Criticism vs review.

There is a distinctive dissimilarity between theatre criticism and a theatre review. Both of them deal with the dramatic arts as they are performed. But they are done in different ways and for different purposes. Both have strong rationalities to support the observations expressed, both are analytical, and both deal with the commendable as well as the blemishes of the production. A theatre review is a short essay for the ordinary uninitiated readers who get to know about the play being performed, about the group staging the play, and its director and other actors. Basically a review is a subjective discourse hinting on the cultural and artistic significance of the production. The storyline is discussed as it is believed to be the mainstay of the production. The discussion reflects an instant reaction of viewing the performance. An overall clinical analysis of each department of the production, like that of acting, stage craft, lighting designs and its implementation, background scoring, dress and costume designing, make-up etc., and even the script that had been prepared for the staging, is made by the reviewer. A review is published during the period when the play is "on", that is, when the play is being regularly staged. This requires a speedy writing of the piece. Thus, a review lacks any deep analytical discourse or investigative studies of the different aspects. It never gives any conclusive verdict about the production, as such.  Theatre criticism, on the other hand, is a deep analytical discourse of the production against the backdrop of the theatre-arts as a whole. The social and political bearings that have relevance to the play are highlighted, so also the cultural import. Hence, the discussion becomes a highly theoretical objective discourse on the historical significance of the production. Criticism thus is an academic dissertation that is usually lengthy and may take a considerable time to write. The piece may be published even after the regular staging of the play has been suspended or stopped, or a subsequent production of a different play has been started by the group. Technicalities of the different aspects of the production are discussed in details together with exhaustive analysis of the rationalities of their execution. Criticism thus is an anatomical scrutiny of the production. The play is not discussed in detail as such, as it is job of the literary critic. Philosophical, political or moral criticism may be considered anti-theatrical.  Some major newspapers cover the arts in some form and theatre criticism may be included as a part of this arts coverage. In the 21st century theatre criticism has grown in online venues, such as e-magazines and blogs, while criticism in newspapers has shrunk. Recent research shows that despite the different medium, online critics may be as trusted as theatre critics who write for newspapers.  Specialist media exists to cover most artistic disciplines, in this field one such publication is "The Stage" (see our for more).

Theatre criticism is a genre of arts criticism, and the act of writing or speaking about the performing arts such as a play or opera.

Une critique dramatique est une activité qui consiste à émettre et à diffuser largement une analyse sur des œuvres théâtrales.


Origin.

Since the Reform and Opening up in late 1970s, more and more international performing groups came to Shanghai, but there is no large theater for grandiose plays even till the 1990s. Shanghai municipal government decided to put up a large performing space complex to satisfy such a need and make it an urban culture center. In 1994 with 3000 million RMB government investment the construction of SGT started.

Theater Buildings and Architecture Style.

The Theater is divided into 8 floors above ground and 2 floors below ground, covering a total area of 62803 m. The total investment budget is 1.3 billion yuan.  The whole building is a crystal-like palace consisting of three main theaters: the Auditorium, the Buick Theater and the Studio Theater, with complete ancillary facilities such as ticketing center, Ballet Rehearsal hall, band rehearsal hall, VIP hall, exhibition hall, souvenir shop, coffee bar, banquet hall and parking garage.

The Auditorium.

The Auditorium is decorated with warm colors of gold and red. It is mainly for large-scale performances such as operas, symphonies, ballets, dramas and so forth. The 19.5-meter-high Auditorium covers an area of 1000 m, and is divided into three levels of stands, with 1631 seats in total. The structural proportion and seating arrangement of the stand ensure that the audience is close to the stage as much as possible and enjoy the performance from the best audio-visual angle.  In the overall design, a Waagner Biro control system is adopted in the full-automatic mechanical stage for lifting, tilting, rotation, ladder and other transformations. The well-equipped Meyersound's loudspeaker and surrounding sound can meet the requirements of 5.1 channel. Digital mixer of high fidelity can provide 96 inputs and 64 outputs.

The Buick Theater.

The Buick Theater, with stable walnut color as its main color, is located on the west side of the first floor. It is the performing space for chamber concerts as well as small and medium-sized dramas, and is also the venue of public charity performances and art education activities. The Buick Theater is divided into two levels of stands, with 575 seats in total.  The stage is 12 meters wide, 6 meters high and 11 meters deep. Above the stage is a voice echoing board and 25 electric suspenders, the loading capacity of which is up to 300 kilograms, the maximum lifting height being 14 meters, and the maximum lifting speed 1m / s. There are 5 dressing rooms in the backstage for 50 people to make up simultaneously.

The Studio Theater.

Located on the fifth floor, the Studio Theater is a "black box theater" with dark gray as its main color. It mainly presents small plays of experiments and fashion. There are 220 fixed seats and 80 mobile seats which can be combined according to the needs of the performance. The performance area is about 140 m. There are 4 dressing rooms in the backstage for 30 people to make up at the same time.  At the entrance of the small theater, there are coin dispensers and parcel cabinets to provide mineral water and deposit services for the audience. There is an independent VIP lounge in the backstage area, which provides program book, tea, towel and other services, which can be used by the VIP before and during the performance.

Culture Import and Export.

Shanghai Grand Theater actively combines domestic and foreign performing arts and production resources, and presents world classics to Chinese audiences in the way of its own after integrating national elements and characteristics. It has successively cooperated with Shanghai Shaoxing Opera House, Shanghai Ballet Company, Shanghai Opera House, Shanghai Peking Opera House, Salzburg Music Festival in Austria, Budapest Grand Art Palace in Hungary, and The Royal Opera House in Britain to launch various types of performances, such as operas, ballets and dramas. The mode of adding Chinese elements to world excellent culture has played a vital role in promoting Shanghai’s cultural originality and creativity as well as the spirit of the times.

Transportation.

Bus: No. 17, 20, 23, 37, 46, 48, 49, 71, 108, 109, 112, 123, 505, 506. Metro: Line 1, 2, 8 at the People’s Square station

The Shanghai Grand Theater () is one of the largest and best-equipped automatic stages in the world. Since the theater opened on August 27, 1998, it has staged over 6,000 performances of operas, musicals, ballets, symphonies, chamber music concerts, spoken dramas and various Chinese operas. The site is located at the intersection of Central Boulevard and Huangpi Road South in the northern part of the People's Square in Huangpu District, Shanghai. It is the home of the Shanghai Opera House Company; however, the title "Shanghai Opera House" officially applies to only the performing company and not to the building. The Shanghai Grand Theater is also the resident for other performing companies.

L'Opéra de Shanghai (Shanghai Grand Theatre), est réalisé en 1998 par l'architecte français Jean-Marie Charpentier. Le rideau de scène a été conçu par Olivier Debré. Il est situé sur la Place du Peuple, dans le quartier de Puxi, à Shanghai. À proximité on trouve, la Mairie de Shanghai, le Musée des Beaux-Arts de Shanghai, le Musée de Shanghai et le Centre d'exposition de la planification urbaine de Shanghai.


History.

IPBC was initially developed for use in the paint & coatings industry as a dry-film preservative to protect interior and exterior coatings from mold, mildew, and fungal growth, while also offering cost performance and sustainability benefits. IPBC exhibits efficacy against a broad spectrum of fungal species, typically at very low use levels. IPBC today is incorporated into a wide variety of interior and exterior paint formulations around the world.  Use is restricted in some countries due to its toxicity, especially acute inhalation toxicity. IPBC is also becoming recognized as a contact allergen.

Uses.

IPBC is an effective fungicide at very low concentrations in cosmetic and other products, and has shown very low sensitivity in humans tested with this preservative. IPBC was approved in 1996 for use up to 0.1% concentrations in topical products and cosmetics. However, this preservative is mostly found in cosmetics at about one-eighth that level [Maier et al., 2009]. IPBC Toxicity and Safety Tests show it to be generally safe: When used properly in leave-on skin products, IPBC is extremely safe [Steinberg, 2002]. Previous to being approved for cosmetic use in 1996, extensive safety and toxicity tests were conducted on IPBC and their results were gathered along with earlier studies in a report of the Safety Assessment of IPBC by the Cosmetic Ingredient Review [CIR Final Report, Lanigan 1998]. This final report found IPBC to be a non-carcinogen with no genotoxicity and in reproductive and developmental toxicity studies using rats and mice, IPBC had no significant effect on fertility, reproductive performance, or on the incidence of fetal malformation [Lanigan, 1998].

Toxicity.

The study, "Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Iodopropynyl Butylcarbamate", discusses the results of 32 studies between 1990 and 1994 in 3,582 subjects using skin application of IPBC at relevant concentrations.  All 32 studies showed no evidence of contact sensitization compared to placebo controls, with the report stating "With each test formulation, a few panelists had erythema, edema, and/or a papular response, but overall, the results were negative." In addition, the study mentions two skin sensitivity studies on 183 children ages 3 – 12 yrs which showed no adverse effects as well as no significant irritation from IPBC.  Since the early safety report, there have been a few reports of human skin sensitivity to IPBC in individual patients – all of which showed complete recovery after discontinuance of use of any product containing the IPBC which was presumably an allergen for these patients [Toholka & Nixon, 2014; Pazzaglia & Tosti, 1999].  Post-1996 tests of human sensitivity to IPBC have all shown quite low sensitivity, having overall reported human skin testing (patch test) on 53,774 subjects with only 491 of those subjects showing any reaction (0.8%) to IPBC. In every study, positive patch test reactions occurred in less than 1% of subjects tested in all but one study. This is a very low reaction rate, but it is not zero, and the industry reports this low rate of reaction even though in the largest study of 25,435 subjects over 69% of the reactions were either weak or doubtful [Warshaw et al., 2013a].  These combined studies showing prevalence of reaction below 1% means that IPBC at this time does not have the reaction rates necessary to be included as an allergen in standard allergy series. But, it remains under close monitoring as it is a relatively new preservative for cosmetic products and will presumably increase in usage [Sasseville, 2004].  Most human patch tests performed before 2004 were with 0.1% IPBC solutions, i.e. 10 times the concentration used in many cosmetic products. Some used 0.5% IPBC. In 2004, it was suggested that a better concentration for tests of this substance would be 0.2% [Brasch et al., 2004] and this has contributed to the diagnosis of more sensitizations to this substance [Martin-Gorgojo & Johansen, 2013]. One study showed significantly increased sensitivity between 2005 and 2010 using 0.5% IPBC in patch tests [Warshaw et al., 2013b].

Iodopropynyl Butyl Carbamate (IPBC) is a water-soluble preservative used globally in the paints & coatings, wood preservatives, personal care, and cosmetics industries. IPBC is a member of the carbamate family of biocides. IPBC was invented in the 1970s and has a long history of effective use as an antifungal technology.

Le Butylcarbamate d'iodopropynyle (IPBC) entre dans la composition des crèmes solaires et des lotions pour la peau. Il est également présent dans la lasure pour le traitement du bois, à cause de ses propriétés fongicides et bactéricides.


Formal notation.

The "negation of conjunction" rule may be written in sequent notation: and  The "negation of disjunction" rule may be written as: and  In rule form: "negation of conjunction"  and "negation of disjunction"  and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic:  where formula_17 and formula_18 are propositions expressed in some formal system.

Substitution form.

De Morgan's laws are normally shown in the compact form above, with negation of the output on the left and negation of the inputs on the right. A clearer form for substitution can be stated as:  This emphasizes the need to invert both the inputs and the output, as well as change the operator, when doing a substitution.

Set theory and Boolean algebra.

In set theory and Boolean algebra, it is often stated as "union and intersection interchange under complementation", which can be formally expressed as:  where:

Infinite unions and intersections.

The generalized form is  where is some, possibly uncountable, indexing set.  In set notation, De Morgan's laws can be remembered using the mnemonic "break the line, change the sign".

Engineering.

In electrical and computer engineering, De Morgan's laws are commonly written as:  and  where:

Text searching.

De Morgan’s laws commonly apply to text searching using Boolean operators AND, OR, and NOT. Consider a set of documents containing the words “cars” and “trucks”. De Morgan’s laws hold that these two searches will return the same set of documents:  The corpus of documents containing “cars” or “trucks” can be represented by four documents:  To evaluate Search A, clearly the search “(cars OR trucks)” will hit on Documents 1, 2, and 3. So the negation of that search (which is Search A) will hit everything else, which is Document 4.  Evaluating Search B, the search “(NOT cars)” will hit on documents that do not contain “cars”, which is Documents 2 and 4. Similarly the search “(NOT trucks)” will hit on Documents 1 and 4. Applying the AND operator to these two searches (which is Search B) will hit on the documents that are common to these two searches, which is Document 4.  A similar evaluation can be applied to show that the following two searches will return the same set of documents (Documents 1, 2, 4):

History.

The laws are named after Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871), who introduced a formal version of the laws to classical propositional logic. De Morgan's formulation was influenced by algebraization of logic undertaken by George Boole, which later cemented De Morgan's claim to the find. Nevertheless, a similar observation was made by Aristotle, and was known to Greek and Medieval logicians. For example, in the 14th century, William of Ockham wrote down the words that would result by reading the laws out. Jean Buridan, in his "Summulae de Dialectica", also describes rules of conversion that follow the lines of De Morgan's laws. Still, De Morgan is given credit for stating the laws in the terms of modern formal logic, and incorporating them into the language of logic. De Morgan's laws can be proved easily, and may even seem trivial. Nonetheless, these laws are helpful in making valid inferences in proofs and deductive arguments.

Informal proof.

De Morgan's theorem may be applied to the negation of a disjunction or the negation of a conjunction in all or part of a formula.

Negation of a disjunction.

In the case of its application to a disjunction, consider the following claim: "it is false that either of A or B is true", which is written as: In that it has been established that "neither" A nor B is true, then it must follow that both A is not true and B is not true, which may be written directly as: If either A or B "were" true, then the disjunction of A and B would be true, making its negation false. Presented in English, this follows the logic that "since two things are both false, it is also false that either of them is true".  Working in the opposite direction, the second expression asserts that A is false and B is false (or equivalently that "not A" and "not B" are true). Knowing this, a disjunction of A and B must be false also. The negation of said disjunction must thus be true, and the result is identical to the first claim.

Negation of a conjunction.

The application of De Morgan's theorem to a conjunction is very similar to its application to a disjunction both in form and rationale. Consider the following claim: "it is false that A and B are both true", which is written as: In order for this claim to be true, either or both of A or B must be false, for if they both were true, then the conjunction of A and B would be true, making its negation false. Thus, one (at least) or more of A and B must be false (or equivalently, one or more of "not A" and "not B" must be true). This may be written directly as, Presented in English, this follows the logic that "since it is false that two things are both true, at least one of them must be false".  Working in the opposite direction again, the second expression asserts that at least one of "not A" and "not B" must be true, or equivalently that at least one of A and B must be false. Since at least one of them must be false, then their conjunction would likewise be false. Negating said conjunction thus results in a true expression, and this expression is identical to the first claim.

Formal proof.

Here we use formula_30to denote the complement of A. The proof that formula_31 is completed in 2 steps by proving both formula_32 and formula_33.

Part 1.

Let formula_34. Then, formula_35.  Because formula_36, it must be the case that formula_37 or formula_38.  If formula_37, then formula_40, so formula_41.  Similarly, if formula_38, then formula_43, so formula_44.  Thus, formula_45;  that is, formula_32.

Part 2.

To prove the reverse direction, let formula_41, and for contradiction assume formula_48.  Under that assumption, it must be the case that formula_49,  so it follows that formula_50 and formula_51, and thus formula_52 and formula_53.  However, that means formula_54, in contradiction to the hypothesis that formula_41,  therefore, the assumption formula_48 must not be the case, meaning that formula_57.  Hence, formula_58,  that is, formula_33.

Conclusion.

If formula_33 "and" formula_61, then formula_31; this concludes the proof of De Morgan's law.  The other De Morgan's law, formula_63, is proven similarly.

Generalising De Morgan duality.

In extensions of classical propositional logic, the duality still holds (that is, to any logical operator one can always find its dual), since in the presence of the identities governing negation, one may always introduce an operator that is the De Morgan dual of another. This leads to an important property of logics based on classical logic, namely the existence of negation normal forms: any formula is equivalent to another formula where negations only occur applied to the non-logical atoms of the formula. The existence of negation normal forms drives many applications, for example in digital circuit design, where it is used to manipulate the types of logic gates, and in formal logic, where it is needed to find the conjunctive normal form and disjunctive normal form of a formula. Computer programmers use them to simplify or properly negate complicated logical conditions. They are also often useful in computations in elementary probability theory.  Let one define the dual of any propositional operator P("p", "q",...) depending on elementary propositions "p", "q",... to be the operator formula_64 defined by

Extension to predicate and modal logic.

This duality can be generalised to quantifiers, so for example the universal quantifier and existential quantifier are duals:  To relate these quantifier dualities to the De Morgan laws, set up a model with some small number of elements in its domain "D", such as  Then  and  But, using De Morgan's laws,  and  verifying the quantifier dualities in the model.  Then, the quantifier dualities can be extended further to modal logic, relating the box ("necessarily") and diamond ("possibly") operators:  In its application to the alethic modalities of possibility and necessity, Aristotle observed this case, and in the case of normal modal logic, the relationship of these modal operators to the quantification can be understood by setting up models using Kripke semantics.

In propositional logic and Boolean algebra, De Morgan's laws are a pair of transformation rules that are both valid rules of inference. They are named after Augustus De Morgan, a 19th-century British mathematician. The rules allow the expression of conjunctions and disjunctions purely in terms of each other via negation.

Les lois de De Morgan sont des identités entre propositions logiques. Elles ont été formulées par le mathématicien britannique Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871).


Career.

He began bodybuilding at age 17 and was the German Champion by 1984. He competed in the 1988 Mr. Olympia alongside Lee Haney, Shawn Ray and others. He is one of the tallest bodybuilding champions to date standing at, weighing 131 kilos (288 lbs) in 1988.  Möller entered his movie career in 1989 with the film "Cyborg". In 1992, he appeared in "Universal Soldier" with Dolph Lundgren and Jean-Claude Van Damme. In 1993 he played the villain Brakus opposite Phillip Rhee and Eric Roberts in "Best of the Best 2". Around this time he took a major neck injury in Las Vagas and had to undergo months of physiotherapy and was lucky to survive. The injury came as a result of engaging in martial arts competitions where he held his title for many years until his defeat and neck injury. After this the competitions ceased and Ralf moved from the area retiring from all martial arts as he felt lucky to have survived. His two biggest mainstream film roles to date are Ridley Scott's "Gladiator", and 2002's "The Scorpion King". Besides these two movies, he has played the leading character in "The Viking Sagas", and Conan the Barbarian in the TV-series "Conan". The show aired in 1997–1998 with the premise that Conan, and his three sidekicks, were chosen by the god Crom to fight and vanquish the evil Hissah Zul and become king.  In both "The Bad Pack" (1997) and "Gladiator" (2000), Möller appeared alongside fellow bodybuilder Sven-Ole Thorsen.  In 2003 he had a cameo in the music video of Maria (I Like it Loud), by Scooter, a German techno music band.  He went on to appear in "El padrino" (2004), sequel to "The Bad Pack", once again playing Special Agent Kurt Mayers. Möller played Hammacher in the 2006 film Beerfest.

Ralf Rudolf Moeller (born 12 January 1959) is a German actor and former competitive bodybuilder. He is known for his roles of Brick Bardo in "Cyborg", Kjartan in "The Viking Sagas", the title character in the television show "Conan the Adventurer", Hagen in "Gladiator", Thorak in "The Scorpion King" and Ulfar in "Pathfinder".

Ralf Moeller, (né Ralf Rudolf Möller), est un acteur allemand né le à Recklinghausen en (Allemagne). Ancien Monsieur Univers, Ralf Moeller a été également le champion allemand de bodybuilding de la Fédération Internationale de Bodybuilding. Il a entamé sa carrière d’acteur à Hollywood, tenant son premier rôle face à Jean-Claude Van Damme dans "Cyborg" (1989) d’Albert Pyun. Il a joué par la suite dans des films comme "Universal Soldier" (1991) de Roland Emmerich, "Batman & Robin" (1996) de Joel Schumacher, "Gladiator" (1999) de Ridley Scott, "Le Roi Scorpion" ("The Scorpion King") (2001) de Chuck Russell et "El Padrino" de Damian Chapa. Il a dernièrement été l’interprète de la comédie indépendante "Max and Grace" de Michael Parness.


Conference.

Although Churchill suggested that Mackenzie King be involved in all discussions, Roosevelt vetoed the idea due to concern that future conferences would be encumbered by all of the Allied nations demanding seats. As a result, Mackenzie King's hospitality was almost purely for ceremonial purposes. Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union, had been invited to join the conference, but he did not attend for military reasons.  The Allies agreed to begin discussions for the planning of the invasion of France, codenamed Operation Overlord, in a secret report by the Combined Chiefs of Staff. It was agreed that Overlord would commence on May 1, 1944, but this was subsequently disregarded and a later date was finalised. However, Overlord was not the only option; for example, Operation Jupiter remained a strong possibility had the Germans proved too powerful on the French coast. In the Mediterranean (a theatre on which Churchill was very keen) they resolved to concentrate more force to remove Italy from the alliance of Axis powers and to occupy it along with Corsica. Churchill and Roosevelt made it clear that they would only accept unconditional surrender from Italy, with there to be a complete and immediate cessation of fighting. News came through of the fall of Sicily to Allied forces, an invasion that had taken just 38 days. It was then decided that an invasion of Italy would begin on September 3, 1943. However, an armistice was signed that same day, which officially put Italy out of the war.  There were discussions about improving the coordination of efforts by the Americans, British, and Canadians to develop an atomic bomb. Churchill and Roosevelt, without Canadian input, signed the Quebec Agreement, stating that the nuclear technology would never be used against one another, that they would not use it against third parties without the consent of one another, but also that Tube Alloys would not be discussed with third parties. Canada, although not being represented at the particular meeting, played a key role in this agreement as she was a major source of uranium and heavy water, both essential in the atomic bomb.  It was decided that operations in the Balkans should be limited to supplying guerrillas, whereas operations against Japan would be intensified in order to exhaust Japanese resources, cut their communications lines, and secure forward bases from which the Japanese mainland could be attacked.  In addition to the strategic discussions, which were communicated to the Soviet Union and to Chiang Kai-shek in China, the conference also issued a joint statement on Palestine, intended to calm tensions as the British occupation was becoming increasingly untenable. The conference also condemned German atrocities in Poland.  It was clear that eliminating Italy from the war was the Allies' main priority; this was expected to be done by the end of 1943. Following this, the next hope was that Germany would be defeated by the fall of 1944, which would leave just Japan remaining among the Axis powers.  Following the conference, Churchill was on holiday at a fishing camp and then, on August 31, 1943, delivered a radio address before travelling by a special train that was going to Washington, D.C. to resume talks with Roosevelt.

Security.

Given the highly secret topic under discussion at the conference security at the Château Frontenac and the Quebec Citadelle was important. Sgt. Maj. Émile Couture (then 25 years of age) of the Canadian Army was responsible for cleaning up the offices at both of these locations after the Conference had ended. Couture found a leather portfolio with a gold inscription "Churchill-Roosevelt, Quebec Conference, 1943." on the exterior and kept it as a souvenir not realizing that it contained nearly complete plans for Operation Overlord. That evening Couture discovered the contents of the portfolio and, realizing the extremely sensitive nature of those documents, hid the portfolio under his mattress until he could return the portfolio in the morning. Couture was investigated by Scotland Yard and the FBI to ensure none of the information had been leaked. At the Second Quebec Conference Couture was awarded the British Empire Medal for his silence though it was attributed for "services rendered". Couture was interviewed on Radio-Canada's radio program Appelez-moi Lise by Lise Payette in 1972 about this issue. Additional magazine interviews with Couture are on display at the permanent exhibit for both Quebec Conferences in the Quebec Citadelle after September, 2019.

The First Quebec Conference, codenamed "QUADRANT", was a highly secret military conference held during World War II by the governments of the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States. It took place in Quebec City on August 17–24, 1943, at both the Citadelle and the Château Frontenac. The chief representatives were Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt, hosted by the Canadian prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King.

La conférence de Québec (nom de code QUADRANT) est une conférence militaire tenue pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale entre les gouvernements britannique et américain. La conférence eut lieu à Québec du au, à la citadelle de Québec et au château Frontenac. Les délégations furent dirigées par Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt et William Lyon Mackenzie King.


Origins.

During French control of the Low Countries, linguistic problems arose with the first language laws. After the invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, French revolutionaries began the "francisation" of the country. Under the Old Regime French coexisted with many languages, including Latin and English, but the decree of 2nd Thermidor Year II made French the official language of France and its territories. Revolutionary France differentiated between Flemish and Walloon provinces: "It seems the revolutionaries themselves consider the fact French was enough close to the Walloon language so as not to manage Wallonia as Brittany, Corsica, Alsace or Flanders." The French Consulate and Empire extended the francisation process by requiring all the civil servants of Flanders to become French citizens. Authorities sent members of the French bourgeoisie and clergy to Belgium to replace Belgian elites and moved Belgian elites to France to remove them from their roots and their culture. For example, Flemish seminarians were trained in Paris and Lyon under the direction of Jean-Armand de Roquelaure, the archbishop of Malines, a French clerk installed by French authorities.  After the fall of the French Empire, the Congress of Vienna united the Belgian provinces of the Austrian Netherlands with the former Dutch Republic, forming the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The new ruler of the United Kingdom, William I, gave Dutch the status of ""national language"" in order to reduce the influence of French ideas. On 15 September 1819, William I decreed Dutch as the official language for justice and governmental administration although he did not prohibit the use of other languages. According to Hervé Hasquin the goal of these policies was the 'cultural homogenization of our regions'. William I "believed or feigned to believe that French was introduced into the Walloon provinces only under the pressure of foreign influence." The linguistic barrier "acquired administrative significance for the first time in 1822 with William I's legislation on the use of Dutch in Flemish communes." William's linguistic policies were one of the contributing factors that led to the Belgian Revolution of 1830 and the linguistic legislation of the first unionist governments.  The young Belgian government officially recognized only the French language, though the Constitution allowed for the free use of all languages. In the 1840s the Flemish Movement appeared in response to the Belgian government's recognition of French as the official language. The Walloon Movement developed subsequently as a reaction to the claims of the Flemish Movement.

1880–1898: Opposition to official recognition of Dutch.

Born in Flanders and in Brussels, a "French-speaking movement" was set up within civil servant circles to combat the introduction of Dutch as the language of administration. For the first Walloon militants the recognition of Dutch meant job losses, the infantilisation of the culture, and an attack on national unity. In 1877 the first political Walloon association, the Walloon League of Ixelles, was formed. In 1883 the Walloon Beehive in Anvers, whose motto is "Walloon I am, Belgian first and foremost", was founded. The Walloon movement developed rapidly in the south but was mostly confined to the bourgeoisie. The liberal leading elements of the bourgeoisie consider the Flemish Movement as a machination proposing to keep the Dutch-speaking provinces under the heel of religion. Arnaud Pirotte disagreed with the notion that the Walloon movement started with the Walloon reaction to the success of the Flemish Movement.  The first members of the Walloon Movement promoted neither federalism nor separatism. Their rhetoric was confined to defending Belgium and the use of the French language. For the early Walloon Movement, the daily use of the French language was considered the cement holding the country together:  "The emerging Walloon Movement thus fits in a Belgian perspective as its contours and especially its linguistic identity was defined for this State in 1830. It regards the acquisition of the French language as a form of adhesion to Belgium and to the great principles of freedom in the Constitution."  During this period a variety of Walloon leagues fought against the use of Dutch as the official language. The most prominent was the Society of Walloon Propaganda, which was founded on 23 February 1888 by lawyer Édouard Termonia. The Society had three goals: to defend the acquired rights of the "Walloon" agents in civil service; to defend the French language and culture; and to unify the varied Walloon leagues of Brussels under a common banner. The Society organized the first Walloon congresses in Brussels in July 1890, in Namur in December 1891, in Liège in November 1892, and in Mons in November 1893. Yves Quairiaux writes that at the Mons congress delegates from Walloon provinces were in the minority and the assembly voted in favor of teaching Dutch in French-speaking provinces. The first congresses were unpopular, especially in southern Belgium, and the first members of the Walloon Movement were so disorganized that the fifth congress (to be held in 1894) was cancelled. In 1895 the Society of Walloon Propaganda asked deputies to leave an assembly when a French-speaking orator presented a speech in Dutch. In 1896, when the Coremans-De Vriendt law was first proposed, the Society of Walloon Propaganda and the Walloon League of Ixelles began a protest campaign. They sent petitions signed by communal administrations and members of the bar to the Senate. The first article of the Coremans-De Vriendt law declares that ""the laws are voted, sanctioned, promulgated and published in French language and Dutch language"". The law reminded the Walloon Movement that their privileges were endangered by the recognition of Dutch as an official language for administration and justice.

1898–1914: Political creation of Wallonia.

1898–1904: Political awakening.

The Coremans-De Vriendt law, called the ""law of Equality"" (""Gelijkheidswet"" in Dutch), was passed by a small majority in both the Chamber of the Deputies and the Senate. In the Chamber of the Deputies only twenty-one Wallooon Deputies voted yes, while nineteen voted no, and four abstained. In the Senate only three of the forty Walloon Senators present voted to pass the law. The law was promulgated on 18 April 1898, constituting a turning point in the history of the Walloon Movement. The Walloon Movement, once confined to Brussels and Flanders, grew because of increased participation from French-speaking Belgians living in the south. The Society of Walloon Propaganda, once the engine of the Walloon Movement, had faded and disappeared by the 1900s. The Walloon League of Liège, founded in 1897 by the liberal Julien Delaitte, assumed the leadership of the Walloon Movement.  After the passage of the Coremans-De Vriendt law, the Walloon League of Liège called for the creation of a Walloon National League. The Walloon National League, founded on 8 May 1898, led the Walloon Movement from 1898–1905, a period which saw the affirmation of a political Wallonia at the expense of French-speaking interests in Flanders and Brussels. In 1899 the Society of Walloon Propaganda asked for the seat of the Walloon National League to be transferred to Brussels, but the measure failed because "other towns of Wallonia estimat[ed] that Liège was the Walloon capital".  The political relationship between the Walloon language and the Walloon Movement also changed. Before the Coremans-De Vriendt law, the idea of the equality of all languages was not accepted by Walloon militants who considered Flemish to be an idiom. In their eyes the Flemings had to give up their idiom just as the Walloons had done. The recognition of Dutch pushed the Walloon Movement to more adamantly defend the Walloon language. This transition is indicated by the Walloon League of Liège beginning its publication of articles in Walloon. Before the Walloon League of Liège, the use of the Walloon language had been confined to religious and folk publications. The promotion of the Walloon language was never strong with Wallingants who were attached to French Jacobinism.  French-speaking elites, fearful of becoming a minority after the recognition of Dutch as the official language, began creating a French-speaking unilingual Wallonia. Promoted in 1844 by, the word "Wallonie" indicated a linguistic and cultural area. Gradually it acquired political significance. The acquisition of a political meaning began with the creation of federalistic projects in Belgium.

1905–1914: Political affirmations.

In 1905 the fifth Walloon congress, which took place in Liège at the "Liège International" exposition, was a new step for the Walloon Movement. After the congress separatist ideas began to mature. Julien Delaite, a leader of the Walloon Movement, explained what his vision of the Walloon Movement was in a speech at the "salle académique" of the University of Liège:  "We organized it apart from any spirit of party, to expose the right claims of the Walloons and to exalt the walloon spirit. We do want to criticize only what is criticizable, but we want to say everything, say it without fear. We do not attack the Flemings, but we intend to whip the flamingant exaggerations that threaten the integrity of the Belgian fatherland. We want also to clarify what the Walloons were in the past, what they carry out in the present, what they aspire for the future."  After this congress, the Walloon Movement increasingly embraced separatism. The congress of 1905 reunited twenty-five societies and liberal minded politicians, artists, and industrialists who were inhabitants of Liège. Another political shift started during this period with socialists joining the Walloon Movement in increasing numbers.  The massive arrival of socialists was caused not only by a linguistic cleavage, but also by a political cleavage. Since October 1884 Belgium saw a succession of catholic governments whose supporters were largely Dutch-speaking. The historian Maarten Van Ginderachter writes that Walloons were "excluded from national power. Between 1884 and 1902 there was only one Walloon in the Belgian government". Liberals and socialists agreed to organize nationally for the 1912 legislative and provincial elections. The defeat of the socialist-liberal political alliance by the Catholic Party initiated a profound change within the movement. The majority of Walloon militants, and this for a few years, have considered whereas the catholic conservative majority in North is installed for a long time and that makes sterile the leftist majority in the South, which the newspaper "Het Laatste Nieuws" underlined during the project of flemishisation of the University of Ghent: ""Again we draw the attention of everyone to the tactics of the opponents to Flemish Movement: they know that they are swept everywhere in Flemish areas—consequently they must excite the Walloons"".  This observation weighs heavy in "the passage from a unitarian antiflamingantism to the strictly Walloon claims". The congress of 1912 is then the occasion to clearly assert the administrative separation and the existence of Wallonia. This political proposal, already timidly advanced since 1897 and 1898 respectively per Albert Mockel and Julien Delaite, becomes one of the principal claims of Walloon Movement starting from this "Congress of combat" as its organizers define it. And it is during the same congress of 1912 that Walloon nationalism is really born: a Walloon Assembly is made up as an unofficial Walloon Parliament of which the goal first is the promotion of the idea of an administrative separation with the unilinguism in Wallonia and bilingualism in Flanders. This obvious imbalance in the Walloon claims will only radicalize the Flemish Movement.  The Walloon Assembly is really the first unified walloon organism and it acquired et it quickly acquires a great influence on the Walloon Movement that it keeps until the beginning of the 1930s. This unofficial parliament will be the symbol of the combat for the autonomy of the Walloon nation, it will define the walloon flag and also the way the country should be divided administratively in two with the choice of Namur as capital and the division of the province of Brabant. Choice what will follow the Germans within the framework of Flamenpolitik intended to destroy Belgium. In spite of the defense of unionistic theses, the policies of the Walloon movement are shown intended to irrevocably divide Belgium.  This is also in the spirit of these congress that socialist Jules Destrée write his "Lettre au Roi sur la séparation de la Wallonie et de la Flandre", letter that represents perfectly with the Walloon Assembly that period of the Movement. Extremely agitated period of toughening as show the events happened during the ""Joyeuse Entrée"" of king Albert I in Liège on 13 July 1913 when he is welcome by separatists demonstrations: The socialist and republican newspaper "Le Peuple" wrote "When, between provincial palate and the Town hall, crowd breaks the police cords protecting the king, the exasperated wallonisants benefit from the distress for to express with the royal family their aspirations of independence. Holding up the Walloon flag with the red cock, they precipitate towards the pram and balance under the nose of the king the new colors". It adds that "while flowers fall from the stages rises the dominating cry 'Lives Wallonia!'." Other newspapers as the "Gazette de Liège" minimized these demonstrations.  During World War I, on 3 May 1918, an informant of the Belgian Embassy in the Netherlands sent this report to this Embassy: "As determined by domestic policy, the ruling of the country belongs to a party which leans principally on the Flemish and agricultural regions of Belgium while the Walloon and industrial regions of the country are totally excluded from this running. It is an abnormal situation, which is caused by a bad application of the parliamentarian (...) which was already obvious before the war and which will deteriorate. The difference between the Flemish issue and the Walloon issue is that the Flemings are pursuing intellectual and moral goals while the Walloons are demanding the immediate abolition of a situation they consider improper and hurtful." This report was sent to King Albert and his Government in Sainte-Adresse (NPDC)

1915–1939: Interbellum.

1915–1929: Brakings and dissensions.

The First World War revived the patriotism in Belgium, especially after the application of the Flamenpolitik by German occupying forces during the war. Even though the majority of the wallingant and flamingant organizations ceased their activities, a minority of Walloon and Flemish militants collaborated with the Germans. Walloon activism is even more marginal than the Flemish side, but it seemed less handled by the German authorities than this last. At the end of the war, Walloon and Flemish activists will be severely judged but only Flemish activism will be used during the interbellum against Flemish revendications since Spring 1919, whereas Walloon activism sinks into oblivion, the French-speaking press and also Wallingant propaganda papers to buckle down to create an image of a "Flandre embochée" (German-friendly Flanders):It is true that French-speaking press won't cease to discredit on all flemish by amalgaming it with activists' actions led under the high patronage of the hatred Germany. Indeed, since Spring 1919, press articles begin to associate activism and Flemish Movement; that will create an image of a ""Flandre embochée"" [...] At the end of the war, walloon activists are judged with the same virulence that their flemish counterparts and for the same reasons. But, once condemned, they disappear from memories; whereas flemish activism is more and more used against flemish revendications.  The experience of World War I and the reviving of Belgian patriotism brake the Walloon Movement that only began to affirm itself few years early, and are a source of division in the Movement. The Walloon Assembly, at that time the standard-bearer of wallingant revendications, adopt a Belgian nationalist position, position opposed to its prime goal. That involves tensions with the more radicals wallingants who then leave the Assembly and its satellites. These tensions arrive at the moment of linguistic law of 31 July 1921 which envisages the constitution of 3 linguistic Regions, two unilingual—one Dutch-speaking and a French-speaking—and one bilingual. Even if in the facts the bilingual communes and of the Dutch-speaking Area and the French-speaking Area become all French-speaking and that the bilingualism of Brussels was also regarded as a victory by the French-speaking people, this law is felt as a threat by the Walloon militants because it blames the experiment up to now unilingual of Wallonia: the law provides indeed that the other language can be used in each linguistic Region. Despite every amendments brought to the law at the Senate, only three walloon deputies on fifty-nine with the Room will vote for it: fifty and one vote against and six abstain from. Since 1920, the Assembly undergoes a large disaffection and loses its more famous names whereas create for themselves dissenting leagues a little everywhere. The Action Committee of the Walloon Assembly in Liege becomes a new Walloon League of Liège and affirms itself more and more since 1923 as the new leader of the movement. This league undertakes then to do a hard work of propaganda: from 1924 to 1930, it organizes seven annual congresses from which is born a new gathering of walloon associations, the Walloon Concentration.

1930–1939: Walloon nationalism reaffirmed.

The supremacy of the new Walloon League of Liège and its Walloon Concentration represent this period of radicalization toward 'wallingantism'. The 1930s were a period of radicalization for many reasons: the linguistic law of 1921 stipulating the use of Dutch language in Wallonia, the reciprocal radicalization of the Flemish Movement, and an atmosphere heavy with the birth or consolidation of ideologies such as fascism, communism and Nazism.  The Walloon Concentration, initiated by the most radicalized factions, organized congresses within the Walloon Concentration. The first congress was organized in Liège on 27 and 28 September 1930, at the occasion of the Centennial of the independence of Belgium. The wish of the organizers was that all trends, both extremist and moderate, should be represented. The congress members all rallied in one intransigent motion: the French identity and integrity of Wallonia and the recognition to Flemish people of their own identity. Their position was total regional unilinguism. They decided that it is within the framework of Belgium, the solution for the Walloon-Flemish disagreement should be found, and a constitutional revision should be created. To this end, they decided to create a commission to work out a project to be presented at the next congress. At this next congress, the commission presented its choice: a federalist project, preferred to a provincialist project more moderated and to a simple separatism. A text of resolution was redesigned, and the unanimity of congress members ratified it, except 9 abstentions mainly from delegates of the Arrondissement of Brussels. This resolution is also the first important text where Christian leftists were involved, as Élie Baussart.  This returned to the ideas of 1912 and this inversion in the Walloon claimed to the profit of a unilingual Dutch-speaking area came mainly from the fear of the "Flemish islets"—a tool of the Flemish "imperialism" in wallingant speech—in the French-speaking provinces, because the linguistic law of 1921 envisaged the use of Dutch there. Moreover, many Dutch-speakers settle in the South of the country to work, a fact not appreciated by the wallingants because these new populations are often close to the Catholic Party and could call into question the unilinguism of Wallonia, as stated by the liberal :  Walloons! Beware of this aspect of the problem. The prolific Flanders is invading us slowly; if those who come to us and that we welcome fraternally isolate themselves in Flemish linguistic groups, if some fanaticism helps them to not be absorbed, if a blurred administrative legislation in linguistic matters favours this non-absorption, Walloons, beware; in fifty years your land won't be yours any more. It's hard, it's harsh to "drop" the French of Flanders, it would much harder and more dangerous to sacrifice our linguistic unity.  At the same time, the linguistic law is also regarded as dangerous by Flemish militants because according to them, it contributes to territorial nibbling in favour of the French language. The wallingants then put agreement with the flamingants. On 16 March 1929, wallingant Destrée and flamingant Camille Huysmans sign, with 26 other socialist deputies within the P.O.B, the ""Compromis des Belges"" ("Compromise of the Belgians") for the linguistic and cultural homogeneity of the Flanders and Wallonia, leading to the linguistic law of 14 July 1932. It prescribes Dutch as the official language of the Flanders, and French as official language of Wallonia, consciously sacrificing the linguistic rights of the French-speaking people of Flanders.  Other congresses of the Walloon Concentration are organized to the war, as the congress of 1935 during which the militants assert "the right for the Walloons to dispose of themselves". Those of 1933 and 1936 are the occasion to affirm the need of an economic collaboration between France and Belgium and to criticize the Belgian foreign policy of neutrality asserting which it is wished by Germany and that a bringing together with France was preferable, position registered in the Francophile tradition of the Walloon movement. The congress of 1937 is the abandonment of the federalist project for confederalism in order to favor a Walloon foreign policy, notoriously pro-French.  The end of the interbellum is also the time of the formation of the first Walloon political parties, for example the Nationalist Walloon Party-French Party and the Democratic Walloon Party both created for the anticipated elections of 2 April 1939. The first one created was the Walloon League of Deux-Houdeng in 1938, following Albert du Bois' rattachist thought, but disappeared rapidly. The second, Mahieu's Democratic Walloon Front, transformed into a political party a few weeks before the elections. Without any backup from Walloon associations and with only two important figures with Jules Mahieu and Arille Carlier, this wallingant party got only 10,000 votes in the seven counties where it was present.

The Walloon Movement traces its ancestry to 1856 when literary and folkloric movements based around the began forming. Despite the formation of the Society of Walloon Literature, it was not until around 1880 that a "Walloon and French-speaking defense movement" appeared, following the linguistic laws of the 1870s. The movement asserted the existence of Wallonia and a Walloon identity while maintaining the defense of the French language.

L'histoire du mouvement wallon commence en 1880, date que l'on s'accorde à prendre comme point de repère initial. Avant le mouvement wallon, de nature politique, il existe des mouvements littéraires et folkloriques dès 1856, année où est instituée la Société liégeoise de littérature wallonne. Cependant, c'est autour de 1880 qu'est fondé le Mouvement de défense wallonne et francophone, à la suite des premières lois linguistiques des années 1870. Il prendra par la suite le caractère d'un mouvement revendiquant l'existence d'une Wallonie et d'une identité wallonne, tout en n'abandonnant pas la défense du français.


Early life.

Jackson was born at Deaconess Hospital in Spokane, Washington, on July 12, 1975, to David and Sherri Jackson, and was named by his father after the 1950s Western series "Cheyenne". The third of four children, he was raised in Oldtown, Idaho, a "teeny mill town" in a rural area in northern Idaho near the Washington border. His father was Native American and a Vietnam veteran. His mother taught Jackson, his sister, and two brothers to sing and regularly played music by Joan Baez, Joni Mitchell, Bob Dylan and Elvis Presley at home. Throughout his childhood, Jackson lived with his family in a rural home that had an outhouse and no running water. He moved to Spokane as a teenager.  In Seattle, Jackson worked as an ad executive at a magazine and did some theater work on the side, earning his Equity card. "As soon as I found out what theater was, what Broadway was, I thought, 'Oh, that's what I'll do with my life.' Just a matter of getting all the pieces in place," he said. Inspired to rethink his career after the September 11 attacks, he moved to New York City to pursue his dream of being an actor: "[Acting] was something I always wanted to do but I was too scared and didn't have the confidence. 9/11 changed everything for all of us. It gave me the urgency."

Career.

Theatrical acting career.

In regional theaters, Jackson has appeared as Tony in "West Side Story", as Joey in "The Most Happy Fella", as Cain in "Children of Eden", as Berger in "Hair", as Billy Bigelow in "Carousel", as Joe Hardy in "Damn Yankees", as Rocky in "The Rocky Horror Show", and as The Poet in "Kismet", among many other productions.  Jackson made his Broadway debut understudying both male leads in the Tony Award-winning musical "Thoroughly Modern Millie". He later served as the standby for the character of Radames in "Aida", then originated the role of Matthew in the off-Broadway production of "Altar Boyz". In 2005, he originated his first Broadway leading role in the musical "All Shook Up", a tribute to Elvis Presley. His performance as Chad earned him much critical praise, the Theatre World Award, and nominations from the Drama League and Outer Critics Circle Awards for Outstanding Lead Actor. In 2006, he starred off-Broadway in playwright Nicky Silver's "The Agony and The Agony" with Victoria Clark. In June 2007, less than a week before the scheduled opening night, Jackson assumed the lead role of Sonny on Broadway in "Xanadu", replacing James Carpinello who had been injured during rehearsal. Previous workshop productions of the musical starred Jackson and Jane Krakowski. However, both Jackson and Krakowski opted out of the initial Broadway run, citing schedule conflicts. His performance as Sonny earned him nominations from the Drama League and Drama Desk for Outstanding Lead Actor. "Xanadu" had several Tony Award nominations including "Best New Musical" for which Jackson and the cast performed on the 62nd Tony Awards show.  In 2008, Jackson joined Jane Krakowski and Sean Hayes in the New York City Center's Encores! production of "Damn Yankees". He returned to Encores! in 2009, playing Woody Mahoney in the staged concert of "Finian's Rainbow" which critics praised. Jackson also starred in the development workshop of "The Book of Mormon" by Trey Parker, Matt Stone, and Robert Lopez, who co-wrote the music for "Avenue Q".  In October 2009, Jackson opened on Broadway to positive critical reviews reprising the role of Woody Mahoney in the Broadway revival of the 1947 musical "Finian's Rainbow" at the St. James Theatre, costarring with Jim Norton and Kate Baldwin. "The Wall Street Journal" raved, "The way that [Kate Baldwin] and Cheyenne Jackson sing "Old Devil Moon" is the stuff best-selling cast albums are made of." The show closed on January 17, 2010. Along with the company of "Finian's Rainbow", Jackson recorded the Broadway revival cast album in early December 2009, with a release date of February 2, 2010.  In September 2011, Jackson joined Morgan Freeman, Ellen Barkin, Matt Bomer, Christine Lahti, and John Lithgow as part of the premier Broadway Cast of Dustin Lance Black's new play "8", directed by Joe Mantello. In June 2012, Jackson starred opposite Krysten Ritter in Neil LaBute's "The Heart of The Matter" produced by MCC Theater at the Lucille Lortel Theatre.  In the 2012-2013 Broadway season, Jackson, Henry Winkler, Alicia Silverstone, Daniel Breaker, Jenni Barber and Ari Graynor starred in David West Read's play "The Performers" which started previews on October 23, 2012 at the Longacre Theatre. The play closed on November 18, 2012, after 23 previews and 7 regular performances. Critical reception for the overall play was mixed with an median Stage Grade of C. However, a majority of reviewers including "Entertainment Weekly", "The Hollywood Reporter", "The New York Times", and The Associated Press gave extremely positive reviews to both Jackson's and Ari Graynor's performances. Broadway producers cited the effects of Hurricane Sandy on the box office as the primary reason for the show's early closing.

Film career.

In films, Jackson most notably portrayed 9/11 victim and hero Mark Bingham in the 2006 Academy Award nominated "United 93" which earned him the Boston Society of Film Critics 2006 award for Best Ensemble Cast. He has also appeared in several other films including: "Curiosity" (2005), "Hysteria" (2010), "Smile" (2011) the critically lauded "The Green" (opposite Julia Ormond and Illeana Douglas), and 2012 Sundance Film Festival selection "Price Check" (with Parker Posey). He portrayed Greta Gerwig's boyfriend Roger in the 2012 Fox Searchlight Pictures film "Lola Versus". In 2013, he starred in the HBO biopic of Liberace, "Behind the Candelabra" with Michael Douglas and Matt Damon. He also appeared in the independent films "Mutual Friends" (2013), "Lucky Stiff" (2014) and "A Beautiful Now" (2015). More recently, he played Hades in the Disney Channel original movie "Descendants 3" (2019).  Jackson had a lead role in the film version of "Six Dance Lessons in Six Weeks" in 2014. Jackson plays Michael Minetti, who is hired by retiree Lily Harrison (Gena Rowlands) to give her private dance lessons at her home for six weeks. The film is based on Richard Alfieri's Broadway play of the same name and is directed by Arthur Allan Seidelman.

Television career.

From 2009 through 2013, Jackson had a recurring role on the award-winning series, "30 Rock" playing Danny Baker. Jackson also portrayed Dustin Goolsby, the coach of "Vocal Adrenaline", the main rival of "New Directions" on the second season of FOX's show "Glee".  He has guest starred on several television series including "Lipstick Jungle", "Life on Mars", and "Ugly Betty", and was featured in a prominent guest role during Season 8 of "Curb Your Enthusiasm". His character "Terry" was the personal trainer to Larry David and Wanda Sykes. On March 15, 2010, Jackson made his guest-starring debut on the long-running NBC series, "Law & Order" in an episode entitled "Innocence".  In 2008, Jackson played series lead Sebastian Kinglare for the Lifetime Television pilot "Family Practice" opposite Anne Archer and Beau Bridges. The series was not picked up for distribution.  In 2010, Jackson filmed a sitcom pilot for ABC-TV called "It Takes a Village" co-starring Leah Remini, which was not picked up for the fall 2010 season.  In 2012, Jackson and Nathan Lane were cast as series leads in the USA Network comedy pilot "Local Talent". The series was not picked up for distribution.  Additionally, Jackson guest starred on the pilot episode of NBC's revamp of "The Munsters", "Mockingbird Lane", written by Bryan Fuller and directed by Bryan Singer. Jackson portrayed Scout Master Steve, a competing love interest for Portia de Rossi's character Lily Munster; the show also stars Eddie Izzard and Jerry O'Connell. NBC aired the pilot as a Halloween special on October 26, 2012.  Jackson also appeared in the season of "American Horror Story" as one of the leads, alongside Lady Gaga and Matt Bomer. Jackson returned to the show's season to play Network Executive, Sidney Aaron James, as well as the season to play psychiatrist Dr. Rudy Vincent Anderson, and the season of the show to play warlock, John Henry Moore.  In 2017, Jackson appeared on the 9th season of "RuPaul's Drag Race" (season 9, episode 3) alongside the queen herself RuPaul, the singing and acting mogul Todrick Hall, Michelle Visage and Carson Kressley. He popped up for a mini challenge in season 10, episode 11 where he judges and decides which dragged out pancake was the best. He then made his third appearance in 2019 on the 11th season (season 11, episode 8) alongside RuPaul, Michelle Visage, Fortune Feimster and Natasha Lyonne in which he took part in an improvisation acting challenge. He also appeared in the tenth episode of Season 2 of "Sense8" as Blake Huntington, an award-winning actor who is cast opposite Miguel Ángel Silvestre's Lito Rodríguez in a Hollywood film. In 2019, he played the role of Hades, Mal's father in the Disney Channel Original Movie "Descendants 3". Jackson has starred in several notable webisode series including "Cubby Bernstein" opposite Nathan Lane, "Legally Brown" with Allison Janney, and "The [title of show] Show" from the meta-fictional Broadway musical "[Title of Show]".  In 2020, Jackson portrayed Max in the Fox comedy series "Call Me Kat" opposite Mayim Bialik and Kyla Pratt.

Musical career.

Early in his career, Jackson worked as a back-up singer for Vanessa Williams, Heather Headley.  In March 2009, Jackson made his nightclub debut at Feinstein's at Loews Regency with a sold-out one-man show titled "Back to the Start". He later teamed up with Michael Feinstein to create a well-received nightclub act titled "The Power of Two". A CD of the show was released on November 3, 2009.  "The Power of Two", a concert reuniting Jackson and Feinstein, was presented at Carnegie Hall on October 29, 2010. Jackson was the guest artist performing with the New York Pops in concert, "Cheyenne Jackson's Cocktail Hour: Music of the Mad Men Era", at Carnegie Hall on November 18, 2011. Joe Dziemianowicz of "The New York Daily News" wrote, "There, in Judy (Garland)'s spot singing Joni (Mitchell)'s song, (Cheyenne) Jackson turned the bittersweet ballad into a beautiful highlight in an evening filled with luscious moments with the New York Pops."  On December 31, 2012, Jackson reprised "Music of the Mad Men Era" at The Kennedy Center Concert Hall with 96 members of the National Symphony Orchestra, and his special musical guest, Tony winner Nina Arianda The concert sold out within days and was hailed by critics as stunning, surprising, and a cool way to ring in 2013.  In March 2012, Jackson was signed to Sony/ATV publishing as a songwriter and given a developmental artist deal through Sony/ATV's Hickory Records and Red Distribution.  On May 10, 2012, Jackson released his single "Drive", his first non-theatrical single and his first music video release. The video was directed by Austrian music video director Christian Hörlesberger and the track produced by Thomas "Tawgs" Salter. It was the first single released from "I'm Blue, Skies", which was eventually released in June 2013. The album was co-written by Jackson himself with Sia Furler, Stephen "Stevie" Aiello, and Charlotte Sometimes.  On July 10, 2012, Jackson released his second single "I'm Blue, Skies", "Before You," also produced by Salter. In August 2012, "Before You" reached a peak of #31 on the Hot 100 AC chart. The music video for the single was directed by Nick Everhart and also stars Rachel Dratch and Christina Cole. It was inspired by the 1960s monster TV shows "The Addams Family" and "The Munsters" as well as classic cinema of the '30s, '40s, and '50s. The director said the film was a tribute to the Golden Age of Hollywood.  In 2013, he released three singles "She's Pretty, She Lies", "Look at Me" and "I'm Blue Skies" followed in 2015, with the single "Don't Wanna Know" all accompanied by music videos. On June 3, 2016, Jackson released his new album, "Renaissance", an album on the PS Classics record label, adapted and expanded from his solo concert "Music of the Mad Men Era."

In the media.

Jackson appeared on the March 26, 2008, cover of "The Advocate". The magazine used the caption: "Hello, gorgeous! For leading man Cheyenne Jackson, coming out is a beautiful thing." In 2008, he was named "Entertainer of the Year" by "Out" and appeared alongside Gus Van Sant, Katy Perry, and Sam Sparro on the magazine's commemorative 100th issue in December. In April 2010, he appeared on the cover of Canadian "fab" magazine under the title "Cheyenne Jackson: I Love New York" with photographs by Mike Ruiz. He also appeared on "Out"s November 2010 issue. In July 2012, he appeared on the cover of "attitude".

Charity work.

Jackson is an LGBT rights supporter. He is an international ambassador for amfAR (The Foundation for AIDS Research).  Jackson is also a national ambassador and spokesperson for the Hetrick-Martin Institute, a non-profit organization devoted to serving the needs of LGBT youth.

Personal life.

Jackson is openly gay. He and Monte Lapka, a physicist, began dating in 2000 and married on September 3, 2011 in New York City. In July 2013, they announced plans to divorce. They filed for divorce in September 2013.  In October 2013, Jackson announced he was dating actor Jason Landau on his official Instagram account. They announced their engagement in February 2014, and married in Encino, California, in September 2014. Jackson and Landau welcomed twins, a girl and boy, in October 2016.  Jackson is a recovering alcoholic, having achieved sobriety in 2013.

Cheyenne David Jackson (born July 12, 1975) is an American actor and singer. His credits include leading roles in Broadway musicals and other stage roles, as well as film and television roles, concert singing, and music recordings.

Cheyenne Jackson est un acteur et chanteur américain né le. Il commence sa carrière au théâtre et se fait remarquer dans des comédies musicales saluées de Broadway. En parallèle, il perce au cinéma et à la télévision où il enchaîne les rôles secondaires.


Early life and education.

Heckerling was born in The Bronx, New York City, to a bookkeeper mother and an accountant father. She had a Jewish upbringing and remembers that the apartment building where she spent her early childhood was full of Holocaust survivors. "Most of them had tattoos on their arms and for me there was a feeling that all of these people had a story to tell. These were interesting formative experiences." Both of her parents worked full-time, so she frequently moved back and forth from her home in the Bronx, where Heckerling claims she was a latchkey kid sitting at home all day watching television, to her grandmother's home in Brooklyn which she enjoyed much better. Here, she frequented Coney Island and stayed up watching films all night with her grandmother. At this time Heckerling loved television, where she watched numerous cartoons and old black and white movies. Her favorites were gangster movies, musicals and comedies. She had a particular fondness for James Cagney.  After her father passed his CPA exam, the family became more financially stable and moved to Queens, where Heckerling felt more out of place than ever. She did not get along with other kids in her school there, nor did she want to continue to be classmates with them through high school, so she enrolled at the High School of Art and Design in Manhattan. On her first day of school there, Heckerling realized that she wanted to be a film director. During their first assignment, writing about what they wanted to do in life, Heckerling wrote that she wanted to be a writer or artist for "Mad". She noticed that a boy next to her, that she claimed copied from her papers later on, wrote that he wanted to be a film director.  She graduated from high school in 1970, focused on directing and studying film at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts. Her father made just slightly over the cut-off for financial aid for the school, so Heckerling had to take out a large loan to cover her expenses. She claims this caused considerable stress in her life, and she was unable to pay them off until the end of her twenties. When Heckerling was in high school and focused on directing, her father was opposed to the idea, wishing that she had chosen a more practical aspiration. Despite this, he gave her Parker Tyler's book "Classics of the Foreign Film: A Pictoral Legacy". Heckerling pored over the book, marking off films that she had seen until she had eventually watched most of them. She claims that by the time she got to NYU, because of this book, she had seen almost all of the films that they had to watch in her classes. Though Heckerling considered her time at NYU to be a great time where she learned a lot and made great connections, such as Martin Brest and noted screenwriter and satirist Terry Southern who was one of her professors, she later reflects on her time at the school as sloppy and unprofessional, claiming that she used very low-quality equipment and had a lot of technical problems.  During her time at NYU, Heckerling was making mostly musicals. "I was the only one doing them and they were weird. It was the mid-70s and it was a bizarre combination of long hair with bell bottoms, the tail end of the hippie movement at its schlumpiest. With this, I sort of infused a 1930s idiotic grace that didn't go with the post-Watergate mentality that was prevalent at the time. They were weird films, but they got me into AFI."

Career.

After graduating from NYU, Heckerling decided that she wanted to follow her friend Martin Brest to the American Film Institute in Los Angeles where she felt there would be more opportunities to break into the business. Heckerling experienced severe culture shock upon moving to LA from NYC, especially because she had never learned to drive before but was still used to navigating the city, free to go wherever she wanted due to NYC's public transportation. When she did eventually learn to drive, she adjusted to LA life and started working. Her first studio job was lip-syncing dailies for a television show, where she started making connections in the business.  During her second year at AFI, Heckerling made her first short film, "Getting it Over With", about a girl that wants to lose her virginity before she turns twenty and the adventures she has before midnight of her twentieth birthday. Heckerling continued to work on the film after she graduated from AFI with her MFA, using the editing studios at night to finish the project after work. As soon as she finished the edit and sent it away to be processed, she was in a car collision with a drunk driver who hit the side of her car, landing her in the hospital with a collapsed lung, bruised kidney, and mild amnesia, causing her to be fired from her editing job because she could not remember where certain footage was.  In an interview with Michael Singer, when asked about film's ability to grant a form of immortality, Heckerling describes the experience during the accident: "There was the whole thing-the yellow light and all that stuff-and what went through my mind right then was, 'Well, at least I got the film to the lab.' So it's not going to save you from anything, obviously, but something about it pulls you forward." Eventually, she finished the film and held a screening that gained a very positive response, causing Heckerling to call it one of the best days of her life. Her next step was to use the film to get a job. Thom Mount, president of Universal Pictures, showed a lot of interest in Heckerling but because she was not backed by an agent they could not hire her. After months of struggling to find an agent, Mount called Heckerling up on the phone and asked her to make a film.

1980s.

Heckerling's first feature was "Fast Times at Ridgemont High" (1982), based on the non-fiction account of a year-in-the-life of California high school students as observed by undercover "Rolling Stone" journalist Cameron Crowe. When Heckerling first signed on to do a feature for Universal, she read a lot of scripts, but it was Crowe's script for "Fast Times at Ridgemont High" that really stuck out to her as a great script. She notes that the characters felt so real. Though she loved the script, she did feel that there was too much studio interference, so she read the novel, figured out which parts were strongest, and sat down with Crowe to rework the script. The film helped launch the careers of numerous stars including Phoebe Cates, Judge Reinhold, and Jennifer Jason Leigh. In addition, it marks early appearances by several actors who later became stars, including Nicolas Cage, then billing himself as Nicolas Coppola, Forest Whitaker, Eric Stoltz, and Anthony Edwards. Most notable, however, is the appearance of Sean Penn as Jeff Spicoli, who was launched into stardom with his iconic character. Heckerling describes casting Penn, whom she first met while he was sitting on the floor outside of the casting office, as a feeling of being overwhelmed by his intensity, even though all he had done was look up at her. She knew that this was her Spicoli, even though they had seen other people who had read better for the role. Penn had to do it. Ally Sheedy, whom Heckerling loved, read for the role of Leigh's character Stacy Hamilton, but Heckerling decided that she wanted someone that seemed younger and more fragile. Heckerling was very discriminating about the film's soundtrack. Originally, the film was supposed to have music in it by bands like the Eagles.  "I guess a lot of people like that stuff, but being young as I was at the time, I really wanted a new edgy eighties music soundtrack. I wanted Fear, Oingo Boingo, The Go-Gos, The Talking Heads, and the Dead Kennedys. I was one of those obnoxious teenagers that thought that the music I liked was great and everything else sucked. Getting that Oingo Boingo song in the film was a big fight. But I had to make some compromises and put in some songs that I didn't like at all."  The film's cinematographer, Matthew F. Leonetti, who shot "Poltergeist", was carefully chosen by Heckerling as well. The studio was unsure of how to market the film, and Heckerling guesses that they did not think that anyone would want to watch it. The studio decided to just open it in a few hundred or so theaters on the west coast without any advertisement. Once the film opened, it was a huge success so the studio quickly opened it at theaters around the country. It became an instant hit right out of the gate, eventually going on to become a pop culture touchstone. The film earned $27,092,880 at the box office in the USA. It also spawned a short-lived series on CBS called "Fast Times", with Heckerling writing, directing and producing.  After doing "Fast Times at Ridgemont High", Heckerling was bombarded with similar but lesser scripts. It was hard for her to find anything that wasn't about high school, preppy kids, or story about a girl losing her virginity. Eventually she found her next film. "Johnny Dangerously" (1984), with Michael Keaton, Joe Piscopo, Danny DeVito, Dom DeLuise, and Peter Boyle, was an "Airplane!"-style spoof of gangster movies, but it failed to catch fire at the box office upon its initial release. Heckerling attributes the film's failure to the public's lack of familiarity with the gangster movies that the film was poking fun at. "It was pure satire of something nobody remembers. I think that was the main problem, because all the actors and writers did great jobs. But we were definitely satirizing something... I mean, unless you watch 1930s movies on TV at night, people don't remember. Somebody told me that during a screening they were sitting next to Brian De Palma, who had just done "Scarface", and he was in hysterics. If you studied those movies, you know what we were doing." In subsequent years, however, it has garnered a substantial cult audience.  The following year, she directed "National Lampoon's European Vacation" (1985) with Chevy Chase and Beverly D'Angelo, a sequel to the popular "National Lampoon's Vacation". With it, Heckerling scored her second solid hit, earning $74,964,621 at the box office. The film, like many of Heckerling's films, received poor reviews from critics but proved to be very popular with audiences who just wanted to watch a funny movie. Heckerling, despite being well educated and loving the work of such intellectual writers at Franz Kafka admits that she loves "silly things", which has proven to make her commercially successful in the comedy genre.  In 1989, Heckerling had her biggest success with "Look Who's Talking", starring John Travolta, Kirstie Alley and a baby voiced by Bruce Willis. Heckerling got the idea for the film while she was pregnant with her daughter and further developed it into a feature. Heckerling says that she loves to write comedies, such as "Look Who's Talking", because she notes that when a film is made, everyone working on it puts more than a year of their lives into making it, so she wants that year to be happy and fun. Heckerling, who loves Travolta, was ecstatic to work with him, though many people consider the film's release to be during the end of a low point in Travolta's career. The film has been Heckerling's highest-grossing film to date, earning $296,999,813. After the film's release, Heckerling was able to cross one of her two goals that she set for herself in college off of her list, the first being to make a studio feature, which she did with "Fast Times at Ridgemont High" and the second being: "I wanted to have hits the way boys had hits, not like a 'girl hit' that made 50 million, but a boy hit that made 100s of million."

1990s.

Two "Look Who's Talking" sequels would follow—1990's "Look Who's Talking Too"—also directed by Heckerling and co-written with her then-husband Neal Israel. The film added another baby to storyline and was a moderate success. Heckerling then produced, but did not direct, the third and final sequel, "Look Who's Talking Now"—a flop. The films also spawned a brief television show called "Baby Talk" that was largely written by Heckerling.  In 1995, she wrote and directed "Clueless", reworking and updating Jane Austen's "Emma" as a 1990s teen comedy about wealthy teenagers living in Beverly Hills. Heckerling originally thought of "Clueless" as a television show because she loved to write the character of Cher who she described as a "happy, optimistic, California girl", and wanted to explore all of her adventures, but after she pitched it to her agent she was told that it would make a great feature. To research for the script, Heckerling sat in on classes at Beverly Hills High School where she observed how teenagers acted, though she admits that most of it was made up. She notes that teenagers at the high school did not dress in high fashion every day as the characters do in the film and that in reality the students there dressed just as frumpily as everyone else. She did, however draw on many of her observations, especially the tendency of teenage girls to groom themselves constantly. "You would think that within, you know, the few minutes that they've been in class, that their makeup wouldn't be needing so much repair and yet they're constantly painting and sculpting and... doing to themselves." As with "Fast Times at Ridgemont High", it quickly caught on with teenagers and went on to become a significant pop culture reference point. The film went on to gross $56,631,572 and helped launch the careers of most of the cast, including Alicia Silverstone, Brittany Murphy, Paul Rudd, Donald Faison, Breckin Meyer, and Stacey Dash. It was spun off into a moderately successful TV series, with Heckerling penning the pilot, as well as directing several episodes from the first season. Heckerling describes the show as basically the same as the film, only cleaner, and says that she still loves the characters.

2000–present.

Heckerling directed and produced "Loser" (2000), a romantic college comedy with Jason Biggs and Mena Suvari. The film was not a critical or commercial success. After a break, Heckerling's romantic comedy "I Could Never Be Your Woman" (2007), starring Michelle Pfeiffer and Paul Rudd, never opened in theaters; rather, it received a direct-to-video release, despite fairly good notices. Production of the film was troubled by financial issues, including the rights to distribution being sold off without Heckerling's knowledge, making it difficult for her to sell the film to a studio. At the time, Heckerling was also taking care of both of her parents who were very ill (her father was in the hospital and her mother had cancer). Though Heckerling dislikes the baggage that the film carries and is upset about it not being released theatrically, she says that the experience was significant for her because she loved working with Rudd and Pfeiffer in England. Heckerling also directed an episode of the NBC version of "The Office".  In 2011, Heckerling directed the horror-comedy film "Vamps" with Sigourney Weaver, Alicia Silverstone and Krysten Ritter, about two vampires living in New York City as best friends and roommates. The film was released to theatres on November 2, 2012, followed by a DVD release on November 13.  On July 4, 2016, Gilbert Gottfried posted an in-depth 81-minute interview with Heckerling on his podcast.  In July 2017, a musical version of "Clueless" helmed by Tony nominee Kristin Hanggi received a developmental lab in New York City. A previous workshop starring Taylor Louderman ("Kinky Boots") and Dave Thomas Brown ("Heathers") took place in 2016. Heckerling wrote the libretto for the musical. The musical opened Off-Broadway on November 20, 2018.

Personal life.

Heckerling dated friend and fellow film director Martin Brest briefly when she first moved to Los Angeles. Though they later broke up, they remained good friends. Heckerling's first marriage was to David Brandt, from 1981 to 1983. In 1984, Heckerling married director Neal Israel, but divorced in 1990. The couple's daughter, Mollie Israel, was born in 1985. Mollie was led to believe Israel was her biological father until 2004, when it was revealed to her that in fact Harold Ramis was her biological father. Heckerling has included Mollie in some of her films in bit parts, including "Look Who's Talking" and "Loser", though Heckerling claims that her daughter never wanted to be a "girly girl" and distanced herself from much of her work, never adding any input to the lives of characters such as those in "Clueless". Despite this, the two get along very well and Mollie frequently introduces her mother to new music, such as OK Go and films. Today Mollie sings in the band The Lost Patrol. Heckerling lives in both Los Angeles and New York and continues to make films and do what she loves. Heckerling is one of the few women to have directed multiple box-office hits. When asked about the fact that only 5% of movies are directed by women, Heckerling states:

Sexual misconduct allegation.

Actor and comedian Chris Kattan claimed in his 2019 memoir "Baby, Don't Hurt Me: Stories and Scars from Saturday Night Live" that he was pressured by Lorne Michaels to have sex with Heckerling so she would direct the 1998 film "A Night at the Roxbury" (although she ultimately only produced, rather than directed it). Heckerling's daughter Mollie disputes his claims saying that, although Heckerling and Kattan had an affair, it was when the film was already shooting.

Awards and nominations.

In 1995, Heckerling won the National Society of Film Critics Best Screenplay award and was nominated for the Writers Guild of America award for Best Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen for her screenplay, "Clueless". In 1998, she received the Franklin J. Schaffner Medal from the American Film Institute. In 1999, she received the Women in Film Crystal Award for outstanding women who, through endurance and excellence, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry.

Amy Heckerling (born May 7, 1954) is an American film director. An alumna of both New York University and the American Film Institute, she directed the commercially successful films "Fast Times at Ridgemont High", "National Lampoon's European Vacation", "Look Who's Talking", and "Clueless".

Amy Heckerling est une réalisatrice, scénariste, productrice et actrice américaine née le dans le Bronx dans l'État de New York aux États-Unis.


Demographics.

According to the 2012 census of the National Statistics Institute, Curicó spans an area of and has 147,017 inhabitants (68,768 men and 70,817 women). Of these, 130,506 (84%) lived in urban areas and 19,079 (16%) in rural areas. Between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, the population grew by 14.9% (15,472 persons).

Geography.

Curicó is on the Guaiquillo River, south of Santiago along the route of the Chilean Central Railway. The city is situated in the fertile Chilean Central Valley, above sea-level, in the midst of a comparatively well-cultivated region. The eastern and western sides are mountainous, separated by the Chilean Central Valley. The commune spans an area of.  Mineral resources are undeveloped, but are said to include copper, gold and silver. Cattle, wheat and wine are the principal products, but Indian corn and fruit also are produced. On the coast are important salt-producing industries.  The main rivers are the Lontué River and Teno River, which surround the city. The landscape is dominated by the Andes and Chilean Coastal Range.

Climate.

Curicó has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification "Csb"), relatively hot dry summers (November to March) with temperatures reaching on the hottest days. Winters (June to August) are more humid, with typical maximum daily temperatures of. Mean rainfall is per year. In August 2007, Curicó experienced snowfall for the first time in over 60 years.  In the southern part of the valley the climate is more temperate and rainfall more abundant; the effects of this are to be seen in better pasturage. Irrigation is used to a large extent.

History.

Curicó was founded in 1743 by Jose Manso de Velasco during the Spanish reign in the Americas (see Captaincy General of Chile). It is one of the more cultured and progressive provincial towns of Chile.  In 1747, Governor Domingo Ortiz de Rozas decided to move it about to the north, where it is now located, because of the humidity in its original location.  The oldest and most valuable building of the city is "La Iglesia San Francisco" (San Francisco's Church), built in 1734, and came to its current location in 1759.  Curicó gained the title of "city" in 1830.  The city's hero is Luis Cruz Martínez, a Chilean soldier from the War of the Pacific, who died in 1882 in Perú.  The city was destroyed by an earthquake in 1928 and rebuilt during the following year.  The city was badly damaged in the February 2010 earthquake. An Argentine Air Force Mobile Field Hospital, similar to the one deployed in Haiti was deployed to the city and remained on site until September

Economy.

The city's economy is based mainly on agriculture. The Mediterranean-type climate encourages crops of orchard fruit and viticulture.  Other industries are cement and sugar production.  In human development the city had 0.716 (UNDP, Chile 2000), reaching the 97th position in the municipalities of Chile.

Tourism and Society.

Between March 15 and 20 each year, the city celebrates a wine celebration: the "Fiesta de la Vendimia" (Wine Harvest Festival). The region has a "La Ruta del Vino" (The Wine Route), in Curicó Valley. It is also known as "the city of cakes" (made from manjar, meringue and fruit). The "Plaza de Armas" (Main Square) is the most visited public place (declared a "Typical Zone"). There is a monument to Lautaro carved on the trunk of a beech tree, created by the craftsman of Vichuquén, Heraclio "Kako" Calquín. Located around "Plaza de Armas" are the mayor's house ("alcaldía") and the governor's house.  A few blocks from the plaza, the Alameda Antonio Manso de Velasco avenue crosses the city with its gardens and leafy trees. There is also the Condell hill, a place which offers a panoramic view of the city and the San Francisco church.  Potrero Grande is a mountainous area with large forests and waterfalls, popular for hiking, located about from Curicó.

Education.

The city has two universities:  Higher-education institutions:

Media.

The city has one of the oldest newspapers in Chile, "La Prensa de Curicó (Press of Curico)", founded in 1898. Before the earthquake of 2010, its offices were located in front of the central square, but have been relocated since because the building collapsed.

Sports.

Curicó is known for its bicycle culture. Many Chilean cyclists of international level started riding in the city, such as Marco Arriagada, Marcelo Arriagada and Luis Fernando Sepúlveda.  The local football team is Club Provincial Curicó Unido.

Administration.

As a commune, Curicó is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. Currently, the 2012-2016 alcalde is Javier Muñoz Riquelme.  Within the electoral divisions of Chile, Curicó is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Mr. Roberto León (PDC) and Mr. Celso Morales (UDI) as part of the 36th electoral district, (together with Teno, Romeral, Molina, Sagrada Familia, Hualañé, Licantén, Vichuquén and Rauco). The commune is represented in the Senate by Juan Antonio Coloma Correa (UDI) and Andrés Zaldívar Larraín (PDC) as part of the 10th senatorial constituency (Maule-North).

Curicó (), meaning "Black Waters" in Mapudungun (originally meaning "Land of Black Water"), is the capital city of the Curicó Province, part of the Maule Region in Chile's central valley.

Curicó est une ville et une commune du Chili chef-lieu de la province de Curicó elle-même rattachée à la région du Maule.


History.

Computer algebra systems began to appear in the 1960s and evolved out of two quite different sources—the requirements of theoretical physicists and research into artificial intelligence.  A prime example for the first development was the pioneering work conducted by the later Nobel Prize laureate in physics Martinus Veltman, who designed a program for symbolic mathematics, especially high-energy physics, called Schoonschip (Dutch for "clean ship") in 1963. Another early system was FORMAC.  Using Lisp as the programming basis, Carl Engelman created MATHLAB in 1964 at MITRE within an artificial-intelligence research environment. Later MATHLAB was made available to users on PDP-6 and PDP-10 systems running TOPS-10 or TENEX in universities. Today it can still be used on SIMH emulations of the PDP-10. MATHLAB ("mathematical laboratory") should not be confused with MATLAB ("matrix laboratory"), which is a system for numerical computation built 15 years later at the University of New Mexico.  The first popular computer algebra systems were muMATH, Reduce, Derive (based on muMATH), and Macsyma; a popular copyleft version of Macsyma called Maxima is actively being maintained. Reduce became free software in 2008. As of today, the most popular commercial systems are Mathematica and Maple, which are commonly used by research mathematicians, scientists, and engineers. Freely available alternatives include SageMath (which can act as a front-end to several other free and nonfree CAS).  In 1987, Hewlett-Packard introduced the first hand-held calculator CAS with the HP-28 series, and it was possible, for the first time in a calculator, to arrange algebraic expressions, differentiation, limited symbolic integration, Taylor series construction and a "solver" for algebraic equations. In 1999, the independently developed CAS Erable for the HP 48 series became an officially integrated part of the firmware of the emerging HP 49/50 series, and a year later into the HP 40 series as well, whereas the HP Prime adopted the Xcas system in 2013.  The Texas Instruments company in 1995 released the TI-92 calculator with a CAS based on the software Derive; the TI-Nspire series replaced Derive in 2007. The TI-89 series, first released in 1998, also contains a CAS.  Casio released their first CAS calculator with the CFX-9970G and succeeded it with the Algebra FX Series in 1999-2003 and the current ClassPad Series.

Symbolic manipulations.

The symbolic manipulations supported typically include:  In the above, the word "some" indicates that the operation cannot always be performed.

Additional capabilities.

Many also include:  Some include:  Some computer algebra systems focus on specialized disciplines; these are typically developed in academia and are free. They can be inefficient for numeric operations as compared to numeric systems.

Types of expressions.

The expressions manipulated by the CAS typically include polynomials in multiple variables; standard functions of expressions (sine, exponential, etc.); various special functions (Γ, ζ, erf, Bessel functions, etc.); arbitrary functions of expressions; optimization; derivatives, integrals, simplifications, sums, and products of expressions; truncated series with expressions as coefficients, matrices of expressions, and so on. Numeric domains supported typically include floating-point representation of real numbers, integers (of unbounded size), complex (floating-point representation), interval representation of reals, rational number (exact representation) and algebraic numbers.

Use in education.

There have been many advocates for increasing the use of computer algebra systems in primary and secondary-school classrooms. The primary reason for such advocacy is that computer algebra systems represent real-world math more than do paper-and-pencil or hand calculator based mathematics. This push for increasing computer usage in mathematics classrooms has been supported by some boards of education. It has even been mandated in the curriculum of some regions.  Computer algebra systems have been extensively used in higher education. Many universities offer either specific courses on developing their use, or they implicitly expect students to use them for their course work. The companies that develop computer algebra systems have pushed to increase their prevalence among university and college programs.  CAS-equipped calculators are not permitted on the ACT, the PLAN, and in some classrooms though it may be permitted on all of College Board's calculator-permitted tests, including the SAT, some SAT Subject Tests and the AP Calculus, Chemistry, Physics, and Statistics exams.

A computer algebra system (CAS) is any mathematical software with the ability to manipulate mathematical expressions in a way similar to the traditional manual computations of mathematicians and scientists. The development of the computer algebra systems in the second half of the 20th century is part of the discipline of "computer algebra" or "symbolic computation", which has spurred work in algorithms over mathematical objects such as polynomials.

Un système de calcul formel ("computer algebra system" ou "CAS" en anglais) est un logiciel qui facilite le calcul symbolique. La partie principale de ce système est la manipulation des expressions mathématiques sous leur forme symbolique.