Early life and education.

Goldsmith was born February 10, 1929 in Los Angeles, California. His family was Romanian Jewish. His parents were Tessa (née Rappaport), a school teacher, and Morris Goldsmith, a structural engineer. He started playing piano at age six, but only "got serious" by the time he was eleven. At age thirteen, he studied piano privately with concert pianist and educator Jakob Gimpel (whom Goldsmith would later employ to perform piano solos in his score to "The Mephisto Waltz") and by the age of sixteen he was studying both theory and counterpoint under Italian composer Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, who also tutored such noteworthy composers and musicians as Henry Mancini, Nelson Riddle, Herman Stein, André Previn, Marty Paich, and John Williams.  At age sixteen, Goldsmith saw the 1945 film "Spellbound" in theaters and was inspired by veteran composer Miklós Rózsa's soundtrack to pursue a career in music. Goldsmith later enrolled and attended the University of Southern California where he was able to attend courses by Rózsa, but dropped out in favor of a more "practical music program" at the Los Angeles City College. There he was able to coach singers, work as an assistant choral director, play piano accompaniment, and work as an assistant conductor.

Film and television scoring.

1950s and work at CBS.

In 1950, Goldsmith found work at CBS as a clerk typist in the network's music department under director Lud Gluskin. There he began writing scores for such radio shows as "CBS Radio Workshop", "Frontier Gentleman", and "Romance". In an interview with Andy Velez from BarnesandNoble.com, Goldsmith stated, "It was about 1950. CBS had a workshop, and once a week the employees, whatever their talents, whether they were ushers or typists, would produce a radio show. But you had to be an employee. They needed someone to do music, and I knew someone there who said I'd be great for this. I'd just gotten married and needed a job, so they faked a typing test for me. Then I could do these shows. About six months later, the music department heard what I did, liked it, and gave me a job." He later progressed into scoring such live CBS television shows as "Climax!" and "Playhouse 90". He also scored multiple episodes of the television series "The Twilight Zone". He remained at CBS until 1960, after which he moved on to Revue Studios and then to MGM Studios for producer Norman Felton, whom he had worked for during live television and would later compose music for such television shows as "Dr. Kildare" and "The Man from U.N.C.L.E.".  His feature film debut occurred when he composed the music to the 1957 western "Black Patch". He continued with scores to such films as the 1957 western "Face of a Fugitive" and the 1959 science fiction film "City of Fear".

1960s.

Goldsmith began the decade composing for such television shows as "Dr. Kildare" and "Thriller" as well as the 1960 drama film "The Spiral Road". However, he only began receiving widespread name recognition after his intimate score to the 1962 classic western "Lonely Are the Brave". His involvement in the picture was the result of a recommendation by veteran composer Alfred Newman who had been impressed with Goldsmith's score on the television show "Thriller" and took it upon himself to recommend Goldsmith to the head of Universal Pictures' music department, despite having never met him. That same year, Goldsmith composed the mostly atonal and dissonant score to the 1962 pseudo-biopic "" that focused on a five-year period of the life of psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Goldsmith's score went on to garner him his first Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score, though he lost to fellow first-time nominee Maurice Jarre for his music to "Lawrence of Arabia" (1962). In 1963, Goldsmith composed a score to "The Stripper", his first collaboration with director Franklin J. Schaffner for whom Goldsmith would later score the films "Planet of the Apes" (1968), "Patton" (1970), "Papillon" (1973), "Islands in the Stream" (1977), and "The Boys from Brazil" (1978).  Following his success with "Lonely Are the Brave" and "Freud", Goldsmith went on to achieve even more critical recognition with the theme music to "The Man from U.N.C.L.E." (1964), and scores to such films as the 1964 western "Rio Conchos", the 1964 political thriller "Seven Days in May", the 1965 romantic drama "A Patch of Blue", the 1965 epic war film "In Harm's Way" (in which Goldsmith also made a brief cameo appearance), the 1966 World War I air combat film "The Blue Max", the 1966 period naval war epic "The Sand Pebbles", the 1967 thriller "Warning Shot", the 1967 western "Hour of the Gun", and the 1968 controversial mystery "The Detective". His score for "The Blue Max" is regarded by many Goldsmith aficionados as one of the very best scores he wrote during his long and distinguished career. He almost didn't accept the assignment when he watched the final cut with the producers who had temp-tracked it with Richard Strauss's "Also Sprach Zarathustra". He said, "I admit it worked fairly well but my first reaction was to get up and walk away from the job, but I couldn't. Once you've heard music like that with the picture, it makes your own scoring more difficult to arrive at, it clouds your thinking." Nonetheless, what resulted was breathtaking and the main theme captures the fear and joy of flight many times throughout the film. It is curious that films with significant sequences that involve flight inspired Goldsmith to write some of his most exhilarating music, such as in "Supergirl", "Star Trek: The Motion Picture", "A Gathering of Eagles", "Night Crossing", "Air Force One" and "Tora! Tora! Tora!". Goldsmith's scores to "A Patch of Blue" and "The Sand Pebbles" garnered him his second and third Academy Award nominations, respectively, and were both one of the 250 nominees for the American Film Institute's top twenty-five American film scores. His scores for "Seven Days in May" and "The Sand Pebbles" also garnered Goldsmith his first two respective Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Original Score in 1965 and 1967. During this time, he also composed for many lighter, comedic films such as the family comedy "The Trouble with Angels" (1966), the James Bond parodies "Our Man Flint" (1966) and its sequel "In Like Flint" (1967), and the comedy "The Flim-Flam Man" (1967).  In 1968, Goldsmith caught massive critical attention with his landmark, controversial soundtrack to the post-apocalyptic science fiction epic "Planet of the Apes", which was one of the first film scores to be written entirely in an Avant garde style. When scoring "Planet of the Apes", Goldsmith used such innovative techniques as looping drums into an echoplex, using the orchestra to imitate the grunting sounds of apes, having horns blown without mouthpieces, and instructing the woodwind players to finger their keys without using any air. He also used stainless steel mixing bowls, among other objects, to create unique percussive sounds. The score went on to garner Goldsmith another Oscar nomination for Best Original Score and now ranks in 18 on the American Film Institute's top twenty-five American film scores. Though he did not return to compose for its 1970 sequel "Beneath the Planet of the Apes", Goldsmith scored the third installment in the "Planet of the Apes" franchise, 1971's "Escape from the Planet of the Apes".  Goldsmith concluded the decade with scores to such films as the 1968 western "Bandolero!", the 1969 spy thriller "The Chairman", the 1969 science fiction film "The Illustrated Man", and the 1969 western "100 Rifles". In 1969, he also composed the theme to the comedy-drama television series "Room 222".

1970s.

Goldsmith received more critical praise with his daring music to the 1970 World War II biopic "Patton". Throughout the score, Goldsmith used an echoplex to loop recorded sounds of "call to war" triplets played on the trumpet that musically represented General George S. Patton's belief in reincarnation. The main theme also consisted of a symphonic march accompanied by a pipe organ to represent the protagonist's militaristic yet deeply religious nature. The film's music subsequently earned Goldsmith an Oscar nomination for Best Original Score and was one of the American Film Institute's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. Goldsmith's critical success continued with his emotional score to the 1973 prison escape film "Papillon", which also earned him an Academy Award nomination and a nomination as one of the AFI's top twenty-five American film scores. In 1973, Goldsmith also wrote the theme for the TV series "Barnaby Jones".  In 1974, Goldsmith was faced with the daunting task of replacing a score by composer Phillip Lambro to the neo-film noir "Chinatown". With only ten days to compose and record an entirely new score, Goldsmith quickly produced a score that mixed an eastern music sound with elements of jazz in an ensemble that only featured a trumpet, four pianos, four harps, two percussionists, and a string section. Goldsmith received an Academy Award nomination for his efforts though he lost to Nino Rota and Carmine Coppola for "The Godfather Part II". The score to "Chinatown" is often regarded as one of the greatest scores of all time and ranks 9 on the AFI's list of top 25 American film scores. It was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score.  Goldsmith earned further critical praise with his score to the 1975 epic period adventure film "The Wind and the Lion", which, true to the style of such Golden Age scores as Maurice Jarre's "Lawrence of Arabia", relied upon a diverse ensemble including many Moroccan instruments and a large percussion section. The score garnered Goldsmith an Oscar nomination for Best Original Score, though he lost to fellow composer John Williams for his score to "Jaws". "The Wind and the Lion" was also one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores.  In 1976, Goldsmith composed a dark choral score to the horror film "The Omen", which was the first film score to feature the use of a choir in an avant-garde style. The score was successful among critics and garnered Goldsmith his only Academy Award for Best Original Score and a nomination for Best Original Song for "Ave Satani". It was also one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. His wife, Carol Heather Goldsmith, also wrote lyrics and performed a vocal track titled "The Piper Dreams" released solely on the soundtrack album. Goldsmith would go on to compose for two more entries in the franchise; "" (1978) and "" (1981).  He continued to have critical success with scores to such films as the 1976 dystopian science fiction "Logan's Run", the 1977 period drama "Islands in the Stream" (which remained one of his personal favorites), the 1978 science fiction suspense "Coma", the 1978 science fiction thriller "Capricorn One", the 1978 disaster film "The Swarm", the 1979 period comedy "The Great Train Robbery", and his Academy Award-nominated score to the 1978 science fiction thriller "The Boys from Brazil", in which he utilized lively waltzes to juxtapose the film's horrific concept, cloning Adolf Hitler.  In 1979, Goldsmith composed a score to the landmark science fiction film "Alien". His score featured an orchestra augmented by an Indian conch horn, didgeridoo, steel drum, and serpent (a 16th-century instrument), while creating further "alien" sounds by delaying string pizzicati through an echoplex. Many of the instruments were used in such atypical ways they were virtually unidentifiable. His score was, however, heavily edited during post-production and Goldsmith was required to rewrite music for several scenes. The final score resulted in several pieces being moved, replaced, or cut entirely. Director Ridley Scott and editor Terry Rawlings also, without Goldsmith's consent, purchased the rights to the "Main Title" from "" (1962) which they used during the acid blood sequence. Despite the heavy edits and rewrites, Goldsmith's score for the film earned him a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Original Score and was one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. Scott would later prominently reuse Goldsmith's main theme in "", released in 2017, scored by Australian musician Jed Kurzel.  That same year, Goldsmith concluded the decade composing what is widely considered his most recognized score for "". Having been Gene Roddenberry's initial choice to compose the original "Star Trek" pilot "" yet being unable to do so due to scheduling conflicts, Goldsmith was the first pick of both Paramount Pictures and director Robert Wise to compose a score for "The Motion Picture". Faced with composing a new "Star Trek" theme for the film, Goldsmith initially struggled for inspiration, and proceeded to compose as much of the score as possible before the need to develop the main title theme. His initial score for the scene in which the newly-refit Starship "Enterprise" is revealed to the audience was not well received by the filmmakers, director Robert Wise feeling that it lacked a strong thematic hook and evoked sailing ships. Though somewhat irked by its rejection, Goldsmith consented to re-work his initial idea and finally arrived at the "Star Trek" theme which was ultimately used. The film's soundtrack also provided a debut for the Blaster Beam, an electronic instrument long, created by musician Craig Huxley. The Blaster had steel wires connected to amplifiers fitted to the main piece of aluminum; the device was played with an artillery shell. Goldsmith heard it and immediately decided to use it for V'Ger's cues. An enormous pipe organ first plays the V'Ger theme on the "Enterprise"s approach, a literal indication of the machine's power. His score for "The Motion Picture" earned him Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations, and was one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores. Goldsmith would later compose the scores for "" (1989), "" (1996), "" (1998), and "" (2002), as well as the theme to the television series "" in 1995. In addition, his theme for "The Motion Picture", as arranged by Dennis McCarthy, was reused as the theme for "" in 1987.

1980s.

Throughout the 1980s, Goldsmith found himself increasingly scoring science fiction and fantasy films in the ongoing wake of the successful 1977 film "Star Wars", composing for such films as "The Omen" sequels "" (1978) and "" (1981), 1981 space western "Outland", 1982 animated fantasy "The Secret of NIMH", and the movie version of "", which he composed in four different styles to accompany the film's four stories.  In 1982, Goldsmith was hired to compose the music to the classic Tobe Hooper-directed, Steven Spielberg-produced horror film "Poltergeist". He wrote several themes for the film including a gentle lullaby for the protagonist Carol Anne and her family's suburban life, a semi-religious theme for scenes concerning the souls trapped between the two worlds, and bombastic atonal bursts during scenes of horror. The film's score garnered him an Oscar nomination, though he lost again to fellow composer John Williams for Spielberg's "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial". Goldsmith later returned in 1986 to compose the more synthetic score to "Poltergeist II", the first of two sequels.  He did, however, still manage to compose for such non-fantasy productions as the 1981 period television miniseries "Masada" (for which he won an Emmy Award), the controversial 1982 war film "Inchon", the 1982 action classic "First Blood", and his Oscar- and Golden Globe Award-nominated score to 1983 political drama "Under Fire" in which he used the ethnic sounds of a South American pan flute, synthetic elements, and the prominently featured solo work of jazz guitarist Pat Metheny.  Throughout the decade, many of his compositions became increasingly laced with synthetic elements such as his scores for the 1983 horror sequel "Psycho II", the 1984 comedy horror film "Gremlins" (for which he won a Saturn Award for Best Music), the 1984 fantasy superhero adaptation "Supergirl", Ridley Scott fantasy "Legend" (initially heard only in European prints and then years later in a 2002 director's cut), 1985 action sequel "", 1985 family fantasy "", and 1986 horror movie "Poltergeist II". He garnered another Oscar nomination for his innovative, critically acclaimed score to 1986 sports drama "Hoosiers", though he lost to Herbie Hancock for "Round Midnight". The score incorporates synthesizers, orchestra, and the recorded sounds of basketball hits on a gymnasium floor. During the 1980s, Goldsmith scored the Michael Crichton film "Runaway," the composer's first all-electronic score. In an interview with Keyboard Magazine in 1984, Goldsmith said that in order to simulate the ambiance of a real orchestra, several speakers were set up in an actual orchestra hall similar to how they would be arranged if they were live players. The playback was re-recorded to capture the feel of the hall.  Goldsmith finished out the decade with noteworthy scores to such films as the 1985 science-fiction fantasy family film "Explorers", 1987 medieval adventure "Lionheart", the 1987 science fiction comedy "Innerspace", the 1988 action film "Rambo III", the 1989 science fiction horror "Leviathan", and "" (1989), his second "Star Trek" film score. Goldsmith's score to "Leviathan" (1989) incorporated the use of recorded whale sounds during the main titles. His critically acclaimed comedy score to "The 'Burbs" (1989) is also noteworthy for the use of pipe organ, recorded dog barking sound effects, and for parodying the trumpet "call to war" triplets on an echoplex from his previous score to "Patton" (1970).

1990s.

In 1990, Jerry Goldsmith received critical acclaim for his score to the romantic drama "The Russia House", which featured a unique mixture of Russian music and jazz to complement the nationalities and characteristics of the two main characters. He also composed critically acclaimed music for the 1990 science fiction action film "Total Recall", which Goldsmith later regarded as one of his best scores. Other noteworthy scores of the era include "" (1990) (in which Goldsmith also made a brief cameo appearance), the 1991 psychological thriller "Sleeping with the Enemy", the 1991 family comedy "Mom and Dad Save the World", the 1992 fantasy romance "Forever Young", the 1993 thriller "The Vanishing", and the 1993 family comedy "Dennis the Menace". In 1992, Goldsmith also composed a critically acclaimed score for the medical drama "Medicine Man". In concert, Goldsmith would later recount a story of how actor Sean Connery copied Goldsmith's signature ponytail hairstyle for his character Robert Campbell in the film.  In 1992, Goldsmith composed and conducted a score to the erotic thriller "Basic Instinct". The soundtrack, an unsettling hybrid of orchestral and electronic elements, garnered him another Oscar nomination as well as a Golden Globe Award nomination and was later regarded by the composer as one of his most challenging works. In 1993, Goldsmith also wrote an acclaimed score for the classic sports film "Rudy", which has since been used in the trailers for numerous films including "Angels in the Outfield" (1994), "Good Will Hunting" (1997), "" (2002), and "Seabiscuit" (2003). It was also heard on the TV spot of "The Little Vampire" (2000) and an Arnold Schwarzenegger fitness advert. Goldsmith composed acclaimed scores for such films as the 1994 superhero adaptation "The Shadow", the 1994 thriller "The River Wild", the 1994 romantic comedy "I.Q.", the 1995 action film "Congo", the 1995 fantasy adventure "First Knight", the 1995 science fiction drama "Powder", the 1996 action film "Executive Decision", and his third "Star Trek" film installment "" (1996) which he composed with his son Joel Goldsmith. In 1995, Goldsmith also composed the theme for the UPN series "" for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music.  In 1996, Goldsmith composed the critically successful score to the horror action film "The Ghost and the Darkness" which featured a traditional Irish folk melody interwoven with African rhythms. In 1997, he was hired to replace a score by Randy Newman for "Air Force One". Goldsmith, with the assistance of composer Joel McNeely, completed the brassy, heroic score in only twelve days. In 1997, Goldsmith also composed a percussive, jazzy score for the critically acclaimed crime drama "L.A. Confidential". His score garnered him Oscar and Golden Globe Award nominations, and was also one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores.  In 1997, he composed a new theme for the Universal Studios opening logo, first heard in "". He also continued with scores for such films as the 1997 survival drama "The Edge", his fourth "Star Trek" film installment in 1998, "", the 1998 science fiction horror "Deep Rising", and the 1998 action thriller "U.S. Marshals". In 1998, he also composed a score of combined Eastern, orchestral, and synthetic elements for the Disney-animated film "Mulan", which subsequently earned him his final Oscar and Golden Globe Award nominations along with songwriter Matthew Wilder and lyricist David Zippel.  Goldsmith concluded the decade with critically successful scores to such popular films as the 1998 science fiction film "Small Soldiers", his penultimate "Star Trek" film "" (1998), the 1999 action adventure horror "The Mummy", the 1999 horror film "The Haunting", and the 1999 action adventure "The 13th Warrior". In 1999, he also composed "Fanfare for Oscar" for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.

2000s and final scores.

During the early 2000s, Goldsmith composed scores to the 2000 science fiction thriller "Hollow Man", the 2001 mystery film "Along Came a Spider", the 2001 drama "The Last Castle", the 2002 action/political thriller "The Sum of All Fears", and his last "Star Trek" film "" (2002). Goldsmith had composed the scores to five of the first ten "Star Trek" movies up to that point. Goldsmith also composed an original score to the simulator attraction "Soarin' Over California" which debuted 8 February 2001 at the Disneyland Resort, and the same attraction "Soarin"' which opened 5 May 2005 in Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort. It was later said that when Goldsmith first rode the ride, he left in tears and said, "I'd do anything to be part of this project. I'd even score the film for free."  Goldsmith's final cinematic score, composed during declining health, was the critically acclaimed music for the 2003 live action/animated film "", directed by long-time Goldsmith collaborator Joe Dante. His last work was with another long-time collaborator, Richard Donner (for whom Goldsmith had scored "The Omen" in 1976), on the 2003 science fiction film "Timeline". However, due to a complicated post-production process, Goldsmith's score had to be replaced. Goldsmith's score was for the preliminary cuts. But the score didn't fit the later cuts of the film and had to be re-scored. Goldsmith's unavailability led to composer Brian Tyler taking over. Goldsmith's unused score was later released on CD, 7 September 2004 through Varèse Sarabande, not long after his death in 2004. The album quickly became out of print and has since become a sought rarity among soundtrack collectors.

Personal life and death.

Goldsmith was married twice. He was first married to Sharon Hennagin in 1950; they divorced in 1970. He married Carol Heather in 1972, and the couple remained together until his death in 2004. His oldest son Joel Goldsmith (1957–2012) was also a composer and collaborated with his father on the score for "", composing approximately twenty-two minutes of the score. Goldsmith also conducted Joel's theme for "The Untouchables" and composed the theme for the pilot "Hollister", scored by Joel. Goldsmith's daughter, Carrie Goldsmith, went to high school with famed "Titanic" composer James Horner, who also composed music for "Star Trek"'s second and third films: "" and "". Carrie Goldsmith was working on a biography of her father, though the book has been suspended indefinitely for unspecified reasons. Ellen Smith, who sang the title song for "Wild Rovers", shortened her surname but was actually his daughter, Ellen Goldsmith.  Goldsmith died at his Beverly Hills home on July 21, 2004, from colon cancer at the age of 75. He was survived by his wife Carol and his children Aaron, Joel (who also died of cancer on April 29, 2012), Carrie, Ellen Edson, and Jennifer Grossman.

Style and influences.

Goldsmith was greatly influenced by movements of early 20th-century classical music, notably modernism, Americana, impressionism, dodecaphonism, and early film scores. He has cited Igor Stravinsky, Aaron Copland, Miklós Rózsa, Bernard Herrmann, Béla Bartók, and Alban Berg, among others, as some of the main influences to his style of composition.  His style has been noted for its unique instrumentation, utilizing a vast array of ethnic instruments, recorded sounds, synthetic textures, and the traditional orchestra, often concurrently. When asked about his inclination for embracing new techniques and constantly shifting his musical palette throughout his career, Goldsmith said, "It seems like it's me, and that's that! Certain composers are doing the same thing over and over again, which I feel is sort of uninteresting. I don't find that you grow very much in that way. I like to keep changing, trying to do new things. Basically, I'm saying the same thing with a little different twist on it. Once you get caught up in the creative process, something inside takes over, and your subconscious just does it for you."  One reason for the consistency of Goldsmith's aural resonance and signature sound is his long time professional association with orchestrator Arthur Morton. Their first collaboration was on the film, "Take Her She's Mine". In 1965, Goldsmith was tapped to score the features, "Von Ryan's Express" and "Morituri". He recruited Morton to serve as his orchestrator. Their bond for a unique and expressive sound was borne, and their friendship flourished. Goldsmith went on to compose the soundtracks for "Our Man Flint", "The Trouble with Angels" (with Frank De Vol), "The Blue Max", "The Sand Pebbles", and "Stagecoach", all in 1966. Morton was there providing his orchestration services, assisting Goldsmith in attaining his visionary sounds. Their partnership endured for over 30 years and included the notable scores for "Planet of the Apes" (1968), "Patton" (1970), "Tora! Tora! Tora!" (1970), "Papillon" (1973), "Chinatown" (1974), "The Omen" (1976), "MacArthur" (1977), "Capricorn One" (1978), "Alien" (1979), "Star Trek: The Motion Picture" (1979), "Poltergeist" (1982), "First Blood" (1982), "Under Fire" (1983), "The Russia House" (1990). The final score that Arthur Morton orchestrated for Goldsmith was "L.A. Confidential" (1997).

Legacy.

Jerry Goldsmith has often been considered one of film music history's most innovative and influential composers. While presenting Goldsmith with a Career Achievement Award from the Society for the Preservation of Film Music in 1993, fellow composer Henry Mancini ("Breakfast at Tiffany's", "The Pink Panther") said of Goldsmith, "... he has instilled two things in his colleagues in this town. One thing he does, he keeps us honest. And the second one is he scares the hell out of us." In his review of the 1999 re-issue of the "" soundtrack, Bruce Eder highly praised Goldsmith's ability, stating, "...one of the new tracks, 'Spock's Arrival,' may be the closest that Goldsmith has ever come to writing serious music in a pure Romantic idiom; this could have been the work of Rimsky-Korsakov or Stravinsky — it's that good." In a 2001 interview, film composer Marco Beltrami ("", "The Hurt Locker") stated, "Without Jerry, film music would probably be in a different place than it is now. I think he, more than any other composer bridged the gap between the old Hollywood scoring style and the modern film composer."  In 2006, upon composing "The Omen" (a remake of the Goldsmith-scored 1976 film), Marco Beltrami dedicated his score to Goldsmith, which also included an updated arrangement of "Ave Satani" titled "Omen 76/06". Likewise, when composer Brian Tyler was commissioned in 2012 to update the Universal Studios logo for the Universal centennial, he retained the "classic melody" originally composed by Goldsmith in 1997, opting to "bring it into the 21st century."

Awards and nominations.

Over the course of his career, Goldsmith received 18 total Academy Award nominations, making him one of the most nominated composers in Academy Awards history. Despite this, Goldsmith won only one Oscar, for his score to the 1976 film "The Omen". This makes Goldsmith the most nominated composer to have won an Oscar only on one occasion. In 1991, Goldsmith received an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music.  On May 9, 2017, Goldsmith posthumously received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his achievements in the music industry, located at 6752 Hollywood Boulevard.

AFI.

The American Film Institute respectively ranked Goldsmith's scores for "Chinatown" (1974) and "Planet of the Apes" (1968) 9 and 18 on their list of the 25 greatest film scores. He is one of only five composers to have more than one score featured in the list, including Elmer Bernstein, Bernard Herrmann, Max Steiner, and John Williams. His scores for the following films were also nominated for inclusion:

Jerrald King Goldsmith (February 10, 1929July 21, 2004) was an American composer and conductor most known for his work in film and television scoring. He composed scores for such films as "" and four other films within the "Star Trek" franchise, "The Sand Pebbles", "Logan's Run", "Planet of the Apes", "Patton", "Papillon", "Chinatown", "The Wind and the Lion", "The Omen", "The Boys from Brazil", "Capricorn One", "Alien", "Outland", "Poltergeist", "The Secret of NIMH", "Gremlins", "Hoosiers", "Total Recall", "Basic Instinct", "Rudy", "Air Force One", "L.A. Confidential", "Mulan", "The Mummy", three "Rambo" films, and "Explorers". In May 1997, with the release of Steven Spielberg’s "", he gained more popularity with his fanfare of the 1997 Universal Studios opening logo, which would be among the most iconic studio logo music of all time.

Jerry Goldsmith (Jerrald K. Goldsmith), né le à Los Angeles et mort le à Beverly Hills, est un compositeur américain essentiellement connu pour ses musiques de films. Il a également composé quelques œuvres de concert. Plusieurs ballets ont été tirés de ses musiques de film, notamment au Canada et en Australie.


Function.

Ugaritic was an augmented abjad. In most syllables only consonants were written, including the and of diphthongs. However, Ugaritic was unusual among early abjads in also writing vowels after the glottal stop. It is thought that the letter for the syllable originally represented the consonant, as aleph does in other Semitic abjads, and that it was later restricted to with the addition, at the end of the alphabet, of and.  The final consonantal letter of the alphabet, "s", has a disputed origin along with both "appended" glottals, but "The patent similarity of "form" between the Ugaritic symbol transliterated [s], and the s-character of the later Northwest Semitic script makes a common origin likely, but the reason for the addition of this sign to the Ugaritic alphabet is unclear (compare Segert 1983:201-218; Dietrich and Loretz 1988). In "function", [s] is like Ugaritic s, but only in certain words – other s-words are never written with [s]." The words that show "s" are predominantly borrowings, and thus it is often thought to be a late addition to the alphabet representing a foreign sound that could be approximated by native /s/; Huehnergard and Pardee make it the affricate /ts/. Segert instead theorizes that it may have been syllabic /su/, and for this reason grouped with the other syllabic signs /ʔi/ and /ʔu/.  Probably the last three letters of the alphabet were originally developed for transcribing non-Ugaritic languages (texts in the Akkadian language and Hurrian language have been found written in the Ugaritic alphabet), and were then applied to write the Ugaritic language. The three letters denoting glottal stop plus vowel combinations were used as simple vowel letters when writing other languages.  The only punctuation is a word divider.

Origin.

At the time the Ugaritic script was in use (ca. 1300–1190 BCE), Ugarit, although not a great cultural or imperial centre, was located at the geographic centre of the literate world, among Egypt, Anatolia, Cyprus, Crete, and Mesopotamia. Ugaritic combined the system of the Semitic abjad with cuneiform writing methods (pressing a stylus into clay). However, scholars have searched in vain for graphic prototypes of the Ugaritic letters in Mesopotamian cuneiform. Recently, some have suggested that Ugaritic represents some form of the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet, the letter forms distorted as an adaptation to writing on clay with a stylus. (There may also have been a degree of influence from the poorly understood Byblos syllabary.) It has been proposed in this regard that the two basic shapes in cuneiform, a linear wedge, as in, and a corner wedge, as in, may correspond to lines and circles in the linear Semitic alphabets: the three Semitic letters with circles, preserved in the Greek Θ, O and Latin Q, are all made with corner wedges in Ugaritic: ṭ, ʕ, and q. Other letters look similar as well: <unk> h resembles its assumed Greek cognate E, while w, p, and θ are similar to Greek Y, Π, and Σ turned on their sides. Jared Diamond believes the alphabet was consciously designed, citing as evidence the possibility that the letters with the fewest strokes may have been the most frequent.

Abecedaries.

Lists of Ugaritic letters (abecedaria, singular abecedarium) have been found in two alphabetic orders: the "Northern Semitic order" more similar to the one found in Arabic (earlier order), Hebrew and Phoenician, and more distantly, the Greek and Latin alphabets; and the "Southern Semitic order" more similar to the one found in the South Arabian, and the Ge'ez alphabets. The letters are given in transcription and in their Arabic and Hebrew cognates; letters missing from Hebrew are left blank.  North Semitic  South Semitic

Unicode.

Ugaritic script was added to the Unicode Standard in April, 2003 with the release of version 4.0.  The Unicode block for Ugaritic is U+10380–U+1039F:  Six letters for transliteration were added to the Latin Extended-D block in March 2019 with the release of Unicode 12.0:

The Ugaritic alphabet is a cuneiform abjad (consonantal alphabet) used from around either the fifteenth century BCE or 1300 BCE for Ugaritic, an extinct Northwest Semitic language, and discovered in Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra), Syria, in 1928. It has 30 letters. Other languages (particularly Hurrian) were occasionally written in the Ugaritic script in the area around Ugarit, although not elsewhere.

L'alphabet ougaritique est une forme d'alphabet attesté dans la ville d'Ougarit, (Syrie) entre le et le début du Alors que la plupart des tablettes sont écrites en cunéiforme syllabique notant la langue akkadienne (langue sémitique) ou hittite (langue indo-européenne), quelques-unes le sont dans une nouvelle écriture cunéiforme, dite « alphabet ougaritique », servant à noter une langue sémitique cananéenne (ainsi que des textes hourrites). Il atteste pour la première fois de l'ordre des lettres encore utilisé de nos jours dans la plupart des alphabets modernes (alphabet latin, alphabet grec, alphabet étrusque mais aussi alphabets sémitiques comme les alphabets phénicien et hébreu), l'ordre dit « levantin ».


Personal life and education.

Isaias Afwerki was born on 2 February 1946 in the Aba Shi'Aul district of Asmara, Eritrea.  Isaias was educated at the Prince Makonnen High School (PMSS). In the early 1960s, he joined the nationalist Eritrean student movement. In 1965, he began his studies at the College of Engineering at Haile Selassie I University (now called Addis Ababa University) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.  Isaias met his wife, Saba Haile, during the struggle to liberate Eritrea. Like him, she was a freedom fighter and the two of them met in a village called Nakfa in the summer of 1981. Together they have three children: Abraham, Elsa and Berhane. Although he criticized other leaders during the African Unity summit in Cairo in 1993 for staying in power too long, and rejected a cult of personality, his former comrade Andebrhan Welde Giorgis says Isaias went on to personalise power, and "having personalised power he abused it to the maximum.

Eritrean independence movement.

In September 1966, Isaias left the university where he was studying and travelled to Kassala, Sudan, via Asmara to join the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). In 1967, the Chinese government donated light weapons and a small amount of cash to cover the cost of transportation and provided training to ELF combatants. Isaias was among the first group that went to China in 1967. There, he received intensive military training. Upon his return, he was appointed as a political commissioner of the ELF's Zone 5 in the Hamasen region.  Isaias played a key role in the grass-roots movement which rapidly gathered momentum and brought about the demise of the zonal divisions of the liberation army. Further he played a vital role in the Tripartite Union, which challenged the ELF's leadership, the Supreme Council (Cairo) and the Revolutionary Command (Kassala). Soon after the commencement of sectarian violence in the early 1970s against members of the reform movement, those who were in the central highlands, including Isaias, withdrew to an isolated locality, Ala in northeastern AkkeleGuzay near Dekemhare. Here, they joined Abraham Tewolde, the former commander of the defunct Zone 5. Isaias became the leader after Abraham Tewolde died from natural causes.

In the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF).

In August 1971, a group of younger ELF members held a meeting at Tekli (northern Red Sea) and founded the Selfi Natsinet, what was commonly known as the Peoples Liberation Force (PLF). The group elected five leaders, including Isaias. Less than two months later, in October 1971, the group formed a committee to draft and issue a highly polemical document, “Nihnan Elamanan” (“We and Our Goals”), in which they explained in detail the rationales for their decision to create a separate political organization instead of working within the ELF. In 1977, the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF) held its first congress, at which Isaias was elected vice-secretary general. During the second congress of the EPLF in 1987, he was elevated to the status of secretary-general of the organization and in May 1991 became secretary-general of the Provisional Government of Eritrea. In April 1993, after the national referendum, he was elected as the President of the State of Eritrea by the National Assembly. In February 1994, the EPLF held its third congress, and Isaias was elected secretary-general of the Peoples Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) by an overwhelming majority of votes.

Post-independence.

In April 1993, a United Nations-supervised referendum on independence was held, and the following month Eritrea achieved "de jure" independence. Isaias was declared the first head of state, a position he has held ever since the end of the war for independence.  During the first few years of Isaias' administration, the institutions of governance were structured and put in place. This included the provision of an elected local judicial system, as well as an expansion of the educational system into as many regions as possible. The EPLF renamed itself the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) in February 1994 as part of its transition to a political party. He was hailed as a new type of African President. Then-US President Bill Clinton referred to him as a "renaissance African leader".  In this sense, Isaias strongly advocates the necessity for the development of indigenous political and economic institutions, while maintaining that Eritrea must pursue a development strategy which suits its internal conditions and available resources. The key element of such a policy includes ambitious infrastructure development campaigns both in terms of power, transport and telecommunications, as well as with basic healthcare and educational facilities.  Isaias oversaw an unexpected transformation of the country’s relations with Ethiopia in 2018. Engagement by Ethiopia’s then newly elected prime minister, Abiy Ahmed, in June 2018 to end the long-standing border war between the countries led to a flurry of diplomatic activity, including reciprocal visits by Isaias and Abiy in July 2018. Diplomatic and commercial ties between Ethiopia and Eritrea were re-established, and on July 9 the two leaders signed a Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship that ended the state of war between their countries, and enunciated a framework of bilateral cooperation in the political, cultural, economic and security fields. This was widely acknowledged by numerous world leaders with the UAE Government awarding Isaias Afwerki the Order of Zayed (First Class) in recognition of his efforts to end the conflict.

Criticism.

In June 2015 a United Nations panel accused Isaias of leading a totalitarian government responsible for systematic human rights violations that may amount to crimes against humanity. Amnesty International believes that the government of President Isaias Afwerki has imprisoned at least 10,000 political prisoners. Amnesty also claims that torture—for punishment, interrogation and coercion—is widespread.  The government of Eritrea denies the allegations and in turn accuses Amnesty International of supporting a political agenda of "regime change".

Isaias Afwerki ( ; born 2 February 1946) is an Eritrean politician who has been the first and current president of Eritrea, a position he has held since after the Eritrean War of Independence in 1993. He led the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) to victory in May 1991, ending the 30-year-old war for independence.

Isaias Afwerki ou Issayas Afewerki (tigrigna : ), né le à Asmara (Érythrée italienne sous administration britannique), est un homme d'État érythréen, président de l'État depuis son indépendance en 1993.


Historical background.

In addressing the question of the origin of species, there are two key issues: (1) what are the evolutionary mechanisms of speciation, and (2) what accounts for the separateness and individuality of species in the biota? Since Charles Darwin's time, efforts to understand the nature of species have primarily focused on the first aspect, and it is now widely agreed that the critical factor behind the origin of new species is reproductive isolation. Next we focus on the second aspect of the origin of species.

Darwin's dilemma: Why do species exist?

In "On the Origin of Species" (1859), Darwin interpreted biological evolution in terms of natural selection, but was perplexed by the clustering of organisms into species. Chapter 6 of Darwin's book is entitled "Difficulties of the Theory." In discussing these "difficulties" he noted "Firstly, why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? Why is not all nature in confusion instead of the species being, as we see them, well defined?" This dilemma can be referred to as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space.  Another dilemma, related to the first one, is the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in time. Darwin pointed out that by the theory of natural selection "innumerable transitional forms must have existed," and wondered "why do we not find them embedded in countless numbers in the crust of the earth." That clearly defined species actually do exist in nature in both space and time implies that some fundamental feature of natural selection operates to generate and maintain species.

Effect of sexual reproduction on species formation.

It has been argued that the resolution of Darwin's first dilemma lies in the fact that out-crossing sexual reproduction has an intrinsic cost of rarity. The cost of rarity arises as follows. If, on a resource gradient, a large number of separate species evolve, each exquisitely adapted to a very narrow band on that gradient, each species will, of necessity, consist of very few members. Finding a mate under these circumstances may present difficulties when many of the individuals in the neighborhood belong to other species. Under these circumstances, if any species' population size happens, by chance, to increase (at the expense of one or other of its neighboring species, if the environment is saturated), this will immediately make it easier for its members to find sexual partners. The members of the neighboring species, whose population sizes have decreased, experience greater difficulty in finding mates, and therefore form pairs less frequently than the larger species. This has a snowball effect, with large species growing at the expense of the smaller, rarer species, eventually driving them to extinction. Eventually, only a few species remain, each distinctly different from the other. The cost of rarity not only involves the costs of failure to find a mate, but also indirect costs such as the cost of communication in seeking out a partner at low population densities.  Rarity brings with it other costs. Rare and unusual features are very seldom advantageous. In most instances, they indicate a (non-silent) mutation, which is almost certain to be deleterious. It therefore behooves sexual creatures to avoid mates sporting rare or unusual features (koinophilia). Sexual populations therefore rapidly shed rare or peripheral phenotypic features, thus canalizing the entire external appearance, as illustrated in the accompanying illustration of the African pygmy kingfisher, "Ispidina picta". This uniformity of all the adult members of a sexual species has stimulated the proliferation of field guides on birds, mammals, reptiles, insects, and many other taxa, in which a species can be described with a single illustration (or two, in the case of sexual dimorphism). Once a population has become as homogeneous in appearance as is typical of most species (and is illustrated in the photograph of the African pygmy kingfisher), its members will avoid mating with members of other populations that look different from themselves. Thus, the avoidance of mates displaying rare and unusual phenotypic features inevitably leads to reproductive isolation, one of the hallmarks of speciation.  In the contrasting case of organisms that reproduce asexually, there is no cost of rarity; consequently, there are only benefits to fine-scale adaptation. Thus, asexual organisms very frequently show the continuous variation in form (often in many different directions) that Darwin expected evolution to produce, making their classification into "species" (more correctly, morphospecies) very difficult.

Modes.

All forms of natural speciation have taken place over the course of evolution; however, debate persists as to the relative importance of each mechanism in driving biodiversity.  One example of natural speciation is the diversity of the three-spined stickleback, a marine fish that, after the last glacial period, has undergone speciation into new freshwater colonies in isolated lakes and streams. Over an estimated 10,000 generations, the sticklebacks show structural differences that are greater than those seen between different genera of fish including variations in fins, changes in the number or size of their bony plates, variable jaw structure, and color differences.

Allopatric.

During allopatric (from the ancient Greek "allos", "other" + "patrā", "fatherland") speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain formation). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic or phenotypic divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures; (b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging genes. Island genetics is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galápagos Islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that Galápagos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that finches differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing Galápagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as Darwin's finches to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation.

Peripatric.

In peripatric speciation, a subform of allopatric speciation, new species are formed in isolated, smaller peripheral populations that are prevented from exchanging genes with the main population. It is related to the concept of a founder effect, since small populations often undergo bottlenecks. Genetic drift is often proposed to play a significant role in peripatric speciation.  Case studies include Mayr's investigation of bird fauna; the Australian bird "Petroica multicolor"; and reproductive isolation in populations of "Drosophila" subject to population bottlenecking.

Parapatric.

In parapatric speciation, there is only partial separation of the zones of two diverging populations afforded by geography; individuals of each species may come in contact or cross habitats from time to time, but reduced fitness of the heterozygote leads to selection for behaviours or mechanisms that prevent their interbreeding. Parapatric speciation is modelled on continuous variation within a "single," connected habitat acting as a source of natural selection rather than the effects of isolation of habitats produced in peripatric and allopatric speciation.  Parapatric speciation may be associated with differential landscape-dependent selection. Even if there is a gene flow between two populations, strong differential selection may impede assimilation and different species may eventually develop. Habitat differences may be more important in the development of reproductive isolation than the isolation time. Caucasian rock lizards "Darevskia rudis", "D. valentini" and "D. portschinskii" all hybridize with each other in their hybrid zone; however, hybridization is stronger between "D. portschinskii" and "D. rudis", which separated earlier but live in similar habitats than between "D. valentini" and two other species, which separated later but live in climatically different habitats.  Ecologists refer to parapatric and peripatric speciation in terms of ecological niches. A niche must be available in order for a new species to be successful. Ring species such as "Larus" gulls have been claimed to illustrate speciation in progress, though the situation may be more complex. The grass "Anthoxanthum odoratum" may be starting parapatric speciation in areas of mine contamination.

Sympatric.

Sympatric speciation is the formation of two or more descendant species from a single ancestral species all occupying the same geographic location.  Often-cited examples of sympatric speciation are found in insects that become dependent on different host plants in the same area.  The best known example of sympatric speciation is that of the cichlids of East Africa inhabiting the Rift Valley lakes, particularly Lake Victoria, Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika. There are over 800 described species, and according to estimates, there could be well over 1,600 species in the region. Their evolution is cited as an example of both natural and sexual selection. A 2008 study suggests that sympatric speciation has occurred in Tennessee cave salamanders. Sympatric speciation driven by ecological factors may also account for the extraordinary diversity of crustaceans living in the depths of Siberia's Lake Baikal.  Budding speciation has been proposed as a particular form of sympatric speciation, whereby small groups of individuals become progressively more isolated from the ancestral stock by breeding preferentially with one another. This type of speciation would be driven by the conjunction of various advantages of inbreeding such as the expression of advantageous recessive phenotypes, reducing the recombination load, and reducing the cost of sex.  The hawthorn fly ("Rhagoletis pomonella"), also known as the apple maggot fly, appears to be undergoing sympatric speciation. Different populations of hawthorn fly feed on different fruits. A distinct population emerged in North America in the 19th century some time after apples, a non-native species, were introduced. This apple-feeding population normally feeds only on apples and not on the historically preferred fruit of hawthorns. The current hawthorn feeding population does not normally feed on apples. Some evidence, such as that six out of thirteen allozyme loci are different, that hawthorn flies mature later in the season and take longer to mature than apple flies; and that there is little evidence of interbreeding (researchers have documented a 4–6% hybridization rate) suggests that sympatric speciation is occurring.

Methods of selection.

Reinforcement.

Reinforcement, sometimes referred to as the Wallace effect, is the process by which natural selection increases reproductive isolation. It may occur after two populations of the same species are separated and then come back into contact. If their reproductive isolation was complete, then they will have already developed into two separate incompatible species. If their reproductive isolation is incomplete, then further mating between the populations will produce hybrids, which may or may not be fertile. If the hybrids are infertile, or fertile but less fit than their ancestors, then there will be further reproductive isolation and speciation has essentially occurred (e.g., as in horses and donkeys).  The reasoning behind this is that if the parents of the hybrid offspring each have naturally selected traits for their own certain environments, the hybrid offspring will bear traits from both, therefore would not fit either ecological niche as well as either parent. The low fitness of the hybrids would cause selection to favor assortative mating, which would control hybridization. This is sometimes called the Wallace effect after the evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace who suggested in the late 19th century that it might be an important factor in speciation. Conversely, if the hybrid offspring are more fit than their ancestors, then the populations will merge back into the same species within the area they are in contact.  Reinforcement favoring reproductive isolation is required for both parapatric and sympatric speciation. Without reinforcement, the geographic area of contact between different forms of the same species, called their "hybrid zone," will not develop into a boundary between the different species. Hybrid zones are regions where diverged populations meet and interbreed. Hybrid offspring are very common in these regions, which are usually created by diverged species coming into secondary contact. Without reinforcement, the two species would have uncontrollable inbreeding. Reinforcement may be induced in artificial selection experiments as described below.

Ecological.

Ecological selection is "the interaction of individuals with their environment during resource acquisition". Natural selection is inherently involved in the process of speciation, whereby, "under ecological speciation, populations in different environments, or populations exploiting different resources, experience contrasting natural selection pressures on the traits that directly or indirectly bring about the evolution of reproductive isolation". Evidence for the role ecology plays in the process of speciation exists. Studies of stickleback populations support ecologically-linked speciation arising as a by-product, alongside numerous studies of parallel speciation, where isolation evolves between independent populations of species adapting to contrasting environments than between independent populations adapting to similar environments. Ecological speciation occurs with much of the evidence, "...accumulated from top-down studies of adaptation and reproductive isolation".

Sexual selection.

It is widely appreciated that sexual selection could drive speciation in many clades, independently of natural selection. However the term "speciation", in this context, tends to be used in two different, but not mutually exclusive senses. The first and most commonly used sense refers to the "birth" of new species. That is, the splitting of an existing species into two separate species, or the budding off of a new species from a parent species, both driven by a biological "fashion fad" (a preference for a feature, or features, in one or both sexes, that do not necessarily have any adaptive qualities). In the second sense, "speciation" refers to the wide-spread tendency of sexual creatures to be grouped into clearly defined species, rather than forming a continuum of phenotypes both in time and space – which would be the more obvious or logical consequence of natural selection. This was indeed recognized by Darwin as problematic, and included in his "On the Origin of Species" (1859), under the heading "Difficulties with the Theory". There are several suggestions as to how mate choice might play a significant role in resolving.

Artificial speciation.

New species have been created by animal husbandry, but the dates and methods of the initiation of such species are not clear. Often, the domestic counterpart of the wild ancestor can still interbreed and produce fertile offspring as in the case of domestic cattle, that can be considered the same species as several varieties of wild ox, gaur, yak, etc., or domestic sheep that can interbreed with the mouflon.  The best-documented creations of new species in the laboratory were performed in the late 1980s. William R. Rice and George W. Salt bred "Drosophila melanogaster" fruit flies using a maze with three different choices of habitat such as light/dark and wet/dry. Each generation was placed into the maze, and the groups of flies that came out of two of the eight exits were set apart to breed with each other in their respective groups. After thirty-five generations, the two groups and their offspring were isolated reproductively because of their strong habitat preferences: they mated only within the areas they preferred, and so did not mate with flies that preferred the other areas. The history of such attempts is described by Rice and Elen E. Hostert (1993). Diane Dodd used a laboratory experiment to show how reproductive isolation can develop in "Drosophila pseudoobscura" fruit flies after several generations by placing them in different media, starch- and maltose-based media.  Dodd's experiment has been easy for many others to replicate, including with other kinds of fruit flies and foods. Research in 2005 has shown that this rapid evolution of reproductive isolation may in fact be a relic of infection by "Wolbachia" bacteria.  Alternatively, these observations are consistent with the notion that sexual creatures are inherently reluctant to mate with individuals whose appearance or behavior is different from the norm. The risk that such deviations are due to heritable maladaptations is very high. Thus, if a sexual creature, unable to predict natural selection's future direction, is conditioned to produce the fittest offspring possible, it will avoid mates with unusual habits or features. Sexual creatures will then inevitably tend to group themselves into reproductively isolated species.

Genetics.

Few speciation genes have been found. They usually involve the reinforcement process of late stages of speciation. In 2008, a speciation gene causing reproductive isolation was reported. It causes hybrid sterility between related subspecies. The order of speciation of three groups from a common ancestor may be unclear or unknown; a collection of three such species is referred to as a "trichotomy."

Speciation via polyploidy.

Polyploidy is a mechanism that has caused many rapid speciation events in sympatry because offspring of, for example, tetraploid x diploid matings often result in triploid sterile progeny. However, not all polyploids are reproductively isolated from their parental plants, and gene flow may still occur for example through triploid hybrid x diploid matings that produce tetraploids, or matings between meiotically unreduced gametes from diploids and gametes from tetraploids (see also hybrid speciation).  It has been suggested that many of the existing plant and most animal species have undergone an event of polyploidization in their evolutionary history. Reproduction of successful polyploid species is sometimes asexual, by parthenogenesis or apomixis, as for unknown reasons many asexual organisms are polyploid. Rare instances of polyploid mammals are known, but most often result in prenatal death.

Hybrid speciation.

Hybridization between two different species sometimes leads to a distinct phenotype. This phenotype can also be fitter than the parental lineage and as such natural selection may then favor these individuals. Eventually, if reproductive isolation is achieved, it may lead to a separate species. However, reproductive isolation between hybrids and their parents is particularly difficult to achieve and thus hybrid speciation is considered an extremely rare event. The Mariana mallard is thought to have arisen from hybrid speciation.  Hybridization is an important means of speciation in plants, since polyploidy (having more than two copies of each chromosome) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals. Polyploidy is important in hybrids as it allows reproduction, with the two different sets of chromosomes each being able to pair with an identical partner during meiosis. Polyploids also have more genetic diversity, which allows them to avoid inbreeding depression in small populations.  Hybridization without change in chromosome number is called homoploid hybrid speciation. It is considered very rare but has been shown in "Heliconius" butterflies and sunflowers. Polyploid speciation, which involves changes in chromosome number, is a more common phenomenon, especially in plant species.

Gene transposition.

Theodosius Dobzhansky, who studied fruit flies in the early days of genetic research in 1930s, speculated that parts of chromosomes that switch from one location to another might cause a species to split into two different species. He mapped out how it might be possible for sections of chromosomes to relocate themselves in a genome. Those mobile sections can cause sterility in inter-species hybrids, which can act as a speciation pressure. In theory, his idea was sound, but scientists long debated whether it actually happened in nature. Eventually a competing theory involving the gradual accumulation of mutations was shown to occur in nature so often that geneticists largely dismissed the moving gene hypothesis. However, 2006 research shows that jumping of a gene from one chromosome to another can contribute to the birth of new species. This validates the reproductive isolation mechanism, a key component of speciation.

Rates.

There is debate as to the rate at which speciation events occur over geologic time. While some evolutionary biologists claim that speciation events have remained relatively constant and gradual over time (known as "Phyletic gradualism" – see diagram), some palaeontologists such as Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould have argued that species usually remain unchanged over long stretches of time, and that speciation occurs only over relatively brief intervals, a view known as "punctuated equilibrium". (See diagram, and.)

Punctuated evolution.

Evolution can be extremely rapid, as shown in the creation of domesticated animals and plants in a very short geological space of time, spanning only a few tens of thousands of years. Maize ("Zea mays"), for instance, was created in Mexico in only a few thousand years, starting about 7,000 to 12,000 years ago. This raises the question of why the long term rate of evolution is far slower than is theoretically possible.  Evolution is imposed on species or groups. It is not planned or striven for in some Lamarckist way. The mutations on which the process depends are random events, and, except for the "silent mutations" which do not affect the functionality or appearance of the carrier, are thus usually disadvantageous, and their chance of proving to be useful in the future is vanishingly small. Therefore, while a species or group might benefit from being able to adapt to a new environment by accumulating a wide range of genetic variation, this is to the detriment of the "individuals" who have to carry these mutations until a small, unpredictable minority of them ultimately contributes to such an adaptation. Thus, the "capability" to evolve would require group selection, a concept discredited by (for example) George C. Williams, John Maynard Smith and Richard Dawkins as selectively disadvantageous to the individual.  The resolution to Darwin's second dilemma might thus come about as follows:  If sexual individuals are disadvantaged by passing mutations on to their offspring, they will avoid mutant mates with strange or unusual characteristics. Mutations that affect the external appearance of their carriers will then rarely be passed on to the next and subsequent generations. They would therefore seldom be tested by natural selection. Evolution is, therefore, effectively halted or slowed down considerably. The only mutations that can accumulate in a population, on this punctuated equilibrium view, are ones that have no noticeable effect on the outward appearance and functionality of their bearers (i.e., they are "silent" or "neutral mutations," which can be, and are, used to trace the relatedness and age of populations and species.) This argument implies that evolution can only occur if mutant mates cannot be avoided, as a result of a severe scarcity of potential mates. This is most likely to occur in small, isolated communities. These occur most commonly on small islands, in remote valleys, lakes, river systems, or caves, or during the aftermath of a mass extinction. Under these circumstances, not only is the choice of mates severely restricted but population bottlenecks, founder effects, genetic drift and inbreeding cause rapid, random changes in the isolated population's genetic composition. Furthermore, hybridization with a related species trapped in the same isolate might introduce additional genetic changes. If an isolated population such as this survives its genetic upheavals, and subsequently expands into an unoccupied niche, or into a niche in which it has an advantage over its competitors, a new species, or subspecies, will have come in being. In geological terms, this will be an abrupt event. A resumption of avoiding mutant mates will thereafter result, once again, in evolutionary stagnation.  In apparent confirmation of this punctuated equilibrium view of evolution, the fossil record of an evolutionary progression typically consists of species that suddenly appear, and ultimately disappear, hundreds of thousands or millions of years later, without any change in external appearance. Graphically, these fossil species are represented by lines parallel with the time axis, whose lengths depict how long each of them existed. The fact that the lines remain parallel with the time axis illustrates the unchanging appearance of each of the fossil species depicted on the graph. During each species' existence new species appear at random intervals, each also lasting many hundreds of thousands of years before disappearing without a change in appearance. The exact relatedness of these concurrent species is generally impossible to determine. This is illustrated in the diagram depicting the distribution of hominin species through time since the hominins separated from the line that led to the evolution of our closest living primate relatives, the chimpanzees.  For similar evolutionary time lines see, for instance, the paleontological list of African dinosaurs, Asian dinosaurs, the Lampriformes and Amiiformes.

Speciation is the evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species. The biologist Orator F. Cook coined the term in 1906 for cladogenesis, the splitting of lineages, as opposed to anagenesis, phyletic evolution within lineages. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book "On the Origin of Species". He also identified sexual selection as a likely mechanism, but found it problematic.

La est, en biologie, le processus évolutif par lequel de nouvelles espèces vivantes se forment à partir d'ancêtres communs. Les espèces s'individualisent à partir de populations appartenant à une espèce d'origine (sauf exception pour certains végétaux). Une espèce, au sens du concept biologique d'espèce, est définie comme ayant une communauté d'ascendance au sein de laquelle tout individu est interfécond avec les autres et donnera une descendance fertile. Il y a donc eu spéciation lorsque deux groupes partageant les mêmes ancêtres ne sont plus interféconds, et prennent ainsi le statut d'espèces biologiques vraies. La "zone grise" dans laquelle deux populations commencent à diverger et au-delà de laquelle on considère que ces deux groupes sont désormais deux espèces distinctes s'étend de 0,5 % jusqu'à 2 % de divergences moléculaires.


System design.

Kernel.

The kernel messaging subsystem being developed is similar to those found in microkernels such as Mach, though it is less complex by design. However, DragonFly uses a monolithic kernel system. DragonFly's messaging subsystem has the ability to act in either a synchronous or asynchronous fashion, and attempts to use this capability to achieve the best performance possible in any given situation.  According to developer Matthew Dillon, progress is being made to provide both device input/output (I/O) and virtual file system (VFS) messaging capabilities that will enable the remainder of the project goals to be met. The new infrastructure will allow many parts of the kernel to be migrated out into userspace; here they will be more easily debugged as they will be smaller, isolated programs, instead of being small parts entwined in a larger chunk of code. Additionally, the migration of select kernel code into userspace has the benefit of making the system more robust; if a userspace driver crashes, it will not crash the kernel.  System calls are being split into userland and kernel versions and being encapsulated into messages. This will help reduce the size and complexity of the kernel by moving variants of standard system calls into a userland compatibility layer, and help maintain forwards and backwards compatibility between DragonFly versions. Linux and other Unix-like OS compatibility code is being migrated out similarly.

Threading.

As support for multiple instruction set architectures complicates symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) support, DragonFly BSD now limits its support to the x86-64 platform. DragonFly originally ran on the x86 architecture, however as of version 4.0 it is no longer supported. Since version 1.10, DragonFly supports 1:1 userland threading (one kernel thread per userland thread), which is regarded as a relatively simple solution that is also easy to maintain. Inherited from FreeBSD, DragonFly also supports multi-threading.  In DragonFly, each CPU has its own thread scheduler. Upon creation, threads are assigned to processors and are never preemptively switched from one processor to another; they are only migrated by the passing of an inter-processor interrupt (IPI) message between the CPUs involved. Inter-processor thread scheduling is also accomplished by sending asynchronous IPI messages. One advantage to this clean compartmentalization of the threading subsystem is that the processors' on-board caches in symmetric multiprocessor systems do not contain duplicated data, allowing for higher performance by giving each processor in the system the ability to use its own cache to store different things to work on.  The "LWKT" subsystem is being employed to partition work among multiple kernel threads (for example in the networking code there is one thread per protocol per processor), reducing competition by removing the need to share certain resources among various kernel tasks.

Shared resources protection.

In order to run safely on multiprocessor machines, access to shared resources (like files, data structures) must be serialized so that threads or processes do not attempt to modify the same resource at the same time. In order to prevent multiple threads from accessing or modifying a shared resource simultaneously, DragonFly employs critical sections, and serializing tokens to prevent concurrent access. While both Linux and FreeBSD 5 employ fine-grained mutex models to achieve higher performance on multiprocessor systems, DragonFly does not. Until recently, DragonFly also employed spls, but these were replaced with critical sections.  Much of the system's core, including the "LWKT" subsystem, the IPI messaging subsystem and the new kernel memory allocator, are lockless, meaning that they work without using mutexes, with each process operating on a single CPU. Critical sections are used to protect against local interrupts, individually for each CPU, guaranteeing that a thread currently being executed will not be preempted.  Serializing tokens are used to prevent concurrent accesses from other CPUs and may be held simultaneously by multiple threads, ensuring that only one of those threads is running at any given time. Blocked or sleeping threads therefore do not prevent other threads from accessing the shared resource unlike a thread that is holding a mutex. Among other things, the use of serializing tokens prevents many of the situations that could result in deadlocks and priority inversions when using mutexes, as well as greatly simplifying the design and implementation of a many-step procedure that would require a resource to be shared among multiple threads. The serializing token code is evolving into something quite similar to the "Read-copy-update" feature now available in Linux. Unlike Linux's current RCU implementation, DragonFly's is being implemented such that only processors competing for the same token are affected rather than all processors in the computer.  DragonFly switched to multiprocessor safe slab allocator, which requires neither mutexes nor blocking operations for memory assignment tasks. It was eventually ported into standard C library in the userland, where it replaced FreeBSD's malloc implementation.

Virtual kernel.

Since release 1.8 DragonFly has a virtualization mechanism similar to User-mode Linux, allowing a user to run another kernel in the userland. The virtual kernel ("vkernel") is run in completely isolated environment with emulated network and storage interfaces, thus simplifying testing kernel subsystems and clustering features.  The vkernel has two important differences from the real kernel: it lacks many routines for dealing with the low-level hardware management and it uses C standard library (libc) functions in place of in-kernel implementations wherever possible. As both real and virtual kernel are compiled from the same code base, this effectively means that platform-dependent routines and re-implementations of libc functions are clearly separated in a source tree.  The vkernel runs on top of hardware abstractions provided by the real kernel. These include the kqueue-based timer, the console (mapped to the virtual terminal where vkernel is executed), the disk image and virtual kernel Ethernet device ("VKE"), tunneling all packets to the host's tap interface.

Package management.

Third-party software is available on DragonFly as binary packages via codice_1 or from a native ports collection – DPorts.  DragonFly originally used the FreeBSD Ports collection as its official package management system, but starting with the 1.4 release switched to NetBSD's pkgsrc system, which was perceived as a way of lessening the amount of work needed for third-party software availability. Eventually, maintaining compatibility with codice_2 proved to require more effort than was initially anticipated, so the project created DPorts, an overlay on top of the FreeBSD Ports collection.

CARP support.

The initial implementation of Common Address Redundancy Protocol (commonly referred to as "CARP") was finished in March 2007. As of 2011, CARP support is integrated into DragonFly BSD.

HAMMER file systems.

Alongside the Unix File System, which is typically the default file system on BSDs, DragonFly BSD supports the HAMMER and HAMMER2 file systems. HAMMER2 is the default file system as of version 5.2.0.  HAMMER was developed specifically for DragonFly BSD to provide a feature-rich yet better designed analogue of the increasingly popular ZFS. HAMMER supports configurable file system history, snapshots, checksumming, data deduplication and other features typical for file systems of its kind.  HAMMER2, the successor of the HAMMER file system, is now considered stable, used by default, and the focus of further development. Plans for its development were initially shared in 2012. In 2017, Dillon announced that the next DragonFly BSD version (5.0.0) would include a usable, though still experimental, version of HAMMER2, and described features of the design. With the release after 5.0.0, version 5.2.0, HAMMER2 became the new default file system.

devfs.

In 2007 DragonFly BSD received a new device file system (devfs), which dynamically adds and removes device nodes, allows accessing devices by connection paths, recognises drives by serial numbers and removes the need for pre-populated codice_3 file system hierarchy. It was implemented as a Google Summer of Code 2009 project.

Application snapshots.

DragonFly BSD supports Amiga-style "resident applications" feature: it takes a snapshot of a large, dynamically linked program's virtual memory space after loading, allowing future instances of the program to start much more quickly than it otherwise would have. This replaces the prelinking capability that was being worked on earlier in the project's history, as the resident support is much more efficient. Large programs like those found in KDE Software Compilation with many shared libraries will benefit the most from this support.

Development and distribution.

As with FreeBSD and OpenBSD, the developers of DragonFly BSD are slowly replacing pre-function prototype-style C code with more modern, ANSI equivalents. Similar to other operating systems, DragonFly's version of the GNU Compiler Collection has an enhancement called the Stack-Smashing Protector (ProPolice) enabled by default, providing some additional protection against buffer overflow based attacks., the kernel is no longer built with this protection by default.  Being a derivative of FreeBSD, DragonFly has inherited an easy-to-use integrated build system that can rebuild the entire base system from source with only a few commands. The DragonFly developers use the Git version control system to manage changes to the DragonFly source code. Unlike its parent FreeBSD, DragonFly has both stable and unstable releases in a single source tree, due to a smaller developer base.  Like the other BSD kernels (and those of most modern operating systems), DragonFly employs a built-in kernel debugger to help the developers find kernel bugs. Furthermore,, a debug kernel, which makes bug reports more useful for tracking down kernel-related problems, is installed by default, at the expense of a relatively small quantity of disk space. When a new kernel is installed, the backup copy of the previous kernel and its modules are stripped of their debugging symbols to further minimize disk space usage.

Distribution media.

The operating system is distributed as a Live CD and Live USB ("full X11" flavour available) that boots into a complete DragonFly system. It includes the base system and a complete set of manual pages, and may include source code and useful packages in future versions. The advantage of this is that with a single CD users can install the software onto a computer, use a full set of tools to repair a damaged installation, or demonstrate the capabilities of the system without installing it. Daily snapshots are available from the master site for those who want to install the most recent versions of DragonFly without building from source.  Like the other free and open-source BSDs, DragonFly is distributed under the terms of the modern version of the BSD license.

DragonFly BSD is a free and open-source Unix-like operating system forked from FreeBSD 4.8. Matthew Dillon, an Amiga developer in the late 1980s and early 1990s and FreeBSD developer between 1994 and 2003, began working on DragonFly BSD in June 2003 and announced it on the FreeBSD mailing lists on 16 July 2003.

DragonFly BSD est un système d'exploitation de type BSD. Il résulte d'un fork en 2003 de FreeBSD 4.8 mené par Matt Dillon, jugeant le nouveau système de threading et SMP de FreeBSD 5 peu performant et difficile à maintenir.


Career until 1978.

Boulin was born in Villandraut, Gironde. A Gaullist who joined the Free French movement in 1940, and rose to lead the movement in Navarre – an achievement for which he was awarded the croix de guerre – Boulin was known for his moderation; the courtesy with which he treated his political opponents led to a reputation as a skilled negotiator.  Boulin's first ministerial position was as refugee minister in 1961, when France was winding up the Algerian war preparing to repatriate more than a million French settlers.  Boulin served in the three governments following the establishment of the Fifth Republic in nine different posts; he occupied ministerial posts for fifteen years. His only break in ministerial service came from 1973 to 1976, when he was sidelined for having worked for Chaban-Delmas against Valéry Giscard in the presidential elections.

Accusations in the Press.

In 1979, when he was being tipped as a successor to the unpopular Raymond Barre as Prime Minister of France, the satirical and investigative weekly "Le Canard enchaîné" began to publish a series of articles that it said revealed Boulin had taken undue advantage of his position to obtain favourable terms on a series of real estate deals in the French Riviera.  The paper printed photographs of letters on official ministry letterhead that purported to show that Boulin had tried to get government representatives in the region to authorize construction of 26 houses in an area where buildings were barred for environmental reasons, and that Boulin tried to get Henri Tournet, the property developer at the center of the scandal, promoted to the Legion of Honor.  Further, according to the "Le Canard enchaîné", Tournet sold Boulin near Ramatuelle in 1974 that the developer had already sold to someone else. Boulin said he knew nothing of the dispute until 1978, but a letter quoted by the "Canard" seemed to indicate that the minister knew beforehand. The paper further claimed that Boulin had paid $8,000 for the land, a third of what the other buyer had paid a year earlier, and was able to get a building permit – within a month, which was unusual – in a wooded area where building had previously not taken place.

Death and controversy.

On 29 October 1979, Boulin had lunch with his son Bertrand, and subsequently disappeared. Police found his body on the morning of 30 October in a pond in the forest of Rambouillet. Next to his car, which was parked nearby, was an empty container of barbiturates. In the car were envelopes addressed to Boulin's wife and to his colleagues at the Labor Ministry.  Before the contents of the envelopes were known, top governmental leaders publicly accused "Le Canard enchaîné" of being morally responsible for Boulin's death, and there were broad hints the government might use the reaction to the Boulin death to seek stricter libel laws, as was done in the 1930s after the suicide of Roger Salengro, the Socialist minister in Léon Blum's Popular Front government, in 1936. Salengro was widely believed to have been hounded by Fascist weeklies.  Jacques Chaban-Delmas, then President of the National Assembly, who had been politically identified with Boulin for many years, told a special memorial session of the assembly that it should "draw the lessons of this tragedy, of this assassination." After meeting with President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, Prime Minister Barre called for "meditation upon the consequences of certain ignominies", and spoke of "a baseness." The president joined in the criticism: Boulin, said Giscard, "was unable to resist the campaign of harassment he was subjected to. Public opinion should severely condemn any other similar campaigns."  The release of letters found in his car and that he had mailed from a Paris suburb on the day of his death threw fuel on the flames of controversy, as he apparently posthumously accused his fellow Gaullists, especially Justice Minister Alain Peyrefitte of "obvious collusion" with those who were out to destroy him, whom he named as Henri Tournet, an "ambitious" investigating magistrate and "certain political circles from which my own political friends are, alas, not excluded" and implied that the then parliamentary majority was, in Boulin's phrase, "a basket of crabs."  In a separate note to the police, Boulin wrote "I have decided to drown myself in a lake in the forest, of Rambouillet, where I enjoyed riding horseback."  Before his death, Boulin also wrote letters to Agence France-Presse, "Le Monde", his wife Collette, and to Chaban-Delmas.  In the version published by Agence France-Presse, he accused a young Normandy judge of leaking details of the real estate case in an effort to seek personal publicity, and attacked the Minister of Justice: "this leaking of the secrets of the investigation failed to move a justice minister more concerned about his career than about the smooth functioning of justice."  Boulin alleged that the judge let the real estate operator go free after serving a month in jail in exchange for his cooperation in implicating the labor minister. The land agent, Henri Tournet, was "blackmailing" Boulin by trying to make it appear, untruthfully, that he knew beforehand that a building lot he bought from him on the French Riviera belonged to someone else, Boulin claimed.  Boulin said that upon being freed from prison, Tournet went to "Le Monde" and "Le Canard enchaîné", "whose basic motivation is maliciousness."

Investigation.

Shortly after his death, the Boulin family declared that they did not accept the verdict of suicide and began waging a campaign in the press and the courts to re-open the case, which they believed was murder. On 22 October 1983, his body was ordered to be exhumed for an additional autopsy.  The irregularities of the case were widely covered: that the lake in which he allegedly drowned was apparently nowhere more than one foot seven inches in depth; that Boulin's face had been badly battered and a cheek bone fractured, which went unmentioned in the official autopsy report; that the local doctor who signed the certificate was only allowed a hurried glimpse of the body which had already been transferred, on orders by high officials, to a waiting helicopter; that the jars containing Mr Boulin's lungs, necessary to confirm a death by drowning, disappeared mysteriously after someone broke into the laboratory fridge.  At a press conference on 17 January 1984, the family accused the Versailles prosecutor of "wanting to hide the real cause of the death of Robert Boulin" and of "shielding the assassins from the law". The family was then prosecuted by the minister for justice for defaming a magistrate, and fined 800 francs; they were pardoned personally by François Mitterrand on his ascension to the Presidency a few weeks later.  In September 1991, the Paris Public Prosecutor announced that he was closing the dossier opened in 1983; the family continued to accuse the Gaullist party of a cover-up, and possible implication in Boulin's death itself. The issue was re-ignited in January 2002 by a series of investigations televised on Canal Plus, in which Juliette Garrat, the doctor who performed the autopsy, said she was now sure that Mr Boulin's death was a "murder disguised as suicide" and the substitute prosecutor at the time also came forward to say "orders were given" by the authorities to stick to the verdict of suicide.  On 21 June 2007, shortly after Jacques Chirac, also a Gaullist, handed over power to Nicolas Sarkozy, the Paris Public Prosecutor met with Boulin's daughter, Fabienne Burgeat, and announced that he was considering re-opening the investigation as "new evidence" had come to light.

Popular culture.

Boulin was portrayed by François Berléand in the 2013 TV movie "Crime D'Etat" (lit. "Crime of State") directed by Pierre Aknine.

Robert Boulin (20 July 1920 – 30 October 1979) was a French politician who served as Minister of Labour in the French Cabinet and was at the centre of a major real-estate scandal that ended only with his death in mysterious circumstances. At the time of his death he was the longest serving minister in post-revolution French history; only Louis XIV's Colbert served longer.

Robert Boulin, né le à Villandraut (Gironde) et retrouvé mort le dans l'étang Rompu de la forêt de Rambouillet (Yvelines), est un homme politique français qui a été secrétaire d'État et ministre sous les présidences de Gaulle, Pompidou et Giscard d'Estaing. Sa mort brutale et les questions qu'elle soulève ont été le point de départ de l'affaire Robert Boulin.


Description.

"Fraxinus ornus" is a medium-sized deciduous tree growing to tall with a trunk up to 1 m diameter. The bark is dark grey, remaining smooth even on old trees.  The buds are pale pinkish-brown to grey-brown, with a dense covering of short grey hairs.  The leaves are in opposite pairs, pinnate, long, with 5 to 9 leaflets; the leaflets are broad ovoid, long and broad, with a finely serrated and wavy margin, and short but distinct petiolules long; the autumn colour is variable, yellow to purplish.  The flowers are produced in dense panicles long after the new leaves appear in late spring, each flower with four slender creamy white petals long; they are pollinated by insects.  The fruit is a slender samara long, the seed broad and the wing broad, green ripening brown.

Cultivation and uses.

"Fraxinus ornus" is frequently grown as an ornamental tree in Europe north of its native range for its decorative flowers—the species is also sometimes called "flowering ash". Some cultivated specimens are grafted on rootstocks of "Fraxinus excelsior", with an often very conspicuous change in the bark at the graft line to the fissured bark of the rootstock species.  A sugary extract from the sap may be obtained by making a cut in the bark; this was compared in late medieval times (attested by around 1400 AD) with the biblical manna, giving rise to the English name of the tree, and some of the vernacular names from its native area ("fresno del maná" in Spanish, "frassino da manna" in Italian). In fact, the sugar mannose and the sugar alcohol mannitol both derive their names from the extract.

Fraxinus ornus, the manna ash or South European flowering ash, is a species of "Fraxinus" native to southern Europe and southwestern Asia, from Spain and Italy north to Austria, Poland and the Czech Republic, and east through the Balkans, Turkey, and western Syria to Lebanon and Armenia.

Le Frêne à fleurs ou Orne "(Fraxinus ornus"), parfois appelé Frêne à manne, ou Frêne orne, plus rarement Orne d'Europe, est un arbre de la famille des Oléacées.


Architecture.

While designing it after the Vatican Basilica, Lebanese architect Pierre Fakhoury constructed the dome to be slightly lower than the Basilica of Saint Peter, but ornamented with a larger cross on top. The finished height is. The dome is more than twice the diameter of St. Peter's in Rome, 90 metres versus 41 metres (300 ft versus 136 ft). The base of the dome is much lower than St. Peter's, so the overall height is slightly less. The basilica is constructed with marble imported from Italy and is furnished with of contemporary stained glass from France..  Columns are plentiful throughout the basilica but are not uniform in style; the smaller columns are there for structural reasons, while the bigger ones are decorative and contain elevators, rainwater evacuation from the roof and other building mechanical devices. There is enough space to seat 7,000 people in the nave, with standing room for an additional 11,000 people. Apart from the basilica are two identical villas. One of the villas accommodates the clergymen who operate the basilica. A room in the other villa is reserved for papal visits, of which only one has occurred: when the basilica was consecrated.  The wood chosen for the 7000 pews in the Our Lady of Peace Basilica is Iroko wood.

Construction.

The Basilica was built by Dumez, the French construction company.  The cost of the basilica was met with some controversy globally when construction began, especially as the Côte d'Ivoire was going through an economic and fiscal crisis at the time. Pope John Paul II agreed to consecrate the basilica on the condition that a hospital also be built nearby. This hospital, whose construction was frozen during the politico-military crisis from 2002 to 2011, was finally completed in 2014 and opened in January 2015, at a cost of €21.3 million.  It was claimed that the final cost of the Basilica doubled Côte d'Ivoire's national debt, but this actually isn't found in the underlying data.

Memorial.

Côte d'Ivoire President Houphouët-Boigny chose his birthplace of Yamoussoukro to be the future site of the new capital city of his country in 1983. As part of the plan of the city, the president wanted to memorialize himself with the construction of what he called the greatest church in the world. He is even pictured beside Jesus in one stained-glass panel ascending to heaven. Due to the location of the Basilica, it was dubbed by the media as "Basilica in the Bush". Houphouët-Boigny believed it would become a pilgrimage site for African Catholics.

The Basilica of Our Lady of Peace () is a Catholic minor basilica dedicated to Our Lady of Peace in Yamoussoukro, the administrative capital of Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast). The basilica was constructed between 1985 and 1989 with different cost estimates given by various groups. Some stated that it cost US$175 million, US$300 million, or US$400 million, ranging as high as US$600 million. The designs of the dome and encircled plaza are clearly inspired by the Basilica of Saint Peter in Vatican City, although it is not an outright replica. The cornerstone was laid on 10 August 1985, and it was consecrated on 10 September 1990 by Pope John Paul II, who had just formally accepted the basilica as a gift from Félix Houphouët-Boigny on behalf of the Catholic Church.

La basilique Notre-Dame de la Paix de Yamoussoukro est l’édifice religieux catholique le plus grand au monde. Son apparence rappelle celle de la basilique Saint-Pierre à Rome. Située à Yamoussoukro, capitale de la Côte d'Ivoire, son emplacement a été choisi par le premier président du pays, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, en 1983. Le livre Guinness des records l'a reconnu en 1989 comme l'édifice religieux chrétien le plus large au monde ( de largeur contre pour la basilique Saint-Pierre). La basilique est aujourd'hui encore un lieu fervent de la foi catholique en Afrique.


Biography.

The Holy See's "Annuario Pontificio" (2012) identifies him as a Roman who served from 117 or 119 to 126 or 128. According to the "Liberian Catalogue" of popes, he served the Church during the reign of Hadrian "from the consulate of Niger and Apronianus until that of Verus III and Ambibulus", that is, from 117 to 126. Eusebius states in his "Chronicon" that Sixtus I was pope from 114 to 124, while his "Historia Ecclesiastica", using a different catalogue of popes, claims his rule from 114 to 128. All authorities agree that he reigned about ten years.  Sixtus I instituted several Catholic liturgical and administrative traditions. Like most of his predecessors, Sixtus I was believed to have been buried near Peter's grave on Vatican Hill, although there are differing traditions concerning where his body lies today. In Alife, there is a Romanesque crypt, which houses the relics of Pope Sixtus I, brought there by Rainulf III.  He was a Roman by birth, and his father's name was Pastor. According to the "Liber Pontificalis" (ed. Duchesne, I.128), he passed the following three ordinances:  Alban Butler ("Lives of the Saints", 6 April) states that Clement X gave some of his relics to Cardinal de Retz, who placed them in the Abbey of St. Michael in Lorraine. The Xystus who is commemorated in the Catholic Canon of the Mass is Xystus II, not Xystus I.

Title.

The oldest documents use the spelling Xystus (from the Greek word for "polished") in reference to the first three popes of that name. Pope Sixtus I was also the sixth Pope after Peter, leading to questions as to whether the name "Sixtus" (meaning "sixth") might be fictitious.

Pope Sixtus I (42 – 124, 125, 126 or 128), also spelled Xystus, a Roman of Greek descent, was the bishop of Rome from c. 115 to his death. He succeeded Pope Alexander I and was in turn succeeded by Pope Telesphorus. His feast is celebrated on 6 April.

' ou'est, selon la tradition catholique, le évêque de Rome. On considère traditionnellement qu'il a siégé de 115 à 125. Cependant, l'édition de 2003 de l"'Annuario pontificio" retient les dates de 117 ou 119 à 126 ou 128.