Early life.

Clichy was born and raised in Toulouse, in southwestern France. His mother, Jacqueline, is a medical nurse, while his father, Claude, was an educator in the city. While Clichy was beginning his football career, his father often served as a part-time coach and referee. At the age of 15 while playing for Cannes, Clichy nearly died. After climbing over a metal fence while crossing a ground at the club's facility, a ring he was wearing got caught in the fence, which resulted in the skin and tissue from the fourth finger of his right hand being completely torn off. During the seven-hour operation to repair the finger, Clichy's heart stopped beating due to a problem with his lungs. It restarted after 15 seconds. The doctor who led the operation described Clichy's survival as "a miracle", while the player himself admitted that the ordeal changed his attitude towards life stating "It made me realise that life can go quick. You could leave tomorrow so you have to enjoy it to the maximum so you don't regret anything the next day. You can look forward to the future but not too far ahead".

Club career.

Early career.

Clichy began his football career at the age of five playing for his hometown club AS Hersoise. He, initially, was a predominantly right-footed player, but through decisive coaching from his father, Clichy's left foot eventually became his primary. One such example of his father's coaching came during a regional youth cup match, which his father was refereeing. The younger Clichy was informed by his father that if he scored a goal with his right foot, he would disallow it. Following this, Clichy developed his left foot "to the point where he eventually forgot his right foot". After five seasons with Hersoise, Clichy joined JS Cugnaux, a local club based in nearby Cugnaux. He spent only one year at the club before moving to AS Muret. In 1998, Clichy joined AS Tournefeuille and began attending secondary at the Collège Leonardo da Vinci. During his stint at Tournefeuille, he was selected to attend the Pôle Espoirs de Castelmaurou, a regional academy located in the Midi-Pyrénées region that trained players similarly to the Clairefontaine academy in Île-de-France. Clichy spent three years at the center training there during the weekdays and playing with Tournefeuille on the weekends. In 2000, after developing at both Tournefeuille and Castelmaurou, Clichy was linked to a host of professional clubs, most notably Auxerre, Bordeaux, and Toulouse who were seeking to obtain his services. The young player ultimately decided to move to the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region to play for professional club Cannes.  Clichy arrived to Cannes in 2000 while the club was playing in Ligue 2, the second division of French football. While at the club, Clichy primarily played as a central midfielder and was supervised by former French international and Saint-Étienne player Christian Lopez. He began his career with the club playing in its youth academy alongside Julien Faubert. During the latter part of the 2001–02 season, Clichy spent time playing on the club's reserve team in the Championnat de France amateur 2, the fifth level of French football. In the following season, with the club now playing in the Championnat National, the third level of French football, he was promoted to the senior team on a permanent basis by Lopez, who was now managing the club. Clichy later played under Robert Buigues following the sacking of Lopez and appeared in 15 matches with the team assisting on two goals.

Arsenal.

2003–2006.

Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger had noticed Clichy's talents when the player first arrived at Cannes at the age of 16. Following the 2002–03 season, Wenger contacted Clichy directly in an attempt to sign the player. In June 2003, the Arsenal manager visited the Clichy household in Tournefeuille and offered him a professional contract with the club. Wenger informed Clichy that "you'll play", which was enough to convince both the player and his family.  As promised by Wenger, Clichy began the season on the club's senior team primarily as the backup to England international Ashley Cole. He made his club debut on 28 October 2003 alongside fellow débutant Cesc Fàbregas in a League Cup encounter with Rotherham United. Arsenal won the tie 9–8 on penalties with Clichy converting his spot kick. On 22 November, Clichy made his league debut in a 3–0 win over Birmingham City. Following an injury to Cole in December, Clichy appeared in nine straight matches; six of them as a starter. On 24 February 2004, he made his UEFA Champions League debut in the first leg of the team's 3–2 knockout round victory over Spanish club Celta de Vigo. Clichy finished the campaign appearing in seven more matches. On 9 May 2004, he appeared as a substitute in Arsenal's 1–0 league win over Fulham. A week later, Clichy appeared on the bench in the team's final league match of the season; a 2–1 win over Leicester City. The victory assured Arsenal an undefeated league season, which resulted in the club becoming the second first division team in English football history to finish a league season unbeaten. As a result of the title, at 18 years and 10 months, Clichy became the youngest player to win a Premier League medal.  Clichy remained second-choice to Cole for the 2004–05 season. Wenger did install the young defender as first-choice for FA Cup matches. Clichy appeared as a starter for every round until Arsenal reached the semi-finals when he was replaced by Cole. The club ultimately won the competition defeating Manchester United 5–4 on penalties to give Clichy his first domestic cup honour. In the Premier League, Clichy appeared in 15 matches, seven as a starter. In the UEFA Champions League, he only made two appearances; a 5–1 group stage victory over Norwegian club Rosenborg and a 3–1 knockout round defeat to German outfit Bayern Munich. Clichy's season ultimately ended prematurely in April due to a recurring foot injury. In the 2005–06 season, Clichy was handed an opportunity to earn a regular place in the starting line-up after Cole suffered a fractured foot in October 2005. The injury seemed to signify that Clichy would earn some valuable first-team action during Cole's time out, however, after appearing six straight matches as a starter, Clichy suffered a similar injury in November, which ruled him out for four months. He returned to the team on 25 April 2006 in a Champions League semi-final tie against Spanish outfit Villarreal coming on as a substitute for the injured Mathieu Flamini. In the late stages of the match, Clichy was adjudged to have committed a foul in the box on striker José Mari, which resulted in a penalty taken by Juan Román Riquelme, which was saved by Jens Lehmann. Had Riquelme converted, the game would have gone to extra time. After appearing in a 3–0 win over Sunderland in the league the following week, Clichy suffered a re-occurrence of his foot injury. The relapse resulted in the player missing the 2006 Champions League final, sitting on the bench for the whole match. Arsenal lost the match 2–1 to Barcelona.

2006–2011.

During the 2006 off-season, Clichy struggled to rehab his foot injury. The injury became so agitating for the player that Wenger was forced to intervene on the rehabilitation process. Wenger, subsequently, recommended Clichy visit Dr. Mark Myerson, an orthopaedic and medical director for the Institute for Foot and Ankle Reconstruction at the Mercy Medical Center in Baltimore, Maryland. Clichy visited Myerson in June 2006 and was forced to undergo another surgery. The operation resulted in the player missing the 2006 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship, as well as three months of domestic football with Arsenal. In August 2006, Cole departed the club for rivals Chelsea, a transfer which paved the way for Clichy to take over as the permanent starter. In three seasons as Cole's understudy, Clichy made a total of 24 league appearances for Arsenal and 57 overall.  Clichy made his return to the team on 14 October 2006 in a 3–0 league victory over Watford appearing as a substitute. He returned to the starting line-up ten days later playing the entire match in a League Cup win over West Brom. Clichy, subsequently, featured as a starter in the next 19 matches. On 3 March 2007, Clichy assisted on the game-winning goal scored by Júlio Baptista in a 2–1 win over Reading.  In the 2007–08 season, Clichy had arguably the best season of his career. He appeared in a career-high and team-best 49 matches and was the only player in the team to appear in all 38 league matches. Clichy also posted a career-high in assists delivering six with two of them coming in back-to-back league wins over Everton and West Ham in December and January. On 28 April 2008, he assisted on two goals in a 6–2 hammering of Derby County. For his performances during the season, Clichy was named to the Professional Footballers' Association (PFA) Team of the Year alongside teammates Bacary Sagna, Emmanuel Adebayor, and Fàbregas. He also finished second in the Arsenal fans' poll for the club's Player of the Season. However, despite the impressive individual season, Arsenal, for the third consecutive season, failed to win any trophies. On 16 May 2008, Arsenal awarded Clichy with a two-year contract extension until June 2012.  During Arsenal's pre-season campaign ahead of the 2008–09 season, Clichy captained the team for the first time in its 2–1 win over Barnet. He remained a fixture within the starting eleven during the season despite the emergence of youngster Kieran Gibbs. On 1 November 2008, Clichy scored his first professional goal in a 2–1 defeat to Stoke City. After consistently appearing with the team for the majority of the campaign, in April 2009, Clichy began missing matches due to an unspecified injury. After being sidelined for several weeks, it was announced in early May that the defender would miss the remainder of the 2008–09 season due to a back injury. Similar to his foot injury three seasons ago, during the high note of the 2009–10 season, Clichy's back injury relapse after it was revealed that the player suffered a stress fracture of the lower back in the team's 3–0 win over North London rivals Tottenham Hotspur. Despite being initially ruled out for a month, Clichy missed ten weeks and returned to the team in January 2010. He appeared in all of the club's remaining matches excluding one.  A healthy Clichy started the 2010–11 campaign as the starting left-back domestically and internationally for the first time. On 30 October, he assisted on the only goal scored by Alex Song in the team's league win over West Ham. Clichy scored his second career goal on 2 March 2011 in the team's 5–0 win over Leyton Orient in a FA Cup replay tie. Altogether Clichy made a sum of 264 appearances and scored twice for Arsenal.

Manchester City.

On 4 July 2011, it was confirmed that Manchester City had completed the signing of Clichy from Arsenal for an undisclosed fee, believed to be around £7 million, on a four-year deal. Clichy made his first appearance for City on the club's US Tour. He then made his first competitive appearance against Manchester United in the 2011 FA Community Shield and his first Premier League appearance against Swansea City. He was sent off during a league game against Chelsea for picking up a second yellow card for a challenge on Ramires. Clichy established himself as first choice left-back after beginning the season as backup to Aleksandar Kolarov. On 13 May 2012, the final day of the Premier League season, Clichy started and played the full 90 minutes against Queens Park Rangers at the Etihad Stadium in a 3–2 victory, on his 37th appearance of the campaign which ultimately handed City the title at the expense of rivals Manchester United. Clichy collected the second Premier League winner's medal of his career having won the other one with Arsenal after an Invincible 2003–04 season.  Clichy agreed a new four-year deal with City in May 2013 after penning a contract to keep him at the Etihad until 2017. "I'm really happy to have agreed a new deal with City and I'm already looking forward to next season", said Clichy. "Things didn't go the way we wanted them to this year but we'll come back stronger next season and learn from this experience." Clichy won another Premier League winner's medal in May 2014 as Manchester City held off the challenge of Liverpool to regain the Premier League title on the final day of the season. Clichy scored his first goal for Manchester City on 30 November 2014 in a 0–3 victory against Southampton FC at St Mary's Stadium.  On 25 May 2017, Manchester City announced that Clichy would be leaving the club.

İstanbul Başakşehir.

On 7 July 2017, İstanbul Başakşehir announced that Clichy had passed the medical earlier that day, following which he signed a 3-year contract to play for the Turkish club.

International career.

Youth.

Clichy has earned caps with all of France's youth teams for which he was eligible. He was a late participant at under-15 level under coach Luc Rabat. Clichy made his youth international debut on 13 March 2001 in a 3–0 friendly win over Italy. He remained with the team for the rest of the campaign appearing in three matches at the 2001 edition of the Montaigu Tournament which France won. Clichy also played in all three matches at an international tournament in Salerno, Italy. At under-17 level, Clichy appeared in ten matches as France attempted to qualify for the 2002 UEFA European Under-17 Football Championship. He made his debut with the team on 19 September 2001 in its opening league match of the season; a 1–0 win over Yugoslavia. In qualifying for the UEFA-sanctioned tournament, Clichy appeared in two of the three qualification matches. In the tournament, he appeared in all six matches as the starting left-back. France reached the final, but were defeated by a resilient Switzerland, who were led by future Arsenal teammate Philippe Senderos.  Due to increased playing time at his parent club Cannes, Clichy's stint with the under-18 team was uneventful appearing in only three matches. He returned to the team as a regular for under-19 duty as the team was attempting to qualify for the 2004 UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship. In qualifying, France were surprisingly eliminated in the first round after finishing third in its first qualifying round group. Following the team's elimination, France only played in three more matches. Clichy played in the last two against Ukraine. He earned his first call up to the under-21 team under coach Raymond Domenech in the team's first match following the team's failure to qualify for the 2004 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship against Belgium, which was a 1–0 victory. Despite featuring in the team as a starter early on, which included playing in every match in the team's triumph at the 2004 Toulon Tournament, as the season wore on, Clichy lost his starting left-back spot to Lyon prospect Jérémy Berthod. His last appearance with the team came on 15 November 2005 in the team's first leg playoff round tie against England, which determined which team would earn a berth in the 2006 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship. Clichy started the first leg, but was substituted out for Berthod at half-time. France defeated England 3–2 on aggregate to earn a place in the tournament. However, due to his fractured foot injury suffered while playing with Arsenal, Clichy missed the competition.

Senior.

On 31 January 2008, Clichy was called up to the senior national team for the first time for the team's February 2008 match against Spain. However, he instead played for the B team in its friendly match against the Congo DR, held the day before the Spain friendly. After receiving several more call ups in 2008, Clichy finally earned his first cap on 10 September 2008 in a 2010 World Cup qualification match against Serbia. The following month, he appeared as a starter in 3–1 victories over Tunisia and Austria, the former match being a friendly and the latter being a World Cup qualifier. In the next year and a half, Clichy failed to represent France internationally. Despite this, he was named in Domenech's 30-man preliminary squad to participate in the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Clichy was later named in the 23-man team to serve as the backup for the incumbent starter Patrice Evra. At the competition, France endured a disastrous campaign as the players went on strike in response to its disagreement over the expulsion of striker Nicolas Anelka from the team. In the team's final group stage match against hosts South Africa, with several veteran players missing from the squad, Clichy was inserted as a starter and played the entire match in the team's 2–1 loss, which resulted in its elimination from the competition. As a result of the players' mutiny, Clichy, along with the 22 other members of the team, were suspended for the team's friendly match against Norway.  Due to the five-match suspension of Evra, new national team manager Laurent Blanc inserted Clichy as the starter. In his first match since the World Cup against Belarus, Clichy was criticised for his defence after, following a mix-up with Yann M'Vila, he failed to prevent Vyacheslav Hleb from assisting on the only goal of the match in the team's 1–0 defeat. Despite this setback, Clichy remained first-choice and featured in the team's next three matches. In November 2010, Clichy was benched in favour of Eric Abidal. Following Abidal's diagnosis of a tumor on his liver, Evra returned to the team and was given the starting left-back spot in his first match back. Clichy later admitted that he was frustrated by the decision, but respected the manager's choice. In June 2012, he was named in the 23-man France squad and given the number 22 shirt to compete at UEFA Euro 2012 in Poland and Ukraine as a substitute for Evra. He played the last two group matches against Ukraine and Sweden, as well as the 2–0 loss against Spain in the quarter final at the tournament.

Sponsorship.

In 2012, Gaël Clichy signed a sponsorship deal with German sportswear and footwear supplier, Puma SE. He followed the likes of former teammates Sergio Agüero and Yaya Touré wearing the evoSPEED range of football boots. Clichy was formerly with British brand Umbro and its Stealth silo.

Career statistics.

Club.

Notes

Honours.

Arsenal  Manchester City  France U21  Individual

Gaël Dimitri Clichy ( ; born 26 July 1985) is a French professional footballer who currently plays for Turkish club İstanbul Başakşehir in the Süper Lig. He has also played for the France national team. Clichy is predominantly left footed but naturally right footed, he primarily plays as a left back that is also capable of playing as an offensive-minded wing-back. Earlier in his career, he was described as a player who possesses "almost unrivaled stamina" that is "quick in the tackle and willing to drive forward". He was a member of Arsenal's famous Invincibles team then becoming the youngest player to win a Premier League medal.

Gaël Clichy, né le à Toulouse, est un footballeur international français qui évolue au poste d'arrière gauche à l'İstanbul Başakşehir.


Terminology.

The origins of the usage of the word as a genre-label are debated. But according to Amina Shah,  The meaning of the word "Makamat" is derived from "a place where one stands upright" and hence the place where one is at any time. Next it is used metonymically to denote "the persons assembled at any place" and finally, by another translation, "the discourses delivered or conversations held in any such assembly". This metaphorical use of the word "Makamat" has however been restricted to discourse and conversations like those narrated by Hariri and his predecessor Al Hamadani, which are composed in a highly finished style, and solely for the purpose of exhibiting specimens of various kinds of eloquence, and exemplifying rules of grammar, rhetoric and poetry.

Structure.

According to J. Hämeen-Anttila, the typical "maqāmāt" can be schematized 'into “isnād” [the citations or "backings" used to verify the legitimacy of a hadith], “general introduction,” “link,” “episode proper,” “recognition scene,” “envoi,” and “finale.”' Ailin Qian has exemplified this schema with reference to that "Maqamat Badi' az-Zaman al-Hamadhani": 'after the initial "isnād",' the narrator ʿĪsā 'tells the audience that for a certain reason “I was in such-and-such a city” or “I traveled from here to there”; this constitutes the “general introduction.” That is followed by a transitional formula, like “one day, when I...” (fa baynamā anā yawman), “and so on till...” (wa halumma jarran ilā an), leading to the “episode proper.” Then through the eyes of ʿĪsā we are introduced to an anonymous trickster who shows remarkable erudition and eloquence, and always succeeds “in swindling money out of the gullible narrator.”' The trickster al-Iskandarī's identity is then recognised; 'In answering ʿĪsā’s questions, al-Iskandarī then chants an envoi poem, either as an indicator of his identity or also an apologia for his misbehaviors. In many of the Hamadhānian "maqāmāt", an envoi marks the end of the story, but occasionally the envoi is followed by a “finale,” where ʿĪsā and al-Iskandarī are described as departing.'

Origins.

The maqama first appeared as a major literary form in the 10th century. The maqama grew out of a cluster of prose genres, collectively known as adab.  There is still much scholarly debate concerning the origins of the genre' of the "maqāma". While the tenth-century author Badī' al-Zaman al-Hamadhāni is generally credited as the originator of the genre with his "Maqamat Badi' az-Zaman al-Hamadhani", some scholars credit Ahmad Ibn al-Farsi (d. 383/1004) as the originator of the "maqamat" genre, even before al-Hamadhani. A century later, al-Hariri of Basra extended the genre and ensured its popularity by elevating it to a literary art form. Even during al-Hariri’s lifetime, the maqamat were worthy of memorisation, recitation and scholarly criticism.  Both authors' "maqāmāt" center on trickster figures whose wanderings and exploits in speaking to assemblies of the powerful are conveyed by a narrator. The protagonist is a silver-tongued hustler, a rogue drifter who survives by dazzling onlookers with virtuoso displays of rhetorical acrobatics, including mastery of classical Arabic poetry (or of biblical Hebrew poetry and prose in the case of the Hebrew "maqāmāt"), and classical philosophy. Typically, there are 50 unrelated episodes in which the rogue character, often in disguise, tricks the narrator out of his money and leads him into various straitened, embarrassing, and even violent circumstances. Despite this serial abuse, the narrator-dupe character continues to seek out the trickster, fascinated by his rhetorical flow.  The earliest maqama, especially those by al-Hamadani, made use of anecdotes collected in the 9th century by earlier writers, such as al-Jahiz and al-Taniikhi, but used a narrator to introduce the anecdote. Al-Hamadani’s innovation was to apply saj’ (an ornate form of rhyming prose, interspersed with verse), to the retelling of fictional anecdotes. Until the time of al-Hamadani, saj’ had been confined to religious and political works.  The popularity of the maqama genre quickly spread across the East: versions appeared in Persian, Hebrew and Syriac. Within a few years of al-Hariri’s "Maqamat", the genre spread to al-Andalus (now Andalusia, Spain), courtesy of a small group of poets. In April, 1111, the Andalus poet and scholar, Abu al-Hajjaj Yusuf ibn Ali al-Qudai attended a recitation by al-Hariri in his Baghdad garden, and was so impressed that he encouraged a small group of Andalus intellectuals to travel to Baghdad to hear the master recite his work.  Although, these poets introduced al-Andalus to the genre, interest in the maqama was confined to a relatively small group of literary men.The genre only came to the attention of Western audiences when al-Hariri’s work was translated into Latin in the 17th and 18th centuries, but it was not until 1982 that a complete English translation of al-Hariri’s "Maqamat"first appeared.  During the 11th and 12th centuries, maqamat were recited before an assembled audience, and were often improvised and embellished. As such, the work had no need for illustrations. However, from the early 13th century, illustrated editions of the manuscript began to appear. Ten different illustrated editions were known for many years, but with the discovery of a new illustrated edition in 1960, the total now stands at eleven. One of the earliest and most widely known illustrated editions is that by al-Waisiti (completed in around 1236). now in the Bibliothèque nationale de France (in Paris).  Manuscripts of al-Harīrī's "Maqāmāt", anecdotes of a roguish wanderer Abu Zayd from Saruj, were frequently illustrated with miniatures. A noted illustrator was Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti. al-Harīrī far exceeded the rhetorical stylistics of the genre's innovator, al-Hamadhani, to such a degree that his "maqāmāt" were used as a textbook for rhetoric and lexicography (the cataloging of rare words from the Bedouin speech from the 7th and 8th centuries) and indeed as schoolbooks for until Early Modern times.

Illustrations.

No known illustrations of maqamat exist prior to the 13th century. However, illustrations were added to maqamat to add grandeur and interest to the manuscripts, even though the text was usually performed orally in large groups, rather than read in solitude. Common images across various "Maqāmāt" texts include: grand banquet events involving music and drinking, large groups congregated (sometimes in mosques), and general scenes involving the trickery of Abu Zayd as well as the frustration of Al Harith. Particularly in the Saint Petersburg "Maqāmāt", these scenes were meant to be humorous to those reading the text, as they often were loosely associated with the poem the image was correlated with. These comical images were also shown through the over-exaggerated gestures, such as rigid elbows and knees, of the human figures portrayed as shown in the Vienna "Maqāmāt".  The human figures expressed in these illustrations tended to be quite large in relation to the architecture they were occupying as well as typically against a blank, white background. Most of these images either took up an entire or half page, but were not incorporated within the text as a whole. The use of the double-page spread began to become popular during this time and were used extensively in these manuscripts. The color palettes were typical of this time and were the schemes often employed in Qurans.  While some of the images refer to the previous text in the manuscript, scholars cannot necessarily determine the relationship between the image and the text when they do not appear to relate to each other. Although the illustrations have a clear correlation with the text, the text does not need these images to serve its purpose. Therefore, these images can instead serve as a distraction to the reader rather than an aid. The difference of text and images is also used to cater to the taste of different groups of people. For example, the text is read by the audience who are experts of Arabic language and literature, while the images can be helpful for those with less formal education.

Captions.

Captions were used extensively in "Maqāmāt" manuscripts, however it is important to note that they were either added last, or perhaps even later in the manuscripts’ existence, rather than during its completion. While the captions that were added to these illustrations did correspond to the text, they were often simplistic or only identified the figures in the image. This characteristic was irregular as compared to other manuscripts at the time such as the Mamluk "Kalila wa Dimna". To use an example by Bernard O’Kane, there is a "Maqāmāt" illustration that shows a large crowd with underfed children and an elderly woman. However, this woman is instead the trickster Abu Zayd who is using these children as a ploy for empathy from the congregation of people. While you gain this knowledge from the text of the manuscript, the caption only reads “image of the old person and the youths,” instead of implying the larger context of the scene.  However, these captions could also have been used to clarify what the illustrator failed to render in the images, rather than just an explanation of the scene produced. Captions also created a sense of picture framing in instances of small spaces for the text, often resulting in bent captions that created an enclosure for the picture.

Shadow Play.

The illustrated "Maqāmāt" manuscripts made during the 13th century connects the idea of shadow play. This is shown through the emphasis of the outline, the dramatic behavior and mobile gestures of figures, the strong contrast between figures and the background, and the tendency of the figures being present in an unregulated setting. However, the "Maqāmāt" illustrations do not just emphasize the shadow and are instead full of bright colors, only using shadow to detail the environment around the figures. These similarities of the "Maqāmāt" illustration and shadow play may have some effect on the viewer of these illustrations. In other words, these images can help viewers understand the reason for a dramatic difference between the text and paintings by suggesting that these images were not made as an aid of the text, but rather as stand alone paintings.

Influences.

The "Maqāmāt" illustrations have stylistic characteristics of other religions such as Christianity and Judaism. One of the main instances of Christian inspiration originates from the use of gold circles surrounding a figure's head to denote its holiness, typically used for saints in early medieval Christian manuscripts. However, it was not meant to signify a sacred figure, but rather it is thought to create a distinction from the blank background because of its common use for ordinary figures throughout the illustrations. Another Christian motif employed in these manuscripts is the particular treatment of the sky which also appeared in some Byzantine manuscripts. The Vienna "Maqāmāt" and several earlier "Maqāmāt" manuscripts also included some imagery from medieval Jewish culture, such as the inclusion of their particular type of gravestone. At this time, typical Islamic gravestones were minimalistic without many inscriptions, while several Jewish cemeteries included a type of small stepped stone grave marker. These Jewish gravestones were the ones illustrated in these manuscripts rather than the small Islamic headstones.  However, the illustrations in "Maqāmāt" manuscripts also included influences from the Islamic world, notably from the city of Baghdad. Specifically in the Istanbul "Maqāmāt", several buildings do recall the architectural style and form of the city, notably shown through the Mustansiriya complex that appears to be replicated throughout the illustrations. The use of vegetal designs and specific rendering of authority figures also alludes back to the style of the Islamic world which can be seen through the Arabic translations of the Greek teachings of Dioscorides.

Development in Hebrew.

The "maqāma" genre was also cultivated in Hebrew in Spain, beginning with Yehūda al-Ḥarīzī's translation of al-Harīrī's "maqāmāt" into Hebrew (c. 1218), which he titled "maḥberōt 'ītī'ēl" ("the "maqāmāt" of Ithiel"). Two years later, he composed his own "maḥbārōt," titled "Sēfer Taḥkemōnī" ("The Book of the Tachmonite"). With this work, al-Ḥarīzī sought to raise the literary prestige of Hebrew to exceed that of Classical Arabic, just as the bulk of Iberian Jewry was finding itself living in a Spanish-speaking, Latin- or Hebrew-literate environment and Arabic was becoming less commonly studied and read.  Later Hebrew "maqāmāt" made more significant departures, structurally and stylistically, from the classical Arabic "maqāmāt" of al-Hamadhānī and al-Harīrī. Joseph ibn Zabara (end of the 12th-beginning of 13th century), a resident of Barcelona and Catalan speaker, wrote the "Sēfer sha'ashū'īm" ("The Book of Delights"), in which the author, the narrator, and the protagonist are all Ibn Zabara himself, and in which the episodes are arranged in linear, not cyclical fashion, in a way that anticipates the structure of Spanish picaresque novels such as the anonymous "Lazarillo de Tormes" (1554) and Guzmán de Alfarache (1599) by Mateo Alemán.

Maqāmah (مقامة, pl. "maqāmāt", مقامات, literally "assemblies") are an (originally) Arabic prosimetric literary genre which alternates the Arabic rhymed prose known as "Saj‘" with intervals of poetry in which rhetorical extravagance is conspicuous.

La maqâma ("pl." maqâmât ; en arabe : مقامة ج ات) est un genre littéraire arabe fondé dans la deuxième moitié du par Badî' al-Zamân al-Hamadhânî (mort en 1008). Il s'agit d'un court récit de fiction se présentant comme la retranscription en "saj' " (prose rimée et rythmée) d'une anecdote transmise oralement, le khabar. La maqâma met en scène un personnage central cherchant à gagner sa vie par la ruse ("hila", "kidya") et l’éloquence.


Construction.

Since a cage is usually intended to hold living beings, at least some part of its structure must be such as to allow for the entry of light and air. Thus some cages may be made with bars spaced too closely together for the intended captive to slip between them, or with windows covered by a mesh of some sort.

Animal cages.

Cages are often used to confine animals, and some are specially designed to fit a certain species of animal. One or more birds, rodents, reptiles, and even larger animals of certain breeds are sometimes confined in a cage as pets.  Animal cages have been a part of human culture since ancient times. For example, an Ancient Greek vase dated to 490 B.C. depicts a boy holding a possibly domesticated rabbit on his lap, with a cage with an open door in the background. The biblical Book of Jeremiah refers to a tribe being like "cages full of birds", and the Book of Ezekiel describes the capture of a lion in which the captors "pulled him into a cage and brought him to the king of Babylon".  The different laws governing the keeping of animals in captivity generally provide for the size of cages or minimum equipment, depending on the species, whether for transport or for breeding. Swiss legislation, for example, defines minimum absolute internal dimensions for pet cages, but the Swiss Animal Protection organization (PSA) states that even if these dimensions comply with the law, they are far from being in line with the needs of species. It is therefore necessary in practice to provide a much higher vital space to ensure the well-being of the occupants.  Animal protection associations have often argued for improving transport conditions in cages and for bans on battery cages, especially for egg-laying hens. The European legislation is constantly changing, but consumer behavior also influences breeding conditions.

Trapping.

Cages also serve as a trapping tool. This is a common and illegal purpose of the cage, as poaching is illegal itself. These type of cages are used to trap an animal, or hold them for a certain period of time. U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt used a cage himself to capture a bear, as the cage serves a purpose for capturing large animals.

Human cages.

Punishment.

In history, prisoners were sometimes kept in a cage. During the Vietnam War they were referred to as "tiger cages". Captives would sometimes be chained up inside into uncomfortable positions to intensify suffering. In medieval England, King Edward punished Robert the Bruce in part by having two of his sisters encaged in public.

Entertainment.

Cages are used in various forms of entertainment to create excitement from the sense that the entertainers are trapped in the cage. For example, cage dancing "refers to a scantily-clad feminine dancer, perhaps wearing a mini-skirt or hot- pants, and (supposedly) trapped inside of a hanging bird cage". Cage fighting involves two combatants, usually engaging in mixed martial arts, inside a cage-like structure, and "conjures up the image of two combatants trapped in a cage, trading vicious blows as the audience bays for blood". In Australia, a ban on the use of "cage-like enclosures" at such events was lifted in 2014. Steel cages are also one of the oldest form of enclosures used in professional wrestling. The first "steel cage match" of any kind took place on June 25, 1937 in Atlanta, Georgia. This match took place in a ring surrounded by chicken wire, in order to keep the athletes inside, and prevent any potential interference.

A cage is an enclosure often made of mesh, bars, or wires, used to confine, contain or protect something or someone. A cage can serve many purposes, including keeping an animal or person in captivity, capturing an animal or person, and displaying an animal at a zoo.

Une cage est un contenant ajouré, le plus souvent grillagé ou à barreaux, destiné généralement à contenir un animal. Une cage empêche son occupant de s'enfuir ou permet de l'observer sans risque, elle protège également son contenu des intrusions ou des prédateurs. Il existe différents types de cages dont la taille et la forme varient selon l'usage qui peut aller de la grande volière à l'étroite cage de torture.


Introduction.

People may not be fully aware of the relationship between their mental and emotional wellbeing and the environment. It was first commonly used by psychologist Erik Erikson in his description of the stages of psychosocial development. Mary Richmond, pioneer of American social work regarded there to be a linear relationship between cause and effect in a diagnostic process. In 1941 Gordon Hamilton renamed the 1917 concept of "social diagnosis" as "psychosocial study". Psychosocial study was further developed by Hollis in 1964 with emphasis in treatment model. It is contrasted with diverse social psychology, which attempts to explain social patterns within the individual. Problems that occur in one's psychosocial functioning can be referred to as "psychosocial dysfunction" or "psychosocial morbidity." This refers to the lack of development or diverse atrophy of the psychosocial self, often occurring alongside other dysfunctions that may be physical, emotional, or cognitive in nature. Adolph Meyer in the late 1800s stated "We cannot understand the individual presentation of mental illness, [and perpetuating factors] without knowing how that person functions in the environment," psychosocial assessment stems from this idea.  Scholarly societies in this field bring together researchers, academics and practitioners who are interested in contributing to the development of this inter/trans-disciplinary field of study. There are organisations such as Transcultural Psychosocial Organization (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), Association for Psychosocial Studies, etc.

Psychosocial assessment and intervention.

Psychosocial assessment considers several key areas related to psychological, biological, and social functioning and the availability of supports. It is a systematic inquiry that arises from the introduction of dynamic interaction; it is an ongoing process that continues throughout a treatment, and is characterized by the circularity of cause-effect/effect-cause. In assessment the clinician/health care professional identifies the problem with the client, takes stock of the resources that are available for dealing with it, and considers the ways in which it might be solved from an educated hypothesis formed by data collection. This hypothesis is tentative in nature and goes through a process of elimination, refinement, or reconstruction in the light of newly obtained data.  There are five internal steps in assessment:  Assessment includes psychiatric, psychological and social functioning, risks posed to the individual and others, problems required to address from any co-morbidity, personal circumstances including family or other carers. Other factors are the person's housing, financial and occupational status, and physical needs. Assessments when categorized, it particularly includes Life history of the client that include data collection of living situation and finances, social history and supports, family history, coping skills, religious/cultural factors, trauma from systemic issues or abuse and medico-legal factors (assessment of the client’s awareness of legal documents, surrogate decision-making, power of attorney and consent). Components include: the resource assessment of psycho-spiritual strengths; substance abuse; coping mechanisms, styles and patterns (individual, family level, workplace, and use of social support systems); sleeping pattern; needs and impacts of the problem etc. Advanced clinicians incorporate individual scales, batteries and testing instruments in their assessments. In the late 1980s Hans Eysenck, in an issue of Psychological Inquiry, raised controversies on then assessment methods and it gave way to comprehensive Bio-Psycho-Social assessment. This theoretical model sees behavior as a function of biological factors, psychological issues and the social context. Qualified healthcare professionals conduct the physiological part of these assessments. This thrust on biology expands the field of approach for the client, with the client, through the interaction of these disciplines in a domain were mental illnesses are physical, just as physical conditions have mental components. Likewise, the emotional is both psychological and physical.  The clinician’s comprehension and set of judgments about the client's situation, the assessment through a theory of each case, predicts the intervention. Hence a good psychosocial assessment leads to a good psychosocial intervention that aims to reduce complaints and improve functioning related to mental disorders and/or social problems (e.g., problems with personal relationships, work, or school) by addressing the different psychological and social factors influencing the individual. For example, a psychosocial intervention for an older adult client with a mental disorder might include psychotherapy and a referral to a psychiatrist while also addressing the caregiver's needs in an effort to reduce stress for the entire family system as a method of improving the client's quality of life. Treatment for psychosocial disorders in a medical model usually only involve using drugs and talk therapy.

Psychosocial adaptation and support.

Psychosocial adaptation is a process a person experiences in order to achieve good fitness in person-environment congruence known as adjustment, a state of wisdom oriented activities and psychosocial equilibrium. Psychosocial support is the provision of psychological and social resources to a person by a supporter intended for the benefit of the receiver's ability to cope with problems faced. The allocentric principle within social relationships that promote health and well-being moves individuals to aid victims of terminal illness, disaster, war, catastrophe or violence to foster resilience of communities and individuals. It aims at easing resumption of normal life, facilitating affected people's participation to their convalescence and preventing pathological consequences of potentially traumatic situations. This might extend in forms of informational and instrumental support.

The psychosocial approach looks at individuals in the context of the combined influence that psychological factors and the surrounding social environment have on their physical and mental wellness and their ability to function. This approach is used in a broad range of helping professions in health and social care settings as well as by medical and social science researchers.

Psychosocial est un terme qui décrit chez une personne, son développement psychologique et son interaction dans un environnement social. Il existe en sciences humaines une variété d'approches au confluent des champs psychologiques et sociaux.


Nova Scotian childhood.

Joshua Slocum was born on February 20, 1844 in Mount Hanley, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia (officially recorded as Wilmot Station), a community on the North Mountain within sight of the Bay of Fundy. The fifth of eleven children of John Slocombe and Sarah Jane Slocombe "née" Southern, Joshua descended, on his father's side, from a Quaker, known as "John the Exile" who left the United States shortly after 1780 because of his opposition to the American War for Independence. Part of the Loyalist migration to Nova Scotia, the Slocombes were granted of farmland in Nova Scotia's Annapolis County.  Joshua Slocum was born in the family's farm house in Mount Hanley and learned to read and write at the nearby Mount Hanley School. His earliest ventures on the water were made on coastal schooners operating out of the small ports such as Port George and Cottage Cove near Mount Hanley along the Bay of Fundy.  When Joshua was eight years old, the Slocombe family moved from Mount Hanley to Brier Island in Digby County, at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy. Slocum's maternal grandfather was the keeper of the lighthouse at Southwest Point there. His father, a stern man and strict disciplinarian, took up making leather boots for the local fishermen, and Joshua helped in the shop. However, the boy found the scent of salt air much more alluring than the smell of shoe leather. He yearned for a life of adventure at sea, away from his demanding father and his increasingly chaotic life at home among so many brothers and sisters.  He made several attempts to run away from home, finally succeeding, at age fourteen, by hiring on as a cabin boy and cook on a fishing schooner, but he soon returned home. In 1860, after the birth of the eleventh Slocombe (Joshua changed the spelling of his last name later in his life) child and the subsequent death of his kindly mother, Joshua, then sixteen, left home for good. He and a friend signed on at Halifax as ordinary seamen on a merchant ship bound for Dublin, Ireland.

Early life at sea.

From Dublin, he crossed to Liverpool to become an ordinary seaman on the British merchant ship "Tangier" (also recorded as "Tanjore"), bound for China. During two years as a seaman, he rounded Cape Horn twice, landed at Batavia (now Jakarta) in the Dutch East Indies, and visited the Maluku Islands, Manila, Hong Kong, Saigon, Singapore, and San Francisco. While at sea, he studied for the Board of Trade examination, and, at the age of eighteen, he received his certificate as a fully qualified Second Mate. Slocum quickly rose through the ranks to become a Chief Mate on British ships transporting coal and grain between the British Isles and San Francisco.  In 1865, he settled in San Francisco, became an American citizen, and, after a period of salmon fishing and fur trading in the Oregon Territory of the northwest, he returned to the sea to pilot a schooner in the coastal trade between San Francisco and Seattle. His first blue-water command, in 1869, was the barque "Washington", which he took across the Pacific, from San Francisco to Australia, and home via Alaska.  He sailed for thirteen years out of the port of San Francisco, transporting mixed cargo to China, Australia, the Spice Islands, and Japan. Between 1869 and 1889, he was the master of eight vessels, the first four of which (the "Washington", the "Constitution", the "Benjamin Aymar" and the "Amethyst") he commanded in the employ of others. Later, there would be four others that he himself owned, in whole or in part.

Family at sea.

Shortly before Christmas 1870, Slocum and the "Washington" put in at Sydney. There, in about a month's time, he met, courted, and married a young woman named Virginia Albertina Walker. Their marriage took place on January 31, 1871. Miss Walker, quite coincidentally, was an American whose New York family had migrated west to California at the time of the 1849 gold rush and eventually continued on, by ship, to settle in Australia. She sailed with Slocum, and, over the next thirteen years, the couple had seven children, all born at sea or foreign ports. Four children, sons Victor, Benjamin Aymar, and James Garfield, and daughter Jessie, survived to adulthood.  In Alaska, the "Washington" was wrecked when she dragged her anchor during a gale, ran ashore, and broke up. Slocum, however, at considerable risk to himself, managed to save his wife, the crew, and much of the cargo, bringing all back to port safely in the ship's open boats. The owners of the shipping company that had employed Slocum were so impressed by this feat of ingenuity and leadership, they gave him the command of the "Constitution" which he sailed to Hawaii and the west coast of Mexico.  His next command was the "Benjamin Aymar", a merchant vessel in the South Seas trade. However, the owner, strapped for cash, sold the vessel out from under Slocum, and he and Virginia found themselves stranded in the Philippines without a ship.

The "Pato".

While in the Philippines, in 1874, under a commission from a British architect, Slocum organized native workers to build a 150-ton steamer in the shipyard at Subic Bay. In partial payment for the work, he was given the ninety-ton schooner, "Pato" (Spanish for "Duck"), the first ship he could call his own.  Ownership of the "Pato" afforded Slocum the kind of freedom and autonomy he had never experienced before. Hiring a crew, he contracted to deliver a cargo to Vancouver in British Columbia. Thereafter, he used the "Pato" as a general freight carrier along the west coast of North America and in voyages back and forth between San Francisco and Hawaii. During this period, Slocum also fulfilled a long-held ambition to become a writer; he became a temporary correspondent for the "San Francisco Bee".  The Slocums sold the "Pato" in Honolulu in the spring of 1878. Returning to San Francisco, they purchased the "Amethyst." He worked this ship until June 23, 1881. The Slocums next bought a third share in the "Northern Light 2". This large clipper was 233 feet in length, 44 feet beam, 28 feet in the hold. It was capable of carrying 2000 tons on three decks. Although Joshua Slocum called this ship "my best command", it was a command plagued with mutinies and mechanical problems. Under troubling legal circumstances (caused by his alleged treatment of the chief mutineer) he sold his share in the "Northern Light 2" in 1883.

The "Aquidneck".

The Slocum family continued on their next ship, the 326-ton "Aquidneck". In 1884, Slocum's wife Virginia became ill aboard the "Aquidneck" in Buenos Aires and died. After sailing to Massachusetts, Slocum left his three youngest children, Benjamin Aymar, Jessie, and Garfield in the care of his sisters; his oldest son Victor continued as his first mate.  In 1886, at age 42, Slocum married his 24-year-old cousin, Henrietta "Hettie" Elliott. The Slocum family, with the exception of Jessie and Benjamin Aymar, again took to the sea aboard the "Aquidneck", bound for Montevideo, Uruguay. Slocum's second wife would find life at sea much less appealing than his first. A few days into Henrietta's first voyage, the "Aquidneck" sailed through a hurricane. By the end of this first year, the crew had contracted cholera, and they were quarantined for six months. Later, Slocum was forced to defend his ship from pirates, one of whom he shot and killed; he was tried and acquitted of murder. Next, the "Aquidneck" was infected with smallpox, leading to the death of three of the crew. Disinfecting of the ship was performed at considerable cost. Shortly afterward, near the end of 1887, the unlucky "Aquidneck" was wrecked in southern Brazil.

The "Liberdade".

After being stranded in Brazil with his wife and sons Garfield and Victor, he started building a boat that could sail them home. He used local materials, salvaged materials from the "Aquidneck" and worked with local workers. The boat was launched on May 13, 1888, the very day slavery was abolished in Brazil, and therefore the ship was given the Portuguese name "Liberdade". It was an unusual junk-rigged design which he described as "half Cape Ann dory and half Japanese sampan". He and his family began their voyage back to the United States, his son Victor (15) being the mate.  After fifty-five days at sea and 5510 miles, the Slocums reached Cape Roman, South Carolina and continued inland to Washington D.C. for winter and finally reaching Boston via New York in 1889. This was the last time Henrietta sailed with the family. In 1890, Slocum published the accounts of these adventures in "Voyage of the Liberdade".

Voyage of the "Destroyer".

In the northern winter of 1893/94, Slocum undertook what he described as, at that time, being "the hardest voyage that I have ever made, without any exception at all." It involved delivering the steam-powered torpedo boat "Destroyer" from the east coast of the United States to Brazil.  "Destroyer" was a ship 130 feet in length, conceived by the Swedish-American inventor and mechanical engineer John Ericsson, and intended for the defence of harbours and coastal waters. Equipped in the early 1880s with sloping armour plate and a bow-mounted submarine gun it was an evolution of the Monitor warship type of the American Civil War. "Destroyer" was intended to fire an early form of torpedo at an opposing ship from a range of 300 feet, and was a "vessel of war partially armored to attack bows-on at short range".  Despite the loss of the "Aquidneck" and the privations of his family's voyage in the self-built "Liberdade", Slocum retained a fondness for Brazil. During 1893, Brazil was faced with a political crisis in Rio Grande do Sul and an attempt at civil war that was intensified by the revolt of the country's navy in September.  Slocum agreed to a request by the Brazilian government to deliver the "Destroyer" to Pernambuco, Brazil. His motive was also financial. As Slocum describes, his contract with the commander of government forces at Pernambuco was, "to go against the rebel fleet, and sink them all, if we could find them – big and little – for a handsome sum of gold..." In addition, Slocum saw the possibility of getting even with the "arch rebel" Admiral Melo (whom he writes as "Mello"): "Confidentially: I was burning to get a rake at Mello and his "Aquideban". He it was, who in that ship expelled my bark, the "Aquidneck", from lIha Grand some years ago, under the cowardly pretext that we might have sickness on board. But that story has been told. I was burning to let him know and palpably feel that this time I had in dynamite instead of hay".  Towed by the "Santuit", Slocum and a small crew aboard the "Destroyer" left Sandy Hook, New Jersey, on 7 December 1893. The following day the ship was already taking on water: "A calamity has overtaken us. The ship's top seams are opening and one of the new sponsons, the starboard one, is already waterlogged". Despite all hands pumping and bailing, by midnight the seas were extinguishing the fires in the boilers which were kept alight only by throwing on rounds of pork fat and tables and chairs from the vessel.  With a storm continuing to blow on the 9th, the crew was able to lower the level of water in the hold and plug some of the holes and leaks. Bailing out water using a large improvised canvas bag continued from the 9th to the 13th and succeeded in maintaining the level of water in the hold below three feet. On the 13th they were again hit by a storm and cross seas and had to bail all night. On the 14th, heavy seas disabled the rudder. By the afternoon of 15 December, the "Destroyer" was to the southwest of Puerto Rico, heading for Martinique, and still weathering storms.  By this time, with the fires in the boilers extinguished, all hands were bailing for their lives: "The main hull of the "Destroyer" is already a foot under water, and going on down". The crew had no other option than to keep bailing and try to keep the ship afloat, as the vessel "could not be insured for the voyage; nor would any company insure a life on board". By the morning of the 16th the storm had abated, allowing the "Destroyer" to anchor to the south of Puerto Rico.  Although the ship's best steam pump had been put out of action on 19 December, more favourable seas allowed the crew to reach Martinique, where repairs were made before again setting sail on 5 January 1894. On 18 January the "Destroyer" arrived at Fernando de Noronha, an island some 175 miles from the coast of Brazil, before finally reaching Recife, Pernambuco, on the 20th.  Slocum wrote: "My voyage home from Brazil in the canoe "Liberdade", with my family for crew and companions, some years ago, although a much longer voyage was not of the same irksome nature".  At Pernambuco, the "Destroyer" joined up with the Brazilian navy and the crew was again engaged in repairs as the long tow in heavy seaways had severed rivets at the bow, resulting in leaks.  Wet powder led to a failed test firing of the submarine gun and the ship was grounded to remove the projectile. But the strain of the swell led to a further leak. Following further repairs the "Destroyer" made for Bahia with replenishments of powder for the Brazilian fleet, arriving on 13 February. Once there, however, Admiral Goncalves of the Brazilian navy seized the ship. At the Arsenal at Bahia, an apparently incompetent alternative crew grounded the "Destroyer" on a rock in the basin. The vessel was holed and subsequently abandoned.

The "Spray": First solo circumnavigation of the earth.

In Fairhaven, Massachusetts, he rebuilt the gaff rigged sloop oyster boat named "Spray".  On April 24, 1895, he set sail from Boston, Massachusetts. In his famous book, "Sailing Alone Around the World", now considered a classic of travel literature, he described his departure in the following manner:  After an extended visit to his boyhood home at Brier Island and visiting old haunts on the coast of Nova Scotia, Slocum departed North America at Sambro Island Lighthouse near Halifax, Nova Scotia on July 3, 1895.  Slocum intended to sail eastward around the world, using the Suez Canal, but when he got near Gibraltar he realized that sailing through the southern Mediterranean would be too dangerous for a lone sailor because of the piracy that still went on there at that time. So he decided to sail westward, in the southern hemisphere. He headed to Brazil, and then the Straits of Magellan. At that point he was unable to start across the Pacific for forty days because of a storm. Eventually he made his way to Australia, sailed north along the east coast, crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and then headed back to North America.  Slocum navigated without a chronometer, instead relying on the traditional method of dead reckoning for longitude, which required only a cheap tin clock for approximate time, and noon-sun sights for latitude. On one long passage in the Pacific, Slocum also famously shot a lunar distance observation, decades after these observations had ceased to be commonly employed, which allowed him to check his longitude independently. However, Slocum's primary method for finding longitude was still dead reckoning; he recorded only one lunar observation during the entire circumnavigation.  Slocum normally sailed the "Spray" without touching the helm. Due to the length of the sail plan relative to the hull, and the long keel, the "Spray" was capable of self-steering (unlike faster modern craft), and he balanced it stably on any course relative to the wind by adjusting or reefing the sails and by lashing the helm fast. He sailed west across the Indian Ocean without once touching the helm.  More than three years later, on June 27, 1898, he returned to Newport, Rhode Island, having circumnavigated the world, a distance of more than 46,000 miles (74,000 km). Slocum's return went almost unnoticed. The Spanish–American War, which had begun two months earlier, dominated the headlines. After the end of major hostilities, many American newspapers published articles describing Slocum's amazing adventure.

"Sailing Alone Around the World".

In 1899 he published his account of the epic voyage in "Sailing Alone Around the World", first serialized in "The Century Magazine" and then in several book-length editions. Reviewers received the slightly anachronistic age-of-sail adventure story enthusiastically. Arthur Ransome went so far as to declare, "Boys who do not like this book ought to be drowned at once." In his review, Sir Edwin Arnold wrote, "I do not hesitate to call it the most extraordinary book ever published."  Slocum's book deal was an integral part of his journey: his publisher had provided Slocum with an extensive on-board library, and Slocum wrote several letters to his editor from distant points around the globe.  Slocum's "Sailing Alone" won him widespread fame in the English-speaking world. He was one of eight invited speakers at a dinner in honor of Mark Twain in December 1900. Slocum hauled the "Spray" up the Erie Canal to Buffalo, New York for the Pan-American Exposition in the summer of 1901, and he was well compensated for participating in the fair.

Later life.

In 1901, Slocum's book revenues and income from public lectures provided him enough financial security to purchase a small farm in West Tisbury, on the island of Martha's Vineyard, in Massachusetts. After a year and a half, he found he could not adapt to a settled life and Slocum sailed the "Spray" from port to port in the northeastern US during the summer and the West Indies during the winter, lecturing and selling books wherever he could. Slocum spent little time with his wife on the Vineyard and preferred life aboard the "Spray", usually wintering in the Caribbean.  Slocum and the "Spray" visited Sagamore Hill, the estate of US President Theodore Roosevelt on the north shore of Long Island, New York. Roosevelt and his family were interested in the tales of Slocum's solo circumnavigation. The President's young son, Archie, along with a guardian, spent the next few days sailing with Slocum up to Newport aboard the "Spray", which, by then, was a decrepit, weather-worn vessel. Slocum again met with President Roosevelt in May 1907, this time at the White House in Washington. Supposedly, Roosevelt said to him, "Captain, our adventures have been a little different." Slocum answered, "That is true, Mr. President, but I see you got here first."  By 1909, Slocum's funds were running low; book revenues had tailed off. He prepared to sell his farm on Martha's Vineyard and began to make plans for a new adventure in South America. He had hopes of another book deal.

Disappearance.

On November 14, 1909, Slocum set sail for the West Indies on one of his usual winter voyages. He had also expressed interest in starting his next adventure, exploring the Orinoco, Rio Negro and Amazon Rivers. Slocum was never heard from again. In July 1910, his wife informed the newspapers that she believed he was lost at sea.  At the time, most who knew Slocum believed that the "Spray" had been run down by a steamer or struck by a whale, the "Spray" being too sound a craft and Slocum too experienced a mariner for any other cause to be considered likely.  Despite being an experienced mariner, Slocum never learned to swim and considered learning to swim to be useless.  In 1924, Joshua Slocum was declared legally dead.

Legacy.

Joshua Slocum's achievements have been well publicised and honoured. The name "Spray" has become a choice for cruising yachts ever since the publication of Slocum's account of his circumnavigation. Over the years, many versions of "Spray" have been built from the plans in Slocum's book, more or less reconstructing the sloop with various degrees of success.  Similarly, the French long-distance sailor Bernard Moitessier christened his ketch-rigged boat "Joshua" in honor of Slocum. It was this boat that Moitessier sailed from Tahiti to France, and he also sailed "Joshua" in the 1968 Sunday Times Golden Globe Race around the world, making great time, only to abandon the race near the end and sail on to the Polynesian Islands.  Ferries named in Slocum's honour ("Joshua Slocum" and "Spray") served the two Digby Neck runs in Nova Scotia between 1973 and 2004. The "Joshua Slocum" was featured in the film version of "Dolores Claiborne".  An underwater glider—an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), designed by the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, was named after Slocum's ship "Spray". It became the first AUV to cross the Gulf Stream, while operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Another AUV has been named after Slocum himself: the Slocum Electric Glider, designed by Douglas Webb of Webb Research (since 2008, Teledyne Webb Research).  In 2009, a Slocum glider, modified by Rutgers University, crossed the Atlantic in 221 days. The RU27 traveled from Tuckerton, New Jersey, to Baiona, Pontevedra, Spain — the port where Christopher Columbus landed on his return from his first voyage to the New World. Like Slocum himself, the Slocum glider is capable of traveling over thousands of kilometers. These gliders continue to be used by various research institutions, including Texas A&M University's Department of Oceanography and Geochemical and Environmental Research Group (GERG), to explore the Gulf of Mexico and other bodies of water.  A monument to Slocum exists on Brier Island, Nova Scotia, not far from his family's boot shop. Slocum is commemorated in museum exhibits at the New Bedford Whaling Museum in Massachusetts, the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and the Mount Hanley Schoolhouse Museum near his birthplace. Several biographies about Slocum are published.  The Slocum River in Dartmouth, Massachusetts was named for him, as was a newly discovered plant in Mauritius while he was there: "Returning to the "Spray" by way of the great flower conservatory near Moka, the proprietor, having only that morning discovered a new and hardy plant, to my great honor named it 'Slocum'". Slocum himself discovered an island by accident, and named it "Alan Erric Island".  Slocum was inducted into the National Sailing Hall of Fame in 2011.

Joshua Slocum (February 20, 1844 – on or shortly after November 14, 1909) was the first man to sail single-handedly around the world. He was a Nova Scotian-born, naturalised American seaman and adventurer, and a noted writer. In 1900 he wrote a book about his journey, "Sailing Alone Around the World", which became an international best-seller. He disappeared in November 1909 while aboard his boat, the "Spray".

Joshua Slocum, est né le sur la baie de Fundy (colonie britannique de Nouvelle-Écosse), juste au nord de l’actuelle frontière entre les États-Unis et le Canada, et disparu en mer le. Il se fait naturaliser américain à 25 ans et change l'orthographe de son nom de Slocombe en Slocum (phonétiquement presque identique en anglais). Il est le premier navigateur à avoir réalisé le tour du monde en solitaire à la voile. Le récit de sa circumnavigation sur le "Spray", un sloop en bois de, a inspiré de nombreux navigateurs contemporains.


Biography.

William Ross Ashby was born in 1903 in London, where his father was working at an advertising agency. From 1921 he studied at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, where he received his B.A. in 1924 and his M.B. and B.Ch. in 1928. From 1924 to 1928 he worked at the St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London. Later on he also received a Diploma in Psychological Medicine in 1931, and an M.A. 1930 and M.D. from Cambridge in 1935.  Ross Ashby started working in 1930 as a Clinical Psychiatrist in the London County Council. From 1936 until 1947 he was a Research Pathologist in the St Andrew's Hospital in Northampton in England. From 1945 to 1947 he served in India where he was a Major in the Royal Army Medical Corps.  When he returned to England, he served as Director of Research of the Barnwood House Hospital in Gloucester from 1947 until 1959. For a year, he was Director of the Burden Neurological Institute in Bristol. In 1960, he went to the United States and became Professor, Depts. of Biophysics and Electrical Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, until his retirement in 1970.  Ashby was president of the Society for General Systems Research from 1962 to 1964. He became a fellow of the Royal College of Psychiatrists in 1971.  On 4–6 March 2004, a W. Ross Ashby centenary conference was held at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign to mark the 100th anniversary of his birth. Presenters at the conference included Stuart Kauffman, Stephen Wolfram and George Klir. In February 2009, a special issue of the International Journal of General Systems was specifically devoted to Ashby and his work, containing papers from leading scholars such as Klaus Krippendorff, Stuart Umpleby and Kevin Warwick.

Work.

Despite being widely influential within cybernetics, systems theory and, more recently, complex systems, Ashby is not as well known as many of the notable scientists his work influenced, including Herbert A. Simon, Norbert Wiener, Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Stafford Beer, Stanley Milgram, and Stuart Kauffman.

Journal.

Ashby kept a journal for over 44 years in which he recorded his ideas about new theories. He started May 1928, when he was medical student at St. Bartholomew's Hospital in London. Over the years, he wrote down a series of 25 volumes totalling 7,189 pages. In 2003, these journals were given to The British Library, London, and in 2008, they were made available online as The W. Ross Ashby Digital Archive.

Cybernetics.

Ross Ashby was one of the original members of the Ratio Club, a small informal dining club of young psychologists, physiologists, mathematicians and engineers who met to discuss issues in cybernetics. The club was founded in 1949 by the neurologist John Bates and continued to meet until 1958.  The title of his book "An Introduction to Cybernetics" popularised the usage of the term 'cybernetics' to refer to self-regulating systems, originally coined by Norbert Wiener in "".  The book dealt primarily with homeostatic processes within living organisms, rather than in an engineering or electronic context.  Earlier, in 1946, Alan Turing wrote a letter to Ashby suggesting that Ashby use Turing's Automatic Computing Engine (ACE) for his experiments instead of building a special machine. In 1948, Ashby made the Homeostat.

Variety.

In "An Introduction to Cybernetics", Ashby formulated his Law of Requisite Variety stating that "variety absorbs variety, defines the minimum number of states necessary for a controller to control a system of a given number of states." This law can be applied for example to the number of bits necessary in a digital computer to produce a required description or model.  In response, Conant (1970) produced his so-called "Good Regulator theorem" stating that "every Good Regulator of a System Must be a Model of that System".  Stafford Beer applied variety to found management cybernetics and the Viable System Model. Working independently, Gregory Chaitin followed this with algorithmic information theory.  A popular paraphrasing of the law is "only complexity absorbs complexity". However, while a web search reveals many attributions to Ashby, it appears such attribution is in error. The phrase is not listed by the Cybernetics Society.

Legacy.

The Papers of William Ross Ashby are housed at the British Library. The papers can be accessed through the British Library catalogue.

W. Ross Ashby (6 September 1903, in London – 15 November 1972) was an English psychiatrist and a pioneer in cybernetics, the study of the science of communications and automatic control systems in both machines and living things. His first name was not used: he was known as Ross Ashby.

William Ross Ashby (, Londres – ) est un psychiatre-ingénieur anglais pionnier de la cybernétique. Ludwig von Bertalanffy l’a mentionné pour sa contribution qui a influencé Norbert Wiener, Herbert Alexander Simon et les autres.


History.

17th century.

In April 1633, Sir John Hepburn was granted a warrant by Charles I to recruit 1200 Scots for service with the French army in the 1618-1648 Thirty Years War. The nucleus came from Hepburn's previous regiment, which fought with the Swedes from 1625 until August 1632, when Hepburn quarrelled with Gustavus Adolphus. It absorbed other Scottish units in the Swedish army, as well as those already with the French and by 1635 totalled around 8,000 men.  Sir John was killed in 1636 and succeeded as Colonel by his brother George, then, after his death in 1637, Lord James Douglas; following the custom of the time, the unit became known as the Régiment de Douglas. James died

18th century.

During the War of the Spanish Succession, the regiment served under Marlborough at Schellenberg, Blenheim, Ramillies and Oudenarde. At Malplaquet in 1709, its members included William Hiseland, an 89 year old reputed to be the last serving veteran of the First English Civil War.  Both battalions spent 1715 to 1742 in Ireland, but after this were normally separated. The 1st was based in Flanders during the War of the Austrian Succession, where it fought at Fontenoy in 1745. After returning from

French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.

The 1st Battalion had returned to the West Indies as a garrison in 1790, and served there until 1797, with a brief period of combat in the Haitian Revolution. The West Indies were hotbeds of disease, and the battalion lost more than half its strength to disease in this period. It was reformed from militia volunteers in Ireland in 1798: This year saw a major rebellion erupt in Ireland after years of simmering tension. The Lothian Fencibles fought with distinction at the Battle of Vinegar Hill,

19th century.

The 1st battalion was sent to Ireland after the end of the Napoleonic wars, and stationed there from 1816 until 1825, when it was moved to the West Indies, where it remained until 1835. The 2nd battalion, however, had a more active time; based in India, it was involved in the Third Anglo-Maratha War, where it fought at the Battle of Nagpore (1817) and Battle of Mahidpur (1818), and in the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824–26. It moved to Scotland in 1830, and to Canada in 1836, where it was involved in the Rebellions of

First World War (1914–1919).

At the outbreak of the First World War, the 1st was in India, and returned to the UK in November; the 2nd was immediately deployed with the British Expeditionary Force, arriving in France on 14 August and seeing action on the afternoon of the 23rd. The Special Reserve had been mobilised, with the 3rd Battalion activated at Weymouth, and all seven battalions of the Territorial Force had mobilised and raised an additional second-line battalion by the end of 1914. A further seven battalions of the New Army were formed in 1914, including two Pals battalions By the end of 1914, the regiment stood at a strength of 24 battalions; another six Territorial battalions and three New Army battalions (one of bantams) were formed in 1915. In 1916, one service and one reserve battalion were formed by merging depleted Territorial battalions, and in 1917 a labour battalion was formed. In total, the Royal Scots raised some thirty-five battalions of infantry and over 100,000 men during the course of the First World War, of which fifteen

Inter-war period (1919–1939).

The regiment was reduced sharply in size following the Armistice; during 1919, the 3rd Battalion disbanded, as did all bar one of the Territorial battalions (the one exception being the 2/10th, which was finally disbanded in February 1920).  In September 1919, the 1st Battalion again embarked for imperial service, taking up garrison duties in Rangoon, and in August 1920 the 2nd Battalion was sent to Ireland for service in what would later become the Anglo-Irish War; they would remain there until January 1922.  When the Territorial Force was reconstituted as the Territorial Army in 1920, all seven Territorial battalions of the regiment were reconstituted. At the beginning of 1921, the regiment was formally retitled The Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment), and comprised two regular battalions, one Supplementary Reserve battalion, and four battalions of the newly renamed Territorial Army, all four of which were activated during the 1921 coal strike. In January 1922, reductions in the military led to the amalgamation of the Territorial component into two battalions. The three

Second World War (1939–1945).

At the outbreak of the Second World War on 3 September 1939, the 1st Battalion, Royal Scots was at Aldershot as part of 4th Infantry Brigade, alongside the 1st Border Regiment and 2nd Royal Norfolk Regiment, 2nd Infantry Division; accordingly, it deployed to France with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). It moved to Lecelles in September, and in May 1940 moved into Belgium during the Battle of France. The BEF were heavily hit by the German Army's breakthrough, however, and fell back towards the coast; the battalion was deployed at Le Paradis, near Béthune, on 25 May to protect the flanks of the Dunkirk evacuation. After being heavily hit by armoured attacks, the battalion ceased fighting on the afternoon of 27 May. The adjacent unit, the 2nd Battalion, Royal Norfolks, had almost one hundred men taken prisoner and later shot by their captors in the "Le Paradis massacre". Recent research has suggested

Post-war period (1945–2004).

In February 1949, the 2nd Battalion disbanded, leaving the regiment with only a single regular battalion for the first time since the 17th century.  The 7th/9th (Highlanders) and 8th Battalions were reconstituted in the Territorial Army in 1947. Both battalions remained until 1961, when the latter was absorbed and the single battalion retitled the 8th/9th Battalion. In 1967 this was disbanded and reconstituted as two separate companies, A Company (The Royal Scots) of the 52nd Lowland Volunteers, and A Company (8th/9th Royal Scots) of The

Restructuring of the Infantry (2004–2006).

Until 2004, the Royal Scots had been one of five line infantry regiments never to be amalgamated in its entire history, a claim shared by The Green Howards, The Cheshire Regiment, The Royal Welch Fusiliers and The King's Own Scottish Borderers. When five Scottish regiments were amalgamated to form the Royal Regiment of Scotland on 28 March 2006, the Royal Scots Battalion and the King's Own Scottish Borderers Battalion initially maintained their identities as separate battalions.  However almost immediately the

Regimental museum.

The Museum of the Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment) and the Royal Regiment of Scotland is located in Edinburgh Castle. Operating

Battle honours.

The regiment's battle

Regimental Colonels.

Colonels of

Victoria Cross.

Victoria Crosses awarded

Nicknames.

The regiment is known by the nickname "Pontius Pilate's Bodyguard" which apparently was the result of a 17th-century boasting contest with the French "Régiment de Picardie" regarding the respective seniority of each regiment.  "Picardie", the senior French infantry regiment, was formed in 1562, whereas the Scots had been raised in 1625 as Hepburn's Regiment and only entered French service in 1635 but, it is said, claimed a lineage from Scots

Football.

The football team of the 1st Battalion was a member

Uniform.

White facings on a red coat were worn until "royal blue" distinctions were adopted in the early 18th century. The Scottish thistle of St Andrew featured on belt-plates and other parts of the uniform. The standard red/scarlet and blue uniform of most line infantry regiments was retained until "Lowland" dress was adopted in 1881. For the RS this included a scarlet doublet, tartan trews and (from 1904) a dark blue Kilmarnock bonnet with diced band, scarlet toorie and black-cock feather. This continued as the regimental full dress until 1939, although worn only to a limited extent after 1914. The No. 1 Dress worn during the final decades of the regiment's separate existence consisted of a dark blue bonnet with regimental dicing, dark blue doublet, and Hunting Stewart tartan trews.

The Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment), once known as the Royal Regiment of Foot, was the oldest and most senior infantry regiment of the line of the British Army, having been raised in 1633 during the reign of Charles I of Scotland. The regiment existed continuously until 2006, when it amalgamated with the King's Own Scottish Borderers to become the Royal Scots Borderers, which merged with the Royal Highland Fusiliers (Princess Margaret's Own Glasgow and Ayrshire Regiment), the Black Watch, the Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons) and the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders to form the Royal Regiment of Scotland.

Les îles Hawaï, aussi appelé îles Sandwich, en anglais ', en hawaïen ', et autrefois appelées "", est un archipel comprenant dix-neuf îles et atolls principaux, de nombreux îlots et des monts sous-marins et qui s'étend selon une direction nord-ouest / sud-est dans le centre de l'océan Pacifique nord entre les latitudes 19° N et 29° N. Les îles sont nommées d'après leur plus grande île et s'étendent sur km entre l'île d'Hawaï au sud et l'atoll de Kure au nord. Elles représentent les parties émergées d'une vaste chaîne de montagnes sous-marine, la chaîne sous-marine Hawaï-Empereur, formée par l'activité volcanique sur un point chaud du manteau terrestre, le point chaud d'Hawaï.


Origin.

This system was built from observations of the orbit of Jupiter. Chinese astronomers divided the celestial circle into 12 sections to follow the orbit of "Suìxīng" (Jupiter, the Year Star). Astronomers rounded the orbit of Suixing to 12 years (from 11.86). Suixing was associated with "Shètí" (η Boötis) and sometimes called Sheti.

History.

In correlative thinking, the 12 years of the Jupiter cycle also identify the 12 months of the year, 12 animals (mnemonics for the system), directions, seasons, and Chinese hour in the form of double hours. When a Branch is used for a double hour, the listed periods are meant. When used for an exact time of a day, it is the center of the period. For instance, "wǔshí" means noon or a period from 11 am to 1 pm. (The "jiéqì" system provided single hours and 15-degree arcs in time and space.)  Chinese seasons are based on observations of the sun and stars. Many Chinese calendrical systems have started the new year on the second new moon after the winter solstice.  The Earthly Branches are today used with the Heavenly Stems in the current version of the "traditional Chinese calendar" and in Taoism. The Ganzhi (Stem-Branch) combination is a fairly new way to mark time; in the second millennium BC, during the Shang era, the 10 Heavenly Stems provided the names of the days of the week. The Branches are as old as the Stems (and according to recent archaeology may actually be older), but the Stems were tied to the ritual calendars of Chinese kings.

Twelve branches.

Some cultures assign different animals: Vietnam replaces the Ox and Rabbit with the water buffalo and cat, respectively; Tibet replaces the Rooster with the bird. In the traditional Kazakh version of the 12 year animal cycle (, "müşel"), the Dragon is substituted by a snail (, "ulw"), and the Tiger appears as a leopard (, "barıs").

Directions.

Though Chinese has words for the four cardinal directions, Chinese mariners and astronomers/astrologers preferred using the 12 directions of the Earthly Branches, which is somewhat similar to the modern-day practice of English-speaking pilots using "o'clock" for directions. Since 12 points were not enough for sailing, 12 midpoints were added. Instead of combining two adjacent direction names, they assigned new names:  The 24 directions are: Advanced mariners such as Zheng He used 48-point compasses. An additional midpoint was called by a combination of its two closest basic directions, such as ("bǐngwǔ") for the direction of 172.5°, the midpoint between ("bǐng"), 165°, and ("wǔ"), 180°.

Current usage.

The terrestrial branches are still commonly used nowadays in Chinese counting systems similar to the way the alphabet is used in English. For example, names in legal documents and contracts where English speakers would use K, L, M, etc. Korea and Japan also use terrestrial branches on legal documents in this way.  Since the celestial stems and terrestrial branches combined only consist of 22 characters, the four final letters – W, X, Y, and Z – cannot be represented by any of the celestial stems and terrestrial branches, and those four letters are represented by ‘物’, ‘天’, ‘地’, and ‘人’, respectively, instead.  In case of upper-case letters, the radical of ‘口’ (the ‘mouth’ radical) may be added to the corresponding terrestrial branch or any of ‘物’, ‘天’, ‘地’, and ‘人’ to denote an upper-case letter.

The twelve Earthly Branches or Terrestrial Branches are a Chinese ordering system used throughout East Asia in various contexts, including its ancient dating system, astrological traditions, zodiac and ordinals.

The Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons) était un régiment d'infanterie écossais de la British Army. Depuis 2006, il forme le bataillon du Royal Regiment of Scotland. Le quartier général du régiment était situé à Inverness en Écosse. Sa devise est "Cuidich'n Righ" (« Aide le roi »).


Overview.

The Memento  design pattern is one of the twenty-three well-known "GoF design patterns" that describe how to solve recurring design problems to design flexible and reusable object-oriented software, that is, objects that are easier to implement, change, test, and reuse. The Memento Pattern was created by Noah Thompson, David Espiritu, and Dr. Drew Clinkenbeard for early HP products.  What problems can the Memento design pattern solve?  The problem is that a well designed object is encapsulated so that its representation (data structure) is hidden inside the object and can't be accessed from outside the object.  What solution does the Memento design pattern describe?  Make an object (originator) itself responsible for  Only the originator that created a memento is allowed to access it.  A client (caretaker) can request a memento from the originator (to save the internal state of the originator) and pass a memento back to the originator (to restore to a previous state). <br> This enables to save and restore the internal state of an originator without violating its encapsulation.  See also the UML class and sequence diagram below.

Structure.

UML class and sequence diagram.

In the above UML class diagram, the codice_1 class refers to the codice_2 class for saving (codice_3) and restoring (codice_4) originator's internal state.
 The codice_2 class implements
 (1) codice_3 by creating and returning a codice_7 object that stores originator's current internal state and
 (2) codice_4 by restoring state from the passed in codice_7 object.
  The UML sequence diagram shows the run-time interactions:
 (1) Saving originator's internal state: The codice_1 object calls codice_3 on the codice_2 object, which creates a codice_7 object, saves its current internal state (codice_14), and returns the codice_7 to the codice_1.
 (2) Restoring originator's internal state: The codice_1 calls codice_4 on the codice_2 object and specifies the codice_7 object that stores the state that should be restored. The codice_2 gets the state (codice_22) from the codice_7 to set its own state.

Java example.

The following Java program illustrates the "undo" usage of the memento pattern. import java.util.List; import java.util.ArrayList; class Originator {  class Caretaker { The output is: This example uses a String as the state, which is an immutable object in Java. In real-life scenarios the state will almost always be an object, in which case a copy of the state must be done.  It must be said that the implementation shown has a drawback: it declares an internal class. It would be better if this memento strategy could apply to more than one originator.  There are mainly three other ways to achieve Memento:

C# example.

The memento pattern allows one to capture the internal state of an object without violating encapsulation such that later one can undo/revert the changes if required. Here one can see that the "memento object" is actually used to "revert" the changes made in the object.  class Originator  class Caretaker

Python example.

Memento pattern example.  class Memento(object):  class Originator(object):  saved_states = [] originator = Originator() originator.set("State1") originator.set("State2") saved_states.append(originator.save_to_memento())  originator.set("State3") saved_states.append(originator.save_to_memento())  originator.set("State4")  originator.restore_from_memento(saved_states[0])

The memento pattern is a software design pattern that provides the ability to restore an object to its previous state (undo via rollback).

Le patron mémento est un patron de conception logiciel qui permet de restaurer un état précédent d'un objet (retour arrière) sans violer le principe d'encapsulation.


History.

The club has its origins in Fábrica Bangu (Bangu Factory), located in Bangu neighborhood, Rio de Janeiro. Some Britons that worked at the factory, especially Thomas Donohoe, introduced football to the factory workers by bringing footballs to the place and organizing the first football match in Brazil. In December 1903, Andrew Procter suggested the foundation of a club, when he realized how enthusiastic his colleagues were for football. The club was founded on April 17, 1904 as Bangu Atlético Clube. Bangu was the first football club in Brazil to feature black and mulatto players.  In 1933, Bangu won its first state championship.  In 1966, Bangu won its second state championship in a game played in the world's largest stadium filled with over 120,000 fans, the Maracana. They beat powerhouse Flamengo 3–0 in a game remembered by a big brawl caused by Flamengo's players, in which several players got ejected afterwards. In 1967, Bangu, as the Houston Stars, represented the city of Houston in the United Soccer Association. The club finished with four victories, four draws and four defeats, but led the competition's attendance, with an average of 19,000 supporters per match.  In 1985, Bangu was the runner-up of Campeonato Brasileiro, gaining the right to compete in the following year's Copa Libertadores.  In 2004, Bangu was relegated to the Campeonato Carioca Second Level, returning to the first level in 2009, after winning the 2008 second level.

Stadium.

Bangu's stadium is Estádio Guilherme Da Silveira Filho, popularly known as Moça Bonita, built in 1947, with a maximum capacity of 15,000 people.

Rivals.

Bangu's biggest rivals are América, Ceres, and Campo Grande.

Mascot.

Bangu's mascot is a beaver, known as "castor" in Portuguese. Castor de Andrade, a banker of Jogo do Bicho (illicit game in Brazil) financially supported the club for several years. The mascot was created in Castor de Andrade's era.

References.

Bangu Atlético Clube, or Bangu as they are usually called, is a Brazilian football club from the Bangu district in Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro state, founded on April 17, 1904. The club competed in the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A several times, finishing as runner-up in 1985.

Bangu Atlético Clube, communément appelé Bangu, est un club brésilien de Rio de Janeiro dans l'État de Rio de Janeiro, fondé le 17 avril 1904.


Early life.

Viner was born to a Jewish family in 1892 in Montreal, Quebec, to Romanian immigrant parents. He earned his undergraduate degree at McGill University in 1914. He received a PhD at Harvard University, where he wrote his dissertation, under trade economist Frank W. Taussig.

Academic career.

Viner was a professor at the University of Chicago from 1916 to 1917 and from 1919 to 1946. At various times, Viner also taught at Stanford and Yale Universities and twice went to the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1946 he left for Princeton University, where he remained until his retirement, in 1960. He was also a member of the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton from 1947 to 1948 and a permanent member there from 1950 to 1970. Nobel laureate Milton Friedman studied under Viner while he was at the University of Chicago.

Public service.

Viner played a role in government, most notably as an advisor to Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. during the administration of Franklin Roosevelt. During World War II, he served as co-rapporteur to the economic and financial group of the Council on Foreign Relations' "War and Peace Studies" project, along with Harvard economist Alvin Hansen.

Work.

Economics.

Viner was a noted opponent of John Maynard Keynes during the Great Depression. While he agreed with the policies of government spending pushed by Keynes, Viner argued that Keynes's analysis was flawed and would not stand in the long run.  Known for his economic modeling of the firm, including the long- and the short-run cost curves, his work is still used today.  Viner is further known for having added the terms "trade creation" and "trade diversion" to the canon of economics in 1950. He also made important contributions to the theory of international trade and to the history of economic thought. While he was at Chicago, Viner co-edited the "Journal of Political Economy" with Frank Knight.  His work, "Studies in the Theory of International Trade" (1937), discusses the history of economic thought and is a historical source for the Bullionist controversy in 19th-century Britain.

Atomic bomb.

Viner spoke at the Conference on Atomic Energy Control in 1945, stating "that the atomic bomb was the cheapest way yet devised of killing human beings" and that atomic bombs "will be peacemaking in effect," perhaps making him the founder of nuclear deterrence.

Jacob Viner (; May 3, 1892 – September 12, 1970) was a Canadian economist and is considered with Frank Knight and Henry Simons to be one of the "inspiring" mentors of the early Chicago School of Economics in the 1930s: he was one of the leading figures of the Chicago faculty. Paul Samuelson named Viner (along with Harry Gunnison Brown, Allyn Abbott Young, Henry Ludwell Moore, Frank Knight, Wesley Clair Mitchell, and Henry Schultz) as one of the several "American saints in economics" born after 1860.

Jacob Viner (né à Montréal en 1892 et décédé en 1970) est un économiste canadien, naturalisé américain. Il a apporté des contributions majeures en économie internationale, en histoire de la pensée économique, et sur la théorie de la firme.


Unmarked word order.

Natural languages.

OSV is rarely used in unmarked sentences, those using a normal word order without emphasis. Most languages that use OSV as their default word order come from the Amazon basin, such as Xavante, Jamamadi, Apurinã, Kayabí and Nadëb. Here is an example from Apurinã:  British Sign Language (BSL) normally uses topic–comment structure, but its default word order when topic–comment structure is not used is OSV.

Marked word order.

Various languages allow OSV word order but only in marked sentences, those that emphasise part or all of the sentence.

Arabic.

Arabic also allows OSV in marked sentences:

Chinese.

Passive constructions in Chinese follow an OSV (OAV) pattern through the use of the particle 被:

English and German.

In English and German, OSV appears primarily in relative clauses if the relative pronoun is the (direct or indirect) object: "What I do is my own business."  In English, OSV appears in the future tense or as a contrast with the conjunction "but".

Hebrew.

In Modern Hebrew, OSV is often used instead of the normal SVO to emphasise the object: while אני אוהב אותה would mean "I love her", "אותה אני אוהב" would mean "It is "she" whom I love". Possibly an influence of Germanic (via Yiddish), as Jewish English uses a similar construction ("You, I like, kid")—see above —much more than many other varieties of English, and often with the "but" left implicit.

Hungarian.

In Hungarian, OSV emphasises the subject:  A szócikket én szerkesztettem = The article/I/edited ("It was I, not somebody else, who edited the article").

Korean and Japanese.

Korean and Japanese have SOV by default, but since they are topic-prominent languages they often seem as if they were OSV when the object is topicalized.  An almost identical syntax is possible in Japanese:

Malayalam.

OSV is one of two permissible word orders in Malayalam, the other being SOV.

Nahuatl.

OSV emphasises the object in Nahuatl.

Turkish.

OSV is used in Turkish to emphasise the subject:  Yemeği ben pişirdim = The meal/I/cooked ("It was I, not somebody else, who cooked the meal").

In linguistic typology, object–subject–verb (OSV) or object–agent–verb (OAV) is a classification of languages, based on whether the structure predominates in pragmatically-neutral expressions.

Une langue OSV est, en typologie syntaxique, une langue dont les phrases suivent généralement un ordre "-sujet-verbe". Malgré sa rareté, cette syntaxe a été rendue célèbre dans la culture populaire grâce à Yoda, personnage de fiction qui parle de cette façon dans l'univers "Star Wars'.