Early life and family.

Anne Sexton was born Anne Gray Harvey in Newton, Massachusetts to Mary Gray (Staples) Harvey (1901–1959) and Ralph Churchill Harvey (1900–1959). She had two older sisters, Jane Elizabeth (Harvey) Jealous (1923–1983) and Blanche Dingley (Harvey) Taylor (1925–2011). She spent most of her childhood in Boston. In 1945 she enrolled at Rogers Hall boarding school, Lowell, Massachusetts, later spending a year at Garland School. For a time she modeled for Boston's Hart Agency. On August 16, 1948, she married Alfred Muller Sexton II and they remained together until 1973. Sexton had her first child, Linda Gray Sexton, in 1953. Her second child, Joyce Ladd Sexton, was born two years later.

Poetry.

Sexton suffered from severe bipolar disorder for much of her life, her first manic episode taking place in 1954. After a second episode in 1955 she met Dr. Martin Orne, who became her long-term therapist at the Glenside Hospital. It was Orne who encouraged her to write poetry.  The first poetry workshop she attended was led by John Holmes. Sexton felt great trepidation about registering for the class, asking a friend to make the phone call and accompany her to the first session. She found early acclaim with her poetry; a number were accepted by "The New Yorker", "Harper's Magazine" and the "Saturday Review". Sexton later studied with Robert Lowell at Boston University alongside poets Sylvia Plath and George Starbuck. Sexton later paid homage to her friendship with Plath in the 1966 poem "Sylvia's Death". Her first volume of poetry, "To Bedlam and Part Way Back", was published in 1960, and included the poem "Her Kind," which uses the persecution of witches as an analogy for the oppression of women in a patriarchal society.  Sexton's poetic career was encouraged by her mentor W.D. Snodgrass, whom she met at the Antioch Writer's Conference in 1957. His poem "Heart's Needle" proved inspirational for her in its theme of separation from his three-year-old daughter. Sexton first read the poem at a time when her own young daughter was living with her mother-in-law. She, in turn, wrote "The Double Image", a poem which explores the multi-generational relationship between mother and daughter. Sexton began writing letters to Snodgrass and they became friends.  While working with John Holmes, Sexton encountered Maxine Kumin. They became good friends and remained so for the rest of Sexton's life. Kumin and Sexton rigorously critiqued each other's work and wrote four children's books together. In the late 1960s, the manic elements of Sexton's illness began to affect her career, though she still wrote and published work and gave readings of her poetry. She collaborated with musicians, forming a jazz-rock group called Her Kind that added music to her poetry. Her play "Mercy Street", starring Marian Seldes, was produced in 1969, after several years of revisions. Sexton also collaborated with the artist Barbara Swan, who illustrated several of her books.  Within 12 years of writing her first sonnet, she was among the most honored poets in the U.S.: a Pulitzer Prize winner, a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature and the first female member of the Harvard chapter of Phi Beta Kappa.

Death.

On October 4, 1974, Sexton had lunch with Kumin to revise galleys for Sexton's manuscript of "The Awful Rowing Toward God", scheduled for publication in March 1975 (Middlebrook 396). On returning home she put on her mother's old fur coat, removed all her rings, poured herself a glass of vodka, locked herself in her garage, and started the engine of her car, ending her life by carbon monoxide poisoning.  In an interview over a year before her death, she explained she had written the first drafts of "The Awful Rowing Toward God" in 20 days with "two days out for despair and three days out in a mental hospital." She went on to say that she would not allow the poems to be published before her death. She is buried at Forest Hills Cemetery & Crematory in Jamaica Plain, Boston, Massachusetts.

Content and themes of work.

Sexton is seen as the modern model of the confessional poet due to the intimate and emotional content of her poetry. Sexton often wrote and disclosed her struggles with mental illness through her work. Anne Sexton has also included important yet overlooked topics that touched on the overall experience for a woman. Maxine Kumin described Sexton's work: "She wrote openly about menstruation, abortion, masturbation, incest, adultery, and drug addiction at a time when the proprieties embraced none of these as proper topics for poetry." Sexton's work towards the end of the sixties has been criticized as "preening, lazy and flip" by otherwise respectful critics. Some critics regard her dependence on alcohol as compromising her last work. However, other critics see Sexton as a poet whose writing matured over time. "Starting as a relatively conventional writer, she learned to roughen up her line...to use as an instrument against the 'politesse' of language, politics, religion [and] sex." Sexton was heavily criticized for her poetic content and themes, but these topics contributed to the popularity of her work.  Her eighth collection of poetry is entitled "The Awful Rowing Toward God". The title came from her meeting with a Roman Catholic priest who, unwilling to administer last rites, told her "God is in your typewriter." This gave the poet the desire and willpower to continue living and writing. "The Awful Rowing Toward God" and "The Death Notebooks" are among her final works, and both center on the theme of dying.  Her work started out as being about herself, however as her career progressed she made periodic attempts to reach outside the realm of her own life for poetic themes. "Transformations" (1971), which is a re-visionary re-telling of Grimm's Fairy Tales, is one such book. ("Transformations" was used as the libretto for the 1973 opera of the same name by American composer Conrad Susa.) Later she used Christopher Smart's "Jubilate Agno" and the Bible as the basis for some of her work.  Much has been made of the tangled threads of her writing, her life and her depression, much in the same way as with Sylvia Plath's suicide in 1963. Robert Lowell, Adrienne Rich and Denise Levertov commented in separate obituaries on the role of creativity in Sexton's death. Levertov says, "We who are alive must make clear, as she could not, the distinction between creativity and self-destruction."

Subsequent controversy.

Following one of many suicide attempts and manic or depressive episodes, Sexton worked with therapist Martin Orne. He diagnosed her with what is now described as bipolar disorder, but his competence to do so is called into question by his early use of allegedly unsound psychotherapeutic techniques. During sessions with Anne Sexton he used hypnosis and sodium pentothal to recover supposedly repressed memories. During this process, he allegedly used suggestion to uncover memories of having been abused by her father. This abuse was disputed in interviews with her mother and other relatives. Orne wrote that hypnosis in an adult frequently does not present accurate memories of childhood; instead, "adults under hypnosis are not literally reliving their early childhoods but presenting them through the prisms of adulthood." According to Orne, Anne Sexton was extremely suggestible and would mimic the symptoms of the patients around her in the mental hospitals to which she was committed. Diane Middlebrook's biography states that a separate personality named Elizabeth emerged in Sexton while under hypnosis. Orne did not encourage this development and subsequently this "alternate personality" disappeared. Orne eventually concluded that Anne Sexton was suffering from hysteria. During the writing of the Middlebrook biography, her daughter, Linda Gray Sexton, stated that she had been sexually assaulted by her mother. In 1994, she published her autobiography "Searching for Mercy Street: My Journey Back to My Mother, Anne Sexton", which includes her own accounts of the abuse.  Middlebrook published her controversial biography of Anne Sexton with the approval of daughter Linda, Anne's literary executor. For use in the biography, Orne had given Diane Middlebrook most of the tapes recording the therapy sessions between Orne and Anne Sexton. The use of these tapes was met with, as "The New York Times" put it, "thunderous condemnation". Middlebrook received the tapes after she had written a substantial amount of the first draft of Sexton's biography, and decided to start over. Although Linda Gray Sexton collaborated with the Middlebrook biography, other members of the Sexton family were divided over the book, publishing several editorials and op-ed pieces in "The New York Times" and "The New York Times Book Review".  Controversy continued with the posthumous public release of the tapes (which had been subject to doctor-patient confidentiality). They are said to reveal Sexton's molestation of her daughter Linda, her physically violent behavior toward both her daughters, and her physical altercations with her husband.  Further controversy surrounds allegations that she had an affair with the therapist who replaced Orne in the 1960s. No action was taken to censure or discipline the second therapist. Orne considered the affair with the second therapist (given the pseudonym "Ollie Zweizung" by Middlebrook and Linda Sexton) to be the catalyst that eventually resulted in her suicide.

Legacy.

Peter Gabriel dedicated his song "Mercy Street", from his 1986 album "So", to Sexton. She has been described as a "personal touchstone" for Morrissey, former lead singer and lyricist of The Smiths. She is commemorated on the Boston Women's Heritage Trail.

Anne Sexton (November 9, 1928 – October 4, 1974) was an American poet known for her highly personal, confessional verse. She won the Pulitzer Prize for poetry in 1967 for her book "Live or Die". Her poetry details her long battle with depression, suicidal tendencies, and intimate details from her private life, including relationships with her husband and children, whom it was later alleged she physically and sexually assaulted.

Anne Sexton, de son vrai nom Anne Gray Harvey, née le et décédée le, est une écrivaine et poète américaine.


Discovery.

The vertical shaft of KV63 was re-discovered on 10 March 2005. The discovery that the shaft led to a chamber was announced on 8 February 2006, by the Supreme Council of Antiquities, which credited the find to a team of U.S. archaeologists from the University of Memphis, under the leadership of Dr. Otto Schaden. The chamber — given the name "KV63" in accordance with the sequential numbering convention used in the Valley — was initially thought to be a tomb, the first new one to be revealed there since the discovery of KV62, the tomb of Tutankhamun, by Howard Carter in 1922.  KV63 is located in the area between KV10 (Amenmesse) and KV62 (Tutankhamun), in the very centre of the Valley's eastern branch and near the main crossroads of the network of paths traversed by thousands of tourists every day.  The discovery was made as the archaeological team was excavating the remains of 19th dynasty workmen's huts at the entrance to KV10, looking for evidence to clarify the succession of Amenmesse. The area around the huts had accumulated rubble from the occasional flooding. Both Theodore M. Davis and Howard Carter had dug in the area in the early twentieth century, but had not removed these particular huts. While exploring a layer of dark rock, the dig suddenly came across chips of white stone (these being the last level excavated by Carter). Further exploration revealed a straight edge of cut stone, which turned out to be on the upper lip of a vertical shaft. At that point the team knew they had discovered something much more elaborate and significant than the remains of the tomb-diggers' resthouses. Unfortunately, the discovery came at the very end of the 2004–05 digging season, and further excavations had to be postponed until the team recommenced its work the following autumn.

Description of chamber.

The overhang on the shaft of KV63 has been compared with and found to be similar to other Eighteenth Dynasty tombs (that of Yuya and Tjuyu), thereby dating the construction to the latter portion of the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. 14th century BC) of the New Kingdom (16th century to 11th century BC). It is also broadly speculated that all three tombs are the work of the same architect, or at least the same school of architects.  The newly revealed shaft descends some five metres. At the bottom of this pit stands a 1.5 metre tall door made of stone blocks. Behind this door, in which the team originally opened up a small window for the 10 February 2006 event, stands the single chamber.  No seals were found on the door, and it was initially believed that KV63 was a reburial and had experienced some intrusion in antiquity. The blocking stones in the doorway were not original, suggesting that the doorway had been opened and closed a few times. The original blocking stones were found inside the tomb, giving evidence that someone had re-entered and sealed the tomb in antiquity.  The chamber measures some four metres by five and has plain white walls. It contained seven wooden coffins, including one scaled for a child and one for a small infant. Two of the adult coffins and the child's coffin feature yellow funerary masks; the others have black funerary masks. It has been suggested that those with yellow faces may have been designed for female occupants. There is extensive termite damage on some coffins and the result was likened by the excavating team to "black paste"; however, at least two coffins were virtually untouched by termites. These termites seem to have come from the workers' huts above the shaft, and therefore probably date from the pharaonic era. There was no evidence of water damage. However, now that the chamber has been opened, the site is at risk of damage from flash floods.  The identity of the owners of the coffins is unknown; in any case none contained human remains, all having been used to hold material relating to the embalming process. There is no evidence for the chamber having been sealed more than once and it thus seems that the deposit represents embalming debris from one particular person's mummification.  The chamber also held 28 large storage jars, approximately 75 cm tall, made from both pottery and alabaster. The jars weighed in at around 40 or 43 kg (90–95 pounds), varying slightly in size and weight. Three of them appear to have been broken in antiquity at the rim or lower neck. Most of the jars were discovered with intact lids, but did not bear pharaonic seal impressions. Shortly after their manufacture, the jars were whitewashed while standing in sand, and the bottoms show the original clay. A large ostracon, not identified to have come from one of the storage jars at this time, was discovered and broken during the modern opening of the tomb.  According to Dr. Schaden, the method of sealing the storage jars had been very deliberate. A mud plug was first inserted, then a seal, and then a large plaster seal. Apparently, the people doing it had thought it of prime importance that it should be done in this very precise manner. This supports the idea that there was a solid reason behind the placing of the artifacts and that the chamber was not merely a dumping ground.  There was over 175 kg of natron in the chamber, some inside the coffins and some inside little sacks. The jars and contents are similar to those from KV54, the Tutankhamun embalming cache.  Work has been going on to carefully remove the coffins and the storage jars to KV10, which has adequate space for a conservation team to conduct a thorough examination and analysis of the coffins and jars in a proper, scientific manner. A pulley system was devised to facilitate the safe removal of the coffins and jars from the shaft. Grass buckets and bubblewrap were used to lift the jars out from the place where they were packed away for 3000 years. The removal of jars began on 2 March 2006 and most jars have been relocated safely along with one large sealed alabaster jar, which contained small pots packed in mud. Twelve of the storage jars have thus far been examined. Contents include natron, wood, seeds, shells, carbon, assorted pottery, small animal bones, papyrus fragments, mud trays, mud seals, and pieces of twine or rope. Egyptologist Salima Ikram is supervising the removal and examination of the contents.  On first examination there appeared to be some kind of stuffing extruding between the lid and the bottom of the youth coffin labeled 'G'. When the coffin was opened this stuffing was revealed to be five pillows. As textile remnants from ancient Egypt are relatively rare, and pillows extremely so, the materials used for these will be of great interest. On May 26, 2006, a 42 cm. pink gold leaf anthropoid coffinette was discovered inside the youth coffin, under the pillows.  The last and only completely sealed coffin was opened on June 28, 2006. As cameras were rolling, it was revealed that the coffin contained no mummy, only artifacts used for mummification or to decorate a body. It looked like it had once been used, as there was an impression of a human body in the bottom of the coffin. It is theorized that this body was moved or destroyed in antiquity.  Due to its proximity to the tomb of Tutankhamun and the resemblances between the portraits in the sarcophagi, as well as the style contemporary to the latter part of the 18th Dynasty, there was groundless speculation at the time of the first discovery that the coffins were once used for the bodies of Kiya and/or even Ankhesenamen. However, there is no reason to believe that the coffins were other than that of basic types used for private persons, probably derived from undertakers' stock for use to contain embalming debris.  Given the location of the tomb, and the fact that its entrance was sealed by the same flood layer that sealed that of Tutankhamun, it seems most likely that KV63 was the main embalmers' cache for Tutankhamun's burial. In this case, the long-known group of material deriving from his funeral found in KV54 probably represents an 'overflow' of material requiring disposal after KV63 had been sealed.

External links.

News media

KV63 is a recently opened chamber in Egypt's Valley of the Kings pharaonic necropolis. Initially believed to be a royal tomb, it is now believed to have been a storage chamber for the mummification process. It was found in 2005 by a team of archaeologists led by Dr. Otto Schaden.

KV 63 est le nom donné à l'avant-dernier tombeau découvert dans la vallée des rois, en 2006, dans la nécropole thébaine sur la rive ouest du Nil face à Louxor en Égypte, par l'équipe d'archéologues de l'Université de Memphis (États-Unis) conduite par Otto J. Schaden. La précédente découverte remontait à 1922, la tombe inviolée du pharaon Toutânkhamon (KV62).


Biography.

Little is known of his early life. In his three-volume "Schouburg", Arnold Houbraken mentioned him in his first volume with an entreaty to readers to write to him with more news of Breenbergh's biography. He had been told that Breenberg was born in Utrecht and had been a master of Cornelis van Poelenburgh, which he knew to be impossible from the facts that he already had, namely "the birth of Poelenburg in 1586 and the death of Breenberg in 1660." Houbraken never received the information he requested, though he mentioned Breenbergh again in his second volume in a list of 59 competent painters who were contemporaries of Abraham Bloemaert and Paulus Potter.  According to the Netherlands Institute for Art History (RKD), Breenbergh was born in the Netherlands town of Deventer, but after the death of his father in 1607 moved away with the rest of his family, probably to Hoorn. There he was a contemporary of Jacques Waben and possibly received his first training, though his first teacher is now supposed to be "one of those many forgotten Amsterdam landscape painters of the 1610s". His registered teachers are Pieter Lastman and Jacob Symonsz Pynas.  Breenbergh is first registered as a painter on an archival record in 1619 in Amsterdam, though he possibly was established there earlier.  In the same year he left for Rome. There he lived and worked with the Flemish painter Frans van de Kasteele and was heavily influenced by another Fleming resident, the landscape painter Paul Bril. From 1623, however, he came under the spell of Italian landscapes by the somewhat older Cornelis van Poelenburgh—indeed, the works of Breenbergh and van Poelenburgh are sometimes difficult to tell apart. He was also influenced by Nicolaes Moeyaert. Breenbergh in his turn influenced the French landscape-painter Claude Lorrain (who arrived in the city about 1620). In about 1620 Breenbergh became one of the founders of the Roman society of Dutch and Flemish painters, the "Bentvueghels", among whom he was nicknamed "het fret" ("the ferret").  In 1630 Breenbergh returned to Amsterdam. In 1633 he married, and received a yearly wage of 60 pounds from the court of king Charles I of Britain. He remained in Amsterdam until his death, where he made popular paintings and etchings of Italian buildings. There he was influenced by the pre-Rembrandtists such as Pieter Lastman and Nicolaes Moeyaert, but he placed their Biblical and mythological scenes in Italian landscapes.  His only registered pupil is Jan de Bisschop, who was his pupil in the 1640s until 1648. He influenced the painters Jan Linsen, Scipione Compagno, Laurens Barata, Charles Cornelisz. de Hooch, Pieter Anthonisz. van Groenewegen, Francois van Knibbergen, and Catharina van Knibbergen.

Bartholomeus Breenbergh (before 13 November 1598 – after 3 October 1657) was a Dutch Golden Age painter of Italian and Italianate landscapes, in Rome (1619-1630) and Amsterdam (1630-1657).

Bartholomeus Breenbergh, ou Bartholomäus Breenbergh (Deventer, baptisé le - Amsterdam, enterré le ) est un peintre de paysage néerlandais (Provinces-unies) du siècle d'or.


Career.

In 1965, Liggio gave lectures with Russell Stetler on "Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism: The Ideological Question in Vietnam" for the newly founded Free University of New York. Liggio provided editorial direction for "Literature of Liberty: A Review of Contemporary Liberal Thought," a periodical published by the Cato Institute from 1978 to 1979, then by the Institute for Humane Studies from 1980 to 1982.  Liggio was a visiting professor of law at the Francisco Marroquin University in Guatemala City, at the Academia Istropolitana in Bratislava (Slovakia), at the Institute for Political and Economic Studies (Georgetown University) and at the University of Aix-en-Provence, France. He was executive director of the John Templeton Foundation Freedom Project at the Atlas Network, where he led the International Freedom Project from 1998 to 2003. Liggio is a distinguished senior scholar with the Institute for Humane Studies, where he served as director of Programs in History and Social Theory from 1974 to 1977, as executive vice-president from 1979 to 1980 and then as president from 1980 to 1989. Liggio served the Humane Studies Foundation as chairman from 1980 to 1994 and then as vice-chairman from 1994 to 1998.

International activities.

Liggio had an international influence. In 1958, he attended his first meeting of the Mont Pelerin Society in the United States, held at Princeton University. He became a member of the program committee for the society's 1994 meeting at Cannes in 1992. In 1996, he became its treasurer until 2000 as well as a member of its Program and Planning Committee for the 1998 Society meeting in Washington, D.C. and of its board of directors until 2006. He became the chairman of its program committee for the 2002 meeting in London, England. He was then vice-president of the Mont Pelerin Society from 2000 to 2002 and its president from 2002 to 2004. He has been senior vice-president since 2004 and due to leave in 2006.  Liggio was a trustee with the Competitive Enterprise Institute since 1994 and the Institute for Economic Studies-Europe in Aix-en-Provence since 1999. From 1988 to 1998, he had been a trustee of the Philadelphia Society, of which he was president from 1992 to 1993 and from 1994 to 1995. He had been also a trustee with the Institute for Humane Studies-Europe in Paris from 1989 to 1999 and of the Acton Institute for the Study of Religion and Liberty from 1990 to 1999. He also served on the boards of a number of other think tanks:  As part of the circle of anti-state libertarians led by Murray Rothbard during the 1950s, he played an important role in the development of modern libertarian philosophy in the United States. He was also a member of the Philadelphia Society.

Editorial activities.

Liggio was a member of the editorial board at the "Cato Journal" since 1981, of the "American Journal of Jurisprudence" at Notre Dame Law School since 1995 and of "Markets & Morality" since 2000.  He was the editor of "Literature of Liberty: A Review of Contemporary Liberal Thought" from 1978 to 1982.  In 1965, with Murray Rothbard and George Resch, Liggio created "", a publication which emphasized "common philosophical bonds uniting the anarchism and isolationism of the Old Right, and the instinctive pacifistic anarchism characterizing the New Left in the middle sixties".

Death.

Liggio died on October 14, 2014.

Leonard P. Liggio (July 5, 1933 – October 14, 2014) was a classical liberal author, research professor of law at George Mason University and executive vice president of the Atlas Network in Fairfax, Virginia.

Leonard Liggio, né le et mort le, est un historien américain, président de la Société du Mont Pèlerin de 2002 à 2004, puis directeur exécutif de la Fondation Atlas. Leonard Liggio est un spécialiste du libéralisme français du et joue un rôle de premier plan dans l'organisation internationale du mouvement libéral contemporain.


Biography.

Yao Wenyuan was born in Zhuji, Zhejiang, to an intellectual family. His father, Yao Pengzi () was a writer, translator and art critic.  He began his career in Shanghai as a literary critic, where he became known for his sharp attacks against colleagues, such as in June 1957 against the newspaper "Wenhuibao". Since that time, he began to closely collaborate with leftist Shanghai politicians, including the head of the city's Propaganda Department, Zhang Chunqiao. His article "On the New Historical Beijing Opera 'Hai Rui Dismissed from Office'", published in "Wenhuibao" on November 10, 1965, launched the Cultural Revolution.  The article was about a popular opera by Wu Han, who was deputy mayor of Beijing. Zhang Chunqiao and Jiang Qing feared the play could be counter-revolutionary because parallels could be drawn between the characters in the play and officials in the communist government. In the play, Hai Rui, a government official, speaks for the peasants against the imperial government, criticizing officials for hypocritically oppressing the masses while pretending to be virtuous men. Hai Rui is dismissed because of this. Yao claimed it was a coded attack on Mao for dismissing in 1959 then-minister of defense Peng Dehuai, a critic of Mao's disastrous Great Leap Forward.  Confused by this unexpected attack, Beijing's party leadership tried to protect Wu Han, providing Mao the pretext for a full-scale "struggle" against them in the following year. Yao was soon promoted to the Cultural Revolution Group.  Yao Wenyuan was an ideal candidate for the criticism for such an opera because of his consistent socialist background. In April 1969 he joined the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, working on official propaganda. A member of "Proletarian writers for purity" he was the editor of "Liberation Daily" Shanghai's main newspaper. He joined the state's efforts to rid China's writers union of the famous writer Hu Feng.  In October 1976, he was arrested for his participation in the Cultural Revolution and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. He was released on October 23, 1996, and spent the remainder of his life writing a book and studying Chinese history. He lived in his hometown of Shanghai and became the last surviving member of the Gang of Four after Zhang Chunqiao died in April 2005. According to China's official Xinhua news agency, he died of diabetes on December 23, 2005, aged 74.

Yao Wenyuan (January 12, 1931 – December 23, 2005) was a Chinese literary critic, a politician, and a member of the Gang of Four during China's Cultural Revolution.

Yao Wenyuan (chinois simplifié et chinois traditionnel : 姚文元) est un dirigeant communiste chinois, né en 1931 et mort le.


Biography.

Froude was born at Dartington, Devon, England, the son of Robert Froude, Archdeacon of Totnes and was educated at Westminster School and Oriel College, Oxford, graduating with a first in mathematics in 1832.  His first employment was as a surveyor on the South Eastern Railway which, in 1837, led to Brunel giving him responsibility for the construction of a section of the Bristol and Exeter Railway. It was here that he developed his empirical method of setting out track transition curves and introduced an alternative design to the helicoidal skew arch bridge at Rewe and Cowley Bridge Junction, near Exeter. During this period he lived in Cullompton and was Vicar's Warden at St Andrew's Church from 1842 to 1844. He organised, and paid a large amount to the rebuilding of the chancel and other restoration work. He also offered to pay to restore the nave if local people would pay 10% of the cost but this offer was refused. On completion of the Bristol to Exeter line in 1844 he left the town.  At Brunel's invitation Froude turned his attention to the stability of ships in a seaway and his 1861 paper to the Institution of Naval Architects became influential in ship design. This led to a commission to identify the most efficient hull shape, which he was able to fulfil by reference to scale models: he established a formula (now known as the Froude number) by which the results of small-scale tests could be used to predict the behaviour of full-sized hulls. He built a sequence of 3, 6 and (shown in the picture) 12 foot scale models and used them in towing trials to establish resistance and scaling laws; "Raven" sharp prow followed the "waveline" theory of John Scott Russell, but "Swan" blunter profile proved to offer lower resistance. His experiments were vindicated in full-scale trials conducted by the Admiralty and as a result the first ship test tank was built, at public expense, at his home in Torquay. Here he was able to combine mathematical expertise with practical experimentation to such good effect that his methods are still followed today.  In 1877, he was commissioned by the Admiralty to produce a machine capable of absorbing and measuring the power of large naval engines. He invented and built the world's first water brake dynamometer, sometimes known as the hydraulic dynamometer, which led to the formation of Heenan & Froude Ltd in Birmingham.  While on holiday as an official guest of the Royal Navy he died in Simonstown, South Africa, where he was buried with full naval honours.  He was the brother of James Anthony Froude, a historian, and Hurrell Froude, writer and priest. William was married to Catherine Henrietta Elizabeth Holdsworth, daughter of the Governor of Dartmouth Castle, mercantile magnate and member of Parliament Arthur Howe Holdsworth.

William Froude (; 28 November 1810 in Devon – 4 May 1879 in Simonstown, South Africa) was an English engineer, hydrodynamicist and naval architect. He was the first to formulate reliable laws for the resistance that water offers to ships (such as the hull speed equation) and for predicting their stability.

William Froude ( - ) fut un ingénieur, hydrodynamicien et architecte naval britannique. C'est le frère de l'historien James Anthony Froude. Il est également le père de Robert Edmund Froude, ingénieur naval, comme lui.


"Historia Brittonum".

The "Historia Brittonum" states that "The island of Britain derives its name from Brutus, a Roman consul" who conquered Spain. This is ultimately derived from Isidore of Seville's popular 7th-century work "Etymologiae", in which it was speculated that Britain was named after the Roman general Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus, who pacified Further Spain in 138 BC. A more detailed story, set before the foundation of Rome, follows, in which Brutus is the grandson or great grandson of Aeneas — a legend that blends Isidore's spurious etymology with the Christian, pseudo-historical, "Frankish Table of Nations" tradition that emerged in the early medieval European scholarly world (actually of 6th century AD Byzantine origin, and not Frankish, according to historian Walter Goffart) and attempted to trace the peoples of the known world (as well as legendary figures, such as the Trojan house of Aeneas) back to Biblical ancestors.  Following Roman sources such as Livy and Virgil, the "Historia" tells how Aeneas settled in Italy after the Trojan War, and how his son Ascanius founded Alba Longa, one of the precursors of Rome. Ascanius married, and his wife became pregnant. In a variant version, the father is Silvius, who is identified as either the second son of Aeneas, previously mentioned in the "Historia", or as the son of Ascanius. A magician, asked to predict the child's future, said it would be a boy and that he would be the bravest and most beloved in Italy. Enraged, Ascanius had the magician put to death. The mother died in childbirth.  The boy, named Brutus, later accidentally killed his father with an arrow and was banished from Italy. After wandering among the islands of the Tyrrhenian Sea and through Gaul, where he founded the city of Tours, Brutus eventually came to Britain, named it after himself, and filled it with his descendants. His reign is synchronised to the time the High Priest Eli was judge in Israel, and when the Ark of the Covenant was taken by the Philistines.  A variant version of the "Historia Brittonum" makes Brutus the son of Ascanius's son Silvius, and traces his genealogy back to Ham, son of Noah. Another chapter traces Brutus's genealogy differently, making him the great-grandson of the legendary Roman king Numa Pompilius, who was himself a son of Ascanius, and tracing his descent from Noah's son Japheth. These Christianising traditions conflict with the classical Trojan genealogies, relating the Trojan royal family to Greek gods.  Yet another Brutus, son of Hisicion, son of Alanus the first European, also traced back across many generations to Japheth, is referred to in the "Historia Brittonum". This Brutus's brothers were Francus, Alamanus and Romanus, also ancestors of significant European nations.

"Historia Regum Britanniae".

Geoffrey of Monmouth's account tells much the same story, but in greater detail. In this version, Brutus is explicitly the grandson, rather than son, of Ascanius; his father is Ascanius' son Silvius. The magician who predicts great things for the unborn Brutus also foretells he will kill both his parents. He does so, in the same manner described in the "Historia Brittonum", and is banished. Travelling to Greece, he discovers a group of Trojans enslaved there. He becomes their leader, and after a series of battles they defeat the Greek king Pandrasus by attacking his camp at night after capturing the guards. He takes him hostage and forces him to let his people go. He is given Pandrasus's daughter Ignoge in marriage, and ships and provisions for the voyage, and sets sail.  The Trojans land on a deserted island and discover an abandoned temple to Diana. After performing the appropriate ritual, Brutus falls asleep in front of the goddess's statue and is given a vision of the land where he is destined to settle, an island in the western ocean inhabited only by a few giants.  After some adventures in north Africa and a close encounter with the Sirens, Brutus discovers another group of exiled Trojans living on the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea, led by the prodigious warrior Corineus. In Gaul, Corineus provokes a war with Goffarius Pictus, king of Aquitaine, after hunting in the king's forests without permission. Brutus's nephew Turonus dies in the fighting, and the city of Tours is founded where he is buried. The Trojans win most of their battles but are conscious that the Gauls have the advantage of numbers, so go back to their ships and sail for Britain, then called Albion. They land on ""—"the sea-coast of Totnes". They meet the giant descendants of Albion and defeat them.  Brutus renames the island after himself and becomes its first king. Corineus becomes ruler of Cornwall, which is named after him. They are harassed by the giants during a festival, but kill all of them but their leader, the largest giant Goemagot, who is saved for a wrestling match against Corineus. Corineus throws him over a cliff to his death. Brutus then founds a city on the banks of the River Thames, which he calls Troia Nova, or New Troy. The name is in time corrupted to Trinovantum, and the city is later called London. He creates laws for his people and rules for twenty-four years. After his death he is buried in Trinovantum, and the island is divided between his three sons: Locrinus (England), Albanactus (Scotland) and Kamber (Wales).

Legacy.

Early translations and adaptations of Geoffrey's "Historia", such as Wace's Norman French "Roman de Brut", Layamon's Middle English "Brut", were named after Brutus, and the word "brut" came to mean a chronicle of British history. One of several Middle Welsh adaptations was called the "Brut y Brenhinedd" ("Chronicle of the Kings"). "Brut y Tywysogion" ("Chronicle of the Princes"), a major chronicle for the Welsh rulers from the 7th century to loss of independence, is a purely historical work containing no legendary material but the title reflects the influence of Geoffrey's work and, in one sense, can be seen as a "sequel" to it. Early chroniclers of Britain, such as Alfred of Beverley, Nicholas Trivet and Giraldus Cambrensis began their histories of Britain with Brutus. The foundation myth of Brutus having settled in Britain was still considered as genuine history during the Early Modern Period, for example "Holinshed's Chronicles" (1577) considers the Brutus myth to be factual.  The 18th-century English poet Hildebrand Jacob wrote an epic poem, "Brutus the Trojan, Founder of the British Empire", about him, following in the tradition of the Roman foundation epic the "Aeneid".  Brutus is an important character in the book series "The Troy Game" by Sara Douglass.  Geoffrey's "Historia" says that Brutus and his followers landed at Totnes in Devon. A stone on Fore Street in Totnes, known as the "Brutus Stone", commemorates this.

Brutus, or Brute of Troy, is a legendary descendant of the Trojan hero Aeneas, known in medieval British history as the eponymous founder and first king of Britain. This legend first appears in the "Historia Brittonum", an anonymous 9th-century historical compilation to which commentary was added by Nennius, but is best known from the account given by the 12th-century chronicler Geoffrey of Monmouth in his "Historia Regum Britanniae".

Brutus de Bretagne, Brutus de Troye ("Bryttys" en gallois, Brut en français) ou Brutus le Troyen, est le premier roi légendaire des Bretons insulaires. Il fait son apparition dans le récit en latin de Geoffroy de Monmouth, l’"Historia regum Britanniae" en 1135, qui elle-même s’inspire de l’"Historia Brittonum", une compilation effectuée par Nennius entre 796 et 826. Brutus aurait vécu vers 1100 av. J.-C. et son règne aurait duré 23 ans.


Life and career.

William Buchan was born in Ancrum, Roxburgshire, Scotland, in 1729. During his early years he attended a local grammar school and took a keen interest in medicine. At an early age with no formal training, he acted as one of the novice village physicians.  Upon entering Edinburgh University in 1749, he enrolled in the School of Divinity under pressure from his family. He soon replaced his theological studies with studies in mathematics, botany, and ultimately medicine. He completed his studies in medicine in 1758 after approximately nine years at the university.  After leaving the university, he started a small practice in rural Yorkshire before being appointed as a physician at the Foundling Hospital in Ackworth, Yorkshire in 1759. At the Foundling Hospital, he worked frequently with children. In 1761 he wrote his medical dissertation, "On the Preservation of Infant Life", arguing that far too many infants were dying in Great Britain each year. There was little response to his work.  Soon after, Buchan married a lady of the Dundas clan, one of the most noble clans of Scotland. Later that year, Parliament stopped funding the Foundling Hospital, so Buchan took up a practice in Sheffield from 1761 until 1766, when he returned to Edinburgh. While in Edinburgh, he ran his own practice and gave lectures in Newtonianism and natural philosophy. A son, Alexander Peter Buchan, was born in Sheffield in 1764 and later followed his father into medicine.  William Buchan published his famous work "Domestic Medicine" in 1769. The first edition sold for only six shillings and was a great success. "Domestic Medicine" went on to sell over 80,000 copies, and 19 editions were printed, translated into almost every major European language. The German naturalists Spix and Martius, after travelling in Brazil in 1817-1820, wrote that people, even in isolated farms and towns in the interior of the Portuguese colony, consulted the Portuguese translation of Buchan's book in order to treat maladies. In 1772, Buchan became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.  In 1778, Buchan announced his candidacy for the position as chair of the Institute of Medicine upon the death of John Gregory; however, he lost the election. He later moved to London, practicing there until his death on 25 February 1805. He is buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.

Works.

"Domestic Medicine".

Published in 1769, "Domestic Medicine" was printed in Britain until 1846 and in the Americas until 1913. Catherine the Great, Czar of Russia, was so impressed by the work that she sent Buchan a gold medal and personal letter.  It was the first text of its kind. Previous to Buchan’s work, most medical texts either were theoretical and written for the more educated, or were short manuals not descriptive enough to help diagnose illnesses. A combination of these two styles, "Domestic Medicine" was written in lay terms in order to reach a wider audience. It described the diseases and treatments thoroughly enough to allow people to create cures themselves. Only Swiss physician Samuel-Auguste Tissot’s "Avis au peuple" was of similar style, and Buchan acknowledged it influenced his writing.  Buchan experienced wider exposure than Tissot because he addressed new health areas such as industrial diseases. The writing of "Domestic Medicine" took place near the start of the Industrial Revolution and was welcomed by the industrial workers. Generally, these industrial diseases and cures suffered from secondhand observation rather than more stringent clinical observation; however, their promise of better health garnered general support.  "Domestic Medicine" also was one of the first texts not only to discuss potential cures to diseases, but also to emphasize prevention. The first third of the text is dedicated to how to prevent a number of diseases, including inoculation against smallpox. Buchan's emphasis on a strict regimen of hygiene and cleanliness extended into moral judgement, in that he argued that immoral people were more likely to develop illness.  Even though "Domestic Medicine" was groundbreaking in many areas, many of its theories remained grounded in the traditional medical view of humorism. Buchan was a strong advocate for letting nature take its course and restoring the patient to the natural setpoint. Like a large number of physicians at the time, Buchan was a strong proponent of bloodletting and purging as cures. The belief was that if the body could expel the infections, it would return to its natural point. Buchan also advocated careful tracking of non-naturals (air, meat and drink, sleeping and watching, exercise and quiet, evacuations and obstructions, and passions). Too much of one would result in an imbalance, making a person more likely to develop an illness.

Death.

Buchan died on 25 February 1805, at the age of 76. He was buried in Westminster Abbey.

William Buchan (1729 – 25 February 1805) was a Scottish physician and author. He is best known for his work "Domestic Medicine: or, a Treatise on the Prevention and Cure of Diseases by Regimen and Simple Medicines", which provided laypeople with detailed descriptions of the causes and prevention of diseases. Buchan’s goal was one of "laying medicine more open to mankind." With over 80,000 copies and 19 editions sold in Buchan’s lifetime, it was one of the most popular medical texts in Europe and even in the European colonies in the Americas, and was translated into almost every major European language.

William Buchan ("Guillaume Buchan") est un médecin écossais, né en 1729 à Ancrum et mort en 1805 Dès 1769, il avait compris que les médecins risquent de transporter les « miasmes » des maladies contagieuses et il leur avait recommandé des mesures de propreté, ce qui fait de lui un des précurseurs de Semmelweis.


Virology.

Classification.

This family contains the following genera:

Diversity.

Classification of "Adenoviridae" can be complex.  In humans, there are 57 accepted human adenovirus types (HAdV-1 to 57) in seven species (Human adenovirus A to G):  Different types/serotypes are associated with different conditions:  When not restricting the subject to human viruses, "Adenoviridae" can be divided into five genera: "Mastadenovirus", "Aviadenovirus", "Atadenovirus", "Siadenovirus", and "Ichtadenovirus".

Structure.

Adenoviruses represent the largest known nonenveloped viruses. They are able to be transported through the endosome (i.e., envelope fusion is not necessary). The virion also has a unique "spike" or fiber associated with each penton base of the capsid (see picture below) that aids in attachment to the host cell via the receptor on the surface of the host cell. (See Replication Section below for discussion of diverse receptors.)  In 2010, scientists announced that they had solved the structure of the human adenovirus at the atomic level, making the largest high-resolution model ever. The virus is composed of around 1 million amino acid residues and weighs around 150 MDa.

Genome.

The adenovirus genome is linear, non-segmented double-stranded (ds) DNA that is between 26 and 48 Kbp. This allows the virus to theoretically carry 22 to 40 genes. Although this is significantly larger than other viruses in its Baltimore group, it is still a very simple virus and is heavily reliant on the host cell for survival and replication. An interesting feature of this viral genome is that it has a terminal 55 kDa protein associated with each of the 5' ends of the linear dsDNA. These are used as primers in viral replication and ensure that the ends of the virus' linear genome are adequately replicated.

Replication.

Adenoviruses possess a linear dsDNA genome and are able to replicate in the nucleus of vertebrate cells using the host's replication machinery.  Entry of adenoviruses into the host cell involves two sets of interactions between the virus and the host cell. Most of the action occurs at the vertices. Entry into the host cell is initiated by the knob domain of the fiber protein binding to the cell receptor. The two currently established receptors are: CD46 for the group B human adenovirus serotypes and the coxsackievirus adenovirus receptor (CAR) for all other serotypes. There are some reports suggesting MHC molecules and sialic acid residues functioning in this capacity as well. This is followed by a secondary interaction, where a motif in the penton base protein (see capsomere) interacts with an integrin molecule. It is the co-receptor interaction that stimulates entry of the adenovirus. This co-receptor molecule is αv integrin. Binding to αv integrin results in endocytosis of the virus particle via clathrin-coated pits. Attachment to αv integrin stimulates cell signaling and thus induces actin polymerization resulting in entry of the virion into the host cell within an endosome.  Once the virus has successfully gained entry into the host cell, the endosome acidifies, which alters virus topology by causing capsid components to disband. The capsid is destabilized and protein VI is released from the capsid. These changes, as well as the toxic nature of the pentons, destroy the endosome, resulting in the movement of the virion into the cytoplasm. With the help of cellular microtubules, the virus is transported to the nuclear pore complex, whereby the adenovirus particle disassembles. Viral DNA is subsequently released, which can enter the nucleus via the nuclear pore. After this the DNA associates with histone molecules. Thus, viral gene expression can occur and new virus particles can be generated.  The adenovirus life cycle is separated by the DNA replication process into two phases: an early and a late phase. In both phases, a primary transcript that is alternatively spliced to generate monocistronic mRNAs compatible with the host's ribosome is generated, allowing for the products to be translated.  The early genes are responsible for expressing mainly non-structural, regulatory proteins. The goal of these proteins is threefold: to alter the expression of host proteins that are necessary for DNA synthesis; to activate other virus genes (such as the virus-encoded DNA polymerase); and to avoid premature death of the infected cell by the host-immune defenses (blockage of apoptosis, blockage of interferon activity, and blockage of MHC class I translocation and expression).  Some adenoviruses under specialized conditions can transform cells using their early gene products. E1A (binds Retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein) has been found to immortalize primary cells "in vitro" allowing E1B (binds p53 tumor suppressor) to assist and stably transform the cells. Nevertheless, they are reliant upon each other to successfully transform the host cell and form tumors.  DNA replication separates the early and late phases. Once the early genes have liberated adequate virus proteins, replication machinery, and replication substrates, replication of the adenovirus genome can occur. A terminal protein that is covalently bound to the 5’ end of the adenovirus genome acts as a primer for replication. The viral DNA polymerase then uses a strand displacement mechanism, as opposed to the conventional Okazaki fragments used in mammalian DNA replication, to replicate the genome.  The late phase of the adenovirus lifecycle is focused on producing sufficient quantities of structural protein to pack all the genetic material produced by DNA replication. Once the viral components have successfully been replicated, the virus is assembled into its protein shells and released from the cell as a result of virally induced cell lysis.

Multiplicity reactivation.

Adenovirus is capable of multiplicity reactivation (MR) (Yamamoto and Shimojo, 1971). MR is the process by which two, or more, virus genomes containing lethal damage interact within the infected cell to form a viable virus genome. Such MR was demonstrated for adenovirus 12 after virions were irradiated with UV light and allowed to undergo multiple infection of host cells. In a review, numerous examples of MR in different viruses were described, and it was suggested that MR is a common form of sexual interaction that provides the survival advantage of recombinational repair of genome damages.

Epidemiology.

Transmission.

Adenoviruses are unusually stable to chemical or physical agents and adverse pH conditions, allowing for prolonged survival outside of the body and water. Adenoviruses are spread primarily via respiratory droplets, however they can also be spread by fecal routes. Research into the molecular mechanisms underlying adenoviral transmission provide empirical evidence in support of the hypothesis that cellular receptors for adenovirus and coxsackievirus (CARs) are needed to transport adenoviruses into certain naive/progenitor cell types.

Humans.

Humans infected with adenoviruses display a wide range of responses, from no symptoms at all to the severe infections typical of Adenovirus serotype 14.

Animals.

Bat adenovirus TJM (Bt-AdV-TJM) is a novel species of the "Mastadenovirus" genus isolated from "Myotis" and "Scotophilus kuhlii" in China. It is most closely related to the tree shrew and canine AdVs.  Two types of canine adenoviruses are well known, type 1 and 2. Type 1 (CAdV-1) causes infectious canine hepatitis, a potentially fatal disease involving vasculitis and hepatitis. Type 1 infection can also cause respiratory and eye infections. CAdV-1 also affects foxes ("Vulpes vulpes" and "Vulpes lagopus") and may cause hepatitis and encephalitis. "Canine adenovirus 2" (CAdV-2) is one of the potential causes of kennel cough. Core vaccines for dogs include attenuated live CAdV-2, which produces immunity to CAdV-1 and CAdV-2. CAdV-1 was initially used in a vaccine for dogs, but corneal edema was a common complication.  Squirrel adenovirus (SqAdV) is reported to cause enteritis in red squirrels in Europe, while gray squirrels seem to be resistant. SqAdV is most closely related to the adenovirus of guinea pigs (GpAdV).  Adenovirus in reptiles is poorly understood, but research is currently in progress.  Adenoviruses are also known to cause respiratory infections in horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. "Equine adenovirus 1" can also cause fatal disease in immunocompromised Arabian foals, involving pneumonia and destruction of pancreatic and salivary gland tissue. "Tupaia adenovirus" (TAV) (tree shrew adenovirus 1) has been isolated from tree shrews.  Otarine adenovirus 1 has been isolated from sea lions ("Zalophus californianus").  The fowl adenoviruses are associated with many disease conditions in domestic fowl like Inclusion body hepatitis, Hydropericardium syndrome, Egg drop syndrome, Quail bronchitis, Gizzard erosions and many respiratory conditions. They have also been isolated from wild Black Kites (Milvus migrans).  Titi monkey adenovirus was isolated from a colony of monkeys.

Prevention.

Currently, there is a vaccine for adenovirus type 4 and 7 for military personnel only. Military personnel are the recipients of this vaccine because they may be at a higher risk of infection. The vaccine contains a live virus, which may be shed in stool and lead to transmission. There is currently no adenovirus vaccine for the general public. The vaccine is not approved for use outside of the military, as it has not been tested in studied in the general population or on people with weakened immune systems.  In the past, US military recruits were vaccinated against two serotypes of adenovirus, with a corresponding decrease in illnesses caused by those serotypes. That vaccine is no longer manufactured. The U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command announced on 31 October 2011 that a new adenovirus vaccine, which replaces the older version that has been out of production for over a decade, was shipped to basic training sites Oct. 18, 2011. More information is available here.  Prevention of adenovirus, as well as other respiratory illnesses, involves frequent hand washing for more than 20 seconds, avoiding touching the eyes, face, and nose with unwashed hands, and avoiding close contact with people with symptomatic adenovirus infection. Those with symptomatic adenovirus infection are additionally advised to cough or sneeze into the arm or elbow instead of the hand, to avoid sharing cups and eating utensils, and to refrain from kissing others. Chlorination of swimming pools can prevent outbreaks of conjunctivitis caused by adenovirus.

Diagnosis.

Diagnosis is from symptoms and history. Tests are only necessary in very serious cases. Tests include blood tests, eyes, nose or throat swabs, stool sample tests, and chest x-rays. In the laboratory, adenovirus can be identified with antigen detection, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), virus isolation and serology. Even if adenovirus is found to be present, it may not be the cause of any symptoms. Some immunocompromised individuals can shed the virus for weeks and show no symptoms.

Infections.

Most infections with adenovirus result in infections of the upper respiratory tract. Adenovirus infections often show up as conjunctivitis, tonsillitis (which may look exactly like strep throat and cannot be distinguished from strep except by throat culture), an ear infection, or croup. Adenoviruses, types 40 and 41 can also cause gastroenteritis. A combination of conjunctivitis and tonsillitis is particularly common with adenovirus infections. Some children (especially small ones) can develop adenovirus bronchiolitis or pneumonia, both of which can be severe. In babies, adenoviruses can also cause coughing fits that look almost exactly like whooping cough. Adenoviruses can also cause viral meningitis or encephalitis. Rarely, adenovirus can cause hemorrhagic cystitis (inflammation of the urinary bladder—a form of urinary tract infection—with blood in the urine).  Most people recover from adenovirus infections by themselves, but people with immunodeficiency sometimes die of adenovirus infections, and—rarely—even previously healthy people can die of these infections. This may be because sometimes adenoviral infection can lead to cardiac disorders. For example, in one study, some cardiac samples of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy were positive for presence of adenovirus type 8.  Adenoviruses are often transmitted by expectorate, but can also be transmitted by contact with an infected person, or by virus particles left on objects such as towels and faucet handles. Some people with adenovirus gastroenteritis may shed the virus in their stools for months after getting over the symptoms. The virus can be passed through water in swimming pools that do not have enough chlorine in them. As with many other illnesses, good handwashing is one way to inhibit the spread of adenoviruses from one person to another. Heat and bleach will kill adenoviruses on objects.

Treatment.

There are no proven antiviral drugs to treat adenoviral infections, so treatment is largely directed at the symptoms (such as acetaminophen for fever). The antiviral drug cidofovir has helped certain of those patients who had severe cases of illness; the number helped and to what degree, and the particular complications or symptoms it helped with, and when and where this happened, were not given in the source. A doctor may give antibiotic eyedrops for conjunctivitis, while awaiting results of bacterial cultures, and to help prevent secondary bacterial infections. Currently, there is no adenovirus vaccine available to the general public, but a vaccine is available for the United States military for Types 4 and 7.

Use in treatment of unrelated diseases.

Adenoviruses have long been a popular viral vector for gene therapy due to their ability to affect both replicating and non-replicating cells, accommodate large transgenes, and code for proteins without integrating into the host cell genome. More specifically, they are used as a vehicle to administer targeted therapy, in the form of recombinant DNA or protein. This therapy has been found especially useful in treating monogenic disease (e.g. cystic fibrosis, X-linked SCID, alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency) and cancer. In China, oncolytic adenovirus is an approved cancer treatment. Specific modifications on fibre proteins are used to target Adenovirus to certain cell types; a major effort is made to limit hepatotoxicity and prevent multiple organ failure. Adenovirus dodecahedron can qualify as a potent delivery platform for foreign antigens to human myeloid dendritic cells (MDC), and that it is efficiently presented by MDC to M1-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes.  Adenovirus has been used for delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing systems, but high immune reactivity to viral infection has posed challenges in use for patients. Use of adeno-associated virus (AAV) shows promise in overcoming immunogenicity, though it has a smaller payload capacity.

Adenoviruses (members of the family Adenoviridae) are medium-sized (90–100 nm), nonenveloped (without an outer lipid bilayer) viruses with an icosahedral nucleocapsid containing a double stranded DNA genome. Their name derives from their initial isolation from human adenoids in 1953.

Adenoviridae (ou adénovirus) est une famille de virus qui regroupe une centaine de variétés, dont une quarantaine environ peut infecter l'être humain. C'est en 1953 que ceux-ci ont été mis en évidence par à partir de fragments d'amygdale.


Background.

When Hugo began writing it, he intended for it to be an introduction for a collection of French translations of Shakespeare's plays written by his son, François-Victor Hugo. However, it grew to be approximately 300 pages in length, and Hugo had to write a separate introduction to the plays.

Content.

The work begins with an approximately twenty page biography, filled with inaccuracies, and then becomes a work of literary criticism focusing on the literary geniuses of history. Shakespeare, but also Homer, Job, Aeschylus, Isaiah, Ezekiel, Lucretius, Juvenal, St. John, St. Paul, Tacitus, Dante, Rabelais, and Cervantes. It was a critical failure. Deciding there was more of Hugo in the work than Shakespeare, some French critics suggested he should have entitled it, ""Myself"".  Book V of Part II, "The Mind and the Masses", and Book II of Part III, "The Nineteenth Century", have often been combined and published as "The Mind and the Masses". In it he argues for a "vast public literary domain." Literature is the secretion of civilisation, poetry of the ideal. That is why literature is one of the wants of societies. That is why poetry is a hunger of the soul. That is why poets are the first instructors of the people. That is why Shakespeare must be translated in France. That is why Molière must be translated in England. That is why comments must be made on them. That is why there must be a vast public literary domain. That is why all poets, all philosophers, all thinkers, all the producers of the greatness of the mind must be translated, commented on, published, printed, reprinted, stereotyped, distributed, explained, recited, spread abroad, given to all, given cheaply, given at cost price, given for nothing.

William Shakespeare is an 1864 work by Victor Hugo, written in his 13th year of exile. The title is misleading; the true subject of the work is the writers that Hugo considered "the greatest geniuses of all time."

William Shakespeare est une œuvre de Victor Hugo parue en 1864. À l'origine, Victor Hugo devait écrire une biographie de William Shakespeare comme préface à la nouvelle traduction des œuvres du dramaturge anglais par son fils François-Victor Hugo.


Works.

His goal in the "Traité des premières vérités" (Paris: 1724), his best-known work, was to discover the ultimate principle of knowledge. This he found in the sense we have of our own existence and of what we feel within ourselves, He thus took substantially the same ground as Descartes, but he rejected the "a priori" method. In order to know what exists distinct from the self, common sense is necessary. Common sense he defined as that disposition which nature has placed in all or most men, in order to enable them, when they have arrived at the age and use of reason, to form a common and uniform judgment with respect to objects different from the internal sentiment of their own perception, which judgment is not the consequence of any anterior judgment.  The truths which this disposition of nature obliges us to accept can be neither proved nor disproved; they are practically followed even by those who reject them speculatively. But Buffier did not claim for these truths of common sense the absolute certainty which characterizes the knowledge we have of our own existence or the logical deductions we make from our thoughts; they possess merely the highest probability, and the man who rejects them is to be considered a fool, though he is not guilty of a contradiction.  Buffier's aversion to scholastic refinements gives to his writings an appearance of shallowness and want of metaphysical insight, and unquestionably he failed entirely even to indicate the nature of that universality and necessity which he ascribed to his eternal verities; he was, however, one of the earliest to recognize the psychological as distinguished from the metaphysical side of Descartes's principle, and to use it, with no inconsiderable skill, as the basis of an analysis of the human mind, similar to that enjoined by Locke. In this he has anticipated Thomas Reid and the Scottish school. Voltaire described him as the only Jesuit who has given a reasonable system of philosophy.  He also wrote "Elémens de métaphysique" (1725), "Suite de la Grammaire française sur un plan nouveau" (1709) ["Sequel to A New Method of French Grammar"], and a number of historical essays. Most of his works appeared in a collected form in 1732, and an English translation of the "Traité" was published in 1780.

Claude Buffier (25 May 1661 – 17 May 1737), French philosopher, historian and teacher, was born in Poland of French parents, who returned to France and settled in Rouen soon after his birth.

Claude Buffier, né en Pologne le et mort à Paris le, est un philosophe français, membre de la Compagnie de Jésus, représentant de la philosophie du sens commun. Auteur de nombreux ouvrages sur l'histoire, la grammaire et la religion, il a eu une influence importante sur Thomas Reid et l'école écossaise du sens commun.


Creating lead guitar lines.

To create lead guitar lines, guitarists use scales, modes, arpeggios, licks, and riffs that are performed using a variety of techniques. In rock, heavy metal, blues, jazz and fusion bands and some pop contexts as well as others, lead guitar lines often employ alternate picking, sweep picking, economy picking and legato (e.g., hammer ons, pull offs), which are used to maximize the speed of their solos or riffs. Such "tricks" can employ the picking hand used in the fret area (such as tapping), and even be augmented and embellished with devices such as bows, or separate electronic devices such as an EBow (electronic bow).  Some guitarists occasionally use skills that combine technique and showmanship, such as playing the guitar behind their head or picking with the front teeth. In a blues context, as well as others, guitarists sometimes create leads that use call and response-style riffs that they embellish with string bending, vibrato, and slides.

Jazz guitar soloing.

Jazz guitarists integrate the basic building blocks of scales and arpeggio patterns into balanced rhythmic and melodic phrases that make up a cohesive solo. Jazz guitarists often try to imbue their melodic phrasing with the sense of natural breathing and legato phrasing used by horn players such as saxophone players. As well, a jazz guitarists' solo improvisations have to have a rhythmic drive and "timefeel" that creates a sense of "swing" and "groove." The most experienced jazz guitarists learn to play with different "timefeels" such as playing "ahead of the beat" or "behind the beat," to create or release tension.  Another aspect of the jazz guitar style is the use of stylistically appropriate ornaments, such as grace notes, slides, and muted notes. Each subgenre or era of jazz has different ornaments that are part of the style of that subgenre or era. Jazz guitarists usually learn the appropriate ornamenting styles by listening to prominent recordings from a given style or jazz era. Some jazz guitarists also borrow ornamentation techniques from other jazz instruments, such as Wes Montgomery's borrowing of playing melodies in parallel octaves, which is a jazz piano technique. Jazz guitarists also have to learn how to add in passing tones, use "guide tones" and chord tones from the chord progression to structure their improvisations.  In the 1970s and 1980s, with jazz-rock fusion guitar playing, jazz guitarists incorporated rock guitar soloing approaches, such as riff-based soloing and usage of pentatonic and blues scale patterns. Some guitarists used Jimi Hendrix-influenced distortion and wah-wah effects to get a sustained, heavy tone, or even used rapid-fire guitar shredding techniques, such as tapping and tremolo bar bending. Guitarist Al Di Meola, who started his career with Return to Forever in 1974, was one of the first guitarists to perform in a "shred" style, a technique later used in rock and heavy metal playing. Di Meola used alternate-picking to perform very rapid sequences of notes in his solos.  When jazz guitar players improvise, they use the scales, modes, and arpeggios associated with the chords in a tune's chord progression. The approach to improvising has changed since the earliest eras of jazz guitar. During the Swing era, many soloists improvised "by ear" by embellishing the melody with ornaments and passing notes. However, during the bebop era, the rapid tempo and complicated chord progressions made it increasingly harder to play "by ear." Along with other improvisers, such as saxes and piano players, bebop-era jazz guitarists began to improvise over the chord changes using scales (whole tone scale, chromatic scale, etc.) and arpeggios. Jazz guitar players tend to improvise around chord/scale relationships, rather than reworking the melody, possibly due to their familiarity with chords resulting from their comping role. A source of melodic ideas for improvisation is transcribing improvised solos from recordings. This provides jazz guitarists with a source of "licks", melodic phrases and ideas they incorporate either intact or in variations, and is an established way of learning from the previous generations of players

Role in a band.

In a band with two guitars, there can be a logical division between lead and rhythm guitars although that division may be unclear. Two guitarists may perform as a guitar tandem, and trade off the lead guitar and rhythm guitar roles. Alternatively, two or more guitarists can share the lead and rhythm roles throughout the show, or both guitarists can play the same role ("dual lead guitars" or "dual rhythm guitars"). Often several guitarists playing individual notes may create chord patterns while mixing these "harmonies" with mixed unison passages creating unique sound effects with sound altering electronic special effects such as doublers or a "chorus" effect that over-pronounce the lead significantly sometimes to cut through to be heard in loud shows or throw its sound aesthetically both acoustically or electronically.

Effects and equipment.

In rock, heavy metal, blues, jazz and fusion bands and some pop contexts as well as others, the lead guitar line often involves melodies (as well as power chords from the rhythm guitars) with a sustained, singing tone. To create this tone on the electric guitar, guitarists often select certain pickups and use electronic effects such as effects pedals and distortion pedals, or sound compressors, or doubler effects for a more sustained tone, and delay effects or an electronic "chorus" effect as well as electronic reverb and echo for a reverberant sound.  To attain this sustain effect guitarists often use tube amplifiers such as those from Marshall or Fender. The tube effect comes from the way amplifying tubes distort when pushed to the limits of their amplification power. As the guitar signal's waveform reaches the amplifier's limits, amplification decreases—rounding off the top of the waveform. This amounts to compression of individual wave cycles, and is pleasing to the ear.  High volume can induce audio feedback, which a guitarist can control to dramatically increase sustain. By holding the guitar at a certain distance and angle from the amplifier speakers, a guitarist can create a continuous, undecaying sound. Electronic special effects that use effects loops can artificially reproduce this. Other effects that embellish lead guitar tone and pitch include the vibrato bar which physically alters string tension, slides, and wah-wah and univibe effects.

Lead guitar, also known as solo guitar, is a musical part for a guitar in which the guitarist plays melody lines, instrumental fill passages, guitar solos, and occasionally, some riffs within a song structure. The lead is the featured guitar, which usually plays single-note-based lines or double-stops. In rock, heavy metal, blues, jazz, punk, fusion, some pop, and other music styles, lead guitar lines are usually supported by a second guitarist who plays rhythm guitar, which consists of accompaniment chords and riffs.

La guitare solo (le terme anglais lead guitar est plus explicite et plus précis) est un instrument fondamental au sein de la plupart des formations musicales actuelles des styles rock, metal, blues et jazz.


FFF career.

He is very influential within the FFF. Between 1991 and 2000 he was President of Ligue 1, the French professional league and was vice-president of FFF. In this position, he has brought — through acquisition of new sponsors, including of a new supplier contract with Nike — a substantial improvement of the financial situation of the FFF. Following the resignation of its president, Jean-Pierre Escalettes because of the fiasco of the French national football team at the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Noël Le Graët became as a likely candidate for interim Fernand Duchaussoy to succeed him. On 18 June 2011, during elections of the association's federal assembly in Paris, he surprisingly collected 54.39 percent of the votes to succeed Fernand Duchaussoy.

Business and life.

Born in a neighboring city, the Breton has built-up in the city of Guingamp a diversified family in the food industry during the last years, the Le Graët Group. It operates on various locations in the Brittany region. With "Pêcherie d'Armorique" in Erquy it has its own fishing fleet. Among the best known brand names in France belongs Celtigel (frozen meat, fish and vegetable dishes), "Les Delices de la Mer" (soups, sauces, bread spreads) and "Agil Chien/Agil Chat" (pet food). The group's turnover in 2010 amounted to approximately 163 million Euro.  Between 1971 and 1992 and again between 2002 and 2011 he was president of the French Football Club En Avant de Guingamp. For two terms, he was also mayor of Guingamp from 1995 to 2008, under the banner of the PS

Noël Yves Marie Le Graët (born 25 December 1941 in Bourbriac, Côtes-d'Armor) is a French businessman, politician and football official. Since 18 June 2011, he has been the President of the French Football Federation (FFF). He was the vice-president of the French federation from 2005 to 2011.

Noël Le Graët, né le à Bourbriac (Côtes-du-Nord), est chef d'entreprise du Groupe Le Graët à Guingamp, dirigeant sportif et homme politique français.


Structure and properties.

Bromothymol blue acts as a weak acid in a solution. It can thus be in protonated or deprotonated form, appearing yellow or blue, respectively. It is bright aquamarine by itself, and greenish-blue in a neutral solution. The deprotonation of the neutral form results in a highly conjugated structure, accounting for the difference in color. An intermediate of the deprotonation mechanism is responsible for the greenish color in neutral solution.  The protonated form of bromothymol blue has its peak absorption at 427 nm thus transmitting yellow light in acidic solutions, and the deprotonated form has its peak absorption at 602 nm thus transmitting blue light in more basic solutions. Highly acidic Bromothymol blue is magenta in color.  The general carbon skeleton of bromothymol blue is common to many indicators including chlorophenol red, thymol blue, and bromocresol green.  The presence of one moderate electron-withdrawing group (bromine atom) and two moderate donating groups (alkyl substituents) are responsible for bromothymol blue's active indication range from a pH of 6.0 to 7.6. While the conjugation is responsible for the length and nature of the color change range, these substituent groups are ultimately responsible for the indicator's active range. Bromothymol blue is sparingly soluble in oil, but soluble in water, ether, and aqueous solutions of alkalis. It is less soluble in nonpolar solvents such as benzene, toluene, and xylene, and practically insoluble in petroleum ether.

Synthesis and preparation.

Bromothymol blue is synthesized by addition of elemental bromine to thymol blue in a solution in glacial acetic acid.  To prepare a solution for use as pH indicator, dissolve 0.10 g in 8.0 cm N/50 NaOH and dilute with water to 250 cm. To prepare a solution for use as indicator in volumetric work, dissolve 0.1 g in 100 cm of 50% (v/v) ethanol.

Uses.

Bromothymol blue may be used for observing photosynthetic activities, or as a respiratory indicator (turns yellow as CO is added). A common demonstration of BTB's pH indicator properties involves exhaling through a tube into a neutral solution of BTB. As carbon dioxide is absorbed from the breath into the solution, forming carbonic acid, the solution changes color from green to yellow. Thus, BTB is commonly used in science classes to demonstrate that the more that muscles are used, the greater the CO output.  Bromothymol blue has been used in conjunction with phenol red to monitor the fungal asparaginase enzyme activity with phenol red turning pink and bromothymol blue turning blue indicating an increase in pH and therefore enzyme activity. However, a recent study suggests that methyl red is more useful in determining activity due to the bright yellow ring form in the zone of enzyme activity. It may also be used in the laboratory as a biological slide stain. At this point, it is already blue, and a few drops are used on a water slide. The cover slip is placed on top of the water droplet and the specimen in it, with the blue coloring mixed in. It is sometimes used to define cell walls or nuclei under the microscope.  Bromothymol is used in obstetrics for detecting premature rupture of membranes. Amniotic fluid typically has a pH > 7.2, bromothymol will therefore turn blue when brought in contact with fluid leaking from the amnion. As vaginal pH normally is acidic, the blue color indicates the presence of amniotic fluid. The test may be false-positive in the presence of other alkaline substances such as blood or semen, or in the presence of bacterial vaginosis.

Bromothymol blue (also known as bromothymol sulfone phthalein and BTB) is a pH indicator. It is mostly used in applications that require measuring substances that would have a relatively neutral pH (near 7). A common use is for measuring the presence of carbonic acid in a liquid. It is typically sold in solid form as the sodium salt of the acid indicator.

Le bleu de bromothymol (ou BBT ou dibromothymolsulfonephtaléine) est un colorant de la famille des sulfonephtaléines souvent utilisé comme indicateur coloré de pH. En effet, il possède des propriétés halochromiques.


Social history.

Kocka was a leader of the Bielefeld School of the "new social history', and recalls how the historiographical movement introduced a vast range of new topics:  In the 1960s and 1970s, "social history" caught the imagination of a young generation of historians. It became a central concept – and a rallying point – of historiographic revisionism. It meant many things at the same time. It gave priority to the study of particular kinds of phenomena, such as classes and movements, urbanization and industrialization, family and education, work and leisure, mobility, inequality, conflicts and revolutions. It stressed structures and processes over actors and events. It emphasized analytical approaches close to the social sciences rather than by the traditional methods of historical hermeneutics. Frequently social historians sympathized with the causes (as they saw them) of the little people, of the underdog, of popular movements, or of the working class. Social history was both demanded and rejected as a vigorous revisionist alternative to the more established ways of historiography, in which the reconstruction of politics and ideas, the history of events and hermeneutic methods traditionally dominated.

Historiographical debates.

Kocka participated in the German "Historikerstreit" in the late 1980s, alongside Jürgen Habermas in opposition to Ernst Nolte, and supported the "Sonderweg" explanation of a unique path of German history. In an essay entitled "Hitler Should Not Be Repressed By Stalin and Pol Pot" first published in "Die Zeit" newspaper on 26 September 1986, Kocka contended against Nolte that the Holocaust was indeed a "singular" event because it had been committed by an advanced Western nation, and argued that Nolte's comparisons of the Holocaust with similar mass killings in Pol Pot's Cambodia, Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union, and Idi Amin's Uganda were invalid because of the backward nature of those societies. Kocka went on to criticize Nolte's view of the Holocaust as "a not altogether incomprehensible reaction to the prior threat of annihilation, as whose potential or real victims Hitler and the National Socialists allegedly were justified in seeing themselves". Kocka wrote that  "The real causes of anti-Semitism in Germany are to be found neither in Russia nor the World Jewish Congress. And how can one, in light of the facts, interpret the National Socialist annihilation of the Jews as a somewhat logical, if premature, means of defense against the threats of annihilation coming from the Soviet Union, with which Germany had made a pact in 1939, and which it then subsequently attacked? Here the sober historical inquiry into real historical connections, into causes, and consequences, and about real motives and their conditions would suffice to protect the writer and the reader from abstruse speculative interpretations. Nolte fails to ask such questions. If a past "that is capable of being agreed on" can be gained by intellectual gymnastics of this sort, then we should renounce it."  In response to the geographical theories of Michael Stürmer, Kocka argued that "Geography is not destiny" Kocka wrote that both Switzerland and Poland were also "lands in the middle", and yet neither country went in the same authoritarian direction as Germany

Jürgen Kocka (born 19 April 1941, in Haindorf) is a German historian. A university professor and former president of the Social Science Research Center Berlin (2001–2007), Kocka is a major figure in the new Social History, especially as represented by the Bielefeld School. He has focused his research on the history of employees in large German and American businesses, and on the history of European bourgeoisie. He gained his PhD from the Free University of Berlin in 1968.

Jürgen Kocka, né le à Hejnice (dans l'actuelle région de Liberec en République tchèque), est un historien allemand, professeur à l'université libre de Berlin. Il est une figure de proue de l’histoire sociale traditionnelle (École de Bielefeld).


Life and reign.

Early life.

Humbert III was born around 1136 in the castle of Avigliana, near Turin, to Count Amadeus III and Mathilde d'Albon, Countess of Albon and Vienne. He is an important figure in medieval society, as attested in the history of House of Savoy. His life was characterized by certain key features, including mysticism, borne of a vocation and tradition of the contemplative life, which came about in the events of his time as warrior and politician, which he undertook exclusively for dynastic reasons.  He inherited from his father, as well as from his grandfather, Humbert II, the dream of reconstituting the fragmented Kingdom of Burgundy, in stark opposition to the centralizing policy of the French royal family. In his efforts he was supported by Frederick I Barbarossa, and found himself induced to play a shrewd political subjugation of neighboring feudal lords or settled among his domains. Like his father, Humbert II, who died young when he was still a minor, Amadeus III entrusted the education of his son, Humbert III, to St. Amedeus of Lausanne, former abbot of Hautecombe, and under his guidance the young Humbert made great progress in studies and spiritual formation, despising the apparent splendor of worldly things, and giving himself to prayer, meditation and penance. To better achieve his lofty goals, he frequently withdrew to Hautecombe Abbey, on the banks of Lake Bourget in Savoy, founded by his father. He always left the abbey with regret, every time the family and the Savoyard nobility called him back to occupy him with political matters.

Marriages.

Amadeus III was a pilgrim in the Holy Land in 1122. He went there through the offices of Pope Callixtus II, and in 1146 he participated in the Second Crusade, and died on the island of Cyprus in Nicosia on 1 April 1148, where he was buried, leaving the twelve-year old Humbert as heir. Although still at an early age, in 1151 Humbert was bethrothed to Faidiva, daughter of Alphonse Jourdain, Count of Toulouse. She soon died without issue. He later married Gertrude, daughter of Thierry, Count of Flanders and Sibylla of Anjou. This second marriage was annulled.  In 1164, Humbert married Clementia of Zähringen, by whom he had two daughters: Alice and Sofia. She died in 1173, and he decided to retire to Hautecombe, but not for long. In 1177, the nobility in 1177 convinced him marry for the fourth time. As wife, he took Beatrice, daughter Géraud I of Mâcon and Maurette de Salins. At last he had a male heir, Thomas, to continue the dynasty. Beatrice also bore him a daughter who died at the age of seven.

Reign.

Humbert's reign was long. It lasted forty years, and was characterized by struggles with the Holy Roman Emperor, various lords and count-bishops. The main reason for conflict consisted in the patronage of the Bishop of Turin by Frederick Barbarossa, who dreamed of undisturbed dominance of the capital of Piedmont. This led to a gradual reduction of the possessions and authority of Humbert III on the Italian side, leaving him with the rump territories of the valleys of Susa and Aosta. In 1187, he was banished from the Holy Roman Empire by Henry VI, for supporting the emperor's opponents. He did not retire, as has been said, to his Alpine domains, devoting himself in particular to the practice of personal virtues and fraternal charity. He also promoted the foundation of Precettoria of St. Anthony of Ranverso at Buttigliera Alta, not far from the town of Avigliana, entrusting it to Antoniani from Vienne, France.

Death.

The death of Humbert III, March 4, 1189 in Chambéry, at the age of fifty-two, was mourned sincerely by all the people. He was the first prince of Savoy to be buried in Hautecombe Abbey, which has since become a burial place for the dynasty.

Veneration.

The spirituality of Humbert undoubtedly blossomed in an environment of ancient Christian traditions, favored especially by the example of his father, a pilgrim and crusader in the Holy Land, and of his tutor, St. Amadeus, Bishop of Lausanne. However, Humbert's life was full of contradictions: He was a lover of peace, but had frequent hostilities and wars. He was penitent, ascetic, contemplative, but was forced to take the reins of government, during which time he had a life of action, and found himself forced in marriage in order to have an heir. However, he let unmistakable signs of great moral balance, severity with himself and indulgence and love of neighbor. He was a benefactor to churches, monasteries, and charitable causes, the care of the poor. Throughout his life, he supported Hautecombe Abbey. In 1188 he founded the Monastery of Sant'Antonio di Ranverso.  Humbert was venerated by many immediately after his death. Miracles were reportedly wrought through his intercession. In Aosta, he is depicted on the facade of the city's cathedral. He is mentioned by St. Alphonsus Ligouri as a particularly pious monk.  In 1838, Charles Albert, King of Sardinia and his descendant, tried and failed to have him beatified by Pope Gregory XVI. The king's efforts on behalf of Boniface of Savoy, Archbishop of Canterbury, also failed. In Italy, Humbert is still remembered in particular at Racconigi, where the Royal Sanctuary of the Madonna delle Grazie houses a picture of him.

Family.

Humbert had four wives:<br> 1.Faidiva of Toulouse (Italian) (d. c.1154) daughter of Alphonse Jourdain, Count of Toulouse  2.Gertrude of Flanders (m. abt 1155). The marriage was annulled, she was confined to a convent, later freed, and returned to the court of her brother, Philip of Flanders  3.Clementia of Zähringen (married 1164), daughter of Conrad I, Duke of Zähringen. They had 2 daughters:  4.Beatrice of Viennois and had one son:

Humbert III (1136, Avigliana, Piedmont – 4 March 1189, Chambéry, Savoy), surnamed the Blessed, was Count of Savoy from 1148 to 1188. His parents were Amadeus III of Savoy and Mathilde d'Albon the daughter of Guigues III of Albon. He ceded rights and benefits to monasteries and played a decisive role in the organization of Hautecombe Abbey. It is said that he would rather have been monk than a sovereign. On the death of his third wife he retired to Hautecombe, but then changed his mind and, by his fourth wife finally had son, Thomas. He sided with the Guelph party of Pope Alexander III against the Ghibelline Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. The result was an invasion of his states twice: in 1174 Susa was set on fire, and in 1187 Henry VI banished him from the Holy Roman Empire and wrested away most of his domains, of which he was left only with the valleys of Susa and Aosta. He died at Chambéry in 1189. He was the first prince buried at Hautecombe. His memorial day is March 4.

Humbert de Maurienne, ou plus couramment de Savoie, dit « le Bienheureux » ou « le Saint », né le avril ou au château d'Aveillane et mort le à Chambéry, est le comte de Maurienne, également seigneur du Bugey, d'Aoste et du Chablais, marquis de Suse et d'Italie (comte de Turin) et le second "Humbertiens" à porter le titre de comte de Savoie, de 1148 à 1189. Il est le fils du comte et marquis. Sa vocation religieuse lui permet d'être béatifié en 1836.


Calculation.

Its value is obtained by subtracting end-systolic volume (ESV) from end-diastolic volume (EDV) for a given ventricle.  In a healthy 70-kg man, ESV is approximately 50 mL and EDV is approximately 120mL, giving a difference of 70 mL for the stroke volume.  "Stroke work" refers to the work, or pressure of the blood ("P") multiplied by the stroke volume. ESV and EDV are fixed variables. Heart rate and Stroke Volume are unfixed.

Determinants.

Men, on average, have higher stroke volumes than women due to the larger size of their hearts. However, stroke volume depends on several factors such as heart size, contractility, duration of contraction, preload (end-diastolic volume), and afterload.

Exercise.

Prolonged aerobic exercise training may also increase stroke volume, which frequently results in a lower (resting) heart rate. Reduced heart rate prolongs ventricular diastole (filling), increasing end-diastolic volume, and ultimately allowing more blood to be ejected.

Preload.

Stroke volume is intrinsically controlled by preload (the degree to which the ventricles are stretched prior to contracting). An increase in the volume or speed of venous return will increase preload and, through the Frank–Starling law of the heart, will increase stroke volume. Decreased venous return has the opposite effect, causing a reduction in stroke volume.

Afterload.

Elevated afterload (commonly measured as the aortic pressure during systole) reduces stroke volume. Though not usually affecting stroke volume in healthy individuals, increased afterload will hinder the ventricles in ejecting blood, causing reduced stroke volume. Increased afterload may be found in aortic stenosis and arterial hypertension.

Stroke volume index.

Similar to cardiac index, stroke volume index is a method of relating the stroke volume (SV) to the size of the person Body surface area (BSA).  formula_2

In cardiovascular physiology, stroke volume (SV) is the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle per beat. Stroke volume is calculated using measurements of ventricle volumes from an echocardiogram and subtracting the volume of the blood in the ventricle at the end of a beat (called end-systolic volume ) from the volume of blood just prior to the beat (called end-diastolic volume). The term "stroke volume" can apply to each of the two ventricles of the heart, although it usually refers to the left ventricle. The stroke volumes for each ventricle are generally equal, both being approximately 70 mL in a healthy 70-kg man.

Le volume d'éjection systolique, ou VES, est le volume de sang que le cœur éjecte à chaque battement (systole). Il est la plupart du temps exprimé en millilitres (mL). Il dépend d'une multitude de facteurs, notamment de la taille du cœur, de son remplissage, de la force et de la durée de la contraction et de la résistance à l'éjection du sang dans la circulation systémique.


Early life.

Ferland was born in Nanaimo, British Columbia, the daughter of Valerie and Marc Ferland. Her siblings are actress Marisha Ferland and musician Jeremy Ferland.

Career.

Ferland started her career in commercials at the age of two. She made her movie debut at age four in the TV-movie "Mermaid", for which she received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination, making her the youngest nominee in Emmy history. She has since made guest appearances in several television series, including "Stargate Atlantis", "Dark Angel", "Stargate SG-1", "Smallville" and "Supernatural", and has appeared in films including "They" and "Trapped". In 2005, she starred in the Terry Gilliam drama "Tideland", for which she received a Genie Award nomination in the Best Actress category. Later, she appeared in the 2006 film "Silent Hill", an adaptation of the well-known video game, and had a supporting role in "Good Luck Chuck" for Lions Gate Entertainment. In 2006, she filmed the movie "Case 39" opposite Renée Zellweger; however, because of a lengthy post-production, it was not released until 2009.  She played Bree Tanner in the third film of the "Twilight" series, "Eclipse". She stated: "Usually I read the script before I take a role, but I haven't read this one," she explained. "It's "Twilight", of course I'm going to take it."  From 2010 to 2011, she provided voice work for the videogame "BioShock 2" and its DLC, appeared in the SyFy movie "Ice Quake", and starred in the Lifetime television movie "Girl Fight". In 2012, she appeared in the drama "Mighty Fine", the horror film "The Tall Man", Joss Whedon's "The Cabin in the Woods", the stop-motion animated film "ParaNorman", and had her first starring role in a comedy, in "". From 2013 to 2014, she starred in the family film "Midnight Stallion", the short film "Monster", and the crime drama film "A Warden's Ransom".  In 2015, she starred in the short film "The Goodbye Girl" and the horror film "The Unspoken", which premiered at the Film4 Frightfest Film Festival on October 24. In 2016 she appeared in the Lifetime television movie "My Daughter's Disgrace", and provided the narration for the audio book Wonder Women, written by Sam Maggs. In 2017, she appeared in the comedy "Bigger Fatter Liar", the sequel to the 2002 movie, the horror film "Neverknock", and is set to appear in the short film "Women Seen" directed by Amanda Tapping.  From 2015 to 2017, Ferland starred as Five in the SyFy series "Dark Matter", based on the comic book series of the same name. In 2018, she appeared in an episode of "Frankie Drake Mysteries". The same year, Ferland starred as Olive in the digital series "Darken: Before the Dark", a prequel to the film "Darken".

Jodelle Micah Ferland (born October 9, 1994) is a Canadian actress. She made her debut at the age of four, with the television movie "Mermaid" (2000) for which she received a Daytime Emmy Nomination, making her the youngest to be nominated. She has since appeared in several films, which include "Tideland" (2005), "Silent Hill" (2006), "Good Luck Chuck" (2007), "Case 39" (2009), "" (2010), and "The Tall Man" (2012). Aside from her film roles, she has starred as Mary Jensen in the television series "Kingdom Hospital" (2004), and as Five in the television series "Dark Matter" (2015–2017).

Jodelle Micah Ferland est une actrice canadienne, surtout connue pour avoir interprété les rôles de Mary Jensen dans la minisérie "Kingdom Hospital" en 2004, Sharon/Alessa dans le film d'horreur de 2006 "Silent Hill", et Bree Tanner dans "".