History.

Pre-colonial period.

Before the Spanish arrived in the Philippines the ancient peoples there were engaging in naval warfare, trade, piracy, travel and communication using balangay. A flotilla of balangay was discovered in the late 1970s in Butuan City, Agusan del Norte. Philippine ships, such as the "karakao" or "korkoa", were of excellent quality and some of them were used by the Spaniards in expeditions against rebellious tribes and Dutch and British forces. Some of the larger rowed vessels held up to a hundred rowers on each side besides a contingent of armed troops. Generally, the larger vessels held at least one "lantaka" at the front of the vessel or another one placed at the stern. Philippine sailing ships called "praos" had double sails that seemed to rise well over a hundred feet from the surface of the water. Despite their large size, these ships had double outriggers. Some of the larger sailing ships, however, did not have outriggers.  Antecedent to this raids, sometime between A.D. 1174 and 1190, a traveling Chinese government bureaucrat Chau Ju-Kua reported that a certain group of ""ferocious raiders of China’s Fukien coast"" which he called the "Pi-sho-ye," believed to have lived on the southern part of Formosa. In A.D. 1273, another work written by Ma Tuan Lin, which came to the knowledge of non-Chinese readers through a translation made by the Marquis D’Hervey de Saint-Denys, gave reference to the "Pi-sho-ye" raiders, thought to have originated from the southern portion of Formosa. However, the author observed that these readers spoke a different language and had an entirely different appearance (presumably when compared to the inhabitants of Formosa).  In the Battle of Manila in 1365 is an unspecified and disputed battle occurring somewhere in the vicinity of Manila between the forces of the Kingdoms in Luzon and the Empire of Majapahit.  Even though the exact dates and details of this battle remain in dispute, there are claims of the conquest of the area around Saludong (Majapahit term for Luzon and Manila) according to the text "Nagarakretagama"  Nevertheless, there may have been a battle for Manila that occurred during that time but it was likely a victory for Luzon's kingdoms considering that the Kingdom of Tondo had maintained its independence and was not enslaved under another ruler. Alternatively, Luzon may have been successfully invaded but was able to regain its independence later.

Colonial era.

The Spanish Colonial Era.

The Republic's need for a naval force was first provided for by Filipino revolutionaries when they included a provision in the Biák-na-Bató Constitution. This authorised the government to permit privateers to engage foreign enemy vessels.  On May 1, 1898, the first ship handed by Admiral George Dewey to the Revolutionary Navy is a small pinnace from the Reina Cristina of Admiral Patricio Montojo, which was named "Magdalo".  The Philippine Navy was established during the second phase of the Philippine Revolution when General Emilio Aguinaldo formed the Revolutionary Navy which was initially composed of a small fleet of eight Spanish steam launches captured from the Spaniards. The ships were refitted with 9-centimeter guns. The rich, namely Leon Apacible, Manuel Lopez and Gliceria Marella de Villavicencio, later donated five other vessels of greater tonnage, the "Taaleño", the "Balayan", the "Bulusan", the "Taal" and the "Purísima Concepción". The 900-ton inter-island tobacco steamer further reinforced the fleet, "Compania de Filipinas" (renamed as the navy flagship "Filipinas"), steam launches purchased from China and other watercraft donated by wealthy patriots.  Naval stations were later established to serve as ships' home bases in the following:  On September 26, 1898, Aguinaldo appointed Captain Pascual Ledesma (a merchant ship captain) as Director of the Bureau of the Navy, assisted by Captain Angel Pabie (another merchant ship captain). After passing of the Malolos Constitution the Navy was transferred from the Ministry of Foreign Relations to the Department of War (thereafter known as the Department of War and the Navy) headed by Gen. Mariano Trías.  As the tensions between Filipinos and Americans erupted in 1899 and a continued blockade on naval forces by the Americans, the Philippine naval forces started to be decimated.

American Colonial Period.

The American colonial government in the Philippines created the Bureau of the Coast Guard and Transportation, which aimed to maintain peace and order, transport Philippine Constabulary troops throughout the archipelago, and guard against smuggling and piracy. The Americans employed many Filipino sailors in this bureau and in the Bureaus of Customs and Immigration, Island and Inter-Island Transportation, Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Lighthouses. They also reopened the former Spanish colonial "Escuela Nautica de Manila", which was renamed the Philippine Nautical School, adopting the methods of the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis. The U.S. Naval Academy accepted its first Filipino midshipman in 1919, and Filipinos were able to enlist in the U.S. Navy, just as they were formerly able to do in the Spanish Navy.

World War II and Japanese occupation (1941–1945).

In 1935, the Commonwealth Government passed the National Defense Act, which aimed to ensure the security of the country. This was criticized because it placed the burden of the defense of the Philippines on ground forces, which in turn, was formed from reservists. It discounted the need for a Commonwealth air force and navy, and naval protection was provided by the United States Asiatic Fleet.  When World War II began, the Philippines had no significant naval forces after the United States withdrew the Asiatic Fleet following the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Imperial Japanese Navy. The Philippines had to rely on its OSP with headquarters located at Muelle Del Codo, Port Area, Manila, composed of five high-speed Thorneycroft Coast Motor Boat (CMB) and PT boats, also known as Q-boats, to repel Japanese attacks from the sea.  During the course of the war, the OSP were undaunted by the enemy's superiority which they fought with zeal, courage and heroism. For its intrepid and successful missions and raids on enemy ships, the unit was dubbed the "Mosquito Fleet" mainly because of its minuscule size, speed and surprise, it showed its capability to attack with a deadly sting. The unit was cited for gallantry in action when its Q-boats Squadron shot three of nine Japanese dive bombers as they were flying towards shore installations in Bataan. The OSP participated in the evacuation of high Philippine and U.S. government officials from Manila to Corregidor when Manila was declared an open city. Surviving personnel of the Offshore Patrol that didn't surrender after April 9, 1942 to the Japanese, conducted the recognized guerrilla and local military troops of the Philippine Commonwealth Army were hit-and-run attacks against the occupying Japanese forces until the return of U.S. Forces. By the end of the war, 66 percent of its men were awarded the Silver Star Medal and other decorations for gallantry in action.

Post-war period (1945–1992).

In 1945, after the liberation of the Philippines, the OSP was reactivated and led by Major Jose Andrada, to reorganize and rebuild from a core of surviving OSP veterans, plus additional recruits. The OSP was strengthened in 1947 after President of the Philippines Manuel Roxas issued Executive Order No. 94. This order elevated the Patrol to a major command that was equal with the Philippine Army, Constabulary, and Air Force. The OSP was renamed the Philippine Naval Patrol, later on changed its name again to the Philippine Navy on January 5, 1951. The first commanding officer of the Navy, Jose Andrada, became its first Commodore and Chief. This was also the year when the naval aviation arm of the Navy was formed, now the Naval Air Group.  In 1950, Secretary of Defense Ramon Magsaysay created a marine battalion with which to carry out amphibious attacks against the Communist Hukbalahap movement. The next year, President Elpidio Quirino issued Executive Order No. 389, re-designating the Philippine Naval Patrol as the Philippine Navy. It was to be composed of all naval and marine forces, combat vessels, auxiliary craft, naval aircraft, shore installations, and supporting units that were necessary to carry out all functions of the service.  The Philippine Navy participated in the Korean War, as well as the Vietnam War, supporting in civil and medical operations. By the 1960s, the Philippine Navy was one of the best-equipped navies in Southeast Asia. In 1967, the maritime law enforcement functions of the Navy were transferred to the Philippine Coast Guard. The duties stayed with the coast guard and in the 1990s it became an independent service under the Department of Transportation.  After the 1960s, the government had to shift its attention towards the Communist insurgency and this led to the strengthening of the Philippine Army and the Philippine Air Force while naval operations were confined to troop transport, naval gunfire support, and blockade.

US military departure from the Philippines.

The Cold War era had reached its endpoint as tensions between the two ideological rivals, the United States and the Soviet Union, simmered down as a result of the dissolution of the latter and the massive change of political system among its allies.  The fate of the US military bases in the country was greatly affected by these circumstances, aside from the catastrophic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 which engulfed the installations with ash and lava flows. The nearby Clark Air Base was eventually abandoned afterwards, while the Philippine Senate voted to reject a new treaty for Subic Naval Complex, its sister American installation in Zambales. This occurrence had effectively ended the century-old US military presence in the country, even as President Corazon Aquino tried to extend the lease agreement by calling a national referendum, leaving a security vacuum in the region and terminated the inflows of economic and military aid into the Philippines.

Contemporary period (1992–present).

Concerns about the Chinese incursion to the sea features claimed by the Philippines and other Southeast Asian states were arises after the Chinese construction of a military outpost at the Mischief Reef on 1995. As a response, the Philippine Navy dispatched the BRP Sierra Madre and deliberately ran it aground in the Second Thomas Shoal, 5 miles from the Chinese facility and south of the rumored oil-rich Reed Bank, which it maintains as its own station today.  The importance of territorial defense capability was highlighted in the public eye in 1995 when the AFP published photographs of Chinese structures on Mischief Reef in the Spratlys. Initial attempts to improve the capabilities of the armed forces happened when a law was passed in the same year for the sale of redundant military installations and devote 35% of the proceeds for the AFP upgrades. Subsequently, the legislature passed the AFP Modernization Act. The law sought to modernize the AFP over a 15-year period, with minimum appropriation of 10-billion pesos per year for the first five years, subject to increase in subsequent years of the program. The modernization fund was to be separate and distinct from the rest of the AFP budget. The Asian Financial Crisis which struck the region on 1997, greatly affected the AFP Modernization Program due to the government's austerity measures meant to turn the economy around after suffering from losses incurred during the financial crisis.  In 1998, following the closure of US bases, the Philippines-US Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA) was signed which contained guidelines for the conduct and protection of American troops visiting the Philippines and stipulated the terms and conditions for the American military to enter Philippine territory. The VFA is a reciprocal agreement that also outlines the requirements for Philippine troops visiting the United States. The Visiting Forces Agreement led to the establishment of the Balikatan exercises, an annual US-Philippine military exercise, as well as a variety of other cooperative measures including the Philippine Bilateral Exercises (PHIBLEX) between the naval forces of the two countries.  The next decade ushered in a cordial relationship between China and its maritime neighbours including the Philippines until 2011 when tensions rose again after consecutive incidents occurred in the disputed territories. In 2012, a Philippine surveillance aircraft identified Chinese fishing vessels at the then Philippine-controlled Scarborough Shoal, causing the Philippine Navy to deploy the to the area. In response, China sent surveillance ships to warn the Navy to leave the area claimed by both countries, prompting a standoff. The two nations eventually agreed to withdraw their deployed vessels as the arrival of the typhoon season drew near. Following a 3-month standoff between Philippine and Chinese vessels around Scarborough Shoal, China informed the Philippines that Chinese coast guard vessels will remain permanently on the shoal as an integral part of their 'Sansha City' in the Woody island of the Paracels, a separate archipelago disputed by China and Vietnam. Under the control of Hainan Province. the Chinese government plans the island-city to have administrative control over a region that encompasses not only the Paracels, but Macclesfield Bank, a largely sunken atoll to the east, and the Spratly Islands to the south.  The incidents with the Chinese presence in the South China Sea prompted the Philippines to proceed with formal measures while challenging the Chinese activities in some of the sea features in the disputed island chain. Hence, the South China Sea Arbitration Case was filed by the Philippines in 2013 at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS). Reminiscent to what occurred on 1995, the Congress passed the Revised AFP Modernization Act of 2012, this was meant to replace the older AFP Modernization Act of 1995, when the 15-year program expired in 2010. Major naval assets for acquisition under the new AFP modernization program include: 2 frigates, 2 corvettes, 2 strategic sealift vessels (SSV), 6 offshore patrol vessels, missile and other weapon systems upgrade, among others. However, the Navy remains unable to protect other Philippine Reefs that have been reclaimed by the Chinese.

Organization.

The Philippine Navy is administered through the Department of National Defense (DND). Under the AFP structure, the Chief of Staff, AFP (CSAFP), a four-star general/admiral (if the officer is a member of the Philippine Navy), is the most senior military officer. The senior naval officer is the Flag Officer-in-Command (FOIC), usually with a rank of vice admiral. He, along with his or her air force and army counterparts, is junior only to the CSAFP. The FOIC is solely responsible for the administration and operational status of the Navy. The FOIC's counterpart in the U.S. Navy is the Chief of Naval Operations.  Currently, the navy establishment is actually composed of two type commands, the Philippine Fleet and Philippine Marine Corps (PMC). It is further organized into seven naval operational commands, five naval support commands, and seven naval support units. Considering the vastness of the territorial waters that the Navy has to protect and defend, optimal deployment of naval resources is achieved through identification of suitable locations where the presence of these units are capable of delivering responsive services.  The Philippine Fleet, or simply the "Fleet", is under the direct command of the Commander Philippine Fleet while the marine corps is answerable to the commandant, PMC (CPMC). The Flag Officer-In-Command (FOIC) has administrative and operational control over both commands.

Naval Operational Commands.

The seven Naval Operation Commands are as follows:  NAVFORWEM and NAVFOREM were formed in August 2006 when Southern Command was split to allow more effective operations against Islamist and Communist rebels within the region.

Naval Support Commands.

The five Naval Support Commands are as follows:

Naval Sea Systems Command.

The Naval Sea Systems Command (NSSC), formerly known as Naval Support Command (NASCOM), provides quality and integrated naval system support and services in order to sustain the conduct of naval operations. It is the biggest industrial complex of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. It operates the country's military shipyards, develops new technologies for the Navy, and conducts maintenance on all the Navy's ships. NSSC's principal facilities are at the offshore operating base at Muelle de Codo and at Fort San Felipe in Cavite City.

Naval Education, Training and Doctrine Command.

The Naval Education, Training & Doctrine Command (NETDC) is the Philippine Navy's institution of learning. Its mission is to provide education and training to naval personnel so that they may be able to pursue progressive naval careers. NETDC is located in Naval Station Leovigildo Gantioqui, San Antonio, Zambales.

Naval Reserve Command.

The Naval Reserve Command (NAVRESCOM) organizes, trains, and administers all naval reservists (which includes the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps Units midshipmen and midshipwomen). It is responsible for recalling reservists to provide the PN the base for expansion to meet sudden spikes in military manpower demand, as for war, rebellion or natural disaster/calamities and to assist in the socio-economic development of the country. The NAVRESCOM is presently based at Fort Santiago, Manila. It was formerly known as the Home Defense Command.

Naval Combat Engineering Brigade.

The Naval Combat Engineering Brigade (NCEBde), more popularly known as the Seabees, is tasked with combat engineering and amphibious construction in support of Fleet-Marine operations. Naval combat engineers perform tasks such as mobility, counter-mobility, assault, survivability and construction in the conduct of ground combat and amphibious operations. It executes under combat conditions the construction of roads, bridges and other vital infrastructures; the rehabilitation of piers, harbors and beach facilities; and harbor clearing and salvage works. Along with the Philippine Marine Corps, the NCEBde is charged with the manning and security of naval garrisons in shoals and islands located in the West Philippine Sea. The motto of the Seabees is "We build, We fight!"

Naval Installation Command.

The Naval Installation Command (NIC), formerly Naval Base Cavite, provides support services to the Philippine Navy and other AFP tenant units in the base complex, such as refueling, re-watering, shore power connections, berthing, ferry services, tugboat assistance, sludge disposal services and housing.

Naval support units.

The 9 Naval Support Units are as follows:

Equipment.

Ships.

The names of commissioned ships of the Philippine Navy are prefixed with the letters "BRP", designating ""Barko ng Republika ng Pilipinas"" (Ship of the Republic of the Philippines). The names of ships are often selected to honor important people and places. The Philippine Navy is currently operating 115 ships as follows:

Aircraft.

The Naval Air Group has 25 naval air assets. It prepares and provides these forces for naval operations with assets mainly for maritime reconnaissance and support missions. Its headquarters is located at Danilo Atienza Air Base, Cavite City. It has four units which operates several variant of aircraft: 32nd Maritime Patrol and Reconnaissance Squadron (Beechcraft King Air C-90), Naval Aviation Squadron MF-30 (BN-2A Islander), Naval Aviation Squadron MH-40 (AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat, AgustaWestland AW109E Power, and MBB Bo 105C) and Naval Air School Center NATS-50 (Cessna Skyhawk 172M and Robinson R22 Beta II).

The Philippine Navy (PN; Filipino: Hukbong Dagat ng Pilipinas; Spanish: Fuerza Naval de Filipinas) is the naval warfare service branch of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. It has an estimated strength of 25,000 active service personnel, including the 9,500-strong Philippine Marine Corps. It operates 115 ships and 25 aircraft. It shares the responsibility of patrolling the maritime borders with the Philippine Coast Guard, a formerly attached unit which became a separate maritime law enforcement agency in 1998.

La marine philippine (Tagalog : "Hukbóng Dagat ng Pilipinas" ) est la composante navale des forces armées des Philippines. Elle emploie en 2012 environ et femmes, pour un tonnage de. Depuis 2012, elle connait une importante modernisation qui se poursuivra jusqu'en 2020 (comme prévu dans le Modernization Act, loi adoptée le durant le mandat du président Benigno Aquino III).


Phase à élimination directe de la Coupe du monde de football 2014

Qualified teams.

The top two placed teams from each of the eight groups qualified for the knockout stage.

Round of 16.

Brazil vs Chile.

The two teams had met in 68 previous matches, including three times in the FIFA World Cup knockout stage, all won by Brazil (1962, semi-finals: 4–2; 1998, round of 16: 4–1; 2010, round of 16: 3–0).  Brazil opened the scoring when from a corner when David Luiz turned Thiago Silva's flick-on into the net with his thigh. While replays suggested that Chilean defender Gonzalo Jara may have had the last touch, FIFA later confirmed that the goal was scored by Luiz, not Jara. Chile equalised when Hulk lost possession after a throw-in in his own half, Eduardo Vargas stole the ball and passed to Alexis Sánchez to score.  In the second half, Hulk's goal was disallowed as Howard Webb adjudged that the player used his arm in bringing down the ball and gave him a yellow card instead. Chances were few after that with Brazil dominating possession with Hulk forcing Claudio Bravo into a decent save, and the match went to extra time. The best chance of extra time came in the last seconds as Mauricio Pinilla's shot hit the crossbar. In the resulting penalty shootout, the score was tied 2–2 after four rounds, with Brazil goalkeeper Júlio César saving from Pinilla and Sánchez, while Willian missed and Hulk's shot was saved by Bravo. In the fifth round, Neymar scored his penalty, meaning Chile had to score, but Jara's shot hit the inside of the post. Brazil advanced to the quarter-finals to face Colombia.  The result meant that in all four World Cups where Chile qualified for the knockout stage, they were eliminated by Brazil.

Colombia vs Uruguay.

The two teams had met in 38 previous matches, including in the 1962 FIFA World Cup group stage, won 2–1 by Uruguay. Their most recent meetings were in the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers, with both teams winning at home, Colombia winning 4–0 and Uruguay winning 2–0. Uruguayan striker Luis Suárez was not in the line-up because of a nine-game ban imposed by FIFA due to a biting incident involving Italian defender Giorgio Chiellini during their final group stage match.  Colombia won 2–0 with both goals from James Rodríguez, the first in the 28th minute, where he controlled Abel Aguilar's headed ball on his chest before volleying left-footed from 25 yards out with the ball going in off the underside of the crossbar, which won the 2014 FIFA Puskás Award later in the year. The second goal, in the 50th minute, was a close-range shot from six yards out after receiving the ball from a header by Juan Cuadrado on the right.  Colombia progressed through to the quarter-finals for the first time in their history, where they would face Brazil.

Netherlands vs Mexico.

The two teams had met in six previous matches, including in the 1998 FIFA World Cup group stage, a 2–2 draw. Mexico midfielder José Juan Vázquez was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards.  Giovani dos Santos opened the scoring for Mexico early in the second half with a left-footed volley from outside the box after gathering a Dutch clearance. Mexico led until the 88th minute, when a Dutch corner was headed back by substitute Klaas-Jan Huntelaar for Wesley Sneijder to equalise with a hard shot from 16 yards. Only a few minutes later, with stoppage time coming to a close, Arjen Robben drew a penalty for the Netherlands after being fouled by Rafael Márquez on the right of the penalty area, which Huntelaar converted into the bottom left corner to win the match for the Netherlands. Netherlands advanced to the quarter-finals to face Costa Rica, while Mexico were eliminated in the round of 16 for the sixth tournament in a row.  The match was the first time in World Cup history where a cooling break was instituted, with temperatures at and humidity levels at 68%.

Costa Rica vs Greece.

The two teams had never met before. This match was Greece's first ever in the FIFA World Cup knockout stage.  Bryan Ruiz opened the scoring in the 52nd minute when Christian Bolaños passed to him and he shot low left-footed from outside the penalty area to the right corner of the net with Greek goalkeeper Orestis Karnezis not moving on his line. Costa Rica were then reduced to 10 men with Óscar Duarte being sent off after picking up a second yellow card. Sokratis Papastathopoulos equalised in injury time shooting into the net from seven yards out after Costa Rica goalkeeper Keylor Navas had saved an initial shot from Theofanis Gekas. No goals were scored in extra time, and the match went to a penalty shoot-out. During the intermission before the penalty shoot-out, the Greek coach Fernando Santos was sent off following a dispute with the referee. In the penalty shoot-out, Navas saved Gekas' shot before Michael Umaña scored the winning penalty for Costa Rica hitting it high to the goalkeeper's right.  This marked the first time that Costa Rica progressed to the quarter-finals in a FIFA World Cup, where they faced the Netherlands.

France vs Nigeria.

The two teams had met in one previous match, in a friendly in 2009, won by Nigeria 1–0.  Paul Pogba had the best chance in the first half but his right foot volley after a cross from the right was saved by Vincent Enyeama. In the second half Yohan Cabaye saw a shot come back off the bar. The opening goal came with 11 minutes to play when Pogba headed into the net after a mistake by Enyeama where he failed to hold onto a corner kick from the left by Mathieu Valbuena. In injury time, France got a second when Joseph Yobo put into his own net under pressure from Antoine Griezmann after a cross from the right by Valbuena.  France advanced to the quarter-finals to face Germany, while Nigeria were eliminated at the round of 16 in all three World Cups where they reached the knockout stage.

Germany vs Algeria.

The two teams had met in two previous matches, including in the 1982 FIFA World Cup group stage, where Algeria defeated West Germany 2–1. This match was Algeria's first ever in the FIFA World Cup knockout stage.  After a goalless 90 minutes, Germany opened the scoring two minutes into extra time, when half-time substitute André Schürrle scored with a left foot back-heel from Thomas Müller's cross from the left. Germany extended the lead in the 120th minute when Mesut Özil converted with his left foot high into the net after Schürrle's shot was blocked on the line, but Algeria pulled one back in injury time when substitute Abdelmoumene Djabou scored with his left foot from six yards after a cross from the right by Sofiane Feghouli.  Germany advanced to the quarter-finals to face France, continuing their streak of reaching the last eight in every World Cup since 1954. Djabou's goal, timed at 120 minutes and 51 seconds, was the latest goal in World Cup history, surpassing Alessandro Del Piero's goal against Germany in 2006, timed at 120 minutes and 32 seconds.

Argentina vs Switzerland.

The two teams had met in six previous matches, including in the 1966 FIFA World Cup group stage, won by Argentina 2–0.  The match went to extra time with Ángel Di María scoring the only goal with two minutes remaining with a side-foot finish from the right of the penalty area after a run and pass from Lionel Messi. Switzerland had a chance to equalise in injury time but Blerim Džemaili headed against the post then prodded the rebound wide. Argentina advanced to the quarter-finals to face Belgium.

Belgium vs United States.

The two teams had met in five previous matches, including one in the 1930 FIFA World Cup group stage won by United States 3–0 and which was one of the two first FIFA World Cup matches to be played. An unofficial friendly between the two teams was scheduled on 12 June 2014 in São Paulo, but was cancelled because of traffic due to the opening ceremony and match. Belgium midfielder Steven Defour was suspended for the match, after being sent off in the last group stage match against South Korea.  In a game dominated by the Belgians, but still goalless through the first 90 minutes thanks to U.S. goalkeeper Tim Howard, U.S. striker Chris Wondolowski missed a great chance in stoppage time from less than five yards out. Thus, the game went to extra time and Belgium took the lead within two minutes. Romelu Lukaku, who came off the bench at the start of extra time, crossed from the right into the penalty area, Matt Besler failed to clear the ball, and Kevin De Bruyne shot low into the far corner from the right of the penalty area. Near the end of extra time first half, De Bruyne's through ball from the right set up Lukaku to extend the lead with a left footed shot to the net. The United States pulled one back early in extra time second half, when substitute Julian Green volleyed in Michael Bradley's lobbed pass with his right foot from near the penalty spot. Minutes later, the U.S. nearly equalised on a set piece routine that saw Clint Dempsey through on goal, but his first touch was too hard and the ball was corralled by Belgian goalkeeper Thibaut Courtois. Belgium held on for the win, and advanced to the quarter-finals to face Argentina.  With Belgium's victory, the 2014 World Cup became the first tournament where all the top teams of the group stage advanced to the quarter-finals. U.S. goalkeeper Tim Howard recorded 15 saves in the match, which was the most saves recorded in a match since FIFA started to keep track of the number of saves in 1966. Julian Green also became the youngest player to score a goal in the 2014 FIFA World Cup.

Quarter-finals.

France vs Germany.

The two teams had met in 25 previous matches, including three times in the FIFA World Cup (1958, third place match: France 6–3 West Germany; 1982 semi-finals: France 3–3 (aet) West Germany, West Germany won 5–4 on penalties; 1986, semi-finals: France 0–2 West Germany).  The only goal came in the 13th minute when Mats Hummels got ahead of his marker Raphaël Varane to head Germany into the lead from ten yards out after a free-kick from Toni Kroos on the left. Karim Benzema had a shot in second half injury time from the left which he hit straight at Manuel Neuer.  Germany advanced to the semi-finals where they would face Brazil. They became the first team to reach four straight World Cup semi-finals, breaking the record of three shared by their predecessor West Germany (1966–1974 and 1982–1990) and Brazil (1970–1978 and 1994–2002). Germany was also guaranteed their 13th top four finish, the most by any nation.

Brazil vs Colombia.

The two teams had met in 25 previous matches, but never in the FIFA World Cup. This was the first time Colombia had reached the quarter-finals of the World Cup. Brazil midfielder Luiz Gustavo was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards.  Brazil took the lead in the 7th minute, when Neymar's corner from the left was turned in from close range by Thiago Silva. They doubled the lead in the 69th minute when David Luiz scored directly from a long-range free kick, side-footing the ball over the wall and into the top-right corner. Colombia reduced the deficit with 10 minutes to go, when James Rodríguez converted a penalty kick low into the left corner and sent the goalkeeper the wrong way. The penalty was awarded after substitute Carlos Bacca was fouled by Brazil goalkeeper Júlio César. Neymar was kneed in the back by Colombia defender Juan Camilo Zúñiga in the 88th minute, which resulted in the striker's withdrawal from the match. Subsequent medical evaluation discovered a fractured vertebra, forcing the Brazilian to miss the remainder of the tournament. Brazil advanced to the semi-final, where they faced Germany.  James's sixth goal of the tournament was enough for him to win the Golden Boot award. He also became the first player to score in his first five career World Cup matches since Peru's Teófilo Cubillas (across the 1970 and 1978 tournaments).

Argentina vs Belgium.

The two teams had met in three previous matches, including twice in the FIFA World Cup (1982, group stage: Argentina 0–1 Belgium; 1986, semi-finals: Argentina 2–0 Belgium). Argentina defender Marcos Rojo was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards.  The only goal of the match was scored by Argentina forward Gonzalo Higuaín in the eighth minute, a powerful shot with his right foot from just inside the penalty area after a pass from Di María was deflected to him by Belgium defender Jan Vertonghen. Higuaín had a chance to extend the lead in the second half, but his shot hit the crossbar. Argentina won 1–0 to advance to the semi-finals, where they would face the Netherlands.

Netherlands vs Costa Rica.

The two teams had never met before. This was the first time Costa Rica had reached the quarter-finals of the World Cup. Costa Rica defender Óscar Duarte was suspended for the match, after being sent off in the round of 16 match against Greece.  After a goalless 90 minutes, which saw Wesley Sneijder's free kick hit the post and Robin van Persie's shot deflected onto the crossbar by Costa Rica defender Yeltsin Tejeda, the match headed to extra time. In the second period, substitute Marco Ureña had a shot saved by Netherlands goalkeeper Jasper Cillessen, while Sneijder had another shot hit the crossbar. In added time at the end of 120 minutes, Dutch manager Louis van Gaal brought on Tim Krul to replace Cillessen. In the subsequent penalty shoot-out, Krul saved from Bryan Ruiz and Michael Umaña, while the Netherlands scored all four of their kicks to advance to the semi-finals, where they would face Argentina.  Uzbek referee Ravshan Irmatov took charge of his ninth World Cup match, breaking the record of most World Cup games officiated, which he previously held jointly with Joël Quiniou of France, Benito Archundia of Mexico, and Jorge Larrionda of Uruguay.

Semi-finals.

Brazil vs Germany.

The two teams had met in 21 previous matches, including in the final of the 2002 FIFA World Cup (their only previous encounter in the tournament's history), won by Brazil 2–0. While Germany kept the same starting line-up as their quarter-final against France, Brazil made two changes: defender and captain Thiago Silva was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards, and was replaced by Dante, while forward Neymar was sidelined after suffering a fractured vertebra in the quarter-final against Colombia, and was replaced by Bernard. Germany took the lead in the 11th minute, Thomas Müller volleying in Toni Kroos's corner. Miroslav Klose scored Germany's second goal, after a passing move saw him set up by Kroos, his first shot was saved by Brazil goalkeeper Júlio César, but he slotted in the rebound. Kroos then scored two quick goals in succession, the first one after Philipp Lahm's cross was missed by Müller, the second one after stealing the ball from Fernandinho and playing a quick one-two with Sami Khedira. Khedira then scored Germany's fourth goal in six minutes, after exchanging passes with Mesut Özil, to give Germany a 5–0 halftime lead. Substitute André Schürrle added two more goals in the second half, first slotting in from Lahm's cross, then scoring via the crossbar after a cut-back from Müller. Brazil scored a consolation goal in the 90th minute, as Oscar received a pass from Marcelo, dribbled inside and scored. Germany reached their eighth World Cup final, a record by any nation, where they would face Argentina, while Brazil had to settle for the third-place play-off against the Netherlands.  The game equalled Brazil's biggest margin of defeat, a 6–0 loss to Uruguay in 1920, and it broke a 62-match home unbeaten streak in competitive matches going back to the 1975 Copa América, where they lost 3–1 to Peru in the same exact stadium of this match. The match also broke many World Cup records: It was Brazil's biggest World Cup defeat (eclipsing their 1998 final loss to France), the biggest defeat by a World Cup host nation (previous record was by three goals), and the biggest margin of victory in a World Cup semi-final (three previous semi-finals ended in 6–1 scorelines).  Klose's goal was his 16th overall throughout his World Cup appearances, allowing him to beat Ronaldo for the record of all-time top scorer in World Cup finals tournaments. Germany's seven goals took their total tally in World Cup history to 223, surpassing Brazil's 221 goals to first place overall.

Netherlands vs Argentina.

The two teams had met in eight previous matches, including four times in the FIFA World Cup: Netherlands won 4–0 in the second group stage of the 1974 FIFA World Cup and 2–1 in the quarter-finals of the 1998 FIFA World Cup, Argentina won 3–1 (after extra time) in the final of the 1978 FIFA World Cup, where as a group stage encounter of the 2006 FIFA World Cup ended in a 0–0 draw.  The Netherlands made one change to their starting line-up from their quarter-final, with Nigel de Jong returning from injury to replace Memphis Depay, while Argentina made two changes, with Marcos Rojo returning from suspension to replace José María Basanta and Enzo Pérez replacing the injured Di María. The match finished 0–0 after extra-time with very little chances as both sides cancelled each other out. In the penalty shoot-out, Sergio Romero saved the first penalty from Ron Vlaar diving to his left and the fifth penalty of the shoot-out from Wesley Sneijder when he dived high to his right. Argentina scored all of their four penalties to win 4–2. Maxi Rodríguez scored the decisive fourth penalty, shooting to Dutch goalkeeper Jasper Cillessen's right to send Argentina into the final, where they would face Germany, while the Netherlands had to settle for the third-place play-off against Brazil.  This was the first World Cup semi-final to end in a goalless draw. Argentina won their fourth World Cup penalty shoot-out, tied with Germany for most wins, and were involved in their fifth World Cup shoot-out, a record for any nation.

Third place play-off.

The two teams had met in 11 previous meetings, including four times in the FIFA World Cup: Netherlands won 2–0 in the second group stage of the 1974 FIFA World Cup and 2–1 in the quarter-finals of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, and Brazil won 3–2 in the quarter-finals of the 1994 FIFA World Cup and 4–2 on penalties after a 1–1 draw (after extra time) in the semi-finals of the 1998 FIFA World Cup.  Brazil made six changes in their starting line-up from their semi-final, while the Netherlands made only two, with Wesley Sneijder, who was originally part of the Dutch starting line-up, replaced by Jonathan de Guzmán after an injury during the pre-match warm-up prevented him from playing. The Netherlands opened the scoring within three minutes, after Robin van Persie converted a penalty kick awarded for a foul on Arjen Robben by Thiago Silva. Daley Blind extended the lead in the 17th minute, scoring after a David Luiz headed clearance fell to him inside the penalty area. Georginio Wijnaldum completed the scoring in second half injury time as he shot home from substitute Daryl Janmaat's cross from the right.  The Netherlands finished third for the first time in their World Cup history. With Michel Vorm's participation (who was substituted into the match in second half injury time), the Netherlands became the first team to use all of their 23 players in a World Cup since the finals squads were expanded from 22 to 23 players in 2002. Brazil, who finished fourth for the second time in World Cup history, conceded a total of 14 goals in the tournament, the most they had ever allowed in a World Cup and also the most conceded by any World Cup hosts. Brazil also became the second team to concede 100 World Cup goals, after Germany. Van Persie's goal was the 100th goal that Brazil have conceded in the FIFA World Cup and made him the 2nd highest Dutch goalscorer with 6 World Cup goals along with Wesley Sneijder, Arjen Robben, Dennis Bergkamp, and Rob Rensenbrink, all before Johnny Rep with 7 World Cup goals. Lastly, since the beginning of the 21st century of the World Cups (first one being in 2002), all four World Cups in 2002, 2006, 2010, and 2014 involved the third-place victors all winning a third-place match with 3 goals.

Final.

The two teams had met in 20 previous matches, including six times in the FIFA World Cup: 1958, group stage: West Germany 3–1 Argentina; 1966, group stage: West Germany 0–0 Argentina; 1986, final: West Germany 2–3 Argentina; 1990, final: West Germany 1–0 Argentina; 2006, quarter-finals: Germany 1–1 Argentina (after extra time, Germany won 4–2 on penalties); 2010 FIFA World Cup, quarter-finals: Germany 4–0 Argentina. Their third final meeting is the most ever in World Cup history, and also tied the record for the most frequent fixture in tournament history, as Brazil vs Sweden and Germany vs Serbia (including Yugoslavia) had also been played seven times in the World Cup.  Both teams initially named unchanged starting line-ups from their semi-finals, but Germany had to make a late change as Sami Khedira injured his calf and was replaced by Christoph Kramer, who was himself substituted in the first half by André Schürrle after a blow to his head. In the first half, Gonzalo Higuaín shot wide after a Toni Kroos's misplaced header fell to him, and also had a goal disallowed for offside. Later, Jérôme Boateng cleared off the line after a Lionel Messi run, and Benedikt Höwedes's header hit the post. In the second half, Argentina's best chance fell to Messi, whose shot went just wide, while Toni Kroos also had a chance for Germany but could not convert. For the third World Cup final in a row, the match went to extra time. In the first half, Schürrle had a shot saved by Sergio Romero, while Rodrigo Palacio's lobbed shot was also unsuccessful. Germany scored the only goal in the second half, as Schürrle ran down the left wing and crossed for substitute Mario Götze, who controlled the ball on his chest and volleyed past Romero.  Germany won their fourth World Cup title, and their first title since German reunification (they won as West Germany in 1954, 1974, and 1990). It was the first time a European team won the tournament in the Americas. For the third tournament in a row, the World Cup was won by a European team, first time for any confederation. Argentina finished as the runners-up for the third time in their history.  A total of 171 goals were scored in the tournament, a joint record along with the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Götze's goal was the 32nd by a substitute, a World Cup record. Including the final, a total of eight matches went to extra time, a joint record along with the 1990 FIFA World Cup.

The knockout stage of the 2014 FIFA World Cup was the second and final stage of the competition, following the group stage. It began on 28 June with the round of 16 and ended on 13 July with the final match of the tournament, held at Estádio do Maracanã, Rio de Janeiro. The top two teams from each group (16 in total) advanced to the knockout stage to compete in a single-elimination tournament. A third-place match was played between the two losing teams of the semi-finals.

Cette page affiche les résultats détaillés de la Coupe du monde de football 2014 à partir des huitièmes de finale jusqu'à la finale.


Popular culture use.

"Underdog" was used in the credits of the 2010 film "Takers". Snooker player Mark Selby has used "Underdog" as his walk-on music. "Underdog" is currently used as the run out music by English League One football teams Colchester United and Peterborough United, until Dave Robertson took over in February 2015, with the first match without "Underdog" being played a 2–0 win over Bradford City. The music also featured in the Carlsberg England team talk advertisement for the 2010 World Cup, as did the band themselves. During the 2011 Rugby League Four Nations, an instrumental version of the song was used as music during video referee decisions. The song was played during the fourth episode of the first series of the BBC Three sitcom "Mongrels". The song, like many other Kasabian tracks, is also used in at least one episode of BBC Two's "Top Gear". It was also used on a highlight video for the 2009 European Grand Prix on the official Formula 1 website.  The song was also featured on an episode of "The World's Strictest Parents" in Australia. "Underdog" has been used by Sony in a commercial for their BRAVIA televisions. The advert also features Real Madrid and Brazilian football player Kaká while he was with his former team AC Milan wearing their home kit.  The track is also included in the 16-track playlist of the 2009 racing simulator "".  The song is part of the soundtrack of car racing game "Asphalt 8".  "Underdog" also features in the background of a scene in "Misfits", season one, episode four.  It was also covered by international superstar Kelly Rowland during her BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge session in 2010.  It was used in the regional competition scene of the 2011 docudrama "Soul Surfer", the true story of Bethany Hamilton.  This song is also used by Cancer Research UK's Race for Life campaign, appearing in television and radio advertisements, and played at the start of each event.  "Underdog" was also used as the entrance music for George Groves in his boxing match against Carl Froch at Wembley Stadium.  An instrumental version of the song is featured in Toyota Australia's television commercial that premiered in July 2016.

Music video.

The music video features a live performance by the band in black and white.

Chart performance.

Following the release of Kasabian's album, "Underdog" managed to enter the UK Singles Chart at number 32. However, on the single's physical release in October 2009, "Underdog" only managed to reach number 45, meaning it failed to beat its original peak of number 32.

"Underdog" is the third single released from the album "West Ryder Pauper Lunatic Asylum" by English band Kasabian. It peaked at number 32 in the UK Singles Chart on the week after the album's release. Despite this, it became a widely popular song.

Le titre a été utilisé dans le cadre d'une publicité pour le téléviseur Sony Bravia avec le joueur de football Kakà.


Early life and stage career.

William Christopher Dowlan was born 1882 in St. Paul, Minnesota, the eldest son of five children of Mary E. ("née" Collins) and William Dowlan, who was a native of Canada and in 1900 was working as a "clerk & driver". Young William grew up in St. Paul, where he received his formal education at Christian Brothers School and where he also developed an early interest in acting and stagecraft. After serving briefly as a soldier in 1900, Dowlan began his decade-long stage career. The trade magazine "Motion Picture News" describes his stage experience in a short "authorized" biography of Dowlan published in 1916:

Film.

In 1912 Dowlan refocused his acting career, turning from the stage to the rapidly expanding entertainment medium of motion pictures. That year he relocated to California and began performing in lead roles as a contract player with the new Universal Film Manufacturing Company, which had just merged with the Nestor Film Company. In fact, Dowlan's initial acting assignments in 1912 were in shorts produced under Universal’s Nestor logo or "brand". Later, after several years of performing before the camera, Dowlan became interested in directing as well, often serving as both actor and director in the same production. The first in a series of films in which he performed those dual roles was the 1915 one-reeler short "Her Mysterious Escort". The next year he retired from acting after performing in and directing "Drugged Waters", which was released in March 1916. The screenplay for that film, like most of Dowlan's productions in this period, was written by his wife Leonora Ainsworth. Soon after the release of "Drugged Waters", both Dowlan and Ainsworth left Universal. He then joined the American Film Company to direct "Youth's Endearing Charm", starring Mary Miles Minter and Harry von Meter. Following the completion of that film in the summer of 1916, he continued to direct for other studios for several more years, until he retired from the film industry in the early 1920s.

Post-film work.

Dowlan's wife Leonora had stopped working as a screenwriter even before William quit directing films. The couple did, though, continue to live in Los Angeles and work together in an entirely new business, that of merchandising women's apparel. By 1930 Dowlan, Ainsworth, and Leonora's 35-year-old daughter Harriet from her previous marriage (long ago adopted by Dowlan) were living in a rented residence at 326 North Palm Drive in "Beverly Hills City". All three members of the family were working then as co-owners or "sales managers" of a shop specializing in "Dresses, underwear and hosiery".

Personal life and death.

Dowlan married Leonora Ainsworth in 1906 and lived in Minnesota before relocating to California in 1912. He died in 1947 at age 65 and was buried next to his wife in Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.

William C. Dowlan (September 21, 1882 – November 6, 1947) was an American stage performer and a film actor and director during the silent era. Most of his directorial projects were done in collaboration with his wife, screenwriter Leonora Ainsworth. Between 1915 and 1917 he and Ainsworth did extensive work together for Universal Film Manufacturing Company in Los Angeles and for the American Film Company at its facilities in Santa Barbara.

William C. Dowlan, parfois cité W. C. Dowlan ou William Dowlan (né le à Saint Paul, au Minnesota et mort le à Los Angeles, en Californie) est un acteur et un réalisateur américain.


Life.

Killigrew was born in Hanworth on 11 February 1613, the fifth and youngest son of Robert Killigrew and his wife Mary Woodhouse. He was the brother of the dramatist Thomas Killigrew and of Elizabeth Killigrew, Viscountess Shannon, mistress of the future Charles II.  He was educated at Cripplegate, London and at Christ Church, Oxford, graduating B.A. 1632, M.A. 1638, D.D. 1642. He served as a chaplain in the army, and subsequently as chaplain to the Duke of York (the future James II), a canon of Westminster Abbey, and rector of Wheathampstead.  At the Restoration, he was appointed almoner to the Duke of York, and Master of the Savoy in 1663. According to some writers the final ruin of the Savoy Hospital was due to Killigrew's "improvidence, greed, and other bad qualities". A bill was passed in 1697 abolishing its privileges of sanctuary. The hospital was leased out in tenements, and the master appropriated the profits; among the leases granted was one (1699) to Henry Killigrew, the patentee of Drury Lane Theatre, for his lodgings in the Savoy, at a rent of 1 shilling per year for forty years. A commission appointed by William III reported that the relief of the poor (the hospital's intended purpose) was being utterly neglected. In 1702, shortly after Killigrew's death, the hospital was dissolved.  A juvenile play of his, "The Conspiracy", was printed surreptitiously in 1638, and in an authenticated version in 1653 as "Pallantus and Eudora".

Family.

He married Judith and had four children:

Henry Killigrew (11 February 1613 – 14 March 1700) was an English clergyman and playwright. He became chaplain and almoner to the Duke of York, and Master of the Savoy after the Restoration.

Henry Killigrew ( - ), dramaturge anglais, était le cinquième et plus jeune fils de et de sa femme Mary, fille de Sir Henry Woodhouse de Kimberley, dans le Norfolk. Il est le jeune frère du dramaturge Thomas Killigrew. Lui-même devint chapelain et aumônier de Jacques II d'Angleterre, alors duc d'York. Après la Restauration, il est nommé maître de l'Hôtel de Savoie. Il a écrit une pièce de théâtre, "The Conspiracy", qui lui vaut d'être rangé parmi les dramaturges élisabéthains.


Biography.

His father was a tax collector for the Customs Service. He displayed an early talent for art, but his father was opposed on the grounds that it would not be a secure way to make a living so, at the age of eleven, he was enrolled at the.  The Institute was not to his liking and he was an indifferent student, so a family friend who was an amateur artist encouraged his father to send him to the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (MSPSA). With a recommendation from Vasily Perov, he began auditing classes there in 1878; studying with Illarion Pryanishnikov and Evgraf Sorokin.  He left there in 1882 to attend the Imperial Academy of Arts. Dissatisfaction with the school's administration and financial difficulties forced him to return to Moscow in 1884. He went back to the MSPSA and graduated in 1885.  At that time he started work on a series of paintings devoted to "", the process of resettling peasants to outlying, vacant areas (mostly in Siberia) in an attempt to ease overcrowding in the villages after the Emancipation reform of 1861. The move was often very arduous and many died on the way. From 1885 to 1889, he toured the provinces of Samara, Saratov, Astrakhan and Orenburg, documenting the migrants' lives. This was followed by a series on convicts. In the mid 1890s, he began to focus on historical works.  In 1899, he became a member of the Peredvizhniki, but was soon dissatisfied with their emphasis on "lovely scenes". In 1903, he was one of the founders of the "" (Union of Russian Artists), temporarily replacing the better-known "Mir Iskusstva". In 1905, the Imperial Academy named him an "Academician". Later that year, during the Moscow Uprising, he made numerous sketches while also helping the wounded.  From 1903 to 1910, he taught at the MSPSA. He was also known as an illustrator; creating drawings for classics by Gogol, Lermontov and Pushkin, among others. He died of a heart attack at his dacha near the Yakhroma River.

Sergey Vasilyevich Ivanov (Russian: Сергей Васильевич Иванов; 1864-1910) was a Russian genre and history painter, known for his Social Realism.

Sergueï Vassilievitch Ivanov (en ), né à Rouza le et mort à Dmitrov (oblast de Moscou) le, est un peintre et graphiste russe.


Contents.

The introduction, bilingual in French and English, is written by editors Viviane Alleton and Michael Lackner. It is titled "De la traduction du chinois dans les langues européennes" in French, and "Introduction. On translating from the Chinese into European languages" in English. Paul W. Kroll, author of a book review for the "Journal of the American Oriental Society", wrote that the grammar of the English version of the introduction is "less than perfect".  The work contains eight essays in English and seven essays in French, with the essays organized into five sections. Each article in French has an abstract in English and each article in English has an abstract in French. The essay authors include academics and researchers. Of the authors of the essays, 9 were from France, 4 were from Germany, and one each were from Italy, Norway, Taiwan, and the United States. Of all of the authors, only one, Andrew H. Plaks, is a native speaker of English.  Kroll wrote that every one of the essays featured in the work has "numerous useful nuggets on particular words and phrases" and that "several" essays "include extensive bibliographies that take account of many little-known works from years and centuries past." Joshua A. Fogel, an author of a book review of this book for "The Journal of Asian Studies", wrote that of the writers, none of them "believes in one-to-one correspondence between source and target texts".

Essays by chapter.

The European game.

The first section, "The European game" ("Le jeu européen des langues"), contains the essays "The Role of Intermediate Languages in Translations from Chinese into German" by Wolfgang Bauer and "Italian Translations of Chinese Literature" by Federico Masini.  Bauer's essay, which has the French title "Le rôle des langues intermédiaires dans les traductions du chinois en allemand", refers to the practice of translating content first into English or French, the "intermediate language", before the text is re-translated into German. In French this kind of re-translation is referred to as ""la belle infidèle"". Bauer wrote that re-translators, in the words of Fogel, "were not tied to the specifics of the original and thus often produced works of enduring beauty in German" while many direct translators "often had great difficulties making their texts sing in French or German". T. H. Barrett, author of a review of this book for the Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, wrote that "English is naturally prominent among" the re-translations. In his essay Bauer wrote that by 2000 English became an "internationalese" that made intermediate language translations obsolete, and that therefore there had been little attention paid to the intermediate languages. Bauer referred to how there were far more Chinese translators that were based out of North America compared to a small number some Chinese intellectuals who translate into non-English languages. Barrett wrote that this essay was "masterful". Fogel also wrote that the authors of the pieces of the book are no longer "willing to settle for "belle infidèles", although, as the term implies, one can recognize their merits."  Masini's essay, titled in French as "Les traductions italiennes de littérature chinoise", explores translations of Chinese works into Italian.

The personalities of translators.

The second section, "The personalities of translators" ("Des traducteurs d'envergure"), contains "Literary Translations of the Classical Lyric and Drama of China in the First Half of the 20th Century: The 'Case' of Vincenz Hundhausen (1878-1955)" by Lutz Bieg, "Richard Wilhelm, a 'Sinicized' German Translator" by Michael Lackner, "Slow Poison or Magic Carpet: The Du Fu Translations by Erwin Ritter von Zach" by Monika Motsch, "Le marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys et les traductions littéraires: À propos d'un texte traduit par lui et retraduit par d'autres" by Angel Pino and Isabelle Rabut.  Bieg's essay, which has the French title "Traductions de théâtre et de poésie chinoise classique dans la première moitié du xx siècle", is about Vincenz Hundhausen, a German translator of Chinese drama, poetry, and prose. Bieg believes that Hundhausen's works are, in the words of Fogel, "among the best produced in his Generation." Lackner's essay, with the French title "Richard Wilhelm, un traducteur allemand « sinisé »?", discusses Richard Wilhelm. Motsch's essay, titled in French as "Poison lent ou tapis volant. Les traductions de Du Fu par Erwin Ritter von Zach", explores Erwin Ritter von Zach's translations of poetry written by Du Fu. Pino and Rabut's essay, which has the English title "The marquis D’Hervey-Saint-Denys and literary translations", is about Marie-Jean-Léon, Marquis d'Hervey de Saint Denys. Fogel wrote that Pino and Rabut "offer an extremely detailed analysis of D'Hervey as translator, looking closely at the principles of translation and how he applied them."

The translator speaks.

The third section, "The translator speaks" ("Le traducteur parle"), discusses translators contemporary to the time of the book's publication. This section contains "Traduction terminable et interminable" by Jacques Dars and "La passion de traduire" by André Lévy. Both authors were recognized translators in Europe.  Dars' essay, titled "Terminable and interminable translation" in English, discusses the process of attempting to make a translation definitive. He compares it to psychoanalysis. Lévy's essay, which has the English title "The passion for translation", discusses the motivations of translators.

The versatilities of translations.

The fourth section, "The versatilities of translations" ("Les aléas des textes"), contains essays discussing issues in particular translations. The section includes "On "Mengxi bitan"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s World of Marginalities and 'South-pointing Needles': Fragment Translation vs. Contextual Tradition" by Daiwie Fu, "Si c'était à refaire...ou: de la difficulté de traduire ce que Confucius n'a pas dit" by Anne Cheng, and "Authorital Presence in Some Pre-Buddhist Chinese Texts" by Christophe Harbsmeier.  Daiwie Fu's essay, titled "A propos de monde de la marginalité dans le "Mengxi Bitan" et des « aiguilles pointant vers le sud »" in French, states, as paraphrased by Yu Xiuying (), a professor of the French language at Nanjing University and an author of a book review for "Babel", that European translators such as Joseph Needham have inevitable degradation of their texts because they use "taxonomic conception in their choice of fragments to render and their manner of doing it". The essay uses "Dream Pool Essays" ("Mengxi bitan") as a case study. Fogel wrote that Daiwie Fu's essay shows the importance of translating "contextually to see how the original authors conceived of their own entire system of thought" instead of translating "fragments of works with the aim of some putative universal scheme". The Daiwie Fu essay criticizes Joseph Needham. The Anne Cheng essay, titled "If it were to be redone... or: on the difficulty of translating what Confucius did not say" in English, discusses a phrase from "Analects" ("Lunyu"), "" (). She analyzes the way thirty translations of "Analects" translate that sentence. The essay does not have information on the Brooks translation, which was more recent. Barrett wrote that Cheng's essay was "authoritative" and that it "shows a fine appreciation of 'un pragmatisme tout brittanique' in the work of Raymond Dawson". The Harbsmeier essay, titled "Présence d’un auteur dans quelques textes chinois pré-bouddhiques" in French, discusses pre-Qin Dynasty texts' usage of the grammatical first person, and therefore their authorial presence. Barrett wrote that Harbsmeier's essay "appends some valuable additions to Michael Loewe's 1993 bibliographical guide".

Words and polysemy.

The fifth section, "Words and polysemy" ("Rémunérer la deefaillance des mots"), discusses polysemy and issues in translating from Chinese that appear in four genres. It includes "Problèmes d'indéterminations sémantiques dans la traduction de textes philosophiques" by, "Noms de plantes asiatiques dans les langues européennes. Essai en forme de vade-mecum" by Georges Métailié, "Traduire ou transcrire les noms de personnages : incidences sur la lecture" by Yinde Zhang (), and "The mean, nature and self-realization. European translations of the "Zhongyong"" by Andrew Plaks.  Jean Levi's essay, titled "Problems of semantic indetermination in the translation of philosophical texts" in English, discusses the "semantic plasticity" that is a core component of philosophical texts from Ancient China and how "semantic plasticity" complicates translation. He argues that, as paraphrased by Fogel, "as long as the translation does not attempt perfection, it will succeed if it conveys a feel for the original." The Métailié essay, which has the English title "Translations of Asian plant names into European languages", discusses issues with translating plant names from the Chinese and Japanese languages into European languages. Yinde Zhang's essay, titled "Translating or transcribing the names of literary characters?" in English, discusses the transcribing and translating names of characters within modern Chinese fiction, and the essay compares the different efforts to accomplish the tasks. The Plaks essay, titled in French as "Le milieu, la nature et la réalisation de soi Traductions européennes du "Zhongyong"", argues that since the text of the "Doctrine of the Mean" ("Zhongyong") is "too easy", this factor is, as paraphrased by Fogel, a "major impediment" to translation.

Reception.

Barrett concluded that "every British student interested in the Chinese humanities should be familiar with the contents of this book."  Kroll wrote that in this book "most of the authors are more concerned with discussing matters of historical fact, context, and development than demonstrating their own translation skills" so therefore the emphasis of the book is skewed "more toward information than opinion" and that the articles "are of more than usual interest and value".  Fogel concluded that "On the whole, these essays offer a refreshing look in the theoretical, as well as practical, as seen through the eyes of real translators."  Yu Xiuying wrote that the work was of high quality as a reference book or a "simply pleasant book" ("un livre simplement plaisant") and that the book would be a considerable service ("service considérable") to specialized translators.

De l'un au multiple: Traductions du chinois vers les langues européennes Translations from Chinese into European Languages ("From one into many: Translations from the Chinese to the European languages") is an academic book in French and English with essays about translations of Chinese into European languages. It was published in 1999 by the Éditions de la MSH,, and edited by Viviane Alleton and Michael Lackner. The introduction states that the purpose of this work is to examine specific issues in translation from Chinese to European languages and from the Chinese culture to Western cultures, instead of promoting a new theory regarding translation.

De l'un au multiple. Traductions du chinois vers les langues européennes. Translations from Chinese into European Languages est un livre académique en français et anglais sur les traductions du chinois vers les langues européennes. Les éditeurs sont Viviane Alleton et Michael Lackner. Il a été publié par éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme en 1999.


Method.

HRM analysis is performed on double stranded DNA samples. Typically the user will use polymerase chain reaction (PCR) prior to HRM analysis to amplify the DNA region in which their mutation of interest lies. In the sample tube there are now many copies of the DNA region of interest. This region that is amplified is known as the amplicon. After the PCR process the HRM analysis begins. The process is simply a precise warming of the amplicon DNA from around 50 ̊C up to around 95 ̊C. At some point during this process, the melting temperature of the amplicon is reached and the two strands of DNA separate or "melt" apart.  The key to HRM is to monitor this separation of strands in real-time. This is achieved by using a fluorescent dye. The dyes that are used for HRM are known as intercalating dyes and have a unique property. They bind specifically to double-stranded DNA and when they are bound they fluoresce brightly. In the absence of double stranded DNA they have nothing to bind to and they only fluoresce at a low level. At the beginning of the HRM analysis there is a high level of fluorescence in the sample because of the billions of copies of the amplicon. But as the sample is heated up and the two strands of the DNA melt apart, presence of double stranded DNA decreases and thus fluorescence is reduced. The HRM machine has a camera that watches this process by measuring the fluorescence. The machine then simply plots this data as a graph known as a melt curve, showing the level of fluorescence vs the temperature:

Comparison of melt curves.

The melting temperature of the amplicon at which the two DNA strands come apart is entirely predictable. It is dependent on the sequence of the DNA bases. If you are comparing two samples from two different people, they should give exactly the same shaped melt curve. However, if one person has a mutation in the DNA region you have amplified, then this will alter the temperature at which the DNA strands melt apart. So now the two melt curves appear different. The difference may only be tiny, perhaps a fraction of a degree, but because the HRM machine has the ability to monitor this process in "high resolution", it is possible to accurately document these changes and therefore identify if a mutation is present or not.

Wild type, heterozygote or homozygote?

Things become slightly more complicated than this because organisms contain two (or more) copies of each gene, known as the two alleles. So, if a sample is taken from a patient and amplified using PCR both copies of the region of DNA (alleles) of interest are amplified. So if we are looking for mutation there are now three possibilities:  These three scenarios are known as "Wild–type", "Heterozygote" or "Homozygote" respectively. Each gives a melt curve that is slightly different. With a high quality HRM assay it is possible to distinguish between all three of these scenarios.  Homozygous allelic variants may be characterised by a temperature shift on the resulting melt curve produced by HRM analysis. In comparison, heterozygotes are characterised by changes in melt curve shape. This is due to base-pair mismatching generated as a result of destabilised heteroduplex annealing between wild-type and variant strands. These differences can be easily seen on the resulting melt curve and the melt profile differences between the different genotypes can be amplified visually via generating a difference curve

Applications.

SNP typing/Point mutation detection.

Conventional SNP typing methods are typically time-consuming and expensive, requiring several probe based assays to be multiplexed together or the use of DNA microarrays. HRM is more cost-effective and reduces the need to design multiple pairs of primers and the need to purchase expensive probes. The HRM method has been successfully used to detect a single G to A substitution in the gene Vssc (Voltage Sensitive Sodium Channel) which confers resistance to the acaricide permethrin in Scabies mite. This mutation results in a coding change in the protein (G1535D). The analysis of scabies mites collected from suspected permethrin susceptible and tolerant populations by HRM showed distinct melting profiles. The amplicons from the sensitive mites were observed to have a higher melting temperature relative to the tolerant mites, as expected from the higher thermostability of the GC base pair  In a field more relevant to clinical diagnostics, HRM has been shown to be suitable in principle for the detection of mutations in the breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1 and BRCA2. More than 400 mutations have been identified in these genes.The sequencing of genes is the gold standard for identifying mutations. Sequencing is time-consuming and labour-intensive and is often preceded by techniques used to identify heteroduplex DNA, which then further amplify these issues. HRM offers a faster and more convenient closed-tube method of assessing the presence of mutations and gives a result which can be further investigated if it is of interest. In a study carried out by Scott et al. in 2006, 3 cell lines harbouring different BRCA mutations were used to assess the HRM methodology. It was found that the melting profiles of the resulting PCR products could be used to distinguish the presence or absence of a mutation in the amplicon. Similarly in 2007 Krypuy et al. showed that the careful design of HRM assays (with regards to primer placement) could be successfully employed to detect mutations in the TP53 gene, which encodes the tumour suppressor protein p53 in clinical samples of breast and ovarian cancer. Both these studies highlighted the fact that changes in the melting profile can be in the form of a shift in the melting temperature or an obvious difference in the shape of the melt curve. Both of these parameters are a function of the amplicon sequence. The consensus is that HRM is a cost efficient method that can be employed as an initial screen for samples suspected of harbouring polymorphisms or mutations. This would reduce the number of samples which need to be investigated further using more conventional methods.

Zygosity testing.

Currently there are many methods used to determine the zygosity status of a gene at a particular locus. These methods include the use of PCR with specifically designed probes to detect the variants of the genes (SNP typing is the simplest case). In cases where longer stretches of variation is implicated, post PCR analysis of the amplicons may be required. Changes in enzyme restriction, electrophoretic and chromatographic profiles can be measured. These methods are usually more time-consuming and increase the risk of amplicon contamination in the laboratory, due to the need to work with high concentrations of amplicons in the lab post-PCR. The use of HRM reduces the time required for analysis and the risk of contamination. HRM is a more cost-effective solution and the high resolution element not only allows the determination of homo and heterozygosity, it also resolves information about the type of homo and heterozygosity, with different gene variants giving rise to differing melt curve shapes. A study by Gundry et al. 2003, showed that fluorescent labelling of one primer (in the pair) has been shown to be favourable over using an intercalating dye such as SYBR green I. However, progress has been made in the development and use of improved intercalating dyes which reduce the issue of PCR inhibition and concerns over non-saturating intercalation of the dye.

Epigenetics.

The HRM methodology has also been exploited to provide a reliable analysis of the methylation status of DNA. This is of significance since changes to the methylation status of tumour suppressor genes, genes that regulate apoptosis and DNA repair, are characteristics of cancers and also have implications for responses to chemotherapy. For example, cancer patients can be more sensitive to treatment with DNA alkylating agents if the promoter of the DNA repair gene "MGMT" of the patient is methylated. In a study which tested the methylation status of the "MGMT" promoter on 19 colorectal samples, 8 samples were found to be methylated. Another study compared the predictive power of "MGMT" promoter methylation in 83 high grade glioma patients obtained by either MSP, pyrosequencing, and HRM. The HRM method was found to be at least equivalent to pyrosequencing in quantifying the methylation level.  Methylated DNA can be treated by bi-sulphite modification, which converts non-methylated cytosines to uracil. Therefore, PCR products resulting from a template that was originally unmethylated will have a lower melting point than those derived from a methylated template. HRM also offers the possibility of determining the proportion of methylation in a given sample, by comparing it to a standard curve which is generated by mixing different ratios of methylated and non-methylated DNA together. This can offer information regarding the degree of methylation that a tumour may have and thus give an indication of the character of the tumour and how far it deviates from what is "normal".  HRM also is practically advantageous for use in diagnostics, due to its capacity to be adapted to high throughput screening testing, and again it minimises the possibility of amplicon spread and contamination within a laboratory, owing to its closed-tube format.

Intercalating dyes.

To follow the transition of dsDNA (double-stranded) to ssDNA (single-stranded), intercalating dyes are employed. These dyes show differential fluorescence emission dependent on their association with double-stranded or single-stranded DNA. SYBR Green I is a first generation dye for HRM. It fluoresces when intercalated into dsDNA and not ssDNA. Because it may inhibit PCR at high concentrations, it is used at sub-saturating concentrations. Recently, some researchers have discouraged the use of SYBR Green I for HRM, claiming that substantial protocol modifications are required. This is because it is suggested that the lack of accuracy may result from "dye jumping", where dye from a melted duplex may get reincorporated into regions of dsDNA which had not yet melted. New saturating dyes such as LC Green and LC Green Plus, ResoLight, EvaGreen, Chromofy and SYTO 9 are available on the market and have been used successfully for HRM. However, some groups have successfully used SYBR Green I for HRM with the Corbett Rotorgene instruments and advocate the use of SYBR Green I for HRM applications.

Design of high-resolution melting experiments.

High resolution melting assays typically involve qPCR amplification followed by a melting curve collected using a fluorescent dye. Due to the sensitivity of high-resolution melting analysis, it is necessary to carefully consider PCR cycling conditions, template DNA quality, and melting curve parameters. For accurate and repeatable results, PCR thermal cycling conditions must be optimized to ensure that the desired DNA region is amplified with high specificity and minimal bias between sequence variants. The melting curve is typically performed across a broad range of temperatures in small (~0.3 °C) increments that are long enough (~10 seconds) for the DNA to reach equilibrium at each temperature step.  In addition to typical primer design considerations, the design of primers for high-resolution melting assays involves maximizing the thermodynamic differences between PCR products belonging to different genotypes. Smaller amplicons generally yield greater melting temperature variation than longer amplicons, but the variability cannot be predicted by eye. For this reason, it is critical to accurately predict the melting curve of PCR products when designing primers that will distinguish sequence variants. Specialty software, such as uMelt and DesignSignatures, are available to help design primers that will maximize melting curve variability specifically for high-resolution melting assays.

High Resolution Melt (HRM) analysis is a powerful technique in molecular biology for the detection of mutations, polymorphisms and epigenetic differences in double-stranded DNA samples. It was discovered and developed by Idaho Technology and the University of Utah. It has advantages over other genotyping technologies, namely:

L'analyse des courbes de fusion à haute résolution, ou High Resolution Melt (HRM) est une technique de biologie moléculaire permettant la détection de mutations, de polymorphisme génétique et de différences épigénétiques dans des échantillons d'ADN double brin. Elle a été découverte et développée par Idaho Technology à l'Université d'Utah. Elle présente divers avantages par rapport aux autres techniques de génotypage :


Synopsis.

"The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" is a third-person omniscient narrative with moments of unreliable interior monologue presented mainly through the points of view of the two leading, male characters, Francis Macomber and Robert Wilson, professional hunter and guide. Francis and his wife, Margot, are on a big-game safari in generalized Africa. Earlier, Francis had panicked when a wounded lion charged him, and Margot mocks Macomber for this act of cowardice. Wilson is critical of Macomber, presented in interior monologue, but outwardly tries to shepherd Macomber toward a more accepted "code" practiced by experienced hunters. This is Francis' thirty-five-year-old "coming of age" story.  In flashback, we experience Francis' cowardly run from his wounded and charging lion. We also learn of Margot's adultery, punctuated by sleeping with Wilson the night after Francis' cowardly run. Wilson both kills Francis' wounded lion and has sex with his unhappy wife. Macomber both hates and needs Wilson in spite of this. As Wilson puts it, this is Francis' chance to come of age, to become a man. Note: Throughout the narrative, both Francis and Wilson have repeated moments of interior monologue; internal and highly critical thoughts about each other and Margot are repeatedly expressed. Rarely is Margot given an internal monologue, and when it is allowed, it blurs with the narrator’s. Her motivations are more often narrated by Wilson, who thinks very little of her, except for her beauty, choosing a man she can control and her sexuality when she is quiet. Her spoken dialogue is often condescending and minimized by both Macomber and Wilson. Like the trophy prey they hunt, Margot's expressiveness is cast by her audibility and visuality. Margot’s characterization centers on the “femme-fatale” paradigm—the beautiful, sexual, adulterous and murdering wife. Ironic, as she is Francis’ trophy wife and married Francis for his wealth.  The next day the party hunts buffalo. Macomber and Wilson hunt together and shoot three buffalo. Two of the buffalo are killed, but the first is only wounded and retreats into the bush. Macomber now feels confident. All three drink whisky in celebration. Margot shows anger for Francis' kill and transition from fear into confidence. Wilson senses a shift in her viewpoint toward her husband: in his point of view, she now fears her husband's growing confidence. Wilson is proud of Francis and feels his job is done. He has helped Francis stand up to his adulterous wife and has helped him kill a buffalo. At no time does Wilson take responsibility for his part in the adultery. He provides a double cot in his tent in order to provide better service to women who feel a safari is not complete without sleeping with the "great white hunter"; he is merely satisfying men and women's glorification of him as "the white hunter." The gun-bearers report that the first buffalo has not died and has gone into the tall grass. Wilson refocuses on Macomber and helps him track the wounded buffalo, paralleling the circumstances of the previous day's lion hunt. Macomber, however, is confident this time, courageous. Wilson is, again, proud.  When they find the buffalo, it charges Macomber. He stands his ground and fires at it, but his shots are too high. Wilson fires at the beast as well, but it keeps charging. At the same time, Margot fires a shot from the car, which hits Macomber in the skull and kills him, as narrated by the omniscient narrator: “... and Mrs. Macomber, in the car, had shot at the buffalo with the 6.5 Mannlicher as it seemed about to gore Macomber and had hit her husband about two inches up and a little to one side of the base of his skull...”

Publication history.

"The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" was first published in the September 1936 issue of "Cosmopolitan" and later published in "The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories" (1938).

Major themes.

The essence of "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" is courage. Looking at the opposite, Mellow describes this story as “one of Hemingway’s classic studies of fear”. Macomber hears the roar of a lion and becomes unnerved because he has never “heard, as Hemingway pointedly states, the Somali proverb that says, ‘a brave man is always frightened three times by a lion’”, “A brave man is always frightened three times by a lion: when he first sees his track, when he first hears him roar, when he first confronts him”. Hemingway explains, Macomber is afraid of the lion’s roar and unnerved by his fear because “he did not know the Somali proverb.”  Wilson has courage but Macomber, who is afraid of lions, has none. When the cowardly husband, whose wife made her way from Wilson's tent hours before, finds the courage to face the charging buffalo, he forges the identity he wants: the courage to face both wild animals and his wife. Tragically, Macomber's happiness is measured in hours, and indeed even in minutes. Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker claims that Macomber loses his fear as the buffalo charges, and the loss of fear ushers Macomber into manhood, which Margot instantly kills.  Baker believes Wilson symbolizes the man free of woman (because he refuses to allow Margot to dominate him) or of fear; the man Macomber wishes to be. Wilson understands, as he blasts the lion dead, that Margot is a woman who needs to be dominated. Jeffrey Meyers considers Margot Macomber to be the villain of the story. She characterises "a predatory (rather than a passive) female who is both betrayer and murderer"; and she emphasizes the connection between "shooting and sex."  Francis Macomber has lived most of his adult life under the manipulative and domineering influence of Margot. He cannot bring himself to face her and assert his leadership in their marriage, allowing her to step all over him. The text implies that the affair with Wilson is not the first time Margot has cheated on her husband. Macomber, fleeing from the lion, is unimpressive when compared with Wilson, the seasoned hunter and safari-veteran, cool and collected in the face of danger.  The loss of Macomber’s manhood in the encounter with the lion mirrors the blow he takes when Margot blatantly cheats on him. This appears to be the last straw, pushing him over the edge. Macomber translates his fury into the intensity of the hunt. He experiences rising confidence and bravery during the hunt, as he seeks to take back the manhood he has lost, or perhaps never had.  This transformation is highlighted by various symbols. The story opens with Macomber's offering the group “lime juice or lemon squash". But at the end of the buffalo hunt, he and Wilson toast their success in whiskey. Macomber has progressed from a timid rabbit drinking juice, to a hunter, downing more masculine hard liquor.  Hemingway also employs animals to carry the symbolism of "The Short Happy Life". Macomber is referenced as a rabbit several times, and one of his kills is described as one of “the big cowy things that jump like hares". His conquests are gentle animals, easily frightened. In contrast, Margot is described as “predatory", like a lion. The comparison to Macomber’s cowardice during the hunt is clear: Macomber the rabbit runs from his wife, a lion. The gaining of courage involves Macomber's feeling hot rage, an experience associated with the lion. Finally, Macomber lies dead, mirroring the posture of the buffalo he has shot. Wilson compliments the dead creature as a “hell of a good bull", implying that Macomber is finally worthy of respect by right of the beast he has conquered.  Margot is disturbed by Macomber’s suddenly gained confidence and assertion of his manhood, feeling her position of dominance threatened. His exhilaration after the buffalo hunt unnerves her. But with Macomber’s transition from boy to man comes death. Hemingway offers his perspective on happiness here: however brief, even a moment of confident happiness is enough to make one’s life worthwhile.  It is no coincidence that Margot is the one who kills him. There is an unresolved debate as to whether she murdered Macomber or accidentally killed him. If she purposefully shoots him, she has preserved her dominance in the relationship and ensures that she will keep his wealth (presumably the only reason they married in the first place).  If the shot is accidental, the moment actually becomes quite tender, as well as tragic. She has just observed her husband become a man, and even though she fears how their relationship will change, she is suddenly invigorated with energy to start afresh. Margot picks up the gun to defend her husband, trying to save him in the face of danger. For once in their lives, husband and wife are both on the same side, shooting at the same bull. It is tragically ironic, of course, as she kills the man she is trying to save, but such is Hemingway’s commentary on life. The good things we gain are the sweetest, and the most short-lived.  A third interpretation of Margot’s shot is that she is trying to regain dominance over her husband by killing the bull herself. If this is the case, she wins back her power, but ironically, she destroys the thing she is trying to control. The bullet accomplishes exactly what she was trying to avoid.

Reception.

"The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" has been acclaimed as one of Hemingway's most successful artistic achievements. This is largely due to the ambiguous complexity of its characters and their motivations, and the debate this ambiguity has generated. In the estimation of critic Kenneth G. Johnston, "the prevailing critical view is that she deliberately—or at best, 'accidentally on purpose'—murdered him", but there are many, including Johnston himself, who hold the opposite view.  Hemingway scholar Carlos Baker calls Margot Macomber "easily the most unscrupulous of Hemingway's fictional females"; a woman "who is really and literally deadly" and who "covets her husband's money but values even more her power over him." Literary critic and early mentor to Hemingway Edmund Wilson observed bluntly, “The men in...these African stories are married to American bitches of the most soul-destroying sort.” Other authors who hold similar views regarding Margot include Philip Young, Leslie A. Fiedler and Frank O'Connor (see below).  A related point that has been widely debated is whether Hemingway intended the reader to view Robert Wilson as a heroic figure, embodying Hemingway's ideal of the courageous, hyper-masculine male. Critics who argue for Margot's innocence are especially likely to question this positive view of Wilson. It is through Wilson's words that Margot's intentions are questioned, notably when he asks after the shooting "Why didn't you poison him? That's what they do in England." If Wilson is intended to be the story's voice of morality, then this implied accusation is damning. But if Wilson is a less-perfect character himself, then his judgment of Margot is suspect. Some critics have noted that Wilson chases down the buffalo in a car, violating the law and perhaps also Hemingway's code of fairness in hunting. Kenneth G. Johnston argues that Wilson "has much to gain by making Mrs. Macomber believe that the death of her husband could be construed as murder," since he could lose his license if Margot accurately described Wilson's use of the car in the buffalo hunt.  In "The Lonely Voice: A Study of the Short Story," author and literary critic Frank O'Connor, though generally an admirer of Hemingway, gives one of the most colorful and uncharitable summations of "The Short Happy Life": Francis runs away from a lion, which is what most sensible men would do if faced by a lion, and his wife promptly cuckolds him with the English manager of their big-game hunting expedition. As we all know, good wives admire nothing in a husband except his capacity to deal with lions, so we can sympathize with the poor woman in her trouble. But next day Macomber, faced with a buffalo, suddenly becomes a man of superb courage, and his wife, recognizing that[...] for the future she must be a virtuous wife, blows his head off. [...] To say that the psychology of this story is childish would be to waste good words. As farce it ranks with "Ten Nights in a Bar Room" or any other Victorian morality you can think of. Clearly, it is not the working out of a personal problem that for the vast majority of men and women has no validity whatever.

"The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" is a short story by Ernest Hemingway. Set in Africa, it was published in the September 1936 issue of "Cosmopolitan" magazine concurrently with "The Snows of Kilimanjaro". The story was eventually adapted to the screen as the Zoltan Korda film "The Macomber Affair" (1947).

L'Heure triomphale de Francis Macomber ("") est une nouvelle d'Ernest Hemingway, parue dans "Cosmopolitan", en septembre 1936, et reprise en volume deux ans plus tard chez Scribner, à New York.


Plot.

At age 28, plain and bookish Lina McLaidlaw lives a life of boredom with her retired parents in an English village. Her prettier sister has married a rising writer, but Lina never meets any men she could accept until the arrival of charming Johnnie Aysgarth, from an impoverished and disreputable family. Her father is opposed to a marriage, and everyone seems to know that all Johnnie is after is Lina's money.  However they are soon married, enjoy a long and expensive honeymoon abroad, and return to a large country house that Johnny has acquired and extravagantly furnished. When Lina wonders how the jobless Johnnie has met all this outlay, and what he expects to live on, he eventually admits that he borrowed everything. Gradually the more level-headed Lina takes charge of the family finances, relying on an allowance from her father, and pushes Johnnie into finding a job. He gains a good post nearby, managing the country estate of a distant relation, while she looks after their house. She would like a baby, but never falls pregnant.  After the first shock of discovering Johnnie's huge debt, and the fact that he lied, other shocks keep arriving. She discovers that he is a practised thief, stealing jewelry from a guest and from her to sell. Her inherited furniture also starts disappearing, until she tracks some of it to an antique shop. He is a forger, putting her signature on cheques. Worse, he is sacked from his job for embezzling money.  Most of his takings are placed on horses, for he is an unrepentant gambler, while some are used for another pastime. Any number of local wives and daughters have had affairs with him, for which he rents a flat in a nearby town, and one of their servants has a son by him. When all this comes into the open, the childless Lina at last leaves to stay with her sister in London. There she is introduced at a party to an affectionate unmarried artist, who wants her to get a divorce and marry him. But Lina refuses to sleep with him, instead returning to her purgatory with Johnnie.  Johnnie meanwhile has been plotting new ways of raising money. Going with Lina to her parents for Christmas, after dinner he gets her father to perform a trick which is too much for the old man's weak heart. His death means that Lina comes into her inheritance and Johnnie thus has access to improved means. Later, he cons an old school friend into backing a property development and, taking his gullible partner to Paris, on a visit to a brothel pours so much brandy into him that the man dies. The money he had invested remains in Johnnie's hands.  In Johnnie's view, neither of these events counts as murder. His big project will be to murder Lina, collect her money and insurance, and not be detected. In this he is aided by Isobel Sedbusk, a writer of crime stories, who often visits their village and enjoys discussing foolproof ways of getting rid of people. She tells Johnnie that there is a common chemical which is tasteless if mixed in milk, kills instantly, and leaves no trace in the body.  Lina is driven increasingly desperate by Johnnie's interest in murder, accentuated by discovering that after years of marriage she seems to be pregnant. When she falls ill with flu, Johnnie mounts the stairs with a glass of milk which she deliberately drinks.

About the story.

The novel covers a period of approximately ten years: Johnnie Aysgarth's courtship of, and marriage to, Lina McLaidlaw, the disintegration of their marriage, and her imminent death – although it is uncertain if she really dies (Isobel Sedbusk's alleged deadly chemical is never named, and maybe does not exist.) The story is told almost wholly from Lina's point of view, so readers follow what she does and learn what she thinks. On the other hand, little is revealed of what Johnnie is up to, except for what Lina sees and gathers.

Adaptations.

The novel was adapted to film as "Suspicion" (1941), directed by Alfred Hitchcock. However, the inverted detective story format was eliminated, making Johnnie's murderous indiscretions merely a product of Lina's imagination. According to William L. De Andrea in "Encyclopedia Mysteriosa" (1994), this was because the studio, RKO Radio Pictures, was uncomfortable with the idea of having one of Hollywood's leading actors Cary Grant, who played Johnnie, being shown on screen as a devious psychopath.  Hitchcock was quoted as saying that he was forced to alter the ending of the movie. He wanted an ending similar to the climax of the novel, but the studio, more concerned with Cary Grant's "heroic" image, insisted that it be changed. Writer Donald Spoto, in his biography of Hitchcock "The Dark Side of Genius", disputes Hitchcock's claim to have been over-ruled on the film's ending. Spoto claims that the first RKO treatment and memos between Hitchcock and the studio show that Hitchcock emphatically desired to make a film about a woman's fantasy life.  A 1988 American Playhouse remake stars Anthony Andrews and Jane Curtin.

Before the Fact (1932) is an English novel by Anthony Berkeley Cox writing under the pen name "Francis Iles". It tells the story of a woman marrying a man who is after her inherited money and prepared, it seems, to kill her for it. Whether he does succeed in the end, or whether she has been imagining his plots, is left unclear. Together with the previous Iles book "Malice Aforethought" (1931), it can be placed in the category of psychological suspense novel. Elements of the story were used for the 1941 American film "Suspicion", directed by Alfred Hitchcock.

Préméditation — "" dans l'édition originale britannique — est un roman policier britannique de Francis Iles, nom de plume d’Anthony Berkeley, publié en 1932.