Etymology.

The name "Ohio" comes from the Seneca language (an Iroquoian language), (roughly pronounced oh-hee-yoh, with the vowel in "hee" held longer), a proper name derived from ("good river"), therefore literally translating to "Good River". "Great river" and "large creek" have also been given as translations.  Native Americans, including the Lenni Lenape and Iroquois, considered the Ohio and Allegheny rivers as the same, as is suggested by a New York State road sign on Interstate 86 that refers to the Allegheny River also as ; the Geographic Names Information System lists "O-hee-yo" and "O-hi-o" as variant names for the Allegheny.  An earlier Miami-Illinois language name was also applied to the Ohio River, ("river of the Mosopelea" tribe). Shortened in the Shawnee language to, or, the name evolved through variant forms such as "Polesipi", "Peleson", "Pele Sipi" and "Pere Sipi", and eventually stabilized to the variant spellings "Pelisipi", "Pelisippi" and "Pellissippi". Originally applied just to the Ohio River, the "Pelisipi" name later was variously applied back and forth between the Ohio River and the Clinch River in Virginia and Tennessee. In his original draft of the Land Ordinance of 1784, Thomas Jefferson proposed a new state called "Pelisipia", to the south of the Ohio River, which would have included parts of present-day Eastern Kentucky, Virginia and West Virginia.

History.

The river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation and trading route. Its waters connected communities. In the five centuries before European conquest, the Mississippian culture built numerous regional chiefdoms and major earthwork mounds in the Ohio Valley, such as Angel Mounds near Evansville, Indiana, as well as in the Mississippi Valley and the Southeast. The Osage, Omaha, Ponca and Kaw lived in the Ohio Valley, but under pressure from the Iroquois to the northeast, migrated west of the Mississippi River in the 17th century to territory now defined as Missouri, Arkansas and Oklahoma.  The discovery and traversal of the Ohio River by Europeans admits of several possibilities, all in the latter half of the 17th century. Virginian Englishman Abraham Wood's trans-Appalachian expeditions between 1654 and 1664; Frenchman Robert de La Salle's putative Ohio expedition of 1669; and two expeditions of Virginians sponsored by Colonel Wood: the Batts and Fallam expedition of 1671, and the Needham and Arthur expedition of 1673-74. The first known European to traverse the length of the river, from the headwaters of the Allegheny to its mouth on the Mississippi, was a Dutchman from New York, Arnout Viele, in 1692.  In 1749, Great Britain established the Ohio Company to settle and trade in the area. Exploration of the territory and trade with the Indians in the region near the Forks brought British colonials from both Pennsylvania and Virginia across the mountains, and both colonies claimed the territory. The movement across the Allegheny Mountains of British settlers and the claims of the area near modern-day Pittsburgh led to conflict with the French, who had forts in the Ohio River Valley. This conflict was called the French and Indian War. In 1763, following the war, France ceded the area to Britain, and thus to the settlers in the colonies of Britain.  The 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix opened Kentucky to colonial settlement and established the Ohio River as a southern boundary for American Indian territory. In 1774, the Quebec Act restored the land east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River to Quebec, in effect making the Ohio the southern boundary of Canada. This appeased the British subjects of Canada, but angered the colonists of the Thirteen Colonies. Lord Dunmore's War south of the Ohio river also contributed to giving the land north to Quebec to stop further encroachment of the British colonials on native land. During the American Revolution, in 1776 the British military engineer John Montrésor created a map of the river showing the strategic location of Fort Pitt, including specific navigational information about the Ohio River's rapids and tributaries in that area. However, the Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the entire Ohio Valley to the United States. The economic connection of the Ohio Country to the East was significantly increased in 1818 when the National Road being built westward from Cumberland, Maryland reached Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia), providing an easier overland connection from the Potomac River to the Ohio River. The Wheeling Suspension Bridge was built over the river at Wheeling from 1847 to 1849, making the trip west easier. For a brief time, until 1851, it was the world's largest suspension bridge. Fortunately, the bridge was not blown up during the American Civil War. The bridge has been improved in 1859 and 1872, and remains in use as the oldest vehicular suspension bridge in the U.S.  Louisville was founded in 1779 at the only major natural navigational barrier on the river, the Falls of the Ohio. The Falls were a series of rapids where the river dropped in a stretch of about. In this area, the river flowed over hard, fossil-rich beds of limestone. The first locks on the river the Louisville and Portland Canal were built to circumnavigate the falls between 1825 and 1830. Fears that Louisville's transshipment industry would collapse proved ill-founded: the increasing size of steamships and barges on the river meant that the outdated locks could only service the smallest vessels until well after the Civil War. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers improvements were expanded again in the 1960s, forming the present-day McAlpine Locks and Dam. Because the Ohio River flowed westward, it became a convenient means of westward movement by pioneers traveling from western Pennsylvania. After reaching the mouth of the Ohio, settlers would travel north on the Mississippi River to St. Louis, Missouri. There, some continued on up the Missouri River, some up the Mississippi, and some further west over land routes. In the early 19th century, river pirates such as Samuel Mason, operating out of Cave-In-Rock, Illinois, waylaid travelers on their way down the river. They killed travelers, stealing their goods and scuttling their boats. The folktales about Mike Fink recall the keelboats used for commerce in the early days of American settlement. The Ohio River boatmen were the inspiration for performer Dan Emmett, who in 1843 wrote the song "The Boatman's Dance".  Trading boats and ships traveled south on the Mississippi to New Orleans, and sometimes beyond to the Gulf of Mexico and other ports in the Americas and Europe. This provided a much-needed export route for goods from the west, since the trek east over the Appalachian Mountains was long and arduous. The need for access to the port of New Orleans by settlers in the Ohio Valley is one of the factors that led to the Louisiana Purchase in 1803.  Because the river is the southern border of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, it was part of the border between free states and slave states in the years before the American Civil War. The expression "sold down the river" originated as a lament of Upper South slaves, especially from Kentucky, who were shipped via the Ohio and Mississippi to cotton and sugar plantations in the Deep South. Before and during the Civil War, the Ohio River was called the "River Jordan" by slaves crossing it to escape to freedom in the North via the Underground Railroad. More escaping slaves, estimated in the thousands, made their perilous journey north to freedom across the Ohio River than anywhere else across the north-south frontier. Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin", the bestselling novel that fueled abolitionist work, was the best known of the anti-slavery novels that portrayed such escapes across the Ohio. The times have been expressed by 20th-century novelists as well, such as the Nobel Prize-winning Toni Morrison, whose novel "Beloved" was adapted as a film of the same name. She also composed the libretto for the opera "Margaret Garner" (2005), based on the life and trial of an enslaved woman who escaped with her family across the river.  The colonial charter for Virginia defined its territory as extending to the north shore of the Ohio, so that the riverbed was "owned" by Virginia. Where the river serves as a boundary between states today, Congress designated the entire river to belong to the states on the east and south, i.e., West Virginia and Kentucky at the time of admission to the Union, that were divided from Virginia. Thus Wheeling Island, the largest inhabited island in the Ohio River, belongs to West Virginia, although it is closer to the Ohio shore than to the West Virginia shore. Kentucky brought suit against Indiana in the early 1980s because of the building of the never-completed Marble Hill Nuclear Power Plant in Indiana, which would have discharged its waste water into the river.  The U.S. Supreme Court held that Kentucky's jurisdiction (and, implicitly, that of West Virginia) extended only to the low-water mark of 1793 (important because the river has been extensively dammed for navigation, so that the present river bank is north of the old low-water mark.) Similarly, in the 1990s, Kentucky challenged Illinois' right to collect taxes on a riverboat casino docked in Metropolis, citing its own control of the entire river. A private casino riverboat that docked in Evansville, Indiana, on the Ohio River opened about the same time. Although such boats cruised on the Ohio River in an oval pattern up and down, the state of Kentucky soon protested. Other states had to limit their cruises to going forwards, then reversing and going backwards on the Indiana shore only. Both Illinois and Indiana have long since changed their laws to allow riverboat casinos to be permanently docked, with Illinois changing in 1999 and Indiana in 2002. The Silver Bridge at Point Pleasant, West Virginia collapsed into the river on December 15, 1967. The collapse took the lives of 46 people who had been crossing on the bridge at the moment of its failure. The bridge had been built in 1929, and by 1967 was carrying too heavy a load for its design. The bridge was rebuilt about one mile downstream and in service as the Silver Memorial Bridge in 1969.  In the early 1980s, the Falls of the Ohio National Wildlife Conservation Area was established at Clarksville, Indiana.

Ecology.

The Ohio River as a whole is ranked as the most polluted river in the US based on 2009 and 2010 data although the more industrial and regional West Virginia/Pennsylvania tributary, Monongahela River, ranked behind 16 other American rivers for water pollution at number 17. The river again ranked as the most polluted in 2013 and has been the most polluted river since at least 2001, according to Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission (ORSANCO). The Commission found that 92% of toxic discharges were nitrates including farm runoff and waste water from industrial processes like steel production. The Commission also noted mercury pollution as an ongoing concern, citing a 500% increase in mercury discharges between 2007 and 2013.  The Ohio River was polluted with hundreds of thousands of pounds of PFOA, a fluoride-based chemical used in making teflon among other things, by DuPont chemical company from an outflow pipe at its Parkersburg, WV, facility for several decades beginning in the 1950s.

Economy.

The Ohio River is heavily industrialized and populated and sees traffic from large barge cargoes carrying oil, steel and other industrial goods. There are several major cities located along the northern and southern banks of the river including Cincinnati, Ohio; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and Louisville, Kentucky.

Geography and hydrography.

The combined Allegheny-Ohio river is long and carries the largest volume of water of any tributary of the Mississippi. The Indians and early explorers and settlers of the region also often considered the Allegheny to be part of the Ohio. The forks (the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at what is now Pittsburgh) were considered a strategic military location.  The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. From there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line (near East Liverpool, Ohio; Chester, West Virginia; and Ohioville, Pennsylvania). From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia.  The river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the northern borders of West Virginia and Kentucky; and the southern borders of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, until it joins the Mississippi River at the city of Cairo, Illinois. Where the Ohio joins the Mississippi is the lowest elevation in the state of Illinois, at.  The Ohio River drains to the Mississippi River which flows to the Gulf of Mexico on the Atlantic Ocean. Among rivers wholly or mostly in the United States, it is the second largest by discharge volume, the tenth longest and has the eighth largest drainage basin. It is considered to separate Midwestern Great Lakes states from the Upper South states, which were historically border states in the Civil War.  The Ohio River is a left (east) and largest tributary by volume of the Mississippi River in the United States. At the confluence, the Ohio is considerably bigger than the Mississippi, measured by long-term mean discharge. The Ohio River at Cairo is 281,500 cu ft/s (7,960 m/s); and the Mississippi River at Thebes, Illinois, which is upstream of the confluence, is 208,200 cu ft/s (5,897 m/s). The Ohio River flow is higher than that of the Mississippi River so hydrologically, the Ohio River is the main stream of the river system.

River depth.

The Ohio River is a naturally shallow river that was artificially deepened by a series of dams. The natural depth of the river varied from about. The dams raise the water level and have turned the river largely into a series of reservoirs, eliminating shallow stretches and allowing for commercial navigation. From its origin to Cincinnati, the average depth is approximately. The largest immediate drop in water level is below the McAlpine Locks and Dam at the Falls of the Ohio at Louisville, Kentucky, where flood stage is reached when the water reaches on the lower gauge. However, the river's deepest point is on the western side of Louisville, Kentucky. From Louisville, the river loses depth very gradually until its confluence with the Mississippi at Cairo, Illinois, where it has an approximate depth of.  Water levels for the Ohio River from Smithland Lock and Dam upstream to Pittsburgh are predicted daily by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Ohio River Forecast Center. The water depth predictions are relative to each local flood plain based upon predicted rainfall in the Ohio River basin in five reports as follows:  The water levels for the Ohio River from Smithland Lock and Dam to Cairo, Illinois, are predicted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Lower Mississippi River Forecast Center.

List of major tributaries.

The largest tributaries of the Ohio by discharge volume are:  By drainage basin area, the largest tributaries are:  The largest tributaries by length are:  Major tributaries of the river, in order from the head to the mouth of the Ohio, include:

Drainage basin.

The Ohio's drainage basin covers, encompassing the easternmost regions of the Mississippi Basin. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions.

Climate transition zone.

The Ohio River is a climatic transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid continental and humid subtropical climate areas. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates. In winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely farther south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, at the Ohio's confluence with the Tennessee River, it is ice-free year-round.  In the 21st century, with the 2016 update of climate zones, the humid subtropical zone has stretched across the river, into the southern portions of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.

Geology.

From a geological standpoint, the Ohio River is young. Before the river was created, large parts of North America were covered by water forming a saltwater lake about 200 miles across and 400 miles in length. The bedrock of the Ohio Valley was mostly set during this time. The river formed on a piecemeal basis beginning between 2.5 and 3 million years ago. The movement of glaciers during the earliest ice ages the present day river drainages of the Kanawha, Sandy, Kentucky, Green, Cumberland and Tennessee rivers northward created the Ohio system and the course of early tributaries of the Ohio River, including the Monongahela and the Allegheny rivers, were set. The Teays River was the largest of these rivers. The modern Ohio River flows within segments of the ancient Teays. The ancient rivers were rearranged or consumed.  The section of the river that runs southwest from Pittsburgh to Cairo, Illinois is around tens of thousands of years old.

Upper Ohio River.

The upper Ohio River formed when one of the glacial lakes overflowed into a south-flowing tributary of the Teays River. Prior to that event, the north-flowing Steubenville River (no longer in existence) ended between New Martinsville and Paden City, West Virginia. The south-flowing Marietta River (no longer in existence) ended between the present-day cities. The overflowing lake carved through the separating hill and connected the rivers. The floodwaters enlarged the small Marietta valley to a size more typical of a large river. The new large river subsequently drained glacial lakes and melting glaciers at the end of the ice ages. The valley grew during and following the ice age. Many small rivers were altered or abandoned after the upper Ohio River formed. Valleys of some abandoned rivers can still be seen on satellite and aerial images of the hills of Ohio and West Virginia between Marietta, Ohio, and Huntington, West Virginia.

Middle Ohio River.

The middle Ohio River formed in a manner similar to formation of the upper Ohio River. A north-flowing river was temporarily dammed by natural forces southwest of present-day Louisville, creating a large lake until the dam burst. A new route was carved to the Mississippi. Eventually the upper and middle sections combined to form what is essentially the modern Ohio River.

Cities and towns along the river.

Along the banks of the Ohio are some of the largest cities in their respective states: Pittsburgh, the largest city on the river and second-largest city in Pennsylvania; Cincinnati, the third-largest city in Ohio; Louisville, the largest city in Kentucky; Evansville, the third-largest city in Indiana; Owensboro, the fourth-largest city in Kentucky; Huntington, the second-largest city in West Virginia; Parkersburg, the fourth-largest city in West Virginia; and Wheeling, the fifth-largest city in West Virginia. Only Illinois, among the border states, has no significant cities on the river. There are hundreds of other cities, towns, villages and unincorporated populated places on the river, most of them very small.  Cities along the Ohio are also among the oldest cities in their respective states and among the oldest cities in the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains (by date of founding): Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1758; Wheeling, West Virginia, 1769; Huntington, West Virginia, 1775; Louisville, Kentucky, 1779; Clarksville, Indiana, 1783; Maysville, Kentucky, 1784; Martin's Ferry, Ohio, 1785; Marietta, Ohio, 1788; Cincinnati, Ohio, 1789; Manchester, Ohio, 1790; and Beaver, Pennsylvania, 1792.  Other cities of interest include Cairo, Illinois, at the mouth of the Ohio on the Mississippi River and the southernmost and westernmost city on the river; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the easternmost city on the river at the head or Forks of the Ohio, where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers join to create the Ohio; and Beaver, Pennsylvania, the site of colonial Fort McIntosh and the northernmost city on the river. It is 548 miles as the crow flies between Cairo and Pittsburgh, but 981 miles by water. Direct water travel the length of the river is obstructed by the Falls of the Ohio just below Louisville, Kentucky. The Ohio River Scenic Byway follows the Ohio River through Illinois, Indiana and Ohio ending at Steubenville, Ohio, on the river.  Before there were cities, there were colonial forts. These forts played a dominant role in the French and Indian War, Northwest Indian War and pioneering settlement of Ohio Country. Many cities got their start at or adjacent to the forts. Most were abandoned by 1800. Forts along the Ohio river include Fort Pitt (Pennsylvania), Fort McIntosh (Pennsylvania), Fort Randolph (West Virginia), Fort Henry (West Virginia), Fort Harmar (Ohio), Fort Washington (Ohio), and Fort Nelson (Kentucky). Short-lived special purpose forts included Fort Steuben (Ohio), Fort Finney (Indiana), Fort Finney (Ohio) and Fort Gower (Ohio).

The Ohio River is a long river in the United States. It is located in the midwestern United States, flowing southwesterly from western Pennsylvania south of Lake Erie to its mouth on the Mississippi River at the southern tip of Illinois. It is the third largest river by discharge volume in the United States and the largest tributary by volume of the north-south flowing Mississippi River that divides the eastern from western United States. The river flows through or along the border of six states, and its drainage basin includes parts of 15 states. Through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes several states of the southeastern U.S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people.

L'Ohio est l'un des principaux affluents du Mississippi; il coule dans la partie est des États-Unis. Il a une importance capitale dans l'histoire des États-Unis, que ce soit pour les tribus amérindiennes ou les colons européens. La rivière a constitué une voie de transport privilégiée lors de la Conquête de l'Ouest. En effet, elle traverse pas moins de six États, et son bassin hydrographique s'étend sur quatorze États, comprenant la plupart des États du sud-est du pays. Son affluent principal est le Tennessee. Au, l'Ohio constituait la frontière méridionale des États du Nord, marquant "de facto" la limite entre les États pratiquant l'esclavage et ceux l'ayant aboli.


Career.

Early years.

His first public appearance was in 1976 in one of his father's shows. Alejandro was meant to perform the song "Alejandra" but in the middle of the song he forgot the lyrics, started crying, and suffered a panic attack. His father Vicente Fernandez got on stage and helped by singing along with him.  Fernández released his first album, "Alejandro Fernandez" under Sony Music. The main hits were "Necesito olvidarla", "Brumas" and "Equivocadamente". With this material, Alejandro began a tour in Mexico and some cities of the United States. In 1993, he performed with his father in a concert at the Palacio de los Deportes, and he continued for a season at the Teatro Blanquita in Mexico City. The same year Fernández released the successful "Piel de Niña", produced by Pedro Ramírez. The songs "Piel de Niña", "A La Vera del Camino", and "Cascos Ligeros" are some of the hits of the album. At the Lo Nuestro Awards of 1993 Fernández was nominated for Male Artist, New Artist and Regional Mexican Album of the Year for his debut album, winning none.  In 1994 he released the album "Grandes Éxitos a la Manera de Alejandro Fernández", singing pieces of legendary composers such as Armando Manzanero, Luis Demetrio and Agustín Lara. At the 9th Lo Nuestro Awards, Fernández received a nomination for Regional Mexican Male Performer of the Year.

1995–1998: "Que Seas Muy Feliz", "Me Estoy Enamorando".

In 1995, he released the album "Que Seas Muy Feliz". The song "Como Quien Pierde Una Estrella", became his first international hit. It was heavily promoted on radio and television shows.  In 1996, his release "Muy Dentro de Mi Corazón" was an instant success. Songs like "Moño Negro", "Nube Viajera" and "Abrazame" became hits in Mexico and several countries of Latin America. That same year he recorded "Puedes Llegar", theme song for the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, with singers Gloria Estefan, Jon Secada and Ricky Martin among others. In 1997, he recorded the album "Me Estoy Enamorando", produced by Emilio Estefan, Jr. The music of the album is a fusion of bolero, romantic ballad, orchestral arrangements and a touch of Mexican mariachi that became popular in the Latin music sector. "Si Tú Supieras" was the most outstanding hit of that production, and it was chosen as the theme of the hit soap opera of the time, ""Maria Isabel"". It also conquered the U.S. market, lasting seven weeks at the top of "Billboard" Hot Latin Tracks. He became the first Latin singer to hold first place with three hits: "Si tu supieras" was followed by "En El Jardín" (with Gloria Estefan) and "No Sé Olvidar". "Me Estoy Enamorando" sold 2.2 million copies worldwide and was nominated for Best Latin Pop Performance at the 40th Annual Grammy Awards. In December 1998, he recorded "Christmas in Vienna VI" with the tenor Plácido Domingo and Patricia Kaas. His performance was praised by the critics but it did not achieve much popularity among the audience.

1999–2003: "Mi Verdad", "Entre Tus Brazos", "Orígenes".

With the album "Mi Verdad" of 1999, Fernández returned to ranchera music. Mi Verdad was nominated for Best Mexican-American performance at the 42nd annual Grammy Awards. "Si He Sabido Amor" became a big hit and was the theme of the hit soap opera "Infierno en el Paraíso".  In 2000, he released the album "Entre Tus Brazos", the eighth in his career and the second one with Emilio Estefan, Jr. as the producer. "Quiéreme" was the first single, a fast-tempo pop song that showed his musical versatility. For the first time in his career, he included a song from his own inspiration: "Entre Tus Brazos". The album contains mostly romantic ballads with energetic Latin rhythms. That same year, he and Julio Iglesias recorded the song "Dos Corazones, Dos Historias;" it appeared on Julio's album "Noche de Cuatro Lunas".  In 2001, he recorded "Orígenes". The single "Tantina Pena" (a flamenco-style mariachi bolero) became an international hit. In 2002, he launched his production "Un Canto De México", which contains twenty-two classic ranchera songs. It was recorded live at the Palacio de Bellas Artes. In 2003, Alejandro began a Latin American tour with his father Vicente, and recorded the show called """", which was witnessed by thousands of fans, culminating in Mexico City at the Foro Sol, with over five hours of music in front of nearly 60,000 spectators. That same year he recorded his next album "Niña amada mía". The title song became a hit and the theme of a popular soap opera of the same name. That same year, Alejandro toured Latin America and the United States. Later he participated in the Christmas special "En mi país", recorded in Puerto Rico and broadcast by Telemundo. Fernández and Ednita Nazario performed a duet of "Triste Navidad" ( "Sad Christmas").

2004–2006: "A Corazón Abierto, México – Madrid".

In 2004, he played the lead role in "", a movie about the Mexican revolutionary hero Emiliano Zapata by filmmaker Alfonso Arau. That same year, "A Corazón Abierto" reunited Alejandro with Grammy-winning producer and songwriter Kike Santander, who penned his greatest hits from "Me Estoy Enamorando". But he also tapped the talents of a new generation of songwriters, including Gian Marco, Leonel García (of pop duo Sin Bandera), Reyli Barba (former member of pop band Elefante) and Mexican group Tres De Copas.  ""Romanticism is something that will never die"", declared Alejandro Fernández, explaining his choice of songs on "A Corazón Abierto", his breakthrough recording about lost love, love that is never forgotten and the capacity to always love again. ""I'm super, ultra passionate. We're releasing an album that's an x-ray of myself. That's why it's titled "A Corazón Abierto" ("In Open Heart"). It was something very honest. Not naked, but something deeper than that"". The album released the singles: "¿Que voy a hacer con mi amor?", "Qué lastima", "Me dediqué a perderte" and the smash hit "Canta corazón".  In 2005, Alejandro released "" ("Mexico – Madrid: Nonstop"), featuring 13 tracks including one new song. Produced by Aureo Baquiero and filmed in front of a live audience at Spain's "Palacio de Congresos IFEMA", the production features Fernández performing some of his biggest hits accompanied by a 28-piece orchestra and some of Spain's most important voices on three of the songs: Amaia Montero from La Oreja de Van Gogh joins him on "Me dediqué a perderte"; Malú duets with him on "Contigo aprendí", and with flamenco star Diego El Cigala perform a fast-tempo version of "Como quien pierde una estrella", accompanied on cajón by famed flamenco guitarist Niño Josele. That same year, Alejandro was chosen to sing along with the tenors José Carreras and Plácido Domingo in a special concert celebrating the opening of the "Forum Internacional de las Culturas" in Monterrey. At first his father Vicente was invited but he turned it down. Alejandro showed his skilled vocals and operatic tenor range, singing pieces of opera such as "Granada"; his performance was praised by the audience. He also recorded a duet with the tenor Mario Frangoulis called "Hay más" from the album Follow Your Heart. After that, Alejandro went on tour with two Latin American stars: Marc Anthony and Chayanne, passing through several major U.S. cities. On 2 December 2005, Los Angeles, gave him a star on the legendary Hollywood Walk of Fame on Hollywood Boulevard.

2007–2010: "Viento a Favor", "Dos Mundos".

In 2007, he released Viento A Favor featuring tunes written by Leonel García and Noel Schajris (better known as emotive Latin-pop duo Sin Bandera) and Mexican singer Reyli Barba. The first two singles were "Te Voy A Perder", and "Amor Gitano", a duet with Beyoncé Knowles. After that "Cuando Estamos Juntos" and "No Se Me Hace Fácil" became hits; "Eres" was the last single of the album.  In 2008, Alejandro started a tour on Spanish land covering cities such as Madrid, Valencia and A Coruña. He released the album ""; it features classic romantic ballads and boleros such as "El Reloj" and "Regálame esta noche", songs that he recorded previously but never released.  In 2009, his voice was the theme of "Mañana es para siempre", the most successful Mexican soap opera of the year. The Grammy-winning singer, composer and producer Nelly Furtado invited Alejandro to perform in a duet for her album "Mi Plan". The song "Sueños" was recorded in Miami.  "Dos Mundos" ("Two Worlds"), is a double production, releasing two albums simultaneously: "". One of them is pop, produced by Aureo Baqueiro, and the other is ranchera and mariachi, produced by Joan Sebastian. No Latin artist had done anything similar before. On 11 November 2009 he simultaneously released the videos of the singles "Estuve" and "Se Me Va la Voz". He released the videos of the singles "Me Hace Tanto Bien" and "Bandida". On 22 November 2010, Alejandro released the live album "" that includes live versions of songs from his album " Dos mundos: Evolución / Dos mundos: Tradición", two unreleased tracks "Tu Sabes Quien", "Felicidades" and the song "Vamos a darnos tiempo" originally performed by the iconic singer José José.

2011–present: "Hoy Tengo Ganas de Ti", "Confidencias, Rompiendo Fronteras".

Between June and August 2011, he went on his. On 1 August 2011, Alejandro released the song "Bajo un mismo sol" theme of the 2011 Pan American Games. He toured Latin America along with fellow singer Marc Anthony in a series of concerts named "Dos Mundos, un Concierto" "(Two Worlds, one Concert)". Alejandro collaborated with Christina Aguilera on a cover of the song "Hoy Tengo Ganas de Ti", released as the theme song for the soap opera "La tempestad". After only 17 days, the song was certified Platinum in Mexico, for sales of 65,000 digital downloads. On 27 August 2013, he released the album "Confidencias", it includes the duet with Christina Aguilera "Hoy Tengo Ganas de Ti", and duets with Vicente Fernández and Rod Stewart. In 2014, his song "Te Amare" was released as the theme song for the soap opera "Hasta el fin del mundo" replacing the original theme of Pedro Fernández. In 2015, Alejandro collaborated with Alejandro Sanz on a cover of the song "A que no me dejas", released as the theme song for the soap opera "A que no me dejas". In 2016, Fernández was inducted into the Billboard Latin Music Hall of Fame. On February 2017, he released the album "Rompiendo Fronteras" and the single "Sé que te duele" became an instant hit.

"Sony Music" controversy.

The international record label Sony Music was sued by Alejandro Fernández after they tried to release an album with some of his unreleased songs after his contract with the label had ended. Federal Police arrived at the Sony headquarters in Mexico City and seized about 6,000 copies of the album. The song "Diferente", was released on the internet as the first single of the album.

Artistry.

Following the steps of his father, Fernández began his musical career focused on ranchera music. Since his 1997 album "Me Estoy Enamorando" he branched out successfully into pop music. In his live presentations, he begins the show with his ranchera repertoire, then he removes the charro outfit to sing pop songs.  Fernández has a Baritone tessitura. His vocal ability and versatility have allowed him to perform romantic ballads, pop and ranchera music simultaneously. He has performed with artists such as Plácido Domingo, Marc Anthony, José Carreras, Chayanne, Amaia Montero, Joan Sebastian, Gloria Estefan, Malú, Ha*Ash, Julio Iglesias, Patricia Kaas, Miguel Bosé, Mario Frangoulis, Ednita Nazario, Yuri, Franco De Vita, Diego El Cigala, Nelly Furtado, Beyoncé, Christina Aguilera and Rod Stewart.

Personal life.

Fernández was born in Mexico City and raised in Guadalajara. He studied to become an architect, but turned to singing in 1991 with the encouragement of his father. He is the youngest son of his family. He has two older brothers, Vicente, Jr. and Gerardo, and a sister, Alejandra. He and his brothers are known in Mexico as "Los tres potrillos" (The three colts).  In the late 1990s, Fernández's older brother Vicente, Jr. was kidnapped by a band of organized crime. The kidnappers cut off one of his fingers and sent it to his father as a warning. After Vicente Fernández allegedly paid a large sum of money, Vicente, Jr. was released. The exact amount was never announced.  Fernández is co-owner of a shopping center in Guadalajara called "Unicenter", containing various businesses, creating jobs for over 170 people. He collaborated with his family in the construction of Arena VFG, with a capacity for 11,000 people. The arena hosts mainly musical performances and charreria competitions. Fernández is an expert in horse riding and charreria. He is a supporter of the Mexican football team Atlas, and is good friends with iconic footballer Rafael Márquez.  Fernández has five children: three (Alejandro, Jr. and the twin girls América and Camila) with his ex-wife América Guinart, and two (Emiliano and Valentina) with Colombian model Ximena Díaz. In the mid-2000s, he claimed to have undergone a vasectomy.

Alejandro Fernández Abarca (; born 24 April 1971 in Guadalajara, Jalisco) is a Mexican singer. Nicknamed as "El Potrillo" (The Colt) by the media and his fans, he has sold over 30 million albums worldwide. Alejandro is the son of the ranchero singer Vicente Fernández. He originally specialized in traditional, earthy forms of Mexican folk music, such as mariachi and ranchera, until he branched out into pop music with great success.

Alejandro Fernández, né à Mexico le, est un chanteur mexicain très populaire aussi bien en Amérique latine qu'en Espagne.


Geography.

On Chinese maps, the name "Wudangshan" () is applied both to the entire mountain range (which runs east-west along the southern edge of the Han River, crossing several county-level divisions of Shiyan), and to the small group of peaks located within Wudangshan subdistrict of Danjiangkou, Shiyan. It is the latter specific area which is known as a Taoist center.  Modern maps show the elevation of the highest of the peaks in the Wudang Shan "proper" as 1612 meters; however, the entire Wudangshan range has somewhat higher elevations elsewhere.  Some consider the Wudang Mountains to be a "branch" of the Daba Mountains range, which is a major mountain system in western Hubei, Shaanxi, Chongqing and Sichuan.

History.

For centuries, the mountains of Wudang have been known as an important center of Taoism, especially famous for its Taoist versions of martial arts or Taichi. The first site of worship—the Five Dragons Temple—was constructed at the behest of Emperor Taizong of Tang. Further structures were added during the Song and Yuan dynasties, while the largest complex on the mountain was built during the Ming dynasty (14th–17th centuries) as the Yongle Emperor claimed to enjoy the protection of the god Beidi or Xuan Wu. Temples regularly had to be rebuilt, and not all survived; the oldest existing structures are the Golden Hall and the Ancient Bronze Shrine, made in 1307. Other noted structures include Nanyang Palace (built in 1285–1310 and extended in 1312), the stonewalled Forbidden City at the peak (built in 1419), and the Purple Cloud Temple (built in 1119–1126, rebuilt in 1413 and extended in 1803–1820).  The monasteries such as the Wudang Garden were made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1994.  On January 19, 2003, the 600-year-old Yuzhengong Palace at the Wudang Mountains burned down after accidentally being set on fire by an employee of a martial arts school. A fire broke out in the hall, reducing the three rooms that covered 200 square meters to ashes. A gold-plated statue of Zhang Sanfeng, which was usually housed in Yuzhengong, was moved to another building just before the fire, and so escaped destruction in the inferno.

Association with martial arts.

At the first national martial arts tournament organized by the Central Guoshu Institute in 1928, participants were separated into practitioners of Shaolin and Wudang styles. Styles considered to belong to the latter group—called Wudangquan—are those with a strong element of Taoist neidan exercises. Typical examples of Wudangquan are Taijiquan, Xingyiquan and Baguazhang. According to legend, Taijiquan was created by the Taoist hermit Zhang Sanfeng, who lived in the Wudang mountains.  Wudangquan has been partly reformed to fit the PRC sport and health promotion program. The third biannual Traditional Wushu Festival was held in the Wudang Mountains from October 28 to November 2, 2008.

The Wudang Mountains () consist of a small mountain range in the northwestern part of Hubei, China, just south of Shiyan. They are home to a famous complex of Taoist temples and monasteries associated with the god Xuanwu. The Wudang Mountains are renowned for the practice of Tai chi and Taoism as the Taoist counterpart to the Shaolin Monastery, which is affiliated with Chinese Chán Buddhism. The Wudang Mountains are one of the "Four Sacred Mountains of Taoism" in China, an important destination for Taoist pilgrimages.

Les monts Wudang ( ; parfois écrit "Wutang") ou montagnes de Wudang, sont une chaîne de montagnes à Danjiangkou, au sud de la ville-préfecture de Shiyan dans la province du Hubei, en Chine.


History.

Lovelorn (2003–2005).

Leaves' Eyes have often featured naturalistic themes in their music since the release of their 2004 debut album, "Lovelorn". Many of the lyrics to this album were inspired not only by nature, but also by sagas and legends drawn from Norse mythology. The band was received well at Wave Gotik Treffen 2004, the band's stage premiere.  Every band member had previous professional experience in other musical endeavors for years before joining Leaves' Eyes, thus essentially making it a supergroup. Frontwoman Liv Kristine sang in the band Theatre of Tragedy in the mid 1990s. This Norwegian band was one of the first to feature a female voice in the metal scene, and their club hit "Tanz der Schatten" became synonymous with the direction and expression of a whole musical genre. In addition, Liv Kristine was present in the pop music scene and sang the songs to TV hits such as "Tatort" and "Schimanski". The supporting members of the band hail from the death metal band Atrocity.

Vinland Saga (2005–2009).

One year after "Lovelorn", Leaves' Eyes released the follow-up album "Vinland Saga" in 2005, inspired by Viking Leif Eriksson. The album's first single, "Elegy", charted in Germany for four consecutive weeks. Television station ProSieben used "Elegy" as the official song for the TV series "NUMB3RS".  In addition to their studio endeavors, Leaves' Eyes also tours extensively. In the course of four years, the band traveled through four continents and 34 countries and played 222 concerts. The Live DVD "" entered the German DVD charts at number 11 in 2009. This exclusive package documented the history of the band and features the concert at the "Metal Female Voices Festival" in 2007. This headline show was performed with complex props, including a Viking longship on stage.

Njord (2009–2011).

"Njord" was released in 2009, continuing the band's success in the charts. The album's first single "My Destiny" soon became the successor to the anthem "Elegy". "Njord" was critically acclaimed as "an epic masterpiece". The album was done in a much more modern style than those previous, and featured symphonic metal tracks of increasing complexity with the help of the Lingua Mortis Orchestra directed by Victor Smolski. Many of the lyrics were inspired by the English traditional "Scarborough Fair". The band's live performances were as equally successful throughout Europe and North America as their studio work. For the Special Fan Edition of "Njord", Leaves' Eyes recorded the "At Heaven's End" EP in 2010.

Meredead (2011–2013).

One year later, Leaves' Eyes released their fourth studio album, "Meredead". Produced by Alexander Krull, the artists combined folk elements from previous albums to inspire the mood of "Meredead". The opening track, "Spirits' Masquerade", uses folk instrumentation to refine the album's varied sound. The tracks "Étaín" and "Sigrlinn" lyrically recount the mysticism of past cultures and are supported by uileann pipes. The album also features more traditional-sounding songs, such as "Nystev" and "Kråkevisa". The latter makes use of the Scandinavian nyckelharpa, or keyed fiddle. Also present on the album is a cover of "To France", an interpretation of the tragedy and emotion of Mike Oldfield's classic track. Maite Itoiz and John Kelly (Elfenthal), Carmen Elise Espenæs (Midnattsol), the Norwegian Anette Guldbrandsen, and Victor Smolski's Lingua Mortis Orchestra once again provide supporting vocals and instrumentation.  The EP "Melusine" in 2011 was a special release in co-operation with German "Sonic Seducer" Magazine.

Symphonies of the Night (2013–2015).

It was announced through an interview with Valkryian Music, that Leaves Eyes had begun writing new material for their fifth studio album which they hoped to release spring 2013. On January 7, 2013 the band announced on their official Facebook page that the title of their fifth studio album would be Symphonies of the Night.  On March 23, 2013 Leaves' Eyes announced on their official Facebook page that vocal recording had begun, with the statement: At the moment Liv Kristine is tracking vocals for the up-coming Leaves' Eyes album: "The recording sessions at Mastersound studios are so much fun, as well as being highly intense. Today I recorded an amazing and classically influenced new song. We are all very excited about the songs for the new album."" On May 9, 2013 the band announced that the vocal recordings were finished and that Alexander Krull had begun the mix of the album: Good news from Mastersound Studio: The vocal recordings for all songs of our up-coming release "Symphonies of the Night" have just been completed. Moreover, Alex is already busy with the mix of the album. We have taken a great inspirational step since the production of "Meredead", both sound-wise and vocal-wise. It has been such a pleasure evolving in my singing techniques and knowledge and I thank my band members for "giving me an inspirational kick" when I needed to gain momentum behind the microphone. "Symphonies of the Night" is hauntingly dream-like and heavy to the core!"  The band premiered the first new song off of the album, titled "Hell to the Heavens", at Summer Breeze Festival.  Artwork for the new album was released on August 26, 2013. A few days later the band released a video saying that they would be performing in Metal Female Voices Fest 2013. A teaser of the studio version of Hell to the Heavens was also in the video.

King of Kings (2015–present).

Leaves' Eyes stated that in 2015, that they would release a new album entitled "King of Kings", and it would feature the London Voices choir and guest vocals by Simone Simons of Epica. It would also their first release on AFM Records after parting ways with their long-time label, Napalm Records. "King of Kings" is a concept album that centers around the sagas of Norway's first king, Harald Fairhair ("Harald Hårfagre"). In an interview with Sonic Cathedral webzine, Liv Kristine discussed her inspiration for the album:The nicest thing for me is that it is said in the sagas that Harald became the first king of Norway, after he won a battle that took place in one of the Norwegian fjords called Hafrsfjord. You know, that is a very important place – not only for the history of Norway – but also for me, because I was born there. So, this album is a concept album, but it's also a very PERSONAL album. The first official video off "King of Kings" is for the track, "The Waking Eye", which was filmed in Norway (for the background scenes) and in Germany (for the action scenes). The Viking reenactment group, Værjaborg, supplied 40-plus members for the battle and action sequences. Leaves' Eyes considers "The Waking Eye" to be their most ambitious video to date.

New singer.

On April 15, 2016, the band announced they had parted ways with lead-vocalist and co-founder Liv Kristine. They also revealed that she would be replaced by the Finnish singer Elina Siirala of EnkElination. Since then both parties have given different accounts about how the split happened with the band stating a decision on Kristine's departure was taken in January. While it was stated this had been a mutual decision, Kristine disputed this and indicated she was dismissed and it was not her decision. Legal proceedings have started. On April 18, 2017 Siirala made her debut with the band at the Hammersonic festival in Jakarta. It was also announced that a tour edition of the album "King of Kings" is set to appear in June.

Leaves' Eyes is a German symphonic metal band from Germany and Norway. They were formed in 2003 by Liv Kristine, the former lead singer of Theatre of Tragedy and the entire line-up of Atrocity. To date, the band has released seven studio albums, a single, six EPs, one live album and a DVD.

Leaves' Eyes est un groupe de metal symphonique norvégien et allemand, originaire de Stavanger et Ludwigsbourg. Le groupe reprend des éléments de folk metal. Le groupe est formé en 2003 par la chanteuse norvégienne Liv Kristine (après son exclusion du groupe Theatre of Tragedy) et des membres du groupe de death metal allemand Atrocity, dont son mari Alexander Krull est le leader. En, le groupe annonce l'éviction de la chanteuse, fondatrice du groupe, et la remplace par la chanteuse finlandaise Elina Siirala.


Taxonomy and etymology.

The dibatag was first described in 1891 by British zoologist Oldfield Thomas, who he gave it the scientific name "Ammodorcas clarkei". It is the sole member of the genus "Ammodorcas", and is placed in the family Bovidae. Some authors such as Rod East of the IUCN SSC Antelope specialist group have classified it under a separate tribe Ammodorcadini. When Thomas first studied specimens from Somalia in 1891, he observed that the animal seemed to combine the horns of a reedbuck with the characteristic features of a gazelle (muzzle, facial markings, and anteorbital glands). At first, he considered it to be a reedbuck, though it appeared unnatural that a reedbuck should occur in the dry sandy plateau of Somalia. Thomas originally considered it a relative of the genus "Redunca" due to similarities in the morphology of horns, and placed it under the genus "Cervicapra". However, after considering further specimens, he placed it under the separate genus "Ammodorcas". No subspecies have been identified.  The dibatag, which holds its black tail straight up when it is fleeing, gets its common name from the Somali words for 'tail' and 'erect': "dabu" and "tag". The dibatag is also known as Clarke's gazelle, after T. W. H. Clarke, an Australian big game hunter who collected the type specimen.

Description.

The dibatag is a medium-sized antelope with a slim body and long neck and legs. The typical head-and-body length is about. It stands up to about at the shoulder. The male weighs between, whereas the female ranges from. The long dark tail ends in a rounded but indistinct tassel. The tail is nearly long. The curved horns, resembling those of reedbuck, are present only on males, with the pointing tips facing forward. The length of horns is typically between, though Rowland Ward recorded a length of from Somalia. This antelope is sexually dimorphic, because females tend to be smaller than males and lack horns.  The species has a small, flat, pointed, wedge-shaped head with large eyes and medium-sized ears. A similarity to the gazelles is the black, branched structure in the interior of the ears. The mouth is very small and the upper lip slightly elongated. There are strong facial markings resembling those of a gazelle. A chestnut brown streak runs from the crown up to the nostrils along the nose, flanked on both sides by parallel white stripes that circle the eyes. A white spot marks the throat. The soft and smooth coat is gray to fawn in the upper parts. The ventral side, rump and the insides of the legs are completely white, and the flanks and the buttocks are unmarked.  The dibatag closely resembles the gerenuk, with which it is sympatric in eastern and central Somalia and southeastern Ethiopia. Both are brachyodonts and share several facial and cranial features, along with a two-tone coloration of the pelage and strong thick horns (only in males). However, there are also some features distinguishing it from the gerenuk, including major morphological differences in horns, horn cores, tail, postorbital area and basioccipital processes. The gerenuk has a longer, heavier neck and a shorter tail. A finer point of difference is the absence of an inward-curving lobe in the lower edge of the ear (near its tip) in the gerenuk.

Ecology and behavior.

Dibatag are diurnal animals (they are active in the daytime). They navigate either in solitude or in very small herds, resembling the social behavior of the gerenuk. Singles and pairs are most common, though groups of up to six individuals have been reported. Generally groups of over four individuals are rarely observed. The reaction of dibatag towards gerenuk is obscure, with there being reports of their loose associations as well as avoidance of each other. These territorial animals may maintain temporary territories demarcated by preorbital gland secretions, urine or feces. They defecate at fixed points and form dung piles. Males fight one another to defend their territory. Sparring is a notable part of fighting behavior: one male pushes and shoves against the neck and horns of the opponent, trying to throw him off balance. The stance is head down with the nose tucked between the forelegs for protection.  Dibatags are well adapted to semi-arid habitats, with the capability of surviving on very little or no water. They meet most water requirements only from food. Their long neck and limbs enable them to place their forelegs on branches and reach higher branches. The brown pelage helps them hide in bushes. Alert and secretive, the dibatag hides in vegetation and remains motionless while watching for possible threats. When alarmed it flees in a slow and relaxed manner with the neck upright and tail erect. The antelope may even resort to stotting (a behavior particular to the gazelles), a kind of leaping with all four limbs in the air, but this gait is most often used during play. It gallops only when in real danger. Predators include the cheetah, lion, spotted hyaena, black-backed jackal, caracal, Cape hunting dog and large eagles. Eagles usually target juveniles.

Diet.

The dibatag is a typical browser, whose diet consists of foliage and young shoots and shrubs. It limits itself to a small area for foraging. Dibatag have hardly been observed drinking water in the wild. The elongated upper lip assists in the ingestion of thorny vegetation, while leaves are plucked off by the front teeth and mobile lips. They prefer "Commiphora", "Acacia", "Boscia", "Dichrostachys" and "Maerua" species. They often gather in areas with leafy "Commiphora" stands due to the high water content of their leaves and shoots. In the rainy season, young soft grasses are preferred, while in the dry season they feed on fry fruits, flowers, buds, shrubs, and tall herbs. They choose a wide variety of species for browsing, hence no clear diet specialization is identified.

Reproduction.

Both sexes attain sexual maturity at 12 to 18 months. The species is polygynous. Rutting appears to be related to the onset of the wet season in several parts of the range. Observations in the Naples Zoo show many similarities between the courtship behavior of the dibatag and that of the gerenuk. The male dibatag pursues the female; during the march his body is upright and the nose is held high. The male uses preorbital gland secretions to mark the female on her chest and rump. Flehmen, leg-tapping, urine testing and nosing of female genitalia are notable features of the courtship. Once in close contact with the female, he slowly raises his foreleg between her hindlegs; this is followed by copulation.  After a gestational period of six to seven months, a single offspring is born. Parturition usually occurs from September to November, though births have been reported even in June and July. The infant remains in hiding for one or two weeks, with its mother close by. No further information on parental care is available. The lifespan of a dibatag averages 10 to 12 years.

Habitat and distribution.

Dibatag inhabit a mix of different habitat types. They may occasionally visit treelands. They are thought to be more commonly found in areas where "Commiphora" shrubs grow. They occur within the altitude range of. Habitat preference does not vary significantly with seasons. A study published in 1972 found a greater number of the dibatag in areas rich in red soil.  The dibatag is endemic to the evergreen bushland of the Ogaden region of southeastern Ethiopia and adjoining parts in northern and central Somalia. In the past their range extended from the southern parts of northern Somalia through southeastern Ethiopia and central Somalia (between the coastline of the Indian Ocean and bounded by the Fafen River in the west and the Shebelle River in the southwest). Rock paintings of two dibatag were discovered on the west bank of the river Nile and north of the Aswan Dam in Egypt, suggesting a southward migration of the species in the Predynastic period in Egypt.  Nowadays, however, the dibatag has disappeared from the majority of its historical range. From 1985 to 2006, over two decades, the overall decline has been estimated at more than 30 percent of the original population. In the northern Ogaden, the animal has become very rare owing to a high density of human settlements and large numbers of armed pastoralists and their livestock. However, in the southern Ogaden, it is still common due to greater wealth of natural flora and fewer human settlements.

Threats and conservation.

Droughts and habitat degradation are the major threats across the range. In Somalia, conservation measures have been hindered by lack of political stability due to conflicts over two to three decades in the latter half of the 20th century. During this period its habitat was adversely affected by over-exploitation of wildlife, prevalence of weapons and deforestation. In Ethiopia hunting is the most severe threat to the dibatag; locals have claimed that dibatag meat is preferred due to its excellent taste. However its brown pelage and alertness and timidity make hunting for it in dense bushes considerably difficult compared to other antelopes.  The dibatag has been identified as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). It has not been listed under the Washington Convention (CITES). There are no protected areas in its range. No population estimates or surveys could be made in the three decades from the 1960s to the 1990s due to political unrest and armed conflicts in the areas covering the range. The total surviving population is not known. In 1998, Rod East gave an estimate that the populations must be in only a few thousand given a total remaining range of and a population density of 0.1 to 0.3 per square kilometer. In 2006, the population in Ogaden was estimated at 1,500. The scenario is grim in Somalia: the dibatag have been overhunted, and their habitat faces destruction due to farming practices such as livestock grazing. They are also threatened by drought. It had nearly disappeared from most of the country by the early 1980s. Though locals claimed to have seen it in the central coastal hinterland even in the late 1980s, no clear surveys have been conducted since then to support this. Captive populations are not known.

The dibatag ("Ammodorcas clarkei"), or Clarke's gazelle, is a medium-sized slender antelope native to Ethiopia and Somalia. Though not a true gazelle, it is similarly marked, with long legs and neck. It is often confused with the gerenuk due to their striking resemblance. The typical head-and-body length is about. They stand up to about. Male dibatag weigh between, whereas females range from. The length of the curved horns, present only on males, is typically between. The upper parts are gray to fawn, while the dorsal and lateral areas are cinnamon to rufous (reddish brown). The underparts, rump and the insides of the legs are all white. While markings are visible on the face, there are none on the flanks or the buttocks.

L'antilope de Clarke ("Ammodorcas clarkei"), aussi appelée dibatag est une espèce d'antilope qui vit par petits groupes (moins de cinq) en Éthiopie et Somalie. C'est la seule espèce du genre Ammodorcas.


Design.

Capabilities.

According to the U.S. Department of Defense, the top speed of the submarines of the "Los Angeles" class is over, although the actual maximum is classified. Some published estimates have placed their top speed at. In his book "Submarine: A Guided Tour Inside a Nuclear Warship", Tom Clancy estimated the top speed of "Los Angeles"-class submarines at about.  The U.S. Navy gives the maximum operating depth of the "Los Angeles" class as, while Patrick Tyler, in his book "Running Critical", suggests a maximum operating depth of. Although Tyler cites the 688-class design committee for this figure, the government has not commented on it. The maximum diving depth is according to "Jane's Fighting Ships, 2004–2005 Edition", edited by Commodore Stephen Saunders of the Royal Navy.

Weapons.

"Los Angeles"-class submarines carry about 25 torpedo tube-launched weapons, as well as Mark 67 and Mark 60 CAPTOR mines and were designed to launch Tomahawk cruise missiles, and Harpoon missiles horizontally (from the torpedo tubes). The last 31 boats of this class (Flight II/688i) also have 12 dedicated vertical launching system tubes for launching Tomahawks. The tube configuration for the first two boats of Flight II differed from the later ones: "Providence" and "Pittsburgh" have four rows of three tubes vs. the inner two rows of four and outer two rows of two tubes found on other examples.

Control systems.

Over close to 40 years, the control suite of the class has changed dramatically. The class was originally equipped with the Mk 113 mod 10 fire control system, also known as the Pargo display program. The Mk 113 runs on a UYK-7 computer.  The Mk 117 FCS, the first "all digital" fire control system replaced the Mk 113. The Mk 117 transferred the duties of the analog Mk 75 attack director to the UYK-7, and the digital Mk 81 weapon control consoles, removing the two analog conversions, and allowing "all digital" control of the digital mk 48 control. The first 688 sub to be built with the Mk 117 was.  The Mark 1 Combat Control System/All Digital Attack Center replaced the Mk 117 FCS, on which it was based. The Mk 1 CCS was built by Lockheed Martin, and gave the class the ability to fire Tomahawk missiles. The CSS internal tracker model provides processing for both towed-array and spherical-array trackers. Trackers are signal followers that generate bearing, arrival angle, and frequency reports based on information received by an acoustic sensor. It incorporated the Gyro Static Navigator into the system in replacement of the DMINS of the earlier 688 class.  The Mk 1 CCS was replaced by the Mk 2, which was built by Raytheon. Mk 2 provides Tomahawk Block III vertical launch capability as well as fleet-requested improvements to Mk 48 ADCAP torpedo and Towed Array Target Motion Analysis operability. The Mk 2 CCS paired with the AN/BQQ-5E system is referred to as the QE-2" system. The CCS MK2 Block 1 A/B system architecture extends the CCS MK2 tactical system with a network of tactical advanced computers (TAC-3). These TAC-3s are configured to support the SFMPL, NTCS-A, LINK-11 and ATWCS subsystems.

Sensors.

Sonar.

AN/BQQ-5.

sensor suite consists of the AN/BQS-13 spherical sonar array and AN/UYK-44 computer. The AN/BQQ-5 was developed from the AN/BQQ-2 sonar system. The BQS 11, 12, and 13 spherical arrays have 1,241 transducers. Also equipped are a conformal hull array with 104 to 156 hydrophones and two towed arrays: the TB-12 (later replaced by the TB-16) and TB-23 or TB-29, of which there are multiple variants. There are 5 versions of the AN/BQQ-5 system, sequentially identified by letters A-E.  The 688i (Improved) subclass was initially equipped with the AN/BSY-1 SUBACS submarine advanced combat system that used an AN/BQQ-5E sensor system with updated computers and interface equipment. Development of the AN/BSY-1 and its sister the AN/BSY-2 for the was widely reported as one of the most problematic programs for the Navy, its cost and schedule suffering many setbacks.  A series of conformal passive hydrophones are hard-mounted to each side of the hull, using the AN/BQR-24 internal processor. The system uses FLIT (frequency line integration tracking) which homes in on precise narrowband frequencies of sound and, using the Doppler principle, can accurately provide firing solutions against very quiet submarines. The AN/BQQ-5's hull array doubled the performance of its predecessors.

AN/BQQ-10.

The AN/BQQ-5 system was replaced by the AN/BQQ-10 system. Acoustic Rapid Commercial Off-The-Shelf Insertion (A-RCI), designated AN/BQQ-10, is a four-phase program for transforming existing submarine sonar systems (AN/BSY-1, AN/BQQ-5, and AN/BQQ-6) from legacy systems to a more capable and flexible COTS/Open System Architecture (OSA) and also provide the submarine force with a common sonar system. A single A-RCI Multi-Purpose Processor (MPP) has as much computing power as the entire "Los Angeles" (SSN-688/688I) submarine fleet combined and will allow the development and use of complex algorithms previously beyond the reach of legacy processors. The use of COTS/OSA technologies and systems will enable rapid periodic updates to both software and hardware. COTS-based processors will allow computer power growth at a rate commensurate with the commercial industry.

Engineering and auxiliary systems.

Two watertight compartments are used in the "Los Angeles"-class submarines. The forward compartment contains crew living spaces, weapons-handling spaces, and control spaces not critical to recovering propulsion. The aft compartment contains the bulk of the submarine's engineering systems, power generation turbines, and water-making equipment. Some submarines in the class are capable of delivering Navy SEALs through either a SEAL Delivery Vehicle deployed from the Dry Deck Shelter or the Advanced SEAL Delivery System mounted on the dorsal side, although the latter was canceled in 2006 and removed from service in 2009. A variety of atmospheric control devices are used to allow the vessel to remain submerged for long periods of time without ventilating, including an electrolytic oxygen generator, which produces oxygen for the crew and hydrogen as a byproduct. The hydrogen is pumped overboard but there is always a risk of fire or explosion from this process. While on the surface or at snorkel depth, the submarine may use the submarine's auxiliary or emergency diesel generator for power or ventilation (e.g., following a fire). The diesel engine in a 688 class can be quickly started by compressed air during emergencies or to evacuate noxious (nonvolatile) gases from the boat, although'ventilation' requires raising a snorkel mast. During nonemergency situations, design constraints call for operators to allow the engine to reach normal operating temperatures before it is capable of producing full power, a process that may take from 20 to 30 minutes. However, the diesel generator can be immediately loaded to 100% power output, despite design criteria cautions, at the discretion of the submarine commander on the recommendation of the submarine's engineer, if necessity dictates such actions to: (a) restore electrical power to the submarine, (b) prevent a reactor incident from occurring or escalating, or (c) to protect the lives of the crew or others as determined necessary by the commanding officer.

Propulsion.

The "Los Angeles" class is powered by the General Electric S6G pressurized water reactor. The hot reactor coolant water heats water in the steam generators, producing steam to power the propulsion turbines and ship service turbine generators (SSTGs), which generate the submarine's electrical power. The high-speed propulsion turbines drive the shaft and propeller through a reduction gear. In the case of a reactor plant casualty, the submarine has a diesel generator and a bank of batteries to provide electrical power. An emergency propulsion motor on the shaft line or a retractable 325-hp secondary propulsion motor power the submarine off the battery or diesel generator.  The S6G reactor plant was originally designed to use the D1G-2 core, similar to the D2G reactor used on the guided missile cruiser. The D1G-2 core had a rated thermal power of 150 MW and the turbines were rated at 30,000 shp. All "Los Angeles"-class submarines from on were built with a D2W core and older submarines with D1G-2 cores have been refueled with D2W cores. The D2W core is rated at 165 MW and turbine power rose to approximately 33,500 shp.

The "Los Angeles" class boats are nuclear-powered fast attack submarines (SSN) in service with the United States Navy. The submarines are also known as the 688 class (pronounced "Six-Eighty-Eight"), after the hull number of lead vessel. They represent two generations and close to half a century of the Navy's attack submarine fleet. As of 2018, 35 of the class are still in commission and 27 are retired from service. Of the 27 retired boats, 12 were laid up half way (about 20 years or less) through their projected lifespans, and another five also laid up early (20–25 years), due to their midlife reactor refueling being cancelled, and one was lost due to a fire. Seven have been scrapped and two are being converted to moored training ships. A further four boats were proposed by the Navy, but later cancelled. The class has more active nuclear submarines than any other class in the world. Submarines of this class are named after American towns and cities, such as Albany, New York; Los Angeles, California; and Tucson, Arizona, with the exception of, named after a US Navy Admiral. This was a change from long-standing tradition of naming attack submarines after marine animals, such as or.

La classe Los Angeles est une classe de sous-marins nucléaires d'attaque (SNA, SSN en anglais) de l'United States Navy qui ont été mis en service entre 1976 et 1996. Cette classe a été construite en soixante-deux bâtiments allant du "SSN 688 Los Angele"s au "SSN 773 Cheyenne", ce qui en fait la plus longue série de sous-marins nucléaires d'attaque. Ces sous-marins sont munis, depuis 1984, de 12 tubes à lancement verticaux (VLS, Vertical Launch System) pour les missiles Tomahawk montés entre le sonar avant et le caisson principal.


History.

The Soviet space program did not have central executive agencies. Instead, its organizational architecture was multi-centered; it was the design bureaus and the council of designers that had the most say, not the political leadership. The creation of a central agency after the separation of Russia from the Soviet Union was therefore a new development. The Russian Space Agency was formed on February 25, 1992, by a decree of President Yeltsin. Yuri Koptev, who had previously worked with designing Mars landers at NPO Lavochkin, became the agency's first director.  In the early years, the agency suffered from lack of authority as the powerful design bureaus fought to protect their own spheres of operation and to survive. For example, the decision to keep Mir in operation beyond 1999 was not taken by the agency; instead, it was made by the private shareholder board of the Energia design bureau. Another example is that the decision to develop the new Angara rocket was rather a function of Khrunichev's ability to attract resources than a conscious long-term decision by the agency.

Crisis years.

The 1990s saw serious financial problems because of decreased cash flow, which encouraged Roscosmos to improvise and seek other ways to keep space programs running. This resulted in Roscosmos' leading role in commercial satellite launches and space tourism. Scientific missions, such as interplanetary probes or astronomy missions during these years played a very small role, and although Roscosmos has connections with Russian aerospace forces, its budget is not part of the defense budget of the country, nevertheless, Roscosmos managed to operate the space station Mir well past its planned lifespan, contributed to the International Space Station, and continued to fly additional Soyuz and Progress missions.  In March 2004, director Yuri Koptev was replaced by Anatoly Perminov, who had previously served as the first commander of the Space Forces. _MZ 0800000115000

ISS Cooperation 1998-2000.

On Oct. 31, 2000, a Soyuz spacecraft lifted off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome at 10:53 a.m. Kazakhstan time. Onboard were Expedition One Commander William M. (Bill) Shepherd of NASA and cosmonauts Sergei Krikalev and Yuri Gidzenko of Roscosmos. The trio arrived at the International Space Station on Nov. 2, marking the start of an uninterrupted human presence on the orbiting laboratory.

Improved situation in 2005–2006.

The Russian economy boomed throughout 2005 from high prices for exports, such as oil and gas, the outlook for future funding in 2006 appeared more favorable. This resulted in the Russian Duma approving a budget of 305 billion rubles (about US$11 billion) for the Space Agency from 2006 January to 2015, with overall space expenditures in Russia total about 425 billion rubles for the same time period. The budget for 2006 was as high as 25 billion rubles (about US$900 million), which is a 33% increase from the 2005 budget. Under the current 10-year budget approved, the budget of the Space Agency shall increase 5–10% per year, providing the space agency with a constant influx of money. In addition to the budget, Roscosmos plans to have over 130 billion rubles flowing into its budget by other means, such as industry investments and commercial space launches. It is around the time US-based "The Planetary Society" entered a partnership with Roscosmos.

2006–2012.

The federal space budget for the year 2009 was left unchanged despite the global economic crisis, standing at about 82 billion rubles ($2.4 billion). In 2011, the government spent 115 billion rubles ($3.8 bln) in the national space programs.  The proposed project core budget for 2013 to be around 128.3 billion rubles. The budget for the whole space program is 169.8 billion rubles. ($5.6 bln). By 2015, the amount of the budget can be increased to 199.2 billion rubles.  Priorities of the Russian space program include the new Angara rocket family and development of new communications, navigation and remote Earth sensing spacecraft. The GLONASS global navigation satellite system has for many years been one of the top priorities and has been given its own budget line in the federal space budget. In 2007, GLONASS received 9.9 billion rubles ($360 million), and under the terms of a directive signed by Prime Minister Vladimir Putin in 2008, an additional $2.6 billion will be allocated for its development.

Space station funding issues.

Due to International Space Station involvements, up to 50% of Russia's space budget is spent on the crewed space program. Some observers have pointed out that this has a detrimental effect on other aspects of space exploration, and that the other space powers spend much lesser proportions of their overall budgets on maintaining human presence in orbit.  Despite the considerably improved budget, attention of legislative and executive authorities, positive media coverage and broad support among the population, the Russian space program continues to face several problems. Wages in the space industry are low; the average age of employees is high (46 years in 2007), and much of the equipment is obsolete. On the positive side, many companies in the sector have been able to profit from contracts and partnerships with foreign companies; several new systems such as new rocket upper stages have been developed in recent years; investments have been made to production lines, and companies have started to pay more attention to educating a new generation of engineers and technicians.

2011: New director.

On 29 April 2011, Perminov was replaced with Vladimir Popovkin as the director of Roscosmos. The 65-year-old Perminov was over the legal age for state officials, and had received some criticism after a failed GLONASS launch in December 2010. Popovkin is a former commander of the Russian Space Forces and First Deputy Defense Minister of Russia.

2013-2015 reorganization of the Russian space sector.

As a result of a series of reliability problems, and proximate to the failure of a July 2013 Proton M launch, a major reorganization of the Russian space industry was undertaken. The United Rocket and Space Corporation was formed as a joint-stock corporation by the government in August 2013 to consolidate the Russian space sector. Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin said "the failure-prone space sector is so troubled that it needs state supervision to overcome its problems." Three days following the Proton M launch failure, the Russian government had announced that "extremely harsh measures" would be taken "and spell the end of the [Russian] space industry as we know it." Information indicated then that the government intended to reorganize in such a way as to "preserve and enhance the Roscosmos space agency."  More detailed plans released in October 2013 called for a re-nationalization of the "troubled space industry," with sweeping reforms including a new "unified command structure and reducing redundant capabilities, acts that could lead to tens of thousands of layoffs." According to Rogozin, the Russian space sector employs about 250,000 people, while the United States needs only 70,000 to achieve similar results. He said: "Russian space productivity is eight times lower than America's, with companies duplicating one another's work and operating at about 40 percent efficiency."  Under the 2013 plan, Roscosmos was to "act as a federal executive body and contracting authority for programs to be implemented by the industry."  In 2016, the state agency was dissolved and the Roscosmos brand moved to the state corporation, which had been created in 2013 as the United Rocket and Space Corporation, with the specific mission to renationalize the Russian space sector.  In 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin said "it 'is necessary to drastically improve the quality and reliability of space and launch vehicles'... to preserve Russia's increasingly threatened leadership in space." In November 2018 Alexei Kudrin, head of Russian financial audit agency, named Roscosmos as the public enterprise with "the highest losses" due to "irrational spending" and outright theft and corruption.

Current programs.

ISS involvement.

The Russian Space Agency is one of the partners in the International Space Station (ISS) program; it contributed the core space modules Zarya and Zvezda, which were both launched by Proton rockets and later were joined by NASA's Unity Module. The Rassvet module was launched aboard and will be primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. The Nauka module is the last component of the ISS, due to be launched in November 2019. Roscosmos is furthermore responsible for expedition crew launches by Soyuz-TMA spacecraft and resupplies the space station with Progress space transporters. After the initial ISS contract with NASA expired, RKA and NASA, with the approval of the US government, entered into a space contract running until 2011, according to which Roscosmos will sell NASA spots on Soyuz spacecraft for approximately $21 million per person each way (thus $42 million to and back from the ISS per person) as well as provide Progress transport flights ($50 million per Progress as outlined in the Exploration Systems Architecture Study). RKA has announced that according to this arrangement, crewed Soyuz flights will be doubled to 4 per year and Progress flights also doubled to 8 per year beginning in 2008.  RKA also provides space tourism for fare-paying passengers to ISS through the Space Adventures company. As of 2009, six space tourists have contracted with Roscosmos and have flown into space, each for an estimated fee of at least $20 million (USD).

Science programs.

RKA operates a number of programs for Earth science, communication, and scientific research. Future projects include the Soyuz successor, the Prospective Piloted Transport System, scientific robotic missions to one of the Mars moons as well as an increase in Lunar orbit research satellites.

Rockets.

Roscosmos uses a family of several launch rockets, the most famous of them being the R-7, commonly known as the Soyuz rocket that is capable of launching about 7.5 tons into low Earth orbit (LEO). The Proton rocket (or UR-500K) has a lift capacity of over 20 tons to LEO. Smaller rockets include Rokot and other Stations.  Currently rocket development encompasses both a new rocket system, Angara, as well as enhancements of the Soyuz rocket, Soyuz-2 and Soyuz-2-3. Two modifications of the Soyuz, the Soyuz-2.1a and Soyuz-2.1b have already been successfully tested, enhancing the launch capacity to 8.5 tons to LEO.

New piloted spacecraft.

One of RKA's projects that was widely covered in the media in 2005 was Kliper, a small lifting body reusable spacecraft. While Roscosmos had reached out to ESA and JAXA as well as others to share development costs of the project, it also stated that it will go forward with the project even without the support of other space agencies. This statement was backed by the approval of its budget for 2006–2015, which includes the necessary funding of Kliper. However, the Kliper program was cancelled in July 2006, and has been replaced by the new Orel project. no crafts were launched.

Space systems.

"Resurs-P" is a series of Russian commercial Earth observation satellites capable of acquiring high-resolution imagery (resolution up to 1.0 m). The spacecraft is operated by Roscosmos as a replacement of the Resurs-DK No.1 satellite.  Create HEO space system "Arctic" to address the hydrological and meteorological problems in the Arctic region and the northern areas of the Earth, with the help of two spacecraft "Arktika-M" and in the future within the system can create a communications satellite "Arktika-MS" and radar satellites "Arktika-R."  The launch of two satellites "Obzor-R" (Review-R) Remote Sensing of the Earth, with the AESA radar and four spacecraft "Obzor-O" (Review-O) to capture the Earth's surface in normal and infrared light in a broad swath of 80 km with a resolution of 10 meters. The first two satellites of the projects planned for launch in 2015.  Gonets: Civilian low Earth orbit communication satellite system. On 2016, the system consists of 13 satellites (12 Gonets-M and 1 Gonets-D1).

Gecko mating experiment.

The Russian Federal Space Agency Roscosmos launched on 19 July 2014 the Foton-M4 satellite containing among other animals and plants, a group of five geckos. The five geckos, four females and one male, were used as a part of the Gecko-F4 research program aimed at measuring the effects of weightlessness on the lizards' ability to procreate and develop in the harsh environment. However, soon after the spacecraft exited the atmosphere, mission control lost contact with the vessel which led to an attempt to reestablish communication that was only achieved later in the mission. When the satellite returned to Earth after its planned two-month mission was cut short to 44 days, the geckos were reported by the space agency researchers to have all perished during the course of their travels.  The exact cause that led to the deaths of the geckos was declared unknown by the scientific team in charge of the project. Reports from the Institute of Medical and Biological Problems in Russia have indicated that the lizards had been dead for at least a week prior to their return to Earth. A number of those connected to the mission have theorized that a failure in the vessel's heating system may have caused the cold blooded reptiles to freeze to death.  Included in the mission were a number of fruit flies, plants, and mushrooms which all survived the mission.

Launch control.

The military counterpart of the RKA is the Military Space Forces (VKO). The VKO controls Russia's Plesetsk Cosmodrome launch facility. The RKA and VKO share control of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, where the RKA reimburses the VKO for the wages of many of the flight controllers during civilian launches. The RKA and VKO also share control of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. It has been announced that Russia is to build another spaceport in Tsiolkovsky, Amur Oblast. The Vostochny Cosmodrome is scheduled to be finished by 2018.

Subsidiaries.

As of 2017, Roscosmos had the following subsidiaries:

The Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities (, "Gosudarstvyennaya korporaciya po kosmicheskoy dyeyatyel'nosti "Roskosmos""), commonly known as Roscosmos (), is a state corporation responsible for the wide range and types of space flights and cosmonautics programs for the Russian Federation.

Roscosmos, officiellement lentreprise d'État pour les activités spatiales « Roscosmos » (en russe :, "Gossoudarstvennaïa korporatsia po kosmitcheskoï deiatel'nosti « Roscosmos »"), est l'agence chargée du programme spatial civil russe. Cette organisation créée le, a pour rôle d'implémenter le programme spatial russe. Son but, en particulier vis-à-vis des industriels du secteur spatial, ainsi que son périmètre d'intervention varient dans le temps. Simple organisme coordinateur à ses débuts, elle a depuis 2015 le statut d'entreprise d'État et est l'unique actionnaire de l'ensemble des sociétés industrielles du secteur spatial russe. Au gré des réorganisations cette structure prend plusieurs appellations : Agence spatiale russe ou RKA à sa création en 1992, après la fusion en 1999 avec le secteur de l'aviation Rosaviacosmos, l'Agence spatiale fédérale russe ou FKA en 2004, avant de devenir l'entreprise d'État Roscosmos depuis le.


Cultural traditions.

Subincision (like circumcision) is well documented among the peoples of the central desert of Australia such as the Arrernte and Luritja. The Arrernte word for subincision is "arilta", and occurs as a rite of passage ritual for adolescent boys. It was given to the Arrernte by Mangar-kunjer-kunja, a lizard-man spirit being from the Dreamtime. A subincised penis is thought to resemble a vulva, and the bleeding is likened to menstruation. This type of modification of the penis was also traditionally performed by the Lardil people of Mornington Island, Queensland. The young men who endured this custom were the only ones to learn a simple ceremonial language, Damin. In later ceremonies, repeated throughout adult life, the subincised penis would be used as a site for ritual bloodletting. According to Ken Hale, who studied Damin, no ritual initiations have been carried out in the Gulf of Carpentaria for half a century, and hence the language has also died out.  Another indigenous Australian term for the custom is "mika" or the "terrible rite".  Indigenous cultures of the Amazon Basin also practise subincision, as do Samburu herdboys of Kenya, who are said to perform subincisions on themselves (or sometimes their peers) at age seven to ten. In Samoa, subincision of the foreskin, skin located along the tip of the penis, was ritually performed upon young men, as in Hawaii, where subincision of the foreskin is reported to have been performed at age six or seven.

Further reading.

General Polynesia Melanesia Australia Africa

Penile subincision is a form of genital modification or mutilation consisting of a urethrotomy, in which the underside of the penis is incised and the urethra slit open lengthwise, from the urethral opening (meatus) toward the base. The slit can be of varying lengths.

La subincision est une mutilation génitale consistant à fendre le pénis sous sa partie inférieure depuis le bout du gland jusqu'au milieu de la verge. L'aspect final de la verge est celui d'une cicatrice non refermée. D'ailleurs la physiologie spécifique de la peau à cet endroit fait que ces types d'incisions n'ont pas la faculté de se ressouder d'elle-même si elles ne sont pas maintenues par des points de suture. Les berges de la plaies ayant naturellement tendance à s'écarter quelque peu l'une de l'autre, elles vont très vite cicatriser () seules et sans sutures mais sans se refermer, laissant de fait une fente ouverte. Ce qui est le but recherché ici. La subincision est pratiquée traditionnellement par certaines tribus aborigène. Comme cette incision suit la ligne de raphé, zone de soudure lorsque la vulve du fœtus se referme pour former le pénis, cette réouverture peut être perçue comme une.