Biography.

A member of the ancient noble family of the Colonna, he was born in Civita Lavinia, near Velletri (Lazio), in 1452. He was a cousin of Fabrizio Colonna.  His first notable action as a military leader was in 1484, when he defended the family castle of Paliano against an assault by the rival Orsini and Riario families. After some other battle deeds, Prospero, who had joined Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere's party, was imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo (Rome) by Pope Alexander VI. Once freed, he was soon imprisoned again for his allegiance to Charles VIII of France during his invasion of Italy. In the end, the King of France was victorious against the Pope and entered Rome, backed by Prospero and Fabrizio Colonna, in 1495.  During the brief French rule over the Kingdom of Naples, Prospero obtained the duchy of Traetto and the county of Forlì. However, when Charles returned beyond the Alps, Prospero helped King Ferdinand II of Naples to evict the French viceroy from Naples.  The situation changed again with the new French invasion of Louis XII. While the Neapolitan king Frederick IV fled to the island of Ischia, Fabrizio and Prospero Colonna tried to defend the kingdom. They were defeated and imprisoned in the Castel Nuovo of Naples. They were also excommunicated by Alexander VI, who took their castles in the Lazio. Eventually ransomed, both cousins then entered the service of the Spanish general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, viceroy of Naples.  Prospero Colonna had an important role in the Spanish victory at Cerignola (1503), which gave Spain the keys to Naples. After Alexander VI's death, he was also able to take back his territories in the Lazio. He commanded the light cavalry at the Battle of Garigliano.  Prospero then added Itri, Sperlonga, Ceccano and Sonnino to his fiefs, becoming once again a great feudal lord in southern Italy. He married Covella di Sanseverino, who gave him an heir, Vespasiano.  In 1515, he was commander of the forces of Pope Leo X in north-western Italy near Villafranc when the army of Francis I, King of France, crossed the Alps preparatory to the Battle of Marignano. In a surprising and humiliating raid, Colonna and his staff were captured by a French cavalry force led by the Chevalier Bayard. As he was taken, he said of France, "It is a country I have always wanted to visit."  Continuing in the service of the Pope, Colonna gained a decisive victory against France in northern Italy in 1522 (Battle of Bicocca).  His health was declining, however, and he died in 1523 in l'Hôtel Clemenceau at Milan.

Prospero Colonna (1452–1523), sometimes referred to as Prosper Colonna, was an Italian condottiero in the service of the Papal States the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Spain during the Italian Wars.

Prospero Colonna (né en 1452 à Lanuvio, dans la province de Rome, dans la région du Latium - mort le à Milan) est un condottiere italien de la fin du et du début du successivement au service du roi de France, des États pontificaux et du Saint-Empire romain germanique durant les guerres d'Italie. Membre de la famille Colonna, il est le cousin de Fabrizio Colonna, avec qui il combat souvent.


Etymology.

The meaning of the island's name (Tåsinge) has been a matter of debate throughout the past couple of hundred years. The Knýtlinga saga mentions as a place name "þórslundr" ('Thor's Grove') in its description of Denmark (chap. 32) and though it might refer to the island of Tåsinge, it could also well be referring to another place near Odense The first time Tåsinge clearly appears in the sources is in the Danish Census Book from around 1231, where it is called Thosland, and this designation seems to have been in proper use for a very long time, until the Age of Enlightenment, when antiquarians of the day because of the rudimentary state of etymology reinterpreted the name as 'Thorseng' or 'Thorsing', believing the name to mean 'Thors seng' or 'Thors eng' (lit. Thors bed/Thors meadow). This particular change in the island's name was seen in use for more than a century until gradually it changed into the now used form.  Etymologists presently consider the prefix to be a root of old norse 'Thōs', meaning'melting', 'thawing' and alike, possibly referring to the narrow strait of Svendborgsund which separates the island from Funen. The suffix '-land' is likely referring to the island itself (ref. the village name of Landet, central on the island), often used in Danish place names to characterize 'larger islands' (e.g. neighbouring Langeland).

Geography and settlements.

Tåsinge is historically divided into three parishes, corresponding to the three main villages on the island, Bregninge, at the northern part of the island, Landet at the central and Bjerreby at the southern part. The largest settlements besides these are Vindeby, Troense, Lundby and Strammelse.  The north and northeasternmost part of the island, comprising Vindeby and Troense, has seen a large increase in demographics since the construction of the Svendborgsund Bridge and has virtually become a suburb of Svendborg, while the rest of the island in large parts has retained its rural and historical boundaries. In the north commuters who work in the Svendborg area and retired senior citizens live, while the rest of the island is mostly occupied by farming and agriculture.  Sydfyns Flyveplads (Tåsinge International Airport), the only major aerodrome in the vincity, is situated on the western part of the island, providing trips for both business and recreational purposes.

History and attractions.

Tåsinge has been a tourist destination for more than 100 years, the main attractions being the islands idyllic and surprisingly diverse nature as well as the many preserved historic buildings, often several hundreds of years old.  The island itself also had its fair share of historical events. For several decades in the 14th century, the island (along with the whole of Funen and large parts of modern Denmark in general) was pawned to Holstein nobles, but was reunited with Denmark under the Danish king Valdemar Atterdag. During the Dano-Swedish War (1658–60) the island was overrun by Swedish troops, plundering the villages and leaving a devastated population, and still later, during the Dano-Swedish War of 1808–09 the island was frequently used for both camp and as a transport hub for the French-Spanish reinforcements.  From the 17th century on, during the Age of absolutism, the first baron on Valdemars Castle (who had won the rights to the castle following the Battle of Køge Bay) and his inheritors soon amassed as much land on the island as possible, effectively making the ever-sitting baron the de facto owner and feudal lord of almost the entire island, with the farmers remaining as tenants and copyholders, from the first part of the 18th century and right until the conversion of entailed estates into fee simple ("Lensafløsningen") 1919. Tåsinge also had its own "birkeret", presided by the baron as supreme judicial court as well (also until 1919). The population (3,600 in 1823) was all peasantry or sailors.  A popular local anecdote, to put this in perspective, tells of the smith of Troense, who owned a small patch of land next to his house, and proudly announced that ""Me and the Baron owns the entire island!""  The male line of the barons Juel were however not necessarily only harsh lords, but introduced several new occupations and innovations to the island through the years, such as the (later) important apple farming, attempts at industrial cloth production (a "klædefabrik", 1752–58) and public schools (1795) among other things.  Today, Valdemars Slot and surrounding area are among the most well known tourist spots on the island.  The nearby village of Troense, situated slightly opposite Svendborg, picturesque with a view to Svendborgsund and neighboring Valdemars Slot, is particularly famed for its well-dimensioned and idyllic half timbered houses, build by wealthy sea captains and sailors through the golden period in the Age of Sails, when large sailing ships were being constructed on local shipyards and manned for faraway destinations.  By the end of the 19th century, the Troense area was extremely popular among tourists (and still is), becoming easier to reach with modern transportation such as train and ferry, and with cheap accommodations and activities such as sea bathing, excursions, relaxation, social gatherings, etc. In the summer season, the visitors would typically book one of several private pensions, a large part of the village effectively becoming a resort town in the early decades of the 20th century. Among the more well known visitors were the composer Rued Langgaard and the writer Henri Nathansen.  Troense is also known as the last place where Elvira Madigan and Sixten Sparre stayed in July 1889, before going on a "picnic with Death" in the nearby Nørreskov forest. This tragic, infamous incident has become an integral part of the island's lore. Today it is a tourist magnet as the couple is resting side by side in the churchyard at nearby Landet Kirke. The precise location of their murder-suicide in the forest of Nørreskov is marked by a granite boulder.  About a kilometer west of Valdemars Castle, next to the road leading there, stands the so-called Ambrosius Oak, which is a 400-year-old giant oak with a circumference of around 7.5 meters. The name refers to the Danish rococo poet Ambrosius Stub (whose surname literally means '(tree) stub'), which was serving for more than a decade (1739–52) as a secretary and handyman to the baron of Valdemars Castle, and who is said to have often been sitting under the tree relaxing or writing.  The highest point on the island is "Bregninge Bakke" (Bregninge Hill), ca. 70 m.a.s.l. (about 229.5 ft.). Bregninge Kirke is situated on top of the hill, and from its tower, in clear weather, it is possible to see large parts of the South Funen Archipelago. It is said that one can observe 28 islands, 65 churches and 20 manors from here. There is public access to the church in the daytime and (for a modest and optional fee) to the observation deck in the tower. The surrounding of the hill is designated as a protected habitat. In the porch of the church lies a romanesque headstone placed over a deacon inscribed with runes. Situated next to the church is Tåsinge Museum (Museum of Tåsinge), which serves as a local folk museum for the historic life of mainly the sailors of old time Tåsinge, but also houses in a separate building a large collection of music instruments, note sheets etc., pertaining to traditional folk music.  During the Napoleonic Wars a semaphore line tower, a branch of "Storebæltstelegrafen", was placed further to the north on the hill.

Tåsinge and American emigrants.

From around 1850 until the first part of the 20th century, the prospects for many young people were to become tenants or copyholders on the island like their parents, without many possibilities of ascending in life. Accordingly, many emigrated to the United States. Søren Lolk, an enlightened farmer, educator, photographer and vitalist from Tåsinge visited some of the emigrated "tøsinger" in the United States over four months in 1903 and photographed and collected evidence from them, before returning.  The local archive of Landet keeps both Lolks collections and other evidence of the connections, and regularly receives requests from far and away relatives to once Tåsinge born residents.

1967 film about Elvira Madigan.

Elvira Madigan and Sixten Sparre, whose tragic love affair has been portrayed in several works of art, were depicted in Bo Widerberg's 1967 film "Elvira Madigan". However, none of the scenes in the film were shot on location on Tåsinge, but rather in Klampenborg and Scania.

Tåsinge () is a Danish island immediately south of Funen, opposite and facing Svendborg, divided from Funen by Svendborgsund. The island covers an area of circa. It is part of the South Funen Archipelago and has 6,111 inhabitants. The Danish national road 9 crosses the island.

Tåsinge est une île du Danemark. Elle fait partie de l'archipel sud-fionien. D'une superficie de 70 km2, elle avait, en 2010, une population de habitants ("Tøsinger" en danois).


Basic properties.

The Lorentz group is a subgroup of the Poincaré group—the group of all isometries of Minkowski spacetime. Lorentz transformations are, precisely, isometries that leave the origin fixed. Thus, the Lorentz group is an isotropy subgroup of the isometry group of Minkowski spacetime. For this reason, the Lorentz group is sometimes called the homogeneous Lorentz group while the Poincaré group is sometimes called the "inhomogeneous Lorentz group". Lorentz transformations are examples of linear transformations; general isometries of Minkowski spacetime are affine transformations. Mathematically, the Lorentz group may be described as the generalized orthogonal group O(1,3), the matrix Lie group that preserves the quadratic form  on R. This quadratic form is, when put on matrix form (see classical orthogonal group), interpreted in physics as the metric tensor of Minkowski spacetime.  The Lorentz group is a six-dimensional noncompact non-abelian real Lie group that is not connected. The four connected components are not simply connected. The identity component (i.e., the component containing the identity element) of the Lorentz group is itself a group, and is often called the restricted Lorentz group, and is denoted SO(1,3). The restricted Lorentz group consists of those Lorentz transformations that preserve the orientation of space and direction of time, and it can be described using biquaternions. Its fundamental group has order 2, and its universal cover, the indefinite spin group Spin(1,3), turns out to be isomorphic to the special linear group SL(2, C).  The restricted Lorentz group arises in other ways in pure mathematics. For example, it arises as the point symmetry group of a certain ordinary differential equation. This fact also has physical significance.

Connected components.

Because it is a Lie group, the Lorentz group O(1,3) is both a group and admits a topological description as a smooth manifold. As a manifold, it has four connected components. Intuitively, this means that it consists of four topologically separated pieces.  The four connected components can be categorized by two transformation properties its elements have:  Lorentz transformations that preserve the direction of time are called. The subgroup of orthochronous transformations is often denoted O(1,3). Those that preserve orientation are called proper, and as linear transformations they have determinant +1. (The improper Lorentz transformations have determinant −1.) The subgroup of proper Lorentz transformations is denoted SO(1,3).  The subgroup of all Lorentz transformations preserving both orientation and direction of time is called the proper, orthochronous Lorentz group or restricted Lorentz group, and is denoted by SO(1, 3). (Note that some authors refer to SO(1,3) or even O(1,3) when they actually mean SO(1, 3).)  The set of the four connected components can be given a group structure as the quotient group O(1,3)/SO(1,3), which is isomorphic to the Klein four-group. Every element in O(1,3) can be written as the semidirect product of a proper, orthochronous transformation and an element of the discrete group  where "P" and "T" are the space inversion and time reversal operators:  Thus an arbitrary Lorentz transformation can be specified as a proper, orthochronous Lorentz transformation along with a further two bits of information, which pick out one of the four connected components. This pattern is typical of finite-dimensional Lie groups.

Restricted Lorentz group.

The restricted Lorentz group is the identity component of the Lorentz group, which means that it consists of all Lorentz transformations that can be connected to the identity by a continuous curve lying in the group. The restricted Lorentz group is a connected normal subgroup of the full Lorentz group with the same dimension, in this case with dimension six.  The restricted Lorentz group is generated by ordinary spatial rotations and Lorentz boosts (which are translations in a hyperbolic space that includes a time-like direction ). Since every proper, orthochronos Lorentz transformation can be written as a product of a rotation (specified by 3 real parameters) and a boost (also specified by 3 real parameters), it takes 6 real parameters to specify an arbitrary proper orthochronous Lorentz transformation. This is one way to understand why the restricted Lorentz group is six-dimensional. (See also the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group.)  The set of all rotations forms a Lie subgroup isomorphic to the ordinary rotation group SO(3). The set of all boosts, however, does "not" form a subgroup, since composing two boosts does not, in general, result in another boost. (Rather, a pair of non-colinear boosts is equivalent to a boost and a rotation, and this relates to Thomas rotation.) A boost in some direction, or a rotation about some axis, generates a one-parameter subgroup.

Surfaces of transitivity.

If a group acts on a space, then a surface is a surface of transitivity if is invariant under, i.e.,, and for any two points there is a such that. By definition of the Lorentz group, it preserves the quadratic form  The surfaces of transitivity of the orthochronous Lorentz group, of spacetime are the following:  These surfaces are, so the images are not faithful, but they are faithful for the corresponding facts about. For the full Lorentz group, the surfaces of transitivity are only four since the transformation takes an upper branch of a hyperboloid (cone) to a lower one and vice versa.  These observations constitute a good starting point for finding all infinite-dimensional unitary representations of the Lorentz group, in fact, of the Poincaré group, using the method of induced representations. One begins with a "standard vector", one for each surface of transitivity, and then ask which subgroup preserves these vectors. These subgroups are called little groups by physicists. The problem is then essentially reduced to the easier problem of finding representations of the little groups. For example, a standard vector in one of the hyperbolas of two sheets could be suitably chosen as. For each, the vector pierces exactly one sheet. In this case the little group is, the rotation group, all of whose representations are known. The precise infinite-dimensional unitary representation under which a particle transforms is part of its classification. Not all representations can correspond to physical particles (as far as is known). Standard vectors on the one-sheeted hyperbolas would correspond to tachyons. Particles on the light cone are photons, and more hypothetically, gravitons. The "particle" corresponding to the origin is the vacuum.

Relation to the Möbius group.

The restricted Lorentz group SO(1, 3) is isomorphic to the projective special linear group PSL(2,C) which is, in turn, isomorphic to the Möbius group, the symmetry group of conformal geometry on the Riemann sphere. (This observation was used by Roger Penrose as the starting point of twistor theory.)  This may be shown by constructing a surjective homomorphism of Lie groups from SL(2,C) to SO(1,3), dubbed the spinor map. It proceeds as follows.  One may define an action of SL(2,C) on Minkowski spacetime by writing a point of spacetime as a two-by-two Hermitian matrix in the form in terms of Pauli matrices. This (Weyl) presentation satisfies  Therefore, one has identified the space of Hermitian matrices (which is four-dimensional, as a "real" vector space) with Minkowski spacetime, in such a way that the determinant of a Hermitian matrix is the squared length of the corresponding vector in Minkowski spacetime. SL(2,C) acts on the space of Hermitian matrices via where is the Hermitian transpose of, and this action preserves the determinant.  Therefore, SL(2,C) acts on Minkowski spacetime by (linear) isometries. This defines a map from SL(2,C) to the Lorentz group SO(1,3), and the map is evidently a homomorphism. This is the spinor map.  The kernel of the spinor map is the two element subgroup ±"I", and it happens that the map is surjective. By the first isomorphism theorem, the quotient group PSL(2,C) = SL(2,C) / {±"I"} is isomorphic to SO(1,3).

Appearance of the night sky.

This isomorphism has the consequence that Möbius transformations of the Riemann sphere represent the way that Lorentz transformations change the appearance of the night sky, as seen by an observer who is maneuvering at relativistic velocities relative to the "fixed stars".  Suppose the "fixed stars" live in Minkowski spacetime and are modeled by points on the celestial sphere. Then a given point on the celestial sphere can be associated with, a complex number that corresponds to the point on the Riemann sphere, and can be identified with a null vector (a light-like vector) in Minkowski space  or, in the Weyl representation (the spinor map), the Hermitian matrix  The set of real scalar multiples of this null vector, called a "null line" through the origin, represents a "line of sight" from an observer at a particular place and time (an arbitrary event we can identify with the origin of Minkowski spacetime) to various distant objects, such as stars. Then the points of the celestial sphere (equivalently, lines of sight) are identified with certain Hermitian matrices.

Conjugacy classes.

Because the restricted Lorentz group SO(1, 3) is isomorphic to the Möbius group PSL(2,C), its conjugacy classes also fall into five classes:  In the article on Möbius transformations, it is explained how this classification arises by considering the fixed points of Möbius transformations in their action on the Riemann sphere, which corresponds here to null eigenspaces of restricted Lorentz transformations in their action on Minkowski spacetime.  An example of each type is given in the subsections below, along with the effect of the one-parameter subgroup it generates (e.g., on the appearance of the night sky).  The Möbius transformations are the conformal transformations of the Riemann sphere (or celestial sphere). Then conjugating with an arbitrary element of SL(2,C) obtains the following examples of arbitrary elliptic, hyperbolic, loxodromic, and parabolic (restricted) Lorentz transformations, respectively. The effect on the flow lines of the corresponding one-parameter subgroups is to transform the pattern seen in the examples by some conformal transformation. For example, an elliptic Lorentz transformation can have any two distinct fixed points on the celestial sphere, but points still flow along circular arcs from one fixed point toward the other. The other cases are similar.

Elliptic.

An elliptic element of SL(2,C) is  and has fixed points = 0, ∞. Writing the action as and collecting terms, the spinor map converts this to the (restricted) Lorentz transformation  This transformation then represents a rotation about the axis, exp(). The one-parameter subgroup it generates is obtained by taking to be a real variable, the rotation angle, instead of a constant.  The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (except for the identity) all share the same two fixed points, the North and South poles. The transformations move all other points around latitude circles so that this group yields a continuous counterclockwise rotation about the axis as increases. The "angle doubling" evident in the spinor map is a characteristic feature of "spinorial double coverings".

Hyperbolic.

A hyperbolic element of SL(2,C) is  and has fixed points = 0, ∞. Under stereographic projection from the Riemann sphere to the Euclidean plane, the effect of this Möbius transformation is a dilation from the origin.  The spinor map converts this to the Lorentz transformation  This transformation represents a boost along the axis with rapidity. The one-parameter subgroup it generates is obtained by taking to be a real variable, instead of a constant. The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (except for the identity) all share the same fixed points (the North and South poles), and they move all other points along longitudes away from the South pole and toward the North pole.

Loxodromic.

A loxodromic element of SL(2,C) is  and has fixed points = 0, ∞. The spinor map converts this to the Lorentz transformation  The one-parameter subgroup this generates is obtained by replacing "β+iθ" with any real multiple of this complex constant. (If "β, θ" vary independently, then a "two-dimensional" abelian subgroup is obtained, consisting of simultaneous rotations about the axis and boosts along the -axis; in contrast, the "one-dimensional" subgroup discussed here consists of those elements of this two-dimensional subgroup such that the rapidity of the boost and angle of the rotation have a "fixed ratio".)  The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (excepting the identity) all share the same two fixed points (the North and South poles). They move all other points away from the South pole and toward the North pole (or vice versa), along a family of curves called loxodromes. Each loxodrome spirals infinitely often around each pole.

Parabolic.

A parabolic element of SL(2,C) is  and has the single fixed point = ∞ on the Riemann sphere. Under stereographic projection, it appears as an ordinary translation along the real axis.  The spinor map converts this to the matrix (representing a Lorentz transformation)  This generates a two-parameter abelian subgroup, which is obtained by considering a complex variable rather than a constant. The corresponding continuous transformations of the celestial sphere (except for the identity transformation) move points along a family of circles that are all tangent at the North pole to a certain great circle. All points other than the North pole itself move along these circles.  Parabolic Lorentz transformations are often called null rotations. Since these are likely to be the least familiar of the four types of nonidentity Lorentz transformations (elliptic, hyperbolic, loxodromic, parabolic), it is illustrated here how to determine the effect of an example of a parabolic Lorentz transformation on Minkowski spacetime.  The matrix given above yields the transformation  Now, without loss of generality, pick. Differentiating this transformation with respect to the now real group parameter and evaluating at "α"=0 produces the corresponding vector field (first order linear partial differential operator),  Apply this to a function, and demand that it stays invariant, i.e., it is annihilated by this transformation. The solution of the resulting first order linear partial differential equation can be expressed in the form  where is an "arbitrary" smooth function. The arguments of give three "rational invariants" describing how points (events) move under this parabolic transformation, as they themselves do not move,  Choosing real values for the constants on the right hand sides yields three conditions, and thus specifies a curve in Minkowski spacetime. This curve is an orbit of the transformation.  The form of the rational invariants shows that these flowlines (orbits) have a simple description: suppressing the inessential coordinate, each orbit is the intersection of a "null plane",, with a "hyperboloid",. The case = 0 has the hyperboloid degenerate to a light cone with the orbits becoming parabolas lying in corresponding null planes.  A particular null line lying on the light cone is left "invariant"; this corresponds to the unique (double) fixed point on the Riemann sphere mentioned above. The other null lines through the origin are "swung around the cone" by the transformation. Following the motion of one such null line as increases corresponds to following the motion of a point along one of the circular flow lines on the celestial sphere, as described above.  A choice instead, produces similar orbits, now with the roles of and interchanged.  Parabolic transformations lead to the gauge symmetry of massless particles (like photons) with helicity || ≥ 1. In the above explicit example, a massless particle moving in the direction, so with 4-momentum P=("p", 0, 0, "p"), is not affected at all by the -boost and -rotation combination displayed above, in the "little group" of its motion. This is evident from the explicit transformation law discussed: like any light-like vector, P itself is now invariant, i.e., all traces or effects of have disappeared. = = = 0, in the special case discussed. (The other similar generator, as well as it and comprise altogether the little group of the lightlike vector, isomorphic to (2).)

Lie algebra.

As with any Lie group, a useful way to study many aspects of the Lorentz group is via its Lie algebra. Since the Lorentz group SO(1,3) is a matrix Lie group, its Lie algebra so(1,3) is an algebra of matrices, which may be computed as  If formula_21 is the diagonal matrix with diagonal entries formula_22, then the Lie algebra o(1,3) consists of formula_23 matrices formula_24 such that  Explicitly, so(1,3) consists of formula_23 matrices of the form  where formula_28 are arbitrary real numbers. This Lie algebra is six dimensional. The subalgebra of so(1,3) consisting of elements in which formula_29, formula_30, and formula_31 equal zero is isomorphic to so(3).  Note that the full Lorentz group O(1,3), the proper Lorentz group SO(1,3) and the proper orthochronous Lorentz group formula_32 all have the same Lie algebra, which is typically denoted so(1,3).  Since the identity component of the Lorentz group is isomorphic to a finite quotient of SL(2,C) (see the section above on the connection of the Lorentz group to the Möbius group), the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group is isomorphic to the Lie algebra sl(2,C). Note that sl(2,C) is three dimensional when viewed as a complex Lie algebra, but six dimensional when viewed as a real Lie algebra.  Meanwhile, the Lorentz group can also be thought of as a subgroup of the diffeomorphism group of R and therefore its Lie algebra can be identified with vector fields on R. In particular, the vectors that generate isometries on a space are its Killing vectors, which provides a convenient alternative to the left-invariant vector field for calculating the Lie algebra. We can write down a set of six generators:  It may be helpful to briefly recall here how to obtain a one-parameter group from a vector field, written in the form of a first order linear partial differential operator such as  The corresponding initial value problem is  The solution can be written  or  where we easily recognize the one-parameter matrix group of rotations exp("i λ J") about the z axis.  Differentiating with respect to the group parameter and setting it "λ"=0 in that result, we recover the standard matrix,  which corresponds to the vector field we started with. This illustrates how to pass between matrix and vector field representations of elements of the Lie algebra.  Reversing the procedure in the previous section, we see that the Möbius transformations that correspond to our six generators arise from exponentiating respectively "β"/2 (for the three boosts) or "iθ"/2 (for the three rotations) times the three Pauli matrices  For our purposes, another generating set is more convenient. The following table lists the six generators, in which  Notice that the generators consist of  Let's verify one line in this table. Start with  Exponentiate:  This element of SL(2,C) represents the one-parameter subgroup of (elliptic) Möbius transformations:  Next,  The corresponding vector field on C (thought of as the image of S under stereographic projection) is  Writing formula_46, this becomes the vector field on R  Returning to our element of SL(2,"C"), writing out the action formula_48 and collecting terms, we find that the image under the spinor map is the element of SO(1,3)  Differentiating with respect to at =0, yields the corresponding vector field on R,  This is evidently the generator of counterclockwise rotation about the axis.

Subgroups of the Lorentz group.

The subalgebras of the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group can be enumerated, up to conjugacy, from which we can list the closed subgroups of the restricted Lorentz group, up to conjugacy. (See the book by Hall cited below for the details.) We can readily express the result in terms of the generating set given in the table above.  The one-dimensional subalgebras of course correspond to the four conjugacy classes of elements of the Lorentz group: (Strictly speaking the last corresponds to infinitely many classes, since distinct formula_29 give different classes.) The two-dimensional subalgebras are: The three-dimensional subalgebras are: (Here, the Bianchi types refer to the classification of three-dimensional Lie algebras by the Italian mathematician Luigi Bianchi.) The four-dimensional subalgebras are all conjugate to  The subalgebras form a lattice (see the figure), and each subalgebra generates by exponentiation a closed subgroup of the restricted Lie group. From these, all subgroups of the Lorentz group can be constructed, up to conjugation, by multiplying by one of the elements of the Klein four-group. As with any connected Lie group, the coset spaces of the closed subgroups of the restricted Lorentz group, or homogeneous spaces, have considerable mathematical interest. A few, brief descriptions:

Covering groups.

In a previous section, we constructed a homomorphism, which we called the spinor map. Since is simply connected, it is the universal covering group of the restricted Lorentz group. By restriction we obtain a homomorphism. Here, the special unitary group SU(2), which is isomorphic to the group of unit norm quaternions, is also simply connected, so it is the covering group of the rotation group SO(3). Each of these covering maps are twofold covers in the sense that precisely two elements of the covering group map to each element of the quotient. One often says that the restricted Lorentz group and the rotation group are doubly connected. This means that the fundamental group of the each group is isomorphic to the two-element cyclic group Z.  Twofold coverings are characteristic of spin groups. Indeed, in addition to the double coverings we have the double coverings  These spinorial double coverings are all closely related to Clifford algebras.

Topology.

The left and right groups in the double covering are deformation retracts of the left and right groups, respectively, in the double covering But the homogeneous space SO(1,3)/SO(3) is homeomorphic to hyperbolic 3-space H, so we have exhibited the restricted Lorentz group as a principal fiber bundle with fibers SO(3) and base H. Since the latter is homeomorphic to R, while SO(3) is homeomorphic to three-dimensional real projective space RP, we see that the restricted Lorentz group is "locally" homeomorphic to the product of RP with R. Since the base space is contractible, this can be extended to a global homeomorphism.

Generalization to higher dimensions.

The concept of the Lorentz group has a natural generalization to spacetime of any number of dimensions. Mathematically, the Lorentz group of "n"+1-dimensional Minkowski space is the group O("n",1) (or O(1,"n")) of linear transformations of R that preserves the quadratic form  Many of the properties of the Lorentz group in four dimensions (where ) generalize straightforwardly to arbitrary "n". For instance, the Lorentz group O("n",1) has four connected components, and it acts by conformal transformations on the celestial ("n"−1)-sphere in "n"+1-dimensional Minkowski space. The identity component SO("n",1) is an SO("n")-bundle over hyperbolic "n"-space H.  The low-dimensional cases and are often useful as "toy models" for the physical case, while higher-dimensional Lorentz groups are used in physical theories such as string theory that posit the existence of hidden dimensions. The Lorentz group O("n",1) is also the isometry group of "n"-dimensional de Sitter space dS, which may be realized as the homogeneous space O("n",1)/O("n"−1,1). In particular O(4,1) is the isometry group of the de Sitter universe dS, a cosmological model.

In physics and mathematics, the Lorentz group is the group of all Lorentz transformations of Minkowski spacetime, the classical and quantum setting for all (non-gravitational) physical phenomena. The Lorentz group is named for the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz.

Le groupe de Lorentz est le groupe mathématique constitué par l'ensemble des transformations de Lorentz de l'espace de Minkowski. C'est un groupe connexe.


Overview.

The introduction of the design in 1901 has been described as "a veritable milestone in locomotive progress". On many railways worldwide, Pacific steam locomotives provided the motive power for express passenger trains throughout much of the early to mid-20th century, before either being superseded by larger types in the late 1940s and 1950s, or replaced by electric or diesel-electric locomotives during the 1950s and 1960s. Nevertheless, new Pacific designs continued to be built until the mid-1950s.  The type is generally considered to be an enlargement of the Atlantic type, although its prototype had a direct relationship to the Ten-wheeler and Prairie, effectively being a combination of the two types. The success of the type can be attributed to a combination of its four-wheel leading truck which provided better stability at speed than a Prairie, the six driving wheels which allowed for a larger boiler and the application of more tractive effort than the earlier Atlantic, and the two-wheel trailing truck, first used on the New Zealand Prairie of 1885. This permitted the firebox to be located behind the high driving wheels and thereby allowed it to be both wide and deep, unlike the Ten-wheeler which had either a narrow and deep firebox between the driving wheels or a wide and shallow one above.  The type is well-suited to high speed running. The world speed record for steam traction of has been held by a British Pacific locomotive, the "Mallard", since 3 July 1938.

Development.

The two earliest locomotives, both created in the United States of America, were experimental designs which were not perpetuated. In 1887, the Lehigh Valley Railroad experimented with a Ten-wheeler design with a Strong's patent firebox, a cylindrical device behind the cab which required an extension of the frame and the addition of two trailing wheels to support it. In 1889, the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway rebuilt a conventional with trailing wheels as a means of reducing its axle load.  In

Origin of the name.

There are different opinions concerning the origin of the name Pacific. The design was a natural enlargement of the existing Baldwin Atlantic type, but the type name may also be in recognition of the fact that a New Zealand designer had first proposed it. Usually, however, new wheel arrangements were

Global popularity.

The Pacific type was used on mainline railways around the world. The railways of New Zealand and Australia were the first in the world to run large numbers of Pacific locomotives, having introduced types in 1901 and 1902 respectively and operating them until the 1960s. During the first half of the 20th century, the Pacific rapidly became the predominant passenger steam power in North America. Between 1902 and 1930, about 6,800 locomotives of the type were built by North American manufacturers for service in the United States and Canada. With exported locomotives included, about 7,300 were built in total. About 45% of these were built by the American Locomotive Company (ALCO) which became the main builder of the type, and 28% by Baldwin. Large numbers were also used in South America, most of which were supplied by manufacturers in the United Kingdom,

Tank locomotives.

During the first two decades of the 20th century, the Pacific wheel arrangement enjoyed limited popularity on tank locomotives. On a locomotive, the trailing wheels support the coal bunker rather than an enlarged firebox and such a locomotive is therefore actually a tank

Lifespan.

The Pacific became the major express passenger locomotive type on many railways throughout the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s. Examples were also built for fast freight and mixed traffic duties. However, due to the increasing weight of trains during the 1940s, larger developments of the type became necessary in the United States and elsewhere. The most notable of these was the Hudson or Baltic type, which had a four-wheel trailing bogie that permitted an even larger firebox, albeit at a loss of some adhesive weight, and the Mountain type

Usage.

Argentina.

The Vulcan Foundry built twenty Pacific locomotives for the former Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway (BAGSR) in 1926, two of which still survive. A further single 12B class locomotive was built in 1930, and the 12K class of twelve Pacific locomotives was built for the BAGSR by Vulcan in 1938.  In 1930, the Central Argentine Railway ("Ferrocarril Central Argentino" or FCCA)

Australia.

In Australia, the first known example of the wheel arrangement was the Q class tank locomotive of the gauge Western Australian Government Railways (WAGR). The six locomotives were introduced in 1896, but four of them were soon converted to a Hudson configuration.  The WAGR was the largest user of Pacific tender types in Australia. In total, the WAGR operated at least 223 locomotives, acquired between 1902 and 1950, making it by far its most numerous wheel arrangement.  The Midland Railway of Western Australia, one of the longest-lived privately owned railways in Australia, followed the WAGR's example by introducing five Pacific locomotives which were built by Kitson and Company to the Karoo design of the Cape Government Railways as basis.  In the 1920s, heavy Pacific locomotives were introduced by both South Australian Railways (SAR) and Victorian Railways (VR), in response to increasingly heavy passenger trains and the demand for faster services. Although similar in size, power and top speed, their

Austria.

The only Pacific type to be built in Austria was the class 629 tank locomotive of the Imperial Royal Austrian State Railways (kkStB), later the "Österreichische Bundesbahnen" (ÖBB), of which 95 were built between 1913 and 1927. This highly successful locomotive remained in service until 1975.  The class 629 was later also produced and developed in

Belgium.

In 1897, a Type 4 Prairie tender locomotive, built in the 1880s, was fitted with a front bogie, making it the first Belgian Pacific. This

Bulgaria.

The Bulgarian State Railways (BDZ) bought its first four-cylinder simple expansion Pacific type locomotive from John Cockerill of Belgium in 1912. This lone engine hauled express trains from Sofia to Svilengrad and was rebuilt in 1933.  In 1938, BDZ improved its express service between Sofia and Burgas and placed an order with Krupp in Germany for

Burma.

Burma was administered as a province of British India from 1886 until 1937. In 1932, the Vulcan Foundry built three locomotives of the YC class

Canada.

The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) employed several Pacific classes, beginning with 39 G1 class locomotives, built between 1906 and 1914 by the CPR at its Angus Workshops and by the Montreal Locomotive Works. After 1921, 166 examples of a new G2 class locomotive with a superheater were built by the American Locomotive Company at Schenectady, Angus and Montreal. The last of these remained in service until 1961.  After the First World War, the CPR needed heavier mixed traffic locomotives since steel passenger cars replaced the older wooden ones on its mainlines. This resulted in the introduction in 1919 of 23 G3a class with driving wheels, built by Angus for service over flat terrain, and five G4 class locomotives with smaller drivers, built by Montreal for hilly terrain. A further 152 G3 class locomotives were built in batches between

China.

The Japanese introduced several classes of Pacific locomotive during their occupation of Manchuria, but the "Pashiro" became the standard and was China's most numerous class of steam passenger locomotive. Between 1933 and 1944, around 272 were built for the South Manchuria Railway (SMR), the Manchurian National Railway and the railways of occupied North China. They were built by various Japanese builders, including Dalian and Sifang, while the SMR's own workshops were also involved in the construction.  The Japanese-built "Pashina" locomotives were used on the Asia Express train between 1934 and 1943, during Japanese control of the SMR. These were built by Kawasaki and Dalian. The name "Shengli" (Victory) was used for all classes of Pacific inherited

Czechoslovakia.

Between 1926 and 1967, two Pacific tender locomotive classes were built in Czechoslovakia and operated by the Czechoslovak State Railways ("Československé státní dráhy" or ČSD). These were the ČSD Class 387.0 and Class 399.0 express passenger locomotives.  The 2100 horsepower Pacific Class 387.0 was the most successful

Egypt.

Prior to 1954, the Egyptian State Railways used Atlantic or Ten-wheeler types on express passenger trains. However, in 1953 a requirement arose for a locomotive capable of hauling 550-tonne trains over the from Cairo to Alexandria in two hours. These were originally going to be Hudson locomotives, but the specification was eased to suit a 500-tonne train

Ethiopia.

The French-owned Imperial Railway Company of Ethiopia, with of trackage, had four Pacific type locomotives on its roster.  The first one was bought from "Forges, Usines et Fonderies de Haine-Saint-Pierre" in Belgium in 1923. This locomotive had been ordered by the Spanish railway "Ferrocarril Madrid-Aragon" in 1914, prior to the outbreak of the First World War, but it was never

Finland.

Twenty-two Pacific locomotives of the Class Hr1, numbers 1000 to 1021 and named "Ukko-Pekka" after the nickname of Finnish President Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, were constructed in Finland by Tampella and Lokomo between 1937 and 1957. They were the largest passenger locomotives to be built and used in Finland and remained the primary locomotives on express trains for Southern Finland until 1963, when the class Hr12 diesel locomotives took over. The last two Class Hr1 locomotives to be built in 1957, numbers 1020 and 1021, Lokomo works numbers 474 and 475, were equipped throughout with SKF C-type roller bearings, even on the coupled rod big ends, and represented a fine combination of American and German locomotive building practices. They were, along with the Deutsche Bundesbahn class 10, the last new-built Pacific

France.

France was a major user of the Pacific type. Following the introduction of two successful "Paris à Orléans" prototypes in 1907, a further 1,362 Pacific locomotives were built for or acquired by the major French railway companies, including those acquired from Germany following the terms of the Armistice in 1918. The "Paris à Orléans" ordered a further 98 Pacific locomotives that were delivered between 1908 and 1910, and another 89 in 1909 and 1910. Another fifty were ordered from the American Locomotive Company in 1921 and forty of the type "TP-État" were bought in 1923. The company was particularly famous for the Chapelon Pacifics of 1929 to 1932.  The "L'Ouest" followed with two prototype locomotives in 1908, but did not continue with the Pacific type.  The Alsace-Lorraine built eight Pacific locomotives in 1909, at the time when the railway was still under German control. These became French locomotives in 1920.  The "Paris à Lyon et

Germany.

The first Pacific locomotive for a German railway was the Badische IVf class for the Grand Duchy of Baden State Railways ("Großherzoglich Badische Staatseisenbahnen"), designed by Maffei in 1905. However, due to manufacturing delays, the first three locomotives were not introduced until 1907, shortly after the first French Pacifics. They were four-cylinder compound locomotives of the Von Borries type. After the Maffei locomotives, a further 32 were built under license by Karlsruhe Engineering Works and delivered between 1907 and 1913. However, the most successful early German Pacific class was the Bavarian S 3/6 class of the Royal Bavarian State Railways

Hungary.

The Hungarian locomotive builder MÁVAG ("Magyar Királyi Államvasutak Gépgyára") built several classes of locomotives after 1914, both for the

India.

The earliest Indian locomotives were two Class C locomotives, built for the narrow gauge Darjeeling Himalayan Railway by the North British Locomotive Company in 1914. Both were retired in 1976. From the mid-1920s until the 1970s, the Pacific type became very common on both the broad gauge and narrow gauge lines in India.

Broad gauge.

In 1924, the Locomotive Standards Committee of the Indian Government recommended eight basic types of locomotive for use on the sub-continent, three of which were. These were the XA class for branch line passenger working, the XB class for light passenger trains and the XC class for heavy passenger trains. The Vulcan Foundry built large numbers of all these classes for the different Indian railways between the late 1920s and early 1930s, beginning with fourteen each for the East Indian Railway Company (EIR) and the Great Indian Peninsula

Narrow gauge.

The Bengal Nagpur Railway had a saturated C class, a superheated CS class, and a CC class comprising C class locomotives that had been converted from saturated to superheated steam. The South India Railway (SIR) ordered six YB class and two XB class Pacific locomotives from the Vulcan Foundry in 1928.  The Mysore State Railway had the E, ES and ES/1 classes.  The Scindia State Railway had a class of eight NM class locomotives, built by W. G. Bagnall in 1931.  The only post-Second World War on narrow gauge Indian Railways were the five ZP class locomotives with six-wheel tenders, built by Nippon Sharyo in Japan in 1954.

Indonesia.

The earliest Pacific classes in Indonesia were the NISM 371 of the "Nederlandsch-Indische Spoorweg Maatschappij" (NISM), the private railway company that had opened the first railway line in Central Java in 1873, and the class C51 of the "Staatsspoorwegen" (State Railway). Both were built in 1910 by the North British Locomotive Company and Beyer, Peacock and Company respectively. Twenty class C53 locomotives were delivered to the "Staatsspoorwegen" in 1917 and 1922. They were designed by Dutch engineers and were manufactured in

Iraq.

When the Baghdad Railway was nearing completion between Mosul and the town of Tel Kotchek on the border with Syria, the Iraqi State Railways ordered four streamlined Pacific locomotives from Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns in the United Kingdom,

Italy.

Between 1911 and 1914, 33 Pacific locomotives of the 690 class were built for the "Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane" (Italian State Railways), twenty by Breda in Milan, ten by Ansaldo in Genoa and three by "Officine Meccaniche" in Milan.  Between 1928

Japan.

The Japanese Government Railways built a number of designs between 1920 and the 1950s. The most notable was possibly the C51 class, the first Japanese-built high-speed passenger locomotive, used for express services on the "Tōkaidō" mainline and later on regional trunk lines. Five of these locomotives were built in 1920.  Other

Malawi.

The Nyasaland Railways (the Malawi Railways after independence) obtained six Class F Pacific type locomotives from the British War Department in 1946, to work

Malaya.

The Malayan Railway was amongst the earliest railways in Asia to adopt Pacific type locomotives. Sixty locomotives of the Federated Malay States Railways (FMSR) Class H were built between 1907 and 1914. With a small volume of highly rated freight traffic, it was possible to adopt standard engines for both passenger and freight services. Three coupled axles were sufficient to move the trains at moderate speeds over the whole Malayan rail network.  As a result of experience gained with the first batch of locomotives, the design of Malayan Pacific locomotives was finalised and 68 engines of this design were eventually built. They had bar frames, steel fireboxes and three cylinders, each of. The coupled wheels were in diameter. The heating surface of the boiler was, of which was superheating surface, while the grate

Mexico.

The Canadian National Railway (CN) sold a gauge Pacific locomotive, the

Mozambique.

The "Caminhos de Ferro de Lourenço Marques" in Portuguese Mozambique ordered its first three class 300 Pacific locomotives from Baldwin in 1919. They hauled passenger trains on the line between Lourenço Marques (Maputo) and Ressano Garcia, and also crossed the South African border at Komatipoort in South Africa, from Lourenço Marques, where South African Railways locomotives took over for the rest of the way to Pretoria. Two more locomotives were added in 1923 and a further order for four

New Zealand.

The first true Pacifics, the original thirteen Q class locomotives built by Baldwin for the New Zealand Railways Department (NZR) in 1901, worked until withdrawal in 1957. None has been preserved.  These were followed by 58 Pacific locomotives of the A class, built in 1906 by the NZR's Addington Railway Workshops and by A & G Price Limited. Two of these have been preserved. A further ten locomotives of the A class were built by Baldwin in 1914. The most notable class in New Zealand was the A class, built between 1915 and 1927 by Addington, Price and the North British Locomotive Company in Scotland. These were reputed to be the first locomotives to generate one horsepower for every of weight and eventually became the most numerous class of steam locomotives in New Zealand,

Nigeria.

Between 1926 and 1928, the gauge Nigerian Railways ordered ten Class 405 Pacifics from Nasmyth, Wilson & Company in Manchester, for express services on the line between Lagos and Kano. They used saturated steam and had

Philippines.

The Manila Railroad Company (MRR) operated ten three-cylinder simple expansion Pacific locomotives, built in the United States by Baldwin in 1926, 1927 and 1929. They were numbered 141 to 150 and

Poland.

In the Polish State Railways ("Polskie Koleje Państwowe" or PKP) locomotive classification system, locomotives with a 2C1 ( ) axle arrangement were identified with the letter "m" in the class prefix. Express locomotives therefore had a "Pm" prefix, passenger locomotives an "Om" prefix and tank passenger locomotives an "OKm" prefix. The PKP class Pm36 consisted of two experimental Polish prototype express locomotives, built by Fablok of Chrzanów in 1937. One of them, no. Pm36-1, was streamlined, while the other had a standard appearance in order to compare their respective performances in terms of top speed, acceleration and coal and water consumption.  The Pm36-1 won

Portugal.

The Portuguese Railways ("Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses" or CP) had two batches of Pacific 2C1-h2 class locomotives running on its broad gauge lines, built by Henschel & Son in 1924 and 1925. The first batch of ten locomotives, numbered 551 to 560, were used on lines south of the river Tagus, while the second batch of eight, numbered 501 to 508, were built for the Porto line north of the Tagus. Both Pacific classes had deep and narrow fireboxes and the same cylinders, coupled wheels and motion as the Ten-wheelers of the class CP 351 to 370.  The Pacifics were capable of very

Russia/Soviet Union.

Pacifics were not common in Russia. The only known examples were the four-cylinder L class express passenger locomotives, built by the Putilov Works at Saint Petersburg for the Vladikavkaz Railway in 1914. The chief designer was Vazlav Lopushinskii, who later emigrated from Soviet Russia. These locomotives were the most powerful passenger locomotives in Tsarist Russia. Eighteen locomotives were built between 1914 and 1919, allocated to the Rostov-on-Don, Tihoretskaya, Kavkazkaya, Armavir and Mineralnye Vody depots. They hauled principal express and heavy passenger trains between Rostov-on-Don and Vladikavkaz, a distance of. All were oil fired.  After the October Revolution, a further 48 L class locomotives were built at Putilov Works between 1922 and 1926. At first, these coal fired locomotives were allocated to the October Railway to haul principal passenger trains over a distance of of double track line between the two largest cities in Soviet Russia, Moscow and Leningrad. At the time, train speeds in Soviet Russia were slow and the fastest train took fourteen hours

South Africa.

Cape gauge.

Narrow gauge.

In 1906, two small side-tank locomotives, designed by Hendrie and built by Hunslet, entered service on the Estcourt-Weenen narrow gauge railway of the NGR. They had outside plate frames and used Walschaerts valve gear. They were commonly known as Hunslet Side Tanks since all narrow gauge locomotives on the NGR were designated Class N. Although they came onto the SAR roster in 1912, they were never classified since they were sold to the Moçâmedes Railway in Portuguese West Africa in 1915, long before a system of grouping narrow gauge locomotives into classes was introduced by the SAR somewhere between 1928 and 1930. In 1907, the NGR placed another six tank locomotives in service, designed by Hendrie based on his Hunslet Side Tank. Built by Hawthorn Leslie and Company, they also had outside plate frames and used Walschaerts valve gear. They were commonly known as the Hawthorn Leslie Side Tanks and were acquired specifically for the new narrow gauge Donnybrook-Esperanza Railway in Natal. They came onto the SAR roster in 1912 and were later classified as Class NG3.  In 1908, two Pacific tank locomotives with bar frames and Walschaerts valve

Spain.

A Pacific locomotive was ordered by the "Ferrocarril Madrid-Aragon" from "Forges, Usines et Fonderies de Haine-Saint-Pierre" in Belgium in 1914, but was not delivered, presumably due to the disruption to trade caused by the First World War. The locomotive was eventually sold to the

Sweden.

In 1913, the Swedish State Railways ("Statens Järnvägar" or SJ) ordered eleven four-cylinder compound Pacific type locomotives from Nydqvist & Holm (NOHAB) for the Stockholm-Malmö heavy express train service. They had diameter coupled wheels with two and two cylinders. They were designated the SJ class F, numbered from 1200 to 1209 and 1271.  The locomotives were limited to a maximum speed of. They hauled express trains on

Taiwan.

The first Pacific type locomotives appeared in Formosa (now Taiwan) in 1912 when ALCO-Rogers delivered three locomotives that were derived from the Japanese Government Railways type 8900. They were numbered from 200 to 202. One more locomotive, number 203, was delivered in 1913. They hauled the most important

Thailand.

The Royal State Railways of Siam (RSR), the predecessor of the State Railway of Thailand (SRT), introduced new standard Pacific locomotives for express trains and mixed traffic trains to supersede the E-Class locomotives which had been commissioned between 1915 and 1921. The first type of Pacific Locomotive was purchased from Batignolles-Châtillon in France in 1925. Others followed from Baldwin Locomotive Works between 1926 and 1929 and were prominent on Southern lines.

Tunisia.

Standard gauge.

In 1914, the Tunisian Chemins de fer Bône-Guelma placed five Pacific locomotives in service at Tunis, built by "Société Alsacienne de Constructions Mécaniques" (SACM). They were numbered 181 to 185, later to be renumbered to Tunisian Railways ("Société Nationale de Chemins de Fer Tunisiens") numbers 231.181 to 231.185. A further four were

Metre gauge.

Also in 1914, the "Chemins de fer Bône-Guelma" ordered five locomotives from SACM. The engine weight in working order was 56.6 metric tonnes, with coupled wheels of diameter and two cylinders.  They were considered very successful and Tunisian Railways ordered three more in 1928. These were used on the mainline south from Tunis to Sousse and the line to Sfax. Between the two World Wars, they were renowned for providing the fastest metre gauge service in the world and speeds of over were common in ordinary service. When the Tunisian Railways dieselised between 1951 and 1955, these locomotives were withdrawn from service and placed in staging, even though as late as in 1952 they still regularly achieved speeds of up to. In 1958, numbers 231.801, 231.805, 231.807 and 231.808 were sold to the "Ferrocarril La Robla" in Spain. Those which remained in Tunisia were scrapped in 1959. (Also see )

United Kingdom.

Tender locomotives.

Prior to the 1923 Grouping, only five locomotives had been built in the United Kingdom. The first of these was no. 111, "The Great Bear", introduced by the Great Western Railway (GWR) in 1908. This was an experimental locomotive which proved to be more powerful than the railway's requirements and also too heavy for much of its infrastructure. As a result, it was scrapped in 1924 and many of the parts were used to build a GWR 4073 Castle Class Ten-wheeler locomotive.  The Great Northern Railway (GNR) and the North Eastern Railway (NER)

Tank locomotives.

Four tank locomotive designs were introduced in the United Kingdom during 1910 and 1911. Charles Bowen-Cooke of the London and North Western Railway (LNWR) introduced his Prince of Wales Tank Class in 1910. It was a tank locomotive version of his successful Prince of Wales Class. 47 were built for suburban services out of Euston station.  In the same year, the NER Class Y, designed by Wilson Worsdell and later to become the LNER Class A7, was introduced by Worsdell's successor for hauling coal trains. It had been developed from the NER Class X heavy shunters, later the LNER Class T1. Also in 1910, D. E. Marsh of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR) designed an entirely new J1 class locomotive for London to Brighton

United States of America.

The Pacific Type was first used in the United States in 1886. This was an unusual double-cab or "Mother Hubbard" type with an unusually huge firebox, designed to use the waste tailings from anthracite coal mines. While this design did not become popular, the 4-6-2 was rediscovered for the same reason, to improve the 4-6-0 Ten-wheeler with a larger firebox.  With altogether 697 Pacific locomotives, the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) was the largest user of the type in the United States. The railroad bought its first experimental class from ALCO in 1907. After testing, a further 257 Pacific locomotives in various versions, designated classes,, and, were built by the PRR at its Altoona Works and by ALCO and Baldwin between 1910 and 1913. In 1911, the PRR ordered an experimental K-29 class from ALCO, with a larger boiler, superheater, mechanical stoker and other innovations. A similar K4s class locomotive was built by the PRR in 1914, but no more were built until 1917. Between 1917 and 1928, the PRR built 349 K-4s locomotives and Baldwin a further 75, bringing the total of the K4s class to 425.  The last PRR Pacific locomotives were two large K-5 class locomotives, built in 1929. No. 5698 was built at the PRR Altoona Works and had Walschaerts valve gear, while no. 5699 was built by Baldwin and had Caprotti valve gear. Although successful, these locomotives were not replicated, since the larger Mountain types began to be introduced. No. 5698 was dropped from the roster in October 1952 and no. 5699 was retired in September 1953.  The first modern example of the type to be built for duty in the United States, was built for the Missouri Pacific in 1902, but the chief proponent of the type west of the Mississippi River was the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, who began buying the type the next year and ultimately owned 274. The road would have pioneered the type, if not for a belief that a two-wheeled lead truck would be sufficient for high speed passenger service. They began buying 2-6-2 Prairie types in quantity from Baldwin in 1901, with the four cylinder Vauclain compound system, a weight of and diameter coupled wheels.  When these proved insufficiently stable for high speed service, the road ordered the 1200 class of 4-6-2 Pacifics, which were two cylinder simplex engines weighing and fitted with diameter coupled wheels on unusually long axle centers. Immediately upon their arrival on the property, their drive wheels were swapped with the diameter drivers off the earlier Prairie types, which became fast freight locomotives. These would wind up in branch line service, where they were very successful and ultimately outlasted the Pacifics.  The Santa Fe ordered additional Pacific types of

Under the Whyte notation for the classification of steam locomotives, represents the wheel arrangement of four leading wheels on two axles, six powered and coupled driving wheels on three axles and two trailing wheels on one axle. The locomotive became almost globally known as a Pacific type.

La Pacific 231 est un type de locomotive à vapeur dont la disposition des essieux a la configuration suivante de l'avant vers l'arrière : L'appellation Pacific vient du fait que la première locomotive de ce type, livrée par le constructeur américain Baldwin en 1901 pour les New Zealand Railways, fut acheminée à travers l’océan Pacifique dont le nom (Pacific) restera attribué à ces locomotives.


Club career.

Flávio helped his team Al Ahly to participate in the FIFA Club World Championship two successive times in 2005 and 2006.  In the FIFA Club World Championship 2006 opening match against Auckland City FC of New Zealand on 10 December 2006, he scored the first goal, helping Al-Ahly to a 2–0 win. In the semi-final on 13 December 2006, Al Ahly faced South American champions Internacional, and Flávio played and scored an equaliser with a header in the second half but Al-Ahly eventually lost the match 1–2.  After having a very unsuccessful first season with the team during which he scored only one goal in the league, and being jeered by fans at many times, most notably when he missed a penalty kick against rivals El Zamalek in the African Champions League, Flávio had a very successful second season in 2006–2007, seeing him top the goalscorers chart of the Egyptian Premier League with 17 goals, a single goal ahead of international Egyptian teammate Emad Moteab. He proved to be instrumental in Al Ahly's formation in the next years, scoring many vital goals in critical moments. Generally Flávio kept an extremely low profile and rarely appears in the media or give any press statements. Such attitude is highly appreciated by his club administration, since it agrees with the club's policies.  In his last season with Al Ahly (2008–2009), Flávio managed to score Al Ahly's only goal during the Egyptian Premier League play-off against Ismaily, handing the title to Al Ahly for the fifth time in row and rewarding himself with the second personal title of the Egyptian Premier League Top Goalscorer, for the third time as a foreign player in the Egyptian Premier League history after John Utaka with Ismaily during the 2000–2001 season, then Flávio himself formerly during the 2006–2007 season.  At his time with Al Ahly he was very known in Egypt for his heading accuracy and it was known that Al Ahly played a tactic that Flávio Amado's fellow Angola national football team and Al Ahly teammate Gilberto would play a long ball to him from the sides, and Flávio Amado would score with his head. He did this on multiple occasions, earning Al Ahly multiple titles domestically and continentally.

International career.

He was a member of the national team, and was called up to the 2006 World Cup, in which he scored Angola's only goal of the tournament, with a header against Iran to clinch a 1–1 draw.  He scored three goals for Angola in African Cup of Nations Egypt 2006, although they went out from the second round. His goals were against Cameroon and Togo.

Honours and achievements.

Club.

Al Ahly  Petra Atletico

International.

Angola

Individual.

Awards  Performances

Flávio da Silva Amado (born 30 December 1979), better known as Flávio, is an Angolan former professional footballer striker. who works as an assistant coach for Petro Atletico in Angola.

Flávio Amado, né le à Luanda, est un footballeur angolais. Il joue au poste d'attaquant. Il est à ce jour le seul buteur angolais en Coupe du monde. En 2006, en Allemagne, il ouvre le score face à l'Iran. Le score final de cette rencontre (1-1), ne permet cependant pas à l'Angola de se qualifier pour la phase à élimination directe.


Populated places.

The commune consists of the following villages:

History.

The name "Wiltz" comes from a Celtic word meaning "on the creek." Wiltz was originally inhabited by the Celts, and was first documented in 764AD. It received its town rights in 1240. The counts of Wiltz are among the oldest in Luxembourg.  One of the main features of the town is Wiltz Castle which belonged to the former Counts of Wiltz. This castle, which is situated on of lawns and gardens, contains hundreds of rooms. It was completed in 1727, and the final Count died in 1793. It served as a private girls school from 1851 until 1950, and became a retirement home after that. The industrialisation of Wiltz was advanced in the late 19th and early 20th century by the leather industry, namely by "IDÉAL Tannerie de Wiltz S.A." belonging to the Adler & Oppenheimer trust.  During World War II, Luxembourg was occupied 10 May 1940 (the first day of the Battle of France). On 31 August 1942, a general strike was initiated in Wiltz, that spread throughout the country.  On 16 December 1944, the Wehrmacht surprisingly began the Ardennes Offensive. Norman Cota, the commander of the 28th Infantry Division and his staff left Wiltz when the Germans came nearer. In the evening of 19 December, after some combat, the last Americans left Wiltz.  On January 1945, Wiltz was liberated by American troops after intensive combats during the days before.  Wiltz was named "Martyr Town" after the war. A monument representing a lighthouse was erected to commemorate the victims of the repression following the 1942 General Strike.  In 2015, Wiltz absorbed the neighbouring commune of Eschweiler.

Town Centre.

Wiltz has a quiet town centre. There is an outdoor musical hall with bands and classical musical shows held typically every fortnight. Looking out from the hill on the music hall one will see the largest lake in the country at Esch-sur-Sure, located around 20 km away. A local multi-carriage tourist "road-train" takes visitors around the village and its surroundings on the hour. There is also an international soccer training pitch. In the heart of Wiltz there is plenty to see with a second world war tank parked in the main plaza. One of the most popular nights out is the summer rave held 10 km in the wilderness. A local farm has been transformed into a pub and rave club, this is a favourite night out for scout units (male and female).

Attractions.

Wiltz is a major centre for the international scouting movement. There are many scout campsites and buildings surrounding the town. The "International Scouting One Penny Monument", dedicated to Robert Baden-Powell, is located in Wiltz.  Nearby Wiltz, on a hill overlooking the town, the "Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fatima" is the site of an annual pilgrimage on Ascension Day. In particular it attracts many of the Portuguese people who form a sizeable proportion of the population of Luxembourg.  The "Festival of Wiltz", a music and performing arts festival, takes place every summer.

Tourism.

In 2015 it was the venue for the Linuxbierwanderung.

Wiltz (, ) is a commune with town status in north-western Luxembourg, capital of the canton Wiltz. Wiltz is situated on the banks of the river Wiltz. It was also a battleground in the Battle of the Bulge, near the end of World War II. A local airfield (near the village of Noertrange) was used by both sides of the conflict, depending on the location of the Front.

Wiltz ( ou parfois ) est une ville du Nord du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg qui est le chef-lieu des commune et canton homonymes.


Sound and image.

The group play have been covered by glam media sources, and even had songs released on a couple glam compilations for USA's Delinquent Records. This is most likely because of their image, which incorporates heavy use of make-up.  Undercover Slut's make-up bears a resemblance to that of the geisha, with striking white foundation topped off with bright red lipstick and black eye make-up. Due to darker elements of Glam in their image, the band are sometimes compared to Marilyn Manson by media who are not familiar with the band. However, Undercover Slut have stated strong opposition to that group, dismissing Brian Warner as a "clown" and quipping "That 'god of fat' needs to call it quits".  Frontman 'O' (A.K.A. Letter Number Thief-Teen and Romeo Gestapo), has cited punk rock bands Sex Pistols and the New York Dolls as an influence on Undercover Slut; this is mirrored in their music, which follows anti-establishment themes. The band themselves describe their music as "that perfect sexual intercourse between creepy deathrock, '77 punk rock nostalgia, industrial darkness and a so fuckin' pretty larger-than-life glamour Image."

Animal rights and philanthropy.

'O' is passionate about campaigning for animal rights, and is said to be devout vegetarian, Undercover Slut even has a section dedicated to them on the Animal Liberation Front website, as well as an interview discussing their beliefs. On their album "Communism Is Fascism", Undercover Slut have a track regarding this, a blank 1 minute track titled "Sixty Silent Seconds to Repent for Your Animal Genocide". It is not only animal rights the band covers, they have also played an anti-paedophilia concert in Paris, France in July 2005.

Biography.

The band has existed in various forms since October 1995. Going through several line-up changes with leader 'O' remaining as the only constant member. The musicians of Undercover Slut are only referred to and known by their stage names.  During the 1990s, Undercover Slut self-released various E.P.'s through their own Hateful Society Production label. Their first demo album "Lipstikk Whore No. 666" was released through Scream in Japan exclusively.

"Communism Is Fascism".

2004 saw the band releasing their second demo album "Fuck That Celebrity Trash & Your Ghetto Cunt Drama". Shortly after the release of their second demo album, Undercover Slut signed to Apokalypse Records, opened their MySpace account on September 27, 2004, and released their first full-length album "Communism Is Fascism" on December 24, 2004. leaving Apokalypse Records the following year, for a 2-record deal with Free-Will (Dir En Grey's label) in July 2005.  In interviews 'O' often refers to their hometown as "Psychotic Paris, Fucked-up France". Undercover Slut have toured the United States six times over six years;, tours of the United States are normally promoted as "Amerikkka Tour". Undercover Slut went through several record label changes in 2005 and 2006, first Free-Will, but the band left after becoming unhappy with the European label manager's work ethic.  February 2006 saw Undercover Slut sign to SixSixSix Records, a British label which was set up by former Christian Death manager Tim Fraser and Cradle Of Filth bassist Dave Pybus. During that period, the band performed live at London's Underworld and appeared on U.K. television show Redemption TV. SixSixSix Records being financially unable to produce and release any Undercover Slut recordings, 'O' decided to leave this label to concentrate on his own record label: Offensive Records.

The White Whore era and "Amerikkka Macht Frei".

A full-length record was planned for release in 2006 via Free-Will: "Inside That Cult That Loves to Terror", but this did not see the light of day. Undercover Slut embarked on their fourth tour of the United States which started on August 8 in New York City, it was named the "Genocide, Homicide & Suicide - Amerikkka Tour 2K6".  'O' introduced new members into Undercover Slut, in the form of guitarist Divine, bassist Drag, and drummer Fake; this change was referred to as the band entering "The White Whore" era. With this line-up, the band played their fifth tour of the United States, known as the "White Whore Supremacy - Amerikkka Tour 2K7"; it started again in New York City at Snitch, a club owned by Velvet Revolver members.  In September 2007, Undercover Slut started pre-production at Next Level Studio in Los Angeles with producer Stevo Bruno (Brides of Destruction, Mötley Crüe), then recorded and mixed their brand new album "Amerikkka Macht Frei" at the Chop Shop in Los Angeles. The thirteen track album, set to include a cover version of The Cure's "Killing an Arab", also features some guest musicians. Matthew Roberts (Charles Manson's son) is featured in a spoken word duet with 'O' on the track "Jesus Kills! Coroner Saves!", Eric Griffin (Synical, ex-Murderdolls, Wednesday 13) plays lead guitar on the track "Kastration Kar Krashes" and Teddy Heavens (Rebel Rebel, Los Angeles Death Dolls) plays lead guitar on "Dali Was a Junkie".  "Amerikkka Macht Frei" was produced by Chris Baseford (Tommy Lee, Methods of Mayhem, John 5, Rob Zombie, Genitorturers), assisted by Will Thompson (Rob Zombie). Undercover Slut's "Amerikkka Macht Frei" record sleeve was done by Dean Karr (whose previous record sleeves include Marilyn Manson's "Antichrist Superstar", Slipknot's "Slipknot" and Amen's "Amen" & "We Have Come for Your Parents").  Undercover Slut's "Amerikkka Macht Frei" was released on Monday, December 8, 2008 via Offensive Records (OR 999). CD format includes an uncensored video version of "Shadow Song", filmed by Dean Karr (who directed Marilyn Manson's "Sweet Dreams" and Amen's "The Price of Reality").  So far, rave reviews have been published in Kerrang! Magazine, Metal Hammer U.K. quoting Undercover Slut as "the best new band in ages!". Two sold-out shows in Paris: Undercover Slut were offered to open for The Damned at legendary's Gibus Club, then later on performed with Dio - Distraught Overlord at Le Trabendo, which was greatly reviewed in U.K.'s Bizarre Magazine.  In 2009, Undercover Slut headlined La Locomotive in Paris, France where Teddy Heavens (Rebel Rebel, Los Angeles Death Dolls) joined UCS on stage for "Dali Was a Junkie" and Mötley Crüe's "Shout at the Devil", co-headlined the J-Music Fest II in Lyon, France and headlined the GoreNight Fest 2009 in Dunkerque, France as a 5-piece band introducing Drag as a rhythm guitarist.  In Spring 2010, "Amerikkka Macht Frei" has been re-released as a 13-track Digipak CD and as a 12-song white vinyl LP and 12-song black vinyl LP via Deadlight Entertainment (Synical, Sister, Prophets Of Addiction, New Rising Son, Acey Slade & the Dark Party).  On August 30, 2010, 'O' came up on stage and provided backing vocals for Rebel Rebel at the Viper Room in Los Angeles.  On September 11, 2010, Undercover Slut headlined London's Slimelight as a charity show for the Sophie Lancaster Foundation.  On December 13, 2010, 'O' performed live as Romeo Gestapo, opening for New York City rapper Necro at La Bellevilloise in Paris, France.

The Jet Black Mafia era and "Haters Gonna HATE".

On January 29, 2011, Undercover Slut opened for the Murderdolls at l'Elysee Montmartre in Paris, France in front of nearly 1,400 people, premiering "The Jet Black Mafia" era.  On February 19, 2011, Undercover Slut headlined the Imbolc Breizh Metal Fest 2011 in the heart of legendary's Broceliande woods. During that fest, 'O' did a cameo appearance on Orties "Plus Putes que Toutes les Putes" live promo-video.  On May 28, 2011, Undercover Slut headlined a deathrock festival at Bateau Concorde Atlantique in Paris, France.  Right in the middle of the Summer 2011 English riots, Undercover Slut headlined Nambucca in London, England on August 7, 2011.  Undercover Slut's "Shadow Song" has been featured on "Kinryu-No-Mai [-Tribute and Support to Japan-]", a charity compilation CD for 2011 Japanese tsunami victims.  On November 15, 2012, Undercover Slut opened for Wednesday 13 at La Boule Noire in Paris, France.  On February 11, 2013, Undercover Slut opened for The 69 Eyes at Le Nouveau Casino in Paris, France, marking the return of Undercover Slut's "White Whore Era" member Drag on bass guitar.  On April 9, 2013, a preview mix of the song "Laughing Like Hyenas" has been featured on the playlist of "The Watt from Pedro Show", the podcast run by Mike Watt (The Stooges, The Minutemen).  On May 23, 2015, "Choroform Nation", the new single has been available via all digital platforms.  On November 13, 2015, "Chloroform Nation" has been released as a Digipak CD.  On April 16, 2016, Offensive Records released a 6-Track Digipak CD named "Inside That Cult That Loves Terror" exclusively for Record Store Day.  On May 20, 2016, Undercover Slut opened for Girugamesh at La Maroquinerie in Paris, France.  The band is currently working on demos at Hell's Kitchen (Paris, France) for its forthcoming album "Haters Gonna HATE" to be released late 2016.

Undercover Slut (also known as UCS and stylised as VNDERCOVER SLVT) is a French/American shock rock and glam punk group, based in Paris, France.

Undercover Slut, également connu sous l'acronyme UCS, aussi stylisé VNDERCOVER SLVT, est un groupe de shock rock et metal industriel français, originaire de Paris, en Île-de-France. Il est formé le par O (de son vrai nom Pierre Olivier Rossmy alias Letter Number Thief-Teen, alias #15, alias Romeo Gestapo), chanteur et leader du groupe. Souvent associé au metal industriel (Marilyn Manson en particulier) en raison de ses premiers enregistrements utilisant boîtes à rythmes et nombreux samples, le groupe propose actuellement une musique qui se situe en réalité entre l'agressivité du punk rock et la noirceur du death rock, le tout teinté d'une forte imagerie glam (maquillage kabuki à la KISS entre autres).


Beginnings.

The Chute Boxe team first made a name for themselves in the MMA world during the late 1990s in the Brazilian vale tudo promotion known as the IVC. With an aggressive and physical style focused around their muay thai skills, Chute Boxe fighters captured three of the four title belts in the promotion (Wanderlei Silva winning the light heavyweight belt, José Landi-Jons winning the middleweight belt, and Rafael Cordeiro winning the lightweight belt). The promotion ended up serving as a spring board for the Chute Boxe team (as well as many other Brazilian MMA stars) into the lucrative Japanese MMA market. For Chute Boxe specifically, it would help to launch their careers in Japan's PRIDE FC.

PRIDE FC dynasty.

The major cog of the Chute Boxe machine in PRIDE was Wanderlei Silva. Known for an exciting, brawling style complete with lethal knees and leaping stomps, he would exemplify Chute Boxe style martial arts in PRIDE's middleweight division and eventually win the 2003 PRIDE FC Middleweight Grand Prix and the PRIDE FC middleweight title which he would hold for 5 1/2 years.  Coming off of a disappointing five-round decision loss to Tito Ortiz at UFC 25: Ultimate Japan, Silva would return to PRIDE to earn the biggest victory of his career to that point over the Lion's Den's Guy Mezger. It would be 20 fights and over four years before he would lose again in a controversial decision to superheavyweight Mark Hunt. During this span he defeated notable fighters Kazushi Sakuraba (three times), Quinton “Rampage” Jackson (twice), Yuki Kondo, Ikuhisa Minowa, Hidehiko Yoshida, Kiyoshi Tamura, Dan Henderson, Alexander Otsuka, Shungo Oyama, Hiromitsu Kanehara, and would draw with Mirko "Cro Cop" Filipović.  His aura of invincibility wouldn't truly be broken until a decision loss to Ricardo Arona in the 2005 PRIDE FC middle weight Grand Prix. His loss would be avenged later that night by teammate and rising star, Mauricio “Shogun” Rua.

Enter the Rua brothers.

As the older of the Rua brothers, Murilo “Ninja” Rua had a mediocre run during his years with PRIDE FC. Wins over Mario Sperry, Akira Shoji and Alexander Otsuka established him as a contender in the organization. His younger brother Mauricio "Shogun" Rua would also enter the PRIDE fighting championships and would prove the most successful fighter produced by Chute Boxe under Wanderlei Silva's and Ninja's guidance.  Younger than Murilo by about a year and a half, “Shogun” has defeated a who's who list of fighters including Evangelista “Cyborg” Santos, Akira Shoji, Akihiro Gono, Quinton "Rampage" Jackson, Alistair Overeem (twice), Antonio Rogerio “Minotouro” Nogueira, Ricardo Arona, Kevin Randleman, Mark Coleman, Chuck Liddell, and Lyoto Machida. Shogun was the UFC light heavyweight champion until losing his first title defense against Jon Jones at UFC 128. His exciting, fan-friendly style includes much of the standard Chute Boxe Muay Thai clinch work, knees, stomps, and soccer kicks, as well as polished Brazilian Jiu Jitsu.

Rivalry with Brazilian Top Team.

The opposite number in terms of Brazilian dominance in PRIDE FC was the Brazilian Top Team which was comprised, at the time, of such fighters as Antonio Rodrigo “Minotauro” Nogueira, Ricardo Arona, and Murilo Bustamante. Competition between the two teams was hardly limited to the Pride scene however. Matches between fighters of the two organizations had taken place in Brazil, Portugal and other parts of the world before, but perhaps the most interesting chapter of the rivalry took place on August 28, 2005 at the 2005 PRIDE FC middle weight Grand Prix.  The 2005 PRIDE FC middleweight Grand Prix would be the first such competition for newcomers Mauricio Rua and BTT's Ricardo Arona. Both scored impressive victories over highly regarded veterans Alistair Overeem and middleweight champ Wanderlei Silva respectively. It was Arona's victory over the latter that would stoke the flames of the rivalry because until then Silva had been the torch-bearer for Chute Boxe. Later that night, however, “Shogun” would pick up the torch with a thoroughly dominating first-round KO of Arona, ultimately finishing him on the ground which was considered Arona's strength.  Another notable aspect of this period is that it shortly followed the departure of promising prospect Anderson Silva. Silva had noted several disputes with Chute Boxe's management as reasons for leaving the team and shortly began training with some of Brazilian Top Team's best in the Nogueira brothers. He was quoted in an ESPN article as stating that friendships formed with his former rivals helped to save his career upon his departure from Chute Boxe.

Post-Pride era.

With the demise of PRIDE FC in late 2007, coinciding with the departure of its first mass-appeal superstar Wanderlei Silva around the same time, Chute Boxe entered a new era. Moreover, the Rua brothers, Mauricio and Murilo, and Andre "Dida" Amade, also departed Chute Boxe to start their own gym. However, up and coming fighters, such as lightweight Jean Silva, have augmented their talent. In addition, fighter Evangelista Santos has recently competed in Strikeforce as well as his ex-wife, female fighter Cristiane "Cyborg" Santos, who is currently Chute Boxe's most marketable fighter.

The Chute Boxe Academy (, "Kick-Boxing") opened as a Muay Thai academy in 1978 in Curitiba, Brazil. Head trainer Rudimar Fedrigo later expanded the program in 1991 to include Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and other aspects of modern mixed martial arts. By 1995, the Chute Boxe team was considered a prime training ground for Vale Tudo fighters. In 2004, an American branch, Chute Boxe USA, was established in Los Angeles, California.

La Chute Boxe Academy ou Académie Chute Boxe est une académie de combat libre ou de mixed martial arts basée à Curitiba au Brésil.


Description.

The Acroceridae vary in size from small to fairly large, about the size of large bees, with a wingspan over 25 mm in some species. As a rule, both sexes have tiny heads and a characteristic hump-backed appearance because of the large, rounded thorax.  In appearance, they are compact flies without major bristles, but many species have a bee-like hairiness on their bodies, and some are bee or wasp mimics. In most species, the eyes are holoptic in both sexes, the heads seemingly composed mainly of the large faceted eyes. This is in contrast to many insects in which the males have larger (even holoptic) eyes, whereas the females have normal eyes. The squamae are disproportionately large, completely covering the halteres, and the abdomen has an inflated appearance, often practically globular. The tarsi are equipped with large claws with three pulvilli below them.

Taxonomy.

The Acroceridae are a small family in the Brachycera. They are members of the infraorder Muscomorpha, and DNA studies suggest that they are most closely related to the families Nemestrinidae and Bombyliidae. A 2013 analysis of morphological data suggested the Acroceridae were a sister group to the Asiloidea and Eremoneura.  The roughly 520 species are placed in 50 genera. In 2019, a revised classification of the family based on phylogenetic studies was published, listing five extant subfamilies and one extinct subfamily containing "Archocyrtus" from the Late Jurassic Karabastau Formation of Kazakhstan.  Obsolete synonyms for Acroceridae include Cyrtidae, Oncodidae, and Ogcodidae.

Distribution and habitat.

Acroceridae are cosmopolitan in distribution, but nowhere abundant. They appear episodically and in most places are rarely observed; of more than 500 species described, most are known from fewer than 10 specimens. They occur most commonly in semiarid tropical locations.

Behaviour.

As far as is known, all Acroceridae are parasitoids of spiders. They are most commonly collected when a spider from the field is brought into captivity. As in the related families, Bombyliidae and Nemestrinidae, members of the family undergo hypermetamorphosis: the adults do not seek out their hosts; instead, the first-instar larva is a planidium. Females lay large number of eggs, up to 5,000, and after hatching, the planidia seek out spiders. They do not resemble the triungulin of most beetles with a hypermetamorphosis, but do resemble the triungulin of "Stylops". The larva can move with a looping movement like a leech or inchworm, and can leap several millimetres into the air. When a spider contacts an acrocerid planidium, the planidium grabs hold, crawls up the spider's legs to its body, and forces its way through the body wall, usually at an articulation membrane. Often, it lodges near a book lung, where it may remain for years before completing its development. Mature larvae pupate outside the host.  The adults of most species, like various members of the Tabanidae, Nemestrinidae, and Bombyliidae, are nectar feeders with exceptionally long probosces, sometimes longer than the entire body length of the insect. Unlike the other families, however, when not deploying the proboscis for feeding, the Acroceridae carry it lengthwise medially beneath the body, instead of projecting forward. As a result, the proboscis might escape casual notice, though careful inspection may reveal it projecting slightly behind the abdomen.  Flies are usually found in small numbers on plants in July and August in the Palearctic ecozone.

The Acroceridae are a small family of odd-looking flies. They have a hump-backed appearance with a strikingly small head, generally with a long proboscis for accessing nectar. They are rare and not widely known. The most frequently applied common names are small-headed flies or hunch-back flies. Many are bee or wasp mimics. Because they are parasitoids of spiders, they also are sometimes known as spider flies.

Les Acroceridae (Leach, 1815) sont une famille de diptères réparties en trois sous-familles, cinquante genres et 520 espèces. Cyrtidae et Oncodidae en sont synonymes.


Early life.

Fleming was born as Edward Heddy Jr. in Santa Paula, California, the only child of Edward and Mildred (Anderson) Heddy.  Born with a club foot, he needed crutches to get around and was often severely beaten by his father. At the age of eight, he attempted to kill his father with a gun, which jammed. He left home shortly after, first to Los Angeles, and then to Chicago, where he lived roughly and associated with gangsters, doing odd jobs for them to make money. At the age of 11, after being wounded in a gunfight between some gangsters and hospitalized, he was returned home to his mother, who had recently divorced.  During the Depression, he dropped out of school and worked at various jobs until he joined the Merchant Marine, before joining the United States Navy in 1942 for World War II. He served as a Seabee in a naval construction battalion.  He received severe facial injuries during a bet in which he was attempting to lift a weight and had to undergo extensive plastic surgery to reconstruct his forehead, nose, and jaw. Before this, Fleming had always thought himself "ugly" and considered the incident a "wonderful balance of values."  After his facial reconstruction, he returned to Paramount Studios, where he had been working as a construction worker, grip, and carpenter. He made a bet with an actor that he could do a better audition. He lost the bet and it cost him $100 and "I lost a lot of pride too, which hurt but the $100 hurt worse." Upon deciding that acting had cost him $100, and acting would get it back, he entered acting classes at the studio in the evenings.  Fleming's acting debut came in a road company production of "Happy Birthday". He appeared on stage in Chicago and in a number of successful Broadway plays, including the musical "Plain and Fancy." He began acting in television shows about the same time. Fleming then moved to Hollywood and starred in several low-budget films, including "Fright", "Curse of the Undead", and the cult classic "Queen of Outer Space".

"Rawhide": Head 'Em Up, Move 'Em Out.

In 1958, the 6-foot, 31⁄2-inch () Fleming landed the starring role as trail boss Gil Favor in "Rawhide". Set in the 1860s, "Rawhide" portrayed the challenges faced by the men of the cattle drive from San Antonio, Texas, to Sedalia, Missouri. Producer Charles Marquis Warren called on the diary written in 1866 by trail boss George C. Duffield to shape the character of Favor: a savvy, strong, and fair leader who persevered and got the job done.  The top-rated Western, with co-stars Clint Eastwood, Sheb Wooley, and Paul Brinegar, ran from 1959 to 1966. Fleming and Eastwood more or less rotated in playing the lead from week-to-week, but the former was always billed first. Fleming also co-wrote two "Rawhide" scripts—"Incident of the Night on the Town" (season three, episode 29) and "A Woman's Place" (season four, episode 25).  Fleming, Wooley (trail scout Pete Nolan), James Murdock (Wishbone's clumsy meal assistant Mushy), Robert Cabal (wrangler Hey Soos), and Rocky Shahan (drover Joe Scarlet) were all dismissed by Ben Brady during "Rawhide"’s summer 1965 hiatus prior to shooting the eighth season. The recently installed sixth executive producer of "Rawhide" had been tasked with revitalizing the series and reversing declining ratings. Fleming boasted to "TV Guide" that "CBS fired me because they were paying me a million dollars a year" (only $220,000 to be exact). With Eastwood promoted against his better judgment to trail boss, the cattle drive limped on for 13 episodes before CBS chief William S. Paley preemptively axed it that December. Another cancellation factor, according to Eastwood, was that ""Rawhide" had been the network's only show to get a rating on Friday night, so they switched us to Tuesday opposite a show with the same type of male audience, "Combat!"" (ABC's gritty World War II drama involving the Western Front).

"The Glass Bottom Boat" and "Bonanza".

Fleming rebounded with a supporting role as a suave spy in "The Glass Bottom Boat", a Doris Day comedy vehicle, and also guest-starred in three episodes of the number-one rated, family-themed NBC Western "Bonanza" alongside Michael Landon (as Little Joe Cartwright) and action director William Witney. Effective as the sadistic Wes Dunn in the titular "Peace Officer" from season seven, Fleming was brought back by series creator David Dortort for the subsequent season to star as honorable Mormon rancher Heber Clauson in "The Pursued", a two-parter exploring religious persecution and intolerance. The first installment was aired only four days after Fleming’s untimely demise.

"High Jungle" and Death.

Fleming signed to topline "High Jungle", an adventurous two-part episode of the short-lived MGM Television-ABC "Off to See the Wizard" anthology also intended for theatrical distribution in Europe. Six weeks into the location shoot in Peru, Fleming and co-star Nico Minardos were in a dugout canoe that overturned in the Huallaga River. Minardos managed to swim to safety. Fleming was swept away by the current and drowned on September 28, 1966, at age 41, leaving behind fiancée Lynne Garber. "High Jungle" remains lost, but photographs survive.

References.

Eric Fleming (born Edward Heddy Jr.; July 4, 1925 – September 28, 1966) was an American actor known primarily for his role as Gil Favor in the CBS television series "Rawhide".

Eric Fleming est un acteur américain (4 juillet 1925 – 28 septembre 1966) principalement connu pour son rôle de Gil Favor dans la série télévisée "Rawhide".