age of the island, accounting in part for the paucity of endemic species relative to neighboring islands. Species capable of crossing the sea barrier by flight enjoyed a comparative advantage; helping explain why avian species are more numerous than other animal groups, such as mammals. In addition to natural colonization of the island by animals, humans have contributed to the faunal composition of the island, through species introductions (intentional and accidental).

Mammals.

Mammals are a poorly represented group on the island, composed almost entirely of introduced species. The Norway rat ("Rattus norvegicus"), house mouse ("Mus musculus"), European hare ("Lepus europaeus"), Indian mongoose ("Herpestes javanicus"), and green monkey ("Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus") are the most notable examples. Pigs were introduced by the Portuguese in 1563 as a future food source; the introduction was successful and a feral pig population persisted up until the point of British settlement of the island, after which they became extirpated.  The now extinct Barbados raccoon ("Procyon gloveralleni") is considered to have been endemic to the island; however even this species may have been introduced by Amerindians in pre-historic times. There is also some indication that the Barbados raccoon was in fact a subspecies of the common raccoon ("Procyon lotor"), rather than a distinct species.  The only remaining native mammals are a number of bat species; the most common of which is the velvety free-tailed bat ("Molossus molossus"), which emerges at dusk to feed on insects.  A breed of sheep known as the Barbados Blackbelly sheep originated in Barbados, it has been exported to various nations around the world including the United States where it is sometimes called affectionately "Barbado Sheep".  Marine mammals are not frequently seen in Barbadian waters; some species however, particularly bottlenose dolphins ("Tursiops truncatus") and humpback whales ("Megaptera novaeangliae"), are occasionally seen offshore.  Feral dogs and cats, introduced by humans, also occur on the island.

Birds.

Birds are fairly well represented on the island; most having adapted well to the presence of humans.  Icterids such as the Carib grackle ("Quiscalus lugubris") and the shiny cowbird ("Molothrus bonariensis"), which often parasitizes the nests of the former species, are quite common.  Seedeaters include the black-faced grassquit ("Tiaris bicolor") and the grassland yellow finch ("Sicalis luteola"), known locally as the "grass canary". Introduced from South America the grassland yellow finch is now faced with extirpation due to poaching for the pet trade. Until recently considered a non-sexually dimorphic subspecies of the Lesser Antillean bullfinch ("Loxigilla noctis"), the Barbados bullfinch ("Loxigilla barbadensis") has recently been elevated to species level.  There are two species of tyrant flycatcher found on the island, the grey kingbird ("Tyrannus dominicensis") which is quite common; often seen perched on power lines,and the Caribbean elaenia ("Elaenia martinica") which is more rare.  Representatives of the family Columbidae include the zenaida dove ("Zenaida aurita"), common ground dove ("Columbina passerina"), scaly-naped pigeon ("Patagioenas squamosa"), and the ubiquitous rock pigeon ("Columba livia"). Another species, the eared dove ("Zenaida auriculata"), which was previously reported as an occasional visitor to the island, has now established a breeding population.  Nectar consuming species include the Antillean crested hummingbird ("Orthorhyncus cristatus"), green-throated carib ("Eulampis holosericeus"), and the bananaquit ("Coereba flaveola").  Heron species include, the cattle egret ("Bubulcus ibis") and the fairly rare green heron ("Butorides virescens"). A recent addition to the island's avifauna is the little egret ("Egretta garzetta"), which has recently colonized the island from Africa. Early European visitors reported finding a species of parrot on the island, which subsequently became extinct. Currently parrots are represented by a few escaped or released individuals which have formed feral populations; most notably is a small population of the orange-winged parrot ("Amazona amazonica") which has become established among several "Roystonea" palms in the Belleville district of the capital Bridgetown. The brown-throated parakeet ("Aratinga pertinax"), introduced to the island, is rarely seen.  The scaly-breasted thrasher ("Allenia fusca") may have become extirpated from the Island. A resident race of the yellow warbler ("Dendroica petechia petechia") is also threatened, mostly due to loss of its mangrove swamp habitat; the last major refuge for this species is the Graeme Hall Swamp in the south of the Island, However some reports suggest the species is expanding its range on the island.  Species which may be encountered in wetland areas include the masked duck ("Nomonyx dominica"), American coot ("Fulica americana"), and the common moorhen ("Gallinula chloropus") The southern lapwing ("Vanellus chilensis"), a shorebird, has recently bred upon the island; having spread to Barbados from Trinidad and Tobago and northern South America.  Substantial numbers of migratory birds either over-wintering on the island, or en route from North America to South American wintering grounds are seen annually. Shorebirds are one such group of birds which stop off in Barbados during migration; tens of thousands however, lured to artificial wetlands, are shot annually for sport.

Reptiles.

The green iguana ("Iguana iguana") formerly resided on the island before being extirpated. An endemic species of anole lizard, ("Anolis extremus"), and the introduced tropical house gecko ("Hemidactylus mabouia") are both common species; while Underwood's spectacled tegu ("Gymnophthalmus underwoodi"), and a native species of "Kentropyx" lizard ("Kentropyx borckiana") are rarer on the island.  The red-footed tortoise ("Geochelone carbonaria") is widely kept in captivity; it was likely introduced to the island, as no reports of it were made by early European explorers to the island.  Populations of an endemic "Liophis" grass snake ("Liophis perfuscus") have been devastated as a result of predation by the introduced Indian mongoose; with no confirmed sightings of the species since 1961. Another snake species, "Mastigodryas bruesi" and the world's smallest snake, "Leptotyphlops carlae", have also been recorded from the island.  Currently there are two species of sea turtle which nest in Barbados, the hawksbill turtle ("Eretmochelys imbricata"), and the leatherback turtle ("Dermochelys coriacea"). Though not nesting on the island, the green sea turtle ("Chelonia mydas") does forage in nearshore seagrass beds. Coastal infrastructure, such as hotel properties, has encroached upon the nesting grounds of sea turtles, while coastal lights also detrimentally impact upon nesting females.

Amphibians.

The cane toad ("Bufo marinus") from South America and the Johnstone's whistling frog ("Eleutherodactylus johnstonei") encompass the islands amphibian community. The introduction of the cane toad was done as a biological control aimed at insect pests of sugarcane; as has been the case elsewhere, lack of predators to control the cane toad has led to uncontrolled populations in some areas.

Fish.

Freshwater fish.

The wild form of the guppy ("Poecilia reticulata") is native to Barbados as well as Trinidad and northern South America. Introductions of aquarium varieties of the guppy into the wild mean that it may be impossible to distinguish between original and fancy varieties.  Originally intended for aquaculture, tilapia species including, "Oreochromis mossambicus", and "Tilapia zilli" have become widely established in ponds and streams across the island.

Brackish water fish.

Brackish water species also occur, particularly in coastal wetlands such as the Graeme Hall Swamp; one such species is the mangrove rivulus ("Rivulus marmoratus"), notable for its unique ability of self fertilization. A resident and isolated population of Atlantic tarpon, ("Megalops atlanticus") has become established in the Graeme Hall Swamp.

Invertebrates.

Crustaceans.

Terrestrial crab species found on the island include "Cardisoma guanhumi" and "Gecarcinus lateralis".

The fauna of Barbados is less diverse than that of other Caribbean islands. The island's fauna has been greatly affected by anthropogenic activities; these range from habitat destruction to the introduction of non-native species. Species best able to adapt to the presence of humans have persisted, while those unable to adapt have generally fared poorly.

La faune de la Barbade est moins diverse que celle des autres Antilles. Les activités humaines sont responsables du changement de composition de la faune, en particulier, le remplacement des espèces natives. Les espèces qui sont capables de s'adapter à la présence humaine ont survécu.


History.

After the Frisian and Danish colonisation of the islands in the 8th century, the Frisian-populated hundreds (between Eiderstedt and Sylt) became the Uthlande. The North Frisians in the Uthlande were ruled directly by the Danish king and were known as "Königsfriesen" or "King's Frisians". Only later did the Uthlande transfer to the Duchy of Schleswig, with the exception of small Danish royal enclaves. Part of Rømø was also ruled by the Schleswig duke. After the German-Danish wars, the islands from Nordstrand to Rømø became Prussian in 1866. After the referendum in 1920, the current border between the islands of Sylt and Rømø was fixed.  A good and thorough overview of the life, work, languages, costumes and customs of the island Frisians is portrayed by the Carl Haeberlin Frisian Museum in Wyk auf Föhr.

Islands.

There are four larger islands and ten tiny islets. The names of the large islands are Sylt, Föhr, Amrum, and Pellworm. The islets are called "Halligen". In medieval times the present-day peninsula Nordstrand and Pellworm as well as the Halligen were part of the large island of Strand. This island was torn to pieces in a disastrous storm tide in 1634.  Sylt ("Söl'ring" North Frisian: "Söl' "; ) is the largest of the North Frisian Islands, consisting of about 100 km2. It is accessible by a causeway called the "Hindenburgdamm"; this causeway is only accessible to trains. In the summer months the island is crowded with tourists, including those who have a preference for nudism. Sylt's image is that of a meeting point for the jet-set. The main town on the island is Westerland. The northern end of Sylt, the "Ellenbogen" ("elbow"), is Germany's northernmost point. Lager Sylt, the Nazi concentration camp on Alderney, was named after the island.  Compared with Sylt, Föhr ("Fering" North Frisian: "Feer"; ) is a relatively silent island. Its area is 82 km2. Sixteen old hamlets are scattered over the island, some of which already existed in the 13th century. The main town is Wyk on the south eastern shore. Wyk is a popular German seaside resort. There is no bridge or causeway connecting Föhr and the mainland, so ferries are the only connection. The ferry port, the harbour and Föhr marina are in Wyk.  Amrum ("Öömrang" North Frisian: "Oomram") is only 20 km2, but it is popular with tourists, though less crowded than Sylt. The western half of the island features a beach 12 km in length and 1 km in width. The villages are situated on the eastern shore, with Wittdün being the most important of them.  Pellworm (North Frisian "Polweerm"; "Mooring" North Frisian: "Pälweerm"; ) and the peninsula of Nordstrand ("Mooring": "Nordströön") are the remains of the submerged island of Strand. The main town of this sunken island was Rungholt, thought to be the largest town in the surrounding area, but it was totally destroyed and submerged by a storm in 1362, 272 years before another storm destroyed Strand itself. Nordstrand has an area of 49 km2, Pellworm 37 km2.  Smaller remains of Strand are the ten islets called Halligen. The houses on these tiny islets are built on artificial hills. In a storm tide only these hills rise above the sea, while the remainder of the islet is flooded. The names of the "Halligen" are Nordmarsch-Langeness, Norderoog, Süderoog, Nordstrandischmoor, Oland, Südfall, Gröde-Appelland, Hooge, Habel and the Hamburger Hallig.  West off the Halligen, three drying sand banks form the so-called North Frisian Barrier Islands: Japsand, Norderoogsand and Süderoogsand.

The North Frisian Islands are the Frisian Islands off the coast of North Frisia. The term covers both the North Frisian Islands in the narrow sense (in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany) and the Danish Wadden Sea Islands (in Denmark). However, culturally and linguistically, the Danish islands are usually not reckoned as being part of North Frisia, since they are not inhabited by native speakers of the North Frisian language. Occasionally, the remote island of Heligoland is also included in this group for reasons of administrative convenience, despite not being located in the Wadden Sea, since the island is home to its own unique dialect of Frisian.

Les îles frisonnes septentrionales sont un groupe d'îles côtières de la mer du Nord, séparée du continent par la mer de Wadden, au large des côtes du Schleswig-Holstein, en Allemagne. Les îles allemandes font partie de la région traditionnelle de la Frise du Nord, partie allemande de la Frise. Elles font partie du Parc national de la mer de Wadden et du Schleswig-Holstein.


Frederick Francis II, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin

Biography.

He was born in Schloss Ludwigslust, the eldest son of Hereditary Grand Duke Paul Friedrich of Mecklenburg and his wife Princess Alexandrine of Prussia. He became heir apparent to the grand duchy following the death of his great-grandfather Frederick Francis I on 1 February 1837. Frederick Francis was privately educated until 1838. He then attended the Blochmann institute in Dresden before going to the University of Bonn. Frederick Francis succeeded his father as Grand Duke on 7 March 1842.  Frederick Francis served on the general staff of Generalfeldmarschall Friedrich Graf von Wrangel during the Second Schleswig War. During the Austro-Prussian War he commanded the forces that occupied Leipzig and lay siege to Nuremberg. He also took part in the Franco-Prussian War, during which he was made Governor-General of Reims and commanded the German forces laying siege to Toul. He defended the Prussian forces during the Siege of Paris from attack by the Army of the Loire. He defeated French forces at the battles of Beaune-La-Rolande and Beaugency. He was a maternal first cousin of both German Emperor Frederick III and Russian Tsar Alexander II. He held the rank of Prussian general and was also a Russian General Field Marshal.  Frederick Francis died on 15 April 1883 in Schwerin. He was succeeded as Grand Duke by his eldest son Frederick Francis III.

Marriages and children.

Frederick Francis was first married to Princess Augusta Reuss of Köstritz ( 26 May 1822 – 3 March 1862) on 3 November 1849 in Ludwigslust. They had six children:  Frederick Francis married for a second time in Darmstadt to Princess Anna of Hesse and by Rhine (25 May 1843 – 16 April 1865) on 4 July 1864. They had one daughter:  His third wife was Princess Marie of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt on 4 July 1868. They had four children:

Frederick Francis II (28 February 1823 – 15 April 1883) was a Prussian officer and Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin from 7 March 1842 until 15 April 1883.

Frédéric-François II de Mecklembourg-Schwerin (en allemand "Friedrich Franz II von Mecklenburg-Schwerin"), né le à Ludwigslust et mort le à Schwerin, est grand-duc de Mecklembourg-Schwerin de 1842 à 1883.


Club career.

Abily has won the league with her respective club on four occasions. She won two titles with Montpellier and back-to-back titles with Lyon. During two of those title runs, she was selected as the Female Player of the Year in 2006 and 2007. In 2010, she won the WPS Championship with the FC Gold Pride.  In March 2009, she joined the new United States-based women's soccer league, Women's Professional Soccer, after her American playing rights were assigned to the Los Angeles Sol. She made her debut in the league's inaugural match against the Washington Freedom, which included her French compatriot Sonia Bompastor, and scored the second goal in the Sol's 2–0 victory. On 7 January 2010 Abily was traded to FC Gold Pride. She played in 17 games, scoring one goal and having six assists. On 27 September, Abily's contract with the Gold Pride was mutually terminated as she decided to return to Olympique Lyon and focus on the upcoming 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup.  After spending 8 seasons at Lyon during her second stint as a player there, Abily ended her playing career in 2018.

International career.

Abily made her international debut for "Les Bleues" on 26 September 2001 in a match against the Netherlands.  At the opening match of the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, a 1–0 win over England in Moncton, Abily controversially escaped punishment when she inflicted a black eye on Laura Bassett by elbowing the English player in the face.  Abily retired from international football in 2017, citing a desire to spend more time with her daughter.

Post-playing career.

As of fall 2019, Abily is working as an assistant coach for the Olympique Lyonnais women's club.

Career statistics.

Club.

"Statistics accurate as of 1 September 2016"

Camille Anne Françoise Abily (born 5 December 1984) is a retired French football player, best known as a star midfielder for both the French women's national team and for the Lyon club in the Division 1 Féminine. She plays primarily as an attacking midfielder. Abily is a two-time winner of the National Union of Professional Footballers (UNFP) Female Player of the Year and, following her second consecutive honour in 2007, became the first woman to win the award in back-to-back seasons. Following a move to the Women's Professional Soccer (WPS) league in the United States, she earned Player of the Month and All-Star honors.

Camille Abily, née le 5 décembre 1984 à Rennes, est une footballeuse internationale française évoluant au poste de milieu de terrain offensif, devenue entraîneuse.


2007 bombing.

In the early hours of 19 February 2007, 70 people (mostly Pakistani civilians and a few Indian military guarding the train) were killed and scores more injured in a terrorist attack on the Delhi - Attari Express. The attack occurred at Diwana station near the Indian city of Panipat, Haryana. Officials found evidence of improvised explosive devices (IEDs), (RDX) containing Fragmentation (weaponry) and flammable material, including three unexploded IEDs. The National Investigation Agency doubted that the blasts were masterminded by Swami Aseemanand, which was dismissed later for lack of evidence.  On 1 July 2009, the US Department of Treasury designated Arif Qasmani of the Lashkar-e Tayyiba as a person involved in terrorism, citing among other things his involvement in the Samjhauta Express bombing.  On 30 December 2010, India's National Investigation Agency claimed that they had solid evidence that Swami Aseemanand was the mastermind behind the blasts. He had taken help from his friend Sandeep Dange, an engineering graduate and has done higher study in physics, and Ramji Kalsangra, an electrician, to build the improvised explosive devices used in the blasts. On 8 January 2011, Aseemanand allegedly confessed the bombing of Samjhauta express, a statement later found to be obtained under duress. Later the Hindu nationalist group RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh) sent a legal notice to CBI (Central Bureau of Investigation) accusing it of deliberately leaking Swami Aseemanand's confession in the media. RSS spokesman Ram Madhav called the investigation maligning of organizations and individuals.  According to various local newspapers, NIA arrested Kamal Chauhan, who is deemed by the NIA as the main operative, in February 2012.

The Samjhauta Express (, Punjabi language: ਸਮਝੌਤਾ ਐਕਸਪ੍ਰੈਸ, ) commonly called the Friendship Express, was a bi-weekly train—Thursday and Monday—that runs between Delhi and Attari in India and Lahore in Pakistan. The word "Samjhauta" means "agreement", "accord" and "compromise" in both Hindi and Urdu.

Le Samjhauta Express (« le train de l'amitié ») est une ligne ferroviaire qui relie Delhi et Atari en Inde et Wagah et Lahore au Pakistan.


Hall of prayer.

The prayer room is framed by courtyards on three sides to the east, north and west. Along the northern facade, a portico plays the role of gallery-narthex. Rectangular in plan, the room perpetuates the classical plan of the hypostyle hall; it consists of nine naves and seven bays. The arches rest on columns, of various origins, which carry capitals of Hafsid type, except some ancient examples. The covering of the prayer hall is in groin vault; a cupola on an octagonal base and horns in front of the mihrab. Near the latter is the masonry minbar covered with panels of polychrome marble; this is a novelty by contribution to mosques of Malikis whose minbar is executed in wood.

Minaret.

Its minaret is the first octagonal minaret to be built in Tunis and was made by the Hafsids. The octagonal tower rises above a square base. It ends with a balcony protected by a wooden awning, the whole is crowned by a lantern with pyramidal roof covered with green tiles.

Mausoleum.

The mosque also includes the mausoleum of Youssef Dey, inaugurating in Tunis the funeral mosque in which the tomb of the founder associates with the place of worship. Square plan, the mausoleum is covered with a pyramidal roof covered with green tiles. It has on each face a large central blind arcade, flanked by two levels of recesses in flat bottom. The facings of the white marble facades are accented with clavellus alternating black and white. A commemorative inscription on the central arch provides the date of construction of the mausoleum.

Youssef Dey Mosque, also known as Al B'chamqiya, is a 17th-century mosque in Tunis, Tunisia, located in Medina area of the city. The mosque is considered significant as it was the first Ottoman-Turkish mosque to be built in Tunis.

La mosquée Youssef Dey (), également appelée mosquée Sidi Youssef, est la première mosquée de rite hanéfite de Tunis (Tunisie).


Early life.

Swinburne was born in Smethwick, Staffordshire, England, on the 26th December, 1934. His father was a school music teacher, who was himself the son of an off-license owner in Shoreditch. His mother was a secretary, the daughter of an optician. He is an only child. Swinburne attended a preparatory school and then Charterhouse.

Academic career.

Swinburne received an Open Scholarship to study classics at Exeter College, Oxford, but in fact graduated with a first class BA in philosophy, politics, and economics. Swinburne has held various professorships through his career in academia. From 1972 to 1985 he taught at Keele University. During part of this time, he gave the Gifford lectures at Aberdeen from 1982 to 1984, resulting in the book "The Evolution of the Soul". From 1985 until his retirement in 2002 he was Nolloth Professor of the Philosophy of the Christian Religion at the University of Oxford (his successor in this chair is Brian Leftow). He has continued to publish regularly since his retirement.  Swinburne has been an active author throughout his career, producing a major book every two to three years. He has played an important role in recent debate over the mind–body problem, defending a substance dualism that recalls the work of René Descartes in important respects (see "The Evolution of the Soul", 1997).  His books are primarily very technical works of academic philosophy, but he has written at the popular level as well. Of the non-technical works, his "Is There a God?" (1996), summarising for a non-specialist audience many of his arguments for the existence of God and plausibility in the belief of that existence, is probably the most popular, and is available in 22 languages.

Christian apologetics.

A member of the Orthodox Church, he is noted as one of the foremost Christian apologists, arguing in his many articles and books that faith in Christianity is rational and coherent in a rigorous philosophical sense. William Hasker writes that his "tetralogy on Christian doctrine, together with his earlier trilogy on the philosophy of theism, is one of the most important apologetic projects of recent times." While Swinburne presents many arguments to advance the belief that God exists, he argues that God is a being whose existence is not logically necessary (see modal logic), but metaphysically necessary in a way he defines in his "The Christian God". Other subjects on which Swinburne writes include personal identity (in which he espouses a view based on the concept of a soul), and epistemic justification. He has written in defence of Cartesian dualism and libertarian free will.  Although he is best known for his vigorous rational defence of Christian intellectual commitments, he also has a theory of the nature of passionate faith which is developed in his book "Faith and Reason".  According to an interview Swinburne did with "Foma" magazine, he converted from Anglicanism (Church of England) to Eastern Orthodoxy around 1996: I don't think I changed my beliefs in any significant way. I always believed in the Apostolic succession: that the Church has to have its authority dating back to the Apostles, and the general teaching of the Orthodox Church on the saints and the prayers for the departed and so on, these things I have always believed.  Swinburne's philosophical method reflects the influence of Thomas Aquinas. He admits that he draws from Aquinas a systematic approach to philosophical theology. Swinburne, like Aquinas, moves from basic philosophical issues (for example, the question of the possibility that God may exist in Swinburne's "The Coherence of Theism"), to more specific Christian beliefs (for example, the claim in Swinburne's "Revelation" that God has communicated to human beings propositionally in Jesus Christ).  Swinburne moves in his writing program from the philosophical to the theological, building his case rigorously, and relying on his previous arguments as he defends particular Christian beliefs. He has attempted to reassert classical Christian beliefs with an apologetic method that he believes is compatible with contemporary science. That method relies heavily on inductive logic, seeking to show that his Christian beliefs fit best with the evidence.  National Life Stories conducted an oral history interview (C1672/15) with Richard Swinburne in 2015 for its Science and Religion collection held by the British Library.

Richard Granville Swinburne (; born 26 December 1934) is a British philosopher. He is an Emeritus Professor of Philosophy at the University of Oxford. Over the last 50 years Swinburne has been an influential proponent of philosophical arguments for the existence of God. His philosophical contributions are primarily in the philosophy of religion and philosophy of science. He aroused much discussion with his early work in the philosophy of religion, a trilogy of books consisting of "The Coherence of Theism", "The Existence of God", and "Faith and Reason".

Richard Swinburne, né le à Smethwick, est philosophe de la religion et des sciences, professeur à l'Oriel College de l'université d'Oxford et membre de la British Academy. Il est issu de la tradition de l'Église d'Angleterre mais s'est converti à celle de l'Église orthodoxe. Il est l’auteur d’une œuvre monumentale en philosophie de la religion, mais aussi en épistémologie et en philosophie de l’esprit.


Biography.

Eric Besson was born in Morocco, on 2 April 1958. His mother is of Lebanese origin. His father, an officer in the French Air Force, was killed in a flight accident three months before Éric Besson's birth.  After graduating high school in Casablanca, he moved to France to attend the Montpellier Business School. He then studied at the Institut d'études politiques de Paris (SciencesPo), before unsuccessfully applying to the École Nationale d’Administration (ENA).  Besson subsequently joined the French car company Renault, then was editor-in-chief of business magazine, before joining the Vivendi foundation.

Political career.

Beginnings (1993-2007).

Besson was a member of the Socialist Party from 1993 to 2007. He has been mayor of Donzère since 1995 and was the "député" for the Drôme between 1997 and 2007, when he did not stand for re-election. During his time as a Member of Parliament, Besson was a member of the National Commission for Defense and the Armed Forces from 1997 to 1998, the Financial and Economic Planning Commission from 1998 to 2002, the Commission of Inquiry on the Activity and Functioning of Commercial Courts, and the Commission of Inquiry on Superphénix and fast neutron reactors (both in 1998).  Following his re-election in 2002, he became a full member of the Supervisory Board of the Social Debt Amortizement Fund and the Supervisory Board of the Agency for Industrial Innovation.  Besson was appointed the PS National Secretary for the Economy, Employment and Business in 2003, and National Secretary for the Economy and Taxation in 2005.

State Secretary for Prospectives and Evaluation of Public Policies (2007-2009).

Besson began the 2007 French presidential election as a member of Ségolène Royal's campaign team. However, he resigned as the PS finance secretary on 14 February 2007 over frustration about Royal's presidential campaign, which he saw as "badly organised". He then quit the Socialist Party on 21 February and supported Nicolas Sarkozy's presidential bid for which he was harshly criticized.  In May 2007, he was appointed as State Secretary for Prospectives and Evaluation of Public Policies under the government of Francois Fillon.  That year, he also launched a new political party, The Progressives, affiliated with the Union for a Popular Movement, Nicolas Sarkozy's party, through the Liaison Committee for the Presidential Majority.  In March 2008, he was re-elected as mayor of Donzère after the first round with 69.92% of the votes.  On 18 March 2008, following a ministerial reshuffle, the position of Secretary of State for the Digital Economy was created and subsequently given to Besson. The creation of the post was a response to the Attali report that stressed the importance of digital development for France's economic future. In this capacity, Besson conducted a strategic analysis of 10 challenges facing France until 2025.  In October 2008, the "2012 Digital France" plan was released. The plan sought to reduce "the gap between France and its international competitors" in this sector. The strategy to achieve this was based around three major objectives: ensuring far-reaching access to broadband Internet, ensuring production and supply of digital content, and reducing the digital divide. The purpose was to increase economic growth and modernize the country.

Minister for Immigration, Integration, National Identity and Co-Development (2009-2010).

In January 2009, he was appointed Minister for Immigration, Integration, National Identity and Co-Development in the second government of Prime Minister François Fillon.  His tenure was characterized by a stronger fight against illegal immigration and human trafficking. While a guest on a French TV show, Besson described the immigration policy as based on "firmness and humanity". An immigration bill was presented in 2010 that prolonged the detention period of illegal immigrants, penalized employment of illegal immigrants, and called on immigrants wishing to acquire French citizenship to adhere "to the essential principles and values of the republic". Furthermore, Sarkozy gave the immigration ministry a target of 30,000 repatriations per year.  At the same time, the state budget for the reception and integration of those entering France legally was increased by more than 20% in order to discourage illegal immigration and, in turn, promote lawful ways of entering and settling in France. Entry formalities for foreigners were simplified, a long-term visa system was established, and 1,000 additional places in reception centers were opened to raise their capacity to absorb asylum seekers.  As part of an EU-wide resettlement system to distribute refugees in highly exposed countries such as Greece, Malta and Italy more evenly across the EU, Besson agreed to the resettlement of refugees from Malta to France, making France the first country to act on the scheme. Besson subsequently supported the creation of a common European asylum system and advocated for Malta to host the newly established European Asylum Support Office.  In September 2009, an area known as "the Jungle" near Calais, where many illegal immigrants had settled in order to cross the British channel to the UK, was cleared. According to Besson, the operation was targeting the "logistical infrastructure and mafia-style networks of people traffickers who sell the trip to England at a very high price".  Later in 2009, President Sarkozy initiated a public debate on French national identity. Besson was in charge of organizing the debate and argued that discussions about identity had been left to right-wing extremists such as Jean-Marie Le Pen for too long. The debate was concluded when Fillon announced the creation of an "experts committee" of politicians and historians in February 2010. The debate damaged Besson's political standing, with one weekly magazine calling him "the most hated man" in the Republic.

Minister for Industry, Energy and the Digital Economy (2010-2012).

Éric Besson was appointed Minister for Industry, Energy and the Digital Economy on 14 November 2010.  In December that year, Besson sent a letter to the French state agency governing internet use in order to stop French web hosting company OVH from hosting the WikiLeaks website. The French government had previously deemed WikiLeaks a "criminal" website for violating the "confidentiality of diplomatic relations" and endangering people "protected by diplomatic secrecy", making it illegal for French companies to host WikiLeaks.  Besson also reiterated his support for the Union for the Mediterranean on a visit to the organization's secretariat in May 2011.  During his tenure, he oversaw the extension of France's push for greater digitalization. In his capacity as Minister, he organized a "digital G8 seminar" for young professionals in May 2011, followed by the G20 Young Entrepreneurs Alliance Summit in November.  Also in November, the "Digital France 2012-2020: assessment and prospects" report was published, a follow-up to the "2012 Digital France" plan. The report set new targets for 2020 for the expansion of digitalization and the enhancement of the digital economy.  In April 2011, the Union for a Popular Movement selected him as its candidate in the newly created Fifth constituency for French residents overseas (covering French citizens resident in Andorra, Monaco, Portugal and Spain) for the June 2012 legislative elections.  Besson expressed continued support for the use of nuclear energy and the export of French nuclear technology. On a visit to Japan's Fukushima Daiichi plant in 2012, the first by an overseas minister, Besson is reported to have said that nuclear energy was too important as an energy source to be abandoned. A study he commissioned on the future of France's energy mix by 2025 nevertheless listed various scenarios for ending reliance on nuclear energy among possible options.

Retreat from national politics.

Besson announced his retirement from national politics on 12 May 2012 and returned to the private sector. He retained his position of mayor of Donzère. Although he initially did not seek re-election as mayor, he once again ran for the position during the municipal elections in 2014 after the candidate he supported withdrew his candidacy for health reasons. Besson was re-elected in the first round with 61.49% of the votes.

Post-political career.

Eric Besson Consulting was founded in 2012, advising energy and industrial production companies.  He is also a shareholder and member of the supervisory board of PayTop, a fintech start-up.  In 2016, he was elected to the board of Geocorail, an off-shore engineering company.  In July 2017, he became the president of the Blanc-Mesnil football club playing in the 5th French division. According to media reports, he plans to bring the club up to the professional level in 5 to 10 years and plans opening a sports academy by September 2018.

Personal life.

Besson was married from 1983–2009 to Sylvie Brunel, a geographer and writer and former president of Action Against Hunger, with whom he has three children. Their eldest child, Alexandra (born 1989), is a novelist.  Besson married Yasmine Tordjman in September 2010, an art student from Tunisia. She is the granddaughter of former Tunisian president Habib Bourguiba. In December 2012, the couple announced their intention to divorce and separated in 2015.  He married Azeroual Jamila in August 2015.

Éric Besson, born 2 April 1958 in Marrakech, Morocco) is a French politician and businessman. From 2009 to 2010, he was the Minister of Immigration, Integration, National Identity and Co-Development in the government of François Fillon.

Éric Besson, né le à Marrakech (Maroc), est un homme d'affaires et homme politique français. Maire de Donzère (Drôme) depuis 1995, il est député de la deuxième circonscription de la Drôme de 1997 à 2007. Il démissionne de son mandat de secrétaire national à l'économie du PS, puis rejoint l'équipe de campagne du candidat UMP Nicolas Sarkozy au soir du premier tour de l'élection présidentielle de 2007.


Origin and early life.

John Doukas was an illegitimate (and apparently the eldest) son of Michael II Komnenos Doukas, the Despot of Epirus, possibly by his one known mistress, an unnamed lady of the Gangrenos family. His full family name was Doukas Komnenos Angelos, but he is almost universally referred to in the sources simply by the first surname of "Doukas". This also led to a confusion among his Latin contemporaries, who mistook it for his title, and referred to him as the "Duke of Neopatras". His actual title, which he received from the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos in, was "sebastokratōr".  Nothing is known of his early life before 1259, when he is mentioned for his participation in the events that led up to the Battle of Pelagonia, where he led a contingent of Vlachs. By that time, he was already married to a daughter of the Thessalian Vlach chieftain Taronas. She is only known by the monastic name she assumed after his death, Hypomone ("Patience"). This and his later association with the region of Thessaly has led to suggestions by modern scholars that he ruled Thessaly in his father's name, but there is no concrete evidence to back this up. It is equally unclear whether the Vlach troops he commanded were part of the official Epirote army, or a privately raised force. John played a crucial role in the Battle of Pelagonia, where his desertion from the coalition composed by his father, Prince William II Villehardouin of Achaea, and King Manfred of Sicily, contributed to the defeat of the allies by the forces of the Nicaean Empire under John Palaiologos, Michael VIII's brother. The reason for the defection is unclear, as the various sources offer conflicting accounts. Both George Pachymeres and Marino Sanudo Torcello report that during the march, John became incensed at some Achaean knights, who openly coveted his beautiful wife. Matters were made worse when William of Villehardouin not only did not punish his men, but also insulted John Doukas for his illegitimate birth, prompting the latter to defect before the battle, after receiving assurances that he would not have to fight his own father; thereupon the Epirotes too left, and the Latin troops were overwhelmed by the Nicaeans.  Following the battle, John accompanied the Nicaeans in their rapid occupation of the Epirote domains, but he quickly became alienated from them. He brought his own followers to the coastal town of Vonitsa, from where he contacted his father, who had taken refuge in the Ionian Islands. Michael accepted his son's apologies, and soon joined him on the mainland. Nicaean control over Epirus had not yet been consolidated, and father and son were quickly able to recapture the Epirote capital of Arta and then relieve the besieged city of Ioannina. Within a short time, the Nicaeans had been evicted from Epirus. John's half-brother Nikephoros was then sent in spring 1260 to recover Thessaly, which he mostly accomplished after defeating and capturing the Nicaean general Alexios Strategopoulos. Part of eastern Thessaly, however, around the towns of Demetrias, Velestino, Halmyros, and Pharsalos, remained in Nicaean hands for several years thereafter. Again, despite his later association with Thessaly, John is not mentioned as playing a role in these events or in the administration of the Thessalian territories in the early 1260s, which seem rather to have been under the control of Nikephoros.  The Battle of Pelagonia has frequently been described as a decisive event, but this is only partly true. Michael VIII Palaiologos' gains were rapidly reversed and his rivals quickly regained their strength, with both the Epirotes and Manfred of Sicily reclaiming most of the territories they had lost. Nevertheless, the effects of the battle were not wholly undone: Palaiologos' victory, gained with the assistance of John Doukas, not only prevented the Epirote–Latin league of 1259 from taking Thessalonica and much of Nicaea's European domains, but also provided a valuable breathing space in the lead-up to the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, which led to the re-establishment of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty.

Ruler of Thessaly.

When Michael II died, his realm was divided, with Nikephoros receiving the metropolitan territories of Epirus proper and John taking over the Epirote domains in Thessaly and Central Greece. According to Gregoras, his realm extended from Mount Olympus in the north to Mount Parnassus in the south, with the Achelous River serving as his border with Epirus proper; his capital was at Neopatras. Michael VIII seized the opportunity of Michael's death for a rapprochement with the two brothers. He gave Nikephoros his niece Anna in marriage, and arranged a marriage between his nephew Andronikos Tarchaneiotes and a daughter of John, who in addition received the high title of "sebastokratōr".  Nevertheless, John fiercely guarded his independence, and was prepared to ally himself with Latin powers hostile to Palaiologos, namely Charles of Anjou and the Duchy of Athens. He soon emerged as "the more dangerous and the more actively hostile" of the minor Greek rulers against Michael VIII. As Donald Nicol writes, he "was a man of great resource and ambition, and was clearly in touch with the Emperor's opponents in Constantinople. His stronghold of Neopatras was uncomfortably close to the Latin-occupied parts of Greece, particularly the Duchy of Athens and Thebes with which he was in alliance; and it was easier for troublemakers and refugees from [Constantinople] to make their escape to Thessaly than to Epirus". This is well illustrated by the affair of John's son-in-law, Andronikos Tarchaneiotes: angered at the Emperor's preference for his younger brother Michael, he provoked a Tatar raid into Thrace, and in the confusion sought refuge at John's court. The first documented contacts between John and Michael's arch-enemy, Charles of Anjou, also date to the same time (April 1273). A commercial treaty was concluded, allowing the export of silk from Thessaly to Apulia and the import of horses, but it is clear that these contacts were also the first steps for John joining the coalition being prepared by Charles against Michael.  Michael VIII sought to counter the threat of a new crusade, led by Charles of Anjou and aiming at the restoration of the Latin Empire, by negotiating a union of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. The Union of the Churches was concluded at the Council of Lyons in 1274, at which the Emperor's representatives were forced to recognize Papal primacy. This decision aroused passionate opposition from the Byzantine people, the Orthodox clergy, and even within the imperial family itself. Michael's sister Eulogia, and her daughter Anna, wife of John's half-brother Nikephoros, were among the chief leaders of the anti-Unionists. Nikephoros, John, and even the Emperor of Trebizond, John II Megas Komnenos, soon joined the anti-Unionist cause and gave support to the anti-Unionists fleeing Constantinople.  Michael asked Pope Gregory X to excommunicate John Doukas, but the Pope, who was probably uncertain of Michael's true loyalties, refused. Michael would continue to press Gregory's successors, Innocent IV and Nicholas III, for the same, as well as for a dissolution of John's alliance with Charles, but without success. In 1275, Michael sent an army under his brother John Palaiologos and Alexios Kaballarios against John. The Byzantines surprised John at Neopatras and laid siege to his fortress, before he could react. John saved himself by sneaking through enemy lines disguised as a lowly groom seeking a stray horse, and made his way to the Duke of Athens, John I de la Roche. Having secured 300 horsemen from him, he returned to Neopatras and scattered the Byzantine army. In exchange for this aid, however, John gave his daughter to de la Roche's son, William de la Roche, with the towns of Zetounion, Gardiki, Gravia, and Siderokastron as her dowry. In April 1277, papal legates arrived at Constantinople and forced Michael, his son and heir Andronikos, and the Patriarch John XI Bekkos to publicly reaffirm their allegiance to the Union at a synod in the Palace of Blachernae. John once more rejected Michael's overtures for an acceptance of the Union, and on 1 May 1277, convoked a synod of his own at Neopatras which anathematized the Emperor, the Patriarch, and the Pope as heretics. In response, a synod was convoked at the Hagia Sophia on 16 July where both Nikephoros and John were anathematized in return. John convoked another synod at Neopatras in December 1277, where an anti-Unionist council of eight bishops, a few abbots, and one hundred monks, again anathematized Emperor, Patriarch and Pope. Only two bishops, those of Trikala and Neopatras, refused, and were punished.  Michael VIII then launched another invasion, led by the "pinkernēs" Manuel Raoul, the "prōtostratōr" Andronikos Palaiologos, and others. Instead of confronting the "sebastokratōr", however, they fraternized with him and gave every sign of their own opposition to the Union. Michael VIII relieved and imprisoned them and appointed new commanders, the "megas stratopedarchēs" John Synadenos and the "megas konostaulos" Michael Kaballarios. The latter were lured by John Doukas into an ambush and suffered a crushing defeat at Pharsalos.  Michael VIII died on 11 December 1282, while preparing to invade Thessaly again. With the threat of an Angevin invasion having subsided following the Sicilian Vespers, his successor, Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328), was quick to repudiated the hated Union of the Churches. As a result, ecclesiastical ties between Thessaly, Epirus, and Constantinople were restored. Nikephoros of Epirus, a weak ruler dominated by his wife, and uneasy with his half-brother's ambitions—there are hints in the sources that John coveted Epirus, and that he had launched an attack on Ioannina—now drifted into the Byzantine orbit. Anna visited her cousin Andronikos II at Constantinople, and a plot was hatched against John: in 1283 or 1284 Nikephoros and Anna invited John's son Michael to Epirus to marry their daughter, and become the heir to their state. When Michael took the bait, he was arrested and shipped off to Constantinople, where he died in prison. Andronikos launched an invasion of Thessaly, but his troops were annihilated by malaria. In the next year (1284 or 1285), John took his revenge for his half-brother's treason by invading Epirus and raiding the environs of Arta. Following this punitive expedition, relations between Thessaly and Epirus settled down to an uneasy peace.  For many years, modern historians, following the 19th-century scholar Karl Hopf, erroneously held that John Doukas died in 1296. It has since been established that he died in or shortly before March 1289. He was buried in the monastery of Porta Panagia, which he had founded in 1283. His tomb lies in the south side of the "katholikon", and a fresco above his tomb shows him "as a monk being presented by an angel to the enthroned Virgin". After his death, his widow was compelled to recognize the suzerainty of Andronikos II Palaiologos to safeguard the position of her underage sons Constantine and Theodore. Just as when John himself had done so in the past, however, this suzerainty was purely nominal.

Family.

By his wife, who is only known by her monastic name Hypomone ("Patience"), John had several children, including:

John I Doukas (), Latinized as Ducas, was an illegitimate son of Michael II Komnenos Doukas, Despot of Epirus in –1268. After his father's death, he became ruler of Thessaly from to his own death in 1289. From his father's family he is also inaccurately known as John Angelos.

Jean Doukas (en grec : ) (1240-1289) est un chef de la Thessalie de 1268 à sa mort en 1289. Il est parfois appelé Jean Ange ou Jean Comnène-Doukas.


Early life.

As one of two sons of Chiang Kai-shek, Chiang Wei-kuo's name has a particular meaning as intended by his father. "Wei" literally means "parallel (of latitude)" while "kuo" means "nation"; in his brother's name, "Ching" literally means "longitude". The names are inspired by the references in Chinese classics such as the "Guoyu", in which "to draw the longitudes and latitudes of the world" is used as a metaphor for a person with great abilities, especially in managing a country.  Born in Tokyo when Chiang Kai-shek and the KMT were exiled to Japan by the Beiyang Government, Chiang Wei-kuo was the biological son of Tai Chi-tao and a Japanese woman,. Chiang Wei-kuo previously discredited any such claims and insisted he was a biological son of Chiang Kai-shek until his later years (1988), when he admitted that he was adopted.  According to popular gossip, Tai believed knowledge of his Japanese tryst would destroy his marriage and his career, so he entrusted Wei-kuo to Chiang Kai-shek, after brought the infant to Shanghai. Yao Yecheng (姚冶誠), a concubine of Chiang Kai-shek at the time, raised Wei-kuo as his foster mother. The boy called Tai his "Dear Uncle" (親伯).  Chiang moved to the Chiang ancestral home in Xikou Town of Fenghua in 1910. Wei-kuo later studied Economics at Soochow University.

In the Wehrmacht.

With his sibling Chiang Ching-kuo being held as a virtual political hostage in the Soviet Union by Joseph Stalin having previously been a student studying in Moscow, Chiang sent Wei-kuo to Nazi Germany for a military education at the Kriegsschule in Munich. Here, he would learn the most up to date German military tactical doctrines, organization, and use of weaponry on the modern battlefield such as the German-inspired theory of the Maschinengewehr (Medium machine gun, at this time, the MG-34) led squad, incorporation of Air and Armored branches into infantry attack, etc. After completing this training, Wei-kuo completed specialized Alpine warfare training, thus earning him the coveted Gebirgsjäger Edelweiss sleeve insignia. Wei-kuo was promoted to Fahnenjunker, or Officer Candidate, and received a Schützenschnur lanyard.  Wei-kuo commanded a Panzer unit during the 1938 Austrian Anschluss as a Fähnrich, or sergeant officer-candidate, leading a tank into that country; subsequently, he was promoted to Lieutenant of a Panzer unit awaiting to be sent into Poland. Before he was given the mobilization order, he was recalled to China.

Service during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Upon being recalled from Germany, Chiang Wei-kuo visited the United States as a distinguished guest of the US Army. He gave lectures detailing on German army organizations and tactics. Whilst in the northwest, Chiang Wei-kuo became acquainted with the local generals and organized an armour mechanized battalion to formally take part in the National Revolutionary Army. In addition, he spent some time in India studying tanks. There, Wei-kuo became a Major at 28, a Lieutenant Colonel at 29, a Colonel at 32 whilst in charge of a tank battalion, and later in Taiwan, a Major General. Chiang Wei-kuo was stationed at a garrison in Xi'an in 1941.

Service during the Chinese Civil War.

During the Chinese Civil War, Chiang Wei-kuo employed tactics he had learned whilst studying in the German Wehrmacht. He was in charge of a M4 Sherman tank battalion during the Huaihai Campaign against Mao Zedong's troops, scoring some early victories. While it was not enough to win the campaign, he was able to pull back without significant problems. Like many troops and refugees of the Kuomintang, he retreated from Shanghai to Taiwan and moved his tank regiment to Taiwan, becoming a divisional strength regiment commander of the armoured corps stationed outside of Taipei.

Taiwan.

Chiang Wei-kuo continued to hold senior positions in the Republic of China Armed Forces following the ROC retreat to Taiwan. In 1964, following the Hukou Incident and his subordinate Chao Chih-hwa's attempted coup d'état, Chiang Wei-kuo was punished and never held any real authority in the military again.  From 1964 onwards, Chiang Wei-kuo made preparations in establishing a school dedicated to teaching warfare strategy; such a school was established in 1969. He was also the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of China from 1968 to 1969. In 1975, Chiang Wei-kuo was further promoted to the position of general, and served as president of the Armed Forces University. In 1980, Chiang served as joint logistics commander in chief; then in 1986, he retired from the army and became National Security Council Secretary-General.  In 1993, Chiang Wei-kuo was employed as the advisor of the president of the Republic of China.  After Chiang Ching-kuo's death, Chiang was a political rival of native Taiwanese Lee Teng-hui, and he strongly opposed Lee's Taiwan localization movement. Chiang ran as vice-president with Taiwan Governor Lin Yang-kang in the. Lee ran as the KMT presidential candidate and defeated the Lin-Chiang ticket.  In 1991, Chiang's housemaid, Li Hung-mei (李洪美, or 李嫂) was found dead in Chiang's estate in the Taipei City. The following police investigation discovered a stockpile of sixty guns on Chiang's estate. Chiang himself admitted the possibility of a link between the guns and his maid's death, which was later ruled a suicide by the police. The incident permanently tarnished Chiang Wei-kuo's name, at a time when the Chiang family was increasingly unpopular on Taiwan and even within the Nationalist Party.

Personal life.

In 1944, he married Shih Chin-i (石靜宜), the daughter of Shih Feng-hsiang (石鳳翔), a textile tycoon from North West China. Shih died in 1953 during childbirth. Wei-kuo later established the Chingshin Elementary School (靜心小學) in Taipei to commemorate his late wife.  In 1957, Chiang remarried, to Chiu Ru-hsüeh (丘如雪), also known as Chiu Ai-lun (邱愛倫), a daughter of Chinese and German parents. Chiu gave birth to Chiang's only son, Chiang Hsiao-kang, (蔣孝剛) in 1962. Chiang Hsiao-kang is the youngest of the Hsiao generation of the Chiang family.  Chiang Wei-kuo was also quite active in civil society, where he was the founder of the Chinese Institute of Strategy and Sino-German Cultural and Economic Association, as well as the Chairman of the Republic of China Football Association. He was the first chairman of Chingshin Primary School (靜心小學) and served as the president of the United States Students Association of China.

Final years.

In the early 1990s, Chiang Wei-kuo established an unofficial Spirit Relocation Committee (奉安移靈小組) to petition the Communist government to allow his adopted father Chiang Kai-shek and brother Chiang Ching-kuo to be interred in mainland China. His request was largely ignored by both the Nationalist and Communist governments, and he was persuaded to abandon the petition by his father's widow Soong Mei-ling in November 1996.  In 1994, a hospital was supposed to be named after him (蔣緯國醫療中心) in Sanchih, Taipei County (now New Taipei City), after an unnamed politician donated to Ruentex Financial Group (潤泰企業集團), whose founder was from Sanchih. Politicians questioned the motivation.  In 1996, the Chiang home on military land was finally demolished by the order of the Taipei municipal government under Chen Shui-bian. The estate had been constructed in 1971. After Chiang moved elsewhere in 1981, he deeded it to his son. The justification was that his son was not in military service and thus was not entitled to live there.  Chiang Wei-kuo died at the age of 80, on 22 September 1997, from kidney failure. He had been experiencing falling blood pressure complicated by diabetes after a 10-month stay at Veteran's General Hospital, Taipei. He had wished to be buried in Suzhou on the mainland but was instead buried at Wuchih Mountain Military Cemetery.

Political and military career.

His positions in the Republic of China government included:

Chiang Wei-kuo (, or Wego Chiang; 6 October 1916 – 22 September 1997) was an adopted son of Republic of China President Chiang Kai-shek, adoptive brother of President Chiang Ching-kuo, retired Army general, and an important figure in the Kuomintang. His courtesy names were Jian'gao (建鎬) and Niantang (念堂).

Chiang Wei-kuo, ou Tchang Wei-Kuo () ou Wego Chiang ( - ) est un militaire et homme politique chinois - puis taïwanais - fils adoptif du généralissime Tchang Kaï-chek, frère du président Tchang Ching-kuo et personnage important du Kuomintang (KMT). On lui donnait le surnom de Jianhao (建鎬) et comme sobriquet Niantang (念堂).