Early career.

Love was born Darlene Wright on July 26, 1941 in Los Angeles, California to Ellen Maddox and Reverend Joe Wright. Her sister Edna grew up to be the lead singer of the group Honey Cone. She grew up in South Los Angeles, long before the racial tension, crime and violence for which the area later became infamous had taken over the community. Love later remembered the Los Angeles of her childhood as "a city that existed mostly in people's imaginations.... But for us, Los Angeles had nothing to do with movie stars or stubbly, hard-drinking gumshoes trying to piece together broken dreams after hours. For us, Los Angeles was contained in about 20 blocks, bookended on one side by our projects and playgrounds and on the other by church."  Love began singing with her local church choir in Hawthorne, California. While still in high school (1957) she also sang with the Echoes, a mixed gender doo-wop group. She was then invited to join a little-known girl group called the Blossoms, who in 1962 began working with producer Phil Spector. With her powerful voice she was soon a highly sought-after vocalist, and managed to work with many of the legends of 1950s and 1960s rock and soul, including Sam Cooke, Dionne Warwick, Bill Medley, the Beach Boys, Elvis Presley, Tom Jones and Sonny and Cher; Darlene and the Blossoms sang backup for Sharon Marie (Esparza) (a Brian Wilson act), as well as John Phillips' solo album "John, Wolfking of L.A.", recorded in 1969. They also appeared on Johnny Rivers' hits, including "Poor Side of Town" "Baby I Need Your Loving" and "The Tracks of My Tears". (The Blossoms recorded singles, usually with little success, on Capitol 1957-58 [pre-Darlene Love], Challenge 1961-62, OKeh 1963, Reprise 1966-67, Ode 1967, MGM 1968, Bell 1969-70, and Lion 1972.)  The single "He's a Rebel" was hurriedly released by Spector in November 1962 by having the Blossoms record the track in order to get his version of the Gene Pitney song onto the market before that of Vikki Carr. The single "He's a Rebel" was credited to the Crystals, but actually featured Love singing lead for the first time on a Phil Spector recording. The ghost release of this single came as a total surprise to the Crystals who were an experienced and much traveled girl harmony group in their own right, but they were nevertheless required to perform and promote the new single on television and on tour as if it were their own.  With the Blossoms, Love contributed backing vocals behind many of the biggest hits of the 1960s including the Ronettes' "Be My Baby", Shelley Fabares' "Johnny Angel", Bobby "Boris" Pickett's "Monster Mash", Frank Sinatra's version of "That's Life", and the Crystals' "Da Doo Ron Ron". As a solo artist, Love also contributed backing vocals to the Ronettes' "Baby, I Love You".  She was also part of a trio called Bob B. Soxx & the Blue Jeans, who recorded Spector's version of "Zip-a-Dee-Doo-Dah", an Oscar-winning song from the 1946 Walt Disney film "Song of the South", which got into the Top 10 in 1963. The Blossoms landed a weekly part on "Shindig!", one of the top music shows of the era. They were part of the highly acclaimed "Elvis Presley's '68 Comeback Special", which aired on NBC.  "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)" is a song recorded by Darlene Love for the 1963 holiday compilation album, "A Christmas Gift for You from Phil Spector". The song was written by Jeff Barry and Ellie Greenwich, along with Phil Spector, with the intention of being sung by Ronnie Spector of the Ronettes. According to Love, Ronnie Spector was not able to put as much emotion into the song as needed. Instead, Love was brought into the studio to record the song, which became a big success over time and one of Love's signature tunes.

Career break.

Into the 1970s Love continued to work as a backup singer, before taking a break in order to raise a family. In 1973, she recorded vocals as a cheerleader along with Michelle Phillips, for the Cheech & Chong single "Basketball Jones", which peaked at No. 15 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 singles chart.

1980s return.

Love returned to music in the early 1980s and to an appreciative audience she thought might have long since forgotten her. She had been performing at venues like the Roxy in Los Angeles, and it was a conversation with Steven Van Zandt that greased the wheels for her to go to New York and begin performing there in 1982, at places like The Bottom Line. She also sang "OOO Wee Baby" in the 1980 movie "The Idolmaker". Along with performing in small venues, Love worked as a maid in Beverly Hills. One day while she was cleaning one of these homes, she heard her song "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)" on the radio. She took this as a sign that she needed to change her life and go back to singing.  In the mid-1980s she portrayed herself in the Tony Award-nominated jukebox musical "Leader of the Pack", which featured the iconic rock and roll songs written by Ellie Greenwich, many of them for the young Love. The showstopping number of that show, "River Deep - Mountain High", had been recorded by Phil Spector with Ike & Tina Turner and had been less than the success they had expected. "Leader of the Pack" commenced as a revue at the Greenwich Village nightclub The Bottom Line, as did the later show about Love's life, "Portrait of a Singer", which never made the move uptown. "Portrait" included covers of "A Change Is Gonna Come" and "Don't Make Me Over", as well as "River Deep, Mountain High" and original music from some of the instrumental writers of early rock and roll, including Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil. Love contributed a cover of the Hollywood Argyles song "Alley Oop" to the soundtrack of the 1984 film "Bachelor Party".  In 1986, Love's second chance came when she was asked to sing "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)" on David Letterman's Christmas show. This became a yearly tradition.  In 1987, Love sang backup for U2's remake of "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)". In 1990, Love released the album "Paint Another Picture", which included an update of her old hit "He's Sure the Man I Love", by Mann and Weill, as well as a ballad written especially for her, "I've Never Been the Same," by Judy Wieder. The album did not make the US charts. In 1990, Cher invited Love and her sister Edna Wright as her background vocalists for the Heart of Stone tour. Love released a minor single in 1992 with "All Alone on Christmas", written and composed by Steven Van Zandt, which can be found on the "" soundtrack. Love also contributed vocals to the soundtrack of the film "Jingle All the Way".  She continues to do a Christmas show every year in New York City, which is always capped by "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)".  Love recorded a duet with Bette Midler on the latter's 2014 studio release album "It's the Girls!", a collection of songs paying tribute to girl groups. The two singers performed "He's Sure the Boy I Love", a track credited to the Crystals although actually recorded by Love, Fanita James of the Blossoms, and other studio session singers.  Love's most recent album "Introducing Darlene Love" was released September 18, 2015 on Steve Van Zandt's label, Wicked Cool Records. There are 10 songs on this album, including singles and features by Van Zandt, two new songs by Bruce Springsteen, and covers of Joan Jett and Elvis Costello songs, among others. "Forbidden Nights", the first track, is one of the more successful songs on this album. It is a song that Elvis Costello previously produced for an unfinished Broadway musical.

Acting roles.

In the late 1980s and 1990s, Love also began an acting career, playing Trish Murtaugh, the wife of Danny Glover's character, in the four "Lethal Weapon" movies. Love has held many star roles in various Broadway productions. She acted and sang in "Grease", in the short-lived musical adaptation of Stephen King's "Carrie", and starred as Motormouth Maybelle in Broadway's "Hairspray" from August 2005 till April 2008. She later reprised the role in the Hollywood Bowl production of the show in 2011. In 2019, she appeared in the Netflix original movie "Holiday Rush".

Television appearances.

Love performed the song "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)" each year on the last pre-Christmas episode of "Late Night with David Letterman" (NBC, 1986–92) and the "Late Show with David Letterman" (CBS, 1993–2015). Her final Christmas appearance was on December 19, 2014, nine days after the official announcement of the show's finale in May 2015. Letterman has stated that the annual performance is his favorite part of Christmas. Due to the 2007 Writers Guild of America strike, Love was unable to perform on the Letterman show in 2007; a repeat of her 2006 performance was shown instead. Love was also the musical guest on "Late Show with David Letterman" on May 7, 2007, performing "River Deep-Mountain High."  She was a special guest on the December 17, 2005, broadcast of "Saturday Night Live", singing "White Christmas" with the "SNL" band and providing the vocals for a Robert Smigel cartoon entitled "Christmastime for the Jews." Love performed with Bruce Springsteen and the E-Street Band in November 2009 at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 25th Anniversary Concert at Madison Square Garden.  With the ending of the Letterman show, Love has performed "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)" on the ABC morning show "The View" each December since 2015. She has usually performed the song as a duet, being joined by Patti LaBelle in 2016, Fantasia in 2017, and Bryan Adams in 2018.

"20 Feet from Stardom".

She appears in the documentary film "20 Feet from Stardom" (2013), which premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and went on to win the Oscar for Best Documentary at the 86th Academy Awards. "20 Feet from Stardom" also won the 2015 Grammy Award for Best Music Film, with the award being presented to the featured artists as well as the production crew.  In the film, Love revealed that she had signed with Spector as a solo artist after the success of "He's a Rebel", and had recorded "He's Sure the Boy I Love" with the impression it would be released as her first single as a solo artist. However, Spector instead used Love's recording and released it as the newest single for the Crystals without informing Love. She only learned of the switch when she heard a DJ on the radio announce that the single was "the newest Crystals record".  Subsequently, Love recorded "Today I Met the Boy I'm Gonna Marry" which was released as a single by Spector, and now featured Love's name as the artist. She says that Spector offered $3,000 for her rights to the song. And though he said it was going to be a hit, she took the money. But, in spite of that decision, she said that she has continued to have a career because people have loved hearing her sing her songs.

Awards and accomplishments.

In 1995 Love won the Rhythm and Blues Foundation's Pioneer Award.  Darlene Love alongside Rob Hoerburger, editor and writer for the "New York Times" wrote her autobiography titled "My Name Is Love", published in 1998. In the memoir, Love writes about her life in the music industry, her years of struggle, and her present projects.  On December 15, 2010, it was announced that Love had been chosen for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. On March 14, 2011, Love was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, with a speech by Bette Midler. Midler said "she changed my view of the world, listening to those songs, you had to dance, you had to move, you had to keep looking for the rebel boy." Near tears, Love noted that she will turn 70 later this year, and thanked Spector "for recognizing my talent and making me the main voice in his Wall of Sound." Her speech elicited a standing ovation. Later, she sang "Zip-A-Dee-Doo-Dah" with Springsteen providing a guitar solo.  In August 2014, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN) announced that it is producing a biopic for the big screen based on Love's life, starring singing icon Toni Braxton.  In 2015, Love was featured in the September issue of "Entertainment Weekly". In the music section of the magazine, it introduces Love's five decades of musical accomplishments such as different solos and albums.  Love provided the inaugural performance to christen the opening of the Clermont Performing Arts Center in Clermont, Florida on September 26, 2015.

2016 Tour.

Beginning January 1, 2016, Love began touring her new album across the United States.

Discography.

U.S. singles.

Incomplete list of recordings.

Notes.

a. Some sources say 1938

Darlene Wright (born July 26, 1941), known by her stage name, Darlene Love, is an American popular music singer and actress. She gained prominence in the 1960s for the song "He's a Rebel," a No. 1 American single in 1962, and was one of the artists who performed on the celebrated Christmas album "A Christmas Gift for You from Phil Spector," produced by Phil Spector in 1963. She is ranked number 84 among "Rolling Stone"'s 100 Greatest Singers. In 2011 she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

Darlene Love, de son vrai nom Darlene Wright, est une chanteuse et actrice afro-américaine née le à Los Angeles aux États-Unis.


Biography.

Knepper was born in Los Angeles, California, the second son of a nurse and a police officer. His parents divorced shortly after his birth, and his mother had to take her abusive husband to court in order to get child support. He and his older brother, Robert, were sent to several boarding and military schools, Page Military Academy and St. John's Military Academy, while their mother worked. He picked up his first instrument, an alto horn, at the age of 6 while he was a pupil there. His first teacher persuaded him to put aside the alto and pick up the trombone because, as he said, he had a "trombone mouth". He played his first professional gigs in LA, and traveled to Spokane, WA at the age of 15. He graduated high school, and later attended classes at Los Angeles Community College.  Knepper married Maxine Helen Fields, a trumpet player with the all-female jazz band the International Sweethearts of Rhythm on May 8, 1954, at a civil ceremony in Tucson, Arizona, while he was on a tour with the Maynard Ferguson Band. They had two children, a daughter, Robin Reid Knepper Mahonen, and a son, Timothy Jay Knepper, who predeceased him. Knepper chose the names "Robin" and "Jay" to honor his idol, Charlie Parker, whom the jazz world knew as "Bird". He had four grandchildren.  In 1959, the U.S. State Department funded a trip for bandleader Herbie Mann to visit Africa, after they heard his version of "African Suite." In a stroke of serendipity, Jimmy Knepper replaced Willie Dennis as trombonist in the band for this tour. The grueling 14-week tour took place from 12/31/1959 to 4/5/1960. The musicians were: Herbie Mann, bandleader, flute and sax; Johnny Rae, vibist and arranger; Don Payne, bass; Doc Cheatham, trumpet; Jimmy Knepper, trombone; Carlos "Patato" Valdes, conguero; Jose Mangual, bongos. Destinations listed on official itinerary: Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nigeria, Mozambique, Rhodesia, Tanganyika, Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan, Morocco, Tunisia. Knepper documented this tour meticulously in a series of letters he sent home to his wife, Maxine, his daughter, Robin, and his son, Timothy. These letters were recently found carefully preserved in a dusty box in the attic of the family home, and have now been transcribed by his daughter. They provide a fascinating glimpse into the inner circles of a notable piece of jazz history, and the life of a touring musician, who was also a devoted family man. He paints vivid portraits of the personal life of the musicians he worked with, and his descriptions of the Africa's landscapes and people provide a vivid portrait of an era in which there were few civil rights for Africans in their own lands. Knepper's daughter is hoping to publish these letters in the near future. <personal letters of Jimmy Knepper being held by his daughter, Robin Knepper Mahonen>  In 1962, Knepper toured the Soviet Union with Benny Goodman's Big Band, as part of a cultural exchange during the Cold War, in which the Bolshoi Ballet also came to the US. This groundbreaking yet disastrous tour was also documented in Knepper's letters.  Knepper also played in the pit orchestra through the entire run of the Broadway show "Funny Girl", with Barbra Streisand, and later, Mimi Hines. After seventeen previews, the Broadway production opened on March 26, 1964, at the Winter Garden Theatre, subsequently transferring to the Majestic Theatre and the Broadway Theatre to complete its total run of 1,348 performances. In 1967 and 1968, he played in the pit orchestra at the Mark Hellinger Theater for "An Evening with Marlene Dietrich", for which Dietrich received a special Tony award in 1968. He also appeared on and off Broadway in "On Your Toes", and "The Me Nobody Knows".  While he was playing "Funny Girl", Knepper became a member of the Thad Jones/Mel Lewis Orchestra, a big band formed by trumpeter Thad Jones and drummer Mel Lewis around 1965, which began the 40-year tradition of Monday night jazz shows at the Village Vanguard in NYC's Greenwich Village. The band performed for twelve years in its original incarnation, but since the death of Lewis in 1990 it has been known as the Vanguard Jazz Orchestra. They have maintained a Monday-night residency at the Village Vanguard for four decades. Knepper again toured the USSR, this time with TJML, as well as Japan and Europe with them, and appeared with them at the Montreux Jazz Festival in 1974.  In 1969, Knepper toured and recorded "You Never Know Who Your Friends Are", with keyboardist Al Kooper, in the jazz period which followed his departure from Blood, Sweat and Tears. Knepper appeared on this concert tour which included shows at the Philadelphia Spectrum, and in Atlanta, where he briefly met Janis Joplin.  In 1980, he received a Grammy nomination from The National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, for "Best Jazz Instrumentalist Performance, Soloist", for his original album, "Cunningbird".  Knepper received "Best Trombonist" award from Downbeat Magazine Reader's Poll four years running from 1981 to 1984; he also achieved first place in the Downbeat Critics' Poll in 1981, and then five years running from 1983 to 1987.

With Mingus.

Although Knepper worked with some of the most notable jazz musicians of the 20th century, he was perhaps best known for his collaboration and stormy relationship with bassist and composer, Charles Mingus.  Mingus' temper was notoriously bad, and he twice hit Knepper. Once, while onstage at a memorial concert in Philadelphia, Mingus reportedly attempted to crush the hands of his pianist, Toshiko Akiyoshi, with the instrument's keyboard cover, then punched Knepper. Later, Mingus reportedly punched Knepper in the mouth while the two men were working together at Mingus's apartment on a score for Epitaph, in preparation for what became his disastrous concert at New York Town Hall, on October 12, 1962. The blow broke one of Knepper's teeth, ruined his embouchure and resulted in the loss of the top octave of his range on the trombone for almost two years. This attack ended their working relationship and Knepper was unable to perform at the concert. Charged with assault, Mingus appeared in court in January 1963 and was given a suspended sentence. According to his daughter, Robin, Mingus also later mailed heroin to Knepper's home, and made an anonymous phone call to the police. A little girl at the time, she remembers the police questioning her father after the mailman delivered the package. Nevertheless, in the 1970s, the two eventually reconciled thoroughly enough to play together in concert and on at least one of Mingus' last albums. Following Mingus' death, and the death of the first Mingus Dynasty bandleader, drummer Dannie Richmond, Knepper led the Mingus Dynasty Orchestra, and toured the Middle East and Europe.

Discography.

As sideman.

With Charles Mingus  With Mose Allison With Joshua Breakstone With Benny Carter With Richard Davis With Gil Evans With Ricky Ford With Dizzy Gillespie  With Langston Hughes With Clark Terry With Kai Winding With Chuck Israels With Herbie Mann With Kenny Burrell With Gary Burton With the Jazz Composer's Orchestra With the Thad Jones/Mel Lewis Orchestra With Dick Katz With Al Kooper  With the Toshiko Akiyoshi – Lew Tabackin Big Band  With George Adams & Dannie Richmond  With Mingus Dynasty

James Minter Knepper (November 22, 1927 – June 14, 2003) was an American jazz trombonist. In addition to his own recordings as leader, Knepper performed and recorded with Charlie Barnet, Woody Herman, Claude Thornhill, Stan Kenton, Benny Goodman, Gil Evans, Thad Jones and Mel Lewis, Toshiko Akiyoshi and Lew Tabackin, and, most famously, Charles Mingus in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Knepper died in 2003 of complications of Parkinson's disease.

James Minter Knepper, né le à Los Angeles et mort le à Triadelphia, est un tromboniste de jazz américain. Il a joué et enregistré en tant que leader ou avec de grandes figures du jazz comme Charlie Barnet, Woody Herman, Claude Thornhill, Stan Kenton, Benny Goodman, Gil Evans, Thad Jones et Mel Lewis, Toshiko Akiyoshi et, mais il est surtout connu pour avoir composé et joué aux côtés de Charles Mingus de la fin des années 1950 au début des années 1960.


Signs and symptoms.

The signs and symptoms of helminthiasis depend on a number of factors including: the site of the infestation within the body; the type of worm involved; the number of worms and their volume; the type of damage the infesting worms cause; and, the immunological response of the body. Where the burden of parasites in the body is light, there may be no symptoms.  Certain worms may cause particular constellations of symptoms. For instance, taeniasis can lead to seizures due to neurocysticercosis.

Mass and volume.

In extreme cases of intestinal infestation, the mass and volume of the worms may cause the outer layers of the intestinal wall, such as the muscular layer, to tear. This may lead to peritonitis, volvulus, and gangrene of the intestine.

Immunological response.

As pathogens in the body, helminths induce an immune response. Immune-mediated inflammatory changes occur in the skin, lung, liver, intestine, central nervous system, and eyes. Signs of the body's immune response may include eosinophilia, edema, and arthritis. An example of the immune response is the hypersensitivity reaction that may lead to anaphylaxis. Another example is the migration of "Ascaris" larvae through the bronchi of the lungs causing asthma.

Secondary effects.

Immune changes.

In humans, T helper cells and eosinophils respond to helminth infestation. Inflammation leads to encapsulation of egg deposits throughout the body. Helminths excrete into the intestine toxic substances after they feed. These substances then enter the circulatory and lymphatic systems of the host body.  Chronic immune responses to helminthiasis may lead to increased susceptibility to other infections such as tuberculosis, HIV, and malaria. There is conflicting information about whether deworming reduces HIV progression and viral load and increases CD4 counts in antiretroviral naive and experienced individuals, although the most recent Cochrane review found some evidence that this approach might have favorable effects.

Chronic illness.

Chronic helminthiasis may cause severe morbidity. Helminthiasis has been found to result in poor birth outcome, poor cognitive development, poor school and work performance, decreased productivity, poor socioeconomic development, and poverty.

Malnutrition.

Helminthiasis may cause chronic illness through malnutrition including vitamin deficiencies, stunted growth, anemia, and protein-energy malnutrition. Worms compete directly with their hosts for nutrients, but the magnitude of this effect is likely minimal as the nutritional requirements of worms is relatively small. In pigs and humans, "Ascaris" has been linked to lactose intolerance and vitamin A, amino acid, and fat malabsorption. Impaired nutrient uptake may result from direct damage to the intestinal mucosal wall or from more subtle changes such as chemical imbalances and changes in gut flora. Alternatively, the worms’ release of protease inhibitors to defend against the body's digestive processes may impair the breakdown of other nutrients. In addition, worm induced diarrhoea may shorten gut transit time, thus reducing absorption of nutrients.  Malnutrition due to worms can give rise to anorexia. A study of 459 children in Zanzibar revealed spontaneous increases in appetite after deworming. Anorexia might be a result of the body's immune response and the stress of combating infection. Specifically, some of the cytokines released in the immune response to worm infestation have been linked to anorexia in animals.

Anemia.

Helminths may cause iron-deficiency anemia. This is most severe in heavy hookworm infections, as "Necator americanus" and "Ancylostoma duodenale" feed directly on the blood of their hosts. Although the daily consumption of an individual worm (0.02–0.07 ml and 0.14–0.26 ml respectively) is small, the collective consumption under heavy infection can be clinically significant. Intestinal whipworm may also cause anemia. Anemia has also been associated with reduced stamina for physical labor, a decline in the ability to learn new information, and apathy, irritability, and fatigue. A study of the effect of deworming and iron supplementation in 47 students from the Democratic Republic of the Congo found that the intervention improved cognitive function. Another study found that in 159 Jamaican schoolchildren, deworming led to better auditory short-term memory and scanning and retrieval of long-term memory over a period of nine-weeks.

Cognitive changes.

Malnutrition due to helminths may affect cognitive function leading to low educational performance, decreased concentration and difficulty with abstract cognitive tasks. Iron deficiency in infants and preschoolers is associated with "lower scores... on tests of mental and motor development... [as well as] increased fearfulness, inattentiveness, and decreased social responsiveness". Studies in the Philippines and Indonesia found a significant correlation between helminthiasis and decreased memory and fluency. Large parasite burdens, particularly severe hookworm infections, are also associated with absenteeism, under-enrollment, and attrition in school children.

Helminths types causing infections.

Of all the known helminth species, the most important helminths with respect to understanding their transmission pathways, their control, inactivation and enumeration in samples of human excreta from dried feces, faecal sludge, wastewater, and sewage sludge are:  Helminthiases are classified as follows (the disease names end with "-sis" and the causative worms are in brackets):

Transmission.

Helminths are transmitted to the final host in several ways. The most common infection is through ingestion of contaminated vegetables, drinking water, and raw or undercooked meat. Contaminated food may contain eggs of nematodes such as "Ascaris", "Enterobius", and "Trichuris"; cestodes such as "Taenia", "Hymenolepis", and "Echinococcus"; and trematodes such as "Fasciola". Raw or undercooked meats are the major sources of "Taenia" (pork, beef and venison), "Trichinella" (pork and bear), "Diphyllobothrium" (fish), "Clonorchis" (fish), and "Paragonimus" (crustaceans). Schistosomes and nematodes such as hookworms ("Ancylostoma" and "Necator") and "Strongyloides" can penetrate the skin directly. Finally, "Wuchereria", "Onchocerca", and "Dracunculus" are transmitted by mosquitoes and flies. In the developing world, the use of contaminated water is a major risk factor for infection. Infection can also take place through the practice of geophagy, which is not uncommon in parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Soil is eaten, for example, by children or pregnant women to counteract a real or perceived deficiency of minerals in their diet.

Diagnosis.

Specific helminths can be identified through microscopic examination of their eggs (ova) found in faecal samples. The number of eggs is measured in units of eggs per gram. However, it does not quantify mixed infections, and in practice, is inaccurate for quantifying the eggs of schistosomes and soil-transmitted helminths. Sophisticated tests such as serological assays, antigen tests, and molecular diagnosis are also available; however, they are time-consuming, expensive and not always reliable.

Prevention.

Disrupting the cycle of the worm will prevent infestation and re-infestation. Prevention of infection can largely be achieved by addressing the issues of WASH—water, sanitation and hygiene. The reduction of open defecation is particularly called for, as is stopping the use of human waste as fertilizer.  Further preventive measures include adherence to appropriate food hygiene, wearing of shoes, regular deworming of pets, and the proper disposal of their feces.  Scientists are also searching for a vaccine against helminths, such as a hookworm vaccine.

Treatment.

Medications.

Broad-spectrum benzimidazoles (such as albendazole and mebendazole) are the first line treatment of intestinal roundworm and tapeworm infections. Macrocyclic lactones (such as ivermectin) are effective against adult and migrating larval stages of nematodes. Praziquantel is the drug of choice for schistosomiasis, taeniasis, and most types of food-borne trematodiases. Oxamniquine is also widely used in mass deworming programmes. Pyrantel is commonly used for veterinary nematodiasis. Artemisinins and derivatives are proving to be candidates as drugs of choice for trematodiasis.

Mass deworming.

In regions where helminthiasis is common, mass deworming treatments may be performed, particularly among school-age children, who are a high-risk group. Most of these initiatives are undertaken by the World Health Organization (WHO) with positive outcomes in many regions. Deworming programs can improve school attendance by 25 percent. Although deworming improves the health of an individual, outcomes from mass deworming campaigns, such as reduced deaths or increases in cognitive ability, nutritional benefits, physical growth, and performance, are uncertain or not apparent.

Surgery.

If complications of helminthiasis, such as intestinal obstruction occur, emergency surgery may be required. Patients who require non-emergency surgery, for instance for removal of worms from the biliary tree, can be pre-treated with the anthelmintic drug albendazole.

Epidemiology.

Areas with the highest prevalence of helminthiasis are tropical and subtropical areas including sub-Saharan Africa, central and east Asia, and the Americas.

Neglected tropical diseases.

Some types of helminthiases are classified as neglected tropical diseases. They include:

Prevalence.

The soil-transmitted helminths ("A. lumbricoides", "T. trichiura", "N. americanus", "A. duodenale)", schistosomes, and filarial worms collectively infect more than a quarter of the human population worldwide at any one time, far surpassing HIV and malaria together. Schistosomiasis is the second most prevalent parasitic disease of humans after malaria.  In 2014–15, the WHO estimated that approximately 2 billion people were infected with soil-transmitted helminthiases, 249 million with schistosomiasis, 56 million people with food-borne trematodiasis, 120 million with lymphatic filariasis, 37 million people with onchocerciasis, and 1 million people with echinococcosis. Another source estimated a much higher figure of 3.5 billion infected with one or more soil-transmitted helminths.  In 2014, only 148 people were reported to have dracunculiasis because of a successful eradication campaign for that particular helminth, which is easier to eradicate than other helminths as it is transmitted only by drinking contaminated water.  Because of their high mobility and lower standards of hygiene, school-age children are particularly vulnerable to helminthiasis. Most children from developing nations will have at least one infestation. Multi-species infections are very common.

Variations within communities.

Even in areas of high prevalence, the frequency and severity of infection is not uniform within communities or families. A small proportion of community members harbour the majority of worms, and this depends on age. The maximum worm burden is at five to ten years of age, declining rapidly thereafter. Individual predisposition to helminthiasis for people with the same sanitation infrastructure and hygiene behavior is thought to result from differing immunocompetence, nutritional status, and genetic factors. Because individuals are predisposed to a high or a low worm burden, the burden reacquired after successful treatment is proportional to that before treatment.

Disability-adjusted life years.

It is estimated that intestinal nematode infections cause 5 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYS) to be lost, of which hookworm infections account for more than 3 million DALYS and ascaris infections more than 1 million. There are also signs of progress: The Global Burden of Disease Study published in 2015 estimates a 46 percent (59 percent when age standardised) reduction in years lived with disability (YLD) for the 13-year time period from 1990 to 2013 for all intestinal/nematode infections, and even a 74 percent (80 percent when age standardised) reduction in YLD from ascariasis.

Deaths.

As many as 135,000 die annually from soil transmitted helminthiasis.  The 1990–2013 Global Burden of Disease Study estimated 5,500 direct deaths from schistosomiasis, while more than 200,000 people were estimated in 2013 to die annually from causes related to schistosomiasis. Another 20 million have severe consequences from the disease. It is the most deadly of the neglected tropical diseases.

Helminthiasis, also known as worm infection, is any macroparasitic disease of humans and other animals in which a part of the body is infected with parasitic worms, known as helminths. There are numerous species of these parasites, which are broadly classified into tapeworms, flukes, and roundworms. They often live in the gastrointestinal tract of their hosts, but they may also burrow into other organs, where they induce physiological damage.

Une helminthiase est un terme désignant les maladies parasitaires, causées par des vers parasites intestinaux, les helminthes. Ces vers constituent un important problème de santé publique dans les pays en voie de développement puisque plus de deux milliards de personnes en sont infectées.


Life.

Hanssens was born in Ghent. After studying violin in his hometown, Hanssens went to Paris to study harmony with Henri Montan Berton. Back in Ghent, he directed the Theatre of Rhetoric, then followed Mademoiselle Fleury's troupe to Holland.  Called back to Ghent as conductor, he held this position until 1825, then succeeded Charles Borremans as conductor of the orchestra of La Monnaie in Brussels.  In 1826, he was one of the founders of the Société d'Apollon with his friend, the composer Joseph-François Snel.  In 1827, King William I of the Netherlands chose him to conduct the court music and appointed him inspector of the Royal Conservatory of Brussels the following year.  After a few years of eclipse, he took over the direction of the Monnaie orchestra in 1835, was dismissed in 1838 and returned a third time in 1840. From 1840 to 1847, he shared the direction of La Monnaie theatre with Louis Jansenne, Charles Guillemin and Louis Van Caneghem.  After he left the stage, he died from apoplexy at age 75 in Brussels.

Work.

Hanssens composed the operas "Alcibiade", "La partie de trictrac ou la belle-mère", "Les dots" and "Le solitaire de Formentera" as well as a number of religious works such as masses, motets and a cantata. He also wrote the occasional work "Le vingt quatre août" for Willem I's birthday. His "Grande fantaisie no. 6" on different motives was popular in The Hague in the 1850s and often conducted by.

Charles-Louis-Joseph Hanssens, known under the name Hanssens the elder (4 May 1777 - 6 May 1852), was a Belgian violinist, composer, conductor and theatre director.

Charles-Louis-Joseph Hanssens, connu sous le nom de Hanssens aîné (Gand, - Bruxelles, ), est un violoniste, compositeur, chef d'orchestre et directeur de théâtre belge.


Life.

Pieter van Avont was baptized on 14 January 1600 in Mechelen His father was the sculptor Hans van Avont. It is not known with which master he studied but it is believed he received his first training from his father. He was accepted as a master of the guild of Mechelen in 1620. He moved to Antwerp two years later. Around 1622/3, he was accepted as master of the Guild of Saint Luke in Antwerp and he became a citizen of that city in 1631.  On 2 August 1622 he married Catherine van Hertsen in Antwerp cathedral, although they lived in the parish of St. James Church.  Pieter van Avont likely received commissions from Archduke Leopold William, Governor of the Southern Netherlands, as the Archduke is known to have owned a landscape with the Virgin and Child with Angels by van Avont. Even so Pieter van Avont was not able to live off his art and operated a side business as a dealer in paintings and prints. He was appointed captain of the local schutterij (militia) in 1633 but he resigned from the position in 1639 giving as a reason the need for him to paint in order to sustain his family. His first wife died on 3 September 1643. On 7 February 1644 van Avont married again. His second wife was Catharina 't Kint and they had five children. From the baptisms of his children and of his friends' children it is possible to understand the circle of artistic friends of van Avont. The godfathers and godmothers to his children included the painters Melchior Teniers and Frans Wouters. Catharina 't Kint was the godmother of Marie-Anne Hollar, the daughter of the printmaker Wenceslas Hollar en Margaretha Straci. Wenceslas Hollar is known to have made of his friend van Avont.  His financial position deteriorated after his second marriage and he had to sell the seven houses he owned and mortgage his residence. His children were sickly and seven of them died before the artist. He spent a lot of money on medical bills. He moved to rural Deurne near Antwerp in order to provide for a healthier environment for his children. He died in 1652 soon after moving his family there and was buried on 1 November 1652.  Peeter van den Cruys was a pupil of van Avont in 1625-'26. Frans Wouters was apprenticed to Pieter van Avont in 1629 but Wouters broke his contract to move to the workshop of Rubens in 1634. Frans Wouters' brother Pieter was van Avont's pupil in 1631–32.

Work.

Pieter van Avont is mainly known for his religious and mythological scenes and cabinet paintings. A motif appearing in many of van Avont’s works is a group of naked children and putti. In his many renderings of the Holy Family, they appear in a variety of roles such as the Infant Christ, John the Baptist and angels. They often pay tribute to the Virgin and Child. The arrangement of the figures in the grouping is identical in several of his paintings. Figures of naked children also appear in his bacchanals and in allegorical scenes such as the "Four Elements" and "War and Peace". His style in these works is characterized by a soft modelling of the figures using sfumato and warm colours. The scenes with children are often set in a landscape. Although van Avont signed several of these compositions, he did not always paint the landscapes himself.  As was common in Antwerp artistic practice in the 17th century, van Avont collaborated with many leading painters in Antwerp including Jan Brueghel the Elder and Younger, David Vinckboons, Lucas van Uden, Jacques d'Arthois, Lucas Achtschellinck, Lodewijk de Vadder, Izaak van Oosten and Jan Wildens. He collaborated with Jan Brueghel the Elder on a garland painting. Garland paintings typically show a flower or fruit garland around a devotional image or portrait. Jan Brueghel the Elder played a key role in the invention and development of the genre of garland paintings. The genre of garland paintings was inspired by the cult of veneration and devotion to Mary prevalent at the Habsburg court (then the rulers over the Southern Netherlands) and in Antwerp generally. The genre was initially connected to the visual imagery of the Counter-Reformation movement. Garland paintings were usually collaborations between a still life and a figure painter. Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter van Avont painted around 1623. Pieter van Avont painted the figures.  He painted landscapes himself. Evidence for this is that a pair of landscapes by van Avont was listed in an Antwerp estate in 1676. While the work (Kunsthistorisches Museum) was referred to in the 19th century as co-signed by van Avont and Jan Brueghel the Younger, it is now believed that van Avont also painted the landscape which had been attributed to Brueghel. Van Avont was also a printmaker and etched several plates with scenes of angels and putti.

Pieter van Avont or Peter van Avont, (1600–1652) was a Flemish painter, draughtsman and printmaker known for his religious scenes and cabinet paintings often including nude children and putti. Van Avont was a frequent collaborator with many leading painters in Antwerp.

Pieter van Avont est un peintre, dessinateur, imprimeur et marchand d’art brabançon né en 1600 à Malines et décédé en 1652 à Deurne.


Expression.

In vertebrates, the olfactory receptors are located in both the cilia and synapses of the olfactory sensory neurons and in the epithelium of the human airway. In insects, olfactory receptors are located on the antennae and other chemosensory organs. Sperm cells also express odor receptors, which are thought to be involved in chemotaxis to find the egg cell.

Mechanism.

Rather than binding specific ligands, olfactory receptors display affinity for a range of odor molecules, and conversely a single odorant molecule may bind to a number of olfactory receptors with varying affinities, which depend on physio-chemical properties of molecules like their molecular volumes.<ref name="10.1101/013516"></ref> Once the odorant has bound to the odor receptor, the receptor undergoes structural changes and it binds and activates the olfactory-type G protein on the inside of the olfactory receptor neuron. The G protein (G and/or G) in turn activates the lyase - adenylate cyclase - which converts ATP into cyclic AMP (cAMP). The cAMP opens cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels which allow calcium and sodium ions to enter into the cell, depolarizing the olfactory receptor neuron and beginning an action potential which carries the information to the brain.  The primary sequences of thousands of olfactory receptors are known from the genomes of more than a dozen organisms: they are seven-helix transmembrane proteins, but there are (as of May 2016) no known structures of any OR. Their sequences exhibit typical class A GPCR motifs, useful for building their structures with molecular modeling. Golebiowski, Ma and Matsunami showed that the mechanism of ligand recognition, although similar to other non-olfactory class A GPCRs, involves residues specific to olfactory receptors, notably in the sixth helix. There is a highly conserved sequence in roughly three quarters of all ORs that is a tripodal metal ion binding site, and Suslick has proposed that the ORs are in fact metalloproteins (mostly likely with zinc, copper and possibly manganese ions) that serve as a Lewis acid site for binding of many odorant molecules. Crabtree, in 1978, had previously suggested that Cu(I) is "the most likely candidate for a metallo-receptor site in olfaction" for strong-smelling volatiles which are also good metal-coordinating ligands, such as thiols. Zhuang, Matsunami and Block, in 2012, confirmed the Crabtree/Suslick proposal for the specific case of a mouse OR, MOR244-3, showing that copper is essential for detection of certain thiols and other sulfur-containing compounds. Thus, by using a chemical that binds to copper in the mouse nose, so that copper wasn’t available to the receptors, the authors showed that the mice couldn't detect the thiols. However, these authors also found that MOR244-3 lacks the specific metal ion binding site suggested by Suslick, instead showing a different motif in the EC2 domain.  In a recent but highly controversial interpretation, it has also been speculated that olfactory receptors might really sense various vibrational energy-levels of a molecule rather than structural motifs via quantum coherence mechanisms. As evidence it has been shown that flies can differentiate between two odor molecules which only differ in hydrogen isotope (which will drastically change vibrational energy levels of the molecule). Not only could the flies distinguish between the deuterated and non-deuterated forms of an odorant, they could generalise the property of "deuteratedness" to other novel molecules. In addition, they generalised the learned avoidance behaviour to molecules which were not deuterated but did share a significant vibration stretch with the deuterated molecules, a fact which the differential physics of deuteration (below) has difficulty in accounting for.  Deuteration changes the heats of adsorption and the boiling and freezing points of molecules (boiling points: 100.0 °C for HO vs. 101.42 °C for DO; melting points: 0.0 °C for HO, 3.82 °C for DO), pKa (i.e., dissociation constant: 9.71x10 for HO vs. 1.95x10 for DO, cf. heavy water) and the strength of hydrogen bonding. Such isotope effects are exceedingly common, and so it is well known that deuterium substitution will indeed change the binding constants of molecules to protein receptors.  It has been claimed that human olfactory receptors are capable of distinguishing between deuterated and undeuterated isotopomers of cyclopentadecanone by vibrational energy level sensing. However this claim has been challenged by another report that the human musk-recognizing receptor, OR5AN1 that robustly responds to cyclopentadecanone and muscone, fails to distinguish isotopomers of these compounds in vitro. Furthermore, the mouse (methylthio)methanethiol-recognizing receptor, MOR244-3, as well as other selected human and mouse olfactory receptors, responded similarly to normal, deuterated, and carbon-13 isotopomers of their respective ligands, paralleling results found with the musk receptor OR5AN1. Hence it was concluded that the proposed vibration theory does not apply to the human musk receptor OR5AN1, mouse thiol receptor MOR244-3, or other olfactory receptors examined. In addition, the proposed electron transfer mechanism of the vibrational frequencies of odorants could be easily suppressed by quantum effects of nonodorant molecular vibrational modes. Hence multiple lines of evidence argue against the vibration theory of smell. This later study was criticized since it used "cells in a dish rather than within whole organisms" and that "expressing an olfactory receptor in human embryonic kidney cells doesn't adequately reconstitute the complex nature of olfaction...". In response, the authors of the second study state "Embryonic kidney cells are not identical to the cells in the nose.. but if you are looking at receptors, it's the best system in the world."  Malfunction of the metalloproteins in the olfactory system is hypothesized to have a connection with amyloidal based neurodegenerative diseases.

Diversity.

There are a large number of different odor receptors, with as many as 1,000 in the mammalian genome which represents approximately 3% of the genes in the genome. However, not all of these potential odor receptor genes are expressed and functional. According to an analysis of data derived from the Human Genome Project, humans have approximately 400 functional genes coding for olfactory receptors, and the remaining 600 candidates are pseudogenes.  The reason for the large number of different odor receptors is to provide a system for discriminating between as many different odors as possible. Even so, each odor receptor does not detect a single odor. Rather each individual odor receptor is broadly tuned to be activated by a number of similar odorant structures. Analogous to the immune system, the diversity that exists within the olfactory receptor family allows molecules that have never been encountered before to be characterized. However, unlike the immune system, which generates diversity through "in-situ" recombination, every single olfactory receptor is translated from a specific gene; hence the large portion of the genome devoted to encoding OR genes. Furthermore, most odors activate more than one type of odor receptor. Since the number of combinations and permutations of olfactory receptors is very large, the olfactory receptor system is capable of detecting and distinguishing between a very large number of odorant molecules.  Deorphanization of odor receptors can be completed using electrophysiological and imaging techniques to analyze the response profiles of single sensory neurons to odor repertoires. Such data open the way to the deciphering of the combinatorial code of the perception of smells.  Such diversity of OR expression maximizes the capacity of olfaction. Both monoallelic OR expression in a single neuron and maximal diversity of OR expression in the neuron population are essential for specificity and sensitivity of olfactory sensing. Thus, olfactory receptor activation is a dual-objective design problem. Using mathematical modeling and computer simulations, Tian et al proposed an evolutionarily optimized three-layer regulation mechanism, which includes zonal segregation, epigenetic barrier crossing coupled to a negative feedback loop and an enhancer competition step . This model not only recapitulates monoallelic OR expression but also elucidates how the olfactory system maximizes and maintains the diversity of OR expression.

Families.

A nomenclature system has been devised for the olfactory receptor family and is the basis for the official Human Genome Project (HUGO) symbols for the genes that encode these receptors. The names of individual olfactory receptor family members are in the format "ORnXm" where: For example, OR1A1 is the first isoform of subfamily A of olfactory receptor family 1.  Members belonging to the same subfamily of olfactory receptors (>60% sequence identity) are likely to recognize structurally similar odorant molecules.  Two major classes of olfactory receptors have been identified in humans:

Evolution.

The olfactory receptor gene family in vertebrates has been shown to evolve through genomic events such as gene duplication and gene conversion. Evidence of a role for tandem duplication is provided by the fact that many olfactory receptor genes belonging to the same phylogenetic clade are located in the same gene cluster. To this point, the organization of OR genomic clusters is well conserved between humans and mice, even though the functional OR count is vastly different between these two species. Such "birth-and-death evolution" has brought together segments from several OR genes to generate and degenerate odorant binding site configurations, creating new functional OR genes as well as pseudogenes.  Compared to many other mammals, primates have a relatively small number of functional OR genes. For instance, since divergence from their most recent common ancestor (MRCA), mice have gained a total of 623 new OR genes, and lost 285 genes, whereas humans have gained only 83 genes, but lost 428 genes. Mice have a total of 1035 protein-coding OR genes, humans have 387 protein-coding OR genes. The "vision priority hypothesis" states that the evolution of color vision in primates may have decreased primate reliance on olfaction, which explains the relaxation of selective pressure that accounts for the accumulation of olfactory receptor pseudogenes in primates. However, recent evidence has rendered the vision priority hypothesis obsolete, because it was based on misleading data and assumptions. The hypothesis assumed that functional OR genes can be correlated to the olfactory capability of a given animal. In this view, a decrease in the fraction of functional OR genes would cause a reduction in the sense of smell; species with higher pseudogene count would also have a decreased olfactory ability. This assumption is flawed. Dogs, which are reputed to have good sense of smell, do not have the largest number of functional OR genes. Additionally, pseudogenes may be functional; 67% of human OR pseudogenes are expressed in the main olfactory epithelium, where they possibly have regulatory roles in gene expression. More importantly, the vision priority hypothesis assumed a drastic loss of functional OR genes at the branch of the OWMs, but this conclusion was biased by low-resolution data from only 100 OR genes. High-resolution studies instead agree that primates have lost OR genes in every branch from the MRCA to humans, indicating that the degeneration of OR gene repertories in primates cannot simply be explained by the changing capabilities in vision.  It has been shown that negative selection is still relaxed in modern human olfactory receptors, suggesting that no plateau of minimal function has yet been reached in modern humans and therefore that olfactory capability might still be decreasing. This is considered to provide a first clue to the future human genetic evolution.

Discovery.

In 2004 Linda B. Buck and Richard Axel won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work on olfactory receptors. In 2006, it was shown that another class of odorant receptors – known as trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) – exist for detecting volatile amines. Except for TAAR1, all functional TAARs in humans are expressed in the olfactory epithelium. A third class of olfactory receptors known as vomeronasal receptors has also been identified; vomeronasal receptors putatively function as pheromone receptors.  As with many other GPCRs, there is still a lack of experimental structures at atomic level for olfactory receptors and structural information is based on homology modeling methods.  The limited functional expression of olfactory receptors in heterologous systems, however, has greatly hampered attempts to deorphanize them (analyze the response profiles of single olfactory receptors). This was first completed by genetically engineered receptor, OR-I7 to characterize the “odor space” of a population of native aldehyde receptors.

Olfactory receptors (ORs), also known as odorant receptors, are expressed in the cell membranes of olfactory receptor neurons and are responsible for the detection of odorants (i.e., compounds that have an odor) which give rise to the sense of smell. Activated olfactory receptors trigger nerve impulses which transmit information about odor to the brain. These receptors are members of the class A rhodopsin-like family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The olfactory receptors form a multigene family consisting of around 800 genes in humans and 1400 genes in mice.

Les récepteurs olfactifs sont des protéines dans la membrane des neurones récepteurs olfactifs de l'épithélium olfactif. Ces protéines ouvrent un site récepteur vers le milieu extracellulaire. Ce site récepteur est sélectif, il ne peut accueillir que certaines espèces moléculaires. La multiplicité des récepteurs olfactifs (plusieurs centaines chez la majorité des vertébrés, appartenant à une super-famille de protéines couplées à des protéines G) et leur diversité permettent un encodage combinatoire des espèces moléculaires qui les atteignent. On compte ces dernières en dizaine de milliers, probablement toutes discriminées par le système olfactif de la plupart des vertébrés. Ils forment la plus grande famille de gènes chez le mammifère, représentant entre 2% (comme chez l'Homme) et 5% du total des gènes codants selon les espèces.


Career.

Both born in San Miniato, Tuscany, Italy, the Taviani brothers began their careers as journalists. In 1960 they came to the world of cinema, directing with Joris Ivens the documentary "L'Italia non è un paese povero" ("Italy is not a poor country"). They went on to direct two films with Valentino Orsini, "Un uomo da bruciare" ("A Man to Burn") (1962) and "I fuorilegge del matrimonio" ("Outlaws of Marriage") (1963).  Their first autonomous film was "I sovversivi" ("The Subversives", 1967), with which they anticipated the events of 1968. With actor Gian Maria Volonté they gained attention with "Sotto il segno dello scorpione" ("Under the Sign of Scorpio", (1969) where one can see the echoes of Brecht, Pasolini and Godard.  In 1971, they co-signed the media campaign against Milan's police commissioner Luigi Calabresi, published in the magazine "L'espresso".  The revolutionary theme is present both in "San Michele aveva un gallo" (1971), an adaptation of Tolstoy's novel "The Divine and the Human", a film greatly appreciated by critics, and in the film "Allonsanfan" (1974), in which Marcello Mastroianni has a role as an ex-revolutionary who has served a long term in prison and now views his idealistic youth in a much more realistic light, and nevertheless gets entangled in a new attempt in which he no longer believes.  Their next film "Padre Padrone" (1977) (Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival), taken from a novel by Gavino Ledda, speaks of the struggle of a Sardinian shepherd against the cruel rules of his patriarchal society. In "Il prato" (1979) there are nonrealistic echoes, while "La notte di San Lorenzo" ("The Night of the Shooting Stars", 1982) narrates, in a fairy-tale tone, a marginal event in the days before the end of World War II, in Tuscany, as seen through the eyes of some village people. The film was awarded the Special Jury Award in Cannes.  "Kaos" (1984)—another literary adaptation—is a poignantly beautiful and poetical film in episodes, taken from Luigi Pirandello's "Short Stories for a year". In "Il sole anche di notte" (1990) the Taviani brothers transposed in 18th century Naples the story from Tolstoy's "Father Sergius".  From then onwards, the Tavianis' inspiration proved faltering. Successes like "Le affinità elettive", (1996, from Goethe) and an attempt to woo the international audiences like "Good morning Babilonia", (1987), on the pioneers of cinema history, alternate with lesser films like "Fiorile" (1993) and "Tu ridi" (1996), inspired by the characters and short stories of Pirandello.  In the 2000s, the brothers turned successfully to directing television films and miniseries, such as Leo Tolstoy's "Resurrection" (2001) and Alexandre Dumas's "Luisa Sanfelice" (2004), as well as "La masseria delle allodole" (2007), presented at the Berlin Film Festival in the section 'Berlinale Special'.  Their film "Caesar Must Die" won the Golden Bear at the 62nd Berlin International Film Festival in February 2012. The film was also selected as the Italian entry for the Best Foreign Language Oscar at the 85th Academy Awards, but it did not make the final shortlist.  On 15 April 2018, Vittorio Taviani died in Rome after a long illness at the age of 88.

Paolo Taviani (; born 8 November 1931) and Vittorio Taviani (; 20 September 1929 – 15 April 2018), collectively referred to as the Taviani brothers, were Italian film directors and screenwriters who collaborated in productions of note.

Les frères Paolo et Vittorio Taviani sont des réalisateurs et scénaristes italiens nés respectivement le 8 novembre 1931 et le 20 septembre 1929 à San Miniato (Toscane). L'aîné, Vittorio, est mort le 15 avril 2018 à Rome. Jusqu'en 2017, ils ont co-signé la mise en scène de tous leurs films.


Buddhism in Belgium before official recognition.

Belgium has been comparatively slow in the absorption of Buddhism compared with other countries in Europe because there were no Buddhist countries amongst the territories colonized by Belgium. Alexandra David-Néel introduced the Maha Bodhi Society to the Congress of Free Thinkers in Brussels as early as 1910. There was reportedly a group of those interested in Buddhism who met in Brussels in the period between the Wars. Buddhism had already come to the attention of Belgians academically through the works and translations of the two famous Indologists Louis de La Vallée Poussin at the Ghent University and his disciple Étienne Lamotte at the Catholic University of Louvain, founders of what is internationally known as the Belgian School of Buddhist studies, still now active in Ghent (with the Ghent Centre for Buddhist Studies of the UGent) and Louvain-la-Neuve (at the Institut orientaliste de l'Université catholique de Louvain). There was also for a while in Brussels an Institut Belge des Hautes Etudes Bouddhiques where several Belgian scholars (Jean Dantinne, José Van den Broeck, Charles Willemen) published translations of Buddhist texts between 1969 and 1980.  Belgium has remained wary of new religions (even though in many cases they are historically much older than Christianity) and the general attitude has been illustrated by the Government publication of a blacklist of 189 organizations (including two Buddhist ones) in its ‘witchhunt’ for sects of 1997 and in the ongoing attitudes especially in the French-speaking community of Belgium. Nonetheless, in 1999 there were about thirty active Buddhist organizations and centres in Belgium, representing all traditions of Buddhism. A Buddhist Union of Belgium was set up in 1997 bringing together the various centres of Buddhism in Belgium that had been established through charitable and private organizations. The 2001 census estimated that there were 10,000 Buddhists of Belgian nationality - however, the numbers of Buddhists in the immigrant population alone exceeded 20,000.

Hope for Buddhism attaining official recognition in Belgium.

The government was first approached on 10 June 2005 to grant official recognition for Buddhism - a process which is expected to be completed in 2008. Independent sources now estimate the numbers of Buddhists in Belgium at 29,467.

Buddhism is a small religion in Belgium but despite lack of official recognition by the Belgian government has grown rapidly in recent years. As of the 1997 estimate, 29,497 Belgian people identified their religion as Buddhist (about 0.29% of the total population)

Le bouddhisme est un courant spirituel qui s'est développé en Belgique surtout à partir des années 1970 en raison de l'arrivée dans le pays d'émigrés ou de réfugiés originaires de pays traditionnellement bouddhistes et de l'intérêt croissant de Belges pour le bouddhisme, particulièrement le zen et le bouddhisme tibétain.


Plot.

In February 1966, while on a combat mission, Lt. Dieter Dengler, a German-born U.S. Navy pilot in squadron VA-145, flying from the carrier USS "Ranger", is shot down in his Douglas A-1 Skyraider over Laos. He survives the crash, only to be captured by the Pathet Lao. Dengler is offered leniency by the province governor, if he will sign a document condemning America, but he refuses. Dengler is tortured and taken to a prison camp. There he meets his fellow prisoners: American pilots Gene DeBruin and Duane W. Martin, Y.C., Procet and Phisit, some of whom have been captives for years.  Dengler immediately plans to escape, but receives only grudging approval from the others. All are suffering from malnutrition, unhygienic conditions and abuse by the guards. After some months the food supply worsens further, and they learn that the starving guards are planning to kill them and return to their village, so the prisoners agree to put the long-prepared plan into action. This involves escaping through a weakened place in the perimeter fence, dividing into two groups, circling the perimeter fence in opposite directions, converging on the guard hut during the lunch hour to overwhelm the guards, and contacting the American forces for rescue.  Due to one party of prisoners disobeying Dengler's orders, the escape does not go to plan and nearly all the guards end up being shot. With insufficient equipment and supplies, the prisoners disperse in the jungle. Dengler and Martin form one group, while Gene and Y.C. leave together to an uncertain fate.  Dengler and Martin try to reach the Mekong River to cross over into Thailand, fashioning a crude raft, but are caught in rapids and a waterfall. After losing their raft, Dengler and Martin are soon found by a mob of angry villagers, who kill Martin. Dengler escapes and flees back into the jungle, hiding from the pursuing villagers. A few days later, he is rescued by an American helicopter. Back at the U.S. compound he is taken to, Dengler is kept isolated in a hospital for debriefing due to the classified nature of his mission. He is visited by some of the men from his squadron, who covertly take him back to his ship, where he is welcomed as a hero by the crew.

Production.

Development.

"Rescue Dawn" is based on the true story of Dieter Dengler, a charismatic pilot who was shot down in Laos while on a covert attack mission for the United States Navy during the Vietnam War. A few months after being captured in 1966, Dengler and other POWs who were being held captive targeted July 4 for their mass escape. The prisoners had overheard the guards in mid-June planning to kill all of them and return to their villages because a drought had caused a severe shortage of food and water. The POWs decided they could not wait any longer to make their escape.  Dengler and fellow POW Duane W. Martin made their eventual run from their prisoner camp into dense jungle. Martin was killed by an enraged Laotian villager, but Dengler was able to continue on. Two rescue helicopters were scrambled to rescue Dengler, dropping a cable down to the human figure they spotted below. They winched him on board, but fearful that he could be a Viet Cong suicide bomber, the crew pinned the man to the helicopter floor and searched him. His backpack turned out to contain only a half-eaten snake. Dengler, exhausted by his ordeal, whispered: "I am an American pilot. Please take me home."  Director Herzog's fascination with the cruelties of man and nature led his interest in the 1997 documentary "Little Dieter Needs to Fly" about Dengler's experiences in captivity. He chose to revisit the story in a cinematic theatrical version with Christian Bale portraying Dengler. Compared to "Little Dieter Needs to Fly", "Rescue Dawn" understates the suffering of the prisoners, including omitting some of the worst torture experienced by Dengler. Herzog did not want to glorify the prisoners' woes, as the film is rated PG-13.

Filming.

Principal photography took place over 44 days in Thailand. In preparation for the roles, the actors playing the prisoners spent several months losing weight. Since weight gain is accomplished more quickly than weight loss, the film was shot in reverse, with Bale fully regaining his weight during the course of the shoot. The film includes the first major use of digital visual effects in Herzog's career; the shots of Dengler's flight while airborne were created digitally. The crash itself, however, is live action.

Music and soundtrack.

The original motion picture soundtrack for "Rescue Dawn", was released by the Milan Records label on June 26, 2007. It features classical music, with considerable use of the cello and piano. The score for the film was orchestrated by Klaus Badelt. Original songs written by musical artists Ernst Reijseger, Patty Hill, Craig Eastman, and Jack Shaindlin among others, were used in between dialogue shots throughout the film. Peter Austin edited the music.  Track listing:

Historical accuracy.

The film depicts six prisoners in the camp, while in real life there were seven. Herzog says that he found the writing to be difficult with seven characters, and that six was a more manageable number.  Jerry DeBruin, brother of Gene DeBruin, created a website critical of Herzog and the film, claiming that several characters and events have been falsely portrayed. On the same website, Pisidhi Indradat, the other survivor of the group, has also stated that the film contains inaccuracies. The website claims that during his imprisonment, DeBruin taught his cellmates English, shared his food, and even returned after escaping to help an injured cellmate. In the film, Dengler formulates the entire escape plan, along with uncuffing the handcuffs with the nail. According to Jerry DeBruin, the prisoners waited for two weeks before telling him of the plan, which had been devised before his arrival.  Herzog acknowledged that DeBruin acted heroically during his imprisonment, refusing to leave while some sick prisoners remained. Herzog states he was unaware of this until after the film had been completed; however, Pisidhi Indradat and Jerry DeBruin stated they made multiple attempts to meet with Herzog to ensure the film's accuracy, but to no avail. Herzog states that this narrative aspect probably would have been included had he learned it earlier. In real life, Dengler spoke English with a heavy German accent which was reduced in Bale's portrayal "to almost zero".

Reception.

"Rescue Dawn" was distributed by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer theatrically in the United States, and by Pathé Distribution, Hopscotch Films and Central Film GmbH in foreign markets. It was originally scheduled to be released by MGM in December 2006, but was held back for limited release in the United States until 2007, with the full release on July 27 following a limited release in New York City, Toronto and Los Angeles on July 4. The film score was written by German composer Klaus Badelt, after previously working with Herzog in his 2001 film "Invincible". The soundtrack was released on June 26, 2007.

Critical response.

Preceding its theatrical run, "Rescue Dawn" was generally met with positive critical reviews before its initial screening in cinemas. Among mainstream critics in the United States, the film received almost exclusively positive reviews., the film holds a 90% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 163 sampled critics review gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 7.52 out of 10. Its consensus reads, "Director Werner Herzog has once again made a compelling tale of man versus nature, and Christian Bale completely immerses himself in the role of fighter pilot (and prisoner of war) Dieter Dengler." Kirk Honeycutt, writing in "The Hollywood Reporter", said actor Bale's performance was "most complex and compelling". He praised the director Herzog for his use of "lush jungle locations in Thailand, eloquent camera work and an unobtrusive but powerful music score" which brought to life the "story of a man in the wilderness battling the elements on his own terms".  Film critic Roger Ebert in the "Chicago Sun-Times" called "Rescue Dawn", "perhaps the most believable [movie] that Herzog has made" while exclaiming, "There is nothing in it we cannot, or do not, believe. I was almost prepared to compare it to the classic storytelling of John Huston when I realized it had crucial Herzogian differences".  In the "San Francisco Chronicle", Walter Addiego wrote that the film was "an old-fashioned prisoner-of-war movie that becomes much more because of writer-director Werner Herzog's admiration for the remarkable true story of its protagonist, Dieter Dengler". He thought the director "found an actor capable of conveying the Herzog-ian hero—wounded, a holy fool, a crackpot, a dreamer of outsized dreams—in everyone."  Scott Bowles of "USA Today", said the film was "cold and unforgiving and chilling to behold". He declared, "War stories don't get much more harrowing or detached than "Rescue Dawn", and that's both blessing and curse for the Werner Herzog film."  The film, however, was not without its detractors. Rick Groen of "The Globe and Mail", felt that, "The strangely hybrid result, half Herzog and half Hollywood, plays like its own battleground. Sometimes, the tension is fascinatingly productive; other times, all we get is the worst of both worlds". Equally unimpressed was Paula Nechak of the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer", who called "Rescue Dawn" "a noble effort that can't quite make itself unique in a saturated genre". She added, director Herzog "already has covered much of the tropical terrain of his long-delayed action film in his 1997 documentary "Little Dieter Needs To Fly"". Alternatively, J. Hoberman of "The Village Voice", said the film "rivals "Apocalypto" as a jungle marathon, has all this and more". He also noted, "Bale even looks authentically starved (as in "The Machinist"). But seeing Dengler's adventure staged hardly seems more real than hearing his account—although, as conventionally framed and lit as it is, "Rescue Dawn" is the closest thing to a'real' movie that Herzog has ever made."  Writing for "The New York Times", Matt Zoller Seitz said the "story’s basis in fact doesn’t inoculate it against charges of predictability. Klaus Badelt’s score can be intrusively emphatic. And the triumphant ending—in which Dengler is welcomed back to his carrier with applause and speeches—is disappointingly conventional". Overall though, he did commend the film, stating, "'Rescue Dawn' is a marvel: a satisfying genre picture that challenges the viewer’s expectations".  James Berardinelli writing for "ReelViews", called "Rescue Dawn", "a solid effort from Herzog that fans of the genre should actively seek out" and noted that "Herzog understood when he made "Little Dieter Needs to Fly" that the ex-pilot's story would make an excellent feature. It's surprising it has taken him so long to make that movie." Berardinelli also commented that "Christian Bale continues to amaze with his ability and range. He may be the most versatile under-40 performer today. No role seems to be beyond him, and he has worked with some of the best directors of his era".  Describing some pitfalls, Elizabeth Weitzman of the "NY Daily News" said there was "an odd emotional disconnect leading up to the climactic escape, which can be traced directly to the performances". Weitzman, however, was quick to admit that "Herzog builds suspense from the start, and the movie is shot spectacularly." But ultimately, she was disappointed, saying, "There is a great movie in Werner Herzog's Vietnam saga, "Rescue Dawn". Unfortunately, it's about 30 minutes too long. Although the rest of this based-on-truth adventure is woven with powerful moments, only toward the end will it hold you completely in its grip." Ann Hornaday of "The Washington Post", stated that "Rescue Dawn" was "an original addition to the war film canon. It's an instant classic of the form, a portrait of courage and sacrifice at their most stirring, but subversively resisting cant and cliche". She believed that "such a masterful depiction of American heroism and can-do spirit has been created by a German art film director known for considerably darker visions of obsession is an irony Herzog no doubt finds delicious". She also emphasized how "There's a sense of austerity underlying "Rescue Dawn", all the more admirable for being so rare in Hollywood storytelling."  Similarly, David Ansen wrote in "Newsweek" that ""Rescue Dawn" is a Werner Herzog movie (and a true story), and though it's as taut and exciting as many edge-of-your-seat Hollywood escape movies, there's a mania about Dieter that sets him apart, a wild-eyed bravado that suggests the line between bravery and complete lunacy is a thin one."  Michael Phillips, in the "Chicago Tribune", however, was not moved by the storytelling. He described his negativity saying ""Rescue Dawn" is Herzog's first English-language screenplay, and this is part of its problem: The hushed conversations between prisoners sound only fitfully idiomatic. Also – crucially – Herzog can't find a way to make his own big finish feel authentic, even if things did happen roughly this way." Critic Leonard Maltin though, wrote that "Rescue Dawn" was a "Gripping reworking of Herzog's 1997 documentary "Little Dieter Needs to Fly"". He praised the film, calling it an "edge-of-your-seat POW story".  At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average out of 100 to critics' reviews, "Rescue Dawn" received a score of 77 based on 36 reviews. Various critics included the film on their lists for the top 10 best films of the year; such as V. A. Musetto of the "New York Post", who called it one of the best films of 2007.

Accolades.

Following its cinematic release in 2007, "Rescue Dawn" was nominated for multiple awards, including a Golden Satellite Award and an Independent Spirit Award.  Among other nominations, "Rescue Dawn" was considered for the Golden Satellite Awards in the categories of "Best Supporting Male", "Best Supporting Actor" and "Best Actor in a Drama". The film garnered a win for actor Christian Bale from the San Diego Film Critics Society in the category of "Body of Work".

Box office.

"Rescue Dawn" grossed $5,490,423 in U.S. ticket receipts during a 17-week theatrical run and earned $1,686,720 outside the United States, for a total gross revenue of $7,177,143. For 2007 as a whole, the film ranked 178th in box office performance. It was considered a financial failure due to its $10 million budget. The film did recoup its losses from $24,747,717 earned from DVD rentals and sales.  The film opened via limited release on July 4, 2007 in the United States. During its opening weekend, the film grossed $110,326 at six locations. Its official wide release was on July 24, 2007. Opening in a distant 11th place, the film earned $1,650,282, showing at 500 cinemas.  "Rescue Dawn"s revenue dropped by 66% in its second week of release, earning $560,903 and falling to 18th place.

Home media.

Following its cinematic release in theaters, the Region 1 Code widescreen edition of "Rescue Dawn" was released on DVD by MGM Home Entertainment in the United States on November 20, 2007. Special features for the DVD include: an audio commentary by Herzog and interviewer Norman Hill. Other extra include featurettes "The Making of a True Story", "Unfinished Business: Telling Dieter's Story", "Strength of Character", "War Stories" and "What Would Dieter Do?" In addition, three deleted scenes with optional commentary by Herzog and Hill, and a still photo gallery are also included.  The widescreen hi-definition Blu-ray version was released at the same time. Special features include audio commentary by Herzog and Hill, deleted scenes with optional commentary by Herzog and Hill. Other extras include featurettes "The Making of a True Story" (multi-part documentary), "Honoring the Brave" (interactive memorial), "Preparing for Survival", "Before the Dawn Mission Secrets" (trivia track), a photo gallery and the theatrical trailer in high definition format. According to the website The Numbers, estimates on DVD sales revenue in the United States totalled $24,747,717.

Rescue Dawn is a 2006 American epic war drama film written and directed by Werner Herzog, based on an adapted screenplay written from his 1997 documentary film "Little Dieter Needs to Fly". The film stars Christian Bale, and is based on the true story of German-American pilot Dieter Dengler, who was shot down and captured by villagers sympathetic to the Pathet Lao during an American military campaign in the Vietnam War. Steve Zahn, Jeremy Davies, Pat Healy, and Toby Huss also have principal roles. The film project, which had initially come together during 2004, began shooting in Thailand in August 2005. Despite critical acclaim, the film was a box office failure.

Le film est tiré de l'histoire vraie de l'officier américain d'origine allemande Dieter Dengler (interprété par l'acteur gallois Christian Bale), parvenu à s'échapper d'un camp de prisonniers au Laos durant la guerre du Viêt Nam en 1966. En 1997, Werner Herzog avait déjà réalisé un documentaire sur le sujet, ".


History and overview.

Conception.

The AMAs was created by Dick Clark in 1973 to compete with the Grammy Awards after the move of that year's show to Nashville, Tennessee led to CBS (which has broadcast all Grammy Award shows since then) picking up the Grammy telecasts after its first two in 1971 and 1972 were broadcast on ABC. In 2014, American network Telemundo acquired the rights to produce a Spanish-language version of the American Music Awards and launched the Latin American Music Awards in 2015.  Until the 2005 edition, both the winners and the nominations were selected by members of the music industry, based on commercial performance, such as sales and airplay. Since the 2006 edition, winners have been determined by a poll of the public and fans, who can vote through the AMAs website, while nominations have remained based on sales, airplay, now including activity on social networks, and video viewing. Before 2010, had nominations based only on sales and airplay and nominated every work, even if old. The Grammys have nominations based on vote of the Academy and only nominate a work from their eligibility period that changes often.

Hosts.

The first hosts for the first telecast of the AMAs were Helen Reddy, Roger Miller, and Smokey Robinson. Helen Reddy not only hosted the show but also became the first female artist to win an AMA for Favorite Pop/Rock Female artist. For the first decade or so, the AMAs had multiple hosts, each representing a genre of music. For instance, Glen Campbell would host the country portion (Campbell, in fact, has co-hosted the AMAs more times than any other host or co-host), while other artists would co-host to represent their genre. In recent years, however, there has been one single host.  In 1991, Keenen Ivory Wayans became the first Hollywood actor to host the AMAs.  From its inception in 1973 until 2003, the AMAs have been held in mid- to late-January, but were moved to November (usually the Sunday before Thanksgiving) beginning in 2003 so as not to further compete with other major awards shows (such as the Golden Globe Awards and the Academy Awards) and allows for ABC to have a well-rated awards show during November sweeps.  For the 2008 awards, Jimmy Kimmel hosted for the fourth consecutive year. In 2009–2012, there was no host for the first time in history. Instead, the AMAs followed the Grammys' lead in having various celebrities give introductions. However, rapper Pitbull hosted the 2013 ceremony and 2014 ceremony. Jennifer Lopez hosted the 2015 show. Gigi Hadid and Jay Pharoah hosted the 2016 show. Tracee Ellis Ross hosted the show in 2017 and 2018. Ciara hosted the 2019 show.  Between 2012 and 2014, as part of a marketing strategy for Samsung, the American Music Awards used the lock screen wallpaper of Samsung Galaxy smartphones rather than envelopes to reveal winners. A magnetic screen cover on each phone kept the wallpaper image with the winner's name secret until opened.  In August 2018, Dick Clark Productions announced a two-year sponsorship and content partnership with YouTube Music.

Most wins.

The record for most American Music Awards won is held by Taylor Swift, who has amassed twenty-nine awards. The record for most American Music Awards won by a male artist belongs to Michael Jackson, who has collected twenty-four awards. The record for most American Music Awards won by a group belongs to Alabama, who have collected twenty-three awards.

Most wins in a single ceremony.

The record for the most American Music Awards won in a single year is held by Michael Jackson (in 1984) and Whitney Houston (in 1994), each with 8 awards to their credit (including the Award of Merit, with which both artists were honored in the respective years).

Most wins by category.

The following list shows the artists with most wins in each category, adapted from the AMAs official website.

Special awards.

Award of Merit.

The American Music Award of Merit has been awarded to thirty two artists, the latest being Sting (2016).

International Artist Award of Excellence.

The International Artist Award of Excellence is described as "an award which recognizes artists whose popularity and impact cross national boundaries and is only given when there is a deserving recipient who is worthy of recognition for their accomplishments" and has been awarded to seven artists:

Icon Award.

The AMAs' producer Larry Klein stated: "The first-ever Icon Award was created to honor an artist whose body of work has made a profound influence over pop music on a global level."

Dick Clark Award for Excellence.

At the 2014 award ceremony, the Dick Clark Award for Excellence was given for the first time. It was created to recognize "an artist who achieves a groundbreaking feat or creates a landmark work. It is to be bestowed upon someone whose spirit and excellence capture the visionary passion that Dick Clark himself incorporated into everything he did."

Artist of the Decade.

In 2000, the year Brooks won the award, the AMAs held a poll to elect the Artist of the Decade for each previous decade of the Rock & Roll era. According to some sources, the result of this poll is not counted in the total of AMAs won by these artists. The results were Elvis Presley (1950s), The Beatles (1960s), Stevie Wonder (1970s) and Michael Jackson (1980s).

Other winners and nominees.

American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Video.

The American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Video was first awarded in 1984, but discontinued since 1988.

American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Male Video Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Male Video Artist was first awarded in 1985, but discontinued since 1987.

American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Female Video Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Video Artist was first awarded in 1985, but discontinued since 1987.

American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group Video Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group Video Artist was first awarded in 1985, but discontinued since 1987.

American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock New Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock New Artist was first awarded in 1989, but discontinued since 2003.

American Music Award for Favorite Country Video.

The American Music Award for Favorite Country Video was first awarded in 1984, but discontinued since 1988.

American Music Award for Favorite Country Male Video Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Country Male Video Artist was first awarded in 1985, but discontinued since 1987.

American Music Award for Favorite Country Female Video Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Country Female Video Artist was first awarded in 1985, but discontinued since 1987.

American Music Award for Favorite Country Band/Duo/Group Video Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Country Band/Duo/Group Video Artist was first awarded in 1985, but discontinued since 1987.

American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Video.

The American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Video was first awarded in 1984, but discontinued since 1988.

American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Male Video Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Male Video Artist was first awarded in 1985, but discontinued since 1987.

American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Female Video Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Female Video Artist was first awarded in 1985, but discontinued since 1987.

American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Band/Duo/Group Video Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Band/Duo/Group Video Artist was first awarded in 1985, but discontinued since 1987.

American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B New Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B New Artist was first awarded in 1989, but discontinued since 2003.

American Music Award for Favorite Heavy Metal/Hard Rock Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Heavy Metal/Hard Rock Artist was first awarded in 1989, but discontinued since 1997.

American Music Award for Favorite Heavy Metal/Hard Rock Album.

The American Music Award for Favorite Heavy Metal/Hard Rock Album was first awarded in 1989, but discontinued since 1992.

American Music Award for Favorite Heavy Metal/Hard Rock New Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Heavy Metal/Hard Rock New Artist was first awarded in 1990, but discontinued since 1993.

American Music Award for Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop New Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Rap/Hip-Hop New Artist was first awarded in 1990, but discontinued since 1994.

American Music Award for Favorite Dance Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Dance Artist was first awarded in 1990, but discontinued since 1992.

American Music Award for Favorite Dance Song.

The American Music Award for Favorite Dance Song was first awarded in 1990, but discontinued since 1992.

American Music Award for Favorite Dance New Artist.

The American Music Award for Favorite Dance New Artist was first awarded in 1990, but discontinued since 1992.

The American Music Awards (AMAs) is an annual American music awards show, generally held in the Fall, created by Dick Clark in 1973 for ABC when the network's contract to air the Grammy Awards expired. It is the first of the Big Three music award shows held annually (the others being the Grammy Awards and the Billboard Music Awards). Until the 2005 edition, both the winners and the nominations were selected by members of the music industry, based on commercial performance, such as sales and airplay. Since the 2006 edition, winners have been determined by a poll of the public and fans, who can vote through the AMAs website. The award statuette is manufactured by New York firm Society Awards.

Les American Music Awards sont l'une des cérémonies les plus importantes des États-Unis visant à récompenser le monde musical. Les deux autres cérémonies importantes du domaine étant les Billboard Music Awards et les Grammy Awards.