Career.

Jeff Hatrix was the co-founder, and clean vocalist of the Cleveland-based industrial metal band, Mushroomhead. He was also the singer of Cleveland-based thrash metal band called Hatrix, as well as fronting the band Purgatory in the mid 80s. Hatrix also plays guitar in the band Foose, under the stage name "Bob Keeshan." In June 2007, Hatrix launched his own clothing line. The designs are currently in the works, and more are expected to be released soon. In 2011, Hatrix began to pursue acting, and is starring in the upcoming movie "13th Sign" with ex-Mushroomhead vocalist Waylon Reavis.  On New Year's Day 2011, Hatrix announced that "The New Psychodalia" album will be "Coming Very Soon" Via his personal Facebook account. In June 2011, Jeffrey's solo band Nothing signed to Suburban noize records.  When asked about the upcoming record, Hatrix stated: "The whole album is about escaping reality. People choose a variety of ways to feel better in the face of the depression that can be caused by trying to survive in a world that can seem completely uncaring and smothering,” commented Nothing about the album. “‘The New Psychodalia’ is like a new safe hallucinogenic that makes all the ugliness in the world beautiful, with no harmful side effects. The entire album is kind of like a twisted, thought provoking view of the truths. It exposes the lies of the American dream that has really become more of a nightmare.”  On August 22, 2011, Hatrix debuted the first single from "The New Psychodalia" on RevolverMag.com  On March 7, 2018, Hatrix announced that he had left Mushroomhead.  Hatrix will be appearing in the upcoming horror film Dwellers which is being directed by Drew Fortier and produced by David Ellefson & Thom Hazaert via their newly formed production company Ellefson Films.

All bands and projects.

Here are all the bands or projects that Hatrix has been in:

Discography.

With White Heat  With Purgatory  With Mushroomhead  As Jeffrey Nothing

Jeffrey Nothing, also known as Jeff Hatrix (born Jeffrey Lewis Hetrick May 5, 1963) is an American singer-songwriter and musician. He is best known as the former clean vocalist for American alternative metal and industrial metal band Mushroomhead. His nickname comes from a scene in "Blue Velvet". With a wide variety of face paint and mask designs, Jeffrey's most known look is that of a butcher. However, he revealed a new look in the music video of "Your Soul Is Mine", showing a tan skin mask that somewhat resembles the infamous "Leatherface" from the "Texas Chainsaw Massacre movies". Two of his masks were made from face-molds of famous actors Christopher Lloyd & Bela Lugosi. His most recent incarnation is that of a mask resembling human hands. He is signed as a solo artist to Suburban Noize Records.

Jeffrey Lewis Hetrick (né le ) plus connu sous le nom de Jeffrey Nothing au sein du groupe de metal alternatif Mushroomhead, est l'un des chanteurs de ce dernier avec Waylon Reavis.


Formation.

Although Mount Everest as a mountaineering objective had been on the horizon of British alpinists for some time – Clinton Thomas Dent writing in 1885, had sketched the idea of an ascent and Dr A. M. Kellas's study 'A Consideration of the Possibility of Ascending the Loftier Himalaya' of 1916 had asserted that it was certainly possible physiologically – the initiative to form the Mount Everest Committee came from a talk given to the Royal Geographical Society in 1919 by Captain John Noel about his travels in the Everest region, and the resultant discussion.  In 1920, at the behest of Sir Francis Younghusband (the first Chairman of the Committee), Colonel Charles Howard-Bury – the leader of the 1921 expedition – persuaded Sir Charles Bell to use his considerable influence with Tibetan officials to negotiate permission for a passage to Mount Everest from the northern side (the Nepalese approaches from the south were closed to foreign entry). Permission was granted by the Tibetan government for the British to proceed in the following year, 1921.  To co-ordinate and finance the reconnaissance expedition, a joint body – the Mount Everest Committee – was formed, composed of high-ranking members of the two interested parties – the Alpine Club and the Royal Geographical Society.  According to Sir Francis Younghusband: The first serious attempt on the summit was on the 1922 expedition. However, a diplomatic debacle after the 1924 expedition, later known as the Affair of the Dancing Lamas led to expeditions being banned until 1933. The embarrassment to the committee was so great that the affair was covered up for over fifty years.

1953 Everest expedition.

Background.

The Committee began the organisation for the full-scale 1953 attempt (in case the Swiss attempt in 1952 failed) in 1951, when it arranged the 1951 reconnaissance expedition.  In 1952, the following year, the Cho Oyu expedition was undertaken, which was also to test oxygen apparatus for 1953. But Cho Oyu was not climbed. Members included Edmund Hillary. Hunt had asked earlier Everest climbers for comments on his 1953 plans; Teddy Norton advised him that previous assault camps had been too low, and that in 1953 it should be on or very close under the Southern Summit.

Selecting members.

John Hunt, the leader of the 1953 expedition, decided to recruit British and Commonwealth members (New Zealand and Kenya had potential members) rather than an "international" team, and the two New Zealand members not known to Hunt (Hillary and Lowe) were known to Shipton and others. He wanted climbers experienced in snow and ice (not rock climbers) and between 25 and 40 (although Band was 23 and Hunt himself was 42). A "large" party of ten was required, plus an expedition doctor; so Ward (doctor), Pugh (physiologist, sponsored by the Medical Research Council) and Stobart (cameraman, sponsored by Countryman Films) were added. A few months later Tenzing was invited to join the climbing party.  There were five reserve mountaineers also prepared to assist the expedition: J. H. Emlyn Jones, John Jackson, Anthony Rawlinson, Hamish Nicol and Jack Tucker. The various British mountaineering clubs had been requested to submit lists of qualified candidates to be considered by the Committee, "whose responsibility it was to issue the formal invitations".

Financing.

According to Hunt, the Committee's responsibility for drumming up funds for the 1953 expedition was not a welcome one: A number of organisations contributed to the Committee, including "The Times" newspaper, which had also supported earlier expeditions.

Success.

On 2 June, four days after the successful ascent, Hunt sent a runner to 'carry messages to Namche Bazar, to go thence by the good offices of the Indian wireless station to Kathmandu. Cables of humble appreciation were sent to the Queen and the Prime Minister, another to the Himalayan Committee saying that I proposed to bring Tenzing and Hillary to England – George Lowe had already planned to come.'

The Mount Everest Committee was a body formed by the Alpine Club and the Royal Geographical Society to co-ordinate and finance the 1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition to Mount Everest and all subsequent British expeditions to climb the mountain until 1947. It was then renamed the Joint Himalayan Committee; this latter committee organised and financed the successful first ascent of Mount Everest in 1953.

Le est un groupe créé par l'Alpine Club et la "Royal Geographical Society" pour coordonner et financer l'expédition britannique de 1921 visant à explorer l'Everest. Il encadrera toutes les expéditions britanniques pour faire l'ascension du sommet jusqu'en 1947, date à laquelle il a été rebaptisé Joint Himalayan Committee. Il a ensuite financé la première ascension victorieuse de l'Everest en 1953.


Early use.

In 1831 the mathematician Ludwig Immanuel Magnus began to publish on transformations of the plane generated by inversion in a circle of radius "R". His work initiated a large body of publications, now called inversive geometry. The most prominently named mathematician became August Ferdinand Möbius once he reduced the planar transformations to complex number arithmetic. In the company of physicists employing the inversion transformation early on was Lord Kelvin, and the association with him leads it to be called the Kelvin transform.

Transformation on coordinates.

In the following we shall use imaginary time (formula_1) so that space-time is Euclidean and the equations are simpler. The Poincaré transformations are given by the coordinate transformation on space-time parametrized by the 4-vectors "V"  where formula_3 is an orthogonal matrix and formula_4 is a 4-vector. Applying this transformation twice on a 4-vector gives a third transformation of the same form. The basic invariant under this transformation is the space-time length given by the distance between two space-time points given by 4-vectors "x" and "y":  These transformations are subgroups of general 1-1 conformal transformations on space-time. It is possible to extend these transformations to include all 1-1 conformal transformations on space-time  We must also have an equivalent condition to the orthogonality condition of the Poincaré transformations:  Because one can divide the top and bottom of the transformation by formula_8 we lose no generality by setting formula_9 to the unit matrix. We end up with  Applying this transformation twice on a 4-vector gives a transformation of the same form. The new symmetry of 'inversion' is given by the 3-tensor formula_11 This symmetry becomes Poincaré symmetry if we set formula_12 When formula_13 the second condition requires that formula_3 is an orthogonal matrix. This transformation is 1-1 meaning that each point is mapped to a unique point only if we theoretically include the points at infinity.

Invariants.

The invariants for this symmetry in 4 dimensions is unknown however it is known that the invariant requires a minimum of 4 space-time points. In one dimension, the invariant is the well known cross-ratio from Möbius transformations:  Because the only invariants under this symmetry involve a minimum of 4 points, this symmetry cannot be a symmetry of point particle theory. Point particle theory relies on knowing the lengths of paths of particles through space-time (e.g., from formula_16 to formula_17). The symmetry can be a symmetry of a string theory in which the strings are uniquely determined by their endpoints. The propagator for this theory for a string starting at the endpoints formula_18 and ending at the endpoints formula_19 is a conformal function of the 4-dimensional invariant. A string field in endpoint-string theory is a function over the endpoints.

Physical evidence.

Although it is natural to generalize the Poincaré transformations in order to find hidden symmetries in physics and thus narrow down the number of possible theories of high-energy physics, it is difficult to experimentally examine this symmetry as it is not possible to transform an object under this symmetry. The indirect evidence of this symmetry is given by how accurately fundamental theories of physics that are invariant under this symmetry make predictions. Other indirect evidence is whether theories that are invariant under this symmetry lead to contradictions such as giving probabilities greater than 1. So far there has been no direct evidence that the fundamental constituents of the Universe are strings. The symmetry could also be a broken symmetry meaning that although it is a symmetry of physics, the Universe has 'frozen out' in one particular direction so this symmetry is no longer evident.

Synology Inc. () is a Taiwanese corporation that specializes in Network-attached storage (NAS) appliances. Synology’s line of NAS is known as the DiskStation for desktop models, FlashStation for all-flash models, and RackStation for rack-mount models. Synology's products are distributed worldwide and localized in several languages. Synology's headquarters are located in Taipei, Taiwan, with subsidiaries located around the world.

Synology Inc. est une entreprise taïwanaise fondée en et spécialisée dans les serveurs Network Attached Storage (NAS). Son siège social se situe dans la ville de Taipei, à Taïwan.


History.

In a letter of 1 September 1077, Pope Gregory VII wrote to the bishops, clergy, civil leaders, and people of Corsica, acknowledging his responsibility for oversight of their well-being as part of the lands of S. Peter, but admitting that he was unable to do so personally and effectively. He had therefore appointed Bishop-elect Landulfus of Pisa to be his legate in Corsica. On 30 November 1078, Pope Gregory confirmed all the privileges that belonged to the Church of Pisa, as well as the legateship of Corsica. He granted the bishop half of all the papal income from the island, as well as all of the judicial income ("de placitis"). On 28 June 1091, Pope Urban II, at the request of Countess Matilda of Tuscany, Bishop Dagobert, and the nobility of Pisa, returned the legateship of the island of Corsica to Bishop Dagobert, on the condition of an annual payment of 50 pounds (Luccan) to the papal treasury.  On 21 April 1092, Pope Urban issued the bull "Cum Universis", in which he created the metropolitanate of Pisa, promoting the bishop to the rank of archbishop, and assigning the bishoprics of Corsica as his suffragans. This he did at the request of Countess Matilda of Tuscany and in consideration of the considerable merits of Bishop Dagibert in remaining faithful to the Roman church in the face of the schism against Pope Gregory VII. Pope Gelasius II, who was staying in Pisa from 2 September to 2 October 1118, confirmed the arrangements in a bull of 26 September 1118. After the death of Pope Gelasius at Cluny on 29 January 1119, Archbishop Petrus and Cardinal Petrus della Gherardesca dei Conti di Donoratico, a native of Pisa and papal legate, crossed to Corsica to receive to obtain the oaths of fealty of the bishops of Corsica.  Pope Gelasius' bull was an unpleasant shock for Genoa, who coveted the island of Corsica, and a war broke out in 1119 between the two naval powers. The Genoese sent out a fleet of 28 galleys, but in a battle at Porto Venere the Pisans were victorious, as they were at a second battle at the mouth of the Arno River. The war lasted a total of fourteen years. On 16 May 1120, the new pope, Calixtus II, who had been elected at Cluny in France and had just returned to Italy, issued a bull confirming the privileges of Urban II and Gelasius II.  But on 3 January 1121, Pope Calixtus wrote to the bishops of Corsica that the privilege of consecrating bishops for Corsica, which had been granted to the Archbishops of Pisa, was withdrawn, and that in the future only the Pope would have the right to consecrate bishops for Corsica and to receive their oaths of submission. The Genoese were not mollified by the Pope's action. They resorted to bribery to obtain what they had not obtained by military force. A document, written in Rome and dated 16 June 1121, reveals that negotiations had been taking place, with the agreement and authorization of Pope Calixtus, between the Genoese agents, Caffaro and Barisone, and a committee of three cardinals and a bishop on the question of Corsica. The Genoese had agreed to give money to the Pope and other members of the Curia by 10 November. The Pope was to receive 1,600 silver marks; cardinals and bishops 300 marks; priests and clerics 50 ounces of gold; Cardinal Peter of Porto 303 ounces of gold; Petrus Leonis 100 silver marks, and his sons 55 marks; Leo Frangipane 40 marks; and additional payments to other nobles.  The opportune moment to satisfy the Genoans came when Calixtus II convened the First Lateran Council on 27 March 1123, to ratify the Concordat of Worms and end the schism instigated by the Emperor Henry V. The Pope appointed a committee, consisting of 24 bishops and other prelates, led by Archbishop Gualterius of Ravenna (a personal enemy of the Archbishop of Pisa), to examine and render a judgment on the claims of the Church of Pisa over Corsica. On 6 April, the last day of the Council, the claims of Pisa were rejected by the Fathers, after the damning report of Archbishop Gualterius.  The loss was temporary, however, for, on 21 July 1126, the new pope, Honorius II, restored the privilege, and granted the archbishops the right of holding synods not only in Pisa, but also in Corsica. He took the trouble to rebuke Calixtus II and his committee, stating that the Pisans had been despoiled "sine praecedente ipsorum Pisanorum culpa et absque iudicio" ('without any preceding crime on the part of the Pisans and without a judicial hearing').  In 1127, Archbishop Ruggero, who had leagued himself with Arezzo and Florence, made war against Siena. He was taken prisoner, and spent more than a year in captivity.  On March 1133, Pope Innocent elevated Genoa to the status of an archbishopric, and assigned it metropolitan status over Mariana, Nebbio, and Accia (on Corsica); Bobbio, and Brugnato (newly created), to which was added the diocese of Albenga, formerly in the Metropolitanate of Milan. The Pope also enfeoffed Genoa with the northern half of the island. The archdiocese of Pisa therefore lost ecclesiastical control of the northern half of the island of Corsica, retaining the dioceses of Ajaccio, Aleria, and Salona. Pisa was compensated, to a small degree, by being named Metropolitan of Populonia (Massa Maritima). These grants, which had been made to Archbishop Hubertus, were confirmed in the bull "Tunc Apostolicae" on 22 April 1138, and in addition Innocent II granted Pisa the honorary primacy of the province of Turritana. He also confirmed the legateship over Sardinia which had been granted by Urban II, and the right to consecrate the six bishops in his ecclesiastical province.  From the late 12th to the early 13th century, the Pisan archdiocese was the feudal suzerain of the four "giudicati" of Sardinia. On 6 March 1131, Gonnario of Torres swore fealty to Archbishop Ruggero of Pisa.  On 22 April 1459, Pope Pius II issued the bull "Triumphans Pastor", in which he raised the diocese of Siena to metropolitan status, and assigned to it as suffragans the dioceses of Soano, Chiusi, Massa Marittima (Populonia), and Grosseto. Massa was taken from the metropolitanate of Pisa.

Council of Pisa of Innocent II.

From 30 May 1135 to 6 June 1135, Innocent II held a council in Pisa, having been driven from Rome a second time by the supporters of Pope Anacletus II. In Pisa, with the encouragement of Bernard of Clairvaux, who was travelling with him and supporting his cause, he summoned a council of bishops. The number of attendees is not known, but it is said that bishops from Spain, Gascony, England, France, Burgundy, Germany, Hungary, Lombardy, and Tuscany attended. Innocent II excommunicated his rival, Anacletus II, and all his followers. In the council, it was ordered that all clergy who had married should separate from their wives. It ordered all simoniacs to leave their offices. It ordered that no one should be an archdeacon or a dean who was not ordained a deacon or priest. Such honors should not be granted to adolescents. It granted the right of asylum to churches and cemeteries.

Schism.

At the instigation of the German Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, a double election took place in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome on 7 September 1159, a considerable majority of cardinals supporting Pope Alexander III (Orlando Bandinelli), and a small minority supporting Ottaviano of Monticelli, who took the name Victor IV. The archbishop of Pisa, Villano Villani, supported Pope Alexander. In 1164, after the death of Victor, Barbarossa promoted Cardinal Guido of Crema as Paschal III. In 1167 Barbarossa began a fourth war in Italy, and he and his pope Paschal ordered the leaders of Pisa to elect an archbishop to replace the loyal Villano, who had already been sent into exile in 1163 and 1164, and was again in flight from imperial agents. On 8 April 1167, the leaders of Pisa, who were loyal to the Emperor, chose a Canon of the cathedral, Benencasa, and he and the Pisans travelled to Viterbo, where the antipope ordained him a priest on Holy Saturday and consecrated him a bishop on Easter Monday. They returned to Pisa on 23 May 1167.

General Council of Pisa.

In the spring of 1408, Pisa became directly involved in the struggles of the Western Schism, which had been tormenting Christendom for thirty years. Gregory XII, who had been driven from Rome on 9 August 1407, was staying in Lucca, where, in May 1408, he created several new cardinals. He did this in violation of two solemn oaths he had taken, and without consulting the cardinals. When they objected and refused to attend the installation ceremonies, Gregory ordered them arrested. One by one the cardinals fled from Lucca, and sought refuge in Pisa. On 29 June 1408, thirteen cardinals (who held the proxies of two more cardinals) met at Livorno, in the diocese of Pisa, and issued a statement calling for a general council of the Church to address and end the schism. Their document was later subscribed by four additional cardinals. The Council of Pisa held its first session in the cathedral in Pisa on 25 March 1409. Archbishop Alamanno Adimari (1406–1411) was present. Both Gregory and Benedict XIII were deposed and excommunicated on 5 June 1409, having failed to answer repeated summonses from the Council to answer the charges against them.

Papal conclave.

With both popes deposed, a new pope was needed. The Council discussed the possibility of intervention or participation in the selection, but it was decided to leave the cardinals to their canonical duty, so that no cause of complaint could be lodged. The cardinals in Pisa decided to wait the canonical ten days after the decease of a pope to begin their conclave, even though no pope had died. Twenty-three cardinals entered conclave, which was held in the archbishop's palace in the cathedral close, on 15 June 1411; they were joined by a twenty-fourth on 16 June. On 26 June, they elected unanimously the Cardinal of Milan, Pietro Filargi, OFM, who took the name Alexander V. He was crowned on 7 July 1411, on a platform erected in the square before the cathedral of Pisa.

Conciliabulum of Pisa.

In 1511, at the instigation of King Louis XII of France, a meeting was held in Pisa, summoned by four cardinals led by Bernardino Carvajal, which called itself a general council. Others called it the conciliabulum Pisanum. Only two archbishops, fourteen bishops, and a number of French abbots attended. The "little council" held its first session on 5 November 1511. It attempted to take measures to depose Pope Julius II. The people of Pisa attempted to close the doors of the cathedral against the meeting, and their hostility, after three sessions, drove the bishops to adjourn their sessions to Milan, where they met on 13 December.

Chapter and cathedral.

The cathedral of Pisa, begun in 1063 and consecrated by Pope Gelasius II in 1118, was dedicated originally to the Virgin as S. Maria (Maggiore), and then more specifically to the taking of the body of the Virgin Mary up into heaven (Assumption).  The cathedral was staffed and administered by a corporate body called the Chapter ("Capitulum)", which was originally composed of five dignities and (at one point) twenty-eight Canons. The dignities were: the Archpriest, the Archdeacon, the Dean, the Primicerius, and the Vicedominus. In 1702, there were only three dignities and twenty-five Canons.

Diocesan synods.

Archbishop Matteo Rinuccini (1577–1582) presided over a diocesan synod in 1582. Archbishop Francesco Bonciani, (1613-1620) held a diocesan synod in Pisa in 1615 {1616, Pisan style).  Synods were also held by: Archbishop Giuliano de' Medici (1620-1635) in 1624 [1625, Pisan]; Archbishop Scipione Pannocchieschi (1636–1663) on 20–21 June 1639 and again in 1649 [1650, Pisan], and another in 1659; and Archbishop Francesco Pannocchieschi (1663–1702) on 11–12 May 1666, and again in 1677 [1678, Pisan].  Archbishop Francesco Frosini (1702-1733) held three diocesan synods: on 6–8 July 1707 [1708, Pisan); on 30–31 July 1716 [1717, Pisan]; and on 31 July 1725 [1726, Pisan].  A special assembly ("conventus") was held in Pisa from 5–12 May 1850, summoned by Archbishop Giovanni Battista Parretti (1839-1851), and including his suffragan bishops (Pontremoli, Massa Maritima, Livorno), and, at his invitation, the Archbishop of Lucca, the Bishop of Pescia, and the Vicar Capitular of Volterra (which were immediately subject to the pope). Delegates of the various cathedral Chapters were also invited. The meeting was occasioned by the revolution in Rome, which had deposed Pope Pius IX from his position as head of the Papal States and seen him flee from the city in disguise to a refuge in Neapolitan territory. The meeting was, in fact, sanctioned by Pope Pius.

New dioceses and suffragans.

In a bull of 17 March 1726, Pescia was established as a diocese by Pope Benedict XIII, and was for a long time immediately subject to the Holy See (Papacy). On 1 August 1856, Pope Pius IX, in the bull "Ubi Primum", made Pescia a suffragan of (subordinate to) the archbishop of Pisa.  The diocese of Livorno was created by Pope Pius VII in the bull "Militantis Ecclesiae" of 25 September 1806, at the urging of Queen Maria Luisa, Regent of Tuscany. The erection was opposed both by the Archdiocese of Pisa and the Canons of San Miniato, who would lose territory, power, and income from the change. The new diocese was made a suffragan of the archbishop of Pisa.

The Archdiocese of Pisa () is a metropolitan see of the Catholic Church in Italy. It was founded in the 4th century and elevated to the dignity of an archdiocese on 21 April 1092 by Pope Urban II. The seat of the bishop is the cathedral of the Assumption in the Piazza del Duomo.

L' archidiocèse de Pise (en latin :'; en italien : ') est un archidiocèse métropolitain de l'Église catholique d'Italie appartenant à la région ecclésiastique de Toscane.


Examples.

Water.

The biological half-life of water in a human is about 7 to 14 days. It can be altered by behavior. Drinking large amounts of alcohol will reduce the biological half-life of water in the body. This has been used to decontaminate humans who are internally contaminated with tritiated water (tritium). The basis of this decontamination method (used at Harwell) is to increase the rate at which the water in the body is replaced with new water.

Alcohol.

The removal of ethanol (drinking alcohol) through oxidation by alcohol dehydrogenase in the liver from the human body is limited. Hence the removal of a large concentration of alcohol from blood may follow zero-order kinetics. Also the rate-limiting steps for one substance may be in common with other substances. For instance, the blood alcohol concentration can be used to modify the biochemistry of methanol and ethylene glycol. In this way the oxidation of methanol to the toxic formaldehyde and formic acid in the human body can be prevented by giving an appropriate amount of ethanol to a person who has ingested methanol. Note that methanol is very toxic and causes blindness and death. A person who has ingested ethylene glycol can be treated in the same way. Half life is also relative to the subjective metabolic rate of the individual in question.

Metals.

The biological half-life of caesium in humans is between one and four months. This can be shortened by feeding the person prussian blue. The prussian blue in the digestive system acts as a solid ion exchanger which absorbs the caesium while releasing potassium ions.  For some substances, it is important to think of the human or animal body as being made up of several parts, each with their own affinity for the substance, and each part with a different biological half-life (physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modelling). Attempts to remove a substance from the whole organism may have the effect of increasing the burden present in one part of the organism. For instance, if a person who is contaminated with lead is given EDTA in a chelation therapy, then while the rate at which lead is lost from the body will be increased, the lead within the body tends to relocate into the brain where it can do the most harm.

Peripheral half-life.

Some substances may have different half-lives in different parts of the body. For example, oxytocin has a half-life of typically about three minutes in the blood when given intravenously. Peripherally administered (e.g. intravenous) peptides like oxytocin cross the blood-brain-barrier very poorly, although very small amounts (< 1%) do appear to enter the central nervous system in humans when given via this route. In contrast to peripheral administration, when administered intranasally via a nasal spray, oxytocin reliably crosses the blood–brain barrier and exhibits psychoactive effects in humans. In addition, also unlike the case of peripheral administration, intranasal oxytocin has a central duration of at least 2.25 hours and as long as 4 hours. In likely relation to this fact, endogenous oxytocin concentrations in the brain have been found to be as much as 1000-fold higher than peripheral levels.

Rate equations.

First-order elimination.

Half-times apply to processes where the elimination rate is exponential. If formula_3 is the concentration of a substance at time formula_4, its time dependence is given by where "k" is the reaction rate constant. Such a decay rate arises from a first-order reaction where the rate of elimination is proportional to the amount of the substance:  The half-life for this process is  Half-life is determined by clearance (CL) and volume of distribution (V) and the relationship is described by the following equation:  In clinical practice, this means that it takes 4 to 5 times the half-life for a drug's serum concentration to reach steady state after regular dosing is started, stopped, or the dose changed. So, for example, digoxin has a half-life (or t) of 24–36 h; this means that a change in the dose will take the best part of a week to take full effect. For this reason, drugs with a long half-life (e.g., amiodarone, elimination t of about 58 days) are usually started with a loading dose to achieve their desired clinical effect more quickly.

Biphasic half-life.

Many drugs follow a biphasic elimination curve — first a steep slope then a shallow slope: The longer half-life is called the "terminal half-life" and the half-life of the largest component is called the "dominant half-life." For a more detailed description see Pharmacokinetics § Multi-compartmental models.

Biological half-life (also known as Elimination half-life, Pharmacologic half-life and formula_1) of a biological substance such as medication is the time it takes from its "maximum concentration (C)" to half maximum concentration in human body, and is denoted by the abbreviation formula_2.

La période biologique ou demi-vie biologique d'un élément chimique est le temps au bout duquel la moitié d’une quantité ingérée ou inhalée (telle une drogue ou un radioisotope) est éliminée de l’organisme, ou a perdu son activité biologique, par des processus purement biologiques (métabolisation, excrétion), à ne pas confondre avec la demi-vie écologique (temps nécessaire à la disparition de 50 % de la quantité initiale d'une corps chimique, non pas dans l'organisme, mais dans l'environnement où des facteurs de dilution, lessivage, éventuelle reconcentation, etc. sont aussi en jeu.)


Early life.

Although related to the Song imperial family, Emperor Lizong was only distantly related as he was the 10th generation descendant of the founding Song Emperor, Emperor Taizu more than 250 years before. Emperor Lizong spent his childhood in obscurity living away from the imperial court in Shaoxing, Zhejiang as a minor official. One rainy day in his early teens, along with his younger brother Zhao Yurui, Lizong stood huddling under a bridge along with an official, Yu Tianxi, who was sent by Chancellor Shi Miyuan tasked to locate a suitable successor to the Song throne as the incumbent crown prince Zhao Xun has recently passed away at the age of 29. After discovering the true identity of this teenager, Yu quickly informed Shi Miyuan who agreed to groom Lizong to be replaced as the crown prince. It is said that Lizong was serious, studious, mostly silent, and wise before assuming the throne. When Ningzong died in 1224, Shi Miyuan told Lizong to enter the throne room and then ordered Zhao Hong, then the current crown prince into the room. Shi Miyuan subsequently declared Lizong emperor and according to history, he was wearing a white robe and the lights reflected his shadow on the throne. The result of Lizong becoming Emperor angered Zhao Hong who refused to bow until he was forced to by the palace commander. He was then sent away.

Reign.

Lizong's long reign of 40 years did little to improve the predicament of the Song Empire in his time. The court of Emperor Lizong was dominated by consort clans, Yan and Jia, the eunuchs Dong Songchen and Lu Yunsheng, and his Co-Regent Empress Dowager Yang. The Emperor was uninterested in governmental affairs, and for the first decade of his rule he delegated matters into the hands of his ministers, notably Shi Miyuan, who was the "de facto" ruler in his absence. Many critics blamed Lizong's leadership for the eventual fall of the Song dynasty.  A year after Emperor Lizong took the throne, he honored Zhu Xi with the posthumous name Duke of Hui (徽國公). Lizong faced a minor rebellion led by the former crown prince Zhao Hong which was put down after two weeks; Zhao Hong himself was executed.  From the winter of 1230 to the autumn of 1231, the Mongols forcibly passed through the Song Dynasty. In the region centered on the three passes of Shukou, they entered into a series of battles with the Song army. This was the second and largest armed conflict between them before the Mongol conquest of Song officially began. This forced Lizong to ally with the Mongols as they might conquer the Song.  Wuzhun Shifan, a monk was summoned by Emperor Lizong in 1233. Emperor Lizong discussed with Wuzhun about Zen Buddhism, and Dharma.  After Shi Miyuan's death in 1233, Emperor Lizong assumed full authority briefly but again quickly abandoned the responsibility of ruling and delegated matters to his chancellor Ding Daquan in order to pursue personal enjoyment. It was said that the emperor often drank wine a lot, frequented brothels and invited prostitutes into the palace in his late years, which was vehemently opposed by his ministers.  Notable events during Emperor Lizong's reign included the demise of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in 1234, which was obliterated by the joint forces of the Mongol Empire and the Song Dynasty. The Jurchens had fought multiple wars with the Song Empire decades before it was conquered by the Mongols and although their ruler Emperor Aizong tried to make peace with the Song Dynasty to warn them that if the Mongols conquered the Jin Dynasty and they would attack the Song next, Emperor Lizong ignored the warning.

The Start of the Mongol Invasion.

Siege of Luoyang.

Once the Jin dynasty has fallen, the Song dynasty attempted to take back its northern territories originally occupied by the Jin and took back Luoyang and Kaifeng in July 1234. However, in September 1234, the Mongols counterattacked with the siege of Luoyang. The Song army holding Luoyang was short of food supplies. Additionally, the Mongols diverted the water of Yellow River into the city causing great casualties among the Song army. The fall of Luoyang was simply a prologue of a series of upcoming battles which lasted decades. The fall of Luoyang also began the official start of the Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty. The Mongols blamed the Song for "breaking the alliance". However, it was more of an excuse for further Mongol expeditions.  Other notable events include the Song's ally Dali falling to the Mongols.  Emperor Lizong met Zhao Yifu (1189–1256), who was a minister and a defender of Jiangnan. Lizong started to Yifu, "You have had two years of great toil, minister." Yifu said "My memorials have all reflected Your Majesty's virtue. I have not had a hair of merit." Emperor Lizong replied "You discussed urgent matters like preventing rebellions, imperial succession, and the drought that hit Jiangnan and Hunan." Yifu then said "King Tang reproached himself over the six affairs. Your Majesty should determine whether in the present circumstances there is a ‘six affairs’ [situation]." Yifu was named imperial reader-in-waiting the next day.  In 1241, Töregene Khatun had sent an envoy to make peace proposals and discuss with Emperor Lizong. However, the Song court arrested the envoy and imprisoned him in a fortress with his suite of seventy people. The envoy died, but his suite were detained until 1254. That year the Mongol army attacked to take Hejiu but failed. The Chinese freed the suite of the late envoy to show their desire for peace.  The New Khan Möngke concentrated all his attention on the conquest of the Song dynasty. Taking personal command late in the decade, he captured many of the fortified cities along the northern front. In October 1257 Möngke set out for South China, leaving his administration to his brother, Ariq Böke.  Wen Tianxiang and Lu Xiufu passed the imperial examination where Emperor Lizong personally gave Wen first rank.  In 1259, the Song government was forced to capitulate and cede all territories north of the Yangtze River to the Mongols. Despite this, Möngke Khan was killed earlier in the year in a siege with no designated heir setting the stage for the Division of the Mongol Empire. The invasions frightened Lizong to the extent that he attempted to move the Song capital but was stopped by his Empress Xie Daoqing; she thought that if they moved, it would create chaos among the people.  In 1260, Jia Sidao became chancellor who would eventually soon take control over the new emperor Zhao Qi after Lizong's death and expel his opponents like Wen Tianxiang and Li Fu.  In December 1261, Lizong arranged a marriage between his adopted son Zhao Qi and the 33-year-old Quan Jiu. Quan Jiu was a grandniece of Lizong's mother (who had by then died by now) making Quan a cousin of Zhao Qi. An account in Quan's official biography stated that Lizong ordered her to enter the palace where he greeted her, "Your father Zhaosun died in the service of his majesty in the Baoyou reign, the very thought of which makes me grieve." Quan replied "My father can be remembered, but even more should the plight of the masses of the Huai and Hu regions be remembered!" greatly impressing Lizong who said to his high-ranking officials "The words of this daughter of the Quan family are particularly "grandiloquent". A betrothal should be arranged with the heir-apparent to permit continuation of the ritual line."  Internal-combustion rocket propulsion is mentioned in a reference to 1264, recording that the "ground-rat", a type of firework, had frightened the Empress-Mother Gongsheng at a feast held in her honor by her son Emperor Lizong.  Also in 1264, Emperor Lizong died sonless (his sons died prematurely) from a illness and was succeeded by his adopted son and biological nephew, Zhao Qi, known as Emperor Duzong after his death.  One of his daughters married a descendant of Zhu Xi.

Calligraphy.

Emperor Lizong was a skilled poet and calligrapher. The Metropolitan Museum reports, "Lizong was the finest calligrapher among the Song emperors who came after Gaozong (r. 1127–62)." Lizong developed his own unique calligraphic style which was easily recognizable as it showed sharp and rapid brush strokes. The Metropolitan Museum says, "Lizong developed his own unique manner, which was distinguished by angular brushstrokes with straight rapid brush movements—in contrast to the slower, more rounded brushstrokes of Gaozong—and by his preference for Tang, rather than Jin, dynasty models." Emperor Lizong also expresses his feelings in his poems as shown in his poem 'Quatrain on Late Spring' which reads: In this poem, it is clearly established that Emperor Lizong laments old age.

Emperor Lizong of Song (26 January 1205 – 16 November 1264), personal name Zhao Yun, was the 14th emperor of the Song dynasty in China and the fifth emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He reigned from 1224 to 1264.

Lizong (1205 – 1264), né Zhao Yun, est le quatorzième empereur de la dynastie Song, et le cinquième des Song du Sud. Il régna de 1224 à 1264. Sous son règne, les Jin de Chine du Nord sont vaincus par l'alliance entre les Song du Sud et les Mongols de Gengis Khan.


Characteristics.

TNSM militia members are "identified by their shoulder-length hair and camouflage vests over traditional shalwar kameez clothing", according to a 2007 Associated Press report. Numerous non-native militants have been recruited to work with the group from elsewhere in North Waziristan, many of them originally from outside Pakistan, including Afghans and Arabs.

Enforcement of Sharia.

As part of what it sees as enforcement of Sharia law, the group has bombed girls schools and blown up video and CD shops. Fazlullah has also used his FM broadcasts to urge schoolgirls to wear all-covering burqas and has forced the closure of some development organizations, accusing them of spreading immorality by employing female staff.

History.

Origins.

The group was founded by Sufi Muhammad in 1992 after he left Jamaat-e-Islami, in which he was an active leader.

1994 Malakand Division Revolt.

Sufi Muhammad fomented an insurrection in Malakand Division (Dir, Swat, Bajaur, Chitral) on the basis of a demand for Sharia law. The uprising was quashed by the Pakistan military but not before TNSM had brought the Dir and Swat under its control. Timergara was besieged by government artillery and fighting was particularly intense in Swat.  It is alleged that while under TNSM control, drivers were forced to switch to driving on the right side of the road, which resulted in many accidents.

2001–2002.

Sufi Muhammad was jailed in November for sending thousands of volunteers to Afghanistan to fight the U.S.-led invasion in 2001. During his imprisonment, Muhammad's son-in-law Maulana Fazlullah, known as "Mullah Radio" for his pirate FM station broadcasts, led TNSM.  President Pervez Musharraf banned the group on January 12, 2002.

2005.

After a brief decline, the group experienced a revival in the aftermath of the October 2005 earthquake. Radio broadcasts reinforced local beliefs that the earthquake was a punishment for sins, and local inhabitants of the region destroyed electronic equipment, such as televisions and computers, in response.

2007.

In July 2007, the group took over much of the Swat District and held on to it as late as November, when Pakistani forces ousted Maulana Fazlullah and his followers from a large base in the village of Imam Dheri.  The stronghold, eight kilometres from the valley's main town of Mingora in Kabal Union Council of northwestern Swat, was guarded by about 200 rebel fighters.  An Associated Press reporter who visited the base in October 2007 described it as a concrete complex near the village. "Inside is a mosque and a maze of dozens of rooms, many still under construction. A shop sells audio cassettes of speeches by Fazlullah." Although the seminary hadn't opened for students, it was drawing thousands of worshippers for Friday prayers, residents told the Associated Press. Fazlullah's spokesman, Sirajuddin, then based at the seminary, is a gray-bearded militant who goes by only one name.  About 250 militants died in two weeks of fighting in late November, during which the two-square-kilometer base was bombarded by artillery, according to Pakistani authorities. People in a number of towns destroyed the fortified bunkers the rebels, including Fazlullah and Sirajuddin, had left behind as the militants retreated into the mountains.

Collaboration with the TTP.

In the aftermath of the 2007 siege of Lal Masjid, Fazlullah's forces and Baitullah Mehsud's Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) formed an alliance. Fazlullah and his army reportedly received orders from Mehsud.

Attacks on Buddhist sculptures.

On October 8, 2007 members of the TNSM group used dynamite to obliterate the face of the 23 foot high colossal image of a seated Buddha carved in c. 7th century CE into a reddish rock face on a hillside to the southwest of the village of Jehanabad (Shakhorai) near Manglawar in Swat district. According to Aqleem Khan, an archaeology department official of North Western Frontier Province who spoke to Reuters, the members of this group drilled holes into the rock, filled them with dynamite, then set off the explosion on October 9, 2007 morning.

2008.

Sufi Muhammad was released after he renounced violence in discussion with the provincial government. Eight leaders of TNSM signed a peace agreement that recognized the provincial government's sovereignty, urged an end to violence and declared attacks against police, military and government targets "un-Islamic."

2009.

As of January 2009 Tehreek-e-Nafaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi had established Shariah courts, that "openly administer punishment to people who dared to violate their strict code of conduct" in a region extending "from Matta sub-division in upper Swat valley to Kabal sub-division close the main Mingora town."

Campaign against female education.

A January 21, 2009 issue of the Pakistan daily newspaper "The News", reported Taliban enforcement of a complete ban on female education in the Swat district. Some 400 private schools enrolling 40,000 girls were forced to close. At least 10 girls schools that tried to open after the January 15, 2009 deadline by the Fazlullah-led Taliban were destroyed by the militants in the town of Mingora, the headquarters of the Swat district. Over the past 14 months "more than 170 schools have been bombed or torched, along with other government-owned buildings."  Maulvi Omar, a spokesman for the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), urged the Fazlullah-led Swati Taliban to rethink the ban on female education. Muslim Khan, a spokesman for the Swati Taliban responded that the TTP had not formally requested an overturn of the ban and that his group would continue as planned. However, Khan announced in a phone call to the "Gulf News" on January 28, 2009 that his group would reconsider the ban on education for women in consultation with religious scholars once conflict had ended in the area. He stated, "We are not against education, but we insist that our new generation should be imparted with religious and then scientific and technology education. The Taliban need doctors, engineers and scientists to strengthen our cause." This is also being noticed now that taliban have begun to target Pakistani scientists and engineers of the strategic organizations.

Sharia Nizam-i-Adl Regulation 2009.

The Pakistani government announced on February 16, 2009 that it would allow Sharia law in the Malakand region. In return, Fazlullah's followers agreed to observe a ceasefire negotiated by Sufi Muhammad. On February 24, 2009 Muslim Khan publicly announced that the Swati Taliban would observe an indefinite ceasefire.

End of negotiations.

In early April 2009 Sufi Muhammad ended support for peace negotiations stating that the government had stalled the implementation of sharia courts in the Swat valley. President Asif Ali Zardari refused to sign any agreement until peace had been restored in the valley but failed to elaborate on how those conditions would be achieved. At the strong recommendation of the National Assembly President Zardari signed the agreement, the Sharia Nizam-i-Adl Regulation 2009, on April 13, 2009. A spokesman for Sufi Muhammad, Amir Izzat Khan, stated that the law would allow for peace in the Swat region and that the Taliban was in the process of disarmament. Muslim Khan added that an "Islamic syllabus" would be instituted in schools and that women would not be allowed to go to jobs or to markets so as not to become "show-pieces."

Destruction of headquarters.

In June 2009, Pakistani security forces bombed and destroyed the Imam Dheri compound that served as Fazlullah's headquarters. The compound had contained residences, a mosque, court and prison.

Tehreek-e-Nafaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi (TNSM, ) is a Pakistani militant group whose objective is to enforce Sharia law in the country. The militant group took over much of Swat in 2007. It was founded by Sufi Muhammad in 1992, and was banned by President Pervez Musharraf on January 12, 2002.

Le Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi (TNSM) (, « Mouvement pour le renforcement de la loi islamique ») est un mouvement islamique wahhabite pakistanais fondé en 1992 par le maulana Sufi Mohammed, cadre dirigeant dissident du Jamaat-e-Islami. Il est dirigé par Maulana Fazlullah de 2002 à sa mort en 2018.


Early life and family.

Alice Hamilton, the second child of Montgomery Hamilton (1843–1909) and Gertrude (née Pond) Hamilton (1840–1917), was born on February 27, 1869, in Manhattan, New York City, New York. She spent a sheltered childhood among an extended family in Fort Wayne, Indiana, where her grandfather, Allen Hamilton, an Irish immigrant, had settled in 1823. He married Emerine Holman, the daughter of Indiana Supreme Court Justice Jesse Lynch Holman, in 1828 and became a successful Fort Wayne businessman and a land speculator. Much of the city of Fort Wayne was built on land that he once owned. Alice grew up on the Hamilton family's large estate that encompassed a three-block area of downtown Fort Wayne. The Hamilton family also spent many summers at Mackinac Island, Michigan. For the most part, the second and third generations of the extended Hamilton family, which included Alice's family, as well as her uncles, aunts, and cousins, lived on inherited wealth.  Montgomery Hamilton, Alice's father, attended Princeton University and Harvard Law School. He also studied in Germany, where he met Gertrude Pond, the daughter of a wealthy sugar importer. They were married in 1866. Alice's father became a partner in a wholesale grocery business in Fort Wayne, but the partnership dissolved in 1885 and he withdrew from public life. Although the business failure caused a financial loss for the family, Alice's outspoken mother, Gertrude, remained socially active in the Fort Wayne community.  Alice was the second oldest of five siblings that included three sisters (Edith, Margaret, and Norah) and a brother (Arthur "Quint"), all of whom were accomplished in their respective fields. The girls remained especially close throughout their childhood and into their professional careers. Edith (1867–1963), an educator and headmistress at Bryn Mawr School in Baltimore, became a classicist and renowned author for her essays and best-selling books on ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Margaret (1871–1969), like her older sister Edith, became an educator and headmistress at Bryn Mawr School. Norah (1873–1945) was an artist, living and working at Hull House. Arthur (1886–1967), the youngest Hamilton sibling, became a writer, professor of Spanish, and assistant dean for foreign students at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Arthur was the only sibling to marry; he and his wife, Mary (Neal) Hamilton, had no children.

Education.

Hamilton's parents homeschooled their children from an early age. Following a family tradition among the Hamilton women, Alice completed her early education at Miss Porter's Finishing School for Young Ladies (also known as Miss Porter's School) in Farmington, Connecticut, from 1886 to 1888. In addition to Alice, three of her aunts, three cousins, and all three of her sisters were alumnae of the school.  Although Hamilton had led a privileged life in Fort Wayne, she aspired to provide some type of useful service to the world and chose medicine as a way to financially support herself. Hamilton, who was an avid reader, also cited literary influence for inspiring her to become a physician, even though she had not yet received any training in the sciences: "I meant to be a medical missionary to Teheran, having been fascinated by the description of Persia in [Edmond] O'Donovan's "The Merv Oasis." I doubted if I could ever be good enough to be a real missionary, but if I could care for the sick, that would do instead."  After her return to Indiana from school in Connecticut, Hamilton studied science with a high school teacher in Fort Wayne and anatomy at Fort Wayne College of Medicine for a year before enrolling at the University of Michigan Medical School in 1892. There she had the opportunity of studying with "a remarkable group of men" – John Jacob Abel (pharmacology), William Henry Howell (physiology), Frederick George Novy (bacteriology), Victor C. Vaughan (biochemistry) and George Dock (medicine). During her last year of study she served on Dr. Dock's staff, going on rounds, taking histories and doing clinical laboratory work. Hamilton earned a medical degree from the university in 1893.  In 1893–94, after graduation from medical school, Hamilton completed internships at the Northwestern Hospital for Women and Children in Minneapolis and at the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Roxbury, a suburban neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, to gain some clinical experience. Hamilton had already decided that she was not interested in establishing a medical practice and returned to the University of Michigan in February 1895 to study bacteriology as a resident graduate and lab assistant of Frederick George Novy. She also began to develop an interest in public health.  In the fall of 1895, Alice and her older sister, Edith, traveled to Germany. Alice planned to study bacteriology and pathology at the advice of her professors at Michigan, while Edith intended to study the classics and attend lectures. The Hamilton sisters faced some opposition to their efforts to study abroad. Although Alice was welcomed in Frankfurt, her requests to study in Berlin were rejected and she experienced some prejudice against women when the two sisters studied at universities in Munich and Leipzig.  When Alice returned to the United States in September 1896, she continued postgraduate studies for a year at the Johns Hopkins University Medical School. There she worked with Simon Flexner on pathological anatomy. She also had the opportunity to learn from William H. Welch and William Osler.

Career.

Early years at Chicago's Hull House.

In 1897 Hamilton accepted an offer to become a professor of pathology at the Woman's Medical School of Northwestern University. Soon after her move to Chicago, Illinois, Hamilton fulfilled a longtime ambition to become a member and resident of Hull House, the settlement house founded by social reformer Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. While Hamilton taught and did research at the medical school during the day, she maintained an active life at Hull House, her full-time residence from 1897 to 1919. Hamilton became Jane Addams' personal physician and volunteered her time at Hull House to teach English and art. She also directed the men's fencing and athletic clubs, operated a well-baby clinic, and visited the sick in their homes. Other inhabitants of Hull House included Alice's sister Norah, and her friends Rachelle and Victor Yarros. Although Hamilton moved away from Chicago in 1919 when she accepted a position as an assistant professor at Harvard Medical School, she returned to Hull House and stayed for several months each spring until Jane Addams's death in 1935.  Through her association and work at Hull House and living side by side with the poor residents of the community, Hamilton witnessed the effects that the dangerous trades had on workers' health through exposure to carbon monoxide and lead poisoning. As a result, she became increasingly interested in the problems the workers faced, especially occupational injuries and illnesses. The experience also caused Hamilton to begin considering how to merge her interests in medical science and social reform to improve the health of American workers.  When the Woman's Medical School closed in 1902, Hamilton took a position as bacteriologist with the Memorial Institute for Infectious Diseases, working with Ludvig Hektoen. During this time, she also formed a friendship with bacteriologist Ruth Tunnicliffe. Hamilton investigated a typhoid epidemic in Chicago before focusing her research on the investigation of industrial diseases. Some of Hamilton's early research in this area included attempts to identify causes of typhoid and tuberculosis in the community surrounding Hull House. Her work on typhoid in 1902 led to the replacement of the chief sanitary inspector of the area by the Chicago Board of Health.  The study of industrial medicine (work-related illnesses) had become increasingly important because the Industrial Revolution of the late nineteenth century had led to new dangers in the workplace. In 1907 Hamilton began exploring existing literature from abroad and noticed that industrial medicine was not being studied as much in America. She set out to change the situation and published her first article on the topic in 1908.

Medical Investigator.

Hamilton began her long career in public health and workplace safety in 1910, when Illinois governor Charles S. Deneen appointed her as a medical investigator to the newly-formed Illinois Commission on Occupational Diseases. Hamilton led the commission's investigations, which focused on industrial poisons such as lead and other toxins. She also authored the "Illinois Survey," the commission's report that documented its findings of industrial processes that exposed workers to lead poisoning and other illnesses. The commission's efforts resulted in the passage of the first workers' compensation laws in Illinois in 1911, in Indiana in 1915, and occupational disease laws in other states. The new laws required employers to take safety precautions to protect workers.  By 1916 Hamilton had become America's leading authority on lead poisoning. For the next decade she investigated a range of issues for a variety of state and federal health committees. Hamilton focused her explorations on occupational toxic disorders, examining the effects of substances such as aniline dyes, carbon monoxide, mercury, tetraethyl lead, radium, benzene, carbon disulfide and hydrogen sulfide gases. In 1925, at a Public Health Service conference on the use of lead in gasoline, she testified against the use of lead and warned of the danger it posed to people and the environment. Nevertheless, leaded gasoline was allowed. The EPA in 1988 estimated that over the previous 60 years that 68 million children suffered high toxic exposure to lead from leaded fuels.  Her work on the manufacture of white lead and lead oxide, as a special investigator for the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, is considered a "landmark study". Relying primarily on "shoe leather epidemiology" (her process of making personal visits to factories, conducting interviews with workers, and compiling details of diagnosed poisoning cases) and the emerging laboratory science of toxicology, Hamilton pioneered occupational epidemiology and industrial hygiene. She also created the specialized field of industrial medicine in the United States. Her findings were scientifically persuasive and influenced sweeping health reforms that changed laws and general practice to improve the health of workers.  During World War I, the US Army tasked her with solving a mysterious ailment striking workers at a munitions plant in New Jersey. She led a team that included George Minot, a professor at Harvard Medical School. She deduced that the workers were being sickened through contact with the explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT). She recommended that workers wear protective clothing to be removed and washed at the end of each shift, solving the problem.  Hamilton's best-known research included her studies on carbon monoxide poisoning among American steelworkers, mercury poisoning of hatters, and "a debilitating hand condition developed by workers using jackhammers." At the request of the U.S. Department of Labor, she also investigated industries involved in developing high explosives, "spastic anemia known as 'dead fingers'" among Bedford, Indiana, limestone cutters, and the "unusually high incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis" among tombstone carvers working in the granite mills of Quincy, Massachusetts, and Barre, Vermont. Hamilton was also a member of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of the Mortality from Tuberculosis in Dusty Trades, whose efforts "laid the groundwork for further studies and eventual widespread reform in the industry."

Women's rights and peace activist.

During her years at Hull House, Hamilton was active in the women's rights and peace movements. She traveled with Jane Addams and Emily Greene Balch to the 1915 International Congress of Women in The Hague, where they met Aletta Jacobs, a Dutch pacifist, feminist, and suffragist. Rediscovered historical footage shows Addams, Hamilton, and Jacobs before the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin on May 24, 1915, during a visit to Germany to meet government leaders. She also visited German-occupied Belgium.  Hamilton returned to Europe with Addams in May 1919 to attend the second International Congress of Women at Zurich, Switzerland. In addition, Hamilton, Addams, Jacobs, and American Quaker Carolena M. Wood became involved in a humanitarian mission to Germany to distribute food aid and investigate reports of famine.

Assistant professor, Harvard Medical School.

In January 1919 Hamilton accepted a position as assistant professor in a newly-formed Department of Industrial Medicine (and after 1925 the School of Public Health) at Harvard Medical School, making her the first woman appointed to the Harvard University faculty in any field. Her appointment was hailed by the "New York Tribune" with the headline: "A Woman on Harvard Faculty—The Last Citadel Has Fallen—The Sex Has Come Into Its Own". Her own comment was "Yes, I am the first woman on the Harvard faculty—but not the first one who should have been appointed!"  During her years at Harvard, from 1919 to her retirement in 1935, Hamilton never received a faculty promotion and held only a series of three-year appointments. At her request, the half-time appointments for which she taught one semester per year allowed her to continue her research and spend several months of each year at Hull House. Hamilton also faced discrimination as a woman. She was excluded from social activities, could not enter the Harvard Union, attend the Faculty Club, or receive a quota of football tickets. In addition, Hamilton was not allowed to march in the university's commencement ceremonies as the male faculty members did.  Hamilton became a successful fundraiser for Harvard as she continued to write and conduct research on the dangerous trades. In addition to publishing "landmark reports for the U.S. Department of Labor" on research related to workers in Arizona copper mines and stonecutters at Indiana's limestone quarries, Hamilton also wrote "Industrial Poisons in the United States" (1925), the first American textbook on the subject, and another related textbook, "Industrial Toxicology" (1934). At tetraethyl lead conference in Washington, D.C. in 1925, Hamilton was a prominent critic of adding tetraethyl lead to gasoline.  Hamilton also remained an activist in social reform efforts. Her specific interests in civil liberties, peace, birth control, and protective labor legislation for women caused some of her critics to consider her a "radical" and a "subversive." From 1924 to 1930, she served as the only woman member of the League of Nations Health Committee. She also visited the Soviet Union in 1924 and Nazi Germany in April 1933. Hamilton wrote "The Youth Who Are Hitler's Strength," which was published in "The New York Times". The article described Nazi exploitation of youth in the years between the two world wars. She also criticized the Nazi education, especially its domestic training for girls.

Later years.

After her retirement from Harvard in 1935, Hamilton became a medical consultant to the U.S. Division of Labor Standards. Her last field survey, which was made in 1937–38, investigated the viscose rayon industry. In addition, Hamilton served as president of the National Consumers League from 1944 to 1949.  Hamilton spent her retirement years in Hadlyme, Connecticut, at the home she had purchased in 1916 with her sister, Margaret. Hamilton remained an active writer in retirement. Her autobiography, "Exploring the Dangerous Trades", was published in 1943. Hamilton and coauthor Harriet Louise Hardy also revised "Industrial Toxicology" (1949), the textbook that Hamilton had initially written in 1934. Hamilton also enjoyed leisure activities such as reading, sketching, and writing, as well as spending time among her family and friends.

Death and legacy.

Hamilton died of a stroke at her home in Hadlyme, Connecticut, on September 22, 1970, at the age of 101. She is buried at Cove Cemetery in Hadlyme.  Hamilton was a tireless researcher and crusader against the use of toxic substances in the workplace. Within three months of her death in 1970, the U.S. Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act to improve workplace safety in the United States.

Selected published works.

Books:  Articles:

Alice Hamilton (February 27, 1869 – September 22, 1970) was an American physician, research scientist, and author who is best known as a leading expert in the field of occupational health and a pioneer in the field of industrial toxicology.

Alice Hamilton ( - ) a été la première femme nommée professeur de faculté à l’Université Harvard et a été chef de file dans le domaine de la santé et sécurité au travail. Elle a été pionnière dans le domaine de la toxicologie, de l'étude des maladies professionnelles et des effets dangereux des métaux et des composés chimiques utilisés dans l’industrie sur le corps humain.


History.

Brief history.

The underlying technology was invented in the later half of the 19th century, including Babbage's analytical engine and the telegraph. Digital communication became economical for widespread adoption after the invention of the personal computer. Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs mathematician, is credited for having laid out the foundations of digitalization in his pioneering 1948 article, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication". The digital revolution converted technology that had been analog into a digital format. By doing this, it became possible to make copies that were identical to the original. In digital communications, for example, repeating hardware was able to amplify the digital signal and pass it on with no loss of information in the signal. Of equal importance to the revolution was the ability to easily move the digital information between media, and to access or distribute it remotely.  The turning point of the revolution was the change from analogue to digitally recorded music. During the 1980s the digital format of optical compact discs gradually replaced analog formats, such as vinyl records and cassette tapes, as the popular medium of choice.

Origins (1947–1969).

In 1947, the first working transistor, the germanium-based point-contact transistor, was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs. This led the way to more advanced digital computers. From the late 1940s, universities, the military, and business developed computer systems, to digitally replicate and automate previously manually performed mathematical calculations, with the LEO being the first commercially available general-purpose computer.  In the late 1950s, Bell Labs engineer Mohamed M. Atalla demonstrated the effectiveness of silicon as a semiconductor material with his process of surface passivation by thermal oxidation. This led to several major milestones in silicon semiconductor technology during 1959: the planar process by Jean Hoerni and monolithic integrated circuit (IC) chip by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor, and the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs. These developments paved the way for the mass-production of silicon semiconductor devices.  Following the development of MOS integrated circuit chips in the early 1960s, MOS chips reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar integrated circuits by 1964. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips to computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a complete computer processor could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip. In 1968, Fairchild engineer Federico Faggin improved MOS technology with his development of the silicon-gate MOS chip, which he later used to develop the Intel 4004, the first single-chip microprocessor. It was released by Intel in 1971, and laid the foundations for the microcomputer revolution that began in the 1970s.  MOS technology also led to the development of semiconductor image sensors suitable for digital cameras. The first such image sensor was the charge-coupled device, developed by Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs in 1969, based on MOS capacitor technology.  The public was first introduced to the concepts that led to the Internet when a message was sent over the ARPANET in 1969. Packet switched networks such as ARPANET, Mark I, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined together into a network of networks.  The Whole Earth movement of the 1960s advocated the use of new technology.

1970s.

In the 1970s, the home computer was introduced, time-sharing computers, the video game console, the first coin-op video games, and the golden age of arcade video games began with Space Invaders. As digital technology proliferated, and the switch from analog to digital record keeping became the new standard in business, a relatively new job description was popularized, the data entry clerk. Culled from the ranks of secretaries and typists from earlier decades, the data entry clerk's job was to convert analog data (customer records, invoices, etc.) into digital data.  An important development in digital data compression technology was the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a lossy compression technique first proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972, originally intended for image compression. DCT compression later became fundamental to the Digital Revolution, as the basis for most digital media compression standards from the late 1980s onwards, including digital image formats such as JPEG (1992), video coding formats such as H.26x (1988 onwards) and MPEG (1993 onwards), audio compression standards such as Dolby Digital (1991) and MP3 (1994), and digital television standards such as video-on-demand (VOD) and high-definition television (HDTV).

1980s.

In developed nations, computers achieved semi-ubiquity during the 1980s as they made their way into schools, homes, business, and industry. Automated teller machines, industrial robots, CGI in film and television, electronic music, bulletin board systems, and video games all fueled what became the zeitgeist of the 1980s. Millions of people purchased home computers, making household names of early personal computer manufacturers such as Apple, Commodore, and Tandy. To this day the Commodore 64 is often cited as the best selling computer of all time, having sold 17 million units (by some accounts) between 1982 and 1994.  In 1984, the U.S. Census Bureau began collecting data on computer and Internet use in the United States; their first survey showed that 8.2% of all U.S. households owned a personal computer in 1984, and that households with children under the age of 18 were nearly twice as likely to own one at 15.3% (middle and upper middle class households were the most likely to own one, at 22.9%). By 1989, 15% of all U.S. households owned a computer, and nearly 30% of households with children under the age of 18 owned one. By the late 1980s, many businesses were dependent on computers and digital technology.  Motorola created the first mobile phone, Motorola DynaTac, in 1983. However, this device used analog communication - digital cell phones were not sold commercially until 1991 when the 2G network started to be opened in Finland to accommodate the unexpected demand for cell phones that was becoming apparent in the late 1980s.  Compute! magazine predicted that CD-ROM would be the centerpiece of the revolution, with multiple household devices reading the discs.  The first true digital camera was created in 1988, and the first were marketed in December 1989 in Japan and in 1990 in the United States. By the mid-2000s, they had eclipsed traditional film in popularity.  Digital ink was also invented in the late 1980s. Disney's CAPS system (created 1988) was used for a scene in 1989's "The Little Mermaid" and for all their animation films between 1990's "The Rescuers Down Under" and 2004's "Home on the Range".  Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989.

1990s.

The first public digital HDTV broadcast was of the 1990 World Cup that June; it was played in 10 theaters in Spain and Italy. However, HDTV did not become a standard until the mid-2000s outside Japan.  The World Wide Web became publicly accessible in 1991, which had been available only to government and universities. In 1993 Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina introduced Mosaic, the first web browser capable of displaying inline images and the basis for later browsers such as Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer. Stanford Federal Credit Union was the first financial institution to offer online internet banking services to all of its members in October 1994. In 1996 OP Financial Group, also a cooperative bank, became the second online bank in the world and the first in Europe. The Internet expanded quickly, and by 1996, it was part of mass culture and many businesses listed websites in their ads. By 1999 almost every country had a connection, and nearly half of Americans and people in several other countries used the Internet on a regular basis. However throughout the 1990s, "getting online" entailed complicated configuration, and dial-up was the only connection type affordable by individual users; the present day mass Internet culture was not possible.  In 1989 about 15% of all households in the United States owned a personal computer, by 2000, this was up to 51%; for households with children nearly 30% owned a computer in 1989, and in 2000 65% owned one.

2000s.

Cell phones became as ubiquitous as computers by the early 2000s, with movie theaters beginning to show ads telling people to silence their phones. They also became much more advanced than phones of the 1990s, most of which only took calls or at most allowed for the playing of simple games.  Text messaging existed in the 1990s but was not widely used until the early 2000s, when it became a cultural phenomenon.  The digital revolution became truly global in this time as well - after revolutionizing society in the developed world in the 1990s, the digital revolution spread to the masses in the developing world in the 2000s.  In late 2005 the population of the Internet reached 1 billion, and 3 billion people worldwide used cell phones by the end of the decade. HDTV became the standard television broadcasting format in many countries by the end of the decade.

2010s.

By 2012, over 2 billion people used the Internet, twice the number using it in 2007. Cloud computing had entered the mainstream by the early 2010s. By 2016, half of the world's population was connected and as of 2020, that number has risen to 67%.

Rise in digital technology use of computers, 1980–2020.

In the late 1980s, less than 1% of the world's technologically stored information was in digital format, while it was 94% in 2007, with more than 99% by 2014.  It is estimated that the world's capacity to store information has increased from 2.6 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1986, to some 5,000 exabytes in 2014 (5 zettabytes).

Converted technologies.

Conversion of below analog technologies to digital. (The decade indicated is the period when digital became dominant form.)  Decline or disappearance of below analog technologies:  Disappearance of other technologies also attributed to digital revolution. (Analog–digital classification doesn't apply to these.)  Improvements in digital technologies.

Technological basis.

The basic building block of the Digital Revolution is the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor), which is the most widely manufactured device in history. It is the basis of every microprocessor, memory chip and telecommunication circuit in commercial use. MOSFET scaling (rapid miniaturization of MOS transistors) has been largely responsible for enabling Moore's law, which predicted that transistor counts would increase at an exponential pace.  Following the development of the digital personal computer, MOS microprocessors and memory chips, with their steadily increasing performance and storage, have enabled computer technology to be embedded into a huge range of objects from cameras to personal music players. Also important was the development of transmission technologies including computer networking, the Internet and digital broadcasting. 3G phones, whose social penetration grew exponentially in the 2000s, also played a very large role in the digital revolution as they simultaneously provide ubiquitous entertainment, communications, and online connectivity.

Socio-economic impact.

Positive aspects include greater interconnectedness, easier communication, and the exposure of information that in the past could have more easily been suppressed by totalitarian regimes. Michio Kaku wrote in his books Physics of the Future that the failure of the Soviet coup of 1991 was due largely to the existence of technology such as the fax machine and computers that exposed classified information.  The Revolutions of 2011 were enabled by social networking and smartphone technology; however these revolutions in hindsight largely failed to reach their goals as hardcore Islamist governments and in Syria a civil war have formed in the absence of the dictatorships that were toppled.  The economic impact of the digital revolution has been wide-ranging. Without the World Wide Web (WWW), for example, globalization and outsourcing would not be nearly as feasible as they are today. The digital revolution radically changed the way individuals and companies interact. Small regional companies were suddenly given access to much larger markets. Concepts such as on-demand software services and manufacturing and rapidly dropping technology costs made possible innovations in all aspects of industry and everyday life.  After initial concerns of an IT productivity paradox, evidence is mounting that digital technologies have significantly increased the productivity and performance of businesses.  Negative effects include information overload, Internet predators, forms of social isolation, and media saturation. In a poll of prominent members of the national news media, 65 percent said the Internet is hurting journalism more than it is helping by allowing anyone no matter how amateur and unskilled to become a journalist; causing information to be muddier and the rise of conspiracy theory in a way it didn't exist in the past.  In some cases, company employees' pervasive use of portable digital devices and work related computers for personal use—email, instant messaging, computer games—were often found to, or perceived to, reduce those companies' productivity. Personal computing and other non-work related digital activities in the workplace thus helped lead to stronger forms of privacy invasion, such as keystroke recording and information filtering applications (spyware and content-control software).

Information sharing and privacy.

Privacy in general became a concern during the digital revolution. The ability to store and utilize such large amounts of diverse information opened possibilities for tracking of individual activities and interests. Libertarians and privacy rights advocates feared the possibility of an Orwellian future where centralized power structures control the populace via automatic surveillance and monitoring of personal information in such programs as the CIA's Information Awareness Office. Consumer and labor advocates opposed the ability to direct market to individuals, discriminate in hiring and lending decisions, invasively monitor employee behavior and communications and generally profit from involuntarily shared personal information.  The Internet, especially the WWW in the 1990s, opened whole new avenues for communication and information sharing. The ability to easily and rapidly share information on a global scale brought with it a whole new level of freedom of speech. Individuals and organizations were suddenly given the ability to publish on any topic, to a global audience, at a negligible cost, particularly in comparison to any previous communication technology.  Large cooperative projects could be endeavored (e.g. Open-source software projects, SETI@home). Communities of like-minded individuals were formed (e.g. MySpace, Tribe.net). Small regional companies were suddenly given access to a larger marketplace.  In other cases, special interest groups as well as social and religious institutions found much of the content objectionable, even dangerous. Many parents and religious organizations, especially in the United States, became alarmed by pornography being more readily available to minors. In other circumstances the proliferation of information on such topics as child pornography, building bombs, committing acts of terrorism, and other violent activities were alarming to many different groups of people. Such concerns contributed to arguments for censorship and regulation on the WWW.

Copyright and trademark issues.

Copyright and trademark issues also found new life in the digital revolution. The widespread ability of consumers to produce and distribute exact reproductions of protected works dramatically changed the intellectual property landscape, especially in the music, film, and television industries.  The digital revolution, especially regarding privacy, copyright, censorship and information sharing, remains a controversial topic. As the digital revolution progresses it remains unclear to what extent society has been impacted and will be altered in the future.

Concerns.

While there have been huge benefits to society from the digital revolution, especially in terms of the accessibility of information, there are a number of concerns. Expanded powers of communication and information sharing, increased capabilities for existing technologies, and the advent of new technology brought with it many potential opportunities for exploitation. The digital revolution helped usher in a new age of mass surveillance, generating a range of new civil and human rights issues. Reliability of data became an issue as information could easily be replicated, but not easily verified. The digital revolution made it possible to store and track facts, articles, statistics, as well as minutiae hitherto unfeasible.  From the perspective of the historian, a large part of human history is known through physical objects from the past that have been found or preserved, particularly in written documents. Digital records are easy to create but also easy to delete and modify. Changes in storage formats can make recovery of data difficult or near impossible, as can the storage of information on obsolete media for which reproduction equipment is unavailable, and even identifying what such data is and whether it is of interest can be near impossible if it is no longer easily readable, or if there is a large number of such files to identify. Information passed off as authentic research or study must be scrutinized and verified.  These problems are further compounded by the use of digital rights management and other copy prevention technologies which, being designed to only allow the data to be read on specific machines, may well make future data recovery impossible. The Voyager Golden Record, which is intended to be read by an intelligent extraterrestrial (perhaps a suitable parallel to a human from the distant future), is recorded in analog rather than digital format specifically for easy interpretation and analysis.

The Digital Revolution (also known as the 3rd Industrial Revolution) is the shift from mechanical and analogue electronic technology to digital electronics which began anywhere from the late 1950s to the late 1970s with the adoption and proliferation of digital computers and digital record keeping that continues to the present day. Implicitly, the term also refers to the sweeping changes brought about by digital computing and communication technology during (and after) the latter half of the 20th century. Analogous to the Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution, the Digital Revolution marked the beginning of the Information Age.

La « révolution numérique » (ou plus rarement « révolution technologique », « révolution Internet » ou « révolution digitale ») désigne le bouleversement profond des sociétés provoqué par l'essor des techniques numériques telles que l'informatique et le développement du réseau Internet.


Football career.

Preston and Brighton.

Mark Lawrenson was born in Preston and attended Teresa's Catholic Primary School in Penwortham and, later, Preston Catholic College, a Jesuit school. His father, Tom, had been a winger for Preston North End. He always wanted to be a footballer, although his mother, Theresa, wanted him to become a priest. He began his career, as a 17-year-old, with his hometown club, Preston North End in 1974 who were then managed by World Cup winner Bobby Charlton. Lawrenson was voted Preston's Player of the Year for the 1976–77 season.  After 73 league appearances for the Deepdale club he moved to Alan Mullery's Brighton & Hove Albion in the summer before the start of the 1977–78 season for £100,000. Ironically, they outbid Liverpool who also showed interest in the 19-year-old Lawrenson. Lawrenson made his Brighton debut on 20 August 1977 in a 1–1 draw against Southampton at The Dell. He settled in at the Goldstone Ground and made 40 league appearances by the end of his first season of the club. He went on to make 152 league appearances by the end of the 1980–81 season. However the club entered a financial crisis in 1981 and Lawrenson was forced to leave the club to make funds available. A number of clubs were interested in signing Lawrenson after his resilient performances for both Preston and Brighton, but it was Liverpool manager Bob Paisley who secured his signature.

Liverpool.

Liverpool offered a club transfer record of £900,000, and Lawrenson joined in the summer of 1981. He was to form a formidable central defensive partnership with Alan Hansen after Phil Thompson suffered an injury. He was also used occasionally at left-back. He made his first start for the team at left-back in a 1–0 league defeat at the hands of Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux on 29 August 1981. He scored his first goal a month later during the 7–0 European Cup 1st round 2nd leg trouncing of Finnish team Oulun Palloseura at Anfield on 30 September. Lawrenson came on for Ray Kennedy in the 64th minute scoring in the 72nd. Also coming off the bench to score his first goal for the club was Ian Rush.  In Lawrenson's first full season, 1981–82, Liverpool won the League championship and the League Cup, defeating Tottenham Hotspur in the final. The team retained both titles for the next two seasons (in the League Cup finals defeating Manchester United in 1983 and Everton in 1984), becoming the third club in history to win three league titles in a row. They also added the club's fourth European Cup in 1984, the last time Liverpool would win Europe's most prestigious club prize until 2005. Lawrenson dislocated his shoulder three weeks before the 1985 European Cup final, the Heysel Stadium Disaster. He started the game, which Liverpool lost 1–0 to Juventus, but was injured after a few minutes and had to be substituted.  Lawrenson earned a reputation as an accomplished player and in the 1985–1986 season he was an integral part of the Liverpool side who completed the third league championship and FA Cup double of the 20th century. They overtook derby rivals Everton to win the league by two points and later came from behind to defeat Everton 3–1 in the 1986 FA Cup final at Wembley. After 1986, Lawrenson's first team place came under threat from the younger Gary Gillespie. Lawrenson's partnership with team captain Hansen continued for one more season before he, already out through a minor injury, suffered Achilles tendon damage in 1988 which prematurely ended his career. He earned a fifth and final title medal when that season ended. His Liverpool career ended after 332 appearances and 18 goals in all competitions – one of which was the fifth goal in a 5–0 defeat of Merseyside rivals Everton on 6 November 1982, a game in which Ian Rush scored four of the five goals.  In 1989, Lawrenson spent one season with the Florida side in the American Soccer League.

Management.

After his time at Liverpool, he was appointed Oxford United manager in 1988. His time at the club was frustrating and he resigned after star striker Dean Saunders was sold by the board of directors without Lawrenson's approval. Over that winter, he made a brief playing comeback in the GM Vauxhall Conference, making two appearances for Barnet. Lawrenson also managed Peterborough United from 6 September 1989 until 9 November 1990.

Return to Playing.

Lawrenson returned to playing with non-league clubs Corby Town and Chesham United. His final season as a player was as part of the Chesham team that won the 1992-93 Isthmian League. The club was not promoted to the then Football Conference as this would have required ground improvements that could not be afforded, so he decided the time was right to retire from playing completely.

International career.

After Preston coach (and former Irish international goalkeeper) Alan Kelly became aware of the young player's Irish connections (and informed Irish international manager Johnny Giles), Lawrenson's solid performances earned him a call-up to the Republic of Ireland national team. He won the first of 39 international caps at the age of 19, in a friendly with Poland on 24 April 1977 at Dalymount Park; the game ended 0–0. Ireland employed Lawrenson's versatility and burgeoning talent by playing him at fullback, in midfield, and occasionally in his favoured position at centre half.  Lawrenson played his first competitive match on 12 October 1977 against Bulgaria in a 1978 World Cup qualifier. This match also ended 0-0, at Lansdowne Road (now Aviva Stadium). Lawrenson scored his first of his five goals for Ireland against Cyprus in Nicosia on 26 March 1980 in a 1982 World Cup Qualifier. He scored his second goal for Ireland in the next competitive match as Ireland beat Netherlands 2–1 at Lansdowne Road in the same qualification campaign. This was also notable as it was Eoin Hand's first match as manager of Ireland. In between these two matches Mark Lawrenson renewed his Preston acquaintance with Alan Kelly Snr as Kelly managed Ireland in a caretaker capacity for a friendly against Switzerland.  Lawrenson scored two goals in Ireland's record victory - an 8-0 thrashing of Malta in a 1984 European Championship qualifier but the Irish goal that he is best remembered for is one against Scotland. It was Jack Charlton's first qualification campaign as Irish manager and Ireland were playing Scotland in Hampden Park in a 1988 Euro qualifier. A sixth-minute goal earned Ireland a precious away victory that went a very long way to helping Ireland to qualify for its first ever major football championship finals. Unfortunately for Lawrenson injury prevented him from making the Irish Euro 1988 squad for the finals.  Mark Lawrenson played his last match for the Republic of Ireland against Israel on 10 November 1987. It was a friendly match at Dalymount Park and was also notable because David Kelly scored a hat trick on his international debut.

Media career.

Lawrenson began his television career providing match analysis on HTV West's local football coverage, before working as a pundit for the BBC but then left briefly to become a coach specialising in defensive tactics for Kevin Keegan at Newcastle United. However, the position was again short-lived and he returned to media work. He has since become established as a pundit, both on BBC television and radio, often finding himself sitting alongside his former defensive partner, Alan Hansen. Since the departure from the BBC of Trevor Brooking, he has beem the main co-commentator on major national and international (FIFA) matches covered by the television network. He appears regularly on "Football Focus" and "Match of the Day".  He is also often a co-commentator on BBC Radio Five Live, often working on the feature matches on Sunday afternoons. He previously worked as a pundit for Ireland's TV3 between 2001-2007 for mid-week Champions League games alongside Welsh national (FA) team manager and former Liverpool striker, John Toshack. When the Champions League returned to TV3 in 2010 he no longer provided punditry. He was replaced in that role by Tony Cascarino and Martin Keown, and moved into the commentary box alongside TV3 commentator Trevor Welch. He works for Irish radio station Today FM on "Premiership Live" with presenter Michael McMullan in talking about football related topics, predicting scores and stating facts. He also has a column on the BBC website where he gives his views and predictions on the Premier League's weekend fixtures.  He also writes a regular Preston North End column for the University of Central Lancashire's Students' Union newspaper, "Pluto", and a weekly column for the Liverpool Daily Post newspaper. He worked with Japanese entertainment company Konami, recording commentary samples for the Pro Evolution Soccer series, alongside ITV commentator Jon Champion, from Pro Evolution Soccer 2008 to Pro Evolution Soccer 2010. He was replaced by ITV pundit Jim Beglin for Pro Evolution Soccer 2011. In addition, Lawrenson has also featured alongside John Motson as a commentator in EA Sports' "FIFA" series from "99" through "2001" and on the Euro 2000 video game.  In 2002, Lawrenson made a bet on "Football Focus" that Bolton would be relegated from the Premiership in the 2001–2002 season. He lost the bet after Sam Allardyce's team stayed up, and shaved off his moustache as a result.  At the 2014 FIFA World Cup, the BBC received 172 complaints after Lawrenson said that Swiss striker Josip Drmić "should put a skirt on". The channel responded by stating "We acknowledge that the remark by commentator Mark Lawrenson about Switzerland's Josip Drmić was inappropriate and we apologise for any offence caused by it".

Personal life.

In 2003, Lawrenson was awarded an Honorary Fellowship from Myerscough College near Preston for his achievements in football.  In 2018, he was given the all-clear after having a cancerous growth removed from his face. He was made aware of the seriousness of the growth when a concerned viewer contacted the editor of "Football Focus". Lawrenson later met the viewer, Dr Alan Brennan, on television.

Mark Thomas Lawrenson (born 2 June 1957) is a former Republic of Ireland international footballer who played as a defender for Liverpool, among others, during the 1970s and 1980s. After a short career as a manager, he has since been a radio, television and internet pundit for the BBC, TV3 and Today FM. Born and raised in England, Lawrenson qualified to play for the Republic of Ireland through his grandfather, Thomas Crotty, who was born in Waterford.

Mark Lawrenson, né le à (Angleterre) est un footballeur irlandais, qui évoluait au poste de défenseur à Liverpool et en équipe de la République d'Irlande. Lawrenson a marqué cinq buts lors de ses trente-neuf sélections avec l'équipe de la République d'Irlande entre 1977 et 1987.