Career.

She began her career at young age, performing in commercials and videos with the presenter Xuxa. She made her first appearance in a programme: "Gente Inocente" at the time, presented by Márcio Garcia. In telenovelas, her debut came when the director Cininha de Paula saw her in a video in which Bruna made an appearance in "Xuxa Só Para Baixinhos", later being cast to make a prime time telenovela. Her acting debut came in 2003 in "Mulheres Apaixonadas" by Manoel Carlos, where she became known for playing Salette. In the same year, in the film "Xuxa Abracadabra" played the character Júlia. Joined the cast of telenovelas: "América" in 2005, playing a blind character Maria Flor; "Cobras & Lagartos" in 2006, portraying the character Lurdinha; "Desejo Proibido" in 2007, portraying the character Maria Augusta; and "Negócio da China" in 2008, portraying the character Flor de Lys. In 2010, participated in the novel "Araguaia (telenovela)" as professor Teresinha.  In 2011, she participated in "Aquele Beijo" playing a major role, Miss Belezinha. Played the character Lurdinha in the plot of prime time "Salve Jorge" in 2012. In 2014, was invited by the author Manoel Carlos to live the traditional character Helena, in the second phase of the novel "Em Família". In the third (and main) stage of the novel, plays Lois, daughter of the protagonist Helena (now played by Júlia Lemmertz) that is aired by the Globo Television in prime time. She played Roseli in Breaking Through directed by John Swetnam and produced by Uri Singer.

Personal life.

She adopted her grandmother's surname, Marquezine, as a tribute.

Bruna Reis Maia (born 4 August 1995), known professionally as Bruna Marquezine, is a Brazilian actress. She began working on television as a child, becoming known for her role in the 2003 Brazilian telenovela "Women In Love".

Bruna Reis Maia, dite Bruna Marquezine, est une actrice brésilienne, née le à Duque de Caxias, dans l'État de Rio de Janeiro.


Early life.

Daniel grew up in Hazlet, New Jersey, where he attended Raritan High School. He later attended Rutgers University in New Jersey. His college job as a bartender was the inspiration for his unpublished online novel, "Bartender".

"Cracked" writer.

In 2007, O'Brien started working for Cracked.com as senior writer and editor. O'Brien has written over 200 articles for the site that have been seen more than 50 million times.  O'Brien's writing encompasses a range from politics to pop culture. O'Brien mocked himself, such as in the sketch "Mug of Pens: The Coffee Mug (For Your Pens)", which also became popular on YouTube. He presents a fictional persona as a socially awkward pop culture enthusiast who openly admits to loving fictional characters, including Spider-Man, far more than his real friends. O'Brien has written about Spider-Man several times, such as "Proposed Script for Spider-Man 4: The Grittiest Reboot Ever", "Why Spider-Man Is a Dick", and "3 Insane Spider-Man Movies You Won't Believe Almost Got Made".  On December 4, 2017, after 10 years of working with Cracked, O'Brien tweeted, "I no longer work for Cracked.com." following the extensive staff layoffs at Cracked.

"Agents of Cracked" and "Cracked After Hours".

O'Brien and Michael Swaim had become the faces of Cracked, after starring in its many original web series like "Agents of Cracked" and "Cracked After Hours."  "Agents of Cracked" premiered in November 2009, and the first 13 episodes were viewed nearly 4 million times. After its first season, the series won the Audience Choice Award at the 2010 Streamy Awards. "Agents of Cracked" was renewed in October 2010 and ran for another 13 episodes, followed the next year by a third season of 10 episodes. To date, the series has been seen more than 20 million times.  Some of the material that ends up in the "Agents of Cracked" is based on real events, including an incident where Dan is confronted by Secret Service after writing an article titled "How to Kidnap the President's Daughter."  O'Brien also co-wrote, produced and acted in Cracked's series "Cracked After Hours", which has been seen more than 15 million times and was the host of Cracked's video series "Obsessive Pop-Culture Disorder" and, as an actor, played secondary characters in various webseries of the site.

Other work.

O'Brien continues to work on other projects. In 2012, he revealed an upcoming book entitled "How To Fight Presidents", which was purchased by Crown Publishing Group (Random House). This followed such articles as "The 5 Most Badass presidents of All-Time" and "How to Fight Andrew Jackson: The Deadliest President Ever" The book was published March 18, 2014, full title "How to Fight Presidents: Defending Yourself Against the Badasses Who Ran This Country" and was illustrated by Winston Rowntree. The book, in addition to analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of every dead president through Reagan, includes a brief summary of their life and term as president and goes into some detail, much of it speculative, concerning the genitals of said presidents. O'Brien uses a conversational tone and breaks the fourth wall repeatedly by referencing himself directly and by praising himself and the book in the third person.  He was also a writer and editor on Cracked's "The New York Times" bestselling book "You Might Be a Zombie and Other Bad News". He was also featured on the History Channel's "Your Bleeped Up Brain".  In August 2018 O'Brien announced he was hired as a staff writer on the HBO show "Last Week Tonight with John Oliver".  In May 2019 O'Brien launched a free weekly podcast with friend and former Cracked coworker Soren Bowie, called "Quick Question With Soren And Daniel," during which they discuss random topics by asking each other questions.  On September 22 2019, O'Brien and his fellow writers for "Last Week Tonight with John Oliver" won the Emmy; 'Outstanding Writing on a Variety Series'

Daniel O'Brien (born January 6, 1986), also known as "DOB", is an American humorist, author, writer, comedian and songwriter; formerly for Cracked.com. O'Brien currently works as a staff writer on the HBO show "Last Week Tonight with John Oliver". In 2019, he won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing on a Variety Series.

Daniel O'Brien ou DOB est un humoriste américain, écrivain et rédacteur sur le site Cracked.com depuis 2007. Il est né le à Hazlet et a fait ses études à Rutgers.


Plot summary.

Although these two powerful Eastern rulers would eventually declare war on Rome and slaughter thousands of Roman citizens, the plot of the novel centres on the Social War of 91 to 88 BC, a civil war which Rome fought against its mutinous Italian Allies after they were refused full Roman citizenship. (The lengthy section dealing with Marcus Livius Drusus' attempt to secure them the citizenship, which ends in his tragic assassination, is one of the main turning points in the entire series.)  Marius and Sulla, still friends and professional colleagues, face the Italian threat together, and succeed in putting down the rebellion of the Italians. However, Marius suffers a serious stroke (his second), and is forced to withdraw from the war. During this struggle, Sulla, rallying his troops against certain destruction near Nola, is hailed as 'imperator' on the field of battle and presented with the highest honour a Roman general can receive: the corona graminea, the eponymous 'Grass Crown'. This was only awarded a very few times during the Republic, and only ever to a general or commander who broke the blockade around a beleaguered Roman army or otherwise saved an entire legion or army from annihilation.  However, once Rome has settled this pressing domestic matter, and can begin to plot revenge against Mithridates and Tigranes, Marius and Sulla have their first serious falling out over the question of who should lead the legions East. Marius, now an aged and discredited statesman previously dubbed the 'Third Founder of Rome', is pining for further glory and believes only he has the talent necessary to defeat the allied Kings. Sulla feels as though his old mentor is unwilling to step aside and wants to destroy Sulla's chance of outshining him. The Senate cites Marius's age and poor health as a reason to back Sulla, who moreover is the sitting consul and therefore has the side of right. The seeds of serious discord are planted.  The Roman comitia quickly becomes a source of political conflict between the two men, and leads to Sulla's first shocking march on Rome. It also leads Gaius Marius to pursue an unprecedented seventh consulship, which he wins and undertakes after suffering a series of strokes, and is depicted in this novel as going mad.  Other narrative threads of note: the childhood of Julius Caesar and Cato the Younger, as well as the early military careers of Pompey and Cicero (who was appointed to Pompeius Strabo as a cadet) in the Social War: and the unjust trial and exile of Publius Rutilius Rufus, falsely accused of extortion, driven out of Rome, and welcomed by a street festival in his honour in the city he was accused of looting.

The Grass Crown is the second historical novel in Colleen McCullough's "Masters of Rome" series, published in 1991. The novel opens shortly after the action of "The First Man in Rome". Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla eat dinner together with their wives, and discuss the threat presented by Mithridates VI of Pontus and Tigranes II of Armenia.

La Couronne d'herbe ("The Grass Crown") est un roman de Colleen McCullough publié en 1991. Il a été publié en français aux Éditions Belfond en 1992. Il est la suite de "L'Amour et le Pouvoir", un roman écrit par le même auteur en 1990. Sa suite est "Le Favori des dieux".


Locations.

The following are the sites selected to host each round of the 2002 tournament:

Final Four.

For the second time, Atlanta was the host city of the Final Four, with the Georgia Dome becoming the 33rd host venue. The Georgia Dome also currently holds the distinction of being the most recent Final Four venue to close and be demolished, as it did so in 2017 after the opening of Mercedes-Benz Stadium, which was slated to host the Final Four in 2020 before the NCAA tournament was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The tournament included three new venues and two new host cities. The American Airlines Center in Dallas, which opened in 2001, replaced Reunion Arena as the city's primary winter sports venue. The Kohl Center on the campus of the University of Wisconsin brought the tournament back to Wisconsin's capital city for the first time since 1969, although it has not returned since. The city of Greenville, South Carolina's Bi-Lo Center hosted for the first time in 2002; however, due to the Confederate flag controversy at the South Carolina State Capitol, the NCAA chose not to return to the arena until 2017, two years after the flag was removed, moving games from Greensboro, North Carolina, because of the controversy surrounding HB2. The 2002 tournament was the last time that the Pittsburgh Civic Arena (then called Mellon Arena) hosted the tournament; it closed in 2010 and games have since been played at its replacement, PPG Paints Arena.

Final four.

At Georgia Dome, Atlanta

Bracket.

<nowiki>*</nowiki> – Denotes overtime period

Broadcast information.

ESPN broadcast the opening-round game, then turned coverage over to CBS Sports for the remaining 63 games. They were carried on a regional basis until the "Elite Eight", at which point all games were shown nationally.  Westwood One had exclusive radio coverage.

The 2002 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament involved 65 schools playing in single-elimination play to determine the national champion of men's NCAA Division I college basketball. It began on March 12, 2002, and ended with the championship game on April 1 in Atlanta at the Georgia Dome. A total of 64 games were played.

Le championnat NCAA de basket-ball 2002 a réuni 65 équipes NCAA dans un tournoi du au. Le Final Four s'est déroulé du 30 mars au 1 avril 2002 dans le Georgia Dome d'Atlanta et a été remporté par les Terrapins de l'Université du Maryland. Juan Dixon, l'arrière des Terrapins, a été élu "Most Outstanding Player" du tournoi.


Launch.

On 2 August 2012, the Governing Council of the European Central Bank (ECB) announced that it would undertake outright transactions in secondary, sovereign bond markets, aimed "at safeguarding an appropriate monetary policy transmission and the singleness of the monetary policy". The technical framework of these operations was formulated on 6 September 2012. The program was adopted with near unanimity, the President of the Bundesbank being the sole vote against. On the same date, the bank's Securities Markets Programme (SMP) was terminated.

Description.

OMT is considered by the European Central Bank once a Eurozone government asks for financial assistance. The Eurozone has established the European Stability Mechanism and the European Financial Stability Facility bailout funds in order to meet the challenges of the European debt crisis. From these funds and through OMT, the Eurozone's central bank can, henceforth, buy government-issued bonds that mature in 1 to 3 years, provided the bond-issuing countries agree to certain domestic economic measures – the latter being the so-called term of "conditionality". The aim of the program is then to prevent divergence in short-term bond yields, and to ensure that the ECB's monetary policy is transmitted equally to all the Eurozone's member economies. The central bank notes that the OMT is meant as a means to "safeguard an appropriate monetary policy transmission and the singleness of the monetary policy". Interventions through the program are stipulated to be potentially limitless.  So for the OMT to be activated towards a certain eurozone state, a total of four conditions need to be fully met:  Outright Monetary Transactions are not the same as quantitative easing (QE) operations, since, in the latter, the central banks buy bonds and, by doing so, inject liquidity into the banking system, with the aim of stimulating economic activity. The ECB has made clear that the principle of "full sterilisation" will apply, whereby the bank will be reabsorbing the money pumped into the system "by any means necessary". In practice, the only means of sterilisation used has been the auctioning of sufficient quantities of one-week deposits at the ECB – the same means of sterilisation that the ECB used for its previous bond-buying programme, the SMP.

Usage and duration of assistance.

European Central Bank president Mario Draghi has stated that the bank's Governing Council is empowered to decide on the start, continuation and suspension of Outright Monetary Transactions, "in full discretion and acting in accordance with its monetary policy mandate".  OMT operations end once "their objectives are achieved" or when there is non-compliance with the macroeconomic adjustment or precautionary programme.  During the first year, after the new OMT instrument had been born, it was never used. Yet, it was evaluated to have delivered a significant positive impact to solve the problem with a broken monetary transaction mechanism, resulting in some more fairly priced interest rate levels for states under sovereign financial support programmes from EFSF/ESM. Because, as a member of the Executive Board of the ECB, Benoît Cœuré, described it OMTs are an insurance device against redenomination risk, in the sense of reducing the probability attached to worst-case scenarios. As for any insurance mechanism, OMTs face a trade-off between insurance and incentives, but their specific design was effective in aligning ex-ante incentives with ex-post efficiency.  At the end of 2014, the group of states eligible to receive OMT support were only Portugal and Ireland. As none of them, however, had met the fourth condition for support (suffering from distressed interest rates upon the time of their regain of complete access to private lending markets), still no OMTs had been activated by ECB. The next states presumed to have been potential candidates to receive OMT were Greece (expected to regain "complete access to lending markets" in 2015 but did not at that time) and Cyprus (also expected to regain complete access to lending markets in 2015 and also did not make it).

Program evaluation.

Following the announcement of the ECB in the second half of 2012 government bond spreads within the Eurozone went down considerably. According to economics professor Paul De Grauwe, economist Yuemei Ji and researchers at the Cass Business School, this decline can be mainly attributed to OMT, making the sheer announcement of the program effective in its own right.  At the same time, as Paul Krugman notes, "the ECB's efforts rely to an important extent on a bluff, in the sense that nobody knows what would happen if OMT were actually required".  Post-Keynesian economists have expressed their doubts about OMT's effectiveness in dealing with the European debt crisis, some arguing that the program will "fail", because "it doesn't address the core problem – that southern Europe is in depression and the only way out [of it] is for budget deficits to expand."  An ECB working paper evaluated the efficacy of OMT policies. That paper found that such policies "decreased the Italian and Spanish two-year government bond yields by about two percentage points, while leaving unchanged the bond yields of the same maturity in Germany and France". Moreover, "the scenario analysis suggests that the reduction in bond yields due to OMT announcements is associated with a significant increase in real activity, credit, and prices in Italy and Spain with relatively muted spillovers in France and Germany."

Controversy and legal challenge.

The decision of the European Central Bank to enact OMT operations was not adopted unanimously, with the German representative voting against it. Germany's Central Bank president Jens Weidmann, along with German economy minister Philipp Roesler had expressed their opposition to ECB's bond-buying plan, arguing that it might erode "the willingness of Eurozone member-states to implement reforms".  The OMT decision has also been challenged in the German Federal Constitutional Court by members of the German Bundestag, including German politician Peter Gauweiler, and by the German political party Die Linke. The German Constitutional Court requested a preliminary ruling from the European Court of Justice (ECJ) concerning the compatibility of the OMT decision with the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (Case C-62/14). In its request for a preliminary ruling, the German Constitutional Court expressed doubts about the legality of OMT under German and EU law. In January 2015, an Advocate General Opinion stated that the programme is in principle compatible with Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. ECJ made its final ruling of the case in June 2015, declaring the conditional "OMT program" to be legal, as it due to its attached conditions ""does not exceed the powers of the ECB in relation to monetary policy and does not contravene the prohibition of monetary financing of EU nations"".

Outright Monetary Transactions ("OMT") is a program of the European Central Bank under which the bank makes purchases ("outright transactions") in secondary, sovereign bond markets, under certain conditions, of bonds issued by Eurozone member-states.

Les opérations monétaires sur titres, ou OMT (en anglais, "") sont un programme de la Banque centrale européenne au titre duquel la Banque centrale achète directement - sous certaines conditions - des obligations émises par des États-membres de l'Eurozone sur les marchés secondaires de la dette souveraine. Ce programme de rachat a été annoncé par communiqué de presse de la BCE du. Il succède au "Securities Market Program" pour alléger les tensions dans le cadre de la crise de la dette dans la zone euro.


Éparchie Saint-Maron de Brooklyn des Maronites

Territory and statistics.

The eparchy includes the Maronite Catholic faithful in the eastern coast states of the United States.  It borders in the north with the Maronite Catholic Eparchy of Saint Maron of Montreal, which covers Canada, and to the west with the Maronite Catholic Eparchy of Our Lady of Lebanon of Los Angeles, which covers thirty-four states of the United States.  Its eparchial seat is the city of Brooklyn, where is located the Our Lady of Lebanon Maronite Cathedral (Brooklyn). The Saint Maron Maronite church in Detroit, dedicated to Saint Maron, is the former cathedral church of the eparchy.  The territory is divided into 34 parishes and in 2017 had 33,000 Lebanese Maronite Catholics.

History.

Foundation.

The diocese has its roots in the establishment of a Maronite Apostolic Exarchate (the equivalent in the Eastern Churches of an Apostolic Vicariate) by Pope Paul VI's papal bull Cum supremi on 10 January 1966. Its object was to provide a unified structure to serve the Lebanese Maronite Catholics scattered around the country, who were subject, up to that point, to the local Roman Catholic diocese.  At that time, Pope Paul appointed Francis Mansour Zayek as the first exarch of the Maronites in the United States. The eparchate was based in Detroit, Michigan. Zayek, who had just spent several years in a similar post in Brazil, arrived in the United States with a rudimentary knowledge of English, only to find an unfinished cathedral and rectory. He took office on 27 January 1966.  Zayek had to face many challenges. First was the very identity of the Church. Arguments raged as to whether it was to be a transplant of Lebanese life or an American institution rooted in its Lebanese heritage. In this he remained guided by the advice which Pope John had given him on his original appointment, "What you Maronites have does not pertain to you alone but is part of the treasure of the Catholic Church". Additionally, he had to deal with the liturgical changes mandated by the Second Vatican Council, in which he had participated. He had the Maronite Divine Liturgy translated into English for the first time, creating a standardized service for use in every parish of the exarchate.

Eparchy.

In the Apostolic Constitution "Quae spes", issued on 29 November 1971, Pope Paul VI elevated the exarchate to a full eparchy, or diocese, and appointed Zayek as the first bishop of the Eparchy of Saint Maron of Detroit. Zayek was installed as its first bishop on June 4, 1972. The seat of the eparchy was moved from Detroit to the Church of Saint Maron in Brooklyn on 27 June 1977 by the Congregation for the Oriental Churches and it also renamed the name of the Eparchy to Saint Maron of Brooklyn.  Zayek retired in 1996, with the personal title of Archbishop, and was succeeded by Bishop Stephen Youssef Doueihi, who himself retired on 10 January 2004 and was succeeded by Gregory J. Mansour.  A part of its territory, which encompassed the entire United States, was lost on 19 March 1994 to the newly established Maronite Catholic Eparchy of Our Lady of Lebanon of Los Angeles by Pope John Paul II's papal bull Omnium Catholicorum.

Parishes and missions.

As of 2010, the eparchy counts 42 parishes, served by 50 priests and 17 deacons. Parishes are located in the following states: St. Anthony Maronite Church: Danbury, CT  Our Lady of Lebanon Maronite Church: Waterbury, CT  St. Maron Maronite Church: Torrington, CT Our Lady of Lebanon Maronite Church: Washington, D.C. Our Lady of Lebanon Maronite Church: Miami, FL  St. Jude Maronite Church: Orlando, FL  Mary Mother of the Light Maronite Mission: Tequesta, Florida  Saint Maron Maronite Mission: Jacksonville, FL  Heart of Jesus Maronite Church: Ft. Lauderdale, FL  Mission of Saints Peter and Paul: Tampa, FL St. Joseph Maronite Church: Atlanta, GA St. Joseph Maronite Church: Waterville, ME St. Theresa Maronite Church: Brockton, MA  St. Anthony of the Desert Maronite Church: Fall River, MA  Our Lady of the Cedars Maronite Church: Jamaica Plain, MA  St. Anthony Maronite Church: Lawrence, MA  Our Lady of Purgatory Maronite Church: New Bedford, MA  St. Anthony Maronite Church: Springfield, MA  Our Lady of Mercy Maronite Church: Worcester, MA St. George Maronite Catholic Church: Dover, NH St. Sharbel Maronite Church: Somerset, NJ  Our Lady Star of the East Maronite Catholic Mission: Pleasantville, NJ Our Lady of Lebanon Maronite Cathedral: Brooklyn, NY  Saint John Paul II Maronite Catholic Church: Sleepy Hollow, New York  St. Joseph Maronite Church Olean, NY  St. Ann Maronite Church: Watervliet, NY  St. Louis Gonzaga Maronite Church Utica, NY  St. John Maron Maronite Church: Williamsville, NY St Michael the Archangel Maronite Church: Fayetteville, NC  Saint Sharbel Mission Raleigh, NC Our Lady of Lebanon Maronite Church: Easton, PA  Our Lady of Victory Maronite Church: Carnegie, PA  Blessed Teresa of Calcutta Maronite Mission: Darlington, PA  St. Ann Maronite Church: Scranton, PA  St. John the Baptist Maronite Church: New Castle, PA  St. George Maronite Church: Uniontown, PA  St. Anthony/St. George Maronite Church: Wilkes-Barre, PA  St. Maron Maronite Church: Philadelphia, PA  St. Sharbel Maronite Church: Newtown Square, PA St. George Maronite Church: Cranston, RI Mission of St. Rafka: Greer, SC St. Anthony Maronite Church: Richmond, VA  St. Elias Maronite Church: Roanoke, VA

Maronite Catholic Eparchy of Saint Maron of Brooklyn (in Latin: Eparchia Sancti Maronis Bruklyniensis Maronitarum) is an entity pertaining to the Apostolic Maronite Patriarchal Church of Antioch and is a diocese of the Maronite Church for the east coast of the United States, being headquartered in Brooklyn, New York. In conformity with the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (CCEO), the Eparchy is under the direct jurisdiction of the Roman Pontiff. In 2017 there were 33,000 baptized. It is currently ruled by eparch Gregory John Mansour.

L'éparchie Saint-Maron de Brooklyn (en latin :'; en anglais : ') est une église particulière de l'Église catholique aux États-Unis. Exempte, l'éparchie relève immédiatement du Saint-Siège. Depuis 2004, son éparque est.


Plot.

Hollis Henry and Milgrim find themselves in London working for Hubertus Bigend, unaware that their lives previously crossed in "Spook Country". One of Bigend's current interests is fashion, particularly the intersection between streetwear, workwear and military clothing. Milgrim is sent to South Carolina to take photographs of a pair of Army BDUs where he gains the notice of a federal agent named Winnie Tung Whittaker employed by DCIS. Winnie photographs Milgrim and intimidates him into working as an informant.  Bigend asks Henry and Milgrim to investigate a secret brand, named Gabriel Hounds after the English legend. At the same time, he becomes aware that a coup is being plotted within his company, Blue Ant. When Milgrim realizes his cell phone is being tracked by rogue elements in Blue Ant, he slides the phone into a pram belonging to the moll of a member of the Russian mob, which leads to one of the mercenaries involved in the coup, who followed the pram, being captured and beaten. Revenge against Milgrim then becomes the top priority of the mercs.  A parallel subplot follows Hollis as she tracks down the Gabriel Hounds designer. Joined by her boyfriend Garreth, the mysterious daredevil featured in "Spook Country" who had been severely injured in a BASE jump, Hollis Henry offers to help Bigend gain the release of Bobby Chombo, who has been captured by the mercenaries to force Bigend to swap him for Milgrim, but as part of the deal, Bigend must allow the Hounds designer to remain anonymous. Garreth, because of his knowledge of tradecraft, assists Hollis in this, and in doing so calls in favors from an old man, implied to be the same person Garreth worked with in "Spook Country"(who, via implication in both books, might be Cayce Pollard's father), to help ensure secrecy. Bobby Chombo is critical to Bigend's plan to gain the ability to foresee stock market prices by a number of minutes. Events reach a climax at night in an open space in London named Wormwood Scrubs where the mercs demand the prisoner exchange to take place.

Collaboration.

Gibson acknowledges the help of other authors:

Zero History is a novel by William Gibson published in 2010. It concludes the informal trilogy begun by "Pattern Recognition" (2003) and continued by "Spook Country" (2007), and features the characters Hollis Henry and Milgrim from the latter novel as its protagonists.

Histoire zéro (titre original : "Zero History") est un roman de William Gibson publié en 2010, traduit en français par Doug Headline et paru en 2013 aux éditions Au diable vauvert.


Description.

"Dracaena fragrans" is a slow growing shrub, usually multistemmed at the base, mature specimens reaching or more tall with a narrow crown of usually slender erect branches. Stems may reach up to diameter on old plants; in forest habitats they may become horizontal with erect side branches. Young plants have a single unbranched stem with a rosette of leaves until the growing tip flowers or is damaged, after which it branches, producing two or more new stems; thereafter, branching increases with subsequent flowering episodes.  The leaves are glossy green, lanceolate, long and wide; small leaves are erect to spreading, and larger leaves usually drooping under their weight. The flowers are produced in panicles long, the individual flowers are diameter, with a six-lobed corolla, pink at first, opening white with a fine red or purple central line on each of the lobes; they are highly fragrant, and popular with pollinating insects. The fruit is an orange-red berry diameter, containing several seeds.

Cultivation.

In Africa, "D. fragrans" is commonly grown as a hedge plant. It is suited to frost-free climates and USDA Hardiness zones 10-11. Elsewhere, it is primarily popular as a houseplant and valued for its tolerance of a wide range of indoor conditions from full light to low light. It is also very tolerant of neglect. The NASA Clean Air Study indicated that the plant aided removal of indoor pollutants such as formaldehyde, xylene, and toluene. The plant is known as "masale" to the Chagga people of Tanzania, who regard it as holy.  In cultivation in the Neotropics, a few generalist hummingbird species like the sapphire-spangled emerald ("Amazilia lactea") visit the flowers.

Cultivars.

Several cultivars have variegated foliage. 'Massangeana', also commonly denominated "Mass Cane", has a bright yellow central stripe on the foliage. 'Compacta' is more compact and suitable for indoor cultivation. Other popular cultivars include 'Janet Craig', 'Lemon Lime', and 'Warneckei' ('Warneckii'), which are often sold under the synonym "D. deremensis".  The cultivars 'Lemon Lime', ‘Massangeana’, and 'Warneckei' bear the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Propagation.

"Dracaena fragrans" is propagated by cutting segments of old stems long, drying them, and then inserting them into moist sand until they root. New growth, typically being two or three shoots, comes from old foliar scars at the top of the stem.

Etymology and synonymy.

The species name refers to the fragrant flowers, while the English name derives from a perceived resemblance of the stem to a corn ("Zea mays") stalk. Synonyms include "Aletris fragrans" L. (basionym), "Cordyline fragrans" (L.) Planch., "Pleomele fragrans" (L.) Salisb., "Sansevieria fragrans" (L.) Jacq., "Dracaena deremensis" Engl., "Dracaena smithii" Hook.f., and "Dracaena ugandensis" Baker. Other English names include striped dracaena (for variegated cultivars), corn plant (for the cultivar 'Massangeana';), Chinese money tree, and fortune plant.  The plant is known as "බෝතල් ගස් - bothal gas" (meaning "bottle tree") in Sinhala, in Sri Lanka.

Dracaena fragrans (cornstalk dracaena), is a flowering plant species that is native throughout tropical Africa, from Sudan south to Mozambique, west to Côte d'Ivoire and southwest to Angola, growing in upland regions at altitude.

Dracaena fragrans, le "dragonnier parfumé" ou "dragonnier d'Afrique tropicale", communément appelé simplement dragonnier, est une espèce de plantes de la famille des Liliacées selon la classification classique ou des "Asparagaceae" selon la classification phylogénétique, originaire d'Afrique tropicale. Elle est très répandue comme plante d'appartement pour son beau feuillage très souvent panaché et pour sa facilité de culture.


Jardin botanique de l'Université Jagellonne

Location.

The Botanical Garden is located east of the Kraków Old Town, in the II Grzegorzki District (formerly in the Wesoła District), at Copernicus Str. 27.

History.

Botany was taught to medical students at the Jagiellonian University from the end of the sixteenth century. However, the school did not have a test garden. The university rector, Dr. Casimir Stepkowskiego, writing in 1756, provided five thousand PLN for preliminary work to create a garden. The garden itself was founded in 1783 and is the oldest remaining in Poland. [1]  Kraków Botanical Garden was in place family Czartoryski, purchased in 1752 by the Jesuits. [2] [3] After the dissolution of the Order, it was transferred to the Commission of National Education, which is part of the reform of the Kraków Academy established a botanical garden as an auxiliary unit of the Faculty of Chemistry and Natural History. The area covers about 2.4 hectares initially designed as a French baroque park within which decorated collection of medicinal plants and ornamentals. Organization garden dealt with John Jaskiewicz (1749–1809). In 1783, preparatory work began. The first greenhouse was erected in 1787.  The area covered by the garden area has expanded several times. The garden acquired its current area in the 1950s.

Buildings.

The earliest greenhouse complex "Victoria", part of which is with the oldest glasshouse was rebuilt in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and was again reconstructed in 1993–1998. In 1882, the existing palm house was built until 1969. The "Jubilee" palm house was opened in 1966 alongside a group of tropical greenhouses. In 1954 came "Dutch" - low emissions, which covers collections of orchids. [4]  In 1788–1792 was built edifice observatory (rebuilt in 1858–1859). The observatory has worked Jan Śniadecki, famous Kraków mathematician and astronomer, and astronomer Tadeusz Banachiewicz. Today, the building known as the Collegium Śniadeckiego houses the Institute of Botany. In 1792, a garden was one of the oldest meteorological stations in Polish. It has a continuous series of measurements from 1825. Originally the site was stretched Jurydyka Cheerful, founded in 1639 by Catherine Zamoyska that she just gave it the name. You probably already in the Renaissance there was there a vast suburban property with a small palace of "Suburban villa". Residence surrounded by geometric, quartered park in the southern part of the canal ran from the old oxbow lakes. Princes Czartoryski made her one of the most beautiful palaces near Kraków. Reconstruction of the building for the Observatory was designed by the architect of Warsaw Stanislaw Zawadzki, and watched over its implementation Feliks Radwanski. Construction got on the roof of the dome observation ("postrzegalnie"), and high rooms on the ground floor was used as the Botanical Gardens (including its directors lived there). In 1829-1833 on the right side of the palace gardener's house was rebuilt into a garden office. Located on the left side of the former court stables converted into apartments and the garden for the service. Another reconstruction took place in 1859, when the former palace was formed in the style of classicism. From near the palace of April 1, 1784, he took a famous flight of the balloon, organized by J. Śniadeckiego and J. Jaskiewicz [5] [6].

Collections.

Since the mid-nineteenth century, mainly because of botanist Joseph Warszewicz (1812–1866) travel to the Central and South America, it begins to be developed collection of plants and orchids. Today it is the oldest and largest collection of its kind in Poland, with about 500 species.  State collection was changing depending on the political situation of the country and the development of science in the Jagiellonian University. At the end of the eighteenth century in the garden, there were about three thousand plant species, especially useful. Collection of plants declined in the early nineteenth century, and it was only in the 1820s under the direction of Luigi Estreicher (1786–1852) that it was rebuilt. The garden gained particular fame in the 1860s, at the time of Ignatius Raphael Czerwiakowski (1808–1882) [7]. Stock declined in the late nineteenth century, and only Marian Raciborski (1863–1917), explorer of the Polish flora and Java began its restoration in the early twentieth century (founded a new rock garden, the department of genetics and plant variability). Its present appearance owes garden Szafer Władysław (1886–1970), one of the Polish botanists. Since 1991 he is the director Bogdan Zemanek, for which management was carried out repairs greenhouses, boilers, College Śniadeckiego and side buildings.  In 1976, the Botanical Garden was listed as a monument, as a valuable natural monument, a monument to the history of science, art, gardening and culture.  On 26 May 1983, during the celebrations of the 200th anniversary jubilee of the Botanical Garden, opened a permanent exhibition written by Alicia Zemanek and George Świecimskiego artistic project. In 1983, he established a nationwide Botany Section of the History of Polish Botanical Society, with its registered office and research program coupled with the activities of the museum.

Departments and plant collections.

Currently the plant collection contains approximately 5000 species and varieties from around the world. This total includes nearly 1,000 species of trees and shrubs, and more than 2,000 species and varieties of plants in greenhouses.  The Arboretum, which is part of the Gardens, contains as focused collection of trees and shrubs and covers the single largest area of the gardens. Partially composed as a park, and partly as a thematic groups - geographic or decorative. A collection of woody plants, there are about 1,000 species and varieties, the most valuable group of maples and oaks it [8]. Among the many beautiful and excellent plant reigns with about 230 years, " Jagiellonian Oak "- oak Quercus robur [9].  The area of the Botanical Garden is divided into several sections:  William Herter - served as director during the occupation

Opening times.

Botanical Garden is open to visitors only during the summer months, from mid-April to mid-October.

Footnotes.

↑ Jan Adamczewski, Kraków from A to Z,.

The Botanic Garden of the Jagiellonian University () is a botanical garden, founded in 1783 in Kraków. It is located east of the Old Town (Stare Miasto) and occupies 9.6 hectares. It belongs to the Jagiellonian University and is classified as a historical location.

Le Jardin botanique de l'université jagellonne a été fondé en 1783 à Cracovie. Il est situé dans le centre historique de la ville et occupe une superficie de. Ce jardin botanique longe l'université jagellonne de Cracovie et est classé comme lieu historique.


Design.

German Type VIIB submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIA submarines. "U-55" had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. She had a total length of, a pressure hull length of, a beam of, a height of, and a draught of. The submarine was powered by two MAN M 6 V 40/46 four-stroke, six-cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of for use while surfaced, two AEG GU 460/8-276 double-acting electric motors producing a total of for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to.  The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a maximum submerged speed of. When submerged, the boat could operate for at ; when surfaced, she could travel at. "U-55" was fitted with five torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and one at the stern), fourteen torpedoes, one SK C/35 naval gun, 220 rounds, and one anti-aircraft gun The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty.

Service history.

"U-55" began her first and only war patrol on 16 January 1940, under Heidel's command; he had previously sunk two ships in. She sank four small freighters sailing independently, then attacked convoy OA-80G on 29 January. "U-55" sank two more ships before coming under concerted attack from the convoy's escorts, supported by a Sunderland flying boat from RAF Coastal Command 228 Squadron.

Fate.

After a sustained depth charge attack, the U-boat surfaced and carried out a running gun battle before her deck gun jammed. Heidel ordered the boat to be abandoned, then apparently went down with it. The remainder of the crew was rescued by the escorts. The British awarded official credit for sinking "U-55" to the sloop, the destroyer, French destroyers "Valmy" and "Guépard", and the Sunderland.

German submarine "U-55" was a Type VIIB U-boat of Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine" during World War II. She was ordered on 16 July 1937 and laid down on 2 November 1938 at Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft in Kiel as yard number 590. Launched on 19 October 1939, she went into service on 21 November 1939 under the command of "Kapitänleutnant" ("Kptlt.") Werner Heidel.

L'Unterseeboot 55 ou U-55 est un sous-marin allemand (U-boot) de type VII.B construit pour la Kriegsmarine pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.


Life.

Henryk Jordan was born into an impoverished noble "szlachta" family from the village of Zakliczyn. His father, Bonifacy Jordan, gave private lessons. His mother, Salomea Wędrychowska, was a homemaker.  Jordan received his high-school education in Tarnopol and Tarnów. In 1861, however, he took part in pro-Polish demonstrations for which he was threatened with expulsion from school. In 1862 he moved to Trieste and a year later passed his high-school examinations, in Italian, with honors.  Jordan began his university studies in Vienna, and from 1863 continued them at Kraków's Jagiellonian University. He passed his science examinations in 1867 but did not receive his master's degree due to pneumonia. He went to Berlin and from there to New York City. While there, Jordan for the first time encountered the "Swedish school of gymnastics" for girls and young women, which became an area of interest for him. While in the United States, Jordan began his medical practice and also opened a school for midwives. After returning to Europe, he continued to work first in England, then in Germany. Back in Kraków, Jordan took on a number of social functions. From 1895 to 1901 he was a Member of Parliament representing the city at the Polish Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria. In addition, Jordan presided over the Kraków Gynecological Society, as well as the Society of Medical Doctors, and the Association of Polish Teachers of Higher Education (a precursor to Polish Teachers' Union). Thanks to his efforts, physical education classes were introduced as compulsory into all Polish schools.  Henryk Jordan's biggest achievement was to set up a public playground in 1889, with exercise fixtures modeled after playgrounds in the USA, the first in Kraków and perhaps the first in Europe. The Jordan’s Garden built on the grounds of Kraków’s Błonia included a swimming pool, 12 playing and soccer fields, as well as numerous running and exercise tracks. Facilities were added for indoor activities in 1906, in case of bad weather. The park was equipped with locker rooms and showers. On top of that, a free meal service was established for the children.

Legacy.

Jordan believed that: “Being serious and working all the time is humanly impossible. A tired body requires rest, as does an overburdened spirit striving for joy.”  "Jordan’s gardens" took off like wildfire. They were opened in Warsaw, Płock, Kalisz and Lublin. In 1928 a Society for Jordan’s Gardens was established to oversee the construction of recreational facilities in interwar Poland.

Henryk Jordan (23 July 1842 – 16 May 1907) was a Polish philanthropist, physician and pioneer of physical education. A professor of obstetrics from 1895 at Kraków's Jagiellonian University, Jordan became best known for organizing children’s playgrounds, called "Jordan parks" after him.

Henryk Jordan (né le à Przemyśl – mort le à Cracovie) est un médecin, philanthrope et professeur polonais. Pionnier de l'éducation physique et sportive en Pologne, il enseigne l'obstétrique à l'Université jagellonne de Cracovie à partir de 1895. Il est reconnu pour la création de terrains de jeux pour les enfants, appelés les.


Background.

The song had originally been recorded with New Radicals frontman Gregg Alexander, but producer Clive Davis felt a female voice would maximize the song's appeal and a recording of Santana performing "The Game of Love" with Tina Turner as vocalist was completed. When Turner declined to participate in making a video for the track, Davis recruited Macy Gray to record a replacement vocal. When Davis was not satisfied with that version, Michelle Branch was asked to record the song, with Branch's rhythm guitar playing also added to the track. Branch said, "It was the first time for me to sing somebody else's song. Usually I'm like: 'Oh I want it this way' and I'm in charge...I didn't meet [Carlos Santana at the recording session], I didn't know what was going on...It felt to me like wow it seems like there's so much at stake, I'm going to go in there and just sing my heart out and just cross my fingers."  The Tina Turner version of "The Game of Love" was issued on the 2007 retrospective "Ultimate Santana". Santana said "There's only one Tina Turner...No one can hit a note like Tina Turner...I love Michelle [Branch] and she did a great interpretation of it. It's just that with all honor and respect to Michelle, there's the girl and there's the woman, and Michelle is unfolding into a woman...but it takes time to go from a girl into a woman."

Music video.

The music video depicts Santana and Branch in an alley with couples around them, each expressing their love for one another. The director was Paul Fedor and the video was filmed in the Pilsen neighborhood of Chicago, with cameo appearances by Wesley Snipes, Helen Hunt and Jennifer Garner.

"The Game of Love" is a song performed by Latin rock band Santana from their eighteenth studio album "Shaman". The vocal performance on the song is by Michelle Branch. It was composed by Gregg Alexander and Rick Nowels. The song was released as a single in 2002, and won a Grammy Award for "Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals", as well as peaking at No. 5 in on the "Billboard" Hot 100 singles chart. The song also reached number one in Poland and was a top-ten hit in Canada, Hungary, New Zealand, Romania and Spain.

The Game of Love est un single de 2002 du groupe américain Santana avec la participation de Michelle Branch. La chanson provient des albums "Supernatural" (2002) de Santana et "Hotel Paper" (2003) de Michelle Branch.


The teams.

Twelve yacht clubs applied to challenge the America's Cup before the deadline, though their names were not originally disclosed. They included:  On August 2, 2012, the America's Cup Event Authority announced that, following withdrawals or failure to meet the eligibility criteria, only four challenging teams would compete: Kungliga Svenska Segelsällskapet's Artemis Racing, Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron's Team New Zealand, Circolo della Vela Sicilia's Luna Rossa Challenge and Sail Korea Yacht Club's Team Korea  In March, 2013, Team Korea withdrew, leaving three challengers. Shown in the order in which they applied, they were:

Artemis Racing (SWE).

The Challenger of Record, Artemis Racing represented the Royal Swedish Yacht Club and was led by skipper Iain Percy, helmsman Loick Peyron and America's Cup veteran Paul Cayard as tactician and CEO. The crew included Rodney Ardern, Magnus Augustson, Stuart Bettany, Curtis Blewett, Chris Brittle, Sean Clarkson, Juliean Cressant, Rodney Daniel, Andy Fethers, Thierry Fouchier, John Gimson, Kevin Hall, Phil Jameson, Iain Jensen, Santiago Lange, Andrew McLean, Craig Monk, Nathan Outteridge, Troy Tindill and coach Andrew Palfrey. Tom Schnackenberg was in charge of performance & design.

Emirates Team New Zealand (NZL).

Led by Grant Dalton and skippered by Dean Barker, Team New Zealand won the America's Cup in 1995 and 2000 and the Louis Vuitton Cup in 1995 and 2007.

Luna Rossa Challenge (ITA).

Funded by Patrizio Bertelli, the Italian team previously won the Louis Vuitton Cup in 2000 and were runners-up in 2007. The crew included skipper Massimiliano Sirena, helmsman Paul Campbell-James, Chris Draper, Giulio Giovanella, Benjamin Durham, Pierluigi De Felice, Dave Carr, Giles Scott, Nick Hutton, Matteo Plazzi, Alister Richardson, Simone de Mari, Emanuele Marino, Manuel Modena, Marco Montis, Wade Morgan, Francesco Bruni and Olympian Xabier Fernández.  Steven Erickson was the team's sailing co-ordinator and Umberto Panerai was a trainer.

Round Robins.

The three yachts were scheduled to race ten times each, match-racing each competitor five times on a seven-leg course, with the winner of the Round Robins advancing to the final and the other two advancing into the semi-final.  On May 9, 2013, Team Artemis Racing's main boat capsized in strong winds, resulting in the death of crewmember Andrew Simpson. Artemis Racing forfeited its ten Round Robin races, entering the competition in the semi-finals stage.  Per rules 60.5 and 44.1c, the Artemis boat was deemed to have abandoned each race after the event had run for 10 minutes. While the Emirates and Luna Rossa boats earned black flag victories against Artemis, both boats chose to run a five-leg course for some (Luna Rossa) or all (Emirates, including one seven-leg) of these black flag races. Emirates and Luna Rossa only raced nine times, each forfeiting their final race against the missing Artemis as it could not change the final first-second standings of the Round Robins.  Emirates Team New Zealand won the Round Robins with nine points (4 race wins, 5 forfeit wins) to Luna Rossa Challenge's four points (4 forfeit wins) and Artemis Racing's zero points.

Semi-finals.

The semi-finals were a best-of-seven event held over the seven-leg course and won 4-nil by Luna Rossa Challenge over Artemis Racing.

Finals.

The finals were a best-of-thirteen event held over the five-leg course won by Team New Zealand over Luna Rossa.

The 8th Louis Vuitton Cup was held during July and August 2013, in San Francisco, California, United States of America. The three contenders were Artemis Racing (Sweden), Emirates Team New Zealand (New Zealand), and Luna Rossa Challenge (Italy). After a preliminary round robin to determine seeding, Artemis Racing was eliminated in the semi-final round by Luna Rossa Challenge by four races to none. In the final, Emirates Team New Zealand beat Luna Rossa Challenge by seven races to one, and went on to challenge Oracle Team USA for the 2013 America's Cup.

La Coupe Louis-Vuitton se déroule dans la baie de San Francisco du 4 juillet au 30 août 2013. Elle oppose les trois challengers Artemis Racing, Emirates Team New Zealand et Luna Rossa Challenge. Emirates Team New Zealand, grâce à sa victoire, est désigné challenger officiel pour la Coupe de l'America 2013, compétition finalement remportée par le "" américain Oracle Racing le 25 septembre 2013 par neuf victoires à huit.


Design and development.

The D.III was based on the same pattern as the earlier Mercedes D.II, suitably scaled up for higher power settings. Like most inlines of the era, it used a large aluminum crankcase as the main structural component, with separate cylinders made from steel bolted onto it. The technology for screwing a threaded cylinder of steel into an aluminum crankcase did not exist at that time. Jackets for cooling water covered the top 2/3 of the cylinder, feeding a radiator via connections at the back of the engine. The only obvious design change from the earlier D.II was to use separate cooling jackets for each cylinder, whereas the D.II used one jacket each for a trio of adjacent pairs of cylinders.  The D.III featured a rather prominent overhead cam operating the single intake and exhaust valves, powered by a shaft running up from the crankshaft at the rear of the engine. Ignition was provided by two sets of spark plugs, one located on either side of the cylinders, each powered by a separate magneto for redundancy. The ignition cables were protected in tubes running down either side of the cylinders. Fuel was fed into the cylinders via pipes on the port side of the engine, supplied from a twin-barrel carburetor located just above the crankcase. Both the fuel and oil reservoirs were pressurized by an air compressor run off the crank.  Daimler also used the pistons of the D.III to produce the reduction geared, eight-cylinder 220 hp Mercedes D.IV during this period, but it did not see widespread use. The lengthened crankshaft of the D.IV proved prone to breaking.

Production variants.

The original D.III was introduced in 1914. While it saw widespread use in early examples of the C-series of two-seat general-purpose biplanes, the D.III was too large for contemporary fighter designs and did not see use in that role. At the time, fighters were generally powered by lighter rotary engines of power output levels from 80 to about 110 hp, or by water-cooled inline engines in the 100 to 120 hp range such as the earlier Mercedes D.II. By 1916 new designs had grown in size and performance and the D.III became popular on new designs. By 1917 the D.III was being widely used in fighters, most notably on the famous Albatros D.I. Production of this version was essentially wound down by May 1917, with only a handful continuing to be delivered until October. British HP ratings being slightly different (with 746 watts = 1 hp) to the German PS or "Pferdestärke" standard of roughly 735 watts per PS horsepower, it is probable that this engine would have had a slightly higher rating under British HP numbers. Fuel consumption was 11.75 gallons per hour. Its compression ratio was 4.5:1.  Development of the basic design led to the slightly modified 170 hp D.IIIa, which took over on the production lines in June 1917. The main change was to change the piston profile to have a flat head instead of the former concave one, thereby slightly increasing maximum compression to 4.64:1. Other changes were mainly in design details, notably a redesigned crankcase and new carburetor. Many of the accessories were also redesigned or moved around on the engine. This model was produced only briefly, for use on the Albatros D.III but there are indications that possibly some early Albatros (Alb.) made Fokker D.VII's were also equipped but probably had the engines upgraded or replaced as quickly as possible. This engine has been referred to in postwar British analysis as generating 180 hp.  A more "radical" upgrade was the 180/200 hp D.IIIaü, introduced in late 1917, the D.IIIaü was a standardized refinement of the D.III and D.IIIa design and the ü designation was never official. This engine changed the pistons again, this time to a domed profile that further increased the maximum compression – the ü was for "über", meaning "overcompressed". Additionally, a new altitude-compensating carburetor was added, which improved performance at higher altitudes. To support operations at these altitudes, water from the radiator was used to heat the air intake and prevent icing in the carburetor. The aü model, which included upgraded D.III and D.IIIa engine blocks, was the most prolific German fighter engine of 1918 and designed into most fighter designs from late 1917 on. This included most of the entries in the First Fighter Competition at Adlershof in January 1918, notably the famed Fokker D.VII. In British post war evaluation the D.IIIaü demonstrated 200 hp according to the British standards.  A final version attempting to keep the D.III block competitive was the 200 hp (200-217 hp) D.IIIav (or avü), introduced mid-October 1918. The av used slightly longer pistons made of aluminum (possibly a first for a production engine), increasing the compression yet again, while at the same time allowing them to move faster due to the reduced weight. The maximum allowable RPM increased from 1,400 in the earlier models to 1,600 in the av, accounting for most of the gains in power. It is unclear if any av's saw service use. The increased use of Benzol in German aviation fuel may have helped this final upgrade of power, its higher octane rating being better suited for the higher compression ratio.

External differences between models.

All of the D.III series were generally very similar to other models, with the exception of the piston profile, carburetor details and valvetrain details. It appears that upgrades were available for many of the engines, certainly for the III to IIIa, and IIIa to IIIaü. It would seem unlikely that early III's would ever make it to the IIIaü standard, as they would almost certainly have been worn out in service before then. The valvetrain changes concerned the layout of the rocker arms that operated the valves. Early models had square rocker boxes positioned directly over the cylinders with the rocker arms exiting through vertical slots, one cut into each of the opposing sides of the boxes, as shown at left. The earlier "side-slot" rocker arm design had also been used for the Mercedes D.I and D.II engines' valvetrains. In later versions of the D.III engines, the boxes were relocated rearward on the tubular camshaft housing, and the now easily sealable cylindrical rocker arm shafts protruded forwards through the front surfaces of the boxes, operating the now fully exposed rocker arms with the exposed shaft ends, as shown at right. The newer arrangement was stated as being interchangeable as a set with the complete camshaft, rocker boxes, rocker arms and valve springs, with the D.III's earlier "side-slot" cam drive system design - the later system seems to have influenced both Packard's and Hall-Scott's engine designers to adopt a nearly identical "slotless" valvetrain design feature for the Liberty L-12 Allied V-12 aviation engine.  Confusingly, the "ü" was not an official part of the name. This leads to a number of problems in various references, which often confuse the IIIa with the IIIaü, listing the former as a 180 hp engine. There are two D.IV engines — from the "IdFlieg" aircraft powerplant class designations based on power output — one the straight-eight based on the 140mm bore D.III pistons; and the later, six-cylinder Mercedes D.IVa with 160mm bore cylinders, which was essentially unrelated.  The D.III line of engines would find themselves eclipsed in performance by the BMW IIIa of 185 and then 200 hp (British rated it at 230HP) in 1918, however, the small number of BMW's produced ensured that the Mercedes D.III series would be the primary German fighter engine up to the last month or two of the war and it would still be seen in very large numbers even at the end. At the end of the war the D.IIIaü would still be the numerically predominant German fighter engine. As a result, the Fokker D.VII's (those not equipped with BMW IIIa's) and the Pfalz D.XII's would be engine-limited in performance (as opposed to "airframe-limited") and yet would still be formidable adversaries to their Allied counterparts. The D.IIIaü was considered the optimum engine for the Roland D.VI, Pfalz D.IIIa, and Albatros D.Va fighters, whose airframes were of an earlier, "all-wood" generation in design.

The Mercedes D.III, or F1466 as it was known internally, was a six-cylinder, SOHC valvetrain liquid-cooled inline aircraft engine built by Daimler and used on a wide variety of German aircraft during World War I. The initial versions were introduced in 1914 at 160 hp, but a series of changes improved this to 170 hp in 1917, and 180 by mid-1918. These later models were used on almost all late-war German fighters, and its only real competition, the BMW III, was available only in very limited numbers. Compared to the Allied engines it faced, the D.III was generally outdated.

Le Mercedes D.III (ou F1466, désignation interne) était un moteur d'avion six cylindres en ligne refroidi par liquide construit par Daimler et utilisé sur une grande variété d'avions allemands au cours de la Première Guerre mondiale. Les premières versions, en 1914, développaient, mais une série d'améliorations l'ont porté à en 1917 et mi-1918. Les derniers modèles ont été utilisés sur presque tous les chasseurs allemands de la fin de guerre. Son seule réel concurrent, le BMW III, était disponible seulement en nombre très limité. Par rapport aux moteurs alliés auxquels il était confronté, le D.III était généralement dépassé.


Objectives.

Sri Lanka Ecotourism Foundation aims to use tourism as a tool to support the social and economic development or rural communities throughout Sri Lanka. The foundation has been leading poverty alleviation programs through ecotourism and is motivating local communities to take part in community based ecotourism and nature conservation projects.  The main objective of SLEF is the promotion of a sustainable form of tourism within Sri Lanka in order to position the country as one of the best ecotourism destinations in Southern Asia. To do so, the foundation urges on community and private sector participation, infrastructure improvements and regional cooperation.  According to SLEF, ecotourism could limit environmental degradation while promoting cooperation between private and public sectors in Sri Lanka. Ecotourism is also viewed as a way to reduce poverty in the tourism generating areas of the island, contribute to economic growth, raise employment and allow the promotion of natural and cultural sites conservation.

Projects.

Sri Lanka Ecotourism Foundation is currently leading several community based ecotourism projects throughout Sri Lanka. The foundation provides tours within its ecotourism network through its company Sri Lanka Ecotours. SLEF is promoting community based ecolodges and has launched an ecolodge project in order to educate those who are planning to build this type of tourist accommodation in or around protected areas, for them to do so with a minimum impact on the environment.  SLEF is also addressing the climate change issues while promoting sustainable energies. The foundation supports small and medium scale Sri Lankan entrepreneurs in Capacity Building/Training on renewable energy systems, with an emphasis on the solar energy. Various types of Solar Lighting systems, equipment and spare parts for assembling purpose may be introduced and made available by the organization. SLEF aims to work in close relation with the Ministry of Power and Energy and the Sustainable Energy Authority of Sri Lanka.  SLEF is providing a compilation of Eco-labeling, Accreditation and Certification Programmes for Small and Medium Enterprises within the Tourism Sector in Sri Lanka. The foundation is leading training programmes to educate enterprises about Community Camping, Renewable Energy Sources, Forests and Wildlife, Ecolodges and Community Based Ecotourism Projects in Sri Lanka.

Rewards.

Sri Lanka Ecotourism Foundation has been rewarded a few prices for its efforts to develop sustainable tourism in Sri Lanka.  SLEF has been awarded the 2010 presidential award for “Outstanding Contribution for Tourism in Sri Lanka”, giving the foundation a great national recognition.  SLEF has received two awards during the Sri Lanka Tourism Awards 2012: Best Model Community Based Tourism Project, and Best Initiative for Ecotourism Research, Training and Education. Thus, SLEF became the first Sri Lankan ecotourism organization to be granted such a national recognition. Sri Lanka Tourism Awards reward organizations and individuals for their efforts to strengthen and empower the Sri Lankan tourism industry.

Sri Lanka Ecotourism Foundation (abbreviated SLEF) is a national association of Sri Lanka that aims to create a wide network of ecotourism actors throughout the country. The organization focuses on developing the economic and social development of rural communities through tourism. SLEF supports local communities to take part in community based tourism and conservation projects. The organization has been founded in 1998 by Palitha Gurusinghe, who is a member of Advisory Board of The International Ecotourism Society and a famous presenter in Ecotourism and Community Based Tourism.

La Sri Lanka Ecotourism Foundation (abrégée SLEF) est une association nationale du Sri Lanka qui vise à créer un large réseau d'acteurs de l'écotourisme à travers le pays. L'organisation se concentre sur le développement économique et social des communautés rurales via le tourisme. La SLEF incite les communautés locales à prendre part à des projets de tourisme communautaire et de conservation de l'environnement. L'organisation a été fondée en 1998 par Palitha Gurusinghe, qui est également membre permanent de la The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) et un conférencier reconnu dans le secteur de l'écotourisme et du tourisme communautaire.


History.

The space centre is the largest among the ISRO facilities. It is a centre for the design and development of satellite launch vehicles and associated technologies. The centre pursues research and development in a host of distinct technology domains including aeronautics, avionics, and composites, primarily for the purpose of advancing the development of launch vehicle technology in India.  After incorporation of the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) in 1962, its first act was the establishment of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) at Thumba, in Thiruvananthapuram. Thumba was picked as the launch site for sounding rockets for meteorological and upper atmospheric research due to its location on the geomagnetic equator.  21 November 1963 marked India's first venture into space, with the launch of a two-stage Nike Apache sounding rocket from TERLS. The first rockets launched were built in United States.  The first Indian designed and built rocket, RH-75, made its maiden flight on 20 November 1967. This was the 52nd launch of a sounding rocket from TERLS. It was flown twice again in 1967 and another 12 times in 1968, making a total of 15 RH-75 flights.  Among the sounding rockets to have flown from TERLS were Arcas-1, Arcas-11, Centaure-1, 11A and 11B, Dragon-1, Dual Hawk, Judy Dart, Menaka-1, Menaka-1Mk 1 and Mk11, Nike Tomahawk, M-100, Petrel, RH-100, RH-125, RH-200 (S), RH-300, variants of RH-560, etc. There have been a total of nearly 2200 sounding rocket launches from TERLS, so far.  Over the years VSSC has designed, developed and launched a family of sounding rockets under the generic name, Rohini Sounding Rockets (RSR) to serve a range of scientific missions. The currently operational Rohini Sounding Rockets are RH-200, RH-300, RH-560 and their different versions. These sounding rockets are launched for carrying out research in areas like meteorology and upper atmospheric processes up to an altitude of about 500 km.  TERLS was formally dedicated to the United Nations on 2 February 1968, by then Prime Minister of India, Mrs. Indira Gandhi. Although no direct funding from the UN was involved, scientists from several countries including United States, Russia (former USSR), France, Japan, Germany and UK continue to utilize the TERLS facility for conducting rocket based experiments. Over 1161 USSR meteorological sounding rockets called M-100 were launched from TERLS every week from 1970 until 1993.  After the sudden demise of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai on 30 December 1971, TERLS and associated space establishments at Thiruvananthapuram were renamed as the "Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre" in his honour.  In the early 1980s, VSSC was instrumental in the development of India's Satellite Launch Vehicle program, SLV-3. This was followed in the late 1980s with the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), for launching 150 kg satellites into near earth orbits.  In the 1990s, VSSC contributed to the development of India's workhorse launch vehicle, the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV).

Facilities.

In addition to its main campus located at Thumba and Veli, VSSC has integration and checkout facilities located at Valiamala. Facilities for development of reinforced plastics and composites are located at Vattiyoorkavu in Thiruvananthapuram City. The ISRO plant in Aluva produces ammonium perchlorate, a vital ingredient for solid propellant motors. Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) and the Space Physics Laboratory (SPL) are also within the VSSC campus. SPL focuses on research activities in disciplines such as atmospheric boundary layer physics, numerical atmospheric modeling, atmospheric aerosols, atmospheric chemistry, trace gases, atmospheric dynamics, thermospheric-ionospheric physics, planetary sciences, etc.  Satish Dhawan Supercomputing Facility.  VSSC has a large workforce of about 4500 employees, most of them specialists in frontier disciplines.

Programs.

Over the last four decades VSSC has become the leading centre for development of launch vehicle technology.  VSSC has a matrix organization based on Projects and Entities. Core project teams manage project activities. System level activities of the projects are carried out by system development agencies. Major programmes of VSSC include the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), Rohini Sounding Rockets, Space Capsule Recovery Experiment, Reusable Launch Vehicles and Air Breathing Propulsion.  VSSC pursues research and development in the fields of aeronautics, avionics, composites, computer and information technology, control guidance and simulation, launch vehicle design, mechanical engineering, mechanisms vehicle integration and testing, propellants polymers and materials, propulsion propellants and space ordnance, and systems reliability. These research Entities are the system development agencies for the Projects and thus provide for the realization of the project objectives. Management systems area provides for programme planning and evaluation, human resource development, budget and manpower, technology transfer, documentation and outreach activities.  VSSC is certified for compliance to ISO 9001:2000 quality management system. The quality objectives of the Centre are planning, implementing and maintaining a quality system during design, development, production, and operation of subsystems and systems for launch vehicles. It also aims at achieving continued improvement in process for its zero defect goal.  ISRO has developed an array of sounding rockets and four generations of launch vehicles and thus establishing operational space transportation system. Most of launch vehicle development is carried out at VSSC.  Current focus of VSSC is on the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), the GSLV Mk III and the Reusable Launch Vehicle- Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD).  In January 2007, the Space Capsule Recovery Experiment Module (SRE-1) was safely brought back to earth after 10 days in orbit. This involved a host of technologies developed at VSSC, including thermal protection systems to withstand the large heat flux of atmospheric re-entry.  VSSC made significant contribution to India's maiden mission to the Moon, Chandrayaan-1.  VSSC R&D efforts have included solid propellant formulations. Another focus area has been navigation systems; the ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) established at Vattiyoorkavu is a part of VSSC.  VSSC is involved in the development of air-breathing vehicles. A reusable launch vehicle technology demonstrator is under development, which will be tested soon.  VSSC also has programs focused on applications of space technology including village resource centres, telemedicine, tele-education, disaster management support and outreach through Direct To Home television broadcast.

The Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) is a major space research centre of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), focusing on rocket and space vehicles for India's satellite programme. It is located in Thiruvananthapuram, in the Indian state of Kerala.

Le centre spatial Vikram-Sarabhai (en hindi : विक्रम साराभाई अंतरिक्ष केंद्र, en malayalam : വിക്രം സാരാഭായ് ബഹിരാകാശകേന്ദ്രം) est le plus gros centre de recherche de l'Organisation indienne pour la recherche spatiale (ISRO). Il est spécialisé dans l'étude des lanceurs et véhicules spatiaux destinés au programme satellitaire indien. Il est situé à Thiruvananthapuram, dans le sud de l'Inde, dans l'état du Kerala. Il a été nommé en l'honneur de Vikram Sarabhai, père du programme spatial indien.


History.

In 1985, Protel Systems Pty Ltd launched the DOS-based PCB design tool known as Protel PCB (which later emerged into Autotrax and Easytrax). Originally it was sold only in Australia. Protel PCB was marketed internationally by HST Technology Pty Ltd. since 1986. In October 1986 the San Diego-based ACCEL Technologies, Inc. acquired marketing and support responsibilities of the PCB program for the USA, Canada and Mexico under the name Tango PCB. In 1987, Protel launched the circuit diagram editor "Protel Schematic" for DOS.  In 1991, Protel released "Advanced Schematic" and "Advanced PCB" 1.0 for Windows (1991-1993), followed by Advanced Schematic/PCB 2.x (1993-1995) and 3.x (1995-1998).  In 1998, "Protel 98" consolidated all components, including "Advanced Schematic" and "Advanced PCB", into a single environment. "Protel 99" in 1999 introduced the first integrated 3D visualization of the PCB assembly. It was followed by "Protel 99 SE" in 2000.  "Protel DXP" was issued in 2003, "Protel 2004" in 2004, Altium Designer 6.0 in 2005.  Altium Designer version 6.8 from 2007 was the first to offer 3D visualization and clearance checking of PCBs directly within the PCB editor.  In May 2014, Altium relocated their corporate headquarters to San Diego, California.

Features.

Altium Designer's suite encompasses four main functional areas: schematic capture, 3D PCB design, Field-programmable gate array (FPGA) development and release/data management. Noteworthy features referred to in the reviews include:

Reception and criticisms.

Altium Designer is generally found to be more costly than other PCB design software but is noted for its ability to achieve fast results for complex circuits.

Altium Designer is a PCB and electronic design automation software package for printed circuit boards. It is developed by Australian software company Altium Limited.

Altium Designer est une chaîne logicielle intégrée de conception assistée par ordinateur pour systèmes électronique. Altium Designer propose des fonctions de :


Civil parishes.

Within the Mid Sussex District are 24 civil parishes:

History.

Population increased substantially in the 19th century, with most of this increase in the most urban areas and leading by its close to urban districts, town-based and rural districts, multi-village-based.  Mid Sussex was first, in 1885, another name for the Lewes constituency when Sussex representation was reformed to nine approximately equal electorate seats.  The first Parliamentary mention of a Mid Sussex body of any sort is in 1907, to the Mid Sussex Joint Water District, an amalgamation of private water companies to provide safe, treated, piped water.  Sussex has been divided into East Sussex and West Sussex for taxation since the late medieval period but this divide changed for the first and most recent time in 1972. Changes were provided for under a 1972 Act, all major proposals debated in outline, and made in detail in its associated Order.  Mid Sussex's change in county was argued under the Redcliffe-Maud Report's "Planning Area" enhancing a Second Wilson ministry plan with support from locally resident Lords and of the Heath ministry. Under this plan West Sussex gained an irregular swathe of East Sussex as far as East Grinstead in the north and in its initially passed form, Crawley would have gained two parishes in Surrey instead of the Gatwick part of these — mostly reversed due to a local poll, before its 1974 implementation, with the Charlwood and Horley Act 1974. East to West Sussex land re-designation was kept with the stated aim of uniting all areas affected by the projected major Crawley and Gatwick Airport economy under one supervisory local authority.  The decision was controversial but moved through the House of Lords from the despatch box by Lord Belstead, a well-respected Minister in the Lords:

Home ownership.

Homes owned by their occupants, with or without a loan, make up more than 85% of Mid Sussex housing. Mid Sussex's residents had the lowest burden of social housing, at 0.5% of housing stock, at the time of the census, a district which is approximately 30 minutes by its fast railway services from the area with the highest such proportion covering London Bridge station, the London Borough of Southwark (having 31.2% social housing) and from a creative and self-declared, progressive authority with 9.8% social housing and 28% of its housing privately rented, Brighton and Hove.  In terms of rented housing Mid Sussex at the 2011 census ranked 216th out of in terms of 327 local authorities in England. The proportion of homes which were rented as investments by non-occupants was higher than several other semi-rural districts of Sussex, with 11.7% of housing stock speculatively acquired in this way or to provide for those unable to obtain mortgage finance and 1.0% was let out to residents on either public or private shared ownership schemes, close to the national average. These figures are those of the 2011 census.

Local politics.

Mid Sussex District Council elections are held every four years. The District Council has been under Conservative Party (UK) control since 1999. The 2019 Mid Sussex District Council elections were held on Thursday 2 May, the results were as follows: 34 Conservatives, 13 Liberal Democrats, 3 Greens and 4 Independents. The Leader of the Council is Councillor Jonathan Ash-Edwards.  The parliamentary constituency of Mid Sussex covers most (but not all) of the district, and is held by the Conservative Party. The incumbent Member of Parliament (MP) is Mims Davies who was elected in the 2019 General Election, succeeding Sir Nicholas Soames, the grandson of former Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, and a former junior minister in the Government of Sir John Major (1990–97). The southernmost part of the district, including Hassocks and Hurstpierpoint falls within Arundel and South Downs whose MP is Nick Herbert. The north western part of the district, including Ardingly, Balcombe, Copthorne and Crawley Down falls within the Horsham constituency whose MP is Jeremy Quin.

Mid Sussex is a local government district in the English non metropolitan county of West Sussex, within the historic county of Sussex. It contains the towns of East Grinstead, Haywards Heath and Burgess Hill.

Le Mid Sussex est un district du Sussex de l'Ouest, en Angleterre. Il couvre la partie orientale du comté, avec les villes d'East Grinstead, Haywards Heath et Burgess Hill.


Background.

Hoping to assist Marshal André Masséna's invasion of Portugal, Emperor Napoleon ordered Marshal Nicolas Soult to act. Accordingly, Soult set out in January 1811 with 13,500 foot soldiers, 4,000 horse, and 2,000 gunners and sappers to besiege Badajoz. In a preliminary operation, Soult captured Olivenza in a two-week siege that ended on 23 January. The French seized 4,161 Spanish prisoners and 18 guns for an admitted loss of only 15 killed and 40 wounded. On 27 January, Soult's army invested Badajoz. Despite the interference of a 15,000-man Spanish relief army, the results were all the French could have hoped for. On 19 February, Soult sent Marshal Édouard Mortier to deal with the Spanish army. Mortier won a crushing victory in the Battle of the Gebora. The Spanish lost 850 killed and wounded plus 4,000 men, 17 guns, and 6 colors captured. French casualties only numbered 403. Turning to the siege, Soult forced a surrender on 11 March. The 4,340-man Spanish garrison plus 2,000 fugitives from the Battle of the Gebora lost about 1,000 killed and wounded while the rest became prisoners. The French sustained 1,900 casualties in the siege.  At about this time Soult received intelligence that Spanish General Francisco Ballesteros was menacing Seville and Marshal Claude Perrin Victor had been defeated by General Thomas Graham at the Battle of Barrosa. Leaving Mortier and 11,000 soldiers to hold Badajoz and environs, Soult hurried away with the remainder to deal with the twin threats. Meanwhile, Mortier besieged and captured Campo Maior on 21 March. As his subordinate General of Division Victor de Fay de Latour-Maubourg convoyed the captured cannon back to Badajoz, he was surprised by the cavalry vanguard of William Carr Beresford's approaching Anglo-Portuguese corps. In the Battle of Campo Maior on 25 March, the British 13th Light Dragoons scored an initial success, then lost all control as they galloped after the defeated French dragoons. In the confusion, Latour-Maubourg kept his head and, with the help of Mortier, managed to save the artillery convoy except for one artillery piece. Nevertheless, the appearance of Beresford and 18,000 Allied troops threw the French onto the defensive.  A field marshal in the service of Portugal, Beresford had available the 2nd Division, the 4th Division, Major General John Hamilton's Portuguese Division, and General Robert Ballard Long's cavalry. If he could have invested Badajoz at the end of March, Beresford might have found the defenses of the fortress in poor shape. However, problems arose to delay the operation until the French effected repairs. First, the 4th Division was immobilized by a lack of shoes and had to wait for a new shipment from Lisbon. Next, ample bridging material was supposed to be available at the Portuguese fortress of Elvas, but the number of pontoons proved inadequate to span the Guadiana River. The military engineers improvised a bridge, but it was immediately washed out by a flood on 4 April. A battalion was ferried across on the 5th, and starting on 6 April, the Allied corps began slowly filing across the Guadiana on a rickety structure. Luckily, for the Allies, the French did not contest the crossing. Mortier had been recalled and his replacement Latour-Maubourg lacked his strategic insight.  Too late, Latour-Maubourg finally woke up and sent two cavalry regiments and four infantry battalions on a reconnaissance to find out what was afoot. On the night of the 6th, the French flying column gobbled up a picket of the 13th Light Dragoons. The British lost 52 horsemen captured in this misadventure. General of Brigade Michel Veilande reported that the Allies were across the Guadiana in great strength. Before withdrawing from the area, Latour-Maubourg left General of Brigade Armand Philippon with 3,000 men in Badajoz and 400 soldiers in Olivenza (Olivença). Unaware that Olivenza had such a weak garrison, the Allies laid siege to it on 9 April. The place fell on the 14th after six Portuguese 24-pound cannons blasted a breach in the walls. The same week, Beresford was joined by a Spanish force numbering 3,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry under General Francisco Javier Castaños.

First phase.

Before investing Badajoz, Beresford thought it worthwhile to drive Latour-Maubourg's force out of Extremadura. Leaving some troops to mask Badajoz, he marched southeast toward Zafra. Long routed the French 2nd Hussars at Los Santos de Maimona on 16 April. Abandoning Llerena on the 19th, Latour-Maubourg withdrew to Guadalcanal in Andalusia. Before starting the siege of Badajoz, Beresford posted Spanish cavalry at Llerena and British cavalry at Zafra. They were supported by a brigade of British infantry under Lieutenant Colonel John Colborne.  In any case, Beresford could not have besieged the fortress at once because no siege train had been assembled. Apparently, this was an oversight by Arthur Wellesley, Viscount Wellington who failed to issue the necessary orders. The main problem was that the British army in the Iberian Peninsula had never been provided by the home government with a proper siege train. Therefore, Major Alexander Dickson began forming a siege park from the Portuguese cannons available at Elvas. In the words of historian Charles Oman, "The walls of Elvas were a perfect museum of ancient artillery..." Some of the cannons that Dickson used had dates of 1620, 1636, 1646, and 1652 on their breeches. Even the pieces from the early 1700s were of an obsolete pattern. Most of the gunners were Portuguese, many only half-trained. These were later supplemented by the personnel from British artillery batteries stationed at Lisbon in the companies of Captains Baynes, Bredin, Glubb, and Raynsford.  On 20 April, Wellington arrived on a flying visit from the northern front. By this time, his opponent Masséna had abandoned his campaign in Portugal and retreated into Spain. Two days later, Wellington accompanied Major General Charles Alten's newly-arrived brigade of the King's German Legion on a reconnaissance of Badajoz. A skirmish with the aggressive garrison ensued in which the Germans lost 50 to 60 casualties. Before leaving on the 25th, Wellington issued a set of comprehensive instructions to Beresford. On the advice of his chief engineer, Colonel Richard Fletcher, Wellington ordered that the main attack be directed on the San Cristobal, Picurina, and Pardeleras forts.  The siege began on 22 April 1811. Philippon's 4,000 defenders included the 1st Battalions of the 12th Light, 34th Line, and 88th Line Infantry Regiments and the 3rd Battalions of the 40th and 100th Line Infantry Regiments. To oppose the French, Beresford had 10,500 British and 10,200 Portuguese troops available. In case Soult tried to relieve Badajoz, Wellington arranged for as many as 15,000 Spanish troops to be ready to help. On 5 May Dickson reported that the siege train was finally ready. The next day, Beresford invested Badajoz south of the Guadiana with Alten's brigade, Major General William Lumley's British brigade, and Brigadier General Luiz Fonseca's Portuguese brigade. On the 7th Lieutenant Colonel James Kemmis's brigade and the 17th Portuguese Regiment took post on the north side opposite San Cristobal. Four more brigades were stationed in support between Badajoz and La Albuera. Meanwhile, Colborne conducted a successful campaign in the Sierra Morena with 2,000 men, causing Latour-Maubourg to fall back even farther.  Dickson assigned five 24-pound cannons and two howitzers to attack San Cristobal while 14 24-pound cannons and two 8-inch howitzers were deployed south of the river. On 8 April 1811, trenches were started on all three fronts at a distance of from the fortress. Opposite the Picurina fort, good progress was made, and a 10-gun battery was installed by the 11th. However, it was found almost impossible to dig trenches in front of San Cristobal because there was bedrock under a thin layer of topsoil. What little work could be done during the night had to be abandoned under deadly French fire during the day. Since trenches were out of the question, wooden gabions filled with soil had to be erected. On this front, Philippon launched a sortie on the evening of the 10th. The attack was repulsed, but the Allies pursued their enemies too far and came under murderous fire from San Cristobal. The French lost 200 men in the sortie; the British and Portuguese lost 438. On 11 April, a five-gun battery opened fire on the fort, but during the day four of its guns were put out of action by accurate French fire. By this time, six of the nine available engineers were casualties. A second battery was brought into action the next morning, but it was soon silenced. Shortly afterward, news arrived that Soult was rapidly approaching with an army of relief. Beresford ordered his troops to La Albuera to resist Soult's advance and sent the siege guns back to Elvas. The gabions were set on fire to deny the materials to the French. British losses in the failed siege numbered 533, nearly all in Kemmis's brigade, plus 200 Portuguese.

Albuera.

On 16 May 1811, Beresford defeated Soult in the Battle of Albuera. Soult's 24,246-man army included 4,000 cavalry and 48 artillery pieces. Beresford's 35,284-strong army included 13,928 Spaniards under Generals Joaquín Blake and Castaños. Losses in both armies were staggering. The French marshal reported losing 5,935 men including Generals of Brigade François Werlé and Joseph Pepin killed. However, since Soult reported only 262 officer losses while a more reliable source counted 362, the true figure may be as high as 7,900 killed, wounded, and captured. Allied losses numbered 5,904 including 1,359 Spaniards. Colborne's brigade lost five colors after being ridden down by the 1st "Vistula Legion" Lancers and the French 2nd Hussars. The all-British 2nd Division suffered 2,865 casualties including 661 killed; the British brigade of the 4th Division lost 1,065 men. The "Spanish Guards" and "Irlanda" Regiments fought heroically and counted 98 killed and 517 wounded. Soult's crippled army retreated on the 18th, covered by his superior cavalry. While the armies were fighting, Philippon's troops filled in the Allied trenches and battery positions. The French commander also removed much of the topsoil around San Cristobal. The siege was resumed on the morning of 19 May by Hamilton's Portuguese troops.  On 14 May 1811, the 3rd and 7th Divisions left the northern front and set out for Badajoz under the command of General Thomas Picton. On 16 May, Wellington left General Brent Spencer in charge of the 26,000 infantry and 1,800 cavalry of the northern army. Wellington reached Badajoz on the 19th; Picton's divisions arrived on the 24th. Meanwhile, Soult retreated slowly southeast to Llerena with his large convoys of wounded soldiers, followed by Beresford and Blake. There was one notable clash at the Battle of Usagre on 25 May. Soult asked Latour-Maubourg to drive back the Allied cavalry to ascertain if infantry was present. The French dragoons ran into a trap and lost 250 killed and wounded plus another 78 captured. Lumley's cavalry lost only 20 casualties in the one-sided fight.

Second phase.

On 27 May Beresford was officially replaced in command on the southern front. Four days later, General Rowland Hill arrived to take over the covering force, the 2nd and 4th Divisions plus Alten's brigade and Lumley's cavalry, approximately 10,000 men. Wellington personally took charge of the siege corps, which consisted of the 3rd and 7th Divisions and Hamilton's division. These troops numbered 14,000 including 700 gunners. Philippon's garrison consisted of 3,600 men. Again, Wellington's engineers, of whom there were only 25 available, urged him to attack the San Cristobal fort. In addition, a major effort was planned against the Castle on the south side of the Guadiana.  On 25 May, Major General William Houston's 7th Division invested the north side. Two days later, Picton's 3rd Division joined Hamilton's Portuguese south of the river. For the second leaguer, Dickson collected a siege train of 46 artillery pieces, 30 24-pound cannons, four 16-pound cannons, four 10-inch howitzers, and eight 8-inch howitzers. As in the earlier siege, all were ancient relics from the ramparts of Elvas. To serve the guns, 110 British from Raynesford's battery and 500 Portuguese were available.  Picton's 3rd Division was made up of the British brigades of Colonel Henry MacKinnon and Major General Charles Colville. MacKinnon's brigade consisted of the 1st Battalions of the 4th Foot, 74th Highland, and 88th Foot. Colville's Brigade included the 2nd Battalions of the 5th Foot, 83rd Foot, and 88th Foot. Houston's 7th Division had the brigades of Major General John Sontag and Brigadier General John Doyle. Sontag's British brigade was made up of the 2nd Battalions of the 51st Foot and 85th Foot, eight companies of the "Brunswick Oels", and one battalion of the "Chasseurs Britanniques". Doyle's Portuguese brigade included the 7th and 19th Line Infantry Regiments and the 2nd Caçadores Battalion. Colonel Richard Collins led an independent Portuguese brigade that comprised the 5th Line Infantry Regiment and the 5th Caçadores Battalion. Hamilton's Portuguese Division included the brigades of Brigadier Generals Archibald Campbell and Fonseca. Campbell's brigade was made up of the 4th and 10th Line Infantry Regiments, while Fonseca's had the 2nd and 14th Line Infantry Regiments. All Portuguese infantry regiments consisted of 1st and 2nd Battalions.  During the night of the 30th, the first parallel was successfully started at a distance of from the Castle. Across the river, gabions were set up opposite San Cristobal and earth was brought up to fill them, but they were obliterated by French artillery fire in the morning. By the morning of 3 June, 16 24-pound cannons and four howitzers were emplaced against the Castle. Earlier, a battery was set up against San Cristobal but it proved to be ineffective because it was distant. By using wool packs, eight-gun and five-gun batteries were finally established from San Cristobal with a four-gun support battery right behind. The guns began battering Badajoz on 3 June and silenced the guns of San Cristobal. That day, the French knocked out one gun, but four more were out of action because of defects in the siege guns. The ancient pieces tended to droop at the muzzle if fired too quickly, often blew out their vents, or shook their old carriages to pieces. On the 4th, the French put a second gun out of action near the Castle, but two more were disabled by muzzle drooping and three howitzers had their carriages damaged by their own firing. On the north side, two cannons and two howitzers went out of commission because of similar problems. The bombardment continued through 5 and 6 June. The Castle proved very resistant to shot but the San Cristobal fort showed considerable damage.  At midnight on 6 June 1811, 180 volunteers from Houston's division assaulted San Cristobal. The 25-man forlorn hope managed to reach to ditch with only minor casualties only to discover that the ditch had been cleared of debris and the breach had been blocked up by carts and chevaux de frise. The rest of the storming party poured into the ditch and tried to mount the wall. But the wall was high while their ladders were only long. Led by Captain Chauvin of the 88th Line, the defenders directed musketry at their attackers and rolled fuzed shells into the ditch. After an hour of futile effort, the Allied troops retreated with losses of 12 dead and 80 wounded. The French only lost one killed and five wounded in the affray.  After this failure, Wellington ordered three more days of bombardment. By 9 June only 27 of the original 46 siege guns remained in action. On the 7th, six iron ship guns arrived from Lisbon and proved efficient. However, the defenses of the Castle were still formidable. To keep the French from clearing the ditch of debris, the Allied guns fired grape shot at the breach all night long. Despite losses, the French successfully carried out the necessary work. Since an assault on the Castle would have to cross at least of open ground and wade the Rivillas stream, the engineers decided that an attack would be hopeless. On the other hand, the San Cristobal fort was a wreck, with two breaches in its walls. Nevertheless, its garrison had been doubled and the men cleared the ditches and blocked up the breaches every night. Each defender was supplied with three muskets, plus grenades and live shells.  On 9 June 1811 at 9:00 PM, Houston launched his second assault on San Cristobal. The storming party consisted of 400 soldiers from Sontag's brigade and the 17th Portuguese Line. It was supported by 100 sharpshooters who were ordered to shoot at any Frenchman who appeared at the breaches. The French opened a heavy fire as soon as the attackers appeared. The major commanding the column and the ranking engineer lieutenant were both killed at once. The attackers put up their 16 ladders but most of the men were shot down. The few who managed to reach the top were bayonetted by courageous groups of Frenchmen who charged down the breach. After fifty minutes, most of the ladders were smashed and the Allied survivors fled back to their trenches. The attackers lost 54 killed, 81 wounded, and four captured.  On 10 June, a truce was agreed so that the Allies could recover their many wounded. During this lull, the defenders of San Cristobal repaired their defenses. Even so, Philippon's situation was critical. The Allied guns had breached the Castle and the French commander was compelled to put his garrison on half-rations. Philippon drew up a desperate plan to break out when his provisions failed. However, on the 10th Wellington decided to abandon the siege. He received intelligence that Marshal Auguste Marmont was coming south with the "Army of Portugal". When he joined Soult, the combined French strength would become dangerous. The threat could not materialize until 15 June, but Wellington felt that further operations were unlikely to succeed. The night, the siege guns were withdrawn.

Relief.

Shortly after being defeated by Wellington at the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro on 3 to 5 May 1811, Masséna was replaced by Marmont. The new commander abolished the existing corps and created six independent divisions in their place. Likewise, General of Division Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon's IX Corps was broken up and its battalions ordered to join Soult's army. With surprising speed, Marmont marched for the south also. When he discovered his opponent on the move, Spencer transferred his corps to the south and joined Wellington at Elvas on 17 June. Marmont, d'Erlon, and Soult combined forces at Mérida on 18 June and lunged to the west. The 60,000-man French army relieved Badajoz then confronted Wellington's 50,000 troops along the Guadiana near Elvas. The French commanders declined to attack the formidable British position. Soon after, Soult was called away to deal with threats against Andalusia. After resupplying Philippon's garrison, Marmont and d'Erlon withdrew.

The Second Siege of Badajoz (22 April – 12 May and 18 May – 10 June, 1811) saw an Anglo-Portuguese Army, first led by William Carr Beresford and later commanded by Arthur Wellesley, the Viscount Wellington, besiege a French garrison under Armand Philippon at Badajoz, Spain. After failing to force a surrender, Wellington withdrew his army when the French mounted a successful relief effort by combining the armies of Marshals Nicolas Soult and Auguste Marmont. The action was fought during the Peninsular War, part of the Napoleonic Wars. Badajoz is located from the Portuguese border on the Guadiana River in western Spain.

Le second siège de Badajoz se déroule au printemps 1811, pendant la guerre d'Espagne. La garnison française du général Philippon y résiste victorieusement au corps de siège anglo-portugais commandé par le général Beresford puis par le général Wellington en personne.