Origins.

Esperanto occupies a middle ground between "naturalistic" constructed languages such as Interlingua, which take words "en masse" from their source languages with little internal derivation, and "a priori" conlangs such as Solresol, in which the words have no historical connection to other languages. In Esperanto, root words are borrowed and retain much of the form of their source language, whether the phonetic form ("eks-" from "ex-") or orthographic form ("teamo" from "team"). However, each root can then form dozens of derivations that may bear little resemblance to equivalent words in the source languages, such as "registaro" (government), which is derived from the Latinate root "reg" (to rule).

Word formation.

One of the ways Zamenhof made Esperanto easier to learn than ethnic languages was by creating a regular and highly productive derivational morphology. Through the judicious use of lexical affixes (prefixes suffixes), the core vocabulary needed for communication was greatly reduced, making Esperanto a more agglutinative language than most European languages. It has been estimated that on average one root in Esperanto is the communicative equivalent of ten words in English.  However, a contrary tendency is apparent in cultured and Greco-Latin technical vocabulary, which most Europeans see as "international" and therefore take into Esperanto "en masse", despite the fact they are not truly universal. Many Asians consider this to be an onerous and unnecessary burden on the memory, when it is so easy to derive equivalent words internally (for example by calquing them, which is what Chinese often does). This sparks frequent debates as to whether a particular root is justified, and sometimes results in duplicates of native and borrowed vocabulary. An example is "calligraphy", which occurs both as a calqued "belskribo" ("writing of beauty") and as the direct borrowing "kaligrafio". A similar development has also occurred in English ("brotherly" vs. "fraternal"), German ("Ornithologie" vs. "Vogelkunde" for "ornithology"), Japanese ("beesubooru" vs. "yakyuu" for "baseball"), Spanish ("básquetbol" vs. "baloncesto" for "basketball"), French ("le week-end" vs. "la fin de semaine"), and other languages. However, although the debates in ethnic languages are motivated by nationalism or issues of cultural identity, in Esperanto the debates are largely motivated by differing views on how to make the language practical and accessible.

Affixes.

One of the most immediately useful derivational affixes for the beginner is the prefix "mal-", which derives antonyms: "peza" (heavy), "malpeza" (light); "supren" (upwards), "malsupren" (downwards); "ami" (to love), "malami" (to hate); "lumo" (light), "mallumo" (darkness). However, except in jokes, this prefix is not used when an antonym exists in the basic vocabulary: "suda" (south), not "malnorda" from 'north'; "manki" (to be lacking, intr.), not "malesti" from 'to be'.  The creation of new words through the use of grammatical (i.e. inflectional) suffixes, such as "nura" (mere) from "nur" (only), "tiama" (contemporary) from "tiam" (then), or "vido" (sight) from "vidi" (to see), is covered in the article on Esperanto grammar. What follows is a list of what are usually called "affixes". Most of them, however, are actually lexical roots, in that they can be used as independent words and their relative order in a compound is determined by semantics, not grammar. They are called "affixes" mainly because they derive from affixes in Esperanto's source languages. Some are true affixes in that, although they may be used independently, their order within a word is fixed by the grammar. Only a few cannot be used independently and so correspond to how a typical affix behaves in English.  When a root receives more than one affix, their order matters, because affixes modify the entire stem they are attached to. That is, the outer ones modify the inner ones. Most affixes are themselves roots, and as such have an inherent part of speech. This is indicated by the final part-of-speech vowel in the suffix list below. A few affixes do not affect the part of speech of the root; for the suffixes listed in the tables below, this is indicated by a hyphen in place of the final vowel.

List of prefixes.

There are, in addition, affixes not listed here: technical affixes, such as the biological family suffix "-edo" seen in "numidedo" (Guineafowls), and a few taken from Ido, such as "-oza" (full of) in "montoza" (mountainous), "muskoloza" (muscular), "poroza" (porous). A proposed suffix "-ala" makes adjectives out of nouns made from adjectives: "varmala" (caloric, from "varma" warm), "ŝtataligi" (nationalize).  Lexical (i.e. derivational) affixes may act as roots by taking one of the grammatical suffixes: "mala" (opposite), "eta" (slight), "ano" (a member), "umo" (a doohickey), "eble" (possibly), "iĝi" (to become), "ero" (a bit, a crumb). Also, through compounding, lexical roots may act as affixes: "vidi" (to see), "povi" (to be able to), "vidpova" (able to see, not blind); "ĉefo" (head, chief), "urbo" (a city), "ĉefurbo" (a capital). It is quite common for prepositions to be used as prefixes: "alveni" (to arrive), from "al" (to) and "veni" (come); "senespera" (hopeless), from "sen" (without) and "espero" (hope); "pripensi" (to consider), from "pri" (about) and "pensi" (to think); "vendi pogrande" (sell wholesale), from "po" (at the rate of) and "grande" (large [quantity]), etc. There is even "aliĝilo" (registration form), from the preposition "al" (to) and the suffixes "-iĝ-" (to become) and "-ilo" (an instrument).

Compounds.

Compound words in Esperanto are similar to English, in that the final root is basic to the meaning. The roots may be joined together directly, or with an epenthetic (linking) vowel to aid pronunciation. This epenthetic vowel is most commonly the nominal suffix "-o-", used regardless of number or case, but other grammatical suffixes may be used when the inherent part of speech of the first root of the compound needs to be changed.  Prepositions are frequently found in compounds, and behave much like prefixes,  Since affixes may be used as root words, and roots may combine like affixes, the boundary between the two is blurred. Indeed, many so-called affixes are indistinguishable from other roots. However, "true" affixes are grammatically fixed as being either prefixes or suffixes, whereas the order of roots in compounds is determined by semantics.  Although Zamenhof did not prescribe rules for which consonant sequences are not acceptable and therefore when the epenthetic "-o-" is required, he generally omitted it when the result was a sequence of two consonants, as in "velŝipo" above. However, he inserted an "-o-",

Reduplication.

Reduplication is only marginally used in Esperanto. It has an intensifying effect similar to that of the suffix "-eg-". The common examples are "plenplena" (chock-full), from "plena" (full), "finfine" (finally, at last), from "fina" (final), and "fojfoje" (once in a while), from "foje" (once, sometimes). So far, reduplication has only been used with monosyllabic roots that don't require an epenthetic vowel when compounded.

Some examples.

Affixes may be used in novel ways, creating new words that don't exist in any national language. Sometimes the results are poetic: In one Esperanto novel, a man opens an old book with a broken spine, and the yellowed pages "disliberiĝas" [from the root "libera" (free) and the affixes "dis-" and "-iĝ-"]. There is no equivalent way to express this in English, but it creates a very strong visual image of the pages escaping the book and scattering over the floor. More importantly, the word is comprehensible the first time one hears it.  Derivation by affix greatly expands a speaker's vocabulary, sometimes beyond what they know in their native language. For instance, the English word "ommatidium" (a single lens of a compound eye) is rather obscure, but a child would be able to coin an Esperanto equivalent, "okulero", from "okulo" 'an eye' (or perhaps, more precisely, "okularero", by first coining "okularo" for 'a compound eye'). In this way the Esperanto root "vid-" (see) regularly corresponds to some two dozen English words: "see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant" etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for some of these concepts.  In the "Fundamento", Zamenhof illustrated word formation by deriving the equivalents of "recuperate, disease, hospital, germ, patient, doctor, medicine, pharmacy", etc. from "sana" (healthy). Not all of the resulting words translate well into English, in many cases because they distinguish fine shades of meaning that English lacks: "Sano", "sana", "sane", "sani", "sanu", "saniga", "saneco", "sanilo", "sanigi", "saniĝi", "sanejo", "sanisto", "sanulo", "malsano", "malsana", "malsane", "malsani", "malsanulo", "malsaniga", "malsaniĝi", "malsaneta", "malsanema", "malsanulejo", "malsanulisto", "malsanero", "malsaneraro", "sanigebla", "sanigisto", "sanigilo", "resanigi", "resaniĝanto", "sanigilejo", "sanigejo", "malsanemulo", "sanilaro", "malsanaro", "malsanulido", "nesana", "malsanado", "sanulaĵo", "malsaneco", "malsanemeco", "saniginda", "sanilujo", "sanigilujo", "remalsano", "remalsaniĝo", "malsanulino", "sanigista", "sanigilista", "sanilista", "malsanulista". Perhaps half of these words are in common use, but the others (and more) are available if needed.

Correlatives.

The "correlatives" are a paradigm of pro-forms, used to ask and answer the questions "what, where, when, why, who, whose, how, how much", and "what kind". They are constructed from set elements so that correlatives with similar meanings have similar forms: There are nine endings corresponding to the nine "wh-" questions, and five initial elements that perform the functions of asking, answering, denying, being inclusive, and being indefinite about these nine questions. For example, the words "kiam" (when) and "kiu" (who, which), with the initial "ki-" of questions, "ask" about time and individuals, whereas the words "tiam" (then) and "tiu" (this/that one), with the same endings but the initial "ti-" of demonstratives, "answer" those questions, and the words "neniam" (never) and "neniu" (no-one) deny those questions. Thus by learning these 14 elements the speaker acquires a paradigm of 45 adverbs and pronouns.  The correlatives beginning with "ti-" correspond to the English demonstratives in "th- (this, thus, then, there" etc.), whereas "ĉi-" corresponds to "every-" and "i-" to "some-". The correlatives beginning with "ki-" have a double function, as interrogative and relative pronouns and adverbs, just as the "wh-" words do in English: "Kiu ĉevalo?" (Which horse?); "La ĉevalo, kiu forkuris" (The horse that ran away).  The adjectival determiners ending in "-u" have the usual dual function of adjectives: standing alone as proforms, as in "ĉiu" (everyone); and modifying a noun, as in "ĉiu tago" (every day). Those ending in "-io" are exclusively used standing alone: "ĉio" (everything).  The correlatives have a genitive case ending in "-es". Therefore, the adjectival correlatives, ending in "-ia" and "-iu", do not play that role, as adjectival personal pronouns such as "mia" "my" do. However, adjectival correlatives do agree in number and case with the nouns they modify, as any other adjectives: "La ĉevaloj, kiujn mi vidis" (The horses which I saw). They, as well as the independent determiners ending in "-io", also take the accusative case when standing in for the object of a clause. The accusative of motion is used with the place correlatives in "-ie", forming "-ien" (hither, whither, thither, etc.).

Correlative particles.

Several adverbial particles are used primarily with the correlatives: "ajn" indicates generality, "ĉi" proximity, and "for" distance. (Without these particles, demonstratives such as "tiu" and "tio" are not specific about distance, though they are usually translated as "that".)

An extension of the original paradigm.

Sometimes the correlative system is extended to the root "ali-" (other), at least when the resulting word is unambiguous, "Alie", however, would be ambiguous as to whether the original meaning "otherwise" or the correlative "elsewhere" were intended, so "aliloke" (from "loko" "place") is used for "elsewhere".  As a practical matter, only "aliel" and "alies" are seen with any frequency, and even they are condemned by many speakers.

Interrogative "vs" relative pronouns.

Examples of the interrogative versus relative uses of the "ki-" words:  Also,  Note that standard Esperanto punctuation puts a comma before the relative word (a correlative in "ki-" or the conjunction "ke", "that"), a feature common to many Slavic languages.

Derivatives.

Various parts of speech may be derived from the correlatives, just as from any other roots: "ĉiama" (eternal), "ĉiea" (ubiquitous), "tiama" (contemporary), "kialo" (a reason), "iomete" (a little bit), "kioma etaĝo?" (which floor?) [This last requests an ordinal answer of how many floors up, like "la dek-sesa" (the 16th), rather than asking someone to simply point out which floor, which would be asked with "kiu etaĝo?". The same form is used for asking time: "Kioma horo estas?", literally "How-manyeth hour is it?"]  Although the initial and final elements of the correlatives are not roots or affixes, in that they cannot normally be independently combined with other words (for instance, there is no genitive case in "-es" for nouns), the initial element of the "neni-" correlatives is an exception, as seen in "neniulo" (a nobody), from "neni-" plus "-ulo", or "neniigi", to nullify or destroy, from "neni-" plus the causative "-ig".

Gender.

Usually, feminine nouns are derived from epicene (genderless) roots via the suffix "-ino". A relatively small number of Esperanto roots are semantically masculine or feminine. In some but not all cases, masculine roots also have feminine derivatives via "-ino". Usage is consistent for only a few dozen words. For others, people may differ in usage, or it may be difficult to tell whether a word is gendered because of social custom or because of the word itself.

Masculine roots.

A small (and decreasing) number of noun roots, mostly titles and kinship terms, are inherently masculine unless the feminine suffix "-ino" or the inclusive prefix "ge-" are added. For example, there are "patro" (father), "patrino" (mother), and "gepatroj" (parents), whereas there is no proper word for "parent" in the singular (as explained in a following section). There are other words, such as "papo" (pope), which are generally assumed to be masculine due to historical reality, but there is no reason a feminine form "papino" couldn't be used in fiction, or if customs change.

The original setup.

In the early twentieth century, members of a profession were assumed to be masculine unless specified otherwise with "-ino", reflecting the expectations of most industrial societies. That is, "sekretario" was a male secretary, and "instruisto" was a male teacher. This was the case for all words ending in "-isto", as well as "-ulo (riĉulo" "a rich "man""), "-ano" and ethnicities ("kristano" "a male Christian", "anglo" "an English"man"), -estro (urbestro" "a male mayor"), and the participles "-into, -anto, -onto, -ito, -ato, -oto (komencanto" "a male beginner"). Many domestic animals were also masculine ("bovo" "bull", "kapro" "billygoat", "koko" "rooster"). These generally became gender-neutral over the course of the century, as many similar words did in English, because of social transformation.  Once such a word is used ambiguously by a significant number of speakers or writers, it can no longer be assumed to be masculine. Language guides suggest using all ambiguous words neutrally, and many people find this the least confusing approach—and so the ranks of masculine words gradually dwindle.

The current situation.

There is still variation in many of the above words, depending on the social expectations and language background of the speaker. Many of the words are not clearly either masculine or epicene today. For example, the plural "bovoj" is generally understood to mean "cattle", not "bulls", and similarly the plurals "angloj" (Englishpeople) and "komencantoj" (beginners); but a masculine meaning reappears in "bovo kaj bovino" "a bull & cow", " kaj anglino" (an Englishman & Englishwoman), "komencanto kaj komencantino" (a male & female beginner).  There are several dozen clearly masculine roots:  Some of these, such as "masklo" and the dedicated words for male animals, are fundamentally masculine and are never used with the feminine suffix. The others remain masculine mainly because Zamenhof did not establish a way to derive masculine words the way he did for feminine words. To partially remedy this, the root "vir" (man) has long been used to form the masculine of animal words. Originally a suffix, since the 1926 publication of the Esperanto translation of the Bible it has shifted in use to a prefix, but either way the resulting words are ambiguous. "Bovoviro" "bovine-man" and "virbovo" "man-bovine", for example, could mean either "minotaur" or "bull", and therefore both "taŭro" (bull) and "minotaŭro" (minotaur) have been borrowed into the language to disambiguate. Adjectival usage of "vira" is also found, but is similarly ambiguous. More recently, the word "maskla" (masculine) was created as an unambiguous alternative.

Feminine roots.

There are several dozen feminine roots that do not normally take the feminine suffix "-ino":  Like the essentially masculine roots (those that do not take the feminine suffix), feminine roots are rarely interpreted as epicene. However, many of them are feminine because of social custom or the details of their mythology, and there is nothing preventing masculine usage in fiction. Even outside of fiction, words such as "muzo" (muse) and "nimfo" (nymph) may be used metaphorically for males, and a collection of Goethe's poetry has been translated under the title "La Muzino" ('The [female] Muse'), with gendered metaphorical usage. Similarly, "sireno" is also the biological name for sea-cows (Latin "Sirenia"), and as such one can speak of "sirenino" (a female sea-cow).

Feminine personal names.

The ending of all assimilated nouns in Esperanto with "-o", including personal names, clashes with Romance languages such as Italian and Spanish, in which "-o" marks masculine names, and feminine names end in "-a". For example, the fully Esperantized form of 'Mary' is "Mario", which resembles Spanish masculine "Mario" rather than feminine "María". (Though suffixed "Mariino" is also available, it is seldom seen.) This has resulted in some writers using a final "-a" for feminine names with cognates in Romance languages, such as "Johano" "John" vs. "Johana" "Joanna", rather than using the feminine suffix "-in" for a more fully assimilated "Johano" and "Johanino", or "Jozefo" "Joseph" and "Jozefino" "Josephine". Some writers extend this "-a" convention to all female names.

Gendered pronouns.

Esperanto personal pronouns distinguish gender in the third-person singular: "li" (he), "ŝi" (she); but not in the plural: "ili" (they). There are two practical epicene third-person singular pronouns: expanding the use of the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" (that one), and Zamenhof's suggestion, "ĝi".  See the discussions at Esperanto personal pronouns and gender reform in Esperanto.

Antonyms.

People sometimes object to using the prefix "mal-" to derive highly frequent antonyms, especially when they are as long as "malproksima" (far). There are a few alternative roots in poetry, such as "turpa" for "malbelega" (very ugly) and "pigra" for "mallaborema" (lazy) – some of which originated in Ido – that find their way into prose. However, they are rarely used in conversation. This is a combination of two factors: the great ease and familiarity of using the "mal-" prefix, and the relative obscurity of most of the alternatives, which would hamper communication. This results in English borrowings – such as "ĉipa" (cheap) for "malmultekosta" (inexpensive) – failing to find favor even among native English speakers.  Two root antonyms are frequently encountered: "eta" (little), and "dura" (hard [not soft]). However, their popularity is due to their iconicity. "Eta" is derived from the diminutive suffix and more properly means "slight", but it's a short word, and its use for "malgranda" (little) is quite common. The reason for the popularity of "dura" may be similar: perhaps official "malmola", with the repeated continuants "m_l", sounds too soft to mean "hard", while "dura" begins with a stop consonant. Other antonymic words tend to have a different scope. For example, instead of "malbona" (bad) we may see "aĉa" (of poor quality) or "fia" (shameful), but these are not strict antonyms.  The antonymic prefix is highly productive among native-speaking children.

Proper names.

Proper names may either be The last method is usually used only for names or transliterations of names in Latin script. As noted under Gender, feminine personal names may take the suffix "a" rather than "o" even when fully assimilated.  When a name ending in a vowel is fully assimilated, the vowel is often changed to inflectional "o", rather than the "o" being added to the full root. As with borrowed common nouns, this may be criticized if the vowel is part of the root rather than inflectional in the source language, because the resulting form may not be readily recognized by native speakers of the source language. However, it is a common phenomenon in inflectional languages such as Russian or Latin. If a name is not fully assimilated, the accusative case may be tacked on with a hyphen, as "-n" if the name ends in a vowel, or as "-on" if it does not ("Zamenhof-on").

Idioms and slang.

Some idiomatic expressions have either been borrowed from Esperanto's source languages, or developed naturally over the course of Esperanto's history. There are also various expletives based on body functions and religion, as in English.

Idioms.

In addition to the root words and the rules for combining them, a learner of Esperanto must learn some idiomatic compounds that are not entirely straightforward. For example, "eldoni", literally "to give out", means "to publish"; a "vortaro", literally "a compilation of words", means "a glossary" or "a dictionary"; and "necesejo", literally "a place for necessities", is a toilet. Almost all of these compounds, however, are modeled after equivalent compounds in native European languages: "eldoni" after the German "herausgeben" or Russian "издавать", and "vortaro" from the Russian "словарь" "slovar’".

Contractions.

"Saluton" (hello) is sometimes clipped to "sal" or even "sa", and "saluĝis" (from "saluton – ĝis la revido") is seen as a quick hello–goodbye on internet chatrooms. Similarly: In the contraction "’stas" the stress shifts to the temporal suffix, which makes the tenses easier to distinguish than they are in formal "estas", and effectively recapturing some of the stress patterns of Proto-Esperanto (see below).

Word play.

Sometimes Esperanto derivational morphology is used to create humorous alternatives to existing roots. For instance, with the antonym prefix "mal-", one gets, As in English, some slang is intentionally offensive, such as substituting the suffix "-ingo" (a sheath) for the feminine "-ino" in "virino" (a woman), for "viringo", meaning a woman as a receptacle for a man. However, such terms are usually coined to translate from English or other languages, and are rarely heard in conversation.

Cultural "in" words.

Esperanto has some slang in the sense of in-group talk as well. Some of this is borrowed; for example, "fajfi pri io" (to whistle about something) means not to care about it, as in German. Other expressions deriving from Esperanto history or dealing with specifically Esperantist concerns have arisen over the years. A "volapukaĵo", for example, is something needlessly incomprehensible, derived from the name of the more complex and less immediately readable constructed language Volapük, which preceded Esperanto by a few years.  Words and phrases reflect what speakers of a language talk about. Tellingly, Esperanto has a slang expression "krokodili" (to crocodile) for speaking a language other than Esperanto when Esperanto would be more appropriate, such as at an Esperanto convention, whereas there is nothing equivalent in English.

Jargon.

Technical jargon exists in Esperanto as it does in English, and this is a major source of debate in the language: whether international jargon should be borrowed into Esperanto, or whether more transparent equivalents should be constructed from existing roots.  However, the normal wordplay people use for amusement is occasionally carried to the extreme of being jargon. One such style is called "Esperant’", found in chat rooms and occasionally used at Esperanto conventions. "(See Esperantido.)"

Artificial variants.

One line of verse, taken from the sole surviving example of the original "Lingwe uniwersala" of 1878, is used idiomatically: If this stage of Esperanto had been preserved, it would presumably be used to occasionally give a novel the archaic flavor that Latin provides in the modern European languages.  Various approaches have been taken to represent deviant language in Esperanto literature. One play, for example, originally written in two dialects of Italian, was translated with Esperanto representing one dialect, and Ido representing the other. Other approaches are to attempt to reconstruct proto-Esperanto, and to create "de novo" variants of the language.

Reconstructions.

With so little data available, various attempts have been made to reconstruct what proto-Esperanto may have been like. However, these reconstructions rely heavily on material from the intermediate period of Esperanto development, between the original "Lingwe Uniwersala" of 1878 and the "Unua Libro" of 1887. "(See Proto-Esperanto.)"

"De novo" creations.

There are various "dialects" and pseudo-historical forms that have been created for literary uses in Esperanto. Two of the more notable are a substandard jargon, "Popido", and a fictitious "archaic" version of Esperanto called "Arcaicam Esperantom". Neither are used in conversation. "(See Esperantido.)"

False cognates.

Because Esperanto vocabulary is largely international, it shares many cognates with English. However, because they were often taken from languages other than English, these do not always have their English meanings. Some of the mismatches are:

Dictionaries.

La Plena Ilustrita Vortaro de Esperanto (English: The Complete Illustrated Dictionary of Esperanto, abbreviated PIV) is the largest monolingual dictionary of the language and is generally regarded as the standard. (There is a free online version at vortaro.net.) However, it is subject to criticism, for example for failure to distinguish rare, idiosyncratic, redundant, or even erroneous words attested in a few written texts from their conversational equivalents, and for giving French approximations of some difficult words rather than their Zamehofian meanings. The older "Plena Vortaro de Esperanto", originally published in 1930 and reissued with an appendix in 1953, is still widely used, as more portable and less expensive than the PIV, and perhaps more accurate, even if somewhat dated. The "Etimologia vortaro de Esperanto" (five volumes, 1989–2001) gives source-language etymologies of all fundamental and official root words (tentative and uncertain in a few cases), along with comparisons of equivalent words in four other constructed international auxiliary languages.

The word base of Esperanto was originally defined in "Unua Libro" ("First Book"), published by L. L. Zamenhof in 1887. It contained around 900 root words. The rules of the language allow speakers to borrow words as needed, recommending only that they look for the most international words, and that they borrow one basic word and derive others from it, rather than borrowing many words with related meanings. In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto dictionary, "Universala vortaro", which was written in five languages and supplied a larger set of root words.

La langue internationale auxiliaire est relativement facile et a été adoptée par des hommes de toutes origines. La facilité dépend principalement de la combinaison de quatre facteurs : la simplicité c'est-à-dire que le nombre d'éléments à apprendre soit le plus petit possible; la régularité, cad. que toute fonction linguistique, comme par exemple le pluriel, soit toujours exprimée par le même élément et qu'il n'y ait pas d'exceptions ; la clarté, cad. que toute variation dans la pensée corresponde à une variation concomitante dans la langue et enfin l'internationalité. Le vocabulaire de l'espéranto combine efficacement ces différents facteurs.


Form.

The movement begins from a standing position. Weight is often added; typically in the form of a loaded barbell but dumbbells and kettlebells may also be used. When a barbell is used, it may be braced across the upper trapezius muscle, termed a "high bar squat", or held lower across the rear deltoids, termed a "low bar squat". The movement is initiated by moving the hips back and bending the knees and hips to lower the torso and accompanying weight, then returning to the upright position.  Squats can be performed to varying depths. The competition standard is for the crease of the hip (top surface of the leg at the hip joint) to fall below the top of the knee; this is colloquially known as "parallel" depth. Confusingly, many other definitions for "parallel" depth abound, none of which represents the standard in organized powerlifting. From shallowest to deepest, these other standards are: bottom of hamstring parallel to the ground; the hip joint itself below the top of the knee, or femur parallel to the floor; and the top of the upper thigh (i.e., top of the quadriceps) below the top of the knee. Squatting below parallel qualifies a squat as deep while squatting above it qualifies as shallow. Some authorities caution against deep squats; though the forces on the ACL and PCL decrease at high flexion, compressive forces on the menisci and articular cartilages in the knee peak at these same high angles. This makes the relative safety of deep versus shallow squats difficult to determine.  As the body descends, the hips and knees undergo flexion, the ankle extends (dorsiflexes) and muscles around the joint contract eccentrically, reaching maximal contraction at the bottom of the movement while slowing and reversing descent. The muscles around the hips provide the power out of the bottom. If the knees slide forward or cave in then tension is taken from the hamstrings, hindering power on the ascent. Returning to vertical contracts the muscles concentrically, and the hips and knees undergo extension while the ankle plantarflexes.  Common errors of squat form include descending too rapidly and flexing the torso too far forward. Rapid descent risks being unable to complete the lift or causing injury. This occurs when the descent causes the squatting muscles to relax and tightness at the bottom is lost as a result. Over-flexing the torso greatly increases the forces exerted on the lower back, risking a spinal disc herniation. Another error is when the knee is not aligned with the direction of the toes, entering a valgus position, which can adversely stress the knee joint. Another error is the raising of heels off the floor, which reduces the contribution of the gluteus muscles.

Muscles used.

Agonist muscles  Stabilizing muscles

Equipment.

Various types of equipment can be used to perform squats.  A power cage can be used to reduce risk of injury and eliminate the need for a spotting partner. By putting the bar on a track, the Smith machine reduces the role of hip movement in the squat and in this sense resembles a leg press. The monolift rack allows an athlete to perform a squat without having to take a couple of steps back with weight on as opposed to conventional racks. Not many powerlifting federations allow monolift in competitions (WPO, GPC, IPO).  Other equipment used can include a weight lifting belt to support the torso and boards to wedge beneath the ankles to improve stability and allow a deeper squat (weightlifting shoes also have wooden wedges built into the sole to achieve the same effect). Wrist straps are another piece of recommended equipment; they support the wrist and help to keep it in a straightened position. They should be wrapped around the wrist, above and below the joint, thus limiting movement of the joint. Heel wedges and related equipment are discouraged by some as they are thought to worsen form over the long term. The barbell can also be cushioned with a special padded sleeve.

Variants.

The squat has a number of variants, some of which can be combined:

Injury considerations.

Although the squat has long been a basic element of weight training, it has not been without controversy over its safety. Some trainers allege that squats are associated with injuries to the lumbar spine and knees. Others, however, continue to advocate the squat as one of the best exercises for building muscle and strength. Some coaches maintain that incomplete squats (those terminating above parallel) are both less effective and more likely to cause injury than a full squat (terminating with hips at or below knee level). A 2013 review concluded that deep squats performed with proper technique do not lead to increased rates of degenerative knee injuries and are an effective exercise. The same review also concluded that shallower squats may lead to degeneration in the lumbar spine and knees in the long-term.

Squats used in physical therapy.

Squats can be used for some rehabilitative activities because they hone stability without excessive compression on the tibiofemoral joint and anterior cruciate ligament.  Deeper squats are associated with higher compressive loads on patellofemoral joint and it is possible that people who suffer from pain in this joint cannot squat at increased depths. For some knee rehabilitation activities, patients might feel more comfortable with knee flexion between 0 and 50 degrees because it places less force compared to deeper depths. Another study shows that decline squats at angles higher than 16 degrees may not be beneficial for the knee and fails to decrease calf tension. Other studies have indicated that the best squat to hone quadriceps, without inflaming the patellofemoral joint, occurs between 0 and 50 degrees.  Combining single-limb squats and decline angles have been used to rehabilitate knee extensors. Conducting squats at a declined angle allows the knee to flex despite possible pain or lack of mobilization in the ankle. If therapists are looking to focus on the knee during squats, one study shows that doing single-limb squats at a 16 degree decline angle has the greatest activation of the knee extensors without placing excessive pressure on the ankles. This same study also found that a 24 degree decline angle can be used to strengthen ankles and knee extensors.  Different Sets For Squats  Forced repetitions are used when training until failure. They are completed by completing an additional 2-4 reps (assisted) at the end of the set. Partial repetitions are also used in order to maintain a constant period of tension in order to promote hypertrophy. Lastly, drop-sets are an intense workout done in at the end of a set which runs until failure and continues with a lower weight without rest.

A squat is a strength exercise in which the trainee lowers their hips from a standing position and then stands back up. During the descent of a squat, the hip and knee joints flex while the ankle joint dorsiflexes; conversely the hip and knee joints extend and the ankle joint plantarflexes when standing up.

La flexion sur jambes (angl. squat) est un mouvement d'accroupi qui constitue un exercice poly-articulaire de force et de musculation ciblant les muscles de la cuisse (principalement quadriceps, adducteurs et ischio-jambiers) et les fessiers. Il sollicite aussi secondairement les mollets, les lombaires et les abdominaux. C'est un des trois mouvements de base de la force athlétique avec le développé couché et le soulevé de terre.


Ethnic composition of regions.

The composition of regions of Brazil according to autosomal genetic studies focused on the Brazilian population (which has been found to be a complex melting pot of European, African and Native Americans components):  A 2011 autosomal DNA study, with nearly 1000 samples from all over the country ("whites", "pardos" and "blacks"), found a major European contribution, followed by a high African contribution and an important Native American component. The study showed that Brazilians from different regions are more homogeneous than previously thought by some based on the census alone. "Brazilian homogeneity is, therefore, a lot greater between Brazilian regions than within Brazilian regions."  According to an autosomal DNA study from 2010, a new portrayal of each ethnicity contribution to the DNA of Brazilians, obtained with samples from the five regions of the country, has indicated that, on average, European ancestors are responsible for nearly 80% of the genetic heritage of the population. The variation between the regions is small, with the possible exception of the South, where the European contribution reaches nearly 90%. The results, published by the scientific "American Journal of Human Biology" by a team of the Catholic University of Brasília, show that, in Brazil, physical indicators such as colour of skin, eyes and hair have little to do with the genetic ancestry of each person, which has been shown in previous studies (regardless of census classification). Ancestry informative SNPs can be useful to estimate individual and population biogeographical ancestry. Brazilian population is characterized by a genetic background of three parental populations (European, African, and Brazilian Native Amerindians) with a wide degree and diverse patterns of admixture. In this work we analyzed the information content of 28 ancestry-informative SNPs into multiplexed panels using three parental population sources (African, Amerindian, and European) to infer the genetic admixture in an urban sample of the five Brazilian geopolitical regions. The SNPs assigned apart the parental populations from each other and thus can be applied for ancestry estimation in a three hybrid admixed population. Data was used to infer genetic ancestry in Brazilians with an admixture model. Pairwise estimates of F(st) among the five Brazilian geopolitical regions suggested little genetic differentiation only between the South and the remaining regions. Estimates of ancestry results are consistent with the heterogeneous genetic profile of Brazilian population, with a major contribution of European ancestry (0.771) followed by African (0.143) and Amerindian contributions (0.085). The described multiplexed SNP panels can be useful tool for bioanthropological studies but it can be mainly valuable to control for spurious results in genetic association studies in admixed populations."  An autosomal DNA study from 2009 found a similar profile "all the Brazilian samples (regions) lie more closely to the European group than to the African populations or to the Mestizos from Mexico."  According to another autosomal DNA study from 2008, by the University of Brasília (UnB), European ancestry dominates in the whole of Brazil (in all regions), accounting for 65.90% of heritage of the population, followed by the African contribution (24.80%) and the Native American (9.3%); the European ancestry being the dominant ancestry in all regions including the Northeast of Brazil.  A study from 1965, "Methods of Analysis of a Hybrid Population" ("Human Biology", vol 37, number 1), led by geneticists D. F. Roberts and R. W. Hiorns, found out the average Northeastern Brazilian to be predominantly European in ancestry (65%), with minor but important African and Native American contributions (25% and 9%).

Brazil is geopolitically divided into five regions (also called macroregions) by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (); each region is composed of three or more states. Although officially recognized, the division is merely academic, considering geographic, social and economic factors, among others, and has no political effects other than orientating Federal-level government programs. Under the state level, there are also mesoregions and microregions.

Les régions du Brésil sont une division territoriale officielle du Brésil, proposée par l'Institut brésilien de géographie et de statistiques (IBGE) en 1969.


Geography.

There are only a few remarkable mountains in the municipal territory: El Vedat (142 m), Morredondo (157 m), Barret (142 m), Cabezo de la Araña (228 m) and the Serra Perenxisa (329 AMSL). About a 20% of the territory is mountainous. Torrent is crossed by a gully (Barranc de Torrent) which flows into the Albufera lagoon and estuary.

History.

The village of Torrent was officially founded by people of European ancestry in 1248, after the Reconquista although the tower and its fortification were built several centuries earlier. Archaeological research suggests that there were inhabitants in the zone in the Bronze Age.  It was originally a fief of the Knights Hospitaller.

Main sights.

The Medieval Tower.

The Medieval Tower was built by the Moors and was part of an ancient castle. It was double-walled and had some underground passages.  The tower, which lies in a square, has a truncated pyramid shape and is 30 metres high, with 5 floors and a terrace where The Cross of the St. John of Jerusalem order and a Valencian "rat penat" can be seen at the four upper corners. Access to the tower is through an exterior staircase connecting to a door at the first floor. Around 1613 porticoes were built around to house a market around the tower. In 1847 it became the property of Torrent.  The tower has often been used as a prison throughout its history, and the porches have hosted the Courts in its upper floors since 1908 (when new ones were built). The porticoes were demolished in 1970. After its restoration, the Tower houses two exhibition halls.

Sant Lluís Bertrán's Hermitage.

The shrine dedicated to Saint Lluís Bertrán is a traditional and beloved church by all people in Torrent, since Sant Blai among other festivities are held in the hermitage. In 1634 the City Council agreed to build the chapel dedicated to Saint Lluis Bertran. After many changes and reconstructions it was used for military purposes during the Spanish civil war and was finally restored after that conflict.  Internally, it consists of a nave and two sides. The neoclassical facade is divided into three parts. The door has an arc with archivolt, St. Louis' image and a large rosette appear over the door. The bell tower has a hexagonal base and was finished in 1829. It has four bells and a clock with three spheres, installed there in 1950.

Esglèsia de l'Assumpció.

The parish church of Nuestra Señora de la Asunción was built in the 13th century, in the same place as the current one, but much smaller. Its rector attended the diocesan synods in the fourteenth century. An image of the "Verge del Pòpul", which disappeared in 1936, was likely the main image in the ancient parish. It has had many fires and thefts with the result that the church that exists nowadays has had many restorations and modifications.

Torrent () is a city located within the metropolitan area of the city of Valencia, Spain. It is the largest municipality of the Horta Oest "comarca", with 79,843 inhabitants (2010). It is situated some 7 km from Valencia city proper, to which it is connected via the metro. The two metro stations in Torrent are called "Torrent" and "Torrent avinguda" from lines 1 and 5.

Torrent, en valencien et officiellement (Torrente en castillan), est une commune d'Espagne de la province de Valence dans la Communauté valencienne. Elle est située dans la comarque de l'Horta Oest et dans la zone à prédominance linguistique valencienne. Avec ses 80 000 habitants, il s'agit de la troisième ville la plus peuplée de la Province de Valence, et la huitième la plus peuplée de la Communauté valencienne. Elle forme avec d'autres communes de la comarque la "Mancomunitat Intermunicipal de l'Horta Sud", qui a son siège à Torrent.


Description.

Kawasaki Superbike Challenge is a motorcycle racing game that uses the same engine as the Sega Genesis game, "F1". It includes 14 standard-length race tracks, plus the Suzuka 8 Hours endurance race, available in both training and Championship modes. The game is unlicensed (except by Kawasaki), so all riders and teams are fictional.  The game has more polygonal roadside objects than "F1", and there is still a Turbo mode, allowing for faster racing at the expense of some of the detail. Players are given the ability to turn on or off weather (during rainy days the graphics are darker and the bike has less traction). The number of laps on each course can be 5, 10 or 15, and there are four skill levels. Some changes have been made to how the vehicle handles, to emphasize the switch from cars to bikes.

Reception.

Reviewing the Genesis version, "GamePro" praised the numerous options, responsive controls, complex tracks, and balanced challenge with "enough variety to suit all skill levels", but criticized the undetailed landscapes, "blocky" polygons, and lack of visual effects to accentuate the action. They more wholeheartedly approved of the Game Gear version, applauding the graphics, fast pace, two-player mode, and most particularly the numerous modes and customization options, and concluding that "Handheld racing doesn't get much better than this."  A critic for "Next Generation" panned the Super NES version, chiefly for the lack of any sense of speed. He further remarked that "Flat-shaded 'polygon' blocks dot the sides of the road, which only serves to confuse rather than decorate, the 'first-person' perspective rather effectively hides the road, and you could even describe the control as sluggish, except that sluggish isn't strong enough a word." He gave it one out of five stars.  "Next Generation" reviewed the Genesis version of the game, rating it two stars out of five, and stated that "eventually the redundant, mundane races and lack of character traits in bikers make this game uninteresting."

Kawasaki Superbike Challenge (known in Europe as Kawasaki Superbikes) is a multiplatform racing video game where the player takes the role of a Kawasaki factory rider in an unnamed fictional racing series.

Kawasaki Superbike Challenge est un jeu vidéo de course de moto sorti en 1994 sur Game Gear, Mega Drive et Super Nintendo. Développé par Lankhor et édité par Domark, le jeu a été conçu par Chris Johnson. "Kawasaki Superbike Challenge" exploite le même moteur de jeu que "F1". Il utilise la licence de la marque Kawasaki.


Origins.

Bernard was the son of Bernard I, count of Poitou (814-844), and Bilichilde, daughter of Rorgon I, count of Maine. He was the paternal cousin of Emeno, Count of Angoulême (839-863), who died fighting the Vikings. On his mother's side he was a nephew of Rorgon II of Maine and of the royal Chancellor Gauzlin, Abbot of Saint-Germain-des-Prés.

End of Rebellion.

Bernard was loyal to King Charles the Bald in the civil war that erupted in 851. After the flight of Humfrid in 864 and the death of the other rebels, Charles redistributed the counties and marches of North-East Iberia and Languedoc ("March of Gotia"). In 864, Bernard was installed in the counties of Auvergne and Autun in central France after Bernard Plantapilosa (son of Bernard of Septimania) was dispossessed of them for rebellion. At that time Auxerre and Nevers were given to Robert the Strong who also received Autun in 865. In 865, Toulouse, Limousin, Pallars, and Ribagorza were entrusted to Bernard, son of Raymond I of Toulouse. Raymond had been dispossessed by Humfrid three years before. Ermengol, Count of Albi, received Rouergue, and Oliba received Carcassonne and probably Razès.  In 865, however, the king redistributed the Counties of Auvergne and Autun from Bernard and instead gave him the more strategically important Counties of Barcelona, Ausona, Roussillon, Narbonne, Agde, Béziers, Melgueil, and Nîmes.  The young King Charles the Child, son of Charles the Bald and thus grandson of Louis the Pious, died 29 September 866, creating a crisis of succession in Aquitaine. There were many vacancies to be filled in Aquitaine: Ranulph of Poitou, Landri of Saintonge, Emeno of Périgord and Angoulême, Bishop Ralph of Bourges, and Bernard of Auvergne were all either dead or had rebelled.

Government Reforms.

Wulgrin, a relative of Charles the Bald was given the Counties of Angoulême, Périgord, Agen, and Saintogne, while other family members received their own newly vacated lands: Wullfadus was named Bishop of Bourges, Effroi (who had been a rebel from 862 to 864, but was now loyal to the king) was made Count of Poitou (however he died very soon afterwards). The nominal independence of the Aquitainian kingdom was restored with the proclamation of Charles' son Louis the Stammerer as King, although real power was retained by a Council of Nobles loyal to Charles. Upon the death of Effroi of Poitiers, the County was given to Bernard of Gothia. At this time, the County of Autun, whose Countship had been vacant since the death of Robert the Strong, was returned to Bernard Plantapilosa who had been reconciled to the king. Auvergne was given to Gari.  Towards 869, Solomon, Count of Urgell, Cerdanya, and Conflent, died and within the year so had Otger, Count of Girona and Besalú. In 870, the King assigned Otger's counties to the County of Barcelona (and hence to Bernard of Gothia). Solomon's titles in Urgell and Cerdanya were given to Wilfred the Hairy, eldest son of Sunifred I. The County of Conflent was given to the second son of Sunifred, Miró the Old. The other three sons of Sunifred – Radulf, Sunifred, and Riculf – were not given any titles.  In 872, Charles the Bald gave the Government of Aquitaine to his son-in-law Boso, Count of Lyon and Vienne, and showered him with titles and territories: the County of Berry, Royal Chamberlain, and "Magister Ostiariorum". However, Bernard of Gothia and Bernard Plantapilosa were asked to assist in the government of the Empire. The County of Auvergne was also given to Plantapilosa.  Bernard of Toulouse was compensated for not being given greater power by being granted the lands of his enemy Oliba II in Carcassonne and Razès. Shortly after, however, Bernard was assassinated by a vassal of (Oliba's former ally) Bernard Plantapilosa, in August 872. Oliba II was restored to his old possessions and Plantapilosa was given Toulouse and Limousin, but Pallars and Ribagorza escaped his control.

876 Reforms.

In 876 Charles the Bald reformed his government in the south of the kingdom again. He placed Provence and Italy under the command of Boso and gave the County of Berry to Bernard of Gothia. A year later, Count Ekhard, who had many lands in Mâcon and Chaunois, died and his domains were also added to those of Boso, who had Provence taken away but retained Italy and his own counties. Autun was given for the second time to Bernard. On 8 October 876 Bernard Plantapilosa was captured by Louis the Younger, King of Saxony, at the Battle of Andernach and was as a result not given any new lands.  Bishop Wullfadus died on 1 April 876 and Frotario was named his successor by Charles. However Bernard opposed the elevation of the new bishop, who would have been a counterweight to the immense power and holdings which Bernard had attained. He did not take arms directly against the King, but sought to oppose the King's directions.

877 Rebellion.

877 finally saw an open rebellion with Boso, Hugh the Abbot, Bernard Plantapilosa, and Bernard of Gothia all taking up arms against the King. King Charles however died on 6 October 877 in the middle of the rebellion. The death of the king did not stop the conflict. They fought Charles' appointed successor, Louis the Stammerer, former King of Aquitaine where he had been their overlord. Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims, subdued Boso, Plantapilosa, and Hugh, leaving Bernard, his brother Emeno, uncle Abbot Gauzlin of Saint Denis, and other uncle Count Gosfrid of Maine to fight alone.  Louis was crowned on 8 December 877. Pope John VIII invoked the Council of Troyes to condemn the rebels for their actions against Bishop Frotario and for the taking of ecclesiastic property.  On 11 September 878, Louis dispossessed Bernard of his honours. Theodoric, his Chamberlain, was given Autun; Plantapilosa received Berry and Septimania; Wilfred the Hairy received Barcelona, Ausona, Girona, and Besalú; and Miró the Old received Roussillon.  Bernard continued to resist in Autun until 879 after which he died.

Bernard II (in Catalan, "Bernat de Gothia") was the Count of Barcelona, Girona and Margrave of Gothia and Septimania from 865 to 878.

Bernard de Gothie († après 879) fut comte de Barcelone, de Gérone et marquis de Gothie de 865 à 878, de 866 à 877, et de 876 à 878.


History.

Zoé's history begins in Mexico in 1994, as Britpop was becoming popular in the United Kingdom. Mainly inspired by this movement, with slight influences from Seattle's grunge, Zoé would go through a period of changing lineups and varying styles before stabilizing in 1997, with León Larregui (guitar and voice), Sergio Acosta (guitar), Alberto Cabrera (drums), Ángel Mosqueda (bass), and Jesus Báez (keyboards). By this time, a clear influence from The Beatles could be seen alongside the aforementioned Britpop and grunge stylings.

1998–2004: Debut album and "Rocanlover".

Faced with a lack of venues in which to showcase their music, Zoé relied upon self-organized concerts, the Internet, and a self-published demo. All of these efforts, plus a good deal of positive word of mouth, helped them gain popularity in Spanish-language radio stations in the United States. They signed their first recording contract in 1998, but nothing came of it. They independently released a debut album in 2000 that attracted the attention of Sony Music, who in turn took over distribution of the album. Popular songs from this recording included "Asteroide" and "Miel." Following the success of this album, some of their songs were included in the soundtracks of movies like "Amar Te Duele", "Ladies Night", and "The Dreamer".  In November 2003, Zoé launched their second album, produced by Phil Vinall, who had previously worked with the likes of Placebo and Elastica. This new album was titled "Rocanlover", and the main singles were "Peace and Love," "Love," and "Veneno." Although their musical style was becoming more clearly defined, the band still had not found an identity. In 2017, looking back at this period, Larreguí characterized this as a time of experimentation and trying different things; for example the band hadn't yet decided if they wanted to record more songs in English.

2004–2007: "The Room", "Rocanlover", and "Memo Rex Commander".

Zoé left Sony in early 2004; the band kept on working and touring during the whole year without a label behind them and started to gain a big following with the self-promoted singles "Love" and "Veneno." In early 2005, the band started working on new songs for their next album. By mid-2005, the band recorded the song "Dead" with their own resources. Also by this time Beto Cabrera left the band and Rodrigo Guardiola joined. Some major labels in Mexico were very interested in signing the band, but Zoé, tired of their bad past experiences, surprised everyone and signed an indie deal with Noiselab, a fast-growing independent label from Mexico. New songs to complete the EP, named "The Room", were written. The EP became an instant hit, going Gold after selling more than 50,000 units. Some new songs were recorded in English, and some producers, like Alan McGee, expressed interest in taking them to the UK and Europe. The release of the EP was followed by two sold-out shows at the Metropolitan Theater in Mexico City and a national tour.  The first six months of 2006 were quite active for Zoé; they kept playing strategic shows like the Vive Latino Festival and devoted themselves to the production of their third studio album. In January, the band went to Manzanillo to start preproduction with British producer Phil Vinall. February followed with shows and more preproduction in México City, and March was used for basic tracking at Sonic Ranch Studios in Tornillo, Texas. In April, postproduction and more shows; the songs were mixed in May; and the album was finished by early June.  "Memo Rex Commander y el Corazón Atómico de la Vía Láctea" (Memo Rex Commander and the Atomic Heart of the Milky Way) came out on July 12, 2006, going straight in at number one in the Mexican charts. The first single from the album, "Vía Láctea," had some rotation in local music channels like MTV Latin America and Telehit. The album achieved gold record status after more than 40,000 units sold in the four weeks after its release and it received very good reviews from the specialized press.  On September 1, 2006, Zoé performed in Mexico's National Auditorium, a sold-out show in one of the most important stages for music in Mexico; later, at the Palacio de los Deportes, they performed along with Nick McCarthy, guitarist (and sometimes vocalist) from Scottish band Franz Ferdinand. In November 2006, they toured with Gustavo Cerati and Los Tres in Mexico and the United States. On November 28, 2007 they recorded their first live CD/DVD, in the Palacio de los Deportes "Sports Palace", the CD version is available with the title of 281107.

2008–2010: "Reptilectric".

In the fall of 2008, Zoé released their fourth album, entitled "Reptilectric". Containing 11 tracks, all in Spanish, Reptilectric signalled the end of Zoé's experimentation with writing and recording songs in English. It was produced by Phill Vinall. The title track was released as the first single on September 8. The album debuted at number one in the Mexican charts and it was subsequently certified platinum for over 80,000 copies sold in that country. The band toured in support of the album throughout Mexico, Latin America, the United States, and Spain. A remix album called "Reptilectric Revisitado" was released in October 2009, featuring remixed versions of the songs on the original album as well as cover versions by other Latin American artists. In Spain, the band released "01-10", a compilation album of some of the band's biggest hits and new versions of songs from "Reptilectric" and "Memo Rex Commander" featuring Spanish artists Enrique Bunbury, Anni B. Sweet, Dorian, and Vetusta Morla. The band performed at Coachella in support of "Reptilectric".

2011-2012: "Música de Fondo".

In March 2011 the band released an MTV Unplugged album titled "Música de Fondo" ("Ambient Music"), featuring new interpretations of their biggest hits as well as new music. Guest performers included Adrian Dargelos, Enrique Bunbury, Chetes, and Denise Gutiérrez of Hello Seahorse! Four singles were released from the album: "Soñé", "Labios Rotos", "Luna", and a cover of "Bésame Mucho". With this album, the band was nominated for awards at the Latin Grammy, Lunas Del Auditorio, and MTV Europe Music Awards. In October 2011 the album went Gold in Colombia, making it the band's first album to reach Gold outside of Mexico. As a personal thank you for the overwhelming success of this album, the band released a special single called "Energía" (""Energy"") in February 2012.

2013-present: "Prográmaton" and "Aztlán".

Zoé released their fifth album, titled "Prográmaton", and announced an extended tour of 75 shows in 16 countries. In this new stage, Zoé presents what can be labeled their most mature and experimental work. The elements that achieve this combination of music, lyrics and instrumental talents are Leon Larregui (vocals, guitar), Sergio Acosta (guitar), Jesús Báez (keyboards), Angel Mosqueda (bass) and Rodrigo Guardiola (drums).  After a two year hiatus where they launched a documentary called "Panoramas" and where vocalist León Larregui released his second solo album, Zoé released the single "Azul" on 1 March 2018. Weeks after, the singles "Temor y Temblor" and "Clarividad" where also released, announcing their inclusion in the album "Aztlán_(album)", which was released on 20 April 2018.

Zoé is a Grammy Award and Latin Grammy Award-winning Mexican rock band. They initially formed in Mexico City in 1994, although membership started to stabilize in 1997. The band has achieved success in Mexico and most Spanish-speaking countries with albums such as "Rocanlover", "Memo Rex Commander y el Corazón Atómico de la Vía Láctea" and "Reptilectric".

Zoé est un groupe de rock alternatif mexicain, originaire de Cuernavaca. Formé en 1995, et officialisé dans la ville de Mexico en 1997, le groupe se compose de León Larregui, Sergio Acosta (guitare), Jesús Báez (claviers), Ángel Mosqueda (basse) et Rodrigo Guardiola (batterie).


Life.

Early years.

Fernando Martins de Bulhões was born in Lisbon, Portugal. While 15th-century writers state that his parents were Vicente Martins and Teresa Pais Taveira, and that his father was the brother of Pedro Martins de Bulhões, the ancestor of the Bulhão or Bulhões family, Niccolò Dal-Gal views this as less certain. His wealthy and noble family arranged for him to be instructed at the local cathedral school. At the age of 15, he entered the Augustinian community of Canons Regular of the Order of the Holy Cross at the Abbey of Saint Vincent on the outskirts of Lisbon.  In 1212, distracted by frequent visits from family and friends, he asked to be transferred to the motherhouse of the congregation, the Monastery of the Holy Cross in Coimbra, then the capital of Portugal. There, the young Fernando studied theology and Latin.

Joining the Franciscans.

After his ordination to the priesthood, Fernando was named guestmaster at the age of 19, and placed in charge of hospitality for the abbey. While he was in Coimbra, some Franciscan friars arrived and settled at a small hermitage outside Coimbra dedicated to Anthony of Egypt. Fernando was strongly attracted to the simple, evangelical lifestyle of the friars, whose order had been founded only 11 years prior. News arrived that five Franciscans had been beheaded in Morocco, the first of their order to be killed. King Afonso II ransomed their bodies to be returned and buried as martyrs in the Abbey of Santa Cruz. Inspired by their example, Fernando obtained permission from church authorities to leave the Canons Regular to join the new Franciscan order. Upon his admission to the life of the friars, he joined the small hermitage in Olivais, adopting the name Anthony (from the name of the chapel located there, dedicated to Anthony the Great), by which he was to be known.  Anthony then set out for Morocco, in fulfillment of his new vocation. However, he fell seriously ill in Morocco and set sail back for Portugal in hope of regaining his health. On the return voyage, the ship was blown off course and landed in Sicily.  From Sicily, he made his way to Tuscany, where he was assigned to a convent of the order, but he met with difficulty on account of his sickly appearance. He was finally assigned to the rural hermitage of San Paolo near Forlì, Romagna, a choice made after considering his poor health. There, he had recourse to a cell one of the friars had made in a nearby cave, spending time in private prayer and study.

Preaching and teaching.

One day in 1222, in the town of Forlì, on the occasion of an ordination, a number of visiting Dominican friars were present, and some misunderstanding arose over who should preach. The Franciscans naturally expected that one of the Dominicans would occupy the pulpit, for they were renowned for their preaching; the Dominicans, though, had come unprepared, thinking that a Franciscan would be the homilist. In this quandary, the head of the hermitage, who had no one among his own humble friars suitable for the occasion, called upon Anthony, whom he suspected was most qualified, and entreated him to speak whatever the Holy Spirit should put into his mouth. Anthony objected, but was overruled, and his sermon created a deep impression. Not only his rich voice and arresting manner, but also the entire theme and substance of his discourse and his moving eloquence, held the attention of his hearers. Everyone was impressed with his knowledge of scripture, acquired during his years as an Augustinian friar.  At that point, Anthony was sent by Brother Gratian, the local minister provincial, to the Franciscan province of Romagna, based in Bologna. He soon came to the attention of the founder of the order, Francis of Assisi. Francis had held a strong distrust of the place of theological studies in the life of his brotherhood, fearing that it might lead to an abandonment of their commitment to a life of real poverty. In Anthony, however, he found a kindred spirit for his vision, who was also able to provide the teaching needed by young members of the order who might seek ordination. In 1224, he entrusted the pursuit of studies for any of his friars to the care of Anthony.  The reason St. Anthony's help is invoked for finding things lost or stolen is traced to an incident that occurred in Bologna. According to the story, Anthony had a book of psalms that was of some importance to him, as it contained the notes and comments he had made to use in teaching his students. A novice who had decided to leave took the psalter with him. Prior to the invention of the printing press, any book was an item of value, and would have been difficult for a Franciscan friar to replace given his vow of poverty. Upon noticing it was missing, Anthony prayed it would be found or returned. The thief was moved to restore the book to Anthony and return to the order. The stolen book is said to be preserved in the Franciscan friary in Bologna.  Occasionally, he took another post, as a teacher, for instance, at the universities of Montpellier and Toulouse in southern France, but as a preacher Anthony revealed his supreme gift. According to historian Sophronius Clasen, Anthony preached the grandeur of Christianity. His method included allegory and symbolical explanation of Scripture. In 1226, after attending the general chapter of his order held at Arles, France, and spreading the word of the Lord in the French region of Provence, Anthony returned to Italy and was appointed provincial superior of northern Italy. He chose the city of Padua as his location.  In 1228, he served as envoy from the general chapter to Pope Gregory IX. At the papal court, his preaching was hailed as a "jewel case of the Bible" and he was commissioned to produce his collection of sermons, "Sermons for Feast Days" ("Sermones in Festivitates"). Gregory IX himself described him as the "Ark of the Testament" ("Doctor Arca testamenti").

Legends.

Anthony went to preach in Rimini, where the heretics treated him with contempt. So, instead he took himself to the shore-line and began to preach to the fish. A great crowd of fish arrayed themselves. The citizens flocked to see this marvel, and Anthony charged them with the fact that irrational creatures were more receptive than the unfaithful of Rimini, at which point the people gave ear to his sermons.  In Toulouse, Anthony was challenged by a heretic to prove the reality of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The heretic brought a half-starved mule and waited to see its reaction when shown fresh fodder on one hand, and the sacrament on the other. The dumb animal ignored the fodder and bowed before the sacrament.  Once in Italy, Anthony was dining with heretics, when he realized the food put before him was poisoned. When he reproached them for their conduct, they admitted to attempting to poison him, and dared him to eat if he truly believed the words spoken in Mark 16:18, "...and if they drink any deadly thing, it will not harm them." Anthony blessed the food, ate it, and suffered no harm, much to the amazement of his hosts.

Death.

Anthony became sick with ergotism in 1231, and went to the woodland retreat at Camposampiero with two other friars for a respite. There, he lived in a cell built for him under the branches of a walnut tree. Anthony died on the way back to Padua on 13 June 1231 at the Poor Clare monastery at Arcella (now part of Padua), aged 35.  According to the request of Anthony, he was buried in the small church of Santa Maria Mater Domini, probably dating from the late 12th century and near a convent which had been founded by him in 1229. Nevertheless, due to his increased notability, construction of a large basilica began around 1232, although it was not completed until 1301. The smaller church was incorporated into structure as the Cappella della Madonna Mora (Chapel of the Dark Madonna). The basilica is commonly known today as "Il Santo" (The Saint).  Various legends surround the death of Anthony. One holds that when he died, the children cried in the streets and that all the bells of the churches rang of their own accord. Another legend regards his tongue. Anthony is buried in a chapel within the large basilica built to honor him, where his tongue is displayed for veneration in a large reliquary along with his jaw and his vocal cords. When his body was exhumed 30 years after his death, it was found turned to dust, but the tongue was claimed to have glistened and looked as if it were still alive and moist; apparently a further claim was made that this was a sign of his gift of preaching. On 1 January 1981, Pope John Paul II authorized a scientific team to study Anthony's remains and the tomb was opened on 6 January.

Saint and Doctor of the Church.

Anthony was canonized by Pope Gregory IX on 30 May 1232, at Spoleto, Italy, less than one year after his death.  "The richness of spiritual teaching contained in the "Sermons" was so great that in [16 January] 1946 Venerable Pope Pius XII proclaimed Anthony a Doctor of the Church, attributing to him the title "Doctor Evangelicus" ["Evangelical Doctor"], since the freshness and beauty of the Gospel emerge from these writings."

Veneration as patron saint.

Anthony's fame spread through Portuguese evangelization, and he has been known as the most celebrated of the followers of Francis of Assisi. He is the patron saint of Lisbon, Padua and many places in Portugal and in the countries of the former Portuguese Empire.  He is especially invoked and venerated all over the world as the patron saint for the recovery of lost items and is credited with many miracles involving lost people, lost things and even lost spiritual goods.  St. Anthony Chaplets help devotees to meditate on the thirteen virtues of the saint. Some of these chaplets were used by members of confraternities which had Anthony as their patron saint.

North America.

In 1692, Spanish missionaries came across a small Payaya Indian community along what was then known as the Yanaguana River on the feast day of Saint Anthony, 13 June. The Franciscan chaplain, Father Damien Massanet, with agreement from General Domingo de Teran, renamed the rivers in his honor, and eventually built a mission nearby, as well. This mission became the focal point of a small community that eventually grew in size and scope to become the seventh-largest city in the country, the U.S. city of San Antonio, Texas.  In New York City, the Shrine Church of St. Anthony in Greenwich Village, Manhattan celebrates his feast day, starting with the traditional novena of prayers asking for his intercession on the 13 Tuesdays preceding his feast. This culminates with a week-long series of services and a street fair. A traditional Italian-style procession is held that day through the streets of its South Village neighborhood, during which a relic of the saint is carried for veneration.  Each year on the weekend of the last Sunday in August, Boston's North End holds a feast in honor of Saint Anthony. Referred to as the "Feast of All Feasts", Saint Anthony's Feast in Boston's North End was begun in 1919 by Italian immigrants from Montefalcione, a small town near Naples, where the tradition of honoring Saint Anthony goes back to 1688.  Each year the Sandia Pueblo along with Santa Clara Pueblo celebrates the feast day of Saint Anthony with traditional Native American dances.  On 27 January 1907, in Beaumont, Texas, a church was dedicated and named in honor of Saint Anthony. The church was later designated a cathedral in 1966 with the formation of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Beaumont, but was not formally consecrated. On 28 April 1974, St. Anthony Cathedral was dedicated and consecrated by Bishop Warren Boudreaux. In 2006, Pope Benedict XVI granted the cathedral the designation of minor basilica. St. Anthony Cathedral Basilica celebrated its 100th anniversary on 28 January 2007.  St. Anthony gives his name to Mission San Antonio de Padua, the third Franciscan mission dedicated along El Camino Real in California in 1771.  In Ellicott City, Maryland, southwest of Baltimore, the Conventual Franciscans of the St. Anthony Province dedicated their old novitiate house as the Shrine of St. Anthony which since 1 July 2004 serves as the official shrine to Saint Anthony for the Archdiocese of Baltimore.

Brazil and Europe.

Saint Anthony is known in Portugal, Spain, and Brazil as a marriage saint, because legends exist of him reconciling couples. His feast day, 13 June, is Lisbon's municipal holiday, celebrated with parades and marriages (the previous day, 12 June, is the "Dia dos Namorados" in Brazil). He is one of the saints celebrated in the Brazilian "Festa Junina", along with John the Baptist and Saint Peter. He is venerated in Mogán Village in Gran Canaria, where his feast day is celebrated every year with oversized objects carried through the streets for the fiesta.  In the town of Brusciano, Italy, located near Naples, an annual feast in honor of Saint Anthony is held in late August. This tradition dates back to 1875. The tradition started when a man prayed to Saint Anthony for his sick son to get better. He vowed that if his son would become healthy that he would build and dance a "giglio" like the people of Nola do for their patron San Paolino during the annual Fest Dei Gigli. (A "giglio" is a tall tower topped with a statue of the saint that is carried through the streets in carefully choreographed maneuvers that resemble a dance.) The celebration has grown over the years to include six giglio towers built in honor of the saint. This tradition has also carried over to America, specifically the East Harlem area of New York, where the immigrants from the town of Brusciano formed the Giglio Society of East Harlem and have been holding their annual feast since the early 1900s.  In Albania, the Franciscans arrived in 1240 spreading the word of Saint Anthony. The St. Anthony Church, Laç () in Laç was built in his honor.  In Poland, he is the patron saint of Przeworsk. The icon of Saint Anthony, dating from 1649, is housed in a local (Franciscan church, ).

Asia.

Devotion to Saint Anthony is popular throughout all of India. In Uvari, in Tamil Nadu, India, the church of Saint Anthony is home to an ancient wooden statue that is said to have cured the entire crew of a Portuguese ship suffering from cholera. Saint Anthony is said to perform many miracles daily, and Uvari is visited by pilgrims of different religions from all over South India. Christians in Tamil Nadu have great reverence for Saint Anthony and he is a popular saint there, where he is called the "Miracle Saint."  Also in India, a small crusady known with the name of Saint Anthony is located in the village called Pothiyanvilai, state of Tamil Nadu Kanyakumari district near Thengapattinam, where thousands of devotees attend every Tuesday and Friday to receive his blessings, miracles, and guidings directly from St. Anthony's soul entering in the body of a holy person for the last 34 years. The southern Indian state of Karnataka is also a holy pilgrimage center in honor of Saint Anthony (specifically located in the small village of Dornahalli, near Mysore). Local lore holds that a farmer there unearthed a statue that was later identified as being that of Saint Anthony. The statue was deemed miraculous and an incident of divine intervention. A church was then erected to honor the saint. Additionally, Saint Anthony is highly venerated in Sri Lanka, and the nation's Saint Anthony National Shrine in Kochikade, Colombo, receives many devotees of Saint Anthony, both Catholic and non-Catholic. There is also a church in Pakistan of Saint Anthony of Padua in the city of Sargodha under the Diocese of Rawalpindi. In the Philippines, the devotion to St. Anthony of Padua began in 1581, in the town of Pila, Laguna, where Franciscans established the first church in the country dedicated to St. Anthony of Padua, now elevated as the National Shrine of St. Anthony of Padua under the Diocese of San Pablo.  In Siolim, a village in the Indian state of Goa, St. Anthony is always shown holding a serpent on a stick. This is a depiction of the incident which occurred during the construction of the church wherein a snake was disrupting construction work. The people turned to St. Anthony for help and placed his statue at the construction site. The next morning, the snake was found caught in the cord placed in the statue's hand.

In art.

As the number of Franciscan saints increased, iconography struggled to distinguish Anthony from the others. Because of a legend that he had once preached to the fish by the mouth of the river Marecchia in Rimini, this was sometimes used as his attribute. He is also often seen with a white lily stalk, representing his purity. Other conventions referred to St. Anthony's visionary fervor. Thus, one attribute in use for some time was a flaming heart. He is also sometimes depicted along with the mule in Rimini that allegedly bowed down to him holding the Eucharist.  In 1511, Titian painted three large frescoes in the Scuola del Santo in Padua, depicting scenes of the miracles from the life of Saint Anthony: "The Miracle of the Jealous Husband", which depicts the murder of a young woman by her husband; "A Child Testifying to Its Mother's Innocence"; and "The Saint Healing the Young Man with a Broken Limb".  Another key pattern has him meditating on an open book in which the Christ Child himself appears, as in the El Greco above. Over time the child came to be shown considerably larger than the book and some images even do without the book entirely. He typically appears carrying the infant Jesus and holding a cross.  In popular votive offerings, Anthony is often depicted as miraculously saving individuals in various accidents.

Anthony of Padua (; born Fernando Martins de Bulhões; 15 August 1195 – 13 June 1231), also known as Anthony of Lisbon (), was a Portuguese Catholic priest and friar of the Franciscan Order. He was born and raised by a wealthy family in Lisbon, Portugal, and died in Padua, Italy. Noted by his contemporaries for his powerful preaching, expert knowledge of scripture, and undying love and devotion to the poor and the sick, he was one of the most quickly canonized saints in church history. He was proclaimed a Doctor of the Church on 16 January 1946. He is also the patron saint of lost things.

Fernando Martins de Bulhões, en religion Frère Antoine, né en 1195 à Lisbonne et mort le près de Padoue (Italie), est un prêtre franciscain, maître de doctrine spirituelle, prédicateur de renom et thaumaturge, qui fut canonisé en 1232, moins d’un an après sa mort, et déclaré docteur de l'Église en 1946. Liturgiquement, il est commémoré le et vénéré sous le nom de saint Antoine de Padoue.


Life.

Little information has survived about Besson's early life; he described himself as being from Colombières, part of Escarton de Oulx, now in Cesana Torinese, Italy. He was most likely born around 1540. In the early 1550s he is recorded as teaching mathematics in Paris, following which the next account of him dates from April 1557, when he is recorded in the minutes of the town council of Lausanne, Switzerland, as being paid for models of pumps and fountains.  In 1559 he published his first treatise in Zurich, the "De absoluta ratione extrahendi olea et aquas e medicamentis simplicibus" (on the complete doctrine of extracting oils and waters from simple drugs), featuring an introduction by Conrad Gesner. That same year he moved to Geneva where in 1561 he requested permission to become a citizen of Geneva. His entry in Geneva's "Livre de Bourgeois" notes that citizenship was awarded as a result of his services "in teaching the art and science of mathematics"  In 1562 Besson became the pastor of the Protestant Reformed Church in Villeneuve-de-Berg, France, Olivier de Serres having sent a request to the Company of Pastors for a minister. However, less than two years later he was forced out by a rival. By 1565 he was back in Paris, where in 1567 he published his second treatise, "Le Cosmolabe", which described an elaborate instrument based on the astrolabe which could be used for navigation, surveying, cartography, and astronomy. "Le Cosmolabe" also introduced a number of mechanical inventions that he hoped to describe in more detail in a future work. Besson was described as a professor of mathematics from Orléans.

"Theatrum Instrumentorum".

When King Charles IX of France made a royal visit to Orléans in 1569, Besson presented to the King a draft of his new treatise, what was to become the "Theatrum Instrumentorum". and returned with him to Paris as "master of the King's Engines". Charles gave Besson exclusive rights to his designs in that same year. While employed by the court, Besson also created an ingenious screw-cutting lathe that was semi-automatic, in that the operator only needed to pull and release a cord.  Besson's "Theatrum Instrumentorum" (Theater of Machines), was completed and published in 1571 or 1572. It was a unique work; previously, works on engineering and technology such as Valturio's "De re militari" (1472), Biringuccio's "Pirotechnia" (1540) and Agricola's "De re metallica" (1556), had had only limited descriptions of new inventions or recounted inventions of the past without much detail. In contrast, Besson's work was a collection of his own new inventions with detailed illustrations of each engraved by Jacques Androuet du Cerceau to his specifications. Some of his designs suggested important improvements to lathes and the waterwheel. The Latin captions to the highly detailed drawings were sparse, however, which would seem to indicate that the text was probably produced in a hurry. Even the title page does not give the name of the printer or the date of publication. The rush in publishing the book may have been due to the crackdown on French Protestants that culminated in the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of 1572.  Although Besson was favoured by King Charles IX, he feared the increasing anti-Protestant sentiment in France, and emigrated to England shortly after the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of 1572, where he died in 1573.  The "Theatrum Instrumentorum" had proved so popular that a second edition appeared in 1578, with more detailed descriptions of the instruments and machines by François Béroalde de Verville. The copper plates from the original edition were reused, except for four which were replaced by new engravings produced by René Boyvin.

Jacques Besson (1540? - 1573) was a French Protestant inventor, mathematician, and philosopher, chiefly remembered for his popular treatise on machines "Theatrum Instrumentorum" (1571–72), which saw many reprints in different languages.

Jacques Besson (né vers 1530 à Colombières- mort vers 1572 à Paris) est un mathématicien, ingénieur et écrivain technique français. Ce calviniste dauphinois qui enseignait les mathématiques, appliquait son savoir géométrique pour trouver des solutions efficaces à la conception et à l'amélioration de machines diverses, comme des appareils à distiller, tours, machines à élever l'eau, moulins, grues et treuils. Il publia le premier « théâtre de machines », livre imprimé, illustré de nombreuses figures de machines.


Nomenclature.

"σ Librae" (Latinised to "Sigma Librae") is the system's current Bayer designation (the star originally bore the designation Gamma Scorpii) and did not receive its current designation until the new designation was agreed upon by Commission 3 of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) on July 31, 1930.) The designations of the two components as "Sigma Librae A" and "B" derives from the convention used by the Washington Multiplicity Catalog (WMC) for multiple star systems, and adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).  It bore the traditional Latin names "Brachium" (arm) and "Cornu" (horn), and the non-unique minor Arabic names "Zuben el Genubi" (southern claw) (shared with Alpha Librae); "Zuben Hakrabi" (shared with Gamma Librae and Eta Librae, also rendered as "Zuban Alakrab"), and "Ankaa" (shared with Alpha Phoenicis). In 2016, the IAU organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN decided to attribute proper names to individual stars rather than entire multiple systems. It approved the name "Brachium" for the primary component Sigma Librae A on 5 September 2017. "Ankaa" had previously been approved as the name for Alpha Phoenicis on 29 July 2016. Both are now so included in the List of IAU-approved Star Names.  In Chinese, (), meaning "Executions (asterism)", refers to an asterism consisting of σ Librae, 50 Hydrae, 3 Librae, 4 Librae and 12 Librae. Consequently, the Chinese name for σ Librae is (, ).

Properties.

The primary, Sigma Librae A, has a spectral class M2.5 III, which places it in the red giant stage of its evolution. This is a semi-regular variable star with a single pulsation period of 20 days. It shows small amplitude variations in magnitude of 0.10–0.15 on time scales as brief as 15–20 minutes, with cycles of repetition over intervals of 2.5–3.0 hours. This form of variability indicates that the star is on the asymptotic giant branch and is generating energy through the nuclear fusion of hydrogen and helium along concentric shells surrounding an inert core of carbon and oxygen.  The companion, Sigma Librae B, is of the 16th magnitude and over an arc minute away.

Sigma Librae (σ Librae, abbreviated Sigma Lib, σ Lib) is a binary star in the constellation of Libra. The apparent visual magnitude is +3.29, making it visible to the naked eye. Based upon parallax measurements, this system is at a distance of roughly from the Sun, with a 2% margin of error. At that distance, the visual magnitude is diminished by 0.20 ± 0.17 from extinction caused by intervening gas and dust.

Sigma Librae (σ Lib / σ Librae) est une étoile de la constellation de la Balance. Elle porte également le nom traditionnel de Brachium (« Bras » en latin), et elle a pu être aussi appelée Cornu (« Corne » en latin) et Zubenalgubi (« Pince du sud » en arabe, comme α Librae).


Education.

Ruhollah Khāleghi was born in Mahan, a small town near Kerman, in a musically minded family. He first became acquainted with the tar, but later started to learn to play the violin. As soon as Ali-Naqi Vaziri established his School of Music, Khāleghi left school and joined Vaziri's school, where he studied for eight years. Soon he became his master's assistant and was placed in charge of teaching music theory. He later continued his education and obtained a BA degree in Persian Language and Literature from the University of Tehran.

Career.

In 1944 Khāleghi established the National Music Society and in 1949, thanks to the efforts of this great artist, the School of National Music was founded. After his first journey to the former U.S.S.R. in 1955, he became involved in the Iran-Soviet Society and was selected as a member of its board of directors.  He also began to serve as the director of the Payām-e-Novin Magazine. His work, The "History of Persian Music", which was published in two volumes, took shape during these years. His other published works include: "Harmony of Western Music", "Theory of Eastern Music", and "Theory of Persian Music".  For many years Khāleghi worked as a musical advisor for Radio Iran and was one of the founders of the program known as "Gol'hā" (Flowers). He also conducted the "Gol'hā" Orchestra, for which he composed many pieces and revised the original compositions of his contemporaries as well as older masters, such as Āref and Sheydā. Although revised, the compositions retained all their original characteristics.  Khāleghi's compositions are not limited to what he wrote for "Gol'hā". In addition to such masterpieces as "Mey-e Nāb" (Pure Wine), "Āh-e Sahar" (Sigh at Dawn), "Hālā Cherā" (Why Now?), and "Chang-e Rudaki" (Rudaki's Harp), he composed many other lyrical pieces and hymns, which were mostly patriotic. These include such works as "Ey Iran" (see Gholām-Hossein Banān) and the Hymn for Azarbaijan. Khāleghi established The "National Music Society" and "Persian National Music Conservatory" in 1949 in Tehran.  He believed Persian classical music must turn into a polyphonic music to become more attractive.  He died in 1965 in Salzburg, Austria and was buried in Zahir o-dowleh cemetery, Darband, Tehran.

Rūhollāh Khāleghi (, "Ruhollâ Xâleqi"; born 1906 in Kerman, Iran – 12 November 1965 in Salzburg, Austria), also spelled as "Khaleghi", was a prominent Iranian musician, composer, conductor and author.

Rouhollah Khaleghi, né en 1906 à Kerman et mort le à Salzbourg, est un musicien, compositeur et chef d'orchestre iranien.


History.

Before the Second World War, Muslims and Hindus lived together under various kings which they called "Raja" hence the British Raj. A number of the Muslims formed the All India Muslim League. After the Second World War, when the independence of Pakistan in 1947, the flag of the Muslim League served as the basis for the flag of Pakistan.

Symbolism.

The green represents the Muslim majority in Pakistan and the white stripe represents religious minorities. The crescent represents progress and the five-pointed star represents the Five Pillars of Islam. The flag symbolizes Pakistan's commitment to Islam and the rights of religious minorities.  The Pakistan Flag is based on the original flag of the Muslim League, which itself drew inspiration from the flag of the Sultanate of Delhi, the flag of Ottoman Empire and the Flag of the Mughal Empire.

Design.

The official design of the national flag was adopted by the Constituent Assembly together with a definition of the features and proportions.  According to the specifications it is a dark green rectangular flag in the proportion of length [A] and width [B] as 3:2 with a white vertical bar at the mast, the green portion bearing a white crescent in the centre and a five-pointed white heraldic star. The width of the white portion [C] is one quarter the width of the flag [A], nearest the mast, so the green portion occupies the remaining three quarters [D]. Draw a diagonal L3 from the top right hand corner to the bottom left corner of the green portion. On this diagonal establish two points P1 and P2. P1 is positioned at the centre of the green portion and P2 at the intersection of the diagonal L3 and an arc C4 created from the top right hand corner equal to 13/20 the height of the flag [E]. With the centre at point P1 and a radius 3/10 the height of the flag describe the first circle C1 and with centre at point P2 and a radius 11/40 the height of the flag describe a second circle C2. The enclosures made by these two circles form the crescent. The dimensions of the five-pointed white heraldic star are determined by drawing a circle C3 with a radius 1/10 the height of the flag positioned between P2 and P3 on the diagonal L3. The circle surrounds the five points of the heraldic star and star lies with one point on the diagonal L3 at point P3 where the circle C1 intersects the diagonal L3. The flag is colored in Pakistan green having standard RGB values (red = 0, green = 102, blue = 0) or with hex triplet #006600 or the HSV value = (h = 120, s = 100, v = 40). The left strip, the star and the crescent are painted in white. The flag is supported from left white side.

Dimensions.

The Interior Ministry of Pakistan provides dimensions for flags in different circumstances:

Use by public officials.

The use of the national flag is regulated by the Pakistan Flag Rules, which were introduced in 2002 by Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali. The Rules are not available online but there have been instances of misuse such as officials using flags on their vehicles when they are not entitled to do so. The national flag is flown on the official residences and vehicles (cars, boats, planes) of the following public officials:

The national flag of Pakistan (, ) was adopted in its present form during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly on August 11, 1947, just three days before the country's independence, when it became the official flag of the Dominion of Pakistan. It was afterwards retained by the current-day Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The flag is a green field with a white crescent moon and five-rayed star at its centre, and a vertical white stripe at the hoist side. Though the green colour is mandated only as 'dark green', its official and most consistent representation is Pakistan green, which is shaded distinctively darker.

Le drapeau du Pakistan est le drapeau d'État de la République islamique du Pakistan. Il porte usuellement comme nom en ourdou Sabz Hilali Parcham ("Drapeau vert au croissant") ou Parcham-e-Sitara aw Hilal ("Drapeau vert au croissant et à l'étoile").


Architecture.

The shape of the tower is formed by two clasped each other fully glazed cylinder which is supported by a steel composite structure. The Millennium Tower was designed by the architects Gustav Peichl, Boris Podrecca and Rudolf F. Weber.  The operating contractor was the consortium Habau - Voestalpine - MCE.

Tenants.

In the Millennium Tower, around 136 companies have rented office space, including major international companies such as Xerox, most look from there after their Eastern European activities, like many other international companies in Vienna they have advantages from the good Austrian relations to eastern European Countries. Other tenants include: inter alia Cirquent, Trivadis, CSC, Carlson Wagonlit, Inode (UTA), Agip and Cisco.

Owner.

Owner George Stumpf sold the Millennium Tower in Vienna on July 25, 2003 along with the associated Millennium City to the Hamburg-based issuing house MPC (Münchmeyer Capital). The purchase price was 360 million euros, which is close to 15-times the annual income of 24.5 million euro (2002) corresponds to the Millennium City, which is next to the offices in the Tower and form a shopping center, residential buildings and the largest cinema complex in Austria. Taking into account the building costs of 145 million Euros, there is a profit of 215 million euros.

MCN.

As part of the building was also built up its own internal telecommunications infrastructure, in which case the MCN Millennium Communication Network AG acted as a telephone and Internet service provider. With shared use of Telekom Austria infrastructure, this could also serve as provider countrywide. As MCN ran into financial difficulties in 2000, the existing network was acquired by Inode (UTA) Austria.

The Millennium Tower is the second tallest building and fourth tallest structure in Austria at. The tower is located at Handelskai 94-96 in the Brigittenau 20th district in Vienna, Austria. An antenna mounted on top of the tower brings the total height to but does not count towards the buildings architectural its height.

La Millennium Tower de Vienne un gratte-ciel de Vienne, en Autriche. D’une hauteur de 202 mètres, les bureaux occupent sa surface jusqu’à 171 mètres de hauteur. Une partie de la tour est occupée par un centre commercial, des restaurants et un cinéma.