Early life and Air Force career.

Hosni Mubarak was born on 4 May 1928 in Kafr El-Meselha, Monufia Governorate, Egypt. On 2 February 1949, he left the Military Academy and joined the Air Force Academy, gaining his commission as a pilot officer on 13 March 1950 and eventually receiving a bachelor's degree in aviation sciences.  Mubarak served as an Egyptian Air Force officer in various formations and units; he spent two years in a Spitfire fighter squadron. Some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy as an instructor, remaining there until early 1959. From February 1959 to June 1961, Mubarak undertook further training in the Soviet Union, attending a Soviet pilot training school in Moscow and another at Kant Air Base near Bishkek in the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic.  Mubarak undertook training on the Ilyushin Il-28 and Tupolev Tu-16 jet bombers. In 1964 he gained a place at the Frunze Military Academy in Moscow. On his return to Egypt, he served as a wing commander, then as a base commander; he commanded the Cairo West Air Base in October 1966 then briefly commanded the Beni Suef

Vice President of Egypt.

In April 1975, President Anwar Sadat appointed Mubarak Vice President of Egypt. In this position, he took part in government consultations that dealt with the future disengagement of forces agreement with Israel. In September 1975, Mubarak went on a mission to Riyadh and Damascus to persuade the Saudi Arabian and Syrian governments to accept the disengagement agreement signed with the Israeli government ("Sinai II"), but was refused a meeting by the Syrian President Hafez Al-Assad. During his meetings with the Saudi government, Mubarak developed a friendship with the nation's powerful Crown Prince Fahd, whom Sadat had refused to meet or contact and who was now seen as major player who could help mend

President of Egypt.

Mubarak was injured during the assassination of President Sadat in October 1981 by soldiers led by Lieutenant Khalid Islambouli. Following Sadat's death, Mubarak became the fourth president of Egypt.

Egypt's return to the Arab League.

Until Libya's suspension from the Arab League at the beginning of the Libyan Civil War, Egypt was the only state in the history of the organization to have had its membership suspended, because of President Sadat's peace treaty with Israel. In June 1982, Mubarak met King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, which marked a beginning of an Egyptian-Saudi rapprochement. Since Egypt is the most populous Arab country and Saudi Arabia the richest, the Saudi–Egyptian axis was a powerful force in the Arab world. At an Arab League summit later in 1982 in Fez, Saudi Arabia put forward an Egyptian peace plan where in exchange for Israel resolving the Israeli–Palestinian conflict by allowing a Palestinian state, the entire Arab world would make peace with Israel.  The Islamic Republic of Iran had, from 1979 onward, been making the claim to be the leader of the Islamic world, and in particular Ayatollah Khomeini had called for the overthrow of the governments of Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and other Arab states along the southern shores of the Persian Gulf, calling these states illegitimate. The claim of the Ayatollah Khomeini to be the rightful leader of the Islamic

Governing style.

Throughout the 1980s, Mubarak increased the production of affordable housing, clothing, furniture, and medicine. By the time he became President, Mubarak was one of a few Egyptian officials who refused to visit Israel and vowed to take a less enthusiastic approach to normalizing relations with the Israeli government. Under Mubarak, Israeli journalists often wrote about the "cold peace" with Egypt, observing Israeli–Egyptian relations were frosty at best. Mubarak was quick to deny that his policies would result in difficulties for Egyptian–Israeli dealings in the future.  The Israeli historian Major Efraim Karsh wrote in 2006 that in Egypt "...numberless articles, scholarly writings, books, cartoons, public statements, and radio and television programs, Jews are painted in the blackest terms imaginable". Karsh accused Mubarak of being personally antisemitic, writing he "evidently shared the premises" of his propaganda.  Egypt's heavy dependence on US aid and its hopes for US pressure on Israel for a Palestinian settlement continued under Mubarak. He quietly improved relations with the former Soviet Union. In 1987, Mubarak won an election

Gulf War of 1991.

Egypt was a member of the allied coalition during the 1991 Gulf War; Egyptian infantry were some of the first to land in Saudi Arabia to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Egypt's participation in the war solidified its central role in the Arab World and brought financial benefits for the Egyptian government. Reports of sums

Stance on the invasion of Iraq in 2003.

President Mubarak spoke out against the 2003 invasion of Iraq, arguing that the Israeli–Palestinian conflict should have been resolved first. He

2005 elections.

President Mubarak was re-elected by majority votes in a referendum for successive terms on four occasions in 1987, 1993, and 1999. Each time, Mubarak secured his position by having himself nominated by Parliament then confirmed without opposition in a referendum.  The September 2005 ballot was a multiple-candidate election rather than a referendum,

State corruption during Mubarak's presidency.

While in office, political corruption in the Mubarak administration's Ministry of the Interior rose dramatically. Political figures and young activists were imprisoned without trial. Illegal, undocumented, hidden detention facilities were established, and universities, mosques, and newspaper staff were rejected because of their political views.  In 2005 Freedom House, a non-governmental organization that conducts research into democracy, reported that the Egyptian government

Wealth and allegations of personal corruption.

In February 2011, ABC News reported that experts believed the personal wealth of Mubarak and his family was between and from military contracts made during his time as an air force officer. "The Guardian" reported that Mubarak and his family might be worth up to garnered from corruption, bribes and legitimate business activities. The money was said to be spread out in various bank accounts, including some in Switzerland and the UK, and invested in foreign property. The newspaper said some of the information about the family's wealth might be ten years old. According to "Newsweek", these allegations are poorly substantiated and lack credibility.  On 12 February 2011, the government of Switzerland announced it was freezing the Swiss bank accounts of Mubarak and his family. On 20 February 2011, the Egyptian Prosecutor General ordered the freezing of Mubarak's assets and those of his wife Suzanne, his sons Alaa and Gamal Mubarak, and his daughters-in-law Heidi Rasekh and Khadiga Gamal. The

Presidential succession.

In 2009, US Ambassador Margaret Scobey said, "despite incessant whispered discussions, no one in Egypt has any certainty about who will eventually succeed Mubarak nor under what circumstances." She said presidential son Gamal Mubarak was the most likely successor; some thought intelligence chief Omar Suleiman might seek the office, or Arab League Secretary-General Amr Moussa might stand. President Mubarak and his son denied this; they said "a multi-candidate electoral system introduced in 2005 has made the political process

Israeli–Palestinian conflict.

During his presidency, Mubarak upheld the U.S.-brokered Camp David Accords treaty signed between Egypt and Israel in 1978. Mubarak, on occasion also hosted meetings relating to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and made a number of attempts to serve as a broker between them. Mubarak was concerned that Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson didn't trust him on the issue and considered meeting him in New York. In October 2000, Mubarak hosted an emergency summit meeting at Sharm el-Sheikh to discuss the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In attendance were: U.S. President Bill Clinton, P.L.O. Chairman Yasser Arafat, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, King Abdullah of Jordan, NATO Sec. General Javier Solana, and U.N. Sec. General Kofi Annan.  Mubarak was involved in the Arab League, supporting Arab efforts to achieve a lasting peace in the region. At the Beirut Summit on 28 March

Revolution and overthrow.

Protests against Mubarak and his regime erupted in Cairo and other Egyptian cities in January 2011. On 1 February, Mubarak announced he would not contest the presidential election due in September. He also promised constitutional reform. This did not satisfy most protesters, who expected Mubarak to depart immediately. The demonstrations continued and on 2 February, violent clashes occurred between pro-Mubarak and anti-Mubarak protesters.  On 10 February, contrary to rumours, Mubarak said he would not resign until the September election, though he would be delegating responsibilities to Vice President Omar Suleiman. The next day, Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned. The announcement sparked cheers, flag-waving, and celebrations from protesters in Egypt. Discussions about the nation's future direction began. It had been suggested that Egypt be put in the hands of a caretaker government.

Protests.

On 25 January 2011, protests against Mubarak and his government erupted in Cairo and around Egypt calling for Mubarak's resignation. Mubarak stated in a speech that he would not leave, and would die on Egyptian soil. Opposition leader Mohamed ElBaradei paid no attention to Mubarak's remarks and labeled it as a trick designed to help Mubarak to stay in power. In a state televised broadcast on 1 February 2011, Mubarak announced that

Post-resignation.

Mubarak made no media appearances after his resignation. Except for his family and a close circle of aides, he reportedly refused to talk to anyoneeven his supporters. His health was speculated to be rapidly deteriorating; some reports said he was in a coma. Most sources said he was no longer interested in performing any duties and wanted to "die in Sharm El-Sheikh".  On 28 February 2011, the General Prosecutor of Egypt issued an order prohibiting Mubarak and his family from leaving Egypt. It was reported that Mubarak was in contact with his lawyer in case of possible criminal charges against him. As a result, Mubarak and his family were placed under

Trial.

On 24 May 2011, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protesters during the revolution and, if convicted, could face the death penalty. The decision to try Mubarak was made days before a scheduled protest in Tahrir Square. The full list of charges released by the public prosecutor was "intentional murder, attempted killing of some demonstrators... misuse of influence, deliberately wasting public funds and unlawfully making private financial gains and profits".  On 28 May, a Cairo administrative court found Mubarak guilty of damaging the national economy during the protests by shutting down the Internet and telephone services. He was fined LE200 millionabout which the court ordered he must pay from his personal assets.

Support for Sisi.

Though mostly out of the public eye, Mubarak granted a rare interview in February 2014 with Kuwaiti journalist Fajer al-Saeed, expressing support for then-Minister of Defense and Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces Abdel Fattah el-Sisi as the next President of Egypt, recognizing that Sisi was working to

Health problems.

In July 2010, the media said Egypt was about to undergo dramatic change because Mubarak was thought to have cancer and because of the scheduled 2011 presidential election. Intelligence sources said he had esophageal cancer, stomach or pancreatic cancer; this was denied by Egyptian authorities. Speculation about his ill health increased after his resignation from the presidency. According to Egyptian media, Mubarak's condition worsened after he went into exile in Sharm el-Sheikh. He was reportedly depressed, refused to take medications, and was slipping in and out of consciousness. According to the sourcean unnamed Egyptian security official"Mubarak wants to be left alone and die in his homeland". The source denied that Mubarak was writing his memoirs, stating that he was almost completely unconscious. After his resignation, Egypt's ambassador to the United States Sameh Shoukry reported that his personal sources said Mubarak "is possibly in somewhat of bad health", while several Egyptian and Saudi Arabian newspapers reported that Mubarak was in a coma and close to death. On 12 April 2011, it was reported that he had been hospitalized after suffering a heart attack during questioning over possible corruption charges.  In June 2011, Mubarak's lawyer Farid el-Deeb

Acquittal.

On 2 March 2017, the Court of Cassation, Egypt's top appeals court, acquitted

Personal life.

Hosni Mubarak was married to Suzanne Mubarak and together they had two sons: Alaa and Gamal. Both sons served four years in Egyptian jail for corruption and were released in 2015. Through his son Alaa, Mubarak has two grandsons, Mohammed and Omar; and through his son Gamal, he has a granddaughter Farida. Mohammed died in 2009 from a cerebral hemorrhage.  In April 2016, Alaa Mubarak was named in the Panama Papers as someone with financial interests that intersect with that of Mossack Fonseca, the firm implicated in that scandal.  Hosni Mubarak died on 25 February 2020, in a Cairo military hospital, at the age of 91.

Muhammad Hosni El Sayed Mubarak (4 May 1928 – 25 February 2020) was an Egyptian military and political leader who served as the fourth president of Egypt from 1981 to 2011.

Hosni Moubarak, parfois orthographié Hosni Mubarak (), de son nom complet Mohammed Hosni Moubarak (), transcrit traditionnellement "Muhammad Hosnī Sayyid Selaaem Mubārak", né le à Kafr-el-Meselha et mort le au Caire, est un homme d'État égyptien, président de la République du au.


Synopsis.

The premise of the film is stated by a group of four writers conversing over dinner at the beginning of the film. The question arises: Is life naturally comic or tragic? One of the four proposes a simple story (a distraught woman knocks on a door and disrupts a dinner party) and the two prominent playwrights in the group begin telling their versions of this story, one being comic and one tragic.

Cast.

Radha Mitchell plays Melinda in both versions. Chloë Sevigny, Jonny Lee Miller, and Chiwetel Ejiofor star with her in the tragedy, while Will Ferrell and Amanda Peet star with her in the comedy. Steve Carell has a small part as Ferrell's character's friend.

Production.

Woody Allen said in "Conversations with Woody Allen" that he wanted to cast Winona Ryder in the title role. He had to replace her with Radha Mitchell because no one would insure Ryder due to her arrest for shoplifting – this would have made it impossible to obtain a film completion bond. Allen stated he was sad because he had written the part for Ryder after working with her on "Celebrity". In the same interview, he also claimed to have intended Ferrell's part for Robert Downey, Jr., but, again, insurance got in the way due to Downey's history of arrests and drug abuse.  The film also stars Wallace Shawn (alluding to his dinner-philosophy argument in "My Dinner with Andre") as the comic playwright, Larry Pine as the tragedian, and Brooke Smith as Cassie. All three had appeared in the 1994 film "Vanya on 42nd Street," directed by Louis Malle.

Critical reception.

The film received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes lists a 51% positive score, based on 144 reviews. Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 54 out of 100, based on 40 reviews. Leonard Maltin gave the film two stars, calling it "meandering,” with "echoes... of earlier, better Allen movies".

Box office.

"Melinda and Melinda" opened on March 18, 2005, in one New York City cinema, where it grossed $74,238 in its first three days, the 21st highest limited release opening in American history. In weekend two, it expanded to 95 theatres to gross $740,618, seeing its per screen average drop to $7,795.  Overseas, it grossed an additional $16,259,545, bringing its worldwide total to $20,085,825.

Melinda and Melinda is a 2004 American comedy film written and directed by Woody Allen. It premiered at the San Sebastian International Film Festival. The film is set in Manhattan and stars Radha Mitchell as the protagonist Melinda, in two storylines; one comic, one tragic. The film began a limited release in the United States on March 18, 2005.

Melinda et Melinda ("Melinda and Melinda") est un film américain de Woody Allen, réalisé en 2004 et sorti la même année.


Etymology.

Old Chinese *"ma" 無 is cognate with the Proto-Tibeto-Burman *"ma" "not". This reconstructed root is widely represented in Tibeto-Burman languages; for instance, "ma" means "not" in both Written Tibetan and Written Burmese.

Pronunciations.

The Standard Chinese pronunciation of "wú" 無 "not; nothing" historically derives from (c. 7th century CE) Middle Chinese "mju", (c. 3rd century CE) Late Han Chinese "muɑ", and reconstructed (c. 6th century BCE) Old Chinese *"ma".  Other varieties of Chinese have differing pronunciations of. Compare Cantonese "mou4"; and Southern Min (Quanzhou) and (Zhangzhou).  The common Chinese word "wú" 無 was adopted in the Sino-Japanese, Sino-Korean, and Sino-Vietnamese vocabularies. The Japanese "kanji" 無 has "on'yomi" readings of "mu" or "bu", and a "kun'yomi" (Japanese reading) of "na". The Korean "hanja" 無 is read "mu" (in Revised, McCune–Reischauer, and Yale romanization systems). The Vietnamese Hán-Việt pronunciation is "vô" or "mô".

Meanings.

Some English translation equivalents of "wú" or "mu" 無 are:  In modern Chinese, Japanese and Korean it is commonly used in combination words as a prefix to indicate the absence of something, e.g., / / "museon" (무선 ) for "wireless". In Classical Chinese, it is an impersonal existential verb meaning "not have".  The same character is also used in Classical Chinese as a prohibitive particle, though in this case it is more properly written.

Characters.

In traditional Chinese character classification, the uncommon class of phonetic loan characters involved borrowing the character for one word to write another near-homophone. For instance, the character 其 originally depicted a "ji" "winnowing basket", and scribes used it as a graphic loan for "qi" 其 "his; her; its", which resulted in a new character "ji" 箕 (clarified with the bamboo radical <unk>) to specify the basket.  The character "wu" 無 originally meant "dance" and was later used as a graphic loan for "wu" "not". The earliest graphs for 無 pictured a person with outstretched arms holding something (possibly sleeves, tassels, ornaments) and represented the word "wu" "dance; dancer". After "wu" 無 "dance" was borrowed as a loan for "wu" "not; without", the original meaning was elucidated with the 舛 "opposite feet" at the bottom of "wu" 舞 "dance".

The Mu-koan.

"The Gateless Gate", which is a 13th-century collection of Chan or Zen kōans, uses the word "wu" or "mu" in its title ("Wumenguan" or "Mumonkan" 無門關) and first kōan case ("Zhao Zhou's Dog" 趙州狗子). Chinese Chan calls the word "mu" 無 "the gate to enlightenment". The Japanese Rinzai school classifies the Mu Kōan as "hosshin" 発心 "resolve to attain enlightenment", that is, appropriate for beginners seeking "kenshō" "to see the Buddha-nature"'.  Case 1 of "The Gateless Gate" reads as follows:  The koan originally comes from the "Zhaozhou Zhenji Chanshi Yulu" (), "The Recorded Sayings of Zen Master Zhao Zhou", koan 132:  The "Book of Serenity", also known as the "Book of Equanimity" or more formally the "Hóngzhì Chánshī Guǎnglù", has a longer version of this koan, which adds the following to the start of the version given in the "Zhaozhou Zhenji Chanshi Yulu".

Origins.

In the original text, the question is used as a conventional beginning to a question-and-answer exchange (mondo). The reference is to the "Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra" which says for example: Koan 363 in the "Zhaozhou Zhenji Chanshi Yulu" shares the same beginning question.

Interpretations.

This koan is one of several traditionally used by Rinzai school to initiate students into Zen study, and interpretations of it vary widely. Hakuun Yasutani of the Sanbo Kyodan maintained that This koan is discussed in Part 1 of Hau Hoo's "The Sound of the One Hand: 281 Zen Koans with Answers". In it, the answer of "negative", mu, is clarified as although all beings have potential Buddha-nature, beings who do not have the capacity to see it and develop it essentially do not have it. The purpose of this primary koan to a student is to free the mind from analytic thinking and into intuitive knowing. A student who understands the nature of his question would understand the importance of awareness of potential to begin developing it.

One-sided interpretation.

The Japanese scholar made the following comment on the two versions of the koan: A similar critique has been given by Steven Heine:

"Unasking" the question.

The term is often used or translated to mean that the question itself must be "unasked": no answer can exist in the terms provided. Zhaozhou's answer, which literally means that dogs do not have Buddha nature, has been interpreted by Robert Pirsig and Douglas Hofstadter to mean that such categorical thinking is a delusion, that yes and no are both correct and incorrect.

In popular culture.

In Robert M. Pirsig's 1974 novel "Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance", "mu" is translated as "no thing", saying that it meant "unask the question". He offered the example of a computer circuit using the binary numeral system, in effect using "mu" to represent high impedance: The word features prominently with a similar meaning in Douglas Hofstadter's 1979 book, "Gödel, Escher, Bach". It is used fancifully in discussions of symbolic logic, particularly Gödel's incompleteness theorems, to indicate a question whose "answer" is to  "Mu" may be used similarly to "N/A" or "not applicable," a term often used to indicate the question cannot be answered because the conditions of the question do not match the reality. A layperson's example of this concept is often invoked by the loaded question "Have you stopped beating your wife?", to which "mu" would be the only respectable response.  Because of this meaning, programming language Raku uses "Mu" for the root of its type hierarchy.  In the Japanese manga series, "Death Note", ends in a thematic conclusion which contains mu's usage as "not applicable": "All humans, without exception, will eventually die. The place they go after is "MU" (無, nothingness)".  Tsugumi Ohba, the writer of "Death Note", explained in the postmortem follow-up volume that the meaning behind "MU after death" was that "the dead person should never come back to life, and it's cheating to revive dead characters as manga. So it became MU". Ohba further explained that "all humans die someday, and when we die, we can never come back to life, so let's do our best while we are at it" was the single most important theme Ohba wanted to express in writing the series.

The Japanese and Korean term mu () or Chinese wu (), meaning "not have; without", is a key word in Buddhism, especially Zen traditions.

, est la traduction japonaise du terme ou « non-existence ») utilisé dans le taoïsme pour exprimer la vacuité. Ce terme a été introduit par syncrétisme dans le bouddhisme chan sous l'influence taoïste en Chine, puis lors de la diffusion de ce dernier, d'abord en Corée, dans le bouddhisme son, et enfin au Japon, dans le bouddhisme dit zen.


Etymology.

In Brazil, the word "bossa" is old-fashioned slang for something done with particular charm, natural flair or innate ability. As early as 1932, Noel Rosa used the word in a samba:  The exact origin of the term "bossa nova" remained unclear for many decades, according to some authors. Within the artistic beach culture of the late 1950s in Rio de Janeiro, the term "bossa" was used to refer to any new "trend" or "fashionable wave". In his book "Bossa Nova", Brazilian author Ruy Castro asserts that "bossa" was already in use in the 1950s by musicians as a word to characterize someone's knack for playing or singing idiosyncratically. Castro claims that the term "bossa nova" might have first been used in public for a concert given in 1957 by the Grupo Universitário Hebraico do Brasil (Hebrew University Group of Brazil). The authorship of the term "bossa nova" is attributed to the then-young journalist Moyses Fuks, who was promoting the event. That group consisted of Sylvia Telles, Carlos Lyra, Nara Leão, Luiz Eça, Roberto Menescal, and others. Mr. Fuks's description, fully supported by most of the bossa nova members, simply read "HOJE. SYLVIA TELLES E UN GRUPO BOSSA NOVA" ("Today. Sylvia Telles and a 'Bossa Nova' group"), since Sylvia Telles was the most famous musician in the group at that time. In 1959, Nara Leão also participated in more than one embryonic display of bossa nova. These include the 1st Festival de Samba Session, conducted by the student union of Pontifícia Universidade Católica. This session was chaired by Carlos Diegues (later a prominent Cinema Novo film director), a law student whom Leão ultimately married.

Instruments.

Classical guitar.

Bossa nova is most commonly performed on the nylon-string classical guitar, played with the fingers rather than with a pick. Its purest form could be considered unaccompanied guitar with vocals, as created, pioneered, and exemplified by João Gilberto. Even in larger, jazz-like arrangements for groups, there is almost always a guitar that plays the underlying rhythm. Gilberto basically took one of the several rhythmic layers from a samba ensemble, specifically the tamborim, and applied it to the picking hand. According to Brazilian musician Paulo Bitencourt, João Gilberto, known for his eccentricity and obsessed by the idea of finding a new way of playing the guitar, sometimes locked himself in the bathroom, where he played one and the same chord for many hours in a row.

Drums and percussion.

As in samba, the surdo plays an ostinato figure on the downbeat of beat one, the "ah" of beat one, the downbeat of beat two and the "ah" of beat two. The clave pattern sounds very similar to the two-three or three-two son clave of Cuban styles such as mambo but is dissimilar in that the "two" side of the clave is pushed by an eighth note. Also important in the percussion section for bossa nova is the cabasa, which plays a steady sixteenth-note pattern. These parts are easily adaptable to the drum set, which makes bossa nova a rather popular Brazilian style for drummers.

Structure.

Certain other instrumentations and vocals are also part of the structure of bossa nova:

Bossa nova and samba.

Bossa nova has at its core a rhythm based on samba. Samba combines the rhythmic patterns and feel originating in former African slave communities. Samba's emphasis on the second beat carries through to bossa nova (to the degree that it is often notated in 2/4 time). However, unlike samba, bossa nova doesn't have dance steps to accompany it. When played on the guitar, in a simple one-bar pattern, the thumb plays the bass notes on 1 and 2, while the fingers pluck the chords in unison on the two eighth notes of beat one, followed by the second sixteenth note of beat two. Two-measure patterns usually contain a syncopation into the second measure. Overall, the rhythm has a "swaying" feel rather than the "swinging" feel of jazz. As bossa nova composer Carlos Lyra describes it in his song "Influência do Jazz", the samba rhythm moves "side to side" while jazz moves "front to back". Bossa nova was also influenced by the blues, but because the most famous bossa novas lack the 12-bar structure characteristic of classic blues, as well as the statement, repetition and rhyming resolution of lyrics typical of the genre, bossa nova's affinity with the blues often passes unnoticed.

Vocals.

Aside from the guitar style, João Gilberto's other innovation was the projection of the singing voice. Prior to bossa nova, Brazilian singers employed brassy, almost operatic styles. Now, the characteristic nasal vocal production of bossa nova is a peculiar trait of the caboclo folk tradition of northeastern Brazil.

Themes and lyrics.

The lyrical themes found in bossa nova include women, love, longing, homesickness, nature. Bossa Nova was often apolitical. The musical lyrics of the late 1950s depicted the easy life of the middle to upper-class Brazilians, though the majority of the population was in the working class. However, in conjunction with political developments of the early 1960s (especially the 1964 military coup d'état), the popularity of bossa nova was eclipsed by Música popular brasileira, a musical genre that appeared around the mid-1960s, featuring lyrics that were more politically charged, referring explicitly to working class struggle.

Bossa nova is a style of Brazilian music, which was developed and popularized in the 1950s and 1960s and is today one of the best-known Brazilian music styles abroad. The phrase "bossa nova" means literally "new trend" or "new wave" (). A lyrical fusion of samba and jazz, bossa nova acquired a large following in the 1960s, initially among young musicians and college students.

La bossa nova, ou bossanova, ou bossa-nova, est un genre musical ayant émergé à la fin des années 1950 au Brésil. Issu du croisement de la samba et du cool jazz, la bossa nova se popularise significativement dans les années 1960 chez les jeunes musiciens et étudiants.


Etymology and taxonomy.

The name "gastrotrich" comes from the Greek γαστήρ "gaster", meaning "stomach", and θρίξ "thrix", meaning "hair". The name was coined by the Russian zoologist Élie Metchnikoff in 1865. The common name "hairyback" apparently arises from a mistranslation of "gastrotrich".  The relationship of gastrotrichs to other phyla is unclear. Morphology suggests that they are close to the Gnathostomulida, the Rotifera, or the Nematoda. On the other hand, genetic studies place them as close relatives of the Platyhelminthes, the Ecdysozoa or the Lophotrochozoa. As of 2011, around 790 species have been described. The phylum contains a single class, divided into two orders: the Macrodasyida and the Chaetonotida. Edward Ruppert "et al." report that the Macrodasyida are wholly marine, but two rare and poorly known species, "Marinellina flagellata" and "Redudasys fornerise", are known from fresh water. The Chaetonotida comprises both marine and freshwater species.

Anatomy.

Gastrotrichs vary in size from about in body length. They are bilaterally symmetrical, with a transparent strap-shaped or bowling pin-shaped body, arched dorsally and flattened ventrally. The anterior end is not clearly defined as a head but contains the sense organs, brain and pharynx. Cilia are found around the mouth and on the ventral surface of the head and body. The trunk contains the gut and the reproductive organs. At the posterior end of the body are two projections with cement glands that serve in adhesion. This is a double-gland system where one gland secretes the glue and another secretes a de-adhesive agent to sever the connection. In the Macrodasyida, there are additional adhesive glands at the anterior end and on the sides of the body.  The body wall consists of a cuticle, an epidermis and longitudinal and circular bands of muscle fibres. In some primitive species, each epidermal cell has a single cilium, a feature shared only by the gnathostomulans. The whole ventral surface of the animal may be ciliated or the cilia may be arranged in rows, patches or transverse bands. The cuticle is locally thickened in some gastrotrichs and forms scales, hooks and spines. There is no coelom (body cavity) and the interior of the animal is filled with poorly differentiated connective tissue. In the macrodasyidans, Y-shaped cells, each containing a vacuole, surround the gut and may function as a hydrostatic skeleton.  The mouth is at the anterior end and opens into an elongated muscular pharynx with a triangular or Y-shaped lumen, lined by myoepithelial cells. The pharynx opens into a cylindrical intestine, which is lined with glandular and digestive cells. The anus is located on the ventral surface close to the posterior of the body. In some species, there are pores in the pharynx opening to the ventral surface; these contain valves and may allow egestion of any excess water swallowed while feeding.  In the chaetonotidans, the excretory system consists of a single pair of protonephridia, which open through separate pores on the lateral underside of the animal, usually in the midsection of the body. In the macrodasyidans, there are several pairs of these opening along the side of the body. Nitrogenous waste is probably excreted through the body wall, as part of respiration, and the protonephridia are believed to function mainly in osmoregulation. Unusually, the protonephridia do not take the form of flame cells, but, instead, the excretory cells consist of a skirt surrounding a series of cytoplasmic rods that in turn enclose a central flagellum. These cells, termed "cyrtocytes", connect to a single outlet cell which passes the excreted material into the protonephridial duct.  As is typical for such small animals, there are no respiratory or circulatory organs. The nervous system is relatively simple. The brain consists of two ganglia, one on either side of the pharynx, connected by a commissure. From these lead a pair of nerve cords which run along either side of the body beside the longitudinal muscle bands. The primary sensory organs are the bristles and ciliated tufts of the body surface which function as mechanoreceptors. There are also ciliated pits on the head, simple ciliary photoreceptors and fleshy appendages which act as chemoreceptors.

Distribution and habitat.

Gastrotrichs are cosmopolitan in distribution. They inhabit the interstitial spaces between particles in marine and freshwater environments, the surfaces of aquatic plants and other submerged objects and the surface film of water surrounding soil particles on land. They are also found in stagnant pools and anaerobic mud, where they thrive even in the presence of hydrogen sulfide. When pools dry up they can survive periods of desiccation as eggs, and some species are capable of forming cysts in harsh conditions. In marine sediments they have been known to reach 364 individuals per making them the third most common invertebrate in the sediment after nematodes and harpacticoid copepods. In freshwater they may reach a density of 158 individuals per and are the fifth most abundant group of invertebrates in the sediment.

Behaviour and ecology.

In marine and freshwater environments, gastrotrichs form part of the benthic community. They are detritivores and are microphagous, sucking dead or living organic material, diatoms, bacteria and small protozoa into their mouths by the muscular action of the pharynx. They are themselves eaten by turbellarians and other small macrofauna.  Like many microscopic animals, gastrotrich locomotion is primarily powered by hydrostatics, but movement occurs through different methods in different members of the group. Chaetonotids only have adhesive glands at the back and, in them, locomotion typically proceeds in a smooth gliding manner; the whole body is propelled forward by the rhythmic action of the cilia on the ventral surface. In the pelagic chaetonotid genus "Stylochaeta", however, movement proceeds in jerks as the long, muscle-activated spines are forced rhythmically towards the side of the body. By contrast, with chaetonotids, macrodasyidans typically have multiple adhesive glands and move forward with a creeping action similar to that of a "looper" caterpillar. In response to a threat, the head and trunk can be rapidly pulled backwards, or the creeping movement can be reversed. Muscular action is important when the animal turns sideways and during copulation, when two individuals twine around each other.

Reproduction and lifespan.

Gastrotrich reproduction and reproductive behaviour has been little studied. That of macrodasiyds probably most represents that of the ancestral lineage and these more primitive gastrotrichs are simultaneous hermaphrodites, possessing both male and female sex organs. There is generally a single pair of gonads, the anterior portion of which contains sperm-producing cells and the posterior portion producing ova. The sperm is sometimes packaged in spermatophores and is released through male gonopores that open, often temporarily, on the underside of the animal, roughly two-thirds of the way along the body. A copulatory organ on the tail collects the sperm and transfers it to the partner's seminal receptacle through the female gonopore. Details of the process and the behaviour involved vary with the species, and there is a range of different accessory reproductive organs. During copulation, the "male" individual uses his copulatory organ to transfer sperm to his partner's gonopore and fertilisation is internal. The fertilised eggs are released by rupture of the body wall which afterwards repairs itself. As is the case in most protostomes, development of the embryo is determinate, with each cell destined to become a specific part of the animal's body. At least one species of gastrotrich, "Urodasys viviparus", is viviparous.  Many species of chaetotonid gastrotrichs reproduce entirely by parthenogenesis. In these species, the male portions of the reproductive system are degenerate and non-functional, or, in many cases, entirely absent. Though the eggs have a diameter of less than 50 μm, they are still very large in comparison with the animals' size. Some species are capable of laying eggs that remain dormant during times of desiccation or low temperatures; these species, however, are also able to produce regular eggs, which hatch in one to four days, when environmental conditions are more favourable. The eggs of all gastrotrichs undergo direct development and hatch into miniature versions of the adult. The young typically reach sexual maturity in about three days. In the laboratory, "Lepidodermella squamatum" has lived for up to forty days, producing four or five eggs during the first ten days of life.  Gastrotrichs demonstrate eutely, each species having an invariant genetically fixed number of cells as adults. Cell division ceases at the end of embryonic development and further growth is solely due to cell enlargement.

Classification.

Gastrotricha is divided into two orders and a number of families:  Order Macrodasyida  Order Chaetonotida  Suborder Multitubulatina  Suborder Paucitubulatina

The gastrotrichs (phylum Gastrotricha), commonly referred to as hairybellies or hairybacks, are a group of microscopic (0.06-3.0 mm), worm-like, pseudocoelomate animals, and are widely distributed and abundant in freshwater and marine environments. They are mostly benthic and live within the periphyton, the layer of tiny organisms and detritus that is found on the seabed and the beds of other water bodies. The majority live on and between particles of sediment or on other submerged surfaces, but a few species are terrestrial and live on land in the film of water surrounding grains of soil. Gastrotrichs are divided into two orders, the Macrodasyida which are marine (except for two species), and the Chaetonotida, some of which are marine and some freshwater. Nearly 800 species of gastrotrich have been described.

Les Gastrotriches /gastrotriʃ/ (du grec "gaster, gastro-", « ventre », et "thriks, trikho-", « cheveu ») sont de petits vers méiobenthiques acœlomés de à de long. Ils font partie de la « faune interstitielle » qui habite le sable et le gravier.


Gameplay.

A single encounter generator is available, but the standard mode of play is the career mode, where the player must take their boat to patrol far behind enemy lines with the mission to search for and destroy any enemy shipping. For best success, the player should concentrate their search on shipping lanes, which may be deduced from contact reports. There are also special missions which may be assigned to a boat, such as beach reconnaissance involving photographing potential landing beaches through the periscope, and the rescue of downed airmen. Both missions were performed by the fleet submarines of World War II. The boat is actually commanded by crewing various stations in first person (no crew is visible, even though their voices are heard), which is common in the genre.  In career mode, the game begins when war against Japan is declared and continues through until August 15, 1945, when CINCPAC (Commander in Chief, Pacific Fleet) issues the order to cease all offensive operations against Japan. Success against the enemy rewards the Captain (the player) with medals as appropriate to the degree of success on a given patrol. However, there is a flip side to the game. One patrol without any sinkings will result in a verbal reprimand from COMSUBPAC (Commander, Submarines, Pacific Fleet). Two consecutive patrols with no sinkings will result in the Captain being relieved of command, as happened frequently in the Silent Service, particularly in the early days of the war. If a captain is relieved of command, the game is over. Also, it is possible for Japanese destroyers to sink a submarine by gunfire on the surface, or by depth charge attack while submerged. This also ends the game.  The submarines available in the game are the boats the United States Navy had during the war. They range from the ancient S-boats, and interwar boats like the "Tambor" class and "Sargo" class, to the later wartime "Gato"-class, "Balao" class, and "Tench" class subs. Technological advancements become available to the player at the same time in the game that the boats in the fleet got them. These include radar, the plan position indicator radar display, and the bathythermograph.  Weaponry similarly reflects what the boats had at any given point in the war. The torpedoes range from the Mark X used by the S-boats, to the Mark XIV steam torpedo and Mark XVIII electric torpedo, to the anti-escort "Cutie" acoustic homing torpedo. Deck guns, which are of minor value but have their uses, similarly range from three to five inch, again as the boats received them.

Reception.

The game received "favorable" reviews according to video game review aggregator GameRankings. Silent Hunter II developer Shawn Storc stated in an interview that Silent Hunter was a commercial success with 300,000 sold units. By December 1999, global sales had reached 350,000 copies. Bruce Geryk of GameSpot considered it a noteworthy hit in the simulation genre, a genre whose "era had passed" in his view.  "Silent Hunter" was nominated as "Computer Games Strategy Plus"s 1996 simulation of the year, although it lost to "Jane's AH-64D Longbow". The game was a finalist for "Computer Gaming World"s 1996 "Simulation Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to "Jane's AH-64D Longbow".

Silent Hunter is a World War II submarine combat simulation for MS-DOS, developed by Aeon Electronic Entertainment and published by Strategic Simulations in 1996. The game takes place in the Pacific War during World War II, the player commanding a submarine of the United States Navy. Most contemporary US submarines and Japanese warships are featured along with some generic merchant ships.

Ce jeu offre une campagne assez vaste et libre de choix, permet de commander des sous-marins américains dans le Pacifique (pour la première version du jeu), allemands (pour les deuxième et troisième versions), puis de nouveau américains (pour la ) et de couler des navires de tonnage variable à grands coups de torpilles et de canons (et accessoirement de se défendre contre les avions...).


Early life.

He was born on the family farm Klipfontein near Willowmore in Cape Colony and trained as a lawyer at Victoria College (which later became the University of Stellenbosch) and the University of Pretoria. His father Petrus Strijdom was a very well-known farmer and innovator in the Baviaanskloof where Strijdom was born. He owned three farms in the kloof of which the main farm was Sandvlakte on which the local school, church and shop was sited. He owned businesses and shops right down to the Gamtoos valley (birthplace of the well-known Khoi woman Saartjie Baartman). He also sold baboon fur and manufactured shoes and soap amongst other products.  Strijdom served in the German South West Africa campaign during World War I, as a member of the South African Medical Corps and, later, of Helgaardt's Scouts, where he reached the rank of corporal.  Strijdom later settled in Nylstroom, Transvaal. He identified strongly with this area and its people and became a local community leader amongst the Afrikaners. In 1929, Strijdom was elected to the House of Assembly as MP for Waterberg, representing the National Party (NP) headed by General J.B.M. Hertzog. Strijdom was also leader of the NP in Transvaal, by far the most important province of South Africa, and as such had a strong power base.  After the National Party of J.B.M. Hertzog merged with the South African Party of General Jan Smuts and formed the United Party (UP) during the World Economic Crisis in 1932, Strijdom was part of the break-away faction of the National Party, named the "Gesuiwerde Nasionale Party" (Purified National Party). Later, after the United Party was formed, the GNP became known as the (Reunited) National Party under the leadership of Dr. D. F. Malan. Malan, Strijdom and their followers distrusted Smuts and opposed his pro-British policy. Most of the National Party's MPs stayed with Hertzog, and as Strijdom was loyal to Malan, he was the only MP from Transvaal to support Malan's ideals.  Strijdom favoured the establishment of a republic, but this was not achieved until three years after his death in 1961.

Apartheid era.

After the surprising victory of the National Party in 1948, won on the program of implementing a strict program of apartheid or ethnic segregation and white minority rule, Malan became Prime Minister of South Africa and Strijdom became Minister of Agriculture and Irrigation. Although it was not one of the classic portfolios, it was apparently Strijdom's choice since he had a keen interest in agriculture and was a part-time farmer. Strijdom was not so pleased with the portfolio although he was fond of farming. Malan gave him the portfolio because his young wife disliked Strijdom. That was also why Malan tried his best to get Nicolaas Havenga to succeed him as Prime Minister, rather than Strijdom.

Prime Minister.

On 30 November 1954, he was elected leader of the National Party and became Prime Minister of South Africa after the resignation of Malan and against the latter's will; Malan preferred the more moderate Havenga, Minister of Finance, as his successor. However, Strijdom was popular among NP party members and people trusted him to push things smoothly forward towards a republic, something Malan was considered to be only lukewarm about. During Strijdom's term as Prime Minister, he began moves to sever ties with the British monarchy, and deepened the Afrikaner ascendency in South Africa, while strengthening the policy of apartheid.  With regard to racial policies, he believed strongly in the perpetuation of white minority rule and during his term "Coloured" voters were removed from the common voters roll and put on a separate Coloured voters roll, something that Malan started to do but could not push through. Strijdom was an open proponent of crude "baaskap" (white supremacy or white domination). The extended Treason Trial of 156 activists (including Nelson Mandela) involved in the Freedom Charter, happened during Strijdom's term in office. He also managed to further extend the NP's parliamentary seats during the general election in 1958. Strijdom's government also severed diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union.  During his last year in office, his weak health (thought to be cancer) led to long terms of absence and he died on 24 August 1958 in Cape Town and is buried in Pretoria in the Heroes' Acre.

Personal life.

JG Strijdom was known for his dedication, honesty, and incorruptibility; however, he also was stubborn and not open to change of course. He was nicknamed "The Lion of the North", because of his aggression and forthrightness.  Strijdom married the actress Margaretha van Hulsteyn, but they divorced within a year. His second wife was Susan de Klerk, aunt of future President F W de Klerk. She bore Strijdom two children: Johannes and Estelle. His widow Susan died in 1999 and daughter Estelle (Crowson), in 2009.

Legacy.

There are still various monuments dedicated to Strijdom in South Africa. One monument in central Pretoria, which featured his bust, collapsed in 2001 injuring two people. His house in Modimolle (formerly Nylstroom) is now a museum, which holds parts of the collapsed bust.  In Johannesburg, there is a suburb and a street named after Strijdom, although the spelling "Strydom" is also used, though a couple have already been renamed, one being Malibongwe Drive. In Weltevredenpark, a suburb of Roodepoort, there is a street named JG Strydom Road. Randburg also has a business district called Strijdompark named after him.  The Hillbrow Tower in Johannesburg was officially named the J.G. Strijdom Tower until 1995, when, shortly after the end of apartheid, it was renamed the Telkom Hillbrow Tower.  In Windhoek, then in South West Africa, the main airport was named J.G. Strijdom Airport following its opening in 1965. Following the country's independence as Namibia in 1990, it was renamed Hosea Kutako International Airport. And next to Hoedspruit there is a tunnel named after him called J.G Strijdom Tunnel next to the village called Leboeng.

Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom (also spelled "Strydom"), commonly called Hans Strijdom (14 July 1893 – 24 August 1958), nicknamed "the Lion of the North", was Prime Minister of South Africa from 30 November 1954 to 24 August 1958. He was an uncompromising Afrikaner nationalist, and a member of the largest, "baasskap" (white supremacist) faction of the National Party (NP), who further perpetuated the NP's Apartheid policies during his rule.

Johannes (Hans) Gerhardus Strijdom (né le dans la ferme de Klipfontein près de Willowmore dans la colonie du Cap - mort le au Cap dans la province du Cap), le « lion du Transvaal » était un avocat et un homme politique sud-africain, membre du Parti national, député du Waterberg (1929-1959), ministre des Terres et de l'Irrigation (1948-1954) et Premier ministre d'Afrique du Sud (1954-1958).


Importance.

There are several verses in the Quran that emphasize the importance of remembering the will of God by saying phrases such as "God willing" "God knows best," and "If it is your will.' This is the basis for dhikr. Surah al-Kahf (18), Ayah 24 states a person who forgets to say, "God willing", should immediately remember God by saying, "Maybe my Lord will guide me to [something] more akin to rectitude than this." Other verses include Surah al-Ahzab (33), Ayah 41, "O you who have faith! Remember Allah with frequent remembrance", and Surah ar-Ra'd (13), Ayah 28, "those who have faith, and whose hearts find rest in the remembrance of Allah.' Look! The hearts find rest in Allah's remembrance!" Muhammad said, 'The best [dhikr] is "lā ʾilāha ʾillā -llāh" ("There is no deity but God"), and the best supplicatory prayer is "ʾalḥamdu lillāh" ("All praise is due to God").  Muslims believe dhikr is one of the best ways to enter the higher level of Heaven and to glorify the Monotheistic Oneness of God.  To Sufis, dhikr is seen as a way to gain spiritual enlightenment and achieve union ("visal") or annihilation ("fana") in God. All Muslim sects endorse individual rosaries as a method of meditation, the goal of which is to obtain a feeling of peace, separation from worldly values (dunya), and, in general, strengthen Iman (faith).

Quran as Dhikr.

Reciting the Quran sincerely is also considered a kind of Dhikr. For example:

Hadiths mentioning virtues.

It is mentioned in hadith that where people are oblivious to dhikir, remembrance of Allah is like being steadfast in jihad when others are running away (Targhib, p. 193, vol. 3 ref. Bazar and Tibrani).

Tasbih of Fatimah.

The Islamic Prophet Muhammad is reported to have thought his daughter Fatimah bint Rasul Allah a special manner of Dhikr which is known as the "Tasbih of Fatimah". This consists of:

Prayer beads.

Known also as "Tasbih", these are usually "Misbaha" (prayer beads) upon a string, 99 or 100 in number, which correspond to the names of God in Islam and other recitations. The beads are used to keep track of the number of recitations that make up the dhikr.  When the dhikr involves the repetition of particular phrases a specific number of times, the beads are used to keep track so that the person performing dhikr can turn all of their focus on what is actually being said - as it can become difficult to concentrate simultaneously on the number and phrasing when one is doing so a substantial number of times.  In the United States, Muslim inmates are allowed to utilize prayer beads for therapeutic effects. In Alameen v. Coughlin, 892 F. Supp. 440 (E.D.N.Y 1995), Imam Hamzah S. Alameen, a/k/a Gilbert Henry, and Robert Golden brought suit against Thomas A. Coughlin III, etc., et alia (Head of the Department of Corrections) in the State of New York pursuant to 28 USC @ 1983. The plaintiffs argued that prisoners have a First Amendment Constitutional right to pursue Islamic healing therapy called KASM (قاسَمَهُ | qaasama | taking an oath ) which uses prayer beads. The rosary of oaths, which Alameen developed, was used to successfully rehabilitate inmates suffering from co-occurring mental health challenges and substance abuse issues during the 1990s. All people, including Muslims and Catholics, were allowed to use prayer beads inside prisons, lest their freedom of religion be violated when the prison administration forbade their possession as contraband in the penal system. The practice of carrying prayer beads became controversial when gang-members began carrying specific colors of prayer beads to identify themselves.

Dhakir.

A "dhakir" () or "Zaker" (literally "mentioner"' a speaker who refers to something briefly/incidentally), or reminder, is considered a maddah who reminds the remembering of Allah (and His Dhikr) for people, and he himself should also be reciter of dhikhr; namely, not only he ought to be a recital of Dhikr, but also he should put the audience in the situation of dhikr reminding (of Allah and likewise Ahl al-Bayt). Idiomatically the term means "praiser of God" or "professional narrator of the tragedies of Karbala (and Ahl al-Bayt)". To some extent, it can mean Maddah/panegyrist too.  The root of the word "Dhakir" () is "Dhikr" () which means remembering/praising; and the word "Dhakiri" () is the act which is done by Dhakir, i.e. mentioning the Dhikr (of Allah, the Ahl al-Bayt, etc.) by observing its specific principles/manners.

Sufi view.

Every Tariqa have their own way of spiritual practices and all of them are connected to a certain lineage like (Chishtiya, Qadriya, Naqshbandiya, Burhaniya etc) Followers of Sufism often engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, the details of which sometimes vary between Sufi orders or "tariqah". Each order, or lineage within an order, has one or more forms for group dhikr, the liturgy of which may include recitation, singing, music, dance, costumes, incense, "muraqaba" (meditation), ecstasy, and trance. Though the extent, usage and acceptability of many of these elements vary from order to order - with many condemning the usage of instruments (considered unlawful by most scholars) and intentional loss of control. In addition, costumes are quite uncommon and is almost exclusively unique to the Mevlavi order in Turkey - which is an official cultural "heritage" of the secular Turkish state. In Sufism, group dhikr does not necessarily entail all of these forms.  The most common forms of Sufi group dhikr consist in the recital of particular litanies (e.g. Hizb al-Bahr of the Shadhilis), a composition of Quranic phrases and Prophetic supplications (e.g. Wird al-Latif of the Ba `Alawis), or a liturgical repetition of various formula and prayers (e.g. al-Wadhifa of the Tijanis ). All of these forms are referred to as a "hizb" ("pl." "ahzab") or a "wird" ("pl." "awrad"). This terminological usage is important as some critics often mistakenly believe that the word hizb only refers to a portion of the Quran. In addition, many recite extended prayers upon Muhammad (known as durood) of which the Dala'il al-Khayrat is perhaps the most popular. Though common to almost all Sufi orders, some (such as the Naqsbandis) prefer to perform their dhikr silently - even in group settings. In addition, most gatherings are held on Thursday or Sunday nights as part of the institutional practices of the tariqah (since Thursday is the night marks the entrance of the Muslim "holy" day of Friday and Sundays are a convenient congregational time in most contemporary societies) - though people who don't live near their official zawiya gather whenever is convenient for the most people.  Another type of group dhikr ceremony that is most commonly performed in Arabic countries is called the haḍra ("lit". presence). The haḍra is a communal gathering for dhikr and its associated liturgical rituals, prayers, and song recitals, performing both in private or public. Though the haḍra is popular (in part because of the controversy surrounding it), it is mostly practiced in North Africa, the Middle-East and Turkey. In Turkey this ceremony is called "Zikr-i Kiyam" (Standing dhikr) and "imara" in Algeria and Morocco. In places like Syria where Sufis are a visible part of the fabric and psyche of society, each order typically has their private gathering on one day and will participate in a public haḍra at a central location to which both the affiliated and unaffiliated alike are invited as an expression of unity. Similar public ceremonies occur in Turkey, Egypt, Algeria and Morocco.  For those who perform it, the haḍra marks the climax of the Sufi's gathering regardless of any teaching or formal structure - it often follows a formal teaching session as a way of internalizing the lessons. Musically, the structure of the haḍra includes several secular Arab genres (each of which expresses a different emotion) and can last for hours. It is directed by the sheikh of the tariqa or one of his representatives; monitoring the intensity, depth and duration of the phases of the haḍra, the sheikh aims to draw the circle into deep awareness of God and away from the participants own individuatedness. The dhikr ceremonies may have a ritually determined length or may last as long as the Sheikh deems his murids require. The haḍra section consists of the ostinato-like repetition of the name of God over which the soloist performs a richly ornamented song. In many haḍras, this repetition proceeds from the chest and has the effect of a percussion instrument, with the participants bending forward while exhaling and stand straight while inhaling so that both the movement and sound contribute to the overall rhythm. The climax is usually reached through cries of "Allah! Allah!" or "hu hu" (which is either the pronoun "he" or the last vowel on the word "Allah" depending on the method) while the participants are moving up and down. Universally, the haḍra is almost always followed by Quranic recital in the tarteel style - which according to al-Junayd al-Baghdadi, was a prophetic instruction received through a dream.  More common than the haḍra is the sama` ("lit". audition), a type of group ceremony that consist mostly of the audition of spiritual poetry and Quranic recitation in an emotionally charged manner; and thus is not dhikr is the technical sense the word implies. However, the same debate over certain matters of decorum apply as exists with the haḍra. Even though group dhikr is popular and makes up the spiritual life of most Sufi adherents, other more private forms of dhikr are performed more routinely - usually consisting of the order's "wird" (daily litany) - which adherents usually recite privately, even if gathered together. So although group dhikr is seen as a hallmark of Sufism, the Sufis themselves practice the same private forms of worship that other Muslims practice, though usually more frequently and methodically; group dhikr is a less frequent occurrence and is not the end-all-and-be-all of Sufism, as some Sufi orders do not even perform it.

Dhikr (,, also spelled Zikr, Thikr or Zekr, or zikar, pl. Azkar or Adhkar), literally means "remembrance, reminder" or "mention, utterance". They are Islamic devotional acts, in which phrases or prayers are repeated. It can be counted on a set of prayer beads ("Misbaha" ) or through the fingers of the hand. It plays a central role in Sufi Islam. A person who recites the Dhikr is called a "ḏākir" (, ). "Tasbih" (), literally meaning "glorification" (i.e. the saying of "subḥāna -llāh" []) is a form of dhikr that involves the repetitive utterances of short sentences glorifying God. The content of the prayers includes the names of God, or a "dua" (prayer of supplication) taken from the hadiths or the Quran.

Le dhikr (parfois prononcé zikr, arabe : [ḏikr], "évocation ; mention, rappel, répétition (du nom de Dieu)"), dans l'islam, désigne à la fois le "souvenir de Dieu" et la pratique qui avive ce souvenir. Il est au cœur de la pratique du soufisme.


Company history.

Early Seaplane Operations.

Far away from continents, Polynesia was late in developing air routes. It was only during the Second World War that aviation took off in earnest with the construction of the first runway in 1943, in Bora Bora, by U.S. forces. In the aftermath of the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Americans intended to protect and supply routes between the U.S. coast and the southwest Pacific.  Regular commercial air service between the islands started in 1950 at the initiative of a handful of entrepreneurs who created the company Air Tahiti. The flights were operated by a 7-seater seaplane, a Grumman Widgeon J-4F. With such low capacity, the need for a second aircraft was quickly apparent.  In 1951, the French Ministry for the Overseas purchased on behalf of the Territory a Grumman Mallard amphibian aircraft. Gradually, Air Tahiti spread its wings to all the islands of French Polynesia. On June 25, 1953, the first landing in the Gambier archipelago was achieved. In October 1953, the first flight to the Marquesas islands took place with a sea-landing at Taiohae / Nuku Hiva.  In July 1953, TAI (Transports Aériens Intercontinentaux - International Air Transports)' a commercial exploitation of RAI (Régie Aérienne Interinsulaire – Inter-Island Aviation Board), asserted its rights in the mutual allocation of local transports, under an agreement with Air France.  The Territory withdrew the Mallard licence from Air Tahiti in favour of TAI. The Air Tahiti brand then disappeared. RAI operated for the Department of Public Works and Transport. It acquired two Consolidated PBY Catalina seaplanes to expand links between the islands of French Polynesia. These aircraft with orange livery received a F-OA registration restricted to aircraft operated overseas.  Gradually, the network continued to expand. In 1955, the Austral archipelagos inaugurated seaplane service with the opening of routes to Tubuai and Raivavae. In 1958, the "Régie" became "Réseau" (Inter-Island Aviation Network) with Réseau Aérien Interinsulaire (RAI) operating Douglas DC-4 propliners and Short Sandringham "Bermuda" flying boats during the early 1960s.

The development of runways.

Although seaplanes would seem appropriate to the insular context, it is difficult to find suitable large bodies of water, unhindered and protected from sea swell. Therefore, it became necessary to quickly develop runways and airstrips.  With the opening of the Tahiti Faa'a International Airport in Papeete in 1960, Tahiti could host international commercial jetliner flights. Thereafter, a vast construction program of runways was launched by the French Government over the whole of French Polynesia. As a result, four runways were built in the 1960s and 27 in the following decade.

Air Polynesia.

In 1970, RAI became Air Polynesia, a subsidiary of UTA that was also known as Air Polynésie. Nicknamed "Air Po" by Polynesians, the company asserted more of its Polynesian identity and implemented regular services throughout French Polynesia and especially to the more remote islands. The airline operated Douglas DC-4 propliners, Short Sandringham "Bermuda" flying boats and de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter turboprops before introducing Fairchild F-27 and Fokker F27 turboprops.

Air Tahiti.

In 1986, the former UTA (by then absorbed by Air France) sold Air Polynesia shares to local investors. The reformed Air Tahiti, wanting to modernize, in 1987 acquired its first ATR 42 regional turboprop aircraft, marking the beginning of a long collaboration with the aircraft manufacturer ATR.

Destinations.

Air Tahiti covers a network of 47 islands in French Polynesia and Cook Islands.  Society Islands  Tuamotu Archipelago  East Tuamotu-Gambier archipelago Marquesas archipelago  Austral archipelago  Marquesas archipelago Tuamotu archipelago

Fleet.

As of September 2018, the Air Tahiti fleet consists of:

Accidents.

On April 18, 1991, Air Tahiti flight 805 was on approach to Nuku Hiva Airport, when the aircraft, a Dornier 228, suffered an engine failure and attempted to ditch near the coast. 10 of the 20 passengers in the aircraft were killed.

Air Tahiti is a French airline company which operates in French Polynesia, France. Its main hub is Faa'a International Airport.

Air Tahiti (code AITA : VT ; code OACI : VTA) est une compagnie aérienne régulière française qui exerce ses activités en Polynésie française. Société privée, elle assure toutefois une mission de service public non officielle. Plateforme de correspondance : aéroport de Tahiti Faa'a.


Etymology.

The name Konârka is derived from the Sanskrit word "Kona" (meaning "angle") and word "Arka" (meaning "sun") in reference to the temple which was dedicated to the Sun god Surya.

The Sun Temple.

The Sun Temple was built in the 13th century and designed as a gigantic chariot of the Sun God, Surya, with twelve pairs of ornamented wheels pulled by seven horses. Some of the wheels are 3 meters wide. Only six of the seven horse still stand today. The temple fell into disuse after an envoy of Jahangir desecrated the temple in the early 17th century.  According to folklore, there was a diamond in the centre of the idol which reflected the sun rays that passed. In 1627, the then Raja of Khurda took the Sun idol from Konark to the Jagannath temple in Puri. The Sun temple belongs to the Kalingan school of Indian temple architecture. The alignment of the Sun Temple is along the east–west direction. The inner sanctum or "vimana" used to be surmounted by a tower or "shikara" but it was razed in the 19th century. The audience hall or "jagamohana" still stands and comprises majority of the ruins. The roof of the dance hall or "natmandir" has fallen off. It stands at the eastern end of the ruins on a raised platform.

History.

In 1559, Mukunda Gajapati came to throne in Cuttack. He aligned himself as an ally of Akbar and an enemy of the Sultan of Bengal, Sulaiman Khan Karrani. After a few battles, Odisha finally fell. The fall was also aided by the internal turmoil of the state. In 1568, the Konark temple was damaged by the army of Kalapahad, a general of the Sultan. Kalapahad is also said to be responsible for damages to several other temples during the conquest.

Demographics.

As of 2011 India census, Konark had a population of 16,779. Males constitute 8,654 (52%) of the population and females 8,125 (48%).As of 2001 Census Konark has an average literacy rate of 57%, lower than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 64%, and female literacy is 49%. In Konark, 14% of the population is under 6 years of age.

Tourism.

Reaching Konark.

Konark can be reached via a number of routes:

Konark is a medium town in the Puri district in the state of Odisha, India. It lies on the coast by the Bay of Bengal, 60 kilometers from the capital of the state, Bhubaneswar. It is the site of the 13th-century Sun Temple, also known as the Black Pagoda, built in black granite during the reign of Narasimhadeva-I. The temple is a World Heritage Site. The temple is now mostly in ruins, and a collection of its sculptures is housed in the Sun Temple Museum, which is run by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Konârak est une petite ville de l'État de l'Odisha en Inde. Elle fait partie du « triangle d'or » de l'État où se trouve concentrée la majeure partie de son patrimoine. Elle est située à de Purî, un second sommet du triangle, la ville du temple de Jagannâtha qui accueille chaque année la fête du "Râthayâtra" et à de Bhubaneswar, le troisième sommet et la capitale de l'État.


Purpose.

JFIF defines a number of details that are left unspecified by the JPEG Part 1 standard (ISO/IEC 10918-1, ITU-T Recommendation T.81.)

Component sample registration.

JPEG allows multiple components (such as Y, Cb, and Cr) to have different resolutions, but it does not define how those differing sample arrays should be aligned. The JFIF standard requires samples to be sited "interstitially" – meaning the decoder can treat each component array as representing an array of equal-sized rectangular pixels sampled in their centers, with each array having the same exterior boundaries as the image. This is convenient for computer users, but is not the alignment used in MPEG-2 and most video applications.

Resolution and aspect ratio.

The JPEG standard does not include any method of coding the resolution or aspect ratio of an image. JFIF provides resolution or aspect ratio information using an application segment extension to JPEG. It uses Application Segment #0, with a segment header consisting of the null-terminated string spelling "JFIF" in ASCII followed by a byte equal to 0, and specifies that this must be the first segment in the file, hence making it simple to recognize a JFIF file. Exif images recorded by digital cameras generally do not include this segment, but typically comply in all other respects with the JFIF standard.

Color space.

The JPEG standard used for the compression coding in JFIF files does not define which color encoding is to be used for images. JFIF defines the color model to be used: either Y for greyscale, or YCbCr derived from RGB color primaries as defined in CCIR 601 (now known as Rec. ITU-R BT.601), except with a different "full range" scaling of the Y, Cb and Cr components. Unlike the "studio range" defined in CCIR 601, in which black is represented by Y=16 and white by Y=235 and values outside of this range are available for signal processing "headroom" and "footroom", JFIF uses all 256 levels of the 8-bit representation, so that Y=0 for black and Y=255 for peak white. The RGB color primaries defined in JFIF via CCIR 601 also differ somewhat from what has become common practice in newer applications (e.g., they differ slightly from the color primaries defined in sRGB). Moreover, CCIR 601 (before 2007) did not provide a precise definition of the RGB color primaries; it relied instead on the underlying practices of the television industry.  Color interpretation of a JFIF image may be improved by embedding an ICC profile, colorspace metadata, or an sRGB tag, and using an application that interprets this information.

File format structure.

A JFIF file consists of a sequence of markers or marker segments (for details refer to JPEG, Syntax and structure). The markers are defined in part 1 of the JPEG Standard. Each marker consists of two bytes: an codice_1 byte followed by a byte which is not equal to codice_2 or codice_1 and specifies the type of the marker. Some markers stand alone, but most indicate the start of a marker segment that contains data bytes according to the following pattern:  codice_4  The bytes "s1" and "s2" are taken together to represent a big-endian 16-bit integer specifying the length of the following "data bytes" plus the 2 bytes used to represent the length. In other words, "s1" and "s2" specify the number of the following "data bytes" as formula_1.  According to part 1 of the JPEG standard, applications can use APP marker segments and define an application specific meaning of the data. In the JFIF standard, the following APP marker segments are defined: They are described below.  The JFIF standard requires that the JFIF APP0 marker segment immediately follows the SOI marker. If a JFIF extension APP0 marker segment is used, it must immediately follow the JFIF APP0 marker segment. So a JFIF file will have the following structure:

JFIF APP0 marker segment.

In the mandatory JFIF APP0 marker segment the parameters of the image are specified. Optionally an uncompressed thumbnail can be embedded.

JFIF extension APP0 marker segment.

Immediately following the JFIF APP0 marker segment may be a JFIF extension APP0 marker segment. This segment may only be present for JFIF versions 1.02 and above. It allows to embed a thumbnail image in 3 different formats.  The thumbnail data depends on the thumbnail format as follows:

Compatibility.

The newer Exchangeable image file format (Exif) is comparable to JFIF, but the two standards are mutually incompatible. This is because both standards specify that their particular application segment (APP0 for JFIF, APP1 for Exif) must immediately follow the SOI marker. In practice, many programs and digital cameras produce files with both application segments included. This will not affect the image decoding for most decoders, but poorly designed JFIF or Exif parsers may not recognise the file properly.  JFIF is compatible with Adobe Photoshop's JPEG "Information Resource Block" extensions, and IPTC Information Interchange Model metadata, since JFIF does not preclude other application segments, and the Photoshop extensions are not required to be the first in the file. However, Photoshop generally saves CMYK buffers as four-component "Adobe JPEGs" that are not conformant with JFIF. Since these files are not in a YCbCr color space, they are typically not decodable by Web browsers and other Internet software.

History.

Development of the JFIF document was led by Eric Hamilton of C-Cube Microsystems, and agreement on the first version was established in late 1991 at a meeting held at C-Cube involving about 40 representatives of various computer, telecommunications, and imaging companies. Shortly afterwards, a minor revision was published — JFIF 1.01. For nearly 20 years, the latest version available was v1.02, published September 1, 1992.  In 1996, RFC 2046 specified that the image format used for transmitting JPEG images across the internet should be JFIF. The MIME type of "image/jpeg" must be encoded as JFIF. In practice, however, virtually all Internet software can decode any baseline "JIF" image that uses Y or YCbCr components, whether it is JFIF compliant or not.  As time went by, C-Cube was restructured (and eventually devolved into Harmonic, LSI Logic, Magnum Semiconductor, Avago Technologies, Broadcom, and GigOptix, GigPeak, etc), and lost interest in the document, and the specification had no official publisher until it was picked up by Ecma International and the ITU-T/ISO/IEC Joint Photographic Experts Group around 2009 to avoid it being lost to history and provide a way to formally cite it in standard publications and improve its editorial quality. It was published by ECMA in 2009 as Technical Report number 98 to avoid loss of the historical record, and it was formally standardized by ITU-T in 2011 as its Recommendation T.871 and by ISO/IEC in 2013 as ISO/IEC 10918-5, The newer publications included editorial improvements but no substantial technical changes.

The JPEG File Interchange Format (JFIF) is an image file format standard. It defines supplementary specifications for the container format that contains the image data encoded with the JPEG algorithm. The base specifications for a JPEG container format is defined in the Annex B of the JPEG standard, known as JPEG Interchange Format (JIF). JFIF builds over JIF to solve some of JIF's limitations, including unnecessary complexity, component sample registration, resolution, aspect ratio, and color space. Because JFIF is a supplementary standard, the resulting file format may be referred to as "JPEG/JFIF".

Le JPEG File Interchange Format, abrégé JFIF, est une norme (recommandation T.81 de UIT-T) pour faciliter l'échange de fichiers contenant des images enregistrées avec la compression JPEG.


Attraction.

A 2009 study found that heterosexual male fat admirers preferred females that were clinically overweight and rated both overweight and obese women more positively than slighter individuals. The study also found that participants reacted positively to a much wider range of figures than a control group, even rating emaciated figures higher. It concludes "these findings suggest that an explanation for fat admiration may be that FAs are rejecting sociocultural norms of attractiveness".

Feederism.

Gainers and feedees are people who enjoy the fantasy or reality of gaining weight themselves. Encouragers and feeders enjoy the fantasy of helping someone else gain weight. Gainer and encourager are common labels among gay men, while both straight men and women as well as lesbian women often identify as feeders and feedees. Some prefer the term "feedism" over feederism, because feederism suggests that the feeder is dominant and that the feedee is the recipient of another person’s wishes, whereas feedism suggests a more equal relationship between the feeder and feedee.  While gaining and feeding are often considered fetishes, many within the gainer and feederism communities report viewing them more as a lifestyle, identity or sexual orientation.

Portrayal in the media.

Feederism is portrayed by media as a taboo or a niche interest. The portrayal is mostly negative, due to people such as Donna Simpson and movies like Feed, which is an example of non-consensual feederism. Research has shown that the overwhelming majority of feederism relationships are fully consensual and immobility is mostly kept as a fantasy for participants.  Websites and periodicals for feederism include Fantasy Feeder and "Dimensions" magazine. Tumblr has also hosted a large number of personal pages for this fetish.

History.

The gay gainer community grew out of the Girth & Mirth movement in the 70s. By 1988 there were gainer-specific newsletters and in 1992, the first gainer event, called EncourageCon, was held in New Hope, Pennsylvania. In 1996, GainRWeb launched, the first website dedicated to gay men into weight gain, ushering in the internet era.

Fat fetishism is sexual attraction to overweight or obese people due to their weight and size. A variety of fat fetishism is "feed(er)ism" or "gaining", where sexual gratification is obtained not from the fat itself but from the process of gaining, or helping others gain, body fat. Fat fetishism also incorporates "stuffing" and "padding", whereas the focus of arousal is on the sensations and properties of a real or "simulated" gain.

Les personnes attirées physiquement et sexuellement par les personnes grosses sont, faute d'un terme francophone équivalent, appelées (FA). Les femmes sont appelées des "big beautiful woman" (BBW) et les hommes des "big handsome man" (BHM). Le terme américain "fat admirer" est couramment utilisé dans tous les mouvements d'acceptation des gros à l'échelon international, pour désigner les personnes ayant une attirance physique et sexuelle pour les hommes et les femmes forts.


History.

Occupied for thousands of years, the "Chinguetti" region was once a broad savannah. The rock paintings of Agrour Amogjar in the nearby Amogjar Pass feature images of giraffes, cows, and people in a green landscape. It is quite different from the sand dunes of the desert found in the region today.  The city was founded in 777, and by the 11th century had become a trading center for a confederation of Berber tribes known as the "Iẓnagen", or "Sanhaja", Confederation. It was at the crossroads of trade routes. Soon after settling "Chinguetti", the Sanhaja first interacted with and eventually melded with the Almoravids, represented by Abdallah ibn Yasin. The Almoravids would eventually control an empire stretching from present-day Senegal to southern Spain (called "al-Andalus", the modern Andalucia). The city's stark unadorned architecture reflects the strict religious beliefs of the Almoravids, who spread the Malikite rite of Sunni Islam throughout the Western Maghreb.  After two centuries of decline, the city was effectively re-founded in the 13th century as a fortified cross-Saharan caravan trading center connecting the Mediterranean with Sub-Saharan Africa. Although the walls of the original fortification disappeared centuries ago, many of the buildings in the old section of the city date from this period.

Religious importance.

For centuries the city was a principal gathering place for pilgrims of the Maghreb to gather on the way to Mecca. It became known as a holy city in its own right, especially for pilgrims unable to make the long journey to the Arab Peninsula. It also became a center of Islamic religious and scientific scholarship in West Africa. In addition to religious training, the schools of "Chinguetti" taught students rhetoric, law, astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For many centuries all of Mauritania was popularly known in the Arab world as "Bilad Shinqit," "the land of Chinguetti." "Chinguetti" is locally said to be the seventh-most holy city of Islam, but there is no recognition of this claim outside of West Africa. The city remains one of the world's most important historical sites both in terms of the history of Islam and the history of West Africa.  Although largely abandoned to the desert, the city features a series of medieval manuscript libraries without peer in West Africa. The area around the Rue des Savants was once famous as a gathering place for scholars to debate the finer points of Islamic law. Today the quiet city still offers the urban and religious architecture of the Moorish empire as it existed in the Middle Ages.

World Heritage Site.

In 1996, UNESCO designated "Chinguetti", along with the cities of Ouadane, Tichitt and Oualata, also in the dunes area, as a World Heritage Site.  The Friday Mosque of Chinguetti is widely considered by Mauritanians to be the national symbol of the country. The recently discovered offshore oilfield was named Chinguetti in its honor.

Chinguetti () (; ) is a "ksar" or a medieval trading center in northern Mauritania, located on the Adrar Plateau east of Atar.

Chinguetti ou Chinguitti (arabe : شنقيط) est une ville du centre-ouest de la Mauritanie, située sur les plateaux désertiques de l'Adrar. Avec d'autres villes anciennes fortifiées ("ksour") de Mauritanie, la ville est sur la liste du patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO depuis 1996. La ville est séparée en deux par un oued qui, aujourd'hui, est asséché. D'un côté, il y a la vieille ville, et de l'autre la nouvelle.


Origin of the theme.

Brahms composed the work on a theme entitled "Chorale St. Antoni", which Brahms found in a wind ensemble composition. When Brahms discovered it, the wind ensemble piece carried an attribution to the composer Joseph Haydn. Brahms titled his own composition accordingly, crediting Haydn for the theme. However, music publishers in the early nineteenth century often attached the names of famous composers to works by unknown or lesser-known composers, to make the pieces more saleable. Subsequent research has concluded that the wind piece Brahms used as a source does not fit Haydn's style. The wind ensemble piece remains without clear attribution.  As a result, Brahms's piece is sometimes referred to today, in recordings and concert programs, as the "St. Anthony Variations", in addition to the original title that Brahms gave it.  A detailed survey of the controversy can be found in Douglas Yeo's 2004 edition of the "Haydn" piece (ISMN M-57015-175-1). In 1870, Brahms's friend Carl Ferdinand Pohl, the librarian of the Vienna Philharmonic Society, who was working on a Haydn biography at the time, showed Brahms a transcription he had made of a piece attributed to Haydn titled "Divertimento No. 1". The second movement bore the heading "St. Anthony Chorale", and it is this movement which, in its entirety, forms the theme on which the variations are based. Brahms's statement of the theme varies in small but significant ways from the original, principally with regard to instrumentation. Some sources state the Divertimento was probably written by Ignaz Pleyel, but this has not been definitively established. A further question is whether the composer of the divertimento actually wrote the "St. Anthony Chorale" or simply quoted an older theme taken from an unknown source. To date, no other mention of a "St. Anthony Chorale" has been found.

Form.

The theme begins with a repeated ten-measure passage which itself consists of two intriguing five-measure phrases, a quirk that is likely to have caught Brahms's attention. Almost without exception, the eight variations follow the phrasal structure of the theme and, though less strictly, the harmonic structure as well. Each has a distinctive character, several calling to mind the forms and techniques of earlier eras, with some displaying a mastery of counterpoint seldom encountered in Romantic music.  The finale is a magnificent theme and variations on a ground bass, five measures in length, derived from the principal theme. Its culmination, a restatement of the chorale, is a moment of such transcendence that the usually austere Brahms permits himself the use of a triangle.  Just before the end of the piece, in the coda of the finale, Brahms quotes a passage that really is by Haydn. In measures 463–464, the violas and cellos echo the cello line from measure 148 of the second movement of the latter's "Clock" Symphony, one of the finest examples of Haydn's pioneering work in the symphonic variation form. The reader may compare the two passages by following these links: Brahms, Haydn (see below for link credits). This fragmentary allusion may be the music's sole link to Haydn.

Sections.

The sections are named and tempo markings given as follows. Where the tempo markings of the two versions differ, the one for Op. 56b is shown in parentheses.

The Variations on a Theme by Joseph Haydn, (), now also called the Saint Anthony Variations, is a work in the form of a theme and variations, composed by Johannes Brahms in the summer of 1873 at Tutzing in Bavaria. It consists of a theme in B major based on a "Chorale St Antoni", eight variations, and a finale. The work was published in two versions: for two pianos, written first but designated Op. 56b; and for orchestra, designated Op. 56a.

Les Variations sur un thème de Haydn, op. 56 () est une œuvre orchestrale en variations de Johannes Brahms, composée pendant l'été 1873. Cette œuvre est constituée d'un thème en si bémol majeur, de huit variations et d'un finale.


History.

Ancient era.

Some believe that Treviso derived its name from the Celtic word "tarvos" mixed with the Latin ending "isium" forming "Tarvisium". Others believe it comes from a word from the language of a tribe who first came to Treviso.  Tarvisium, then a city of the Veneti, became a "municipium" in 89 BCE after the Romans added Cisalpine Gaul to their dominions. Citizens were ascribed to the Roman tribe of Claudia. The city lay in proximity of the Via Postumia, which connected Opitergium to Aquileia, two major cities of Roman Venetia during Ancient and early medieval times. Treviso is rarely mentioned by ancient writers, although Pliny writes of the "Silis", that is the Sile River, as flowing "ex montibus Tarvisanis".  During the Roman period, Christianity spread to Treviso. Tradition records that St. Prosdocimus, a Greek who had been ordained bishop by St. Peter, brought the Catholic faith to Treviso and surrounding areas. By the 4th century, the Christian population grew sufficient to merit a resident bishop. The first documented bishop was John the Pious who began his episcopacy in 396 AD.

Early Middle Ages.

Treviso went through a demographic and economic decline similar to the rest of Italy after the fall of the Western Empire; however, it was spared by Attila the Hun, and thus, remained an important center during the 6th century. According to tradition, Treviso was the birthplace of Totila, the leader of Ostrogoths during the Gothic Wars. Immediately after the Gothic Wars, Treviso fell under the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna until 568 AD when it was taken by the Lombards, who made it one of 36 ducal seats and established an important mint. The latter was especially important during the reign of the last Lombard king, Desiderius, and continued to churn out coins when northern Italy was annexed to the Frankish Empire. People from the city also played a role in the founding of Venice.  Charlemagne made it the capital of a border march, i.e. the "Marca Trevigiana", which lasted for several centuries.

Middle Ages.

Treviso joined the Lombard League, and gained independence after the Peace of Constance (1183). This lasted until the rise of seignories in northern Italy. In 1214, Treviso was the scene of the Castle of Love that turned into a war between Padua and Venice. Among the various families who ruled over Treviso, the Da Romano reigned from 1237 to 1260. Struggles between Guelph and Ghibelline factions followed, with the first triumphant in 1283 with Gherardo III da Camino, after which Treviso experienced significant economic and cultural growth which continued until 1312. Treviso and its satellite cities, including Castelfranco Veneto (founded by the Trevigiani in contraposition to Padua), had become attractive to neighbouring powers, including the da Carrara and Scaligeri. After the fall of the last Caminesi lord, Rizzardo IV, the Marca was the site of continuous struggles and ravages (1329–1388).  Treviso notary and physician Oliviero Forzetta was an avid collector of antiquities and drawings; the collection was published in a catalog in 1369, the earliest such catalog to survive to this day.

Venetian rule.

After a Scaliger domination in 1329–1339, the city gave itself to the Republic of Venice, becoming the first notable mainland possession of the Serenissima. From 1318 it was also, for a short time, the seat of a university. Venetian rule brought innumerable benefits; however, Treviso necessarily became involved in the wars of Venice. From 1381–1384, the city was captured and ruled by the duke of Austria, and then by the Carraresi until 1388. Having returned to Venice, the city was fortified and given a massive line of walls and ramparts, still existing; these were renewed in the following century under the direction of Fra Giocondo, two of the gates being built by the Lombardi. The many waterways were exploited with several waterwheels which mainly powered mills for milling grain produced locally. The waterways were all navigable and "barconi" would arrive from Venice at the Port of Treviso (Porto de Fiera) pay duty and offload their merchandise and passengers along Riviera Santa Margherita. Fishermen were able to bring fresh catch every day to the Treviso fish market, which is held still today on an island connected to the rest of the city by two small bridges at either end.

French and Austrian rule.

Treviso was taken in 1797 by the French under Mortier, who was made duke of Treviso. French domination lasted until the defeat of Napoleon, after which it passed to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The citizens, still at heart loyal to the fallen Venetian Republic, were displeased with imperial rule and in March 1848, drove out the Austrian garrison. However, after the town was bombarded, the people were compelled to capitulate in the following 14 June. Austrian rule continued until Treviso was annexed with the rest of Veneto to the Kingdom of Italy in 1866.

19th century and later.

During World War I, Treviso held a strategic position close to the Austrian front. Just north, the Battle of Vittorio Veneto helped turn the tide of the War.  During World War II, one of several Italian concentration camps was established for Slovene and Croatian civilians from the Province of Ljubljana in Monigo, near Treviso. The Monigo camp was disbanded with the Italian capitulation in 1943.  The city suffered several bombing raids during World War II. A large part of the medieval structures of the city center were destroyed—including part of the Palazzo dei Trecento, later rebuilt—causing the death of about 1,600 people.  In January 2005, a bomb enclosed in a candy egg and attributed to the so-called Italian Unabomber detonated on a Treviso street.

Geography.

Treviso stands at the confluence of Botteniga with the Sile, north of Venice, east of Vicenza, north-east of Padua, and south of Cortina d'Ampezzo. The city is situated some south-west the right bank of the Piave River, on the plain between the Gulf of Venice and the Alps.

Climate.

Climate in Treviso has mild differences between highs and lows, and has adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "" (temperate Humid subtropical climate).

Sports.

Treviso is home to several notable Italian sport teams, thanks to the presence of the Benetton family, who owns and sponsors:  The local football team, A.S.D. Treviso 2009, played for the first time in the Italian Serie A in 2005. Its home stadium is the Omobono Tenni.  Treviso is a popular stop on the professional cyclo-cross racing circuit and served as the site of the 2008 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships.  Treviso is a popular area for cycling enthusiasts. From the city center there is an cycling path along the Sile river with connecting paths all the way to Jesolo, a seaside resort on the Adriatic sea. For road cyclists, Treviso is also a starting/finishing point for tours to the Montello hill and further into the hills of the area around Conegliano and Valdobbiadene.

Transportation.

Treviso Centrale railway station has Trenitalia trains to Venice, Padua, Belluno, Portogruaro, Vicenza, Udine and Trieste.  Treviso Airport, west of the city, specializes in low cost airlines.  MOM is the major transport company in the city and provides for urban and suburban services in the Province of Treviso.

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Treviso is twinned with:

Treviso (, ; ) is a city and "comune" in the Veneto region of northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Treviso and the municipality has 84,669 inhabitants (as of September 2017):. Some 3,000 live within the Venetian walls ("le Mura") or in the historical and monumental center; some 80,000 live in the urban center while the city hinterland has a population of approximately 170,000..

Trévise (Treviso en italien, "Trévigny" autrefois en français) est une ville de la province de même nom en Vénétie en Italie.