The financial system.

As above, the financial system constitutes the flow of capital, between individuals (personal finance), governments (public finance), and businesses (corporate finance). Although they are closely related, the disciplines of economics and finance are distinct. The "economy" is a social institution that organizes a society's production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, all of which must be financed.  Generalizing, an entity whose income exceeds its expenditure can lend or invest the excess, intending to earn a fair return. Correspondingly, an entity where income is less than expenditure can raise capital usually in one of two ways: (i) by borrowing, in the form of a loan (private individuals), or by selling bonds (may be government bonds or corporate bonds); (ii) by a corporate selling equity, also called stock or shares (may take various forms: preferred stock or common stock). The owners of both bonds and stock may be "institutional investors" – financial institutions such as investment banks and pension fund – or private individuals, called "private investors" or "retail investors".  The lending is often indirect, through a financial intermediary such as a bank, or via the purchase of notes or bonds (corporate bonds, government bonds, or mutual bonds) in the bond market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary earns the difference for arranging the loan. A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays interest. The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their activity.  Investing typically entails the purchase of stock, either individual securities, or via a mutual fund for example. Stocks are usually sold by corporations to investors so as to raise required capital in the form of "equity financing", as distinct from the "debt financing" described above. The financial intermediaries here are the investment banks, which find the initial investors and facilitate the listing of the securities (equity and debt); and the securities exchanges, which allow their trade thereafter, as well as the various service providers which manage the performance or risk of these investments.

Areas of finance.

Personal finance.

Personal finance is defined as "the mindful planning of monetary spending and saving, while also considering the possibility of future risk". Personal finance may involve paying for education, financing durable goods such as real estate and cars, buying insurance, e.g. health and property insurance, investing and saving for retirement. Personal finance may also involve paying for a loan, or debt obligations. The main areas of personal finance are considered to be income, spending, saving, investing, and protection. The following steps, as outlined by the Financial Planning Standards Board, suggest that an individual will understand a potentially secure personal finance plan after:

Corporate finance.

Corporate finance deals with the sources of funding and the capital structure of corporations, the actions that managers take to increase the value of the firm to the shareholders, and the tools and analysis used to allocate financial resources. Short term financial management is often termed "working capital management", and relates to cash-, inventory- and debtors management. In the longer term, corporate finance generally involves balancing risk and profitability, while attempting to maximize an entity's assets, net incoming cash flow and the value of its stock, and generically entails three primary areas of capital resource allocation: (i) "capital budgeting", selecting which projects to invest in; (ii) dividend policy, the use of "excess" capital; and (iii) "sources of capital", i.e. which funding is to be used. The latter creates the link with investment banking and securities trading, in that the capital will (generically) comprise debt, i.e. corporate bonds, and equity, often listed shares.  Although "corporate finance" is in principle different from managerial finance which studies the financial management of all firms, rather than corporations alone, the main concepts in the study of corporate finance are applicable to the financial problems of all kinds of firms. Further, although financial management overlaps with the financial function of the accounting profession, financial accounting is the reporting of historical financial information, whereas as discussed, financial management is concerned with increasing the firm's Shareholder value and increasing their rate of return on the investment. Financial risk management, in this context, is about protecting the firm's economic value using financial instruments to manage exposure to risk, particularly credit risk and market risk, often arising from the firm's funding structures.

Public finance.

Public finance describes finance as related to sovereign states and sub-national entities (states/provinces, counties, municipalities, etc.) and related public entities (e.g. school districts) or agencies. It usually encompasses a long-term strategic perspective regarding investment decisions that affect public entities. These long-term strategic periods usually encompass five or more years. Public finance is primarily concerned with:  Central banks, such as the Federal Reserve System banks in the United States and Bank of England in the United Kingdom, are strong players in public finance, acting as lenders of last resort as well as strong influences on monetary and credit conditions in the economy.

Financial theory.

Finance theory is studied and developed within the disciplines of management, (financial) economics, accountancy and applied mathematics. Abstractly, "finance" is concerned with the investment and deployment of assets and liabilities over "space and time": i.e. it is about performing valuation and asset allocation today, based on risk and uncertainty of future outcomes, incorporating the time value of money (determining the present value of these future values, "discounting", requires a risk-appropriate discount rate).  Since the debate to whether finance is an art or a science is still open, there have been recent efforts to organize a list of unsolved problems in finance.

Financial economics.

Financial economics is the branch of economics studying the interrelation of financial variables, such as prices, interest rates and shares, as opposed to goods and services. Financial economics concentrates on influences of real economic variables on financial ones, in contrast to pure finance. It centres on pricing and managing risk management in the financial markets, and thus produces many of the and financial models commonly employed.  The discipline essentially explores how rational investors would apply risk and return to the problem of investment. The twin assumptions of rationality and market efficiency lead to modern portfolio theory (the CAPM), and to the Black–Scholes theory for option valuation; it further studies phenomena and models where these assumptions do not hold, or are extended.  "Financial economics", also considers investment under "certainty" (Fisher separation theorem, "theory of investment value", Modigliani–Miller theorem) and hence also contributes to corporate finance theory. Financial econometrics is the branch of financial economics that uses econometric techniques to parameterize the relationships suggested.

Financial mathematics.

Financial mathematics is a field of applied mathematics, concerned with financial markets. The subject has a close relationship with the discipline of financial economics, which is concerned with much of the underlying theory that is involved in financial mathematics. Generally, mathematical finance will derive, and extend, the mathematical or numerical models suggested by financial economics.  The field is largely focused on the modelling of derivatives, although other important subfields include insurance mathematics and quantitative portfolio problems. See Outline of finance #Mathematical tools and Outline of finance #Derivatives pricing.  In terms of practice, mathematical finance also overlaps heavily with the field of computational finance (also known as "financial engineering"). Arguably, these are largely synonymous, although the latter focuses on application, while the former focuses on modeling and derivation ("see: Quantitative analyst"). Their is alsso significiant overlap with financial risk management.

Experimental finance.

Experimental finance aims to establish different market settings and environments to observe experimentally and provide a lens through which science can analyze agents' behavior and the resulting characteristics of trading flows, information diffusion, and aggregation, price setting mechanisms, and returns processes. Researchers in experimental finance can study to what extent existing financial economics theory makes valid predictions and therefore prove them, and attempt to discover new principles on which such theory can be extended and be applied to future financial decisions. Research may proceed by conducting trading simulations or by establishing and studying the behavior, and the way that these people act or react, of people in artificial competitive market-like settings.

Behavioral finance.

Behavioral finance studies how the "psychology" of investors or managers affects financial decisions and markets when making a decision that can impact either negatively or positively on one of their areas. Behavioral finance has grown over the last few decades to become central and very important to finance.  Behavioral finance includes such topics as:  A strand of behavioral finance has been dubbed quantitative behavioral finance, which uses mathematical and statistical methodology to understand behavioral biases in conjunction with valuation.

Finance is a term for matters regarding the management, creation, and study of money and investments. Specifically, it deals with the questions of how and why an individual, company or government acquires the money needed - called capital in the company context - and how they spend or invest that money. Finance is then often split per the following major categories: corporate finance, personal finance and public finance.

La finance recouvre un domaine d'activité qui consiste à fournir l'argent nécessaire à la réalisation d'une opération économique. Ce domaine concerne aussi bien les individus, les ménages que les entreprises publiques ou privées, mais aussi les États.


Life.

Fiore dei Liberi was born in Cividale del Friuli, a town in the Patriarchal State of Aquileia in the Friuli region of modern-day Italy, the son of Benedetto and scion of a Liberi house of Premariacco. The term "Liberi", while potentially merely a surname, probably indicates that his family had imperial immediacy, either as part of the Edelfrei ("nobili liberi", "free nobles"), the Germanic unindentured knightly class which formed the lower tier of nobility in the Middle Ages, or possibly of the rising class of Imperial Free Knights. It has been suggested by various historians that Fiore and Benedetto were descended from Cristallo dei Liberi of Premariacco, who was granted immediacy in 1110 by Emperor Henry V, but this has yet to be confirmed.  Fiore wrote that he had a natural inclination to the martial arts and began training at a young age, ultimately studying with "countless" masters from both the Italian and German parts of the Holy Roman Empire.  He also writes of meeting many "false" or unworthy masters who lacked even the limited skill he'd expect in a good student, and mentions that on five separate occasions he was forced to fight duels for his honor against certain of these masters whom he described as envious because he refused to teach them his art; the duels were all fought with sharp longswords, unarmored except for gambesons and chamois gloves, and he stated that he won each without injury.  He further offers an extensive list of the famous "condottieri" that he trained, including Piero Paolo del Verde (Peter von Grünen), Niccolo Unricilino (Nikolo von Urslingen), Galeazzo Cattaneo dei Grumelli (Galeazzo Gonzaga da Mantova), Lancillotto Beccaria di Pavia, Giovannino da Baggio di Milano, and Azzone di Castelbarco, and also highlights some of their martial exploits.  Based on Fiore's autobiographical account, he can tentatively be placed in Perosa (Perugia) in 1381 when Piero del Verde likely fought a duel with Pietro della Corona (Peter Kornwald). That same year, the Aquileian War of Succession erupted as a coalition of secular nobles from Udine and surrounding cities sought to remove the newly appointed Patriarch, Philippe II d'Alençon. Fiore seems to have sided with the secular nobility against the Cardinal as in 1383 there is record of him being tasked by the grand council with inspection and maintenance on the artillery pieces defending Udine (including large crossbows and catapults). There are also records of him working variously as a magistrate, peace officer, and agent of the grand council during the course of 1384, but after that the historical record is silent. The war continued until a new Patriarch was appointed in 1389 and a peace settlement was reached, but it's unclear if Fiore remained involved for the duration. Given that he appears in council records five times in 1384, it would be quite odd for him to be completely unmentioned over the subsequent five years, and since his absence after May 1384 coincides with a proclamation in July of that year demanding that Udine cease hostilities or face harsh repercussions, it seems more likely that he moved on.  After the war, Fiore seems to have traveled a good deal in northern Italy, teaching fencing and training men for duels. In 1395, Fiore can be placed in Padua training the mercenary captain Galeazzo Gonzaga of Mantua for a duel with the French Marshal Jean II Le Maingre (who used the war name "Boucicaut"). Galeazzo made the challenge when Boucicaut called into question the valor of Italians at the royal court of France, and the duel was ultimately set for Padua on 15 August. Both Francesco Novello da Carrara, Lord of Padua, and Francesco I Gonzaga, Lord of Mantua, were in attendance. The duel was to begin with spears on horseback, but Boucicaut became impatient and dismounted, attacking his opponent before he could mount his own horse. Cattaneo landed a solid blow on the Frenchman's helmet, but was subsequently disarmed. At this point, Boucicaut reached for his poleaxe but the lords intervened to end the duel.  Fiore surfaces again in Pavia in 1399, this time training Giovannino da Baggio for a duel with a German squire named Sirano. It was fought on 24 June and attended by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan, as well as the duchess and other nobles. The duel was to consist of three bouts of mounted lance followed by three bouts each of dismounted poleaxe, estoc, and dagger. They ultimately rode two additional passes and on the fifth, Baggio impaled Sirano's horse through the chest, slaying the horse but losing his lance in the process. They fought the other nine bouts as scheduled, and due to the strength of their armor (and the fact that all of the weapons were blunted), both combatants reportedly emerged from these exchanges unharmed.  Fiore was likely involved in at least one other duel that year, between his final named student Azzone di Castelbarco and Giovanni degli Ordelaffi, as the latter is known to have died in 1399. After Castelbarco's duels, Fiore's activities are unclear. Based on the allegiances of the nobles that he trained in the 1390s, he seems to have been associated with the ducal court of Milan in the latter part of his career. Some time in the first years of the 15th century, Fiore composed a fencing treatise in Italian and Latin called "The Flower of Battle" (rendered variously as "Fior di Battaglia", "Florius de Arte Luctandi", and "Flos Duellatorum"). The briefest version of the text is dated to 1409 and indicates that it was a labor of six months and great personal effort; as evidence suggests that two longer versions were composed some time before this, we may assume that he devoted a considerable amount of time to writing during this decade.  Beyond this, nothing certain is known of Fiore's activities in the 15th century. Francesco Novati and D. Luigi Zanutto both assume that some time before 1409 he accepted an appointment as court fencing master to Niccolò III d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara, Modena, and Parma; presumably he would have made this change when Milan fell into disarray in 1402, though Zanutto went so far as to speculate that he trained Niccolò for his 1399 passage at arms. However, while two surviving copies of "the Flower of Battle" are dedicated to the marquis, it seems more likely that the manuscripts were written as a diplomatic gift to Ferrara from Milan when they made peace in 1404.  C. A. Blengini di Torricella stated that late in life he made his way to Paris, France, where he could be placed teaching fencing in 1418 and creating a copy of a fencing manual located there in 1420. Though he attributes these facts to Novati, no publication verifying them has yet been located. The time and place of Fiore's death remain unknown.  Despite the depth and complexity of his writings, Fiore dei Liberi does not seem to have been a very influential master in the development of Italian fencing. That field was instead dominated by the tradition of his near-contemporary the Bolognese master Filippo di Bartolomeo Dardi. Even so, there are a number of later treatises which bear strong resemblance to his work, including the writings of Philippo di Vadi and Ludwig VI von Eyb of Hartenstein. This may be due to the direct influence of Fiore or his writings, or it may instead indicate that the older tradition of Johane and Nicholai survived and spread outside of his direct line.

The Flower of Battle.

Four illuminated manuscript copies of this treatise survive, and there are records of at least two others whose current locations are unknown. The Ms. Ludwig XV 13 and the Pisani Dossi Ms. are both dedicated to Niccolò III d'Este and state that they were written at his request and according to his design. The Ms. M.383, on the other hand, lacks a dedication and claims to have been laid out according to his own intelligence while the Mss. Latin 11269 lost any dedication it might have had along with its prologue. Each of the extant copies of "the Flower of Battle" follows a distinct order, though both of these pairs contain strong similarities to each other in order of presentation.  The major sections of the work include: "abrazare", unarmed plays (usually translated as "wrestling" but more literally "grappling"); "daga", including both unarmed defenses against the dagger and plays of dagger against dagger; "spada a un mano", the use of the sword in one hand (also called "the sword without the buckler"); "spada a dui mani", the use of the sword in two hands; "spada en arme", the use of the sword in armor (primarily techniques from the halfsword); "azza", plays of the poleaxe in armor; "lancia", spear and staff plays; and mounted combat (including the spear, the sword, and grappling). Brief bridging sections serve to connect each of these, covering such topics as "bastoncello", or plays of a small stick or baton against unarmed and dagger-wielding opponents; plays of longsword vs. dagger; plays of staff and dagger and of two clubs and a dagger; and the use of the chiavarina against a man on horseback.  The format of instruction is largely consistent across all copies of the treatise. Each section begins with a group of Masters (or Teachers), figures in golden crowns who each demonstrate a particular guard for use with their weapon. These are followed by a master called "Remedio" (remedy) who demonstrates a defensive technique against some basic attack (usually how to use one of the listed guards to defend), and then by his various Scholars (or Students), figures wearing golden garters on their legs who demonstrate iterations and variations of this remedy. After the scholars there is typically a master called "Contrario" (counter), wearing both crown and garter, who demonstrates how to counter the master's remedy (and those of his scholars), who is likewise sometimes followed by his own scholars in garters. In rare cases, a fourth type of master appears called "Contra-Contrario" (counter-counter), who likewise wears the crown and garter and demonstrates how to defeat the master's counter. Some sections feature multiple master remedies or master counters, while some have only one. There are also many cases in which an image in one manuscript will only feature a scholar's garter where the corresponding image in another also includes a master's crown. Depending on the instance, this may either be intentional or merely an error in the art.

"Fior di Battaglia" (Ms. M.383).

The Ms. M.383, titled "Fior di Battaglia", is in the holdings of the Morgan Library & Museum in New York City, NY. Novati described it as a small, thin, vellum folio, pen and ink with gold highlights, and illustrations of sword and lance combat on foot and horseback. Unlike the other surviving manuscripts, the swords and other weapons were enameled in silver, though it has since tarnished to a glossy black. This is the briefest copy of Fiore's work currently known, with only 19 folios; it has a prologue in Italian and four illustrated figures per page in the main body. The figures are accompanied by text that is often identical to that of the Ms. Ludwig XV 13 (excepting differences in spelling), but at times includes additional explanation. The Ms. M.383 is almost certainly longer when it was first written; its text makes reference to sections on poleaxe, dagger, and grappling which are not present in the book's current state. It also refers to a certain play of the sword in one hand which is likewise missing from that section. This manuscript is typically referred to as the 'Pierpont Morgan version' or simply the 'Morgan'.  The known provenance of the Ms. M.383 is:  The contents of the Ms. M.383 are as follows:

"Fior di Battaglia" (Ms. Ludwig XV 13).

The Ms. Ludwig XV 13, also titled "Fior di Battaglia", is currently in the holdings of the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, CA. Its prologue, format, illustrations, and text are all very similar to the Ms. M.383, though it's largely free of silver enamel. The text takes the form of descriptive paragraphs set in poor Italian verse, which are nevertheless fairly clear and informative. Despite its shared characteristics with the Ms. M.383, there are important differences, not the least of which is the vastly different order of the information. This is the longest and most comprehensive of the four manuscripts of "Fior di Battaglia". This manuscript is typically referred to as the 'Getty version'.  The known provenance of the Ms. Ludwig XV 13 is:  The contents of the Ms. Ludwig XV 13 are as follows:

"Flos Duellatorum" (Pisani Dossi Ms.).

The Pisani Dossi Ms., titled "Flos Duellatorum", was believed to have been lost in World War II and only resurfaced in a private collection in Italy in 2005. Novati described this manuscript as an unbound collection of leaves, covered with a cardboard folder with a marbled paper cover. The Pisani Dossi Ms. is the only manuscript in the series that includes a date, claiming to be completed on 10 February 1409 after six months of effort. It consists of 36 folia and possesses two different prologues, one in Renaissance Latin and one in Italian. The body of the text consists of four to six illustrations per page, each with only a brief couplet or quatrain to explain it. This manuscript is typically referred to as either the 'Novati' or 'Pisani Dossi version'.  The Pisani Dossi Ms. was published in facsimile by Francesco Novati in 1902, including the only reproductions of a copy of "the Flower of Battle" that are clearly in the public domain. However, it is unclear how accurate this facsimile is as evidence suggests that Novati may have hired an artist to create a tracing of the original manuscript rather than reproducing it directly. This would have provided ample opportunity for errors to creep into the images, and might also account for the significant divergences from the artistic style of the Getty and the Morgan.  The known provenance of the Pisani Dossi Ms. is:  The contents of the Pisani Dossi Ms. are as follows:

"Florius de Arte Luctandi" (Mss. Latin 11269).

The Mss. Latin 11269, titled "Florius de Arte Luctandi" in a 17th-century script, is currently in the holdings of the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Any preface it once possessed is missing from the current form of the manuscript; it consists of 44 folios with two pairings per page, and is the only copy of Fiore's treatise whose illustrations are fully painted. Unlike Fiore's other works, this manuscript is written entirely in Latin; its descriptions are cast in couplets and quatrains similar to the Pisani Dossi Ms. This manuscript is generally referred to as either the Florius or the Paris.  The known provenance of the Mss. Latin 11269 is:  The contents of the Mss. Latin 11269 are as follows:

Codices LXXXIV and CX.

The Codex LXXXIV (or Ms. 84) is mentioned in the 1436 and 1508 catalogs of the Biblioteca Estense in Ferrara, but disappeared some time in the 16th century. It consisted of 58 folios bound in leather with a clasp, with a white eagle and two helmets on the first page. The Codex CX (or Ms. 110) is also mentioned in the 1436 and 1508 catalogs of the Biblioteca Estense, but not in later inventories. It consisted of 15 small-format folios on unbound parchment, and was written in two columns.  The contents and current whereabouts of these copies of the Flower of Battle are unknown. It is possible that these listings refer to manuscripts listed above, though none currently possess the correct number of folios or match the physical descriptions.

Fiore Furlano de Cividale d'Austria, delli Liberi da Premariacco (Fiore dei Liberi, Fiore Furlano, Fiore de Cividale d'Austria; born ca. 1350; died after 1409, was a late 14th century knight, diplomat, and itinerant fencing master.

Fiore dei Liberi, né à Cividale (env. 1350 - vers 1420) est un maître d'armes du Moyen Âge et le premier de l’école italienne, auteur d'un manuel d’apprentissage complet.


Plot summary.

Teacher John Corntel asks his former Eton schoolmate Lynley for help when the 13 year old schoolboy Matthew Whateley has disappeared. Initially Lynley refuses, until Deborah St James finds the naked body of the boy in a churchyard in Stoke Poges. Lynley and Havers start their investigation at Matthew's school Bredgar Chambers, an elite boarding school in West Sussex.  They find a letter from Matthew to Jeannie Bonnamy, a daughter of Colonel Bonnamy. Matthew has visited them three days before his death to dine and play chess with the colonel. When Jeannie brought Matthew back to school, they saw 6th form student Chas Quilter in a school minibus, returning from a visit to Cecilia Feld, a girl in Stoke Poges. Chas didn't want anyone to find out about his relationship with Cecilia, and the fact that he was the father of Cecilia's child, which has Apert syndrome. Cecilia herself was transferred from Bredgar Chambers to another school when she was pregnant.  Chemistry teacher Emilia Bond tried to burn child pornography photos that belonged to John Corntel; she was in love with Corntel, but found out he was collecting those photos. This explains why Corntel didn't patrol in spite of being duty master. That same evening 6th grader Clive Pritchard nabbed Matthew Whateley to torture him, because Matthew had made a tape recording of Clive bullying schoolboy Harry Morant. When Clive found Matthew dead he felt responsible, unaware that the cause of death was carbon monoxide poisoning.  During the investigation there's an attempt to kill Jeannie Bonnamy with a rake. Chas Quilter hangs himself.  The investigators find out that Matthew's biological parents were Mrs Pamela Byrne and Edward Hsu, a Chinese former pupil at Bredgar Hall who killed himself after this scandal. Giles Byrne felt financially responsible for the child of his late wife. As a board member he obtained a scholarship for Matthew at Bredgar Chambers. Giles' 18-year-old son Brian turns out to be the culprit. He killed his half-brother in the fume cupboard in the chemistry lab. He then transported the body to Stoke Poges in the school minibus Chas Quilter was driving. His motive was to win Chas Quilter's lifetime loyalty. Brian also tried to kill Jeannie Bonnamy for the same reason. Brian Byrne and Clive Pritchard are arrested.  In a subplot Barbara Havers visits her demented mother, and finds her father dead. Another theme is Lynley's aristocratic descent (he is sometimes referred to as "Lord Asherton")—shown through his working relationship with his working class colleague Barbara Havers from Acton and his unrequited love for Lady Helen Clyde.

Quote.

We live by codes, he [Lynley] thought. We call them our morals, our standards, our values, our ethics, as if they were part of our genetic make up. But they are only behaviours that we have learned from our society, and there are times to act in defiance of them, to fly in the face of their conventions because it is right to do so.

Literary significance and reception.

"The Baltimore Sun" wrote: "Ms. George has crafted a fine and powerful novel sure to delight readers in the mood for a thought-provoking, hard-hitting mystery."  "People" wrote: "Like P. D. James, George knows the import of the smallest human gesture; "Well-Schooled in Murder" puts the younger author clearly in the running with the genre's master."  "Chicago Tribune": "George is a master [...] An outstanding of the modern English mystery."
  "Los Angeles Times": "A spectacular new voice in mystery writing."
  "Daily News (New York)": "A compelling whodunnit[...] A reader's delight."
  "Well-Schooled in Murder" was awarded the MIMI, a German prize for suspense fiction.

TV adaption.

"Well Schooled in Murder" was adapted and broadcast by the BBC in April 2002 as the first episode of season one in "The Inspector Lynley Mysteries", following a 2001 pilot based on the inaugural Lynley novel "A Great Deliverance". Several changes were made to the plot. Matthew's biological mother is Patsy Whateley instead of Pamela Byrne. Corntel is gay but doesn't actually collect child porn. Deborah and Simon St James are omitted. So is Cecilia Feld, and there's no mention of Chas Quilter having a child. Lorry driver Barry Summers is a new suspect.

Well-Schooled in Murder is a crime novel by Elizabeth George, published by Bantam in 1990. It was the third book in her Inspector Lynley series, which originated in 1988 with "A Great Deliverance". In 2002 its screen adaptation was broadcast as the first episode of season one in "The Inspector Lynley Mysteries", a BBC TV series. Set in the late 1980s at an elite public school in the South of England founded in 1489, the book, which is a mystery novel in the tradition of the whodunnit, revolves around the strict yet unwritten code of behaviour prevalent at independent schools which says that under no circumstances must pupils ever tell on their schoolmates, no matter what they have done. Accordingly, when a 13-year-old boy goes missing one Friday afternoon and two days later is found dead in a churchyard an hour's drive away, Detective Inspector Thomas Lynley and his partner, Detective Sergeant Barbara Havers, both of the Criminal Investigation Department of New Scotland Yard, are up against a wall of silence as none of the 600 pupils of Bredgar Chambers School seems to be willing to co-operate with the police and communicate what they know.

Cérémonies barbares (titre original : "Well-Schooled in Murder") est un roman policier d'Elizabeth George, initialement paru en 1990 puis publié en France aux Presses de la Cité en 1993.


History.

The town was founded in 1823 by Felipe Ruiz. This town derives its name from the large amount of streams flowing through it. The name literally means "small streams".

Geography.

Quebradillas is home to one of the 20 designated forest preserves in Puerto Rico, the Guajataca Forest. The forest serves as a great example of an unusual topography known as "karst country". Karst is characterized by dissolved limestone formations such as sinkholes and haystack-shaped hills known as "mogotes". It is also home to the beautiful man-made reservoir, Guajataca Lake ( long), where you can fish for largemouth bass, peacock bass, tilapia and bluegill (in Spanish known as "chopa"). You can also go hiking or camping. The Puerto Rico Council of the Boy Scouts of America maintains a campground on the lake known as Camp Guajataka. The name Guajataca comes from the name of a Taíno Indian chief who lived in this area. This Indian chief also gives his name to Guajataca Beach to the north where Río Guajataca flowing from Guajataca Lake meets the Atlantic Ocean. Guajataca Beach is popular with surfers and is known for its white sands and wild waters. This beach is ideal for sunning and collecting seashells.

Barrios.

Like all municipalities of Puerto Rico, Quebradillas is subdivided into barrios. The municipal buildings, central square and large Catholic church are located in a barrio referred to as.

Climate.

The general climate of the town is subtropical.

Demographics.

The United States took control of Puerto Rico from Spain in the aftermath of the Spanish-American War under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898 and conducted its first census of Puerto Rico, finding that the population of Quebradillas was 7,432.

Tourism.

Landmarks and places of interest.

There are 6 beaches in Quebradillas. The main attractions of Quebradillas are:

Economy.

Business.

A small shopping center called Quebradillas Plaza is located in this municipality along with some manufacturing industries.  An event which negatively affected the region in the decade of the 1990s was the disappearance of tax exemptions to the private corporations [section 936 of the code of the US Internal Revenue Service ], which at the time was the ideal excuse for the closing of one of the greater manufacturers of textiles in the northwest area of the island. This decline of the industry of the needle occurred similarly in the bordering cities like Isabela and Camuy, generating a regional economic decline as the locals greatly depended on these jobs. In nearby towns like Hatillo, Mayagüez and Aguadilla, the arrival of mega stores and new shopping centers attracted the jobs that used to be in Quebradillas, helping to create the general vision of the town as "ghostly" because there is little movement in the city.  At the same time, since the Island lacks mass public transportation, people must resort to private cars (known as "carro publico", public car in English) used as a bus as a mode of transportation. This, coupled with the fact that the only road to access the important cities, the Puerto Rico Highway 2, is congested most of the day, makes it difficult for people in the area to find work and thus contributes to the general economic decline.  Ironically, the town possesses one tunnel that at the beginning of the 20th century was utilized by steam driven trains that traveled throughout the Island. The disappearance of the same is considered as one of the most ironic facts of the modern history of Puerto Rico, since these railways were very extensive, built through earthly bluffs and were of great utility. Today, their absence only aggravates the problem of mass transit and the dependence on privately owned vehicles as the only method of transportation.  The economy, entering into the 21st century, is based on retail sales. Many small businesses are located along the two main thoroughfares that cross Quebradillas. These consist mainly of light hardware, bakeries, pharmacies, seafood restaurants, American fast food chains and automobile car repair shops.  The town has bank branches for Banco Popular and local savings and credit Unions. These credit unions are most noted for their involvement in common and cultural activities, sponsoring and participating in festivals of typical music [Festival of the Gourd in December], sports and educational activities.

Special Communities Program.

Spearheaded by then governor Sila María Calderón, Law 1-2001 was passed in 2001, to identify Puerto Rico's marginalized communities. In 2017, then governor Ricardo Rosselló created a new government agency to work with the Special Communities of Puerto Rico Program. Of the 742 places on the list of, the following barrios, communities, sectors, or neighborhoods were in Quebradillas: Guajataca, Montadero, Parcelas Italas in Terranova, San Antonio, and Sector Las Piedras Barrio Cocos.

Culture.

Sports.

The town's official basketball team is "<nowiki>Los Piratas'</nowiki>"" "who have won a dramatic number of tournaments in the past. Presently the team has made a "comeback" and has won the championship of the island (2013).

Government.

The town's government is a small unit with few powers it can execute. Small elections are hosted in specific schools every four years to choose a town mayor.

Transportation.

There are 4 bridges in Quebradillas.

Symbols.

Flag.

It has two red quarters. The red stands for struggle, effort and sacrifice. The other two quarters have each five green and white stripes, similar to those that appear in the shield.

Coat of arms.

The three waved stripes represent the quebradillas, over the green background of the vegetation. The fish and the walking stick (distinctive of the traveler), are insignias of San Rafael Arcángel, by allusion from the episodes narrated in the book of Tobías in the Old Testament.

Education.

The town features many public and private schools. There is also a public electronic library near Los Chorritos Pirata water park.  New schools have been created thanks to a government initiative to have "21st century" schools.

Quebradillas () is a municipality of the island of Puerto Rico located in the north-western shore bordering the Atlantic Ocean, north of San Sebastián; east of Isabela; and west of Camuy. Quebradillas is spread over seven wards and Quebradillas Pueblo (the downtown area and the administrative center of the city). It is part of the San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo Metropolitan Statistical Area.

La municipalité de Quebradillas, sur l'île de Porto Rico (Code International : PR.QB) couvre une superficie de 60 km2 et regroupe 25 450 habitants (au ).


History.

Early years.

The party was founded as the revival of the Italian People's Party (PPI), a political party created in 1919 by Luigi Sturzo, a Catholic priest. The PPI won over 20% of the votes in the 1919 and 1921 general elections, but was declared illegal by the Fascist dictatorship in 1926 despite the presence of some "Popolari" in Benito Mussolini's first government.  As World War II was ending, the Christian Democrats started organizing post-Fascist Italy in coalition with all the other mainstream parties, including the Italian Communist Party (PCI), the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), the Italian Liberal Party (PLI), the Italian Republican Party (PRI), the Action Party (Pd'A) and the Labour Democratic Party (PDL). In December 1945 Christian Democrat Alcide De Gasperi was appointed Prime Minister of Italy.  The Christian Democratic Party was used in response to Fascist Italy and used as a mechanism of opposition to communism. The April 18 elections in 1948 were used for and against Communism and the Marshall Plan. The people of Italy were voting based on a way of life, not just a political party. Christian ideals were usually paired with the idea of freedom. The Party found itself in great trouble because if they were to take an extremist stance on communism then they would be seen as pro-fascism. The Christian Democrats then knew they needed to be a center party while also opposing communism. Ultimately, it was not about party success, but about the success of a lifestyle in opposition to the ideals of communism.  In the 1946 general election the DC won 35.2% of the vote.

De Gasperi and centrism.

In May 1947 De Gasperi broke decisively with his Communist and Socialist coalition partners under pressure from U.S. President Harry Truman. This opened the way for a centrist coalition that included the Italian Workers' Socialist Party (PSLI), a centrist break-away from the PSI, as well as its usual allies, the PLI and the PRI.  In the 1948 general election the DC went on to win a decisive victory, with the support of the Catholic Church and the United States, and obtained 48.5% of the vote, its best result ever. Despite his party's absolute majority in the Italian Parliament, De Gasperi continued to govern at the head of the centrist coalition, which was successively abandoned by the Liberals, who hoped for more right-wing policies, in 1950 and the Democratic Socialists, who hoped for more leftist policies, in 1951.  Under De Gasperi, major land reforms were carried out in the poorer rural regions in the early postwar years, with farms appropriated from the large landowners and parcelled out to the peasants. In addition, during its years in office, Christian Democrats passed a number of laws safeguarding employees from exploitation, established a national health service, and initiated low-cost housing in Italy’s major cities.  De Gasperi served as Prime Minister until 1953 and would die a year later. No Christian Democrat would match his longevity in office and, despite the fact that DC's share of vote was always between 38 and 43% from 1953 to 1979, the party was more and more fractious. As a result, Prime Ministers changed more frequently.

Centre-left governments.

From 1954 the DC was led by progressive Christian Democrats, such as Amintore Fanfani, Aldo Moro and Benigno Zaccagnini, supported by the influential left-wing factions. In the 1950s the party formed centrist or moderately centre-left coalitions, and even a short-lived government led by Fernando Tambroni relying on parliamentary support from the Italian Social Movement (MSI), the post-fascist party.  In 1963 the party, under Prime Minister Aldo Moro, formed a coalition with the PSI, which returned to ministerial roles after 16 years, the PSDI and the PRI. Similar "Organic Centre-left" governments became usual through the 1960s and the 1970s.

Historic Compromise.

From 1976 to 1979 the DC governed with the external support of the PCI, through the Historic Compromise. Moro, who was the party main leader and who had inspired the Compromise, was abducted and murdered by the Red Brigades.  The event was a shock for the party. When Moro was abducted, the government, at the time led by Giulio Andreotti, immediately took a hardline position stating that the "State must not bend" on terrorist demands. This was a very different position from the one kept in similar cases before (such as the kidnapping of Ciro Cirillo, a Campanian DC member for whom a ransom was paid thanks to the local ties of the party with Camorra). It was however supported by all the mainstream parties, including the PCI, with the two notable exceptions of the PSI and the Radicals. In the trial for Mafia allegations against Andreotti, it was said that he took the chance of getting rid of a dangerous political competitor by sabotaging all of the rescue options and ultimately leaving the captors with no option but killing him. During his captivity Moro wrote a series of letters, at times very critical of Andreotti. Later the memorial written by Moro during his imprisonment was subject to several plots, including the assassination of journalist Mino Pecorelli and general Carlo Alberto Dalla Chiesa.

The "Pentapartito".

At the beginning of the 1980s the DC had lost part of its support over Italian voters.  In 1981 Giovanni Spadolini of the PRI was the first non-Christian Democrat to lead a government since 1944, at the head of a coalition comprising the DC, the PSI, the PSDI, the PRI and the PLI, the so-called "Pentapartito". In the successive 1983 general election DC suffered one of its largest declines in terms of votes at that point, receiving only 32.5% of the vote cast (-5.8%). Subsequently, Bettino Craxi (leader of the rising PSI) reclaimed for himself the post of Prime Minister, again at the head of a "Pentapartito" government.  DC re-gained the post of Prime Minister in 1987, after a mild recovery in the 1987 general election (34.2%), and the "Pentapartito" coalition governed Italy almost continuously until 1993. While Italy experienced continuous economic progress in the 1980s, the Italian economy was being undermined by constant devaluation of the Italian lira and the issuing of excessive amounts of high-interest treasury bonds, so that, between 1982 and 1992, the excessive budget deficit built half of the debt still plaguing the country today.

Dissolution.

In 1992 the "Mani pulite" investigation was started in Milan, uncovering the so-called "Tangentopoli" scandals (endemic corruption practices at the highest levels), and causing (often controversial) arrests and resignations. After the dismal result in the 1992 general election (29.7%), also due to the rise of Lega Nord in northern Italy, and two years of mounting scandals (which included several Mafia investigations which notably touched Andreotti), the party was disbanded in 1994. In the 1990s most of the politicians prosecuted during those investigations were acquitted, sometimes however on the basis of legal formalities or on the basis of statutory time limit rules.  The DC suffered heavy defeats in the 1993 provincial and municipal elections and the subsequent split of the Mario Segni's Pact, and polling suggested heavy losses in the upcoming 1994 general election. In hopes of changing the party's image, the DC's last secretary, Mino Martinazzoli decided to change the name of the party into Italian People's Party (PPI). Pier Ferdinando Casini, representing the right-wing faction of the party (previously led by Forlani) decided to launch a new party called Christian Democratic Centre and form an alliance with Silvio Berlusconi's new party, Forza Italia (FI). The left-wing factions stayed within the new PPI (albeit a minority which had formed the Social Christians in 1993 and would join forces with the post-communist Democratic Party of the Left), while some right-wingers joined National Alliance. In 1995 the PPI split in two, the PPI and the centre-right United Christian Democrats, which were led by Rocco Buttiglione and also entered in alliance with FI. In the following years, most Christian Democrats joined FI, which became the party with the most ex-DC members in absolute terms and joined the European People's Party.

Ideology.

The party's ideological sources were principally to be found in Catholic social teaching, the Christian democratic doctrines developed from the 19th century and on (see Christian democracy), the political thought of Romolo Murri and Luigi Sturzo and ultimately in the tradition of the defunct Italian People's Party. Two Papal encyclicals, "Rerum novarum" (1891) of Pope Leo XIII, and "Quadragesimo anno" (1931) of Pope Pius XI, offered a basis for social and political doctrine.  In economics, the DC preferred competition to cooperation, supported the model of social market economy and rejected the Marxist's idea of class struggle. The party thus advocated collaboration between social classes and was basically a catch-all party which aimed to represent all Italian Catholics, both right-wing and left-wing, under the principle of the "political unity of Catholics" against socialism, communism and anarchism. It ultimately represented the majority of Italians who were opposed to the Italian Communist Party. The party was however originally equidistant between the Communists and the hard right represented by the Italian Social Movement.  As a catch-all party, the DC differed from other European Christian Democratic parties, such as the Christian Democratic Union of Germany that were mainly conservative parties, with DC comprising conservative as well as social-democratic and liberal elements. The party was thus divided in many factions and party life was characterised by factionalism and by the double adherence of members to the party and the factions, often identified with individual leaders.

Factions.

The DC was characterised by a number of factions, spanning from left to right and evolving all the time.  The original centrist and liberal-conservative leadership of Alcide De Gasperi, Giuseppe Pella, Ezio Vanoni and Mario Scelba, was soon replaced by the progressives led by Amintore Fanfani. They were opposed to a right wing whose main leader was Antonio Segni. The party's left wing, with its roots in the left of the late Italian People's Party (Giovanni Gronchi, Achille Grandi and controversial Fernando Tambroni), was reinforced by new leaders such as Giuseppe Dossetti, Giorgio La Pira, Giuseppe Lazzati and Fanfani himself. Most of them were social democrats by European standards.  The party was often led by centrist figures unaffiliated to any faction such as Aldo Moro, Mariano Rumor (both closer to the centre-left) and Giulio Andreotti (closer to the centre-right). Moreover, often, if the government was led by a centre-right Christian Democrat, the party was led by a left-winger and vice versa. This was what happened in the 1950s when Fanfani was party secretary and the government was led by centre-right figures such as Scelba and Segni and in the late 1970s when Benigno Zaccagnini, a progressive, led the party and Andreotti the government: this custom, in clear contrast with the principles of a Westminster system, deeply weakened DC-led governments, that even with great majorities were de facto unable to conciliate the several factions of the party, and ultimately the office of Prime Minister (defined by the Constitution of Italy as a "primus inter pares" among ministers), turning the Italian party system into a particracy ("partitocrazia").  From the 1980s the party was divided between the centre-right led by Arnaldo Forlani (supported also by the party's right wing) and the centre-left led by Ciriaco de Mita (whose supporters included trade unionists and the internal left), with Andreotti holding the balance. De Mita, who led the party from 1982 to 1989, curiously tried to transform the party into a mainstream "conservative party" in line with the European People's Party in order to preserve party unity. He was replaced by Forlani in 1989, after that becoming Prime Minister in 1988. Disagreements between de Mita and Forlani brought Andreotti back to prime-ministership from 1989 to 1992.  With the fall of the Berlin Wall, the end of great ideologies and ultimately the "Tangentopoli" scandals, the heterogeneous nature of the party led it to its collapse. The bulk of the DC joined the new Italian People's Party (PPI), but immediately several centre-right elements led by Pier Ferdinando Casini joined the Christian Democratic Centre (CCD), while others directly joined Forza Italia. A split from the PPI, the United Christian Democrats (CDU), joined Forza Italia and the CCD in the centre-right Pole of Freedoms coalition (later becoming the Pole for Freedoms), while the PPI was a founding member of The Olive Tree centre-left coalition in 1996.

Popular support.

In its early years the party was stronger in Northern Italy, and especially in eastern Lombardy and Veneto, due to the strong Catholic roots of that areas, than in the South, where the Liberal establishment that had governed Italy for decades before the rise of Benito Mussolini had still a grip on voters, as also the Monarchist National Party and the Common Man's Front did. The DC was very weak in Emilia-Romagna and Central Italy, where the Italian Communist Party was the dominant political force.  In the 1948 general election the party had its best result ever (48.5%) and the absolute majority in the Italian Parliament. The party won 66.8% in eastern Lombardy (73.6% in the Province of Bergamo), 60.5% in Veneto (71.9% in the Province of Vicenza), 69.6% in Trentino and 57.8% in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, that is to say where the late Italian People's Party had its strongholds. In the Centre-South the DC gained more than 50% of the vote in Lazio (51.9%), Abruzzo (53.7%) and Campania (50.5%).  From the late 1950s the DC started to move South and by the 1980s it was stronger in the South than in the North, with the exception of Veneto, which remained one of the party's strongholds. In the 1983 general election the party suffered a dramatic decrease in term of votes and its electoral geography was very different from 30 or even 10 years before, as the region where it obtained the best result was Apulia (46.0%).  In the 1992 general election the shift was even more evident as the party was over the 40% mark only in some Southern regions (41.1% in Campania, 44.5 in Basilicata and 41.2% in Sicily), while it barely reached 20-25% of the vote in the North. As a result of the rise of Lega Nord, which was stronger precisely in the traditional Christian Democratic heartlands, the DC was reduced to 21.0% in Piedmont (with the League at 16.3%), 32.1% in western Lombardy (League at 25.2%), 31.7% in Veneto (League at 17.3%) and 28.0% in Friuli-Venezia Giulia (League at 17.0%).  As the DC's role was ended, the 1919 PPI strongholds and the DC's traditional heartlands were to become Lega Nord's power base, while the successor parties of the DC continued to be key political actors only in the South, where the clientelistic way of government practised by the Christian Democrats and their allies had left a mark. In the 1996 general election the League gained 7 out of 8 single-seat constituencies in the Province of Bergamo and 5 out of 6 in the Province of Vicenza, winning well over 40%, while the combined score of the three main post-DC parties (the new PPI, the CCD and the CDU) was highest in Campania (22.3%). In the 1996 Sicilian regional election the combined score of those parties was 26.4%.  The electoral results of the DC in general (Chamber of Deputies) and European Parliament elections since 1946 are shown in the chart below.

Controversies.

Having ruled Italy for over 40 years with no alternative other than the Italian Communist Party, DC members had ample opportunity to abuse their power, and some did. In the 1960s scandals involved frauds such as huge illegal profits in the administration of banana import quotas, and preferential allocation of purposely misprinted (and, therefore, rare) postage stamps. Giovanni Leone was forced to resign as President of the Italian Republic in 1978, after the Lockheed bribery scandals. He was later acquitted.  The party was also invested, like the other parties of the "Pentapartito", in the "Tangentopoli" scandals and in the subsequent "Mani pulite". Moreover, as in the 1970s and the 1980s Southern Italy had become the party's stronghold, it was likely that Mafia and dishonest politicians may try to collaborate. DC was the party most associated with Mafia among the public. Leaders such as Antonio Gava, Calogero Mannino, Vito Ciancimino, Salvo Lima and especially Giulio Andreotti were perceived by many to belong to a grey zone between simple corruption and mafia business, even if most of them were later acquitted.

Christian Democracy (, DC) was a Christian democratic political party in Italy. The DC was founded in 1943 (in Nazi-occupied Italy) as the ideal successor of the Italian People's Party, which had the same symbol, a crossed shield ("scudo crociato"). A Catholic-inspired, centrist, catch-all party comprising both right- and left-leaning political factions, the DC played a dominant role in the politics of Italy for fifty years, from its inception in 1944 until its final demise in 1994 amid the "Tangentopoli" scandals. The party was nicknamed the White Whale ("Balena bianca"), due to party's huge organization and to its official color.

La Démocratie chrétienne ("Democrazia Cristiana" en italien, DC, parfois surnommé « La Baleine Blanche ») était un parti politique italien centriste, fondé en 1942 par d'anciens membres du Parti populaire italien, et dont les activités prirent fin en 1994.


Union générale des travailleurs (Espagne)

History.

The UGT was founded 12 August 1888 by Pablo Iglesias Posse in Mataró (Barcelona), with Marxist socialism as its ideological basis, despite its statutory apolitical status. Until its nineteenth Congress in 1920, it did not consider class struggle as a basic principle of trade union action. Being a member of the UGT implies an affiliation to the PSOE and vice versa.  During World War I era, the UGT followed a tactical line of close relationship and unity of action with the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT, National Labour Confederation). The UGT grew rapidly after 1917, and by 1920 had 200,000 members. This era came to a sudden end with the advent of the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera, who gave a legal monopoly on labor organizing to his own government-sponsored union. While the CNT opted for a radical confrontation with the regime and were prohibited on this account, the UGT, although in disagreement with the dictatorship, adopted a collaborative attitude in order to continue to operate legally. The UGT grew from 277,011 in December 1930, to 958,451 in December 1931, to 1,041,539 in June 1932. Much of this growth occurred in its land workers' federation, the "Federación Nacional de Trabajadores de la Tierra" (FNTT), which grew from 36,639 in June 1930 to 392,953 in June 1932, raising the proportion of land workers in the UGT from 13 percent to 37 percent. The influx of these workers ("jornaleros") caused the union's radicalisation, and the bloody breakout of the Spanish Civil War deepened the internal fissures that resulted in the departure of Largo Caballero from the position of UGT secretary general in 1937.  General Francisco Franco confined the UGT to exile and clandestinity after his victory in the Spanish Civil War until his death in 1975. The Union emerged from secrecy during the democratic transition after Franco's death, as did the communist Workers' Commissions (Comisiones Obreras, CCOO). The UGT and CCOO, between them, constitute the major avenues for workers' representation in today's Spain, with the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación General del Trabajo (CGT) a distant third.

Objectives.

The UGT declares itself to be an institution of productive workers, organized along lines of trades and liberal professions, which respects freedom of thought, leading toward the transformation of the society, in order to establish it on the basis of social justice, equality and solidarity.

Federations and foundations.

The Unión de Trabajadores por Cuenta Propia (UTCP, Union of Self-Employed Workers) is not an organism of UGT. It is a bottom-up association, formed by the farmers' union UPA and the professional and autonomous workers' union, UPTA, who united in this manner to enhance their representation inside the Union and to form a united front on factional issues where they have common interests.

The Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT, General Union of Workers) is a major Spanish trade union, historically affiliated with the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE).

L'Union générale des travailleurs ou UGT ("Unión General de Trabajadores") est une confédération syndicale espagnole majeure, proche du Parti socialiste ouvrier espagnol (PSOE).


Biography.

Horace Meyer Kallen was born on August 11, 1882, in the town of Bernstadt, Prussian Silesia (now Bierutów, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Poland). His parents were Jacob David Kallen, an Orthodox rabbi, and Esther Rebecca Glazier. In 1887, the family emigrated to the United States. Kallen studied philosophy at Harvard University under George Santayana; in 1903, he received a BA magna cum laude.  That same year, Kallen was personally hired by future American President Woodrow Wilson, then Princeton University's president, to become the first Jew to ever teach at the university. But after teaching English at Princeton for two years, his contract was not renewed, and he returned to Harvard for graduate study and worked as Santayana's assistant. In 1908, Kallen received his doctorate and was awarded a Sheldon Travelling Fellowship to study at Oxford University. He was also a lifetime friend of Alain Locke, whom he met at Harvard and who was the first African-American Rhodes Scholar; and would remain the only one until the 1960s.  He lectured in philosophy at Harvard from his graduation until 1911, occasionally working as a logic instructor at Clark College in Worcester, Massachusetts. In 1911, he moved to teach philosophy at the University of Wisconsin–Madison until 1918, when he was named a professor at The New School in New York City as a founding member, where he remained for the rest of his career. By 1933, Kallen and his colleague Sidney Hook were serving on the ACLU's academic freedom committee.  A pluralist, Kallen opposed any oversimplification of philosophical and vital problems. According to Kallen, denying complications and difficulties is to multiply them, as much as to deny reality to evil would aggravate evil. Kallen advanced the ideal that cultural diversity and national pride were compatible with each other and that ethnic and racial diversity strengthened America. Kallen is credited with coining the term cultural pluralism.  He was acquainted with William James, whose last unfinished book he edited. In 1939 he became acquainted with Immanuel Velikovsky and became a lifelong friend, informal literary advisor, mentor, and advocate. He was a member of the American Philosophical Society, the Western Philosophical Society, the Society for Psychical Research, the Zionist Organization of America, the Palestine Development Council, and the National Council of the League of Nations Association. He served on congressional committees on international peace and was a part of many think tanks and study groups on questions ranging from philosophy and law to labor relations.  Kallen married Rachel Oatman van Arsdale in 1926. He died, aged 91, on February 16, 1974, in Palm Beach, Florida.

Selected works.

Books include:  Articles include:  Bibliography: See special "Symposium on Horace M. Kallen" in "Modern Judaism", Vol. 4, No. 2. (May, 1984)

Horace Meyer Kallen (August 11, 1882 – February 16, 1974) was a German-born American philosopher who supported pluralism and Zionism.

Horace Meyer Kallen, né le à Bernstadt en Allemagne et mort le, est un philosophe juif américain. Son père était un rabbin orthodoxe. Les Kallen arrivèrent aux États-Unis en 1887. Horace obtint une licence en 1903 et un doctorat en 1908 à l'université Harvard.


Eclipse Season.

This is the first eclipse this season.  Second eclipse this season: 19 March 2007 Partial Solar Eclipse

Lunar eclipses.

The previous lunar eclipse on September 7, 2006 was partial.  This eclipse is the first of two lunar eclipses to occur in 2007, the second being on 28 August 2007. The tables below contain detailed predictions and additional information on the Total Lunar Eclipse of 3 March 2007.  Penumbral Magnitude = 2.31882  Umbral Magnitude = 1.23280  Gamma = 0.31749  Greatest Eclipse = 03 Mar 2007 23:20:53.5 UTC (23:21:58.7 TD)  Sun right ascension = 22 hours, 57 minutes, 19.2 seconds  Sun declination = 6 degrees, 40 minutes, 46.3 seconds south of Celestial Equator  Sun diameter = 1936.0 arcseconds  Moon right ascension = 10 hours, 57 minutes, 52.2 seconds  Moon declination = 6 degrees, 56 minutes, 0.7 seconds north of Celestial Equator  Moon diameter = 1782.6 arcseconds  Earth's shadow right ascension = 10 hours, 57 minutes, 19.2 seconds  Earth's shadow declination = 6 degrees, 40 minutes, 46.3 seconds north of Celestial Equator  Totality duration = 1 hour, 13 minutes, 21.3 seconds  Umbral duration = 3 hours, 41 minutes, 5.6 seconds  Total duration = 6 hours, 5 minutes, 31.3 seconds

Viewing.

The whole event was visible from Europe, Africa, parts of South America, and some areas of North America, Asia, and Western Australia. In North America, part of the event was visible at moonrise.

Relation to other lunar eclipses.

Saros series.

It last occurred on February 20, 1989 and will next occur on March 14, 2025.

Half-Saros cycle.

A lunar eclipse will be preceded and followed by solar eclipses by 9 years and 5.5 days (a half saros). This lunar eclipse is related to two total solar eclipses of Solar Saros 130.

A total lunar eclipse took place on March 3, 2007, the first of two eclipses in 2007. The moon entered the penumbral shadow at 20:18 UTC, and the umbral shadow at 21:30 UTC. The total phase lasted between 22:44 UTC and 23:58 UTC with a distinctive brick-red shade (L=3 to L=4 on the Danjon scale). The moon left the umbra shadow at 01:11 UTC and left the penumbra shadow at 02:24 UTC 2007-03-04. The second lunar eclipse of 2007 occurred on August 28.

L'éclipse lunaire du 3 mars 2007 est une éclipse lunaire totale. Cette éclipse a débuté à 20:18 UTC le et la Lune a été totalement éclipsée par l'ombre de la Terre entre 22:44 et 23:58 UTC.


Professional wrestling career.

Early career.

Compton began his professional wrestling career after being trained in Larry Sharpe's Monster Factory. Compton became a regular for World Xtreme Wrestling, where he formed a tag team with Jake Bishop, known as Double Threat. On July 11, 2003, the duo won the WXW Tag Team Championship. He also wrestled a dark match for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling.

World Wrestling Entertainment.

Ohio Valley Wrestling (2005–2007).

On September 26, 2005, Compton was defeated by Danny Basham in a dark match prior to "WWE Raw" and was soon signed by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Upon signing with WWE, Compton was sent to the Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW) developmental territory. After four months at OVW, Compton began working as "Dice Domino", teaming with Deuce Shade under the management of his storyline sister Cherry Pie, using a 1950s greaser in-ring persona, forming the faction "The Throw-Backs".  During their time together they underwent an image change, including changing the group's name to "The Untouchables" and dropping Dice, Shade, and Pie from their respective names. On March 19, the team would become OVW Southern Tag Team Champions after Deuce defeated The Miz in a singles match after Miz's partner, Chris Cage, left the organization and forced The Miz to defend the title on his own. The Untouchables lost their titles on April 5, in a three-way match to Roadkill and Kasey James, which also involved Kenny and Mikey of The Spirit Squad. The group soon began a scripted rivalry with the team of CM Punk and Seth Skyfire before later engaging into a long and heated rivalry with Shawn Spears and Cody Runnels, which even saw Cherry leave The Untouchables to side with Spears and Runnels briefly before betraying them. The feud culminated in a street fight between the two teams, with Spears and Runnels winning the match.  The Untouchables won the OVW Tag Team Title another two times, as well as the DSW Tag Team Championship once in October 2006, before being called up to the main WWE roster in January 2007.

SmackDown! (2007–2008).

In their first match with WWE, where they debuted on the SmackDown! brand, the team's name was changed again, this time to "Deuce 'n Domino". They debuted on the January 19, 2007, episode, where they were placed in a tag team match, in which Deuce 'n Domino won. On the February 2 episode of "SmackDown!", the team defeated the then-WWE Tag Team Champions Paul London and Brian Kendrick in a non-title match. Deuce 'n Domino faced London and Kendrick in a WWE Tag Team Championship match at February's pay-per-view event, No Way Out. At the event, they lost when Kendrick pinned Deuce via a roll-up. On the April 20 episode of "SmackDown!", they defeated London and Kendrick for the WWE Tag Team Championship when London was, in storyline, injured after missing a moonsault to the outside. Kendrick was left to defend the title by himself, and was pinned after being hit with the West Side Stomp, a finishing move performed by Deuce 'n Domino. Three weeks later, London and Kendrick competed against William Regal and Dave Taylor. Deuce 'n Domino interfered, causing Regal and Taylor to be disqualified. This made both teams number one contenders leading to a triple threat tag team match the following week where Deuce 'n Domino retained the tag title.  During a tag team match with Cryme Tyme (Shad Gaspard and Jayson Paul) in late June, Domino suffered an injury, which was diagnosed as a broken nose and a possible broken orbital bone socket in his eye. The injury kept him out of the ring for a month. After coming back from his injury, Deuce 'n Domino engaged in short rivalries with Batista and Ric Flair. On the August 31 episode of "SmackDown!", he and Deuce lost their tag team championship to Matt Hardy and the reigning United States Champion Montel Vontavious Porter. During the last few months of 2007, Deuce 'n Domino had short rivalries with Hardy and MVP, Jimmy Wang Yang and Shannon Moore, Jesse and Festus, and Finlay and Hornswoggle.  At the beginning of 2008, the team suffered a series of losses. At WrestleMania XXIV in March, Deuce and Domino competed as singles competitors in a 24-man Interpromotional Battle Royal, in which the winner would face then ECW Champion Chavo Guerrero later that night; however, neither was able to win the match. On the May 23 episode of "SmackDown", Deuce 'n Domino parted ways with Cherry; WWE Diva Maryse would take over as the team's on-screen manager.  On the June 20, 2008, episode of "SmackDown", following a loss to Jesse and Festus, their second straight loss in two weeks, Deuce and Domino fought after the match, ending with Deuce laying out Domino with the Crack 'em in da Mouth. Deuce then threw his jacket over Domino, dissolving their partnership. The split was then further cemented when Deuce was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft. Following the draft, Domino was predominantly featured as an enhancement talent on "SmackDown" weekly.  Domino's last television appearance was on the August 1 episode of "SmackDown", when he suffered a loss to The Big Show. Compton was then released from his WWE contract on August 8, 2008.

Florida Championship Wrestling (2010).

In 2010, Compton returned to WWE and was sent to Florida Championship Wrestling where he wrestled under his real name of Cliff Compton. His first match came on February 18, where he took on the FCW Florida Heavyweight Champion Justin Gabriel but would lose via DQ. Later in the night, Compton and Wade Barrett lost to Gabriel and Michael Tarver. He would go on to have one more match before leaving WWE.

Return to OVW (2010–2014).

Compton returned to Ohio Valley Wrestling in September 2010, using the ring name "Mr. Media" Cliff Compton. After a four month undefeated streak, on January 8, 2011, Compton defeated then–champion "Low Rider" Matt Barela and Mike Mondo in a three-way match to win the OVW Heavyweight Championship for the first time. Two months later on March 5, the three faced off for the championship again, this time in a ladder match, which Mondo won. During the match, Compton suffered a broken ankle, torn ligaments, and a strained calf muscle. Compton regained the OVW Heavyweight Championship on May 14, when he defeated Mondo in a Brass Knuckles on a Pole match for the vacant championship. He lost the title to Elvis Pridemoore, following interference from Mondo, just eleven days later. On January 25, Compton's profile was removed from OVW's website, signalling his departure from the company.  On May 12, 2012, Compton returned to OVW in a dark match with Mike Mondo going up against Raphael Constantine and Sean Casey. On May 31, Compton wrestled a tryout dark match for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA), losing to Crimson. On October 17, Compton won the OVW Television Championship from Alex Silva. He held the championship for three weeks, before it was vacated due to Compton suffering an injury. Following his return from injury, he defeated Jamin Olivencia to regain the championship on January 5, 2013. Following a two-month reign, he lost the championship to Rockstar Spud on March 13. Compton returned to OVW again on September 3, 2014, declaring his intention to win the OVW Heavyweight Championship again. On October 4, Compton won his third OVW Heavyweight Championship after pinning Marcus Anthony in a three-way match, also involving champion Melvin Maximus. However, he lost the title two months later, while being injured, against Adam Revolver.

Ring of Honor (2013–2015).

On March 2, 2013, Compton made his debut for Ring of Honor (ROH) at their 11th Anniversary Show iPPV, where he, Jimmy Rave, Matt Hardy and Rhett Titus, revealed themselves as the newest members of S.C.U.M. by attacking numerous members of the ROH roster following the main event, joining Kevin Steen, Jimmy Jacobs, Rhino and Steve Corino as members of the group. After Steen lost the ROH World Championship, Compton and the rest of S.C.U.M turned on Steen and made Steve Corino the new leader. At Best in the World 2013, Compton and Rhett Titus lost a three-way tag team match for the ROH World Tag Team Championship. On June 23, S.C.U.M. was forced to disband after being defeated by Team ROH in a Steel Cage Warfare match. Compton returned to ROH in early 2014, feuding with Steen. Compton repeatedly attacked Steen on shows leading up to the 12th Anniversary Show. He lost to Steen in an Unsanctioned Street Fight at the 12th Anniversary Show, in which he suffered a concussion. In May, Compton and Steen found common enemies and defeated Eddie Kingston and Homicide in a Charm City Street Fight. Almost one year later, March 14, 2015, Compton returned to challenge Jay Lethal for a chance to earn a shot at the ROH World Television Championship on the spot. Lethal defeated Compton in a Chicago Street Match to retain the title.

Other media.

In March 2014, Compton and Colt Cabana appeared in a commercial for KFC. In April 2014, a documentary titled, "The Wrestling Road Diaries Too" featuring Compton, Colt Cabana and Drew Hankinson, was released on DVD. Cliff was the latest guest on "The Kevin Steen Show", released in July 2014.

Clifford Treiber (born November 2, 1979) is an American retired professional wrestler better known by his ring names Domino and Cliff Compton. He is best known for his work in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE).

Cliff Compton (né le ) est un ancien catcheur professionnel à la World Wrestling Entertainment dans la division WWE SmackDown, plus connu sous le nom de Domino et faisant équipe avec Deuce.Il fait son retour à la Florida Championship Wrestling le 18 février 2010.


Background.

"The Best of Both Worlds" is a song with influences from dance, rock and country music, and its instrumentation features offbeat electric guitars, upbeat synths and backing vocals. It is set in common time with a tempo of 130 beats per minute. The song is written in the key of C major. Cyrus' vocals span from A to D. The song begins with the chord progression C–G–D–F. The song was written by Matthew Gerrard and Robbie Nevil. The duo wrote three other songs on the "Hannah Montana" soundtrack and continue writing songs for the franchise, including "Nobody's Perfect" and "Ice Cream Freeze (Let's Chill)." Lyrically, the song is one of several songs ("Just Like You", "The Other Side of Me", "Old Blue Jeans", "Ordinary Girl" and "Rock Star") that explicitly allude to Stewart's double life as Montana: regular adolescent that moved from Nashville, Tennessee to Malibu, California by day and pop star by night. In the song, Cyrus sings about the privileges and advantages that are faced in leading in two lives, with references to Orlando Bloom, concerts, friendship and film premieres.

Critical reception.

The song received generally positive reviews from critics. Heather Phares of Allmusic described the song as having "sharper-than-average songwriting" and one of the best tracks from the "Hannah Montana" soundtrack. Chris Willman of "Entertainment Weekly" compared the song to the musical styles of Avril Lavigne, Ashlee Simpson and Britney Spears. However, Willman stated that the concept of "The Best of Both Worlds" was "a nice fantasy for Brangelina, but a weird one to push on little girls".

Chart performance.

The song received low airplay due to it being released to Radio Disney, but not to other mainstream radio stations. The song debuted at number 64 on "Billboard"'s Hot Digital Songs Chart which led to an appearance on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for the week ending August 12, 2006. It debuted and peaked at number 92 on the Hot 100, and stayed on the chart for two weeks. In the same week of its entry on the Hot 100, the song charted at number seventy-one on the Pop 100 and dropped from the chart the following week.  "The Best of Both Worlds" reached higher peak chart positions in Europe. For the week ending February 22, 2007, the song debuted and peaked at number seventeen in the Irish Singles Chart, and dropped out of the chart the following week. The song debuted and peaked at number 43 on the UK Singles Chart dated Feb. 24, 2007, and spent one week on the chart. It became Cyrus's highest peaking single in the United Kingdom, when credited as Hannah Montana. In 2008 it charted in the German Singles Chart, debuting at number 71 and eventually peaking at number 66. It spent a total of seven weeks on the chart.

Live performances.

Cyrus often dressed as the Hannah Montana character when she performed "The Best of Both Worlds" at concerts and promotional television appearances. At the concert taping to promote the first season of "Hannah Montana", Cyrus dressed in boots, jeans, a pink-sequinned blouse, khaki jacket, and blonde wig, to perform "The Best of Both Worlds" and five other songs. She also performed complex choreography and acted out several of the song's lyrics with the background dancers. This performance premiered on Disney Channel as the promotional video for the song and the television series on March 3, 2006. On June 23, 2006, Cyrus performed the song at Disney's Typhoon Lagoon. Cyrus performed the song on twenty dates when she opened for The Cheetah Girls' 2006 concert tour The Party's Just Begun Tour. On October 23, 2006, she performed it on "Good Morning America", and she performed it again the following day on "Live with Regis and Kelly". The following month she performed it at the 2006 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade.  On March 28, 2007, Cyrus appeared as Hannah Montana and performed the song for at Koko. The event was televised on several international Disney Channels. On December 20, 2007, Cyrus performed the song as herself on "The Oprah Winfrey Show". "The Best of Both Worlds" was later performed as the closing number on Cyrus' first headlining Best of Both Worlds Tour. She performed the song as herself, wearing an all-pink outfit composed of a tank top, plaid mini-skirt, sneakers, and a jacket. She most recently performed "The Best of Both Worlds: The 2009 Movie Mix", from the "" soundtrack, with eight other songs, at the concert taping for the third season of "Hannah Montana"; the concert was held on October 10 in Irvine, California at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre.

"The Best of Both Worlds" is a pop rock song performed by American singer and actress Miley Cyrus for the Disney Channel television series "Hannah Montana." Cyrus performs the song as Hannah Montana, who is the alter ego of the series' protagonist Miley Stewart. It was released as the lead single from the "Hannah Montana" soundtrack album on March 18, 2006. "The Best of Both Worlds" is the theme song of the television series; in the series' third season, the 2009 Movie Mix is used as the theme. A live version is available on "Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert" (2008), a karaoke version is included in the soundtrack's karaoke series (2008), and the 2009 Movie Mix is featured on (2009). The song has elements of bubblegum pop and pop rock. Lyrically, it is a showcase of the double life lived by Miley Stewart.

The Best of Both Worlds est le premier single de Miley Cyrus sous le nom Hannah Montana et la chanson thème de la série télé.


History.

The chain's origin can be traced to the Dwarf Grill (now the Dwarf House), a restaurant opened by S. Truett Cathy, the chain's former chairman and CEO, in 1946. The restaurant is located in Hapeville, Georgia, a suburb of Atlanta, and is near the location of the now-demolished Ford Motor Company Atlanta Assembly Plant, for many years a source of many of the restaurant's patrons.  In 1961, after 15 years in the fast food business, Cathy found a pressure-fryer that could cook the chicken sandwich in the same amount of time it took to cook a fast-food hamburger. Following this discovery, he registered the name Chick-fil-A, Inc. The company's trademarked slogan, ""We Didn't Invent the Chicken, Just the Chicken Sandwich,"" refers to their flagship menu item, the Chick-fil-A chicken sandwich.  The first Chick-fil-A opened in 1967, in the food court of the Greenbriar Mall, in a suburb of Atlanta.  Since 1997, the Atlanta-based company has been the title sponsor of the Peach Bowl, an annual college football bowl game played in Atlanta on New Year's Eve. Chick-fil-A also is a key sponsor of the SEC and the ACC of college athletics.  During the 1970s and early 1980s, the chain expanded by opening new locations in suburban malls' food courts. The first freestanding location was opened April 16, 1986, on North Druid Hills Road in Atlanta, Georgia, and the company began to focus more on this stand-alone type unit rather than on the food court type. Although it has expanded outward from its original geographic base, most new restaurants are located in Southern suburban areas.  Before the "Eat mor Chikin" cows, who debuted in 1995, the chicken that is still featured in the chain's logo was Chick-Fil-A's mascot. The name of the mascot is Doodles.  In 2008, Chick-fil-A became the first fast-food restaurant to become completely trans-fat free.  In October 2015, the company opened a three-story 5,000-square-foot restaurant in Manhattan that became the largest free-standing Chick-fil-A in the country at that time.  On December 17, 2017, Chick-fil-A broke their tradition and opened on a Sunday to prepare meals for passengers left stranded during the power outage at Atlanta Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport, and on January 13, 2019, a Chick-fil-A franchise in Mobile, Alabama opened on Sunday to honor a birthday wish of a 14-year-old boy with cerebral palsy and autism.

Business model.

Chick-fil-A's business strategy involves a focus on a simple menu and on good customer service. While other fast food chains often expand their menu offerings to attempt to attract new customers, Chick-fil-A's business model is to remain focused on chicken sandwiches. The name capital A is meant to indicate that their chicken is "grade A top quality". In addition, an emphasis on customer service has allowed Chick-fil-A to consistently lead the fast food industry in customer satisfaction. These factors are seen as the reason for Chick-fil-A's growth and expansion in the United States.  Chick-fil-A retains ownership of each restaurant. Chick-fil-A selects the restaurant location and builds it. Chick-fil-A franchisees need only a $10,000 initial investment to become an operator. Each operator is handpicked and goes through a rigorous training program; the interviews plus training can take months and is not an easy process. Chick-fil-A states on their site:  "This is not the right opportunity for you if you:  Chick-fil-A grossed an average of $4.8 million per restaurant in 2016 (Whataburger was second with $2.7 million per restaurant).

Corporate culture.

S. Truett Cathy was a devout Southern Baptist; his religious beliefs had a major impact on the company. The company's official statement of corporate purpose says that the business exists "To glorify God by being a faithful steward of all that is entrusted to us. To have a positive influence on all who come in contact with Chick-fil-A." Cathy opposed the company becoming public for religious and personal reasons.  Their website states, "The Chick-fil-A culture and service tradition in our Restaurants is to treat every person with honor, dignity and respect –regardless of their belief, race, creed, sexual orientation or gender."

Sunday closure.

The founder's beliefs are responsible for the chain's most well-known and distinctive feature: all Chick-fil-A locations (both corporate owned and franchised) are closed on Sundays, as well as on Thanksgiving and Christmas. Cathy states as the final step in his Five-Step recipe for Business Success "I was not so committed to financial success that I was willing to abandon my principles and priorities. One of the most visible examples of this is our decision to close on Sunday. Our decision to close on Sunday was our way of honoring God and of directing our attention to things that mattered more than our business."  In an interview with ABC News's "Nightline", Truett's son Dan T. Cathy told reporter Vicki Mabrey that the company is also closed on Sundays because "by the time Sunday came, he was just worn out. And Sunday was not a big trading day, anyway, at the time. So he was closed that first Sunday and we've been closed ever since. He figured if he didn't like working on Sundays, that other people didn't either." The younger Cathy also quoted his father as saying, "I don't want to ask people to do that what I am not willing to do myself."  Chick-fil-A's Sunday closures extend to non-traditional locations. In addition to countless shopping malls and airports, a Chick-fil-A location at Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta is closed on Sundays despite the fact that its main tenant, the Atlanta Falcons, plays most of their home games on Sundays. The location is open when the Falcons have a Monday night, Thursday night or Saturday home game, as well as non-Sunday home games of Atlanta United FC and other events at the stadium. The Chick-fil-A remained closed for Super Bowl LIII. On Sundays, the digital signs are flipped and concessionaire Levy Restaurants sells nonbranded food and drinks at the location.

Plan to raise its chickens without antibiotics.

According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), antibiotics used in livestock, many of which are also used to treat humans, have contributed to the rise of dangerous bacteria. In December 2012, the FDA announced plans to phase out certain antibiotics in the food production industry.  In February 2014, Chick-fil-A announced plans to serve chicken raised without antibiotics in its restaurants nationwide within five years. Chick-fil-A is the first quick service restaurant to set forth a plan and commit to serving only poultry raised without antibiotics.

Recipe changes.

In 2011, food blogger and activist Vani Hari wrote a post titled "Chick-fil-A or Chemical Fil-A?" on her website, FoodBabe.com. She asserted that Chick-fil-A sandwiches contained nearly 100 ingredients, including peanut oil with TBHQ. In October 2012, Chick-fil-A invited Hari to meet with company executives at its Atlanta, GA headquarters. In December 2013, Chick-fil-A notified Hari that it had eliminated the dye Yellow No. 5 and had reduced the sodium content in its chicken soup. The company also said that it is testing a peanut oil that does not contain TBHQ and that it would start testing sauces and dressings made without high-fructose corn syrup in 2014.

International locations.

Canada.

In September 1994, Chick-fil-A opened its first location outside of the United States inside a student center food court at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. This location did not perform very well and was closed within two or three years. The company returned to the province of Alberta by opening an outlet at the Calgary International Airport in Calgary in May 2014. This restaurant closed in 2019.  In July 2018, Chick-fil-A announced plans to expand within Canada by opening a new restaurant in Toronto, Ontario, in 2019. That location opened on 6 September 2019 in the Yonge and Bloor Street area with protesters criticizing the violation of animal rights and the company's "history of supporting anti-LGBTQ causes". Chick-fil-A announced that it would open two other locations in Toronto during 2019, and 12 additional stores in the Greater Toronto Area over the subsequent five years.

South Africa.

In August 1996, Chick-fil-A opened its first location outside of North America by building a restaurant in Durban, South Africa. A second location was opened in Johannesburg in November 1997. Since none of the South African locations were profitable, all of these locations were closed in 2001.

United Kingdom.

A Chick-fil-A operated in Edinburgh during Spring 2018. On October 10, 2019, Chick-fil-A returned to Europe, with the opening of a store at The Oracle shopping centre in Reading, UK. The store closed in March 2020 after The Oracle opted not to continue the lease of the location beyond the six-month pilot period in the face of continued protests over the chain's anti-LGBTQ stance.  In February 2019 Chick-fil-A opened a store on a 12-month pilot scheme in Aviemore, Scotland. The Store was closed in January 2020 amidst protest and controversy from locals and customers regarding the chains anti-LGBT stance.

Advertising.

"Eat Mor Chikin" is the chain's most prominent advertising slogan, created by The Richards Group in 1995. The slogan is often seen in advertisements, featuring Holstein dairy cows that are often seen wearing (or holding) signs that (usually) read: "Eat Mor Chikin" in all capital letters. The ad campaign was temporarily halted during a mad cow disease scare on January 1, 2004, so as not to make the chain seem insensitive or appear to be taking advantage of the scare to increase its sales. Two months later, the cows were put up again. The cows replaced the chain's old mascot, Doodles, an anthropomorphized chicken who still appears as the C on the logo.  Chick-fil-A vigorously protects its intellectual property, sending cease and desist letters to those they think have infringed on their trademarks. The corporation has successfully protested at least 30 instances of the use of an "eat more" phrase, saying that the use would cause confusion of the public, dilute the distinctiveness of their intellectual property, and diminish its value.  A 2011 letter to Vermont artist Bo Muller-Moore who screen prints T-shirts reading: "Eat More Kale" demanded that he cease printing the shirts and turn over his website. The incident drew criticism from Vermont governor Peter Shumlin, and created backlash against what he termed Chick-fil-A's "corporate bullying." On December 11, 2014, Bo Muller-Moore announced that the U.S. Patent Office granted his application to trademark his "Eat More Kale" phrase. A formal announcement of his victory took place on December 12, 2014, with Shumlin and other supporters on the Statehouse steps. His public fight drew regional and national attention, the support of Shumlin, and a team of pro-bono law students from the University of New Hampshire legal clinic.  After 22 years with The Richards Group, Chick-fil-A switched to McCann New York in 2016. Along with the cows, ads included famous people in history in a campaign called "Chicken for Breakfast. It's not as crazy as you think."

Same-sex marriage controversy.

In June and July 2012, Chick-fil-A's chief operating officer Dan T. Cathy made several public statements about same-sex marriage, saying that those who "have the audacity to define what marriage is about" were "inviting God's judgment on our nation". Several prominent politicians expressed disapproval. Boston Mayor Thomas Menino and Chicago Alderman Proco "Joe" Moreno said they hoped to block franchise expansion into their areas. The proposed bans drew criticism from liberal pundits, legal experts, and the American Civil Liberties Union. The Jim Henson Company, which had a "Pajanimals" kids' meal toy licensing arrangement with Chick-fil-A, said it would cease its business relationship, and donate the payment to the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation. Chick-fil-A stopped distributing the toys, claiming that unrelated safety concerns had arisen prior to the controversy. Chick-fil-A released a statement on July 31, 2012, saying, "We are a restaurant company focused on food, service, and hospitality; our intent is to leave the policy debate over same-sex marriage to the government and political arena."  In response to the controversy, former Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee initiated a Chick-fil-A Appreciation Day movement to counter a boycott of Chick-fil-A launched by same-sex marriage activists. The United States Federal Aviation Administration also responded to two cities that were preventing Chick-fil-A from opening in their international airport.  In April 2018, Chick-fil-A reportedly continued to donate to the Fellowship of Christian Athletes, which opposes gay marriage. In a November 18, 2019 interview, Chick-fil-A president Tim Tassopoulos said the company would stop donating to The Salvation Army and the Fellowship of Christian Athletes. On January 8, 2020, it was announced that Chick-fil-A began funding a pro-LGBTQ charitable organization that concentrates on providing food and shelter to homeless and runaway young adults.

Related restaurants.

Hapeville Dwarf House.

Truett Cathy opened his first restaurant, The Dwarf Grill – later renamed the Dwarf House – in Hapeville, Georgia, in 1946, and developed the pressure-cooked chicken breast sandwich there. At the original Chick-fil-A Dwarf Grill, in addition to the full-size entrances, there is also an extra small-sized front door. The original Dwarf House in Hapeville, Georgia is open 24 hours a day, six days a week, except on Sundays, Thanksgiving, and Christmas. The store closes at 10:00 p.m. on Saturday nights, and the day before Thanksgiving and Christmas and reopens at 6 a.m. on Monday mornings and day after Thanksgiving and Christmas. It has a larger dine-in menu than the other Dwarf House locations as well as an animated seven dwarfs display in the back of the restaurant. It was across the street from the former Ford Motor Company factory called Atlanta Assembly.

Dwarf House.

Truett's original, full-service restaurants offer a substantial menu and provide customers a choice of table service, walk-up counter service or a drive-thru window., 13 Chick-fil-A Dwarf House restaurants were operating in the metro Atlanta area.

Truett's Grill.

In 1996, the first Truett's Grill was opened in Morrow, Georgia. The second location opened in 2003 in McDonough, Georgia, and a third location opened in 2006 in Griffin, Georgia. Similar to the Chick-fil-A Dwarf Houses, these independently owned restaurants offer traditional, sit-down dining and expanded menu selections in a diner-themed dinner. In 2017, Chick-fil-A demolished several Dwarf House locations to replace them with Truett's Grill locations.

Menu.

Based on data from 2018, the most popular (most ordered) item was the waffle fries followed by soft drinks, chicken nuggets, and the original chicken sandwich. These items should be available at every franchise location with some locations offering the full menu or close to the full menu. The full list of menu items and nutrition information can be found on Chick-fil-A's website.

Chick-fil-A (, a play on the American English pronunciation of "fillet") is one of the largest American fast food restaurant chains and the largest whose specialty is chicken sandwiches. Its headquarters is in College Park, Georgia. Chick-fil-A was originally founded as the Dwarf Grill in 1946, changing the name to 'Dwarf House' until rebranding as Chick-fil-A in 1967. The company operates more than 2,300 restaurants, primarily in the United States with locations in 47 states and plans for a location in Hawaii to be the 48th state. The restaurant serves breakfast before transitioning to its lunch and dinner menu. Chick-fil-A also offers customers catered selections from its menu for special events.

Chick-fil-A est une chaîne de restauration rapide américaine spécialisée dans les plats à base de poulet. La société a son siège à Atlanta, dans l'État de Géorgie, et est la deuxième plus grande marque de fast-food spécialisée dans le poulet aux États-Unis. Chick-fil-A est souvent associée aux États américains du sud mais la chaîne s'est récemment étendue dans le sud-ouest et dans le Midwest. En juillet 2006, le groupe possède plus de points de vente à travers et Washington.