Early life.

McKenna was born in Apohaqui, New Brunswick, Canada. He was raised in the home of his grandparents, who lived adjacent to his parents because his large family could not be wholly housed in his parents' home. After completing high school in Sussex, New Brunswick, he completed a bachelor's degree in Political Science and Economics at St. Francis Xavier University in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. He began graduate studies at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, but after working for a stint with Allan MacEachen, he took MacEachen's advice that most politicians are lawyers and enrolled in law school at the University of New Brunswick in Fredericton. After he obtained a law degree, he moved to Chatham, New Brunswick, and began the practice of law. He became famous and something of a folk hero, particularly among Acadians, as the defence lawyer in the high-profile murder case of famous New Brunswick boxing champion, Yvon Durelle, in what was a widely publicized case.

New Brunswick politics.

A few years later, he entered provincial politics and won a seat in the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick in the 1982 election to represent Chatham, New Brunswick. He became leader of the provincial Liberals in 1985, and won one of the largest electoral victories in Canadian history in the 1987 election when his party won every seat in the legislature.  McKenna's term in office was viewed mostly as a success. His key priority throughout his term was job creation and he was known to say that the "best social program we have is a job." He encouraged small business growth and tried to entice large companies to invest in the province with tax incentives, often directly calling individual professionals to urge them to bring their talents to New Brunswick. Another of his strategies was to raise the collective self-confidence of New Brunswickers, which he believed would increase productivity. He introduced a sophisticated public relations operation which included the use of controversial video news releases.  McKenna's time as premier, however, also saw some controversy. In his first move as premier, McKenna dismissed several senior public servants in an effort to gain greater control over the province's public service, which some observers perceived as a drastic step away from the integrity of the province's impartial and professional public service.  McKenna was also criticized for increasing the number of communications personnel on the government payroll but countered this complaint by pointing out that the primary government communications agency, Communications New Brunswick, had been depoliticized. Communications New Brunswick had been responsible to the Premier's chief of staff in past governments and McKenna made its report to the head of the civil service.  He was also criticized for creating a toll free telephone number to the premier's office which had the number 1-800-MCKENNA, the number was functional throughout North America and was used for both New Brunswick constituents and business interests that were considering moving to the province.  Believing ten years was long enough for a premier to hold office, and having pledged to serve such a term when first elected, McKenna resigned in 1997 – 10 years to the day of the 1987 election.

Business career.

After leaving office, McKenna moved to Cap-Pélé, New Brunswick, near Moncton, and returned to the practice of law and sat on numerous corporate boards. He also purchased with his son, James McKenna, Glenwood Kitchen Ltd. A manufacturer of high-end custom cabinetry in Shediac, New Brunswick. His membership on the Canadian advisory board of the Carlyle Group drew adverse media attention; the media ceased pursuing the issue when McKenna explained that the board was established to advise on a Canadian investment fund that the group never created and that the board had never become active. Following the announcement of his appointment as Canadian ambassador to Washington, he resigned his position as counsel at law firms including McInnes Cooper and Osler, Hoskin & Harcourt, as well as all positions on corporate boards including his role as interim chairman of the board of CanWest Global Communications, a post he assumed upon the death of its founder and chairman Israel Asper.

Ambassador.

McKenna was mentioned as a possible Ambassador to the US to succeed Michael Kergin after Paul Martin took power. Speculation increased after John Manley turned down Prime Minister Martin's offer. Many in the press commented on McKenna's business connections being an asset, notably as a member of the Carlyle Group and his friendship with former President George H. W. Bush.  On January 5, 2005, Prime Minister Paul Martin's office confirmed that McKenna would be the 21st Ambassador to the United States. On January 14, the posting was formally announced and would be effective on March 1. McKenna became the Ambassador on March 8 when U.S. President George W. Bush accepted his credentials.  On February 22, 2005, McKenna told reporters Canada was already a part of the U.S. National Missile Defense (NMD) (or Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD)) program through an amendment to the NORAD agreement made on August 5, 2004, which granted U.S. access to NORAD's missile warning systems explicitly for use in NMD. However, Martin contradicted this two days later when he announced that Canada would not formally participate in the NMD program but focus on other items of shared defence/security interest. While Canadian defence minister Bill Graham said McKenna was simply misunderstood (as the NORAD agreement and missile defence are separate), this initial contradiction was interpreted by others as evidence of characteristic indecision by the Martin government and was seen to somewhat hamper McKenna's credibility.  As Ambassador, McKenna attracted more media attention than most of his recent predecessors on both sides of the border. In the U.S., his message was one of dispelling common urban legends and misconceptions about Canada, while in Canada he urged Canadians to be more understanding of the American people and culture, particularly following what he argued is their understandable sensitivity after the September 11, 2001 attacks.  McKenna generated controversy after giving a luncheon speech on September 29, 2005, to a Toronto business club. McKenna blasted the U.S. bureaucracy and Congressional system of government saying "the government of the United States is in large measure dysfunctional." He contrasted it with Canada's government, and praised Canada's strong parliamentary party discipline as being much more "efficient" though sometimes less preferable.  On January 25, 2006, McKenna offered his resignation as Ambassador, writing to Prime Minister-designate Stephen Harper that he wished to be relieved of his duties, but offering to stay on until his successor is chosen. He was succeeded as ambassador by Michael Wilson on March 13, 2006.

Prospective career in federal politics.

Since leaving politics in 1997, McKenna served for a brief time on the Security Intelligence Review Committee. He has been touted several times as a potential Atlantic Canadian minister in the cabinets of Jean Chrétien and Paul Martin. He expressed some interest in running in the 2004 federal election but announced he would not do so because of the lack of an available riding in the Moncton, New Brunswick, area. He did not want to push aside any incumbent Liberal member of Parliament.  After resigning the premiership of New Brunswick, McKenna was identified as a potential future leader of the Liberal Party of Canada, and Prime Minister of Canada. A poll released on August 23, 2005, commissioned by the "Toronto Star", showed that McKenna was the top choice of the public to succeed Prime Minister Paul Martin. Among the general public, McKenna beat former New Democratic Party Ontario Premier Bob Rae by a margin of 23 to 11 while among self-identified Liberals, McKenna beat former Deputy Prime Minister of Canada John Manley by a margin of 28 to 13. The October 2005 issue of "Saturday Night" magazine had pollster Darrell Bricker and Liberal strategist Warren Kinsella create odds for potential Liberal leadership candidates. They made McKenna the favourite with 7 to 2 odds beating Scott Brison (8 to 1), Martin Cauchon (10 to 1), Michael Ignatieff and John Manley (each 15 to 1) among others.  On January 30, 2006, McKenna confirmed earlier reports that he was not running for the Liberal leadership to replace Paul Martin, who announced his resignation as party leader on the January 23, 2006 election night. McKenna acknowledged the strength of the Liberal brand stating: "You've got pretty good odds of being the prime minister if you're the leader of the Liberal party" – every leader of the Liberal party since Sir Wilfrid Laurier in 1896 had become prime minister. However, he put an end to his involvement in the 2006 Liberal Party leadership race, explaining his decision by saying that he did not want "his life to become consumed by politics." and that: "I reminded myself of my vow upon leaving office that, having escaped the trap, I wouldn’t go back for the cheese."  Following Stéphane Dion's resignation as federal Liberal leader after the 2008 election, McKenna was once again touted as a possibility to take the helm of the federal Liberal Party. However, on October 28, 2008, McKenna said that he would not be seeking the leadership, saying "Although I have been deeply moved by expressions of support for me from across the country, I have not been persuaded to change my long-standing resolve to exit public life for good," and "My only regret is that I cannot honour the expectations of friends and supporters who have shown enormous loyalty to me."

Banking.

Frank McKenna was appointed as Deputy Chair, TD Bank Financial Group effective May 1, 2006. McKenna is responsible for helping to build long-term business relationships that support TD's growth strategy in Canada and the United States.  McKenna is responsible for supporting the company in its customer acquisition strategy, particularly in the areas of wholesale and commercial banking. In addition, he is responsible for representing TD as it works to expand its North American presence as one of the continent's ten largest banks, as measured by market capitalization.  Frank McKenna is referred to in the book "Clinton Cash" by Peter Schweizer. The majority of the reference is regarding the Keystone Pipeline decision-making process. Hillary Clinton serving as secretary of State in the United States, and the monetary involvement with TD Bank in Canada is described in depth. The book describes TD Bank, with Frank McKenna as vice chairman, as having "paid Bill more than any other financial institution for Lectures. More than Goldman Sachs, UBS, JPMorgan, or anyone on Wall Street". Quoting from the book, "TD Bank paid Bill $1.8 million for ten speeches over a roughly two-and-half-year period from late 2008 to mid-2011."  "At several of the speeches, (Bill) Clinton was introduced or interviewed by TD Bank vice chairman Frank McKenna. Frank McKenna is described as a "good friend of both Bill and Hillary Clinton".

Francis Joseph McKenna (born January 19, 1948) is a Canadian businessman and former politician and diplomat. He is currently Deputy Chairman of the Toronto-Dominion Bank. He served as Canadian Ambassador to the United States from 2005 to 2006. He served as the 27th Premier of New Brunswick from 1987 to 1997, winning every seat in the province in his first election.

Francis Joseph McKenna, né le à Apohaqui (Nouveau-Brunswick), est un homme politique et diplomate canadien. Premier ministre du Nouveau-Brunswick de 1987 à 1997, il fut ambassadeur canadien aux États-Unis de mars 2005 à mars 2006. Il est également membre du groupe Bilderberg.


Metrics.

For clock jitter, there are three commonly used metrics:  In telecommunications, the unit used for the above types of jitter is usually the unit interval (UI) which quantifies the jitter in terms of a fraction of the transmission unit period. This unit is useful because it scales with clock frequency and thus allows relatively slow interconnects such as T1 to be compared to higher-speed internet backbone links such as OC-192. Absolute units such as "picoseconds" are more common in microprocessor applications. Units of "degrees" and "radians" are also used. If jitter has a Gaussian distribution, it is usually quantified using the standard deviation of this distribution. This translates to an RMS measurement for a zero-mean distribution. Often, jitter distribution is significantly non-Gaussian. This can occur if the jitter is caused by external sources such as power supply noise. In these cases, "peak-to-peak" measurements may be more useful. Many efforts have been made to meaningfully quantify distributions that are neither Gaussian nor have a meaningful peak level. All have shortcomings but most tend to be good enough for the purposes of engineering work.  In computer networking, jitter can refer to packet delay variation, the variation (statistical dispersion) in the delay of the packets.

Types.

One of the main differences between random and deterministic jitter is that deterministic jitter is bounded and random jitter is unbounded.

Random jitter.

Random Jitter, also called Gaussian jitter, is unpredictable electronic timing noise. Random jitter typically follows a normal distribution due to being caused by thermal noise in an electrical circuit or due to the central limit theorem. The central limit theorem states that composite effect of many uncorrelated noise sources, regardless of the distributions, approaches a normal distribution.

Deterministic jitter.

Deterministic jitter is a type of clock or data signal jitter that is predictable and reproducible. The peak-to-peak value of this jitter is bounded, and the bounds can easily be observed and predicted. Deterministic jitter has a known non-normal distribution. Deterministic jitter can either be correlated to the data stream (data-dependent jitter) or uncorrelated to the data stream (bounded uncorrelated jitter). Examples of data-dependent jitter are duty-cycle dependent jitter (also known as duty-cycle distortion) and intersymbol interference.

Total jitter.

Total jitter ("T") is the combination of random jitter ("R") and deterministic jitter ("D") and is computed in the context to a required bit error rate (BER) for the system:  in which the value of "n" is based on the BER required of the link.  A common BER used in communication standards such as Ethernet is 10.

Examples.

Sampling jitter.

In analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion of signals, the sampling is normally assumed to be periodic with a fixed period—the time between every two samples is the same. If there is jitter present on the clock signal to the analog-to-digital converter or a digital-to-analog converter, the time between samples varies and instantaneous signal error arises. The error is proportional to the slew rate of the desired signal and the absolute value of the clock error. The effect of jitter on the signal depends on the nature of the jitter. Random jitter tends to add broadband noise while periodic jitter tends to add errant spectral components, "birdys". In some conditions, less than a nanosecond of jitter can reduce the effective bit resolution of a converter with a Nyquist frequency of 22 kHz to 14 bits.  Sampling jitter is an important consideration in high-frequency signal conversion, or where the clock signal is especially prone to interference.

Packet jitter in computer networks.

In the context of computer networks, packet jitter or packet delay variation (PDV) is the variation in latency as measured in the variability over time of the end-to-end delay across a network. A network with constant delay has no packet jitter. Packet jitter is expressed as an average of the deviation from the network mean delay. PDV is an important quality of service factor in assessment of network performance.  Transmitting a burst of traffic at a high rate followed by an interval or period of lower or zero rate transmission may also be seen as a form of jitter, as it represents a deviation from the average transmission rate. However, unlike the jitter caused by variation in latency, transmitting in bursts may be seen as a desirable feature, e.g. in variable bitrate transmissions.

Video and image jitter.

Video or image jitter occurs when the horizontal lines of video image frames are randomly displaced due to the corruption of synchronization signals or electromagnetic interference during video transmission. Model-based dejittering study has been carried out under the framework of digital image and video restoration.

Testing.

Testing for jitter and its measurement is of growing importance to electronics engineers because of increased clock frequencies in digital electronic circuitry to achieve higher device performance. Higher clock frequencies have commensurately smaller eye openings, and thus impose tighter tolerances on jitter. For example, modern computer motherboards have serial bus architectures with eye openings of 160 picoseconds or less. This is extremely small compared to parallel bus architectures with equivalent performance, which may have eye openings on the order of 1000 picoseconds.  Jitter is measured and evaluated in various ways depending on the type of circuit under test. In all cases, the goal of jitter measurement is to verify that the jitter will not disrupt normal operation of the circuit.  Testing of device performance for jitter tolerance may involve injection of jitter into electronic components with specialized test equipment.  Jitter in serial bus architectures is measured by means of eye diagrams. There are standards for jitter measurement in serial bus architectures. The standards cover jitter tolerance, jitter transfer function and jitter generation, with the required values for these attributes varying among different applications. Where applicable, compliant systems are required to conform to these standards.  A less direct approach—in which analog waveforms are digitized and the resulting data stream analyzed—is employed when measuring pixel jitter in frame grabbers.

Mitigation.

Anti-jitter circuits.

Anti-jitter circuits (AJCs) are a class of electronic circuits designed to reduce the level of jitter in a clock signal. AJCs operate by re-timing the output pulses so they align more closely to an idealized clock. They are widely used in clock and data recovery circuits in digital communications, as well as for data sampling systems such as the analog-to-digital converter and digital-to-analog converter. Examples of anti-jitter circuits include phase-locked loop and delay-locked loop.

Jitter buffers.

Jitter buffers or de-jitter buffers are used to counter jitter introduced by queuing in packet-switched networks to ensure continuous playout of an audio or video media stream transmitted over the network. The maximum jitter that can be countered by a de-jitter buffer is equal to the buffering delay introduced before starting the play-out of the media stream. In the context of packet-switched networks, the term "packet delay variation" is often preferred over "jitter".  Some systems use sophisticated delay-optimal de-jitter buffers that are capable of adapting the buffering delay to changing network characteristics. The adaptation logic is based on the jitter estimates computed from the arrival characteristics of the media packets. Adjustments associated with adaptive de-jittering involves introducing discontinuities in the media play-out which may be noticeable to the listener or viewer. Adaptive de-jittering is usually carried out for audio play-outs that include voice activity detection that allows the lengths of the silence periods to be adjusted, thus minimizing the perceptual impact of the adaptation.

Dejitterizer.

A dejitterizer is a device that reduces jitter in a digital signal. A dejitterizer usually consists of an elastic buffer in which the signal is temporarily stored and then retransmitted at a rate based on the average rate of the incoming signal. A dejitterizer is usually ineffective in dealing with low-frequency jitter, such as waiting-time jitter.

Filtering.

A filter can be designed to minimize the effect of sampling jitter. For more information, see the paper by S. Ahmed and T. Chen entitled, "Minimizing the effects of sampling jitters in wireless sensors networks".

Decomposition.

Jitter signal can be decomposed into Intrinsic Mode Functions (IMFs), which can be further applied for filtering or dejittering.

In electronics and telecommunications, jitter is the deviation from true periodicity of a presumably periodic signal, often in relation to a reference clock signal. In clock recovery applications it is called timing jitter. Jitter is a significant, and usually undesired, factor in the design of almost all communications links.

Dans le domaine des transmissions numériques et plus particulièrement des liaisons série, la gigue (en anglais "jitter") est le phénomène de fluctuation d'un signal. Cette fluctuation peut être un glissement de phase ou une dispersion temporelle. Elle entraîne des erreurs en sortie lors de la récupération des données.


Formation.

On December 10, 1956, in Estado Novo-ruled Portuguese Angola, the tiny underground Angolan Communist Party (PCA) merged with the Party of the United Struggle for Africans in Angola (PLUA) to form the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola, with Viriato da Cruz, the President of the PCA, as Secretary General. Later other groups merged into MPLA, such as Movement for the National Independence of Angola (MINA) and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Angola (FDLA).  The MPLA's core base includes the Ambundu ethnic group and the educated intelligentsia of the capital city, Luanda. The party formerly had links to European and Soviet communist parties but is now a full-member of the Socialist International grouping of social democratic parties. The armed wing of MPLA was the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA). The FAPLA later became the national armed forces of the country.  In 1961, the MPLA joined the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), its fraternal party in Guinea-Bissau and Cabo Verde, in direct combat against the Portuguese empire in Africa. The following year, the expanded umbrella group Conference of Nationalist Organizations of the Portuguese Colonies (CONCP) replaced FRAIN, adding FRELIMO of Mozambique and the CLSTP, forerunner of the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP).  In the early 1970s, the MPLA's guerrilla activities were more and more reduced, due to the counter-insurgency campaigns of the Portuguese military. At the same time, internal conflicts caused the movement to temporarily split up into three factions (Ala Presicencialista, Revolta Activa and Revolta do Leste) – a situation which was overcome in 1974/75, but left profound scars.

Independence and civil war.

The Carnation Revolution in Lisbon, Portugal in 1974 established a military government that promptly ceased anti-independence fighting in Angola and agreed to hand over power to a coalition of three pro-independence Angolan movements. The coalition quickly broke down and the newly independent Angola broke into a state of civil war. Maintaining control over Luanda and the lucrative oil fields of the Atlantic coastline, Agostinho Neto, the leader of the MPLA, declared the independence of the Portuguese Overseas Province of Angola as the People's Republic of Angola on November 11, 1975, in accordance with the Alvor Accords. UNITA and FNLA together declared Angolan independence in Huambo. These differences reignited civil war between UNITA & FNLA and the MPLA, with the latter winning the upper hand. Agostinho Neto became the first president upon independence, and he was succeeded after his death by José Eduardo dos Santos in 1979. In 1974/76, South Africa intervened militarily in favor of FNLA and UNITA, and Zaire and the United States also heavily aided the two groups. Cuba deployed thousands of troops in 1975 to aid the MPLA against South African intervention, with the Soviet Union aiding both Cuba and the MPLA government during the war. In November 1980, the MPLA had all but pushed UNITA into the bush, and the South African forces withdrew. The United States Congress barred further U.S. military involvement in the country against the wishes of President Ronald Reagan, fearing another Vietnam-style quagmire. In 1976 the FNLA withdrew its troops to their bases in Zaire, while part of them joined the 32 Battalion formed by South Africa in order to receive anti-MPLA Angolans.  At its first congress, in 1977, the MPLA adopted Marxism–Leninism as the party ideology and added "Partido do Trabalho" (Labour Party) to its name.  After Nito Alves's attempted "coup" in 1977, Neto ordered the killing of suspected followers and sympathisers of "orthodox communism" inside and outside the party. During the coup, Cuban forces stationed in Angola sided with the MPLA leadership against the coup organizers. Estimates for the number of Nito Alves followers killed by Cuban and MPLA troops in the aftermath, range from 2,000 to 70,000 dead, with some placing the death toll at 18,000 killed. After the violent internal conflict called Fractionism, it made it clear that it would follow the socialist, not the communist, model. However, it maintained close ties with the Soviet Union and the Communist bloc, establishing socialist economic policies and a one-party state. Several thousand Cuban troops remained in the country to combat UNITA fighters and bolster the regime's security.  In 1990, when the Cold War ended, MPLA abandoned its Marxist–Leninist ideology and on its third congress, in December, the party declared democratic socialism to be its official ideology.  The MPLA emerged victorious in Angola's 1992 general election, but eight opposition parties rejected the election as rigged. UNITA sent negotiators to the Luanda, where they were killed. As a consequence, hostilities erupted in the city, and immediately spread to other parts of the country. Tens of thousands of UNITA and FNLA sympathizers were subsequently killed nationwide by MPLA forces, in what is known as the Halloween Massacre, and the civil war resumed. The war continued until 2002, when UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi was killed. The two parties promptly agreed to a ceasefire, and a plan was laid out for UNITA to demobilize and become a political party. Over 500,000 civilians were killed during the civil war. Human rights observers have accused the MPLA of "genocidal atrocities," "systematic extermination," "war crimes" and "crimes against humanity during the civil war." Political scientist Rudolph Rummel estimated that the MPLA were responsible for between 100,000 and 200,000 deaths in democide from 1975 to 1987.

Electoral history.

In the 1992 elections, MPLA-PT won 53.74% of the votes and 129 out of 227 seats in parliament; however, eight opposition parties rejected the 1992 elections as rigged. In the next election, delayed until 2008 due to the civil war, the MPLA won 81.64% of the vote and 191 out of 220 parliamentary seats. In the 2012 legislative election, the party won 71.84% of the vote and 175 of 220 parliamentary seats.

Human rights record.

The MPLA government of Angola has been accused of human rights violations such as arbitrary arrest and detention and torture by international organisations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. In response, the MPLA hired Samuels International Associates Inc to help improve Angola's global image.

Party organizations.

At present, major mass organizations of the MPLA-PT include the "Organização da Mulher Angolana" (Angolan Women's Organization), "União Nacional dos Trabalhadores Angolanos" (National Union of Angolan Workers), "Organização de Pioneiros de Agostinho Neto" (Agostinho Neto Pioneer Organization), and the "Juventude do MPLA" (Youth of MPLA).

Foreign support.

During both the Portuguese Colonial War and the Angolan Civil War, the MPLA received military and humanitarian support primarily from the governments of Algeria, the Bulgarian People's Republic, East Germany, Cape Verde Islands, Communist Czechoslovakia, the Congo, Cuba, Guinea-Bissau, Morocco, the Mozambican People's Republic, Nigeria, North Korea, the Polish People's Republic, China, the Romanian Socialist Republic, São Tomé and Príncipe, Somalia, the Soviet Union, Sudan, Tanzania, Libya and Communist Yugoslavia. While China did briefly support the MPLA, it also actively supported the MPLA's enemies, the FNLA and later UNITA, during the war for independence and the civil war. The switch was the result of tensions between China and the Soviet Union for dominance of the communist bloc, which almost led to war.

The People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola, for some years called the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola – Labour Party (, MPLA), is a political party that has ruled Angola since the country's independence from Portugal in 1975. The MPLA fought against the Portuguese army in the Angolan War of Independence of 1961–74, and defeated the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), two other anti-colonial movements, in the Angolan Civil War of 1975–2002.

Le Mouvement populaire de libération de l'Angola, en, est un parti politique angolais. Il participe à la guerre d'indépendance qui s'achève en 1975 et dirige ensuite la République populaire d'Angola. Il est notamment en conflit avec l'Union nationale pour l'indépendance totale de l'Angola (UNITA) et le Front national de libération de l'Angola (FNLA).


Biography.

After studying with the Oratorians in his native Grenoble, he entered the Sorbonne, where he became prior in 1702, and obtained the doctorate in 1705. He was then appointed Vicar-General of the diocese of Sens and, in 1721, accompanied Cardinal de Rohan to Rome as his conclavist, to support the candidacy of Cardinal Conti (Innocent XIII), from whom he had obtained a promise to bestow the purple on the French minister Guillaume Dubois. He remained at Rome as French "chargé d'affaires", with the appointment "in commendam" of abbot of Trois-Fontaines to support him (1739–1753), until Benedict XIII, with whom he was on cordial terms of intimacy and very influential, consecrated him Archbishop of Embrun (26 June 1724).  On 22 February 1739, Guérin de Tencin was created cardinal, of the titulus of Sts. Nereus and Achilleus. He remained at Rome as French ambassador until 1742, when he took possession of the archiepiscopal see of Lyon, to which he had succeeded on 19 November 1740. Louis XV appointed him minister of state in September 1742, though he held no portfolio, and Commander of the Order of Saint-Esprit.  He was overzealous in the persecution of the Jansenists, and, at the provincial synod which he held at Embrun from 16 August to 28 September 1727, he suspended Jean Soanen, Bishop of Senez, a prelate eighty years of age, who had appealed against the Bull "Unigenitus".  After the death of André-Hercule Cardinal de Fleury, the prime minister to whom he owed much of his political advancement, his influence began to decrease. The death of his profligate sister in 1749 removed some of his political ambition, and in 1752 he retired to his see of Lyons.

Pierre-Paul Guérin de Tencin (Grenoble, 22 August 1679 – 2 March 1758), French ecclesiastic, was archbishop of Embrun and Lyon, and a cardinal. His sister was Claudine Guérin de Tencin.

Pierre-Paul Guérin de Tencin, né le à Grenoble et mort le à Lyon, fut cardinal, archevêque de Lyon et un homme politique sous Louis XV. C'est l'exemple même d'un abbé qui sut mêler la vie de cour avec un véritable engagement en faveur des pauvres, les intrigues avec la compassion.


International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes

Centre international pour le règlement des différends relatifs aux investissements

Publication history.

It is notable for its involvement in the U-Decide campaign, and for being plagued by chronic lateness, taking a year and four months (from September 2002 to January 2004) to complete what was a supposedly monthly series. In contrast, the relaunched "Captain Marvel" series, which debuted the same week as part of U-Decide, had its eighteenth issue released the same week as "Ultimate Adventures" #6 finally made it to shops.

Characters.

Heroes.

Hawk-Owl, the Midnight Avenger/Jack Danner - A Batman pastiche, complete with secret lair ("the Nest") and crime-fighting gadgets. Unlike Bruce Wayne, Danner is far from being any sort of genius. Rather, he's a socially inept middle-aged billionaire with a rather dangerous and expensive hobby (however he is a skilled detective, able to rescue an infant who had been missing for weeks and break up a 200-million-dollar cocaine operation). He also lacks the traumatic murder experience of his DC counterpart, making him less "severe" in some respects, but also lacks a certain personal element to his own mission, however, it is implied by his Aunt Ruth and others that the death of his parents and uncle may not have been accidents as he claims, but in fact murders. His motivation for crime-fighting is instead frustration at Chicago’s high crime rate after he retires from the Navy SEALS.  Woody/Hank Kipple - The Robin to Hawk-Owl's Batman. In some ways the actual main character of the story in "Ultimate Adventures", which is largely about the creation and advent of the Woody character (which only appears in proper in that last issue of the series). Brash and assertive, well past the point of obnoxiousness, Hank seems to fear both making lasting connections (by rejecting nearly everybody) but also being ruthless.

Supporting Characters.

Daniel Toliver - Hawk-Owl's butler and best friend, the "Ultimate Adventures" variation on Alfred Pennyworth. An African-American veteran with an apparently difficult past, Toliver's character is often given to manic, almost aggressive outbursts throughout the series. This can be contrasted with Alfred Pennyworth's demure, passive attitude commonly shown. Toliver also proves important in Hawk-Owl's origin later on in the series.  Aunt Ruth - A mother figure of sorts towards Danner who lives at his mansion. Quite possibly an alcoholic, Ruth doesn't represent any particular Batman character so much as the supporting cast in general (although it is possible that she is a reference to Aunt Harriet from the 60's "Batman" television series). It is also unclear if Ruth knows about Danner's double life as the Hawk-Owl until the end of the series.  Lee - Danner's often-mute chauffeur. Not a direct relation to any Batman character either, but much closer to the Green Hornet's valet Kato.  The Principal - The main enemy of the "Ultimate Adventures" story. Hank's actual principal at one point, Larry Jones loses his grip on reality after a series of degrading events (including catching his wife being unfaithful multiple times) and suffering a concussion from Hank thanks to a misunderstanding. Holding on to the one grasp of identity he has left, Jones embodies the full meaning of the term Principal, becoming a sadistic disciplinarian and utilizing a series of weapons, all shaped like paddles. A satire of several "Batman" villains, including The Joker and Two-Face where a certain characteristic or quirk is magnified to a hyperbolic degree.  Ms. Willow - The Principal's assistant in crime. She is quite similar to the Joker's assistant, Harley Quinn.

Fictional history.

One Tin Soldier.

At a Catholic orphanage located in Chicago, Hank Kipple is currently being disciplined for bad behavior (namely rigging the lights in the dorm rooms to not only use the Clapper, but also only to respond to "his" claps) and saying "God can shove it." Later on,there is a scene of Hank in his dorm room with several other children who live at the orphanage. It appears that his brash, rude manner even extends to his peers, and not just his authority figures. He also comments on the persistent danger of crime that is associated with living in an orphanage in downtown Chicago. Sure enough, as the children go to sleep, two burglars seek refuge in the dorm room of St. Frederick's. Hank starts smart-mouthing to the burglars, putting the other children of the orphanage in danger as the burglars decide to make them hostages. Just as one of the burglars begin threatening the children, a voice comes from the rafters of the old orphanage. It's Hawk-Owl, the Midnight Avenger. While the children don't recognize him (and some of the younger kids mistake him for Spider-Man), both of the thugs recognize him almost immediately. With Hank's help, the Hawk-Owl makes short work of the burglars with an assortment of crime-fighting tools. In the morning, while the children are still abuzz about the excitement the night before, Father Joe announces that the Orphanage is going to have a very special guest. This turns out to be Jack Danner, a successful albeit unkempt businessman, accompanied by his butler Daniel Toliver (whom he calls James in this issue,) his Aunt Ruth, and seemingly mute chauffeur Lee. Danner, interested in adopting one of the children from the orphanage, first has a question and answer session with them. Most of the children ask him about his house, especially if he has toys waiting for them. Hank, on the other hand, gives him quite a hard time on everything from his demeanor to his politics. Eventually Hank is told to leave, which he seems to appreciate. Toliver notes that Danner has already picked "the surly kid". As Danner is set to adopt one of the children, a child named John asks him if Danner will go take him "make poop," which startles Danner quite a bit, especially the prospect of having to watch him. Afterwards, Father Joe comes up to the dorm room where Hank has run off too, telling him to pack his bags. First thinking he's being kicked out, Hank grows very apologetic for the first time, until Father Joe explains himself: Danner has indeed chosen to adopt Hank. Hank expresses his confusion, given how rude he had been to Danner, but Father Joe proposed that perhaps Danner simply saw beyond the "bravado". Father Joe also reminds him to pack quickly, seeing how he doesn't usually recommend long goodbyes. By the time the conversation is over, Hank is back to his brash self, smart-mouthing to God one more time as he exits, in the shadow of Hawk-Owl.  In Danner's mansion in the suburbs, Toliver takes Hank to his new room and tells him that he was a street kid like Hank and he is lucky to get a break. Jack Danner, meanwhile, goes to "the Nest," his crime-fighting lair; Danner is secretly the Hawk-Owl. Later, Hank sees a flying car pass him, and learns that Hawk-Owl saved an Internet café. Next morning Hank Kipple goes to school and meets Principal Larry Jones and Ms. Willow, learning a little more about Danner's past. After his first day of school, Hank sees the flying car pass him again and finds "the Nest".

Afterwards.

The duo were briefly mentioned as being Ultimates candidates in the first volume, and they have not been mentioned since.

Reception.

"Screen Rant" ranked Hawk-Owl and Woody as one of the superheroes that Marvel wants you to forget.

Ultimate Adventures was a six-issue comic book, written by Ron Zimmerman and drawn by Duncan Fegredo, and published by Marvel Comics. It starred Hawk-Owl and Woody, two characters who were purposefully designed as blatant parodies of Batman and Robin. At the time of its publication, it was the only Ultimate title to introduce characters who were not explicitly based on pre-existing Marvel characters. ("Ultimate Spider-Man" followed suit with Geldoff and the series "Ultimate X-Men" has since added the characters of Syndicate and Magician.)

Le centre international pour le règlement des différends relatifs aux investissements (CIRDI) a été créé par la convention de Washington du.


Geography.

The modern town of Yanqi is situated about west of the shallow Lake Bosten. The lake is about east to west and north to south with a surface area of about, making it one of the largest lakes in Xinjiang. It has been noted since Han times for its abundance of fish. The lake is fed by the Kaidu River and the Konqi River flows out of it past Korla and across the Taklamakan Desert to Lop Nur. There are numerous other small lakes in the region.  The city, referred to in classical Chinese sources as Yanqi, was located on the branch of the Silk Route that ran along the northern edge of the Taklamakan Desert in the Tarim Basin.

History.

The earliest known inhabitants of the area were an Indo-European people who apparently referred to themselves and the city as "Ārśi" (pronounced "Arshi"). Their language, since it was rediscovered in the early 20th century, has been known as "Tocharian A" (a misnomer resulting from an assumed relationship to the Tukhara of Bactria). The people and city were also known as "Agni", although this may have been a later exonym, derived from the word for "fire" in an Indo-Iranian language such as Sanskrit (cognate to English "ignite"). The 7th century Buddhist monk Xuanzang transliterated "Agni" into Chinese as "O-ki-ni".  "Ārśi" was bordered by related Tocharian cultures, many of which also spoke related languages: "Kuča" (or Kucha), "Gumo" (later Aksu) to the west, "Turfan" (Turpan) to the east and to the south, Loulan (Krorän/Korla).  In China, Han dynasty sources describe Yanqi ("Ārśi"/"Agni") as a relatively large and important neighboring kingdom. According to "Book of Han", the various states of the "Western Regions", including Yanqi, were controlled by the nomadic Xiongnu, but later came under the influence of the Han dynasty, following a Han show of force against Dayuan (Fergana) in the late 2nd century BC.  From the 1st Century BCE onwards, many populations in the Tarim Basin, including the "Ārśi" underwent conversion to Buddhism and, consequently, linguistic influence from Indo-Iranian languages, such as Pali, Sanskrit, Bactrian, Gandhari and Khotanese (Saka). The city of "Ārśi" became commonly known as "Agni", almost certainly derived from the Sanskrit अग्नि "fire". Names such as "Agnideśa" (अग्निदेश) and "Agni-visaya", both of which are Sanskrit for "city of fire", are also recorded in Buddhist scriptures.  According to the "Book of the Later Han", General Ban Chao went on a punitive campaign against Yanqi in 94 AD after they attacked and killed the Protector General Chen Mu and Vice Commandant Guo Xun in 75 AD. The king of Yanqi was decapitated and his head displayed in the capital. Later rebellions were subdued by Ban Chao's son Ban Yong in 127.  "Agnideśa" became a tributary state of Tang China in 632. In 644, during the Tang expansion into the Tarim Basin, Emperor Taizong of Tang launched a military campaign against Yanqi after the kingdom allied itself with the Turks. The Four Garrisons of Anxi was established with one based at Yanqi.  According to "Book of Zhou" (completed in 636) the kingdom of Yanqi (Karashahr) was a small country with poor people and nine walled towns, and described the country and their custom thus: By the mid-9th century, the area had been conquered by the Uyghur Khaganate and the Tocharian languages were fading from use. "Agnideśa" became widely known by the Uyghur Turkic name Karasahr (or Karashar), meaning "black city". The influence of Islam grew, while older religions such as Buddhism and Manichaenism declined.  Between the mid-13th Century and the 18th century, Karasahr was part of the Mongol Chagatai Khanate.  Karashahr may have been known to late medieval Europeans as Cialis, Chalis or Chialis, although Kroran (Korla) and other cities are also favored by some scholars.  In the early 17th century, the Portuguese Jesuit Lay Brother Bento de Góis visited the Tarim Basin on his way from India to China (via Kabul and Kashgar). De Góis and his traveling companions spent several months in the "Kingdom of Cialis", while crossing it with a caravan of Kashgarian merchants (ostensibly, tribute bearers) on their way to Ming China. The travelers stayed in Cialis City for three months in 1605, and then continued, via Turpan and Hami (all parts of the "Kingdom of Cialis", according to de Góis), to the Ming border at Jiayuguan.  The British traveller Francis Younghusband briefly visited Karasahr in 1887 on his overland journey from Beijing to India. He described it as being "like all the towns hereabouts, is surrounded by a mud wall, and the gateways are surmounted by the usual pagoda-like towers. There is a musketry wall round outside the main wall, but it is now almost in ruins. Inside the wall are some yamens, but only a few houses. Outside, to the south, are a few shops and inns."  An early-20th-century traveler described the situation in Karashahr as follows:

Karasahr or Karashar (;, ), which was originally known, in the Tocharian languages as Ārśi (or Arshi) and Agni or the Chinese derivative Yānqí, 焉耆 (Wade–Giles "Yen-ch’i"), is an ancient town on the Silk Road and the capital of Yanqi Hui Autonomous County in the Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang, in Northwestern China.

La ville de Karachahr (ou Karashahr), en mandarin Yanqi (焉耆 ; pinyin : Yānçí ; ouïghour : يەنجى / Yenci), est située dans la région autonome ouïgoure du Xinjiang, au nord du désert du Taklamakan. Son nom provient du turc "qara" « noir » et de l'iranien "shahr" « ville », et signifie donc « ville Noire ». Elle est surtout remarquable par son histoire, car elle se trouve sur l'ancien territoire du royaume d'Agni, qui a joué un rôle important durant le millénaire de notre ère. Le terme "Yanqi" était alors la désignation chinoise de ce royaume. Les Agnéens, qui étaient de grands guerriers descendant des Yuezhi (appartenant eux-mêmes au groupe tokharien), se sont distingués en l'an 75 par le massacre d'une garnison chinoise de 2000 hommes et de son chef, le Protecteur général Chen Mu. En l'an 13, ils avaient tué un autre Protecteur général envoyé par la Chine, Dan Qin. Ils résistaient ainsi aux tentatives de la dynastie Han de contrôler la route de la soie, sur laquelle leur royaume se trouvait.


Geography.

Gevrey-Chambertin is one of the wine villages of the Côte de Nuits which lies along the foot of the Côte-d'Or escarpment, to the south of Dijon and with the broad Saône valley plain to its east. It produces red Burgundy wine from vineyards at the village, Premier Cru and Grand Cru level.  The vineyards on the slope of the Côte d'Or form a strip below and east of the woodland on the Jurassic limestone hills. In the plain of the Saône to the east, there are large fields. The commune is also traversed by the A31 road and the railway from Dijon to the south with a large marshalling yard "(Gevrey-Triage)". There is also a stretch of Roman road from Dijon to the southern end of the Forest of Cîteaux, to the south of the abbey.

History.

Origins.

As in England, Île de France and in the South of France, vines in Burgundy were planted very early on. Only in Gevrey-Chambertin, however, have archaeological digs been able to find Gallo-Roman vines dating back to the 1st Century BC. The outline of 120 vine stocks was discovered in 2008, during the expansion of a residential development that was updating 300 septic tanks all lined up in an area of 6 km. This archaeological discovery corroborates with texts written by Pliny the Elder and Columella, making it credible that the Gallo-Roman vines in Gevrey-Chambertin were the first vines to be planted in Bourgogne. The vines were planted in rows, just as they would be today, but the choice of land used and its exposure were quite different: the Gallo-Roman vines were planted on plains, as opposed to the terraces that most of today's Côtes de Nuits is grown on. Furthermore, wines made from these vines would have had a different taste, notably because the Gallo-Romans added spices as preservatives.

Winemaking.

The Gevrey-Chambertin winemaking area on the Route des Grands Crus of Côte de Nuits is one of the most well known areas in the wine region of Burgundy. of vineyards planted to Pinot noir grapes are used to produce the village's red wine.  Gevrey-Chambertin is the source of 8 out of 33 Burgundy Grand crus AOC wines: Chambertin 12.9 ha, Chambertin-Clos-de-Bèze 15.4 ha, Chapelle-Chambertin 5.5 ha, Charmes-Chambertin 30.8 ha, Mazis-Chambertin 9.1 ha, Griotte-Chambertin 2.7 ha, Latricières-Chambertin 7.3 ha, Ruchottes-Chambertin 3.3 ha. Gevrey-Chambertin wines have high ageing potential (10 to 20 years, longer for some exceptions).

International relations.

The commune is twinned with Nierstein in the Rheinhessen wine region of Germany, and with the Belgian town Spy in the Namur province. The Albasso choir received the Sarteline choir of Sart-Bernard, Namur, from 24 to 25 March 2007. In its turn, the Gevrey-Chambertin choir went to Belgium from 1 to 2 March 2009. A return visit of the Belgian choir to the commune is currently being discussed.

Gevrey-Chambertin is a commune in the Côte-d'Or department of France in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in eastern France. It lies south of Dijon. This touristy, winemaking village is situated on the Route des Grands Crus in the Côte de Nuits. The village is noted for the Grand cru Burgundy wine that is produced from its vineyards, the most famous of which is Chambertin.

Gevrey-Chambertin est une commune française viticole, située à au sud de Dijon dans le département de la Côte-d'Or et fait partie de la région Bourgogne-Franche-Comté.


Etymology.

The term "busking" was first noted in the English language around the middle 1860s in Great Britain. The verb "to busk", from the word "busker", comes from the Spanish root word "buscar", with the meaning "to seek". The Spanish word "buscar" in turn evolved from the Indo-European word "*bhudh-skō" ("to win, conquer"). It was used for many street acts, and was the title of a famous Spanish book about one of them, "El Buscón". Today, the word is still used in Spanish but mostly relegated for female street sex workers, or women seeking to be set up as private mistresses of married men.

History.

There have been performances in public places for gratuities in every major culture in the world, dating back to antiquity. For many musicians street performance was the most common means of employment before the advent of recording and personal electronics. Prior to that, a person had to produce any music or entertainment, save for a few mechanical devices such as the barrel organ, the music box, and the piano roll. Organ grinders were commonly found busking in the old days.  Busking is common among some Romani people. Romantic mention of Romani music, dancers and fortune tellers are found in all forms of song poetry, prose and lore. The Roma brought the word busking to England by way of their travels along the Mediterranean coast to Spain and the Atlantic Ocean and then up north to England and the rest of Europe.  In medieval France buskers were known by the terms troubadours and "jongleurs". In northern France they were known as trouveres. In old German buskers were known as Minnesingers and "Spielleute". In obsolete French it evolved to "busquer" for "seek, prowl" and was generally used to describe prostitutes. In Russia buskers are called skomorokh and their first recorded history appears around the 11th century.  Mariachis, Mexican bands that play a style of music by the same name, frequently busk when they perform while traveling through streets and plazas, as well as in restaurants and bars.  Around the mid-19th century Japanese "Chindonya" started to be seen using their skills for advertising, and these street performers are still occasionally seen in Japan. Another Japanese street performance form dating from the Edo period is Nankin Tamasudare, in which the performer creates large figures using a bamboo mat.  In 19th century, Italian street musicians (mainly from Liguria, Emilia Romagna, Basilicata) began to roam worldwide in search of fortune. Musicians from Basilicata, especially the so-called "Viggianesi", would later become professional instrumentalists in symphonic orchestras, especially in the United States. The street musicians from Basilicata are sometimes cited as an influence on Hector Malot's "Sans Famille".  In the United States, medicine shows proliferated in the 19th century. They were traveling vendors selling elixirs and potions to improve the health. They would often employ entertainment acts as a way of making the clients feel better. The people would often associate this feeling of well-being with the products sold. After these performances they would "pass the hat".  One-man bands have historically performed as buskers playing a variety of instruments simultaneously. One-man bands proliferated in urban areas in the 19th and early 20th centuries and still perform to this day. A current one-man band plays all their instruments acoustically usually combining a guitar, a harmonica, a drum and a tambourine. They may also include singing. Many still busk but some are booked to play at festivals and other events.  Folk music has always been an important part of the busking scene. Cafe, restaurant, bar and pub busking is a mainstay of this art form. Two of the more famous folk singers are Woody Guthrie and Joan Baez. The delta bluesmen were mostly itinerant musicians emanating from the Mississippi Delta region of the USA around the early 1940s and on. B.B. King is one famous example who came from these roots.  The counterculture of the hippies of the 1960s occasionally staged "be-ins", which resembled some present-day busker festivals. Bands and performers would gather at public places and perform for free, passing the hat to make money. The San Francisco Bay Area was at the epicenter of this movement – be-ins were staged at Golden Gate Park and San Jose's Bee Stadium and other venues. Some of the bands that performed in this manner were Janis Joplin with Big Brother and the Holding Company, the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Quicksilver Messenger Service, Country Joe and the Fish, Moby Grape and Jimi Hendrix.  Christmas caroling can also be a form of busking, as wassailing included singing for alms, wassail or some other form of refreshment such as figgy pudding. In Ireland the traditional Wren Boys and in England Morris Dancing can be considered part of the busking tradition.  In India and Pakistan's Gujarati region Bhavai is a form of street art where there are plays enacted in the village, the barot or the village singer also is part of the local entertainment scene.  In the 2000s, some performers have begun "Cyber Busking". Artists post work or performances on the Internet for people to download or "stream" and if people like it they make a donation using PayPal.

Forms.

There are three basic forms of street performance  "Circle shows" are shows that tend to gather a crowd around them. They usually have a distinct beginning and end. Usually these are done in conjunction with street theatre, puppeteering, magicians, comedians, acrobats, jugglers and sometimes musicians. Circle shows can be the most lucrative. Sometimes the crowds attracted can be very large. A good busker will control the crowd so the patrons do not obstruct foot traffic.  "Walk-by acts" are typically where the busker performs a musical, living statue or other act that does not have a distinct beginning or end and the public usually watch for a brief time. A walk by act may turn into a circle show if the act is unusual or very popular.  "Stoplight performers" present their act and get contributions from vehicle occupants on a crosswalk while the traffic lights are red. A variety of disciplines can be used in such format (juggling, break dancing, even magic tricks). Because of the short period of time available to them, stoplight performers must have a very brief, condensed routine. This form is seen more commonly in Latin America than elsewhere.

Collecting money.

Buskers collect donations and tips from the public in a variety of containers and by different methods depending on the type of busking they are performing. For walk by acts their instrument case or a special can or box is often used. For circle shows the performer will typically collect money at the end of the show, although some performers will also collect during the show to ensure all audience members have had a chance to show appreciation for their skills. Sometimes a performer will employ a "bottler", "hat man", or "pitch man" to collect money from the audience. The term "bottler" is a British term which originated following the use of the top half of a bottle to collect money. The bottle had a leather flap inserted in the bottle neck and a leather pouch attached. This design allowed coins to be put in the bottle but not allow them to be removed easily without the coins jingling against the glass. The first use of such contrivances was recorded by the famous Punch and Judy troupe of puppeteers in early Victorian times. Bottling itself can be an art form, and the difference between a good and a bad bottler can be crucial to the amount of money earned on a pitch. A good bottler is able to encourage audience members to give money. A bottler usually gets a cut of the money made on the pitch. Prior to the 20th century, it was common for buskers to use a trained monkey as a bottler. That practice has diminished or ceased in many countries due to changes in social attitudes and animal control laws. However some modern buskers use a device known as monkey stick which is a long stick with bottle caps or small cymbals attached to make a noise before a show or prior to making a collection.

Pitches.

The place where a performance occurs is called a "pitch". A good pitch can be the key to success as a busker. An act that might make money at one place and time may not work at all in another setting. Popular pitches tend to be public places with large volumes of pedestrian traffic, high visibility, low background noise and as few elements of interference as possible. Good locations may include tourist spots, popular parks, entertainment districts including lots of restaurants, cafes, bars and pubs and theaters, subways and bus stops, outside the entrances to large concerts and sporting events, almost any plaza or town square as well as zócalos in Latin America and piazzas in other regions. Other places include shopping malls, strip malls, and outside supermarkets, although permission is usually required from management for these.  In her book, "Underground Harmonies: Music and Politics in the Subways of New York", Susie J. Tanenbaum examined how the adage "Music hath charms to soothe the savage beast" plays out in regards to busking. Her sociological studies showed that in areas where buskers regularly perform, crime rates tended to go down, and that those with higher education attainment tended to have a more positive view of buskers than did those of lesser educational attainment. Some cities encourage busking in particular areas, giving preference to city government-approved buskers and even publishing schedules of performances.  Many cities in the United States have particular areas known to be popular spots for buskers. Performers are found at many locations like Mallory Square in Key West, in New Orleans, in New York around Central Park, Washington Square, and the subway systems, in San Francisco, in Washington, D.C. around the transit centers, in Los Angeles around Venice Beach, the Santa Monica Third Street Promenade, and the Hollywood area, in Chicago on Maxwell Street, in the Delmar Loop district of St. Louis, and many other locations throughout the US. Busking is still quite common in Scotland, Ireland, and England with musicians and other street performers of varying talent levels.

Legislation.

The first recorded instances of laws affecting buskers were in ancient Rome in 462 BC. The Law of the Twelve Tables made it a crime to sing about or make parodies of the government or its officials in public places; the penalty was death. Louis the Pious "excluded "histriones" and "scurrae", which included all entertainers without noble protection, from the privilege of justice". In 1530 Henry VIII ordered the licensing of minstrels and players, fortune-tellers, pardoners and fencers, as well as beggars who could not work. If they did not obey they could be whipped on two consecutive days.  In the United States under constitutional law and most European common law, the protection of artistic free speech extends to busking. In the U.S. and many countries, the designated places for free speech behavior are the public parks, streets, sidewalks, thoroughfares and town squares or plazas. Under certain circumstances even private property may be open to buskers, particularly if it is open to the general public and busking does not interfere with its function and management allows it or other forms of free speech behaviors or has a history of doing so.  While there is no universal code of conduct for buskers, there are common law practices which buskers must conform to. Most jurisdictions have corresponding statutory law. In the UK busking regulation is not universal with most laws (if there are any) being governed by local councils. Some towns in the British Isles limit the licenses issued to bagpipers because of the volume and difficulty of the instrument. In Great Britain places requiring licenses for buskers may also require auditions of anyone applying for a busking license. Oxford City Council have decided to enact a public spaces protection order. Some venues that do not regulate busking may still ask performers to abide by voluntary rules. Some places require a special permit to use electronically amplified sound and may have limits on the volume of sound produced. It is common law that buskers or others should not impede pedestrian traffic flow, block or otherwise obstruct entrances or exits, or do things that endanger the public. It is common law that any disturbing or noisy behaviors may not be conducted after certain hours in the night. These curfew limitations vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. It is common law that "performing blue" (i.e. using material that is sexually explicit or any vulgar or obscene remarks or gestures) is generally prohibited unless performing for an adults-only environment such as in a bar or pub.  In London, busking is prohibited in the entire area of the City of London. The London Underground provides busking permits in tube stations. Most London boroughs do not license busking, but they have optional powers, under the London Local Authorities Act 2000, if there is sufficient reason to do so. Where these powers have not been adopted, councils can rely on other legislation including the Environmental Protection Act 1990 to deal with noise nuisance from buskers and the Highways Act to deal with obstructions. Camden Council is currently looking into further options to control the problem of nuisance buskers and the playing of amplified music to the detriment of local residents and businesses.  Buskers may find themselves targeted by thieves due to the very open and public nature of their craft. Buskers may have their earnings, instruments or props stolen. One particular technique that thieves use against buskers is to pretend to make a donation while actually taking money out instead, a practice known as "dipping" or "skimming". George Burns described his days as a youthful busker this way:

External links.

Organisations  Press  Other

Street performance or busking is the act of performing in public places for gratuities. In many countries the rewards are generally in the form of money but other gratuities such as food, drink or gifts may be given. Street performance is practiced all over the world and dates back to antiquity. People engaging in this practice are called street performers or buskers in the United Kingdom. Buskers is not a term generally used in American English.

Le spectacle de rue consiste à se produire dans des endroits publics, en général en échange d'une pièce de monnaie, parfois d'un bien, ou parfois bénévolement lors d'un événement. Cette forme de spectacle est pratiquée dans le monde entier depuis l'Antiquité.


Biography.

The band was formed in 1979 by two former milk delivery men, Lombrick Laul (bass player, and the future designer the band Bérurier Noir), and Masto Lowcost (born Tomas Huser, saxophonist and photographer). The two began stenciling the band's name on the walls of Paris which led to the originality of their look and their approach. The band was later joined by American-born keyboardist and singer Nina Childress, percussionist Raoul Gaboni, and vocalist Helno (born Noël Rota). The story of the band was they originally started as joke and picked which instruments they hated the most, and often were known playing mainly in squats in the Pali-Kao plant of Belleville. The music was often called "Wild, dadaist, juvenile, and anti-commercial", and the band had been likened to UK based punk bands the Slits, Crass and X-Ray Spex. With Laul and Nina's artistic backgrounds, the band also designed their own graphics and videos which often accompanied them when they played live.  The band's debut EP was the self-released vinyl "Nepla Relou", which was later followed by a split with fellow French punk band MKB Fraction Provisoire, which had also featured drummer Raoul Gaboni in 1983. The band continued to play live supporting acts such as Einsturzende Neubauten before playing their last gig in February 1984 at the Théâtre du Petit Forum des Halles. A collected album from the first two EPs entitled "I Love You, Fuck Off" was released in 1987; another reissue of the band's music entitled "La Qui Vache Rit" was released in 1991. The latest self-titled compilation of Lucrate Milk's music was released in France in 2005, which included a DVD and a backstory of the band's success in the French punk underground. After the band's breakup, many of the members went on to form various other bands including Bérurier Noir. Nina Childress became a painter, and a member of the art collective the "Frères Ripoulin". Helno (rechristened Helno Rota de Lourcqua) became the singer of Les Negresses Vertes; in 1993, he died of a heroin overdose at age 29.

Lucrate Milk (short for Lucrative Milk) were a French art punk and No Wave band from Paris, France. The band lasted from 1979 to 1983. The group has retained a certain aura to this day in France's punk circles due to their complete lack of compromise and influence on the French DIY scene. Sometime after the disband of Lucrate Milk, some of the former members formed the band Bérurier Noir and Les Négresses Vertes.

Lucrate Milk est un groupe de no wave et post-punk français, originaire de Paris. Il est représentant du DIY musical à la française, en activité à Paris entre 1979 et 1984. Le groupe conserve une certaine aura jusqu'à nos jours due à leur absence totale de compromission et à leur statut et proche des Bérurier Noir.


Uses.

Medical uses include the treatment of nausea due to chemotherapy, spasticity, and possibly neuropathic pain. Common side effects include dizziness, sedation, confusion, dissociation and "feeling high".

Cannabinoid receptors.

Before the 1980s, it was often speculated that cannabinoids produced their physiological and behavioral effects via nonspecific interaction with cell membranes, instead of interacting with specific membrane-bound receptors. The discovery of the first cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s helped to resolve this debate. These receptors are common in animals, and have been found in mammals, birds, fish, and reptiles. At present, there are two known types of cannabinoid receptors, termed CB and CB, with mounting evidence of more. The human brain has more cannabinoid receptors than any other G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) type.

Cannabinoid receptor type 1.

CB receptors are found primarily in the brain, more specifically in the basal ganglia and in the limbic system, including the hippocampus and the striatum. They are also found in the cerebellum and in both male and female reproductive systems. CB receptors are absent in the medulla oblongata, the part of the brain stem responsible for respiratory and cardiovascular functions. CB1 is also found in the human anterior eye and retina.

Cannabinoid receptor type 2.

CB receptors are predominantly found in the immune system, or immune-derived cells with varying expression patterns. While found only in the peripheral nervous system, a report does indicate that CB is expressed by a subpopulation of microglia in the human cerebellum. CB receptors appear to be responsible for immunomodulatory and possibly other therapeutic effects of cannabinoid as seen in vitro and in animal models.

Phytocannabinoids.

Cannabis-derived cannabinoids.

The classical cannabinoids are concentrated in a viscous resin produced in structures known as glandular trichomes. At least 113 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the "Cannabis" plant To the right, the main classes of cannabinoids from "Cannabis" are shown. The best studied cannabinoids include tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN).

Types.

All classes derive from cannabigerol-type (CBG) compounds and differ mainly in the way this precursor is cyclized. The classical cannabinoids are derived from their respective 2-carboxylic acids (2-COOH) by decarboxylation (catalyzed by heat, light, or alkaline conditions).

Tetrahydrocannabinol.

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive component of the Cannabis plant. "Delta"-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-THC, THC) and "delta"-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-THC), through intracellular CB activation, induce anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol synthesis produced naturally in the body and brain. These cannabinoids produce the effects associated with cannabis by binding to the CB cannabinoid receptors in the brain.

Cannabidiol.

Cannabidiol (CBD) is non-psychotropic. Recent evidence shows that the compound counteracts cognitive impairment associated with the use of cannabis. Cannabidiol has little affinity for CB and CB receptors but acts as an indirect antagonist of cannabinoid agonists. It was found to be an antagonist at the putative new cannabinoid receptor, GPR55, a GPCR expressed in the caudate nucleus and putamen. Cannabidiol has also been shown to act as a 5-HT receptor agonist. CBD can interfere with the uptake of adenosine, which plays an important role in biochemical processes, such as energy transfer. It may play a role in promoting sleep and suppressing arousal.  CBD shares a precursor with THC and is the main cannabinoid in CBD-dominant "Cannabis" strains. CBD has been shown to play a role in preventing the short-term memory loss associated with THC.  There is tentative evidence that CBD had an anti-psychotic effect, but research in this area is limited.

Cannabinol.

Cannabinol (CBN) is the primary product of THC degradation, and there is usually little of it in a fresh plant. CBN content increases as THC degrades in storage, and with exposure to light and air. It is only mildly psychoactive. Its affinity to the CB receptor is higher than for the CB receptor.

Cannabigerol.

Cannabigerol (CBG) is non-psychoactive but still contributes to the overall effects of Cannabis.

Tetrahydrocannabivarin.

Tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV) is prevalent in certain central Asian and southern African strains of "Cannabis". It is an antagonist of THC at CB receptors and lessens the psychoactive effects of THC.

Cannabidivarin.

Although cannabidivarin (CBDV) is usually a minor constituent of the cannabinoid profile, enhanced levels of CBDV have been reported in feral cannabis plants from the northwest Himalayas, and in hashish from Nepal.

Cannabichromene.

Cannabichromene (CBC) is non-psychoactive and does not affect the psychoactivity of THC. CBC acts on the TRPV1 and TRPA1 receptors, interfering with their ability to break down endocannabinoids (chemicals such as anandamide and 2-AG that the body creates naturally). CBC has shown antitumor effects in breast cancer xenoplants in mice. More common in tropical cannabis varieties.

Biosynthesis.

Cannabinoid production starts when an enzyme causes geranyl pyrophosphate and olivetolic acid to combine and form CBGA. Next, CBGA is independently converted to either CBG, THCA, CBDA or CBCA by four separate synthase, FAD-dependent dehydrogenase enzymes. There is no evidence for enzymatic conversion of CBDA or CBD to THCA or THC. For the propyl homologues (THCVA, CBDVA and CBCVA), there is an analogous pathway that is based on CBGVA from divarinolic acid instead of olivetolic acid.

Double bond position.

In addition, each of the compounds above may be in different forms depending on the position of the double bond in the alicyclic carbon ring. There is potential for confusion because there are different numbering systems used to describe the position of this double bond. Under the dibenzopyran numbering system widely used today, the major form of THC is called Δ-THC, while the minor form is called Δ-THC. Under the alternate terpene numbering system, these same compounds are called Δ-THC and Δ-THC, respectively.

Length.

Most classical cannabinoids are 21-carbon compounds. However, some do not follow this rule, primarily because of variation in the length of the side-chain attached to the aromatic ring. In THC, CBD, and CBN, this side-chain is a pentyl (5-carbon) chain. In the most common homologue, the pentyl chain is replaced with a propyl (3-carbon) chain. Cannabinoids with the propyl side chain are named using the suffix "varin", and are designated, for example, THCV, CBDV, or CBNV.

Cannabinoids in other plants.

Phytocannabinoids are known to occur in several plant species besides cannabis. These include "Echinacea purpurea", "Echinacea angustifolia", "Acmella oleracea", "Helichrysum umbraculigerum", and "Radula marginata". The best-known cannabinoids that are not derived from Cannabis are the lipophilic alkamides (alkylamides) from "Echinacea" species, most notably the cis/trans isomers dodeca-2E,4E,8Z,10E/Z-tetraenoic-acid-isobutylamide. At least 25 different alkylamides have been identified, and some of them have shown affinities to the CB-receptor. In some "Echinacea" species, cannabinoids are found throughout the plant structure, but are most concentrated in the roots and flowers. Yangonin found in the Kava plant has significant affinity to the CB1 receptor. Tea (Camellia sinensis) catechins have an affinity for human cannabinoid receptors. A widespread dietary terpene, beta-caryophyllene, a component from the essential oil of cannabis and other medicinal plants, has also been identified as a selective agonist of peripheral CB-receptors, "in vivo". Black truffles contain anandamide. Perrottetinene, a moderately psychoactive cannabinoid, has been isolated from different "Radula" varieties.  Most of the phytocannabinoids are nearly insoluble in water but are soluble in lipids, alcohols, and other non-polar organic solvents.

Cannabis plant profile.

Cannabis plants can exhibit wide variation in the quantity and type of cannabinoids they produce. The mixture of cannabinoids produced by a plant is known as the plant's cannabinoid profile. Selective breeding has been used to control the genetics of plants and modify the cannabinoid profile. For example, strains that are used as fiber (commonly called hemp) are bred such that they are low in psychoactive chemicals like THC. Strains used in medicine are often bred for high CBD content, and strains used for recreational purposes are usually bred for high THC content or for a specific chemical balance.  Quantitative analysis of a plant's cannabinoid profile is often determined by gas chromatography (GC), or more reliably by gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Liquid chromatography (LC) techniques are also possible and, unlike GC methods, can differentiate between the acid and neutral forms of the cannabinoids. There have been systematic attempts to monitor the cannabinoid profile of cannabis over time, but their accuracy is impeded by the illegal status of the plant in many countries.

Pharmacology.

Cannabinoids can be administered by smoking, vaporizing, oral ingestion, transdermal patch, intravenous injection, sublingual absorption, or rectal suppository. Once in the body, most cannabinoids are metabolized in the liver, especially by cytochrome P450 mixed-function oxidases, mainly CYP 2C9. Thus supplementing with CYP 2C9 inhibitors leads to extended intoxication.  Some is also stored in fat in addition to being metabolized in the liver. Δ-THC is metabolized to 11-hydroxy-Δ-THC, which is then metabolized to 9-carboxy-THC. Some cannabis metabolites can be detected in the body several weeks after administration. These metabolites are the chemicals recognized by common antibody-based "drug tests"; in the case of THC or others, these loads do not represent intoxication (compare to ethanol breath tests that measure instantaneous blood alcohol levels), but an integration of past consumption over an approximately month-long window. This is because they are fat-soluble, lipophilic molecules that accumulate in fatty tissues.  Research shows the effect of cannabinoids might be modulated by aromatic compounds produced by the cannabis plant, called terpenes. This interaction would lead to the entourage effect.

Cannabinoid-based pharmaceuticals.

Nabiximols (brand name Sativex) is an aerosolized mist for oral administration containing a near 1:1 ratio of CBD and THC. Also included are minor cannabinoids and terpenoids, ethanol and propylene glycol excipients, and peppermint flavoring. The drug, made by GW Pharmaceuticals, was first approved by Canadian authorities in 2005 to alleviate pain associated with multiple sclerosis, making it the first cannabis-based medicine. It is marketed by Bayer in Canada. Sativex has been approved in 25 countries; clinical trials are underway in the United States to gain FDA approval. In 2007, it was approved for treatment of cancer pain. In Phase III trials, the most common adverse effects were dizziness, drowsiness and disorientation; 12% of subjects stopped taking the drug because of the side effects.  Dronabinol (brand name Marinol) is a THC drug used to treat poor appetite, nausea, and sleep apnea. It is approved by the FDA for treating HIV/AIDS induced anorexia and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting. The CBD drug Epidiolex has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treatment of two rare and severe forms of epilepsy, Dravet and Lennox-Gastaut syndromes.

Separation.

Cannabinoids can be separated from the plant by extraction with organic solvents. Hydrocarbons and alcohols are often used as solvents. However, these solvents are flammable and many are toxic. Butane may be used, which evaporates extremely quickly. Supercritical solvent extraction with carbon dioxide is an alternative technique. Once extracted, isolated components can be separated using wiped film vacuum distillation or other distillation techniques. Also, techniques such as SPE or SPME are found useful in the extraction of this compounds.

History.

The first discovery of an individual cannabinoid was made, when British chemist Robert S. Cahn reported the partial structure of Cannabinol (CBN), which he later identified as fully formed in 1940.  Two years later, in 1942, American chemist, Roger Adams, made history when he discovered Cannabidiol (CBD). Progressing from Adams research, in 1963 Israeli professor Raphael Mechoulam later identified the stereochemistry of CBD. The following year, in 1964, Mechoulam and his team identified the stereochemistry of Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).  Due to molecular similarity and ease of synthetic conversion, CBD was originally believed to be a natural precursor to THC. However, it is now known that CBD and THC are produced independently in the cannabis plant from the precursor CBG. Endocannabinoids are substances produced from within the body that activate cannabinoid receptors. After the discovery of the first cannabinoid receptor in 1988, scientists began searching for an endogenous ligand for the receptor.

Types of endocannabinoid ligands.

Arachidonoylethanolamine (Anandamide or AEA).

Anandamide was the first such compound identified as arachidonoyl ethanolamine. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bliss and -"amide". It has a pharmacology similar to THC, although its structure is quite different. Anandamide binds to the central (CB) and, to a lesser extent, peripheral (CB) cannabinoid receptors, where it acts as a partial agonist. Anandamide is about as potent as THC at the CB receptor. Anandamide is found in nearly all tissues in a wide range of animals. Anandamide has also been found in plants, including small amounts in chocolate.  Two analogs of anandamide, 7,10,13,16-docosatetraenoylethanolamide and "homo"-γ-linolenoylethanolamine, have similar pharmacology. All of these compounds are members of a family of signalling lipids called "N"-acylethanolamines, which also includes the noncannabimimetic palmitoylethanolamide and oleoylethanolamide, which possess anti-inflammatory and anorexigenic effects, respectively. Many "N"-acylethanolamines have also been identified in plant seeds and in molluscs.

2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG).

Another endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, binds to both the CB and CB receptors with similar affinity, acting as a full agonist at both. 2-AG is present at significantly higher concentrations in the brain than anandamide, and there is some controversy over whether 2-AG rather than anandamide is chiefly responsible for endocannabinoid signalling "in vivo". In particular, one "in vitro" study suggests that 2-AG is capable of stimulating higher G-protein activation than anandamide, although the physiological implications of this finding are not yet known.

2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether (noladin ether).

In 2001, a third, ether-type endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonyl glyceryl ether (noladin ether), was isolated from porcine brain. Prior to this discovery, it had been synthesized as a stable analog of 2-AG; indeed, some controversy remains over its classification as an endocannabinoid, as another group failed to detect the substance at "any appreciable amount" in the brains of several different mammalian species. It binds to the CB cannabinoid receptor ("K" = 21.2 nmol/L) and causes sedation, hypothermia, intestinal immobility, and mild antinociception in mice. It binds primarily to the CB receptor, and only weakly to the CB receptor.

"N"-Arachidonoyl dopamine (NADA).

Discovered in 2000, NADA preferentially binds to the CB receptor. Like anandamide, NADA is also an agonist for the vanilloid receptor subtype 1 (TRPV1), a member of the vanilloid receptor family.

Virodhamine (OAE).

A fifth endocannabinoid, virodhamine, or "O"-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine (OAE), was discovered in June 2002. Although it is a full agonist at CB and a partial agonist at CB, it behaves as a CB antagonist "in vivo". In rats, virodhamine was found to be present at comparable or slightly lower concentrations than anandamide in the brain, but 2- to 9-fold higher concentrations peripherally.

Lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI).

Recent evidence has highlighted lysophosphatidylinositol as the endogenous ligand to novel endocannabinoid receptor GPR55, making it a strong contender as the sixth endocannabinoid.

Function.

Endocannabinoids serve as intercellular 'lipid messengers', signaling molecules that are released from one cell and activating the cannabinoid receptors present on other nearby cells. Although in this intercellular signaling role they are similar to the well-known monoamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine, endocannabinoids differ in numerous ways from them. For instance, they are used in retrograde signaling between neurons. Furthermore, endocannabinoids are lipophilic molecules that are not very soluble in water. They are not stored in vesicles and exist as integral constituents of the membrane bilayers that make up cells. They are believed to be synthesized 'on-demand' rather than made and stored for later use. The mechanisms and enzymes underlying the biosynthesis of endocannabinoids remain elusive and continue to be an area of active research.  The endocannabinoid 2-AG has been found in bovine and human maternal milk.  A review by Matties et al. (1994) summed up the phenomenon of gustatory enhancement by certain cannabinoids. Recently, a paper by Yoshida et al. showed a selective stimulation of sweet receptor (Tlc1) by indirectly increasing its expression and suppressing the activity of leptin, the Tlc1 antagonist. It is proposed that the competition of leptin and cannabinoids for Tlc1 is implicated in energy homeostasis.

Retrograde signal.

Conventional neurotransmitters are released from a ‘presynaptic’ cell and activate appropriate receptors on a ‘postsynaptic’ cell, where presynaptic and postsynaptic designate the sending and receiving sides of a synapse, respectively. Endocannabinoids, on the other hand, are described as retrograde transmitters because they most commonly travel ‘backward’ against the usual synaptic transmitter flow. They are, in effect, released from the postsynaptic cell and act on the presynaptic cell, where the target receptors are densely concentrated on axonal terminals in the zones from which conventional neurotransmitters are released. Activation of cannabinoid receptors temporarily reduces the amount of conventional neurotransmitter released. This endocannabinoid-mediated system permits the postsynaptic cell to control its own incoming synaptic traffic. The ultimate effect on the endocannabinoid-releasing cell depends on the nature of the conventional transmitter being controlled. For instance, when the release of the inhibitory transmitter GABA is reduced, the net effect is an increase in the excitability of the endocannabinoid-releasing cell. On the converse, when release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate is reduced, the net effect is a decrease in the excitability of the endocannabinoid-releasing cell.

Range.

Endocannabinoids are hydrophobic molecules. They cannot travel unaided for long distances in the aqueous medium surrounding the cells from which they are released and therefore act locally on nearby target cells. Hence, although emanating diffusely from their source cells, they have much more restricted spheres of influence than do hormones, which can affect cells throughout the body.

Synthetic cannabinoids.

Historically, laboratory synthesis of cannabinoids was often based on the structure of herbal cannabinoids, and a large number of analogs have been produced and tested, especially in a group led by Roger Adams as early as 1941 and later in a group led by Raphael Mechoulam. Newer compounds are no longer related to natural cannabinoids or are based on the structure of the endogenous cannabinoids.  Synthetic cannabinoids are particularly useful in experiments to determine the relationship between the structure and activity of cannabinoid compounds, by making systematic, incremental modifications of cannabinoid molecules.  When synthetic cannabinoids are used recreationally, they present significant health dangers to users. In the period of 2012 through 2014, over 10,000 contacts to poison control centers in the United States were related to use of synthetic cannabinoids.  Medications containing natural or synthetic cannabinoids or cannabinoid analogs:  Other notable synthetic cannabinoids include:

Cannabinoids are chemicals found in cannabis. The most notable cannabinoid is the phytocannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (Delta9-THC or Delta8-THC), the primary psychoactive compound in cannabis. Cannabidiol (CBD) is another major constituent of the plant. There are at least 113 different cannabinoids isolated from cannabis, exhibiting varied effects.

Les cannabinoïdes sont un groupe de substances chimiques qui activent les récepteurs cannabis présents dans le corps humain et chez les mammifères.


History.

Although the city was founded in the 16th century, there is evidence of habitation in the area by the Chango people as early as 7,000 BC. During colonial times, Iquique was part of the Viceroyalty of Peru as much of South America was at the time, and remained part of Peruvian territory until the end of the 19th century. Iquique's early development was due in large part to the discovery of mineral riches, particularly the presence of large deposits of sodium nitrate in the Atacama Desert (then part of Peruvian territory).  In July 1835, Charles Darwin, during his voyage on the "Beagle", traveled to Iquique and described it as a town "very much in want of everyday necessities, such as water and firewood". These necessities had to be brought in from considerable distances. Darwin also visited the saltpeter works.  The city has been devastated by several earthquakes, including the 1868 Arica earthquake, the 1877 Iquique earthquake, and the 2005 Tarapacá earthquake. The 2014 Iquique earthquake occurred with a moment magnitude of 8.2 on April 1, 2014. Territorial disputes between Bolivia and Chile triggered the War of the Pacific in 1879. The Battle of Iquique was fought in the harbor of Iquique on May 21, 1879, now commemorated as Navy Day, an annual public holiday in Chile. The outcome of the war gave Chile this portion of the Peruvian territory.  Over the years there was substantial emigration from other parts of Chile to this area which was called the "Norte Grande". In subsequent years the further exportation of Chilean saltpeter (mainly to European countries) significantly helped in the development of the city, attracting foreigners and rapidly expanding housing projects.  In December 1907, the city was marred by the Santa María de Iquique Massacre when the Chilean Army, under the command of Gen. Roberto Silva Renard, opened fire on thousands of saltpeter miners, and their wives and children, who assembled inside the Santa María School. The workers had marched into town to protest their working conditions and wages. Somewhere between 500 and 2,000 people were killed. The folk group Quilapayún recorded an album in remembrance of the event (Cantata Santa María de Iquique) in 1970. In December 2007 a series of cultural and ceremonial activities were planned, culminating in the week between December 14 to 21, to commemorate the centenary year of the massacre.  Mars 96 launched by Russia in 1996, but failed to leave Earth orbit, and re-entered the atmosphere a few hours later. The two RTGs onboard carried in total 200 g of plutonium and are assumed to have survived reentry as they were designed to do. They are thought to now lie somewhere in a northeast-southwest running oval long by wide which is centred east of Iquique, Chile.  Prior to becoming Chilean territory, Iquique was home to some of the greatest Peruvian heroes, namely Alfonso Ugarte (who was elected mayor in 1876), Ramon Zavala, a rich saltpeter entrepreneur; Guillermo Billinghurst, later President of Peru (who after being overthrown in 1914 came to Iquique – then already under Chilean rule – to live out his last years), and Ramon Castilla, three times president of Peru, who was born in San Lorenzo de Tarapacá and died in the Desert of Tiviliche, Tarapacá, who lived in Iquique during his mandate as Governor of Tarapacá in 1825.

Governance.

As a commune, Iquique is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2012–2016 alcalde is Jorge Soria.  Within the electoral divisions of Chile, Iquique is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Mrs. Marta Isasi (Ind.) and Mr. Hugo Gutiérrez (PC) as part of the 2nd electoral district, which includes the entire Tarapacá Region.The commune is represented in the Senate by Fulvio Rossi Ciocca (PS) and Jaime Orpis Bouchon (UDI) as part of the 1st senatorial constituency (Arica and Parinacota Region and Tarapacá Region).

Economy.

Iquique has one of the largest duty-free commercial port centers of South America, the Zona Franca of Iquique (free zone of Iquique) which has been traditionally called "Zofri". There are around of warehouses, banking branches, and restaurants.  Copper mining, mainly in Quebrada Blanca, Cerro Colorado, and Doña Inés de Collahuasí, is also an important industry in Iquique.

Demographics.

According to the 2002 census of National Statistics Institute ("INE"), the commune of Iquique had an area of and 216,419 inhabitants (108,897 men and 107,522 women). Of these, 214,586 (99.2%) lived in urban areas and 1,833 (0.9%) in rural areas. The township has an area of and a population of 166,204 inhabitants. The population grew by 42.7% (64,742 persons) between the 1992 and 2002 censuses. Iquique is home to 56% of the total population of the Tarapacá region. In 2008, the city had 226,204 inhabitants.  Iquique commune is divided into the following districts:  There is a significant percentage of ethnic group colony residents. The most numerous communities are Croatian, Italian, Greek, Chinese, Arabic nationalities, Peruvians and Bolivians, British peoples (i.e. Scots), and the French.  In the 1910s and 1920s, about a thousand East Indian (from India and Pakistani) saltpeter mine workers hired by British mine companies appeared in Iquique and today, their descendants mixed into the local population. Lately, a wave of North American and Australian immigrants came to retire and enjoy the city's beach climate. Immigrants currently correspond to 9.2% of the total population.

Climate.

Iquique has a rare desert climate (Köppen "BWh") with low extremes of temperatures all year round and almost no rainfall. Being characterized by abundant cloudiness, it is sometimes classified as "BWn", with indicating a coastal desert climate with abundant cloudiness as the n denotes a climate with frequent fog. It is common for this place to almost have no rainy days in a year. It is one of the driest cities in the world, along with Arica.

Transport.

Iquique is served by Diego Aracena International Airport (Spanish: Aeropuerto Internacional Diego Aracena) (IATA: IQQ, ICAO: SCDA). The airport is on the Pacific coast 48 kilometres (30 mi) south of the city.

Sport.

Iquique is home to football team Deportes Iquique. It hosted the 2016 FIRS Women's Roller Hockey World Cup.

Iquique () is a port city and commune in northern Chile, capital of both the Iquique Province and Tarapacá Region. It lies on the Pacific coast, west of the Pampa del Tamarugal, which is part of the Atacama Desert. It had a population of 191,468 according to the 2017 census. It is also the main commune of Greater Iquique. The city developed during the heyday of the saltpetre mining in the Atacama Desert in the 19th century. Once a Peruvian city with a large Chilean population, it was conquered by Chile in the War of the Pacific (1879–1883). Today it is one of only two free ports of Chile, the other one being Punta Arenas, in the country's far south.

Iquique () est une ville et une commune du Chili située dans la Province d'Iquique qui fait partie de la région de Tarapacá au nord du Chili.