History.

The history of Tlingit is poorly known, mostly because there is no written record until the first contact with Europeans around the 1790s. Documentation was sparse and irregular until the early 20th century. The language appears to have spread northward from the Ketchikan–Saxman area towards the Chilkat region since certain conservative features are reduced gradually from south to north. The shared features between the Eyak language, found around the Copper River delta, and Tongass Tlingit, near the Portland Canal, are all the more striking for the distances that separate them, both geographic and linguistic.

Classification.

Tlingit is currently classified as a distinct and separate branch of Na-Dene, an indigenous language family of North America. Edward Sapir (1915) argued for its inclusion in the Na-Dené family, a claim that was subsequently debated by Franz Boas (1917), P.E. Goddard (1920), and many other prominent linguists of the time.  Studies in the late 20th century by (Heinz-)Jürgen Pinnow (1962, 1968, 1970, int. al.) and Michael E. Krauss (1964, 1965, 1969, int. al.) showed a strong connection to Eyak and hence to the Athabaskan languages.  Sapir initially proposed a connection between Tlingit and Haida, but the debate over Na-Dene gradually excluded Haida from the discussion. Haida is now considered an isolate, with some borrowing from its long proximity with Tlingit. In 2004, the Haida linguist John Enrico presented new arguments and reopened the debate. Victor Golla writes in his 2011 "California Native Languages", "John Enrico, the contemporary linguist with the deepest knowledge of Haida, continues to believe that a real, if distant, genetic relationship connects Haida to Na-Dene[.]"

Geographic distribution.

The Tlingit language is distributed from near the mouth of the Copper River down the open coast of the Gulf of Alaska and throughout almost all of the islands of the Alexander Archipelago in Southeast Alaska. It is characterized by four or five distinct dialects, but they are mostly mutually intelligible. Almost all of the area where the Tlingit language is endemic is contained within the modern borders of Alaska.  The exception is an area known as "Inland Tlingit" that extends up the Taku River and into northern British Columbia and the Yukon around Atlin Lake ("Áa Tleen" "Big Lake") and Teslin Lake ("Desleen" < "Tas Tleen" "Big Thread") lake districts, as well as a concentration around Bennett Lake at the end of the Chilkoot Trail ("Jilkhoot"). Otherwise, Tlingit is not found in Canada. Tlingit legend tells that groups of Tlingit once inhabited the Stikine, Nass, and Skeena river valleys during their migrations from the interior. There is a small group of speakers (some 85) in Washington as well.

Use and revitalization efforts.

Golla (2007) reported a decreasing population of 500 speakers in Alaska. The First Peoples' Cultural Council (2014) reported 2 speakers in Canada out of an ethnic population of 400.  As of 2013, Tlingit courses are available at the University of Alaska Southeast. In April 2014, Alaska HB 216 recognized Tlingit as an official language of Alaska, lending support to language revitalization.

Dialects.

Tlingit is divided into roughly five major dialects, all of which are essentially mutually intelligible:  The various dialects of Tlingit can be classified roughly into two-tone and three-tone systems. Tongass Tlingit, however, has no tone but a four-way register contrast between short, long, glottalized, and "fading" vowels. (In the last type, the onset of the vowel is articulated normally but the release is murmured, essentially a rapid opening of the glottis once articulation is begun.)  The tone values in two-tone dialects can be predicted in some cases from the three-tone values but not the reverse. Earlier, it was hypothesized that the three-tone dialects were older and that the two-tone dialects evolved from them. However, Jeff Leer's discovery of the Tongass dialect in the late 1970s has been shown that the Tongass vowel system is adequate to predict the tonal features of both the two-tone and three-tone dialects, but none of the tonal dialects could be used to predict vocalic feature distribution in Tongass Tlingit. Thus, Tongass Tlingit is the most conservative of the various dialects of Tlingit, preserving contrasts which have been lost in the other dialects.  The fading and glottalized vowels in Tongass Tlingit have also been compared with similar systems in the Coast Tsimshian dialect. However, Krauss and Leer (1981, p. 165) point out that the fading vowels in Coastal Tsimshian are the surface realization of underlying sequences of vowel and glottalized sonorant,. That is in contradistinction to the glottal modifications in Tongass Tlingit, which Leer argues are symmetric with the modifications of the consonantal system. Thus, a fading vowel is symmetric with an aspirated consonant, and a glottalized vowel is symmetric with an ejective (glottalized) consonant. That implies that the two systems have no familial relationship. Leer (1978) speculated that the maintenance of the pretonal system in Tongass Tlingit was caused by the proximity of its speakers around the Cape Fox area near the mouth of the Portland Canal to speakers of Coastal Tsimshian, just to the south.

Phonology.

Tlingit has a complex phonological system, compared to Indo-European languages such as English or Spanish. It has an almost complete series of ejective consonants accompanying its stop, fricative, and affricate consonants. Tlingit's only missing ejective consonant in the Tlingit series is pronounced, and the language is also notable for having several laterals but no voiced and for having no labials in most dialects, except for and in recent English loanwords.

Consonants.

Consonants in the popular orthography are given in the following table, with IPA equivalents in brackets. Marginal or historical phonemes are given in parentheses.  The consonant "m" is a variant of "w" found in the Interior dialect; "amsikóo" "(he) knew it" would be "awsikóo" in the Coastal dialects. It is not strictly an allophone, as Interior speakers appear to distinguish the two; it is more likely that the distinction is allomorphic. The consonant "ll" is an allophone of "n" now mostly obsolete, but still occasionally heard among the oldest speakers, particularly in the Interior dialect. However, its former allophony with "n" is still evident in many Tlingit loanwords in which "n" replaces the in the source language, such as "sgóon" "school".  The consonant "ÿ" () has recently merged with () "y" or () "w", depending on the phonological environment, with "w" next to rounded vowels and labialized consonants, and "y" elsewhere. It occurs as "g" occasionally in placenames derived from Tlingit during the 18th and the 19th centuries as well as in some broad transcriptions by earlier anthropologists: "Gan Gulihashee Hit" for "Ÿan Ÿuliháshi Hít" "Drifted Ashore House" as recorded by Olson, today written "Yan Wuliháshi Hít". Because the use of "y" versus "w" is predictable from context where it was originally a "ÿ", this graph is used consistently in linguistic transcription, but not in ordinary writing. Note that this consonant has been erroneously referred to as "gamma", confused with the similar which is however the voiced velar fricative, not an approximant.  Leer (1991) argues the existence of two labialized glottal consonants, and, which could be written in the popular orthography as ".w" and "hw". The latter sound does appear in the speech of some speakers, but only in the highly variable word "oohwaan" ("first person plural independent pronoun"). This particular word is also pronounced (and hence spelled) "oohaan", "hoowaan", and "oowaan" among other variations. The labialized glottal stop is not attested in any Tlingit transcriptions or recordings, although speakers seem to be able to produce it when requested.  Nasal consonants assimilating with and the velar and uvular plosives is common among Tlingit-speakers of all dialects. For example, the sequence "nk" () is often heard as and "nkh" () as. Native speakers in a teaching position may admonish learners when they produce these assimilated forms, deriding them as "not Tlingit" or "too English", but it is common to later hear such speakers producing those forms themselves. It is uncertain whether this assimilation is autochthonous or if it arose from contact with English, but the former is more likely from a purely-articulatory perspective.  Young speakers and second-language learners are increasingly making a voiced/unvoiced distinction between consonants, rather than the traditional unaspirated/aspirated distinction. That is because of the influence of English, which makes a similar distinction. For speakers who make the voiced/unvoiced distinction, the distribution is symmetrical with the unaspirated/aspirated distinction among other speakers.  Maddieson, Smith, and Bessel (2001) note that all word final non-ejective stops are phonemically unaspirated. That contrasts with the orthography that typically represents them as aspirated stops: "t" for the more accurate "d". There is a wide variation in ordinary speech, ranging from unreleased to a very delayed aspiration. However, the underlying phoneme is certainly unaspirated since it is consistently produced when the word is suffixed. The orthography usually but not always reflects that: "hít" "house" is written "(du) hídi" "(his) house" when marked with the possessive suffix "-ÿí". It is possible but has not been verified that aspirated and unaspirated stops are collapsed into a single phoneme word-finally.  Maddieson and colleagues also confirm that the ejective fricatives in Tlingit are in fact true ejectives, despite the widely-held assumption that ejective fricatives are not actually phonetically ejective but are as a sequence of fricative and glottal stop. In Tlingit, at least, the articulation of ejective fricatives includes complete closure of the glottis before frication begins, and the larynx is raised in the same manner as with ejective stops.  Characteristically, the ejective fricatives in Tlingit feature a much smaller aperture for frication than is found in ordinary fricatives. That articulation provides increased resistance to counter the continual loss of dynamic airstream pressure. Also, ejective fricatives appear to include tightening of the pharyngeal muscles, which reduces the diameter of the air column and so further increases pressure. That pharyngeal constriction is not true pharyngealization, however, since the diameter is still greater than whait is found in pharyngealized consonants in other languages.

Vowels.

Tlingit has eight vowels, four vowels further distinguished formally by length. However, the length distinction is often in terms of tenseness rather than length, particularly in rapid speech. For the Northern dialect, the dominant spoken dialect of Tlingit and the standard for written Tlingit, every vowel may take either high or low tone; in the orthography high tone is indicated by an acute accent ("áa") and low tone is unmarked ("aa"). The Southern and Transitional dialects have a mid tone which is unmarked and additional low tone which is marked by a grave accent ("àa").  As noted in the vowel chart above, there is an allophone of (orthographic "aa") which is realized as under the influence of uvular consonants, however this is not consistent for all speakers. The backness influence arises from articulation with uvular consonants and so the word "kháa" "person" is often spoken as, but the word "(a) káa" "on (its) surface" is said as by the same speakers.  Word onset is always consonantal in Tlingit and so words never begin with a vowel. Where a vowel would theoretically have occurred, such as by prefixing or compounding, the vowel is always followed by either or. The former is universal in single words, and both are found} in word-medial position in compounds. The orthography does not reflect the in word-initial position, but either "." or "y" may be seen in medial position. For example, the word "khoowat'áa" "the weather is hot" ("khu-ÿu-ÿa-t'áa", --(0, -D, +I)-hot) is phonetically, but when the perfective prefix "ÿu-" is word-initial in "uwat'áa" "it is hot" ("0-ÿu-ÿa-t'áa", 3--(0, -D, +I)-hot), the phonetic form is where the glottal stop appears to ensure that the word begins with a consonant.

Writing system.

Until the late 1960s, Tlingit was written exclusively in phonetic transcription in the works of linguists and anthropologists except for a little-known Cyrillic alphabet used for publications by the Russian Orthodox Church. A number of amateur anthropologists doing extensive work on the Tlingit had no training in linguistics and so left numerous samples in vague and inconsistent transcriptions, the most famous being George T. Emmons. However, such noted anthropologists as Franz Boas, John R. Swanton, and Frederica de Laguna have transcribed Tlingit in various related systems that feature accuracy and consistency but sacrifice readability.  Two problems ensue from the multiplicity of transcription systems used for Tlingit. One is that there are many of them, thus requiring any reader to learn each individual system depending on what sources are used. The other is that most transcriptions made before Boas's study of Tlingit have numerous mistakes in them, particularly because of misinterpretations of the short vowels and ejective consonants. Accuracy of transcription can be increased by checking against similar words in other systems, or against a modern work postdating Naish and Story's work in the 1960s.

Grammar.

Tlingit grammar at first glance appears to be highly fusional, but this is an incorrect assumption. There are predictable processes by which the basic phonetic shapes of individual morphemes are modified to fit various phonological requirements. These processes can be described with a regular language, and such descriptions are given here on a per morpheme basis by giving rule schemas for the context sensitive phonological modification of base morphemes. Analyzing all the possible combinations of morphemes and phonological contexts in Tlingit and constructing a regular language to describe them is a daunting but tractable task.  Despite not being a fusional language, Tlingit is still highly synthetic as an agglutinating language, and is even polysynthetic to some extent. The verb, as with all the Na-Dené languages, is characteristically incorporating. Nouns are in comparison relatively simple, with many being derived from verbs.

Word order.

Tlingit word order is SOV when non-pronominal agent and object phrases both exist in the sentence. However, there is a strong urge to restrict the argument of the verb phrase to a single non-pronominal noun phrase, with any other phrases being extraposed from the verb phrase. If a noun phrase occurs outside of the verb phrase then it is typically represented in the verb phrase by an appropriate pronoun.

Pronominals.

Tlingit has a complex system of pronominals, which vary depending on their relationship to the verb. The subject pronominals are incorporated into the verb in its subject slot. The object pronominals are also technically incorporated into the verb (i.e. the verb "complex"), but most are graphically independent. They are divided into three classes, the verbal object, nominal object, and postpositional object. There are also the independent pronominals which are completely separate from the verb and can be used in dependent clauses or in subject or object position.  The pronominals all have related semantic values, and their organization can hence easily be visualized in a table.  The numbers in the first column represent the usual concept of person, i.e. first, second, or third. Story and Naish identified a fourth person, but this term is inappropriate since they did not describe a clear separation between the so-called fourth person and the other impersonal pronominals.  When analyzing a sentence, the pronominal type is given first, then the form (subject, object, independent) is given following a period. This uniquely represents the pronominal as a two dimensional unit. Thus 1 is the first person singular subject pronominal, realized as "xhat". The does not uniquely identify one of the two reciprocal pronominals, but since they are both phonetically identical as "woosh", it is generally unnecessary to uniquely identify them.  There is also a notional zeroth person which can be of subject, object, or independent form. This is not realized in Tlingit, instead it is an empty placeholder for analysis.

Subject pronominals.

The subject pronominals are all incorporated into the verb. Thus when the subject is represented as a pronominal, the subject position of the sentence is empty.

Object pronominals.

Object pronominals are divided into three classes, the verbal, nominal, and postpositional.  The verbal object pronominals function similarly to the subject pronominals in that they preclude an explicit object when used.  The nominal object pronominals are similar in some respects to the possessive pronouns of English. They precede a noun and represent the object of the noun, typically implying possession of the noun.  Postpositional object pronominals function as objects to which postpositions are attached. They act as the object of a postposition in a manner similar to an ordinary noun suffixed with a postposition.

Directionals.

Strictly speaking, the Tlingit directionals can be classified as nouns on the basis of their syntactic function. However, they form a distinct semantic set of nouns which indicate direction relative to some stated position. They also show stem variation depending locative suffixation, in particular with the allative suffix "-dei". These stem variants also occur with the adverb construction "N"-da-"N"-(i)n ""N" "N"-ward" where "N" is an anatomic noun and "N" is a directional stem.

Particles.

Particles function as neither noun nor verb. They are restricted to positions relative to phrases in the sentence.

Focus particles.

The focus particles follow the left periphery ("forephrase" per Leer) of a sentence. The Naish-Story term for them is "post-marginals". Many of them may be suffixed with a demonstrative ("-yá", "-hé", "-wé", "-yú"), and they may also be combined with the interrogative ("-gé"). Focus particles are stylistically written as separate words, but phonetically, they may be indivisible from the preceding utterance.  The combination of the focus "á" with the demonstratives gives the frequently used particles "áyá" and "áwé", and the less common "áhé" and "áyú". Combination of the interrogative "ágé" with the demonstratives gives the confirmative particles "ákwé" and "ákyá" ("ák-hé" and "ákyú" are uncommon), used to elicit a yes/no response from the listener.  The interrogative "ágé" also usually contracts to "ág" before "tsú" "also": "ág tsú" "also?" < "ágé" + "tsú".  The particle "sá" is obligatory in forming wh-question phrases. It can be combined with a demonstrative, the dubitative, the rhetorical interrogative, and the emphatic assertion:

Phrasal particles.

Phrasal particles may occur after focus particles that occur with or without demonstrative finals. The following are postphrasal particles, thus they may only occur after the phrase that they modify.  Except for "x'wán" and "tsé", the above may occur after the focus particles.  The following are prephrasal particles, i.e. they occur before the phrase that they modify. Naish and Story call these "pre-marginals".

Mobile particles.

These particles may occur before or after any phrase in a clause.  Compare the mobile particle "tsu" with the postphrasal particle "tsú". Both the sentence "káaxwei tsu eetéenaxh xhat yatee" "I need more coffee" and the sentence "káaxwei tsú eetéenaxh xhat yatee" "I also need coffee" are acceptable. However the sentence "*tsú káaxwei eetéenaxh xhat yatee" is syntactically inadmissible because the particle "tsú" is postphrasal, i.e. it cannot precede the phrase it modifies, in this case the noun phrase "káaxwei". The corresponding sentence with the "tsu" particle in front, "tsu káaxwei eetéenaxh xhat yatee" "I need coffee again/still" is in contrast syntactically acceptable. Thus a Tlingit listener will recognize the "tsu" particle in a phrase-initial position without confusion but tone is necessary to distinguish it in a phrase-final position. For this reason the "tsu" particle is often used prephrasally although it is syntactically admitted in either position. Thus the song name "Tsu Héidei Shugaxhtootaan" could also be "héidei tsu shugaxhtootaan", but placing the "tsu" in front has the advantage of unambiguity, and thus seems more euphonious to native speakers.  Note that "déi" is a homonym with the noun "déi" "path, way, road". [How are these differentiated in speech?]  The particle "tlei" is easily confused with "tléil" "no, not", but as with the "tsu/tsú" pair the tone makes them unambiguous.

Sentence-initial particles.

These particles may only occur at the front of a sentence. Naish-Story term these "clause marginals".

Tlingit-language media.

The Irish TV series "An Klondike" (2015–17), set in Canada in the 1890s, contains Tlingit dialog.

The Tlingit language (; "Lingít" ) is spoken by the Tlingit people of Southeast Alaska and Western Canada and is a branch of the Na-Dene language family. Extensive effort is being put into revitalization programs in Southeast Alaska to revive and preserve the Tlingit language and culture.

Le tlingit ("Lingít" en tlingit, prononcé ) est une langue amérindienne parlée par les Tlingits dans le sud-est de l'Alaska et en Colombie-Britannique, dans l'archipel Alexandre et la zone côtière avoisinante. Il fait partie de la famille des langues na-dené, dont il constitue à lui seul une branche distincte. Le tlingit se divise grossièrement en cinq dialectes intercompréhensibles.


Siblings.

According to the legend, "Echtra Condla", he was not Conn's only son: he had a brother called Connla, who fell in love with a fairy woman, and went with her to Mag Mell, never to be seen again. After that, Art was alone and gained his nickname, "Art Óenfer". Geoffrey Keating says he had two brothers, Connla and Crionna, who were killed by their uncle Eochaid Finn.

Biography.

Another fairy woman, Bé Chuille, who had been banished to Ireland by the Tuatha Dé Danann, fell in love with Art, but, when she learned his father Conn was still alive and a widower, agreed to marry him instead, on the condition that Art be banished from Tara for a year. The injustice caused famine in Ireland, until Art forced Bé Chuille to leave as a forfeit in a game of "fidchell". In another variant of the myth, Bé Chuille places a geis on Art, after he loses at a game of fidchell; under which he must leave Ireland never to return until he can find and rescue the maiden Delbchaem ("Fair Shape"). Art travels to the Land of Wonder, facing untold dangers and is forced to kill Delbchaem's mother a fearsome and supernatural figure, who has been foretold by druids that she would be killed by a suitor of her daughter. When Art and Delbchaem return to Tara, Delbchaem banishes Bé Chuille from the land, returning fertility to the region.  Art succeeded to the High Kingship after his brother-in-law Conaire Cóem, was killed by Nemed, son of Sroibcenn, in the battle of Gruitine. He ruled for twenty or thirty years. During his reign Conaire's sons took revenge against Nemed and his allies, the sons of Ailill Aulom, in the Battle of Cennfebrat in Munster. Ailill's foster-son Lugaid mac Con was wounded in the thigh in the battle, and was exiled from Ireland. He made an alliance with Benne Brit, son of the king of Britain, raised an army of foreigners, and returned to Ireland. He defeated and killed Art in the Battle of Maigh Mucruimhe in Connacht. According to legend, Art was given hospitality by Olc Acha, a local smith, the night before the battle. It had been prophesied that a great dignity would come from Olc's line, and he gave Art his daughter Achtan to sleep with. Art's son Cormac was conceived that night. However, according to Keating, Achtan was Art's official mistress, to whom he paid a dowry of cattle; his wife, and the mother of his other children, was Medb Lethderg.  The "Lebor Gabála Érenn" synchronises Art's reign with that of the Roman emperor Commodus (180–192). The chronology of Keating's "Foras Feasa ar Éirinn" dates his reign to 143–173, that of the "Annals of the Four Masters" to 165–195.

Art mac Cuinn ("son of Conn"), also known as Art Óenfer (literally "one man", used in the sense of "lone", "solitary", or "only son"), was, according to medieval Irish legend and historical tradition, a High King of Ireland.

Art mac Cuinn est un Ard ri Erenn légendaire d’Irlande qui aurait régné trente ans de 165 à 195 ap. J.-C. selon les dates traditionnelles des Annales des quatre maîtres.


History.

Abha was the capital city for the Prince of Asir Ibn Ayde under the authority of the Ottoman Empire until World War I. In 1918, the Prince of Asir, Yahya bin Hasun Al Ayde, grandson of Ibn Ayed, returned to his family throne conquered in Abha with complete independence. In 1920, Asir was conquered by the Ikhwan tribesmen of Nejd loyal to Ibn Saud during the Unification of Saudi Arabia. Abha has many historic places such as forts and other locations, thanks to the region's cultural heritage. Bani Shehr, Bani Amr, Bal-Ahmar, Bal-Asmar, Bal-Qarn, Shumran and some others all belong to "Al-Azd" and some extended families Qahtan, Shahran which is belong to Hood. Azdi tribes had migrated after "Marib Dam" collapsed for the third time in the third century AD. Al-Namas, Billasmar Region, Hawra Billasmar Center, Khaled, Eyaa Valley, Athneen Billasmar (which is the capital_, Subuh Billahmar, Al-Nimas, Tanomah, Al-Majaredah place, Bal-Qarn Center, and Sabt Alalyaa place (Bishah, Wadi Bin Hashbaal) and some other known places that belong to the Asir Region.

Transportation.

A coastal road connecting Jeddah and Abha was completed in 1979. A SAPTCO bus station connects Abha to other destinations within Saudi Arabia.  Abha Regional Airport (, IATA: AHB[3], ICAO: OEAB) is Abha's main airport. International connections are available to Yemen (Sana'a), Egypt (Cairo), Qatar (Doha) and the UAE (Dubai, Sharjah), as well as to other destinations within Saudi Arabia. Construction of Dutch-designed Abha Airport began in mid-1975, and flights began in 1977. Before construction of the airport, domestic flights were serviced by the military airport near Khamis Mushait by Ali Misfer Ibn Misfer, who was the founder of aviation in Abha in 1945.

Landmarks.

The city of Abha is composed of four quarters, the largest of which contains a fortress. Hilltop fortresses are a characteristic feature of the city. Shadda Palace, built in 1927, is now a museum displaying local handicrafts and household items. Other notable buildings in Abha include the Abha Great Mosque, the Al-Tahy restaurant, the Abha Palace Hotel, and the funpark next to Lake Sadd. The New Abha five-star hotel is a recent construction on the lake, southwest of the town. The head office and the main printing presses of "Al Watan", a major Saudi daily, are in Abha.

Culture.

The Saudi government has promoted Abha as a tourist destination. The city hosts events to attract visitors to the city and its surroundings, including the summer Abha Festival, sporting events, shows, exhibitions, and musical performances poets and singers. The artist Talal Maddah died on stage during one such performance in Abha.

Education.

King Khalid University is a public university in Abha. The University was established in 1999 by merging the Imam Muhammed bin Saud University of Islamic Studies and the King Saud University of the South.

Geography and climate.

Abha is located in the southern region of Asir at an elevation of about above sea level. Abha lies on the western edge of Mount Al-Hijaz, near Jabal Sawda, The second highest peak in Saudi Arabia. Treating the Asir Mountains as part of the Sarawat, the landscape is otherwise dominated by the Sarawat Mountains.  The climate of Abha is semi-arid (Köppen: BSh) and it is influenced by city's high elevation. The city's weather is generally mild throughout the year, becoming noticeably cooler during the “low-sun” season. Abha seldom sees temperatures rise above during the course of the year. The city averages of rainfall annually, with the bulk of the precipitation occurring between February and April, with a secondary minor wet season in July and August.  The highest recorded temperature was on August 25, 1983, while the lowest recorded temperature was on December 29, 1983.

Abha (, "") is the capital of 'Asir Region in Saudi Arabia. It is situated above sea level in the fertile Asir Mountains of south-western Saudi Arabia, near Asir National Park. Abha's mild climate makes it a popular tourist destination for Saudis.

Abha () est la capitale de la province d'Asir, au sud-ouest de l'Arabie saoudite. La ville se trouve à d'altitude et compte habitants. C'est une ville de villégiature, surtout pour de riches Saoudiens, qui fuient les fortes chaleurs, entre les mois de mars à octobre. À Abha, le thermomètre ne dépasse jamais les 30 °C grâce à son altitude.


Infection.

Koobface ultimately attempts, upon successful infection, to gather login information for FTP sites, Facebook, Skype, and other social media platforms, and any sensitive financial data as well. It then uses compromised computers to build a peer-to-peer botnet. A compromised computer contacts other compromised computers to receive commands in a peer-to-peer fashion. The botnet is used to install additional pay-per-install malware on the compromised computer and hijack search queries to display advertisements. Its peer-to-peer topology is also used to show fake messages to other users for the purpose of expanding the botnet. It was first detected in December 2008 and a more potent version appeared in March 2009. A study by the Information Warfare Monitor, a joint collaboration from SecDev Group and the Citizen Lab in the Munk School of Global Affairs at the University of Toronto, has revealed that the operators of this scheme have generated over $2 million in revenue from June 2009 to June 2010.  Koobface originally spread by delivering Facebook messages to people who are "friends" of a Facebook user whose computer had already been infected. Upon receipt, the message directs the recipients to a third-party website (or another Koobface infected PC), where they are prompted to download what is purported to be an update of the Adobe Flash player. If they download and execute the file, Koobface can infect their system. It can then commandeer the computer's search engine use and direct it to contaminated websites. There can also be links to the third-party website on the Facebook wall of the friend the message came from sometimes having comments like LOL or YOUTUBE. If the link is opened the trojan virus will infect the computer and the PC will become a Zombie or Host Computer.  Among the components downloaded by Koobface are a DNS filter program that blocks access to well known security websites and a proxy tool that enables the attackers to abuse the infected PC. At one time the Koobface gang also used Limbo, a password stealing program.  Several variants of the worm have been identified:  In January 2012, the "New York Times" reported that Facebook was planning to share information about the Koobface gang, and name those it believed were responsible. Investigations by German researcher Jan Droemer and the University of Alabama at Birmingham's Center for Information Assurance and Joint Forensics Research were said to have helped uncover the identities of those responsible.  Facebook finally revealed the names of the suspects behind the worm on January 17, 2012. They include Stanislav Avdeyko (leDed), Alexander Koltyshev (Floppy), Anton Korotchenko (KrotReal), Roman P. Koturbach (PoMuc), Svyatoslav E. Polichuck (PsViat and PsycoMan). They are based in St. Petersburg, Russia. The group is sometimes referred to as Ali Baba & 4 with Stanislav Avdeyko as the leader. The investigation also connected Avdeyko with CoolWebSearch spyware.

Hoax warnings.

The Koobface threat is also the subject of many hoax warnings designed to trick social networking users into spreading misinformation across the Internet. Various anti-scam websites such as Snopes.com and ThatsNonsense.com have recorded many instances where alarmist messages designed to fool and panic Facebook users have begun to circulate prolifically using the widely publicized Koobface threat as bait. The "Barack Obama-Clinton Scandal" hoax which was popular in 2010 is an example.  Other misconceptions have spread regarding the Koobface threat, including the false assertion that accepting "hackers" as Facebook friends will infect a victim's computer with Koobface, or that Facebook applications are themselves Koobface threats. These claims are untrue. Other rumours assert that Koobface is much more dangerous than other examples of malware and has the ability to delete all of your computer files and "burn your hard disk." However, these rumours are inspired by earlier fake virus warning hoaxes and remain false.

Koobface is a network worm that attacks Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux platforms. This worm originally targeted users of networking websites like Facebook, Skype, Yahoo Messenger, and email websites such as GMail, Yahoo Mail, and AOL Mail. It also targets other networking websites, such as MySpace, Twitter, and it can infect other devices on the same local network. Technical support scammers also fraudulently claim to their intended victims that they have a Koobface infection on their computer by using fake popups and using built-in Windows programs.

Koobface, découvert en par l’éditeur McAfee, est un ver informatique qui sévit sur le site communautaire Facebook. Le ver Koobface se propage en envoyant des courriels aux amis des personnes dont l'ordinateur a été infecté, si l’utilisateur a la malheureuse idée de télécharger le programme, son ordinateur sera infecté et dirigera ses utilisateurs sur des sites contaminés lors de recherches sur Google, Yahoo! ou encore MSN. Il serait également capable de dérober des informations de nature personnelle comme un numéro de carte de crédit. Barry Schnitt, porte-parole de Facebook, a déclaré que : ""quelques autres virus ont tenté de se servir de Facebook de manière similaire pour se propager mais jamais de manière aussi importante"". Pour l'instant, un petit pourcentage d'utilisateurs a été affecté par ces virus.


Career.

Smith made his Tigers début against the Barbarians in March 2006 and, by the close of the 2006/07 season, had played on a further three occasions for the first team. Smith has been a regular member of Tigers’ successful Development XV over the past two seasons, where his versatility has seen him excel at centre, full-back or fly-half. He scored his first senior try last season, crossing during the friendly encounter with Marcelo Loffreda’s at Welford Road in February.  The son of former Tigers flanker, skipper and coach Ian "Dosser" Smith, Smith joined the Tigers Junior Academy at U-16 level and represented Oakham School in their 2003 Daily Mail Cup Final win at Twickenham. Smith entered his second year as a member of the first-team squad in 2007/08 and he was loaned out to National Division One team Nottingham. The 2008/09 season saw Smith make his breakthrough into regular first team action, appearing in all 16 of the games before Christmas 2008.  In January 2009 he received a call up to the England Saxons and came off the bench to score a début try in the match against.  He received the Outstanding Service Award at the end of the 2015/16 season.  On 9 May 2019 Smith announced his retirement from rugby and he took up a position as the club's academy head coach. He played his 228th and final game for the club on 18 May 2019 at Welford Road against Bath.

Matthew William Smith (born 15 November 1985) is an English rugby union coach and a retired professional rugby union player. Smith has played 228 games for Leicester Tigers between 2006 and 2019. He played in winning Premiership Finals in 2009, 2010 and 2013 (scoring a try in the 2010 final), and has also won the Anglo-Welsh Cup in 2012 and 2017. He primary position was centre but he also played wing.

Matthew William Smith dit Matt Smith, né le à Leicester, est un joueur anglais de rugby à XV qui évolue dans la ligne des trois-quarts au poste d'ailier ou de centre. Il joue au sein de l'effectif des Leicester Tigers depuis 2006.


Design.

The original plan was to acquire a 7,800 ton vessel from Bremer Vulcan, but the Thai government cancelled this contract on 22 July 1991. A new contract for a larger warship to be constructed at Bazán's shipyard in Ferrol, Spain was signed by the Thai and Spanish governments on 27 March 1992. The proposed vessel was based on the design of the Spanish Navy aircraft carrier, which in turn was based on the United States Navy's Sea Control Ship concept. The design is formally referred to by the RTN as an "Offshore Patrol Helicopter Carrier". "Chakri Naruebet" while still operating with Harriers was the smallest aircraft carrier with a fixed wing air group in operation in the world. She displaces 11,486 tons at full load. The carrier is long between perpendiculars, and overall. She is wide at the waterline, with a maximum beam of, and a draught of. The warship has a ship's company of 62 officers, 393 sailors, and 146 aircrew. Up to 675 additional personnel can be transported, usually from the Royal Thai Marine Corps.  "Chakri Naruebet" is propelled by a combined diesel or gas (CODOG) system. Each of the two, five-bladed propellers is connected to a Bazán-MTU 16V1163 TB83 diesel engine (providing, used for cruising speed), and a General Electric LM2500 gas turbine (providing, used to reach top speed for short periods). "Chakri Naruebet" has a maximum speed of, although she can only reach with the diesels alone. She has a maximum range of with a constant speed of, and at.

Armament and aircraft.

"Chakri Naruebet" is fitted with two 0.5-inch machine guns, and three Matra Sadral sextuple surface-to-air missile launchers firing Mistral missiles. The missile launchers were installed in 2001. The vessel is also fitted for but not with an 8-cell Mark 41 Vertical launch system for Sea Sparrow missiles, and four Phalanx close-in weapon systems. The carrier reportedly doesn't have a functioning anti-aircraft defense system installed.  The carrier was designed to operate an air group of up to six AV-8S Matador V/STOL aircraft, plus four to six S-70B Seahawk helicopters. "Chakri Naruebet" is also capable of carrying up to fourteen additional helicopters; a mix of Sikorsky Sea King, Sikorsky S-76, and CH-47 Chinook. There is only enough hangar space for ten aircraft.  The Matador was a first generation export version of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, acquired secondhand from the Spanish Navy in 1997. The nine Spanish aircraft (seven standard version plus two TAV-8S trainer aircraft) were refurbished by Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA firm before delivery. By 1999, only one aircraft was operational, and the RTN was looking for other first-generation Harriers to cannibalize for spares. In 2003, the navy attempted to acquire several second-generation, ex-Royal Navy Sea Harrier FA2 aircraft from British Aerospace, but the deal did not go ahead. The inoperative Matadors were finally eliminated from service lists in 2006. Thailand was the last remaining government using first generation Harrier airframes.  The flight deck measures. A 12° ski-jump assists V/STOL aircraft to take off. There are two aircraft lifts, each capable of lifting 20 tons.

Sensors and countermeasures.

The sensor suite of "Chakri Naruebet" consists of a Hughes SPS-52C air search radar operating on the E/F band, and two Kelvin-Hughes 1007 navigational radars. There are provisions to install an SPS-64 surface search radar and a hull-mounted sonar, but neither has been fitted as of 2008. Fire control facilities are also yet to be fitted.  The carrier is equipped with four SRBOC decoy launchers, and an SLQ-25 towed decoy.  In April 2012 Saab won a contract to upgrade "Chakri Naruebet"s command and control systems. This will include fitting a 9LV Mk4 command and control system to the ship as well as a Sea Giraffe AMB radar and improved datalinks.

Construction.

Work on the Thai carrier commenced in October 1993, although it was not until 12 July 1994 that the hull was laid down. "Chakri Naruebet" was launched on 20 January 1996 by Queen Sirikit.  Sea trials were conducted from October 1996 to January 1997, the latter part of which was in coordination with the Spanish Navy. This was followed by aviation trials at Rota, Spain. The carrier was handed over on 27 March 1997, when she was commissioned into the RTN. She arrived in Phuket on 4 August 1997 following a 42-day voyage from Spain, and formally entered service on 10 August.  "Chakri Naruebet" cost US$336 million to build.

Role and operational history.

"Chakri Naruebet" is the first aircraft carrier to be operated by a Southeast Asian nation. She is assigned to the Third Naval Area Command, and her intended duties include operational support of the RTN's amphibious warfare forces, patrols and force projection around Thailand's coastline and economic exclusion zone, disaster relief and humanitarian missions, and search-and-rescue (SAR) operations. However, at the time the carrier entered service, the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis prevented the necessary funding to operate the ship from being available. Consequently, "Chakri Naruebet" was usually only operational for a single day per month for training, with the rest of the time spent alongside as a "part-time tourist attraction". The struggles continued for years, but today it is increasingly common to see her participate in maritime exercise or joint forces exercise – including "PASSEX", "CARAT", "Guardian Sea" and "Cobra Gold". She was also sent for a fleet review such as "2017 International Maritime Review" in Singapore.  Naval commentators usually consider "Chakri Naruebet" to be less an aircraft carrier and more the world's largest and most expensive royal yacht, while the Thai media have nicknamed the ship "Thai-tanic", and consider her to be a white elephant. Between 4 and 7 November 1997, "Chakri Naruebet" participated in disaster relief operations following the passage of Tropical Storm Linda across the Gulf of Thailand and the Kra Isthmus. The carrier's main task was to search for and assist any fishing vessels affected by the storm.  Flooding in the Songkhla Province resulted in the carrier's mobilisation in late November 2000. "Chakri Naruebet" was anchored at an island marina off Songkhla, and used as a base for helicopters and small boats transporting food, supplies, and wounded.  In January 2003 after the burning of Royal Thai Embassy in Cambodia, she was sent for her only "show of force" type mission to date—as an "insurance" policy for the "Pochentong-1" evacuation plan. In the event that the situation escalated and the operation were to be compromised, she would have been able to support "Pochentong-2" or a "Siege of Phnom Penh" plan with her Harriers which some of them were still operational at that time. All other missions are exercise or humanitarian-focused.  Following an undersea earthquake in the Indian Ocean, tsunamis struck multiple regions around the Indian Ocean, including the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand. The personnel of "Chakri Naruebet" were part of a 760-strong response by the Thai military to the disaster. This task force was involved in search-and-rescue around Phuket and the Phi Phi Islands, treatment of wounded and handling of dead, and repair work to schools and government facilities.  During the August 2005 filming of "Rescue Dawn", a dramatized biographical film of US Navy pilot Dieter Dengler and his capture during the Vietnam War, the flight deck of "Chakri Naruebet" was used to represent the carrier.  In November 2010, the ship was involved in flood relief operations following the 2010 Thai floods; anchored off Songkhla Province, relief supplies and food were airlifted to people in the region, while hospital patients were evacuated by the ship's helicopters. "Chakri Naruebet" was sent to Ko Tao in late-March during the 2011 Southern Thailand floods, as the heavy storms causing the flooding had isolated the island, requiring the evacuation of tourists and local citizens.

HTMS "Chakri Naruebet" (CVH-911) (, meaning 'Sovereign of the Chakri Dynasty', the Thai monarchy's ruling family) is the flagship of the Royal Thai Navy (RTN), and Thailand's first and only aircraft carrier, although the RTN refers to her as an "Offshore Patrol Helicopter Carrier". Based on the Spanish Navy's design and constructed by Spanish shipbuilder Bazán, "Chakri Naruebet" was ordered in 1992, laid down in 1994, launched in 1996, and commissioned into the RTN in 1997. The ship is the smallest functioning aircraft carrier in the world.

Le HTMS Chakri Naruebet est le seul porte-aéronefs de la marine royale thaïlandaise. C'est un "sister-ship", mais de taille inférieure, du "Príncipe de Asturias" de la marine espagnole. Il a été lancé en 1997 en Espagne.


Background to the Statutes.

By the middle decades of the 14th century, the Hiberno-Norman presence in Ireland was perceived to be under threat, mostly due to the dissolution of English laws and customs among English settlers. These English settlers were described as "more Irish than the Irish themselves", referring to their taking up Irish law, custom, costume and language. The introduction to the text of the statutes claim, Original Anglo-Norman: "... ore plusors Engleis de la dit terre guepissant la lang gis monture leys & usages Engleis vivent et se governement as maniers guise et lang des Irrois enemies et auxiant ount fait divers mariages & aliaunces enter eux et les Irrois enemyes avauntditz dont le dit terre et le lieg people de icelle la lang Engloies ligeance a nostre seignour le Roy Duc et lez leis Engleis illoeques sont mis en subjection et retrets..." ... now many English of the said land, forsaking the English language, manners, mode of riding, laws and usages, live and govern themselves according to the manners, fashion, and language of the Irish enemies; and also have made divers marriages and alliances between themselves and the Irish enemies aforesaid; whereby the said land, and the liege people thereof, the English language, the allegiance due to our lord the king, and the English laws there, are put in subjection and decayed... The statutes tried to prevent this "middle nation", which was neither true English nor Irish, by reasserting English culture among the English settlers.  There were also military threats to the Norman presence, such as the failed invasion by Robert Bruce's brother Edward Bruce in 1315, which was defended by the Irish chief Domhnall Ó Néill in his Remonstrance to Pope John XXII, complaining that "For the English inhabiting our land... are so different in character from the English of England... that with the greatest propriety they may be called a nation not of middle medium, but of utmost, perfidy". Further, there was the de Burgh or Burke Civil War of 1333–38, which led to the disintegration of the estate of the Earldom of Ulster into three separate lordships, two of which were in outright rebellion against the crown.  The prime author of the statutes was Lionel of Antwerp, better known as the Duke of Clarence, and who was also the Earl of Ulster. In 1361, he had been sent as viceroy to Ireland by Edward III to recover his own lands in Ulster if possible and to turn back the advancing tide of the Irish. The statutes were enacted by a parliament that he summoned in 1366. The following year, he left Ireland.  Many of the "statutes" (or "chapters") of the 1366 parliament repeated "ordinances" made by a great council held in 1351, also in Kilkenny.

Legislation.

The statutes begin by recognising that the English settlers had been influenced by Irish culture and customs, as quoted above. They forbade the intermarriage between the native Irish and the native English, the English fostering of Irish children, the English adoption of Irish children and use of Irish names and dress. Those English colonists who did not know how to speak English were required to learn the language (on pain of losing their land and belongings), along with many other English customs. The Irish pastimes of "horlings" and "coiting" were to be dropped and pursuits such as archery and lancing to be taken up, so that the English colonists would be more able to defend against Irish aggression, using English military tactics.  Other statutes required that the English in Ireland be governed by English common law, instead of the Irish March law or Brehon law and ensured the separation of the Irish and English churches by requiring that "no Irishman of the nations of the Irish be admitted into any cathedral or collegiate church... amongst the English of the land".  The mistrust the English had of the Irish is demonstrated by Statute XV, which forbade Irish minstrels or storytellers to come to English areas, guarding against "the Irish agents who come amongst the English, spy out the secrets, plans, and policies of the English, whereby great evils have often resulted".

Failure of the Statutes.

While the Statutes were sweeping in scope and aim, the English never had the resources to fully implement them. Clarence was forced to leave Ireland the following year (and died the year after that), and Hiberno-Norman Ireland continued to gain a primarily Irish cultural identity. Only at the beginning of the 17th century would another attempt to colonise Ireland begin to make appreciable gains. The Statutes of Kilkenny ultimately helped to create the complete estrangement of the two "races" in Ireland for almost three centuries.

The Statutes of Kilkenny were a series of thirty-five acts passed at Kilkenny in 1366, aiming to curb the decline of the Hiberno-Norman Lordship of Ireland.

Les statuts de Kilkenny étaient une série de trente-cinq actes passés à Kilkenny en 1366 et 1367, dont le but était d'enrayer le déclin de la Seigneurie d'Irlande hiberno-normande.


Flora and fauna.

Rawaki has been described as being ham or pear shaped. Its highest elevation is approximately six meters. It is treeless, being covered mostly with herbs and grasses, and thus forms an excellent landing and nesting site for migratory seabirds and turtles. Unlike many other Pacific islands, no rats were noted on Rawaki during a 1924 scientific expedition. A colony of feral rabbits was introduced in the nineteenth century, but was eliminated in 2008.  Rawaki has its own species of seabird tick, "Ixodes amersoni". It also boasts various species of flies, moths, leafhoppers, green bugs, and spiders. Sea birds consist of sooty, grey, and white terns; frigates, petrels and shearwaters; boobies, migratory plover and curlew. Rawaki has never been invaded by rats so that the bird populations have survived.

History.

Unlike some other islands in the Phoenix group, Rawaki does not seem to have ever been inhabited by prehistoric Polynesians or other Pacific islanders.  Rawaki was discovered on 23 February 1824 by Capt. John Palmer from the London whaling ship Phoenix. It was claimed for the U.S. under the Guano Islands Act on March 14, 1859 by C.A. Williams and Company, later the Phoenix Guano Company. The company mined guano on the island until the supply was exhausted in August 1871, when the islands were abandoned. This claim was later relinquished in the Treaty of Tarawa. On June 29, 1889, a British protectorate was declared, and the island surveyed. On March 18, 1937, it was placed under the jurisdiction of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. It later became part of Kiribati.  In 2008, Rawaki was placed, together with the other Phoenix Islands, within the Phoenix Islands Protected Area, one of the largest marine protected areas in the world.

Rawaki Island is one of the Phoenix Islands in the Republic of Kiribati, also known by its previous name of Phoenix Island. It is a small, uninhabited atoll, approximately in size and in area, with a shallow, brackish lagoon that is not connected to the open sea. It is located at.

Rawaki est un atoll des îles Phœnix, appartenant à la République des Kiribati. Son nom en gilbertin désigne également l'ensemble de l'archipel des Phœnix.


Geography.

Thick scrub and "Pisonia" forest cover the land surface. The trees grow in height and result in decomposing leaf material in the soil. Coconut palms remain from the attempts to operate a plantation on the island from 1893–1894 and later 1938–1963.  The scarcity of fresh water on Nikumaroro has proven problematic for residents in the past, and contributed directly to the failure of a British project to colonize the island from 1938–1963.

Flora and fauna.

Nikumaroro is sporadically visited by biologists attracted to its extensive marine and avian ecosystems. The atoll has populations of coconut crabs and migratory birds, and rats abound. Several species of sharks and bottlenose dolphins have been observed in the surrounding waters.  The island is part of the Phoenix Islands Protected Area, and as such, has been named an Important Bird Area.

History.

19th-century sightings and claims.

Nikumaroro was known by sundry names during the early 19th century: Kemins' Island, Kemis Island, "Motu Oonga", "Motu Oona", and Mary Letitia's Island. The first record of a European sighting was made by Capt. C. Kemiss (or Kemin, Kemish) from the British whaling ship "Eliza Ann" in 1824. On 19 August 1840, the USS "Vincennes" of the U.S. Exploring Expedition confirmed its position and recorded the atoll's name as Gardner Island, originally given in 1825 by Joshua Coffin of the Nantucket whaler "Ganges". Some sources say the island was named after U.S. Congressman Gideon Gardner, who owned the "Ganges".  In 1856, Nikumaroro was claimed as "Kemins Island" by CA Williams & Co. of New London, Connecticut, under the American Guano Islands Act. No record exists of guano deposits ever being exploited, however. On 28 May 1892, the island was claimed by the United Kingdom during a call by HMS "Curacoa". Almost immediately, a license was granted to Pacific entrepreneur John T. Arundel for planting coconuts. Twenty-nine islanders were settled there and some structures with corrugated iron roofs were constructed, but a severe drought resulted in the failure of this project within a year. In 1916, it was leased to a Captain E.F.H. Allen of the Samoa Shipping Trading Co Ltd, but remained uninhabited until 1938.

SS "Norwich City" wreck.

During a storm on 29 November 1929, the SS "Norwich City", a large unladen British freighter with a crew of 35 men, ran aground on the reef at the island's northwest corner. A fire broke out in the engine room and all hands abandoned ship in darkness through storm waves across the dangerous coral reef. There were 11 fatalities. The survivors camped near collapsed structures from the abortive Arundel coconut plantation and were rescued after several days on the island. The devastated wreck of the "Norwich City" was a prominent landmark on the reef for 70 years, although by 2007, only the ship's keel, engine, and two large tanks remained. A Digital Globe satellite image taken 15 November 2016, shows one of the two tanks pushed inland by wave action, and the engine is now gone.

Amelia Earhart.

Amelia Earhart attempted her world flight in 1937, but she and navigator Fred Noonan disappeared after the plane left Lae, New Guinea, and headed for Howland Island. Nikumaroro Island—then called Gardner Island—is about southeast of Howland Island. During the subsequent search for them and their plane, the United States Navy checked several nearby islands, including Gardner Island. A few months after their disappearance, a boat also visited Gardner Island, but found nothing. In 1938, recent skeletal remains were found on the island, but they were not linked to Earhart's flight.  The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) made several expeditions to Nikumaroro during the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s. The group investigated the renewed hypothesis that Earhart and Noonan had landed on Gardner Island after they had failed to find Howland Island. TIGHAR found and cataloged artifacts: U.S. beauty and skin-care products that may have dated to the 1930s, such as flakes of rouge and a shattered mirror from a woman's cosmetic compact, parts of a folding pocket knife, traces of campfires bearing bird and fish bones, clams opened in the same way as oysters in New England, "empty shells laid out as if to collect rain water," and U.S. bottles dating from before World War II. What appeared to be the phalanx bone of a human finger had DNA tests done, but the tests were inconclusive as to whether it is turtle or human bone.  The TIGHAR hypothesis has many critics, with TIGHAR's founder and executive director, Richard Gillespie, described as a good showman who lacks credible results. A curator at the Smithsonian Institution's Air and Space Museum said: "Not to impugn [Gillespie], but I don't think he's found anything on any expedition." To date, TIGHAR has failed to connect any of their artifacts to Earhart, Noonan, or to any specific person or persons known to have been on the island from 1929 to present. TIGHAR has failed to provide any dating to establish how long any of the artifacts were in the ground, nor has it provided evidence as to when the artifacts may have arrived on the island.  Famed ocean explorer Robert Ballard led a 2019 expedition to locate Earhart's Lockheed Model 10-E Electra or evidence that it landed on Nikumaroro. After days of searching the deep cliffs supporting the island and the nearby ocean using state of the art equipment and technology, Ballard did not find any evidence of the plane or any associated wreckage of it. Allison Fundis, Ballard's chief operating officer stated: "We felt like if her plane was there, we would have found it pretty early in the expedition."

British settlement scheme.

On 1 December 1938, members of the British Pacific Islands Survey Expedition arrived to evaluate the island as a possible location for either seaplane landings or an airfield. On 20 December, more British officials arrived with 20 Gilbertese settlers in the last colonial expansion of the British Empire (other than formal annexations preparatory to withdrawal, etc.).  The British colonial officer Gerald Gallagher established a headquarters of the Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme in the village located on the island's western end, on the south side of the largest entrance to the lagoon. Efforts to clear land and plant coconuts were hindered by a profound lack of drinking water. By June 1939, a few wells had been successfully established and 58 I-Kiribati were on Gardner, comprising 16 men, 16 women, and 26 children. Wide coral-gravel streets and a parade ground were laid out and important structures included a thatched administration house, a wood-frame cooperative store, and a radio shack. Gallagher died and was buried on the island in 1941.  At his mother's request, Gallagher's remains were moved to Tarawa for reburial and the memorial plaque was retrieved. Although reasons cited for giving up on the struggling colony included unstable water lenses and uncertain copra markets, observers familiar with the colony's history remarked that after Gallagher's death a "will" or "nerve" to succeed seemed to vanish from the settlements.  From 1944 through 1945, the United States Coast Guard operated a navigational LORAN station with 25 crewmen on the southeastern tip of Gardner, installing an antenna system, quonset huts, and some smaller structures. Only scattered debris remains on the site.  The island's population reached a high of about 100 by the mid-1950s, but by the early 1960s, periodic drought and an unstable freshwater lens had thwarted the struggling colony. Nikumaroro (together with Manra and Orona) was evacuated by the British government in 1963. Its residents were evacuated to the Solomon Islands by the British, and by 1965, Gardner was officially uninhabited.  The Gardner Island Post Office opened around 1939 and closed around January 1964.

Kiribati.

In 1971, the UK granted self-rule to the Gilbert Islands, which achieved complete independence in 1979 as Kiribati. That same year, the United States, after having recently surveyed the island for possible weapons testing, relinquished any claims to Gardner through the Treaty of Tarawa. The island was officially renamed Nikumaroro, a name inspired by Gilbertese legends and used by the settlers during the 1940s and 1950s.

Nikumaroro, or Gardner Island, is part of the Phoenix Islands, Kiribati, in the western Pacific Ocean. It is a remote, elongated, triangular coral atoll with profuse vegetation and a large central marine lagoon. Nikumaroro is about long by wide. The rim has two narrow entrances, both of which are blocked by a wide reef, which is dry at low tide. The ocean beyond the reef is very deep, and the only anchorage is at the island's west end, across the reef from the ruins of a mid-20th-century British colonial village, but this is safe only with the southeast trade winds. Landing has always been difficult and is most often done south of the anchorage. Although occupied at various times during the past, the island is uninhabited today.

Nikumaroro est un atoll des îles Phœnix, appartenant à la République des Kiribati. Si l'atoll a perdu beaucoup de coraux, quantité de poissons s'y nourrissent encore, contribuant au rétablissement des récifs qu'ils nettoient.


Introduction.

History.

Ulithian is a language spoken in Micronesia. The specific islands that Ulithian is spoken in are Ulithi, Ngulu, Sorol, Fais Islands and Eastern Caroline Islands. There are also a few speakers that can be found in the United States. Ulithian has about 3039 speakers, 700 of which reside in Ulithi itself. Many of the other Pacific languages spoken in the surrounding islands are similar to Ulithian which makes it easier for others to understand. In a way, it is a universal language for the area. The people who live in and around Ulithi are classified as Micronesian. Their appearances greatly vary because of all the different people who passed through the area over time. Ulithi has a strong democracy with a king by name voted by the people. Because the Ulithian language is so widely recognized, it holds a good status in the islands. It is also one of the six official languages in the Federated States of Micronesia.

Sounds.

Consonants.

Ulithian has 19 consonants which are /b, ch, d, f, g, h, k, l, l', m, mw, n, ng, p, r, s, t, w, y/.

Vowels.

Ulithian has eight vowels which is a large amount for a Pacific language. They are /i/, /u/, /e/, /ə/, /ɔ/, /æ/, /ɐ/, /a/. They are spelled i, u, e, oe or ȯ, o, ae or ė, oa or a, a or ȧ.

Grammar.

Reduplication.

Full reduplication can be used in many ways. It can be used to show a stronger emotion, for example, means jealous and means short tempered or easily set off. It can also be used for similar things, for example means the color white, and is glare or the reflection of the sun.

Vocabulary.

Loanwords.

At various times, Spain, Germany, Japan, and the United States had control over the islands of Ulithi. Each one of these groups left behind words that have been evolved and are now used in the Ulithian language. Linguists have used these words to trace back what items each group introduced to Ulithi.  Spain has had an influence in Ulithi since the early 1500s. They left behind things like foods, religious terms, and animals. Some examples of words from Spanish: Since Spain passed through Ulithi for such a long period of time, the words they left were used because they actually left behind those things. Foods like the potato and squash were brought by the Spanish, so Ulithian uses words based on the Spanish words for them. Spain was also Catholic, so Catholic terms were left behind.  Japan occupied Ulithi during the time of World War I and left during or after World War II. Before the World Wars, Japan traded with Ulithi. Since the two countries were trade partners, they needed to know how to communicate. Every so often, young boys would learn the basics of Japanese and because of this, "it is not at all difficult today to find Ulithians who speak and write a bit of Japanese". An example of a word from Japan "denwa" which Ulithian changed to "dengwa" which means telephone. Japan had such a big impact that the word for battery, "denchi", remained the same in Ulithian.  Germany did not occupy Ulithi for long, so they left the least influence and there are almost no words that were left behind and still used. One of the few words that got carried over is "mark", a German coin which turned into "mak", what Ulithians call the U.S. half dollar.  In 1944, the U.S. task force arrived in Ulithi and there has been an abundance of English loan words since then. The most impact English is having on Ulithian is through the school systems. Words such as homework and campus which in Ulithian are "homwork" and "kampus" are very similar.  There are some loan words that have become the official word in Ulithian, but others are used in place of another word. The Spanish word "flores" which means flower was taken and used by Ulithian speakers as "floras". According to the Ulithian-English Dictionary written by Neil Mellen and John Hancock, the general word for flowers is "floraas" which is close to what is stated in the journal. While the word for flower was similar, the Spanish word for table, "mesa" was directly taken to use in Ulithian. The Ulithian-English Dictionary says that the translation of table is "tiis". This is totally comparable to speaking pidgin in Hawaii. There are a lot of Japanese words that the majority of people, even if they do not speak Japanese, use such as "shoyu" for soy sauce and "bocha" for a bath.

Endangerment.

Materials.

As far as social media such as radio and television, there does not seem to be any in specifically Ulithian but there are some in other surrounding languages. Esikiel Lippwe states in a letter that radio and television stations are very important because they effectively educate and bring awareness to the people about things like health issues.

Vitality.

According to Ethnologue, Ulithian is ranked at an EGIDS level of 5 which means that the language is being used vigorously, but not as a main language. It is most likely being used more by the older generation. There is a possibility of the language dying out, but it is still in good standing (Ethnologue).

Ulithian is the name of the language spoken on Ulithi Atoll and neighboring islands. Ulithian is one of the six official languages of the Federated States of Micronesia. There are some 3,000 speakers, although only 700 of these live on Ulithi Atoll.

L’ulithi (en anglais "Ulithian") est une des neuf langues officielles des États fédérés de Micronésie. Il est parlé sur l’atoll d’Ulithi ainsi que sur l'île de Fais, situés dans les îles Carolines, dans l’océan Pacifique (nord-ouest).


Football career.

Club career.

Liverpool.

A burly six-footer from South Africa, Hodgson had a reputation early in his career as an unselfish forward who excelled in link-up play but that didn't stop him going on to become one of Liverpool and indeed the Football League's greatest-ever goalscorers. Not averse to charging through defenders if other avenues to goal were barred, although he was capable of subtlety when the situation demanded it, Hodgson was exceptionally strong on the ball and possessed a terrific shot with either foot, which allied to his height, heading ability, pace, close-control, enthusiasm and a noted talent for shooting when going at top-speed made him a real force in attack. Only Roger Hunt (244) has scored more league goals for Liverpool but all of Hodgson's 233 league strikes came in the top-flight from 358 appearances, a fantastic goals-per-game ratio. In total Hodgson scored 295 goals in 467 games in the Football League, 288 of which came in the top-flight from 454 appearances, leaving him fourth in the all-time list of top-flight goalscorers in English football with only Jimmy Greaves (357), Steve Bloomer (317) and Dixie Dean (310) having scored more. Hodgson first came to Liverpool's attention in 1924 as one of the youngest members of the touring South African national team, who on 1 October beat Liverpool 5–2 at Anfield. He joined Liverpool a year later on 14 December 1925, making his debut in a 1–1 draw against Manchester City at Maine Road on 27 February 1926. He opened his goal scoring account eleven days later when he scored twice in a 3–3 draw against Manchester United at Old Trafford on 10 March 1926. He scored the first of a still club record 17 hat-tricks for Liverpool in a 5–1 win against Sheffield United at Anfield on 11 September 1926 in his seventeenth game.  During his Anfield career Hodgson missed very few games in league or cup and scored prolifically throughout; therefore, it was a shame that his career coincided with a barren period for the club because his contribution to the Liverpool cause was massive. The 36 league goals Hodgson scored during the 1930–31 season beat Sam Raybould's total of 31 scored in 1902–03 and set a new club record that would last for more than thirty years, until it was beaten by Roger Hunt in 1961–62. Hodgson scored three hat-tricks that season at Anfield but perhaps it was the four goals he scored in an away match at Hillsborough that gave him the most satisfaction of all. He was top scorer in seven out of the nine full seasons he played for Liverpool. On completion of his ten years service he was honoured by the club with a benefit sum of £650. His popularity prompted an ingenious biscuit seller to name the home-made ginger nuts, that he sold in a quantity of five for a penny on matchdays at Anfield, in his honour: "Hodgson's Choice! Hodgson's Choice!" he would call. The 1935–36 season proved to be Hodgson's last at Anfield; his 9 goals in 17 league appearances was yet again a decent return, but on 8 January 1936 he was allowed to move to Aston Villa for £4,000. In total Hodgson scored 241 goals in 377 appearances for Liverpool in all competitions, earning him a place in the Liverpool FC Hall of Fame and leaving him third in the all-time list of leading goalscorers for the Anfield club with only Ian Rush (346) and Roger Hunt (285) having scored more.

Aston Villa.

Hodgson made his debut for Aston Villa in a 3–0 defeat against Preston North End at Deepdale on 18 January 1936. His first goal for Villa came in a 4–3 defeat against Bolton Wanderers at Burnden Park on 15 February 1936. He was relegated with Aston Villa at the end of the 1935–36 season, his 4 goals in 15 league appearances not enough to help them beat the drop. His stay with Villa in the Second Division was a short one. He left for Leeds United for £1,500 on 2 March 1937, after scoring 7 goals in 13 appearances for Villa in the Second Division, including a hat-trick in a 5–1 win against Bradford City at Villa Park on 14 September 1936. In total Hodgson scored 11 goals in 28 appearances for Villa, all of which were in the league.

Leeds United.

At Leeds United Hodgson showed that he still had what it took to score goals at the top level, scoring 6 goals in 13 league appearances in the second half of the 1936–37 season, including a goal on his debut in a 7–1 defeat against his old Merseyside rivals Everton at Goodison Park on 3 March 1937. Despite that defeat Hodgson's goals still proved enough to help Leeds avoid relegation. The following season, 1937–38, Leeds secured a top half finish thanks in no small part to Hodgson who scored 26 goals in 38 appearances in all competitions, including all four Leeds goals in a 4–4 draw against Everton at Elland Road on 26 February 1938. His form was all the more remarkable considering the strain he'd been playing under as a result of the illness and subsequent death of his wife on 8 March 1938, leaving him a widower with two children. Hodgson continued to show admirable professionalism and was as prolific as ever during the 1938–39 season, scoring 21 goals in 34 appearances in all competitions, including a still Leeds club record five goals in their 8–2 thrashing of Leicester City at Elland Road on 1 October 1938. In total Hodgson scored 53 goals in 85 appearances for Leeds in all competitions, not including one appearance in the 1939–40 season which was abandoned after three games due to the outbreak of World War II. He was top scorer for Leeds in both of his two full seasons at Elland Road. During the war Hodgson worked in a munitions factory whilst continuing to turn out for Leeds until 1941, making 34 war-time appearances for the Elland Road club, scoring 14 goals. He also guested for Hartlepools United (1 appearance, 1939–40) and York City (5 appearances, 2 goals, 1939–40). After hanging up his boots he helped to coach the youth players at Leeds from 1942 to October 1946.

International career.

Hodgson played twice at full international level for his native South Africa, making his debut in a 2–1 win in a friendly against Ireland at Solitude, Belfast on 24 September 1924, in what was also South Africa's first ever full international match. His second and final international appearance for South Africa came against the Netherlands in a 2–1 defeat in a friendly at het Nederlandsche Sportpark (het Oude Stadion), Amsterdam on 2 November 1924. Hodgson was also capped three times at full international level by England, making his debut against Ireland, in a 5–1 win in a British Home Championship, match at Bramall Lane, Sheffield on 20 October 1930. His only goal for England came in his second appearance in a 4–0 win against Wales in a British Home Championship match at the Racecourse Ground, Wrexham on 22 November 1930. Hodgson's third and final international appearance for England came against Scotland in a 2–0 defeat in a British Home Championship match at Hampden Park, Glasgow on 28 March 1931. He also represented England against the Rest in a 3–2 win in an international trial match at Highbury, London on 4 March 1931 and the Football League against the Scottish League, scoring once in a 7–3 win in an Inter-League match at White Hart Lane, London on 5 November 1930.

Cricket career.

As well as being an outstanding footballer Hodgson was also a talented cricketer. He once took all 10 wickets in an innings for just 13 runs in an amateur match against Liverpool Police. Seeing his obvious potential, Lancashire soon signed him up to play for them. An extremely quick right-arm fast bowler and hard hitting lower order right-hand batsman, Hodgson played 56 first-class matches for the Red Rose county, from 1928 to 1933, scoring 244 runs at an average of 6.97 and taking 148 wickets at an average of 27.75. He also took 38 catches. His highest score in first-class cricket was 20 for Lancashire against Indians at Aigburth in 1932. His best bowling figures in first-class cricket were 6–77 for Lancashire against Middlesex at Lord's in 1932. Hodgson twice helped Lancashire to win the County Championship, in 1928 and 1930, although his football career clearly took priority, as he didn't play a single game of cricket in April or September (and only one Second XI match in August) throughout his time at Old Trafford.

Football management career.

After the war Hodgson went into management, taking over the reins at Third Division South outfit Port Vale in October 1946. He was manager when the Valiants moved from the Old Recreation Ground to their new home of Vale Park in 1950. Unfortunately most of the money the club raised went towards the new ground, leaving Hodgson unable to spend money in the transfer market. This included the £12,000 he got for right-half Bill McGarry, and the £20,000 he got from the sale of striker Ronnie Allen. Hodgson managed Port Vale in 222 matches, winning 84, drawing 54 and losing 84. He was greatly respected both for his pre-war sporting career and also for encouraging young footballers in North Staffordshire. He had a reputation for having the ability to spot talented players and was not afraid to blood them in the league, and was also a good motivator.  Following the resignation of Liverpool manager George Kay in January 1951 due to health reasons, Hodgson was among the hopefuls who were interviewed for the manager's job at Anfield. Don Welsh was eventually appointed, while Hodgson was admitted to hospital a couple of months later but his "throat complaint" was deemed inoperable. He returned to his home in Burslem after a month in hospital and a few days later, with a promising managerial career still in its infancy, he died of cancer on 14 June 1951, at the age of just 47. Port Vale legend Roy Sproson had Hodgson as his first boss: "Gordon Hodgson was a fair chap. He would give you a rollicking one minute and then it would be forgotten. Everybody liked him and his loss was so sad." His benefit match was held against Port Vale's local rivals Stoke City on 1 October 1951, Vale lost the game 2–1. £383 was raised for his dependants.

Statistics.

Playing statistics.

Source:

Gordon Hodgson (16 April 1904 – 14 June 1951) was an English sportsman, born in South Africa, who is best known as a striker for Liverpool and as a fast bowler for Lancashire.

Gordon Hodgson (16 avril 1904 - 14 juin 1951) était un sportif sud-africain, connu comme attaquant du club de football anglais de Liverpool, puis comme joueur de cricket en first-class cricket pour Lancashire. Il a également joué au baseball.


History.

In December 2004, San Mateo, California-based Sorrent merged with London-based Macrospace. In June 2005 the merged company created a new corporate name: Glu Mobile. That same year, Greg Ballard replaced Sorrent founder Scott Orr as CEO. In 2006 Glu Mobile acquired iFone and in 2007 it acquired Chinese mobile game producer Beijing Zhangzhong MIG Information Technology Co. Ltd. ("MIG"). In September 2007, Glu Mobile announced the launch of "Asteroids" for mobile phones. In March 2008 Glu Mobile acquired San Clemente-based mobile developer Superscape.  In January 2010, Niccolo de Masi joined Glu Mobile as the President and CEO. de Masi was previously CEO at Hands-On Mobile. Since his arrival, Glu has transitioned to a freemium business model focused around Glu's original IP.  On August 2, 2011, Glu Mobile acquired Griptonite Games. Its staff of 200 "approximately double[d]" Glu's internal development capacity.  Glu Mobile bought Gamespy Technologies (the entity responsible for GameSpy multiplayer services) from IGN Entertainment in August 2012, and proceeded in December to raise integration costs and shut down servers for many older games, including the "" series, "Sniper Elite", "Microsoft Flight Simulator X" and "Neverwinter Nights", with no warning to developers or consumers. GameSpy Technologies remained operational and did not make any announcements of an impending shutdown; the two GameSpy companies were separate entities and only related by name. Glu mobile also shut down online multiplayer servers for several titles on the Nintendo DS and Wii, such as "Mario Kart DS", "Super Smash Bros Brawl", and "Mario Kart Wii". Glu shut down the rest of Gamespy effective on May 31, 2014.  On September 3, 2014, PlayFirst was acquired by Glu Mobile. The official statement from Glu Mobile CEO, Niccolo de Masi, read "We are pleased to officially add PlayFirst to the Glu family and look forward to delivering new DASH products to a worldwide audience,"  In April 2015, China Tencent paid $126 million for a 15% stake in Glu Mobile. Now 20.8% as of 2017  On December 22, 2016, it was announced that Glu Mobile had acquired the trivia game QuizUp for 7.5 million.  In November 2016, Nick Earl became CEO. The majority stake of Glu Mobile shares are held by institutions: at the start of the third quarter of 2012, institutional ownership was 78% of the outstanding shares according to Google Finance.

Glu Mobile Inc. (formerly known as Sorrent) is an American developer and publisher of mobile games for smartphone and tablet devices. Founded in San Francisco, California, in 2001, Glu offers products to multiple platforms including iOS, Android, Amazon, Windows Phone and Google Chrome.

Glu Mobile est un éditeur, développeur et distributeur de jeu vidéo sur téléphone mobile. Glu Mobile est le nom de la société californienne issue de la fusion en 2005 des sociétés Sorrent et Macrospace. Selon les titres, Glu joue parfois uniquement les rôles d'éditeur et de distributeur, parfois uniquement celui de distributeur.