Description.

Paradise shelducks are a colorful, large bodied species of duck that differ in features depending on the sex. Both females and males have chesnut-color undertails, primarily black wing feathers with green secondary wing feathers, and upper wing surface weathers that are white. They have black legs and webbed feet for swimming. Paradise shelducks average 65 cm in length and weigh between 1.5 and 2 kg.

Males.

The adult male Paradise shelduck has blue-black head and neck, with a black, rump, and tail; back and flank are lightly flecked with a pale yellow color. The wing of males have contrasting white upper-coverts and black remiges, metallic green speculum feathers, and rusty brown tertials feathers. The males also have a dark grey flecked with pale-yellow breast and abdomen, chestnut undertail and underwing, and black iris, bill, legs, and feet.

Females.

The female Paradise shelduck, unlike the male, has an entirely white hand head and neck with a dark grey back heavily flecked with pale yellow. The rest is very similar to the male with the female’s body being dark or light chestnut depending on age and stage of molting.

Younglings.

The young downy Paradise shelduck is white with a brown crown and brown stripes from crown to tail. Juvenile males look much like the adult males, but the females are smaller with a white patch at the base of the bill. The females assume their white head during the first molt and 1–2 months after fledging their breast and abdomen turn dark chestnut.

Calls.

The vocal calls of the Paradise shelduck differ from male to female. The male belts a di-syllabic honk like a goose when in flight or when alarmed. The male gives off a deep "zonk-zonk honk", while the female is characterized by a penetrating "zeek-zeek".

Body language.

Threat posture – male will drop its head low with bill horizontal to the ground.  Inciting – If a female notices a threat on the water she responds by stretching out the neck and body while swimming towards the threat swinging her body back and forth, and making a high pitched call. On land she will lower her head and charge. Male will respond to the females inciting by charging with her or taking on “High and Erect” posture.  High and Erect – Male stretches neck and head upwards and forwards, raises his feathers on the lower neck, calls rapidly, and pivots between facing the threat and the female.  Broken Wing Display – When a predator threatens an adult pair with young, the pair will run away from the young in a crouched position, raising and lowering its half-opened wings to distract the predator. Once the predator follows the pair away from the young, one of the adults will return to them.

Geographic distribution and habitat.

New Zealand range.

Paradise shelduck are the most widely distributed waterfowl in New Zealand. They inhabit the North Island, South Island, offshore islands such as Little Barrier Island, Kapiti Island, Great Barrier Island, and Stewart Islands off the coast of Australia. They are most numerous in the North Island, Hawkes Bay, Poverty Bay, Taranaki and in Tongariro National Park. While scattered populations are present in Waikato and Wellington. Paradise Shelducks are uncommonly found in the Canterbury plains, and generally not found in the high parts of the mountains.

Habitat preferences.

Paradise shelduck prefers pastures, tussock grasslands, and wetlands both on mainland and offshore islands. They are common around the hilly farmland characterized by fertile riversides, farm dams, and natural pools of the North Island. On the South Island, they can commonly be found in the tussock river valleys and high-country lakes while a small number can be found in the mountain streams, coastal flats, and brackish inlets. Around water bodies are the preferred breeding habitat for which to use as a nursery area for young, the quality or depth of water does not influence the selection, but available vantage points with long views to or from water do influence the selection. Many chosen places have a grassland at the edge of the water and a cover for refuges which is dense, such as reedbeds and forest. This has the purpose of the birds being able to feed close to the water’s safety, and lakes surrounded by dense vegetation might be chosen as well to feed at night.

Life cycle/Phenology.

The egg-laying season begins early August and peaks by the end of the month, egg-laying occasionally extends into October but rarely into November. The incubation period lasts for 30–35 days with only the female looking after the nest 21–22 hours a day only leaving at dawn and dusk for 1 hour, Male only stands next to the nest after eggs have hatched. The fledging period for the downy young lasts on average eight weeks, parenting is shared during this time with the young feeding independently and being kept close to the nest typically around 500 m. The molting season lasts from December – February, with these molting flocks being an important food source for the early Māori people. Māori did not hunt the birds during the breeding seasons as to conserve populations, rather hunting during the molting season when the birds could not fly, this selective hunting ensured healthy populations for culling. During the molting season, distinct flocks will gather at traditional sites, the one- and two-year-old birds arrive first, followed by the failed breeders, and then by the successful breeders arriving late January. At molting sites, the birds gather in open water with high open hillsides surrounding them acting as vantage points, many sites also have dense vegetation for refuge. Early departures from molting sites begin in March – April where adults will return to their distinct breeding territories. They first breed in their second and third years forming long-term pair bonds, often lasting for life, and defend their territories. If one of the individuals of the couple dies, the other will keep the same territory and will find another mate. They have a long breeding season, lasting from August through December. Mating displays are not elaborate, consisting of a female inciting a male to attack other mates or females and the winner of the fight is then chosen as a partner. The Paradise shelduck can nest in a variety of places including, inside hollow logs, under fallen logs, in-ground holes or trees up to 20 m high, rabbit burrows, under haystacks, piles of fence posts, tussocks, in rock crevices, under buildings, among tree roots, or in culverts. Clutches usually range from 5–15 eggs, with most clutches numbering over 12 being a collective nest from two females. The success rate for eggs laid is 83% hatched and a survival rate from hatchlings is 89%. Typically living on average 2.3 years although some individuals live longer with the longest live individual aging 23 years.

Diet, prey, and predators.

Diet and foraging.

The Paradise shelduck is a diurnal omnivore. The adults are primarily herbivorous preferring pasture grasses and clover while the young eat mostly aquatic insects for the first five weeks of life before grazing on land. They can feed on a variety of food including grazing or pasture crops, seed heads of grasses and weeds, earthworms, insects, and a variety of crustaceans. An extensive record of one bird's diet from the Canterbury district, South Island, New Zealand showing a wide range of leaves and seeds of terrestrial herbs, terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates, and some aquatic plants.

Predators, parasites, and diseases.

The Paradise shelduck originally had no predators but now with introduced predators such as stoats and polecats, some smaller populations can become threatened. Hunting of the species happens throughout the islands where harvest numbers range from 5% to 48% depending on the region. The only group of parasites that affects the Paradise shelduck are the Helminths which consist of Flukes (Trematodes), Tapeworms (Cestodes), and Roundworms (Nematodes) with only the Flatworms not living symbiotically with the host. Only periodic cases of avian botulism have been reported to affect populations.  In relation to diseases, recent research discovered the presence of the bacteria "Chlamydia psittaci" on Paradise shelducks. Different bacteria genotypes were identified in the samples of the survey and this species have been affected by genotype C. This type of bacteria is associated with important diseases not only on birds but also in human. However, the possible impact of the disease still needs to be determined and assessed.

History.

The name.

The genus name "Tadorna" comes from Celtic roots and means "pied waterfowl", essentially the same as the English "shelduck". Other common names include Rangitata Goose, Painted Duck, pari/parry/parrie, and pūtakitaki in Māori.

Population fluctuations.

Populations of the Paradise shelduck used to be much smaller during pre-settlement times due to the increased forest cover but after the settlers began to inhabit the island and clear the land for pastures the populations eventually began to rise. But before the populations could rise, it fluctuated dramatically because of overhunting and exploitation by the settlers, only though protective measures between 1900 and 1920 and limited shooting in the South Island from 1923 to 1939 could the population rise to historical heights by 1935. Today the Paradise shelduck is considered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature to be a species of least concern with stable populations.

The paradise shelduck ("Tadorna variegata") is a large goose-like duck endemic to New Zealand. It is a shelduck, a group of large goose-like birds which are part of the bird family Anatidae. The genus name "Tadorna" comes from Celtic roots and means "pied waterfowl". Known to the Māori as pūtangitangi, but now commonly referred to as the "paradise duck", it is a prized game bird. Both the male and female have striking plumage: the male has a black head and barred black body, the female a white head with a chestnut body. Paradise shelducks usually live as pairs, grazing on grass and weeds, and will raid crops, particularly when molting.

Le Tadorne de paradis ("Tadorna variegata") ou Tadorne de Nouvelle-Zélande, appartient à la famille des anatidés. Le dimorphisme sexuel est spectaculaire chez cette espèce, le cou et la tête étant entièrement noirs chez le mâle et blancs chez la femelle. Il vit en couple et fréquente les milieux ouverts tels que les prairies et les champs. Contrairement à de nombreuses espèces endémiques de Nouvelle-Zélande, le tadorne de paradis a bénéficié de l'arrivée des Européens sur l'île puisque la déforestation et la création de lacs artificiels ont augmenté l'étendue de territoire favorable à l'espèce.


Decline of Romano-British Kent.

In the Romano-British period, the area of modern Kent that lay east of the River Medway was a "civitas" known as "Cantiaca". Its name had been taken from an older Common Brittonic place-name, "Cantium" ("corner of land" or "land on the edge") used in the preceding pre-Roman Iron Age, although the extent of this tribal area is unknown.  During the late third and fourth centuries, Roman Britain had been raided repeatedly by Franks, Saxons, Picts, and Scots. As the closest part of Britain to mainland Europe, it is likely that Kent would have experienced many attacks from seafaring raiders, resulting in the construction of four Saxon Shore Forts along the Kentish coast: Regulbium, Rutupiae, Dubris, and Portus Lemanis. It is also likely that Germanic-speaking mercenaries from northern Gaul, known as "foederati", would have been hired to supplement official Roman troops during this period, with land in Kent as payment. These "foederati" would have assimilated into Romano-British culture, making it difficult to distinguish them archaeologically.  There is evidence that over the fourth and early fifth centuries, rural villas were abandoned, suggesting that the Romano-British elite were moving to the comparative safety of fortified urban centres. However, urban centres also witnessed decline; Canterbury evidenced a declining population and reduced activity from the late third century onward, while Dover was abandoned by the end of the fourth century. In 407, the Roman legions left Britain in order to deal with incursions into the Empire's continental heartlands. In 410, the Roman Emperor Honorius sent a letter to his British subjects announcing that they must thenceforth look after their own defence and could no longer rely on the imperial military to protect them. According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", produced in late Anglo-Saxon England and not considered an accurate record of events in the fifth century, in 418 many Romans left Britain via Kent, taking much of their wealth with them. This may represent a memory of a genuine exodus of the Roman aristocracy.

Early Anglo-Saxon Kent.

Anglo-Saxon migration: 410–499.

According to archaeologist Martin Welch, the fifth century witnessed "a radical transformation of what became Kent, politically, socially and in terms of physical landscape". Both literary and archaeological records show the migration of linguistically Germanic peoples from northern Europe into Britain during this century. There nevertheless remains much debate as to the scale of this migration; some see it as a mass migration in which large numbers of Germanic peoples left northern Europe to settle in Britain; others have argued that only a small warrior elite came over, dominating (or even enslaving) the Romano-British population, who then began using the Old English language and material culture of the newcomers. The fate of the Romano-British is also debated; many may have fled to Western Britain or Brittany.  In Kent, it is likely that some the Romano-British population remained, as the Roman name for the area, "Cantiaca", influenced the name of the new Anglo-Saxon kingdom, the "Cantware" ("dwellers of Kent").  The Germanic migration to Britain is noted in textual sources from the late Anglo-Saxon period, most notably Bede's "Ecclesiastical History of the English People" and the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"; both rely on oral histories from the fifth century, and were attempts to establish origin myths that would justify the politics of the time. According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", a "king of the Britons" known as Vortigern invited two Germanic leaders, Hengist and Horsa ("stallion" and "horse"), to Britain to help defend against Pictish raiders. After arriving at "Ypwinesfleot" (Ebba's Creek, modern Ebbsfleet near Ramsgate) in Kent in 449, Hengist and Horsa led the defeat of the Picts before turning on the British and inviting more Germanic tribes to colonise Britain. Among these were the Old Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes; the latter settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight, establishing the peoples known as the Cantware and Wihtware.  According to the "Chronicle", in 455 Hengist and Horsa fought Vortigern at "Ægelesthrep" (probably Aylesford in Kent), in which battle Horsa was killed. Hengist succeeded him as king, followed in turn by his son Æsc. In 456 Hengest and Æsc battled the Britons at "Crecganford" (probably Crayford). The Britons then fled Kent for their London stronghold. A similar account is provided in Bede's "Ecclesiastical History": that the people of Kent and Isle of Wight were descended from Jutish settlers, and that Horsa was killed in battle against the Britons, adding that his body was buried in east Kent. The accuracy of these accounts is questioned; S. E. Kelly states that "the legendary details are easy to dismiss". Scholars often view Hengist and Horsa as mythological figures borrowed from folk tradition, to legitimise rulers in the Mid-to-Late Anglo-Saxon period.  The incoming Germanic peoples settled on the prime agricultural land of the Romano-Britons; particularly the foothills to the north of the downs and Holmesdale south of the downs escarpment. It is likely that they complemented agriculture with animal husbandry, but with nearby coasts and rivers it is also likely that they engaged in fishing and trading. The Anglo-Saxons made use of pre-existing prehistoric and Roman road systems, with 85% of cemeteries being located within 1.2 km of a Roman road, a navigable river or the coast, and the remaining 15% being close to ancient trackways. Little archaeological evidence of these early settlements exists, but one prominent example is a grubenhaus at Lower Warbank, Keston that was built atop the site of a former Roman villa, adjacent to a Romano-British trackway through the North Downs. Fifth-century ceramics have also been found at a number of villa sites around Kent, suggesting reoccupation of these locations during this period. In East Kent, fifth century cemeteries mostly comprise solely of inhumation burials, with a distinct Kentish character. Conversely, in West Kent cemeteries such Orpington mix cremations with inhumations, which is more typical of Saxon cemeteries north of the River Thames. This may suggest that West Kent at this point was independent of East Kent, and part of the Kingdom of the East Saxons north of the Thames Estuary.

Development and westward expansion: 500–590.

In the sixth century the Kingdom of Kent had some relationship with the Merovingian-governed Kingdom of Francia, which was then extending its influence in northwestern Europe. Textual sources suggest that Kent may have been under Merovingian control for part of this century. Archeological evidence of Frankish material culture from this period has been found in Kent, but not in other areas of lowland Britain, suggesting a trade monopoly with the Frankish kingdom.  Sixth century Kentish artefacts have been found in continental Europe, in particular in the areas of modern Charente, western Normandy, the Rhineland, Frisia, Thuringia, and southern Scandinavia. They are relatively absent between the Sein and the Somme across the English Channel from the Saxons in Sussex, suggesting that trade was established between particular tribal or ethnic groups rather than by geography. There is also archaeological evidence of Kentish trade links in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, and copies or imitations appearing in cemeteries further afield, in areas such as Wiltshire and Cambridgeshire.  Archaeological evidence suggests that at some point in the sixth century, East Kent annexed West Kent. To the south lay the Weald, a dense forest of no value to the Kentish elite, leaving the fertile area west of the kingdom attractive for conquest, particularly the Darenth Valley and the dip slopes of the North Downs to the west of the Medway.

Established kingdom and Christianisation: 597–650.

Firmly in the control of an elite class, Kent is the first Anglo-Saxon kingdom to appear in the historical record in 597. The monk Bede refers to Kent as ruled by Æthelberht at this period, making him the earliest reliably attested Anglo-Saxon monarch. Bede states that Æthelberht was a "bretwalda" who controlled everything south of the River Humber, including other kingdoms. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" refers to wars in sixth-century Britain, but most were in the west and did not affect Kent; the one exception was a battle between the Kentish and West Saxons in 568, during which Æthelberht's forces were pushed back into Kent. Æthelberht's reign also produced the Law of Æthelberht, the oldest surviving text in Old English.  According to Bede, the Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England began in Kent under Æthelberht's reign when the Benedictine monk Augustine arrived on the Ebbsfleet peninsula in 597, bringing the Gregorian mission with him. Æthelberht's Frankish wife, Bertha, was already a Christian, with Æthelberht himself converting a few years later.  During this period, Anglo-Saxon kings moved around their kingdoms continually, subsisting on goods from the local populations and reciprocating with gifts. Various seventh and eighth century documents attest to the fact that Kent was governed by two kings, a dominant one in the east and a subordinate in the west, likely reflecting the earlier divide.  This period witnessed the end of furnished burial, marked archaeologically by less regional distinctiveness of grave goods and more artefacts decorated in the Salin Style II motifs. It also saw the emergence of elite burials with far greater wealth than others; notable Kentish examples have been found at Sarre Anglo-Saxon cemetery and the Kingston Barrow cemetery, while the elite Taplow burial in modern Buckinghamshire also contained Kentish characteristics, suggesting a potential Kentish influence in that region.

Middle and late Anglo-Saxon Kent.

Decline and Mercian domination: 650–825.

In the seventh century, Kent's power waned as that of Mercia and Northumbria grew, but it remained the fourth wealthiest kingdom in England, according to the "Tribal Hidage" with 15,000 hides of land recorded in the seventh or eighth century. However the period was tumultuous for the Kentish royal family; Kent was ruled by Ecgberht from 664 to 673, but between 664 and 667 two royal cousins, Æthelred and Æthelberht, were killed at Eastry royal hall, perhaps because they were a threat to Ecgberht. Ecgberht was succeeded by his brother, Hlothere, who ruled from 674 to 686 before being overthrown and killed by one of Ecberht's sons, Eadric, who had allied with the South Saxons; Eadric then ruled until 687.  In the late seventh century, Kent gradually came to be dominated by Mercia. There had been a Kentish royal hall and reeve in Lundenwic until at least the 680s, but the city then passed into Mercian hands. The loss of Lundenwic probably broke Kent's monopoly on cross-Channel trade and its control of the Thames, eroding its economic influence. According to Bede's later account, in 676 the Mercian king Æthelred I led an attack that destroyed many Kentish churches. Mercia's control of Kent increased in the following decades; by 689–690 East Saxon kings under Mercian overlordship were active in West Kent, and there are records attesting that Æthelred arbitrated on the income of the Christian communities at Minster-in-Thanet and Reculver, indicating strong Mercian control over the east of the kingdom too.  In 686 Kent was conquered by Cædwalla of Wessex; within a year, Cædwalla's brother Mul was killed in a Kentish revolt, and Cædwalla returned to devastate the kingdom again. After this, Kent fell into a state of disorder. The Mercians backed a client king named Oswine, but he seems to have reigned for only about two years, after which Wihtred became king. Wihtred, famous for the Law of Wihtred, did a great deal to restore the kingdom after the devastation and tumult of the preceding years, and in 694 he made peace with the West Saxons by paying compensation for the killing of Mul.  Records of Kent following the death of Wihtred in 725 are fragmented and obscure. For forty years, two or even three kings typically ruled simultaneously. This division may have made Kent the first target of the rising power of Offa of Mercia: in 764, he gained supremacy over Kent and ruled it through client kings. By the early 770s, it appears that Offa was attempting to rule Kent directly, and a rebellion followed. A battle was fought at Otford in 776, and although the outcome is unknown, records of following years suggest that the rebels prevailed; Egbert II and later Ealhmund seem to have ruled independently of Offa for nearly a decade thereafter. This did not last, however, as Offa firmly re-established his authority over Kent in 785.  Religious centres of this period, minsters containing a church, were often far larger than lay settlements, with access to many resources and trade links; the Minster-in-Thanet was recorded as possessing three trade ships.  The seventh century saw the reintroduction of masonry in Anglo-Saxon England, primarily for churches. The earliest churches in the region have been termed the "Kentish Group" and reflect both Italian and Frankish influences in their design; early examples include St Pancras, St Mary, and St Peter and St Paul, all part of St. Augustine's monastery in Canterbury, as well as St. Andrews in Rochester and St Mary in Lyminge.  In the late seventh century, the earliest charters appear, giving estate boundaries, and showing reclamation of land, for use by livestock, from the Wantsum Channel and Romney Marsh. The Ebbsfleet watermill near Gravesend in West Kent, dated to circa 700, also reflects new uses of the landscape.  Canterbury grew into the economic and political centre of Kent during the seventh century, as evidenced by rubbish pits, metalworking, timber halls, and sunken-feature buildings from the period. Intensive development was also present at Dover, and possibly at Rochester, although archaeological evidence is lacking. It is known that both Canterbury and Rochester were the home to major mints in this period, primarily producing silver "sceattas". This suggests that from the seventh century onward, kings in Kent were establishing control over the kingdom's economic structure.  During the eighth and ninth centuries, a number of fortified earthworks, most notably Wansdyke and Offa's Dyke, were constructed as barriers between the warring kingdoms; the Faestendic passing through the Cray Valley and the routeway that has since become the A25 were likely Kentish earthworks of this period designed to protect the kingdom. Evidence for such militarisation might also be seen in the Rochester Bridge burdens, documented from the 790s, which lay out the obligation for the Roman bridge across the River Medway to be maintained, which would be vital for allowing Kentish troops to cross the river.  After King Ealhmund presumably died shortly after witnessing a charter in 784, his son Egbert was driven out of Kent and into exile by Offa of Mercia. It is clear from charters that Offa was in control of Kent by 785. Rather than just acting as overlord of his new possession, he attempted to annex it or at least reduce its importance by creating a new diocese in Mercia at Lichfield, possibly because the archbishop of Canterbury Jænberht refused to crown his son Ecgfrith. Jænberht resigned a part of his bishopric and the pro-Mercian Hygeberht was chosen by King Offa to replace him "through enmity conceived against the venerable Jænberht and the Kentish people", according to Offa's eventual successor Coenwulf. In 796 Offa died, and in this moment of Mercian weakness a Kentish rebellion under Eadbert Praen temporarily succeeded. Offa's eventual successor, Coenwulf, reconquered Kent in 798, however, and installed his brother Cuthred as king. After Cuthred's death in 807, Coenwulf ruled Kent directly.  Mercian authority was replaced by that of Wessex in 825, following the latter's victory at the Battle of Ellendun, and the Mercian client king Baldred was expelled.

Viking attacks: 825–1066.

The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" records that Kent was first attacked by Viking raiders in the late eighth century. Kent and southeast England would have been an attractive target because of its wealthy minsters, often located on exposed coastal locations. In 804, the nuns of Lyminge were granted refuge in Canterbury to escape the attackers, while in 811 Kentish forces gathered to repel a Viking army based on the Isle of Sheppey. Further recorded attacks occurred on Sheppey in 835, through Romney Marsh in 841, in Rochester in 842, Canterbury (Battle of Aclea) and Sandwich (Battle of Sandwich) in 851, Thanet in 853, and across Kent in 865. Kent was also attractive for its easy access to major land and sea routes. By 811, it is recorded that Vikings built fortifications on the Kentish north coast, and over-wintered their armies on Thanet in 851–852 and Sheppey in 854–855. At this point, Canterbury and Rochester still had Roman walls that could have been refurbished, but they were nevertheless attacked by the Vikings: Rochester in 842, Canterbury in 851, and Rochester again in 885, when they laid siege until it was liberated by Alfred's army. The "Burghal Hidage" lists the construction of the "Eorpenburnam" fort, possibly Castle Toll. Hoards have been found, particularly around the West Kent coast, that might have been wealth hidden from the Vikings.  In 892, when southern England was united under Alfred the Great, Kent was on the brink of disaster. Alfred had defeated Guthrum the Old and allowed Vikings by treaty to settle in East Anglia and the North East. However, other Danes were still on the move. Haesten, a highly experienced warrior-leader, had mustered huge forces in northern France having besieged Paris and taken Brittany. As many as 350 Viking ships sailed from Boulogne to the south coast of Kent in 892. Between 5000 and 10,000 men, with their families and horses, came up Limen estuary (the east-west route of the Royal Military Canal in reclaimed Romney Marsh) and attacked a Saxon fort near St Rumwold's church, Bonnington, killing all inside. They moved on and over the next year built a fortress at Appledore. Hearing of this, Danes in East Anglia and elsewhere then rose against Alfred. They raided Kent from Appledore, razing a large settlement, "Seleberhtes Cert" (present-day Great Chart near Ashford). They moved further inland and engaged in numerous battles with the English, but after four years they gave up. Some retreated to East Anglia and others went back to northern France as the forebears of the Normans who conquered England in 1066.  A large Viking army led by Thorkell the Tall besieged Canterbury in 1011, culminating in the pillage of the city and the eventual murder of Archbishop Alphege, on 19 April 1012.

The Kingdom of the Kentish (; ), today referred to as the Kingdom of Kent, was an early medieval kingdom in what is now South East England. It existed from either the fifth or the sixth century CE until it was fully absorbed into the Kingdom of Wessex in the late 9th century and later into Kingdom of England in the early 10th century.

Le Kent ("Cent" en vieil anglais, "Cantia Regnum" en latin) est un royaume anglo-saxon fondé au par les Jutes dans le Sud-Est de l'Angleterre. Il correspond approximativement au territoire occupé par le peuple celtique des Cantiaci avant la conquête romaine, et à l'actuel comté de Kent. C'est le premier royaume anglo-saxon converti au christianisme, et il atteint son apogée au début du sous le roi Æthelberht. Sa puissance décline par la suite, et il finit par être soumis par la Mercie dans le courant du. Il est définitivement rattaché au Wessex vers le milieu du.


Technology.

IBM's PS/2 was designed to remain software compatible with their PC/AT/XT line of computers upon which the large PC clone market was built, but the hardware was quite different. PS/2 had two BIOSes: one named ABIOS (Advanced BIOS) which provided a new protected mode interface and was used by OS/2, and CBIOS (Compatible BIOS) which was included to be software compatible with the PC/AT/XT. CBIOS was so compatible that it even included Cassette BASIC. While IBM did not publish the BIOS source code, it did promise to publish BIOS entry points.

Micro Channel Architecture.

With certain models to the IBM PS/2 line, Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) was also introduced. MCA was conceptually similar to the channel architecture of the IBM System/360 mainframes. MCA was technically superior to ISA and allowed for higher speed communications within the system. The majority of MCA's features would be seen in later buses with the exception of: streaming-data procedure, channel-check reporting, error logging and internal bus-level video pass-through for devices like the IBM 8514. Transfer speeds were on par with the much later PCI standard. MCA allowed one-to-one, card to card, and multi-card to processor simultaneous transaction management which is a feature of the PCI-X bus format.  Bus mastering capability, bus arbitration, and a primitive form of plug-and-play BIOS management of hardware were all benefits of MCA. (One book from the year 2000 writes: "MCA used an early (and user-hostile) version of what we know now as 'Plug-N′-Play', requiring a special setup disk for each machine and each card." MCA never gained wide acceptance outside of the PS/2 line due to IBM's anti-clone practices and incompatibilities with ISA. IBM offered to sell an MCA license to anyone who could afford the royalty. However, royalties were required for every MCA-compatible machine sold and a payment for every IBM-compatible machine the particular maker had made in the past. There was nothing unique in IBM insisting on payment of royalties on the use of its patents applied to Micro Channel-based machines. Up until that time, some companies had failed to pay IBM for the use of its patents on the earlier generation of Personal Computer.

Keyboard/mouse.

Layout.

The PS/2 IBM Model M keyboard used the same 101-key layout of the previous IBM PC/AT Extended keyboard, itself derived from the original IBM PC keyboard. European variants had 102 keys with the addition of an extra key to the right of the left Shift key. The Model M, using a buckling spring mechanism, is still being manufactured by Unicomp.

Interface.

PS/2 systems introduced a new specification for the keyboard and mouse interfaces, which are still in use today (though increasingly supplanted by USB devices) and are thus called "PS/2" interfaces. The PS/2 keyboard interface, inspired by Apple's ADB interface, was electronically identical to the long-established AT interface, but the cable connector was changed from the 5-pin DIN connector to the smaller 6-pin mini-DIN interface. The same connector and a similar synchronous serial interface was used for the PS/2 mouse port.  The initial desktop "Model 50" and "Model 70" also featured a new cableless internal design, based on use of interposer circuit boards to link the internal drives to the planar (motherboard). Additionally these machines could be largely disassembled and reassembled for service without tools.  Additionally, the PS/2 introduced a new software data area known as the Extended BIOS Data Area (EBDA). Its primary use was to add a new buffer area for the dedicated mouse port. This also required making a change to the "traditional" BIOS Data Area (BDA) which was then required to point to the base address of the EBDA.  Another new PS/2 innovation was the introduction of bidirectional parallel ports which in addition to their traditional use for connecting a printer could now function as a high speed data transfer interface. This allowed the use of new hardware such as parallel port scanners, CD-ROM drives, and also enhanced the capabilities of printers by allowing them to communicate with the host PC and send back signals instead of simply being a passive output device.

Graphics.

Most of the initial range of PS/2 models were equipped with a new frame buffer known as the Video Graphics Array, or VGA for short. This effectively replaced the previous EGA standard. VGA increased graphics memory to 256 KB and provided for resolutions of 640×480 with 16 colors, and 320×200 with 256 colors. VGA also provided a palette of 262,144 colors (as opposed to the EGA palette of 64 colors). The IBM 8514 and later XGA computer display standards were also introduced on the PS/2 line.  Key monitors and their maximum resolutions:  In truth, all "XGA" 1024×768 monitors are multimode, as XGA works as an add-on card to a built-in VGA and transparently passes-thru the VGA signal when not operating in a high resolution mode. All of the listed 85xx displays can therefore sync 640×480 at 60 Hz (or 720×400 at 70 Hz) in addition to any higher mode they may also be capable of. This however is not true of the 95xx models (and some unlisted 85xx's), which are specialist workstation displays designed for use with the XGA-2 or Image Adapter/A cards, and whose fixed frequencies all exceed that of basic VGA – the lowest of their commonly available modes instead being 640×480 at 75 Hz, if not something much higher still. It is also worth noting that these were still merely dual- or "multiple-frequency" monitors, not variable-frequency (also known as multisync); in particular, despite running happily at 640×480/720×400 and 1024×768, an (e.g.) 8514 cannot sync the otherwise common intermediate 800×600 "SVGA" resolution, even at the relatively low 50 to 56 Hz refresh rates initially used.  Although the design of these adapters did not become an industry standard as VGA did, their 1024×768 pixel resolution was subsequently widely adopted as a standard by other manufacturers, and "XGA" became a synonym for this screen resolution. The lone exception were the bottom-rung 8086-based Model 25 and 30, which had a cut-down version of VGA referred to as MCGA; the 286 models came with VGA. This supported CGA graphics modes, VGA 320x200x256 and 640x480x2 mode, but not EGA or color 640x480.

VGA video connector.

All of the new PS/2 graphics systems (whether MCGA, VGA, 8514, or later XGA) used a 15-pin D-sub connector for video out. This used analog RGB signals, rather than four or six digital color signals as on previous CGA and EGA monitors. The digital signals limited the color gamut to a fixed 16 or 64 color palette with no room for expansion. In contrast, any color depth (bits per primary) can be encoded into the analog RGB signals so the color gamut can be increased arbitrarily by using wider (more bits per sample) DACs and a more sensitive monitor. The connector was also compatible with analog grayscale displays. Unlike earlier systems (like MDA and Hercules) this was transparent to software, so all programs supporting the new standards could run unmodified whichever type of display was attached. (On the other hand, whether the display was color or monochrome was undetectable to software, so selection between application displays optimized for color or monochrome, in applications that supported both, required user intervention.) These grayscale displays were relatively inexpensive during the first few years the PS/2 was available, and they were very commonly purchased with lower-end models.  The VGA connector became the de facto standard for connecting monitors and projectors on both PC and non-PC hardware over the course of the early 1990s, replacing a variety of earlier connectors.

Storage.

Apple had first popularized the 3.5" floppy on the Macintosh line and IBM brought them to the PC in 1986 with the PC Convertible. In addition, they could be had as an optional feature on the XT and AT. The PS/2 line used entirely 3.5" drives which assisted in their quick adoption by the industry, although the lack of 5.25" drive bays in the computers created problems later on in the 1990s as they could not accommodate internal CD-ROM drives. In addition, the lack of built-in 5.25" floppy drives meant that PS/2 users could not immediately run the large body of existing IBM compatible software. However IBM made available optional external 5.25" drives, with internal adapters for the early PS/2 models, to enable data transfer.  In the initial lineup, IBM used 720 KB double density (DD) capacity drives on the 8086-based models and 1440 KB high density (HD) on the 80286-based and higher models. By the end of the PS/2 line they had moved to a somewhat standardized capacity of 2880 KB.  The PS/2 floppy drives lacked a capacity detector. 1440 KB floppies had a hole so that drives could identify them from 720 KB floppies, preventing users from formatting the smaller capacity disks to the higher capacity (doing so would work, but with a higher tendency of data loss). Clone manufacturers implemented the hole detection, but IBM did not. As a result of this a 720 KB floppy could be formatted to 1440 KB in a PS/2, but the resulting floppy would only be readable by a PS/2 machine.  PS/2s primarily used Mitsubishi floppy drives and did not use a separate Molex power connector; the data cable also contained the power supply lines. As the hardware aged the drives often malfunctioned due to bad quality capacitors.  The PS/2 used several different types of internal hard drives. Early models used MFM or ESDI drives. Some desktop models used combo power/data cables similar to the floppy drives. Later models used DBA ESDI or Parallel SCSI. Typically, desktop PS/2 models only permitted use of one hard drive inside the computer case. Additional storage could be attached externally by using the optional SCSI interface.

Memory.

Later PS/2 models introduced the 72-pin SIMM which became the de facto standard for RAM modules by the mid-1990s in mid-to-late 486 and nearly all Pentium desktop systems. 72-pin SIMMs were 32/36 bits wide and replaced the old 30-pin SIMM (8/9-bit) standard. The older SIMMs were much less convenient because they had to be installed in sets of two or four to match the width of the CPU's 16-bit (Intel 80286 and 80386SX) or 32-bit (80386 and 80486) data bus, and would have been extremely inconvenient to use in Pentium systems (which featured a 64-bit memory bus). 72-pin SIMMs were also made with greater capacities (starting at 1mb and ultimately reaching 128mb, vs 256kb to 16mb and more commonly no more than 4mb for 30-pin) and in a more finely graduated range (powers of 2, instead of powers of 4).  Many PS/2 models also used proprietary IBM SIMMs and could not be fitted with commonly available types. However industry standard SIMMs could be modified to work in PS/2 machines if the presence and type detection bridges or associated contacts were correctly rewired.

Models.

At launch, the PS/2 family comprised the Model 30, 50, 60 and 80; the Model 25 was launched a few months later.  The PS/2 Models 25 and 30 (IBM 8525 and 8530, respectively) were the lowest-end models in the lineup and meant to replace the IBM PC and XT. Model 25s came with either an 8086 CPU running at 8 MHz, 512 KB of RAM, and 720 KB floppy disks, or 80286 CPU. The 8086s had ISA expansion slots and a built-in MCGA monitor, which could be either color or monochrome, while the 80286 models came with VGA monitor and ISA expansion slots. A cut-down Model M with no numeric keypad was standard, with the normal keyboard being an extra-cost option. There was a very rare later model called the PS/2 Model 25-SX which sported either a 16 MHz or 20 MHz 386 CPU, up to 12 MB of memory, IDE hard drive, VGA Monitor and 16 bit ISA slots making it the highest available model 25 available denoted by model number 8525-L41.  Later ISA PS/2 models comprised the "Model 30-286" (a Model 30 with an Intel 286 CPU), "Model 35" (IBM 8535) and "Model 40" (IBM 8540) with Intel 386SX or IBM 386SLC processors.  The higher-numbered models (above 50) were equipped with the Micro Channel bus and mostly ESDI or SCSI hard drives (models 60-041 and 80-041 had MFM hard drives). PS/2 "Models 50" (IBM 8550) and "60" (IBM 8560) used the Intel 286 processor, the PS/2 "Models 70" (IBM 8570) and "80" used the 386DX, while the mid-range PS/2 "Model 55SX" (IBM 8555-081) and used the 16/32-bit 386SX processor. The "Model 50" was revised to the "Model 50Z" still with 10MHz 80286 processor, but with memory run at zero wait state, and a switch to ESDI hard drives. Later Model 70 and 80 variants (B-xx) also used 25 MHz Intel 486 processors, in a complex called the Power Platform.  The PS/2 "Models 90" (IBM 8590/9590) and "95" (IBM 8595/9595/9595A) used Processor Complex daughterboards holding the CPU, memory controller, MCA interface, and other system components. The available Processor Complex options ranged from the 20 MHz Intel 486 to the 90 MHz Pentium and were fully interchangeable. The IBM "PC Server 500", which has a motherboard identical to the 9595A, also uses Processor Complexes.  Other later Micro Channel PS/2 models included the Model "65SX" with a 16 MHz 386SX; various "Model 53" (IBM 9553), "56" (IBM 8556) and "57" (IBM 8557) variants with 386SX, 386SLC or 486SLC2 processors; the "Models 76" and "77" (IBM 9576/9577) with 486SX or 486DX2 processors respectively; and the 486-based "Model 85" (IBM 9585).  The IBM "PS/2E" (IBM 9533) was the first Energy Star compliant personal computer. It had a 50 MHz IBM 486SLC processor, an ISA bus, four PC card slots, and an IDE hard drive interface. The environmentally friendly PC borrowed many components from the ThinkPad line and was composed of recycled plastics, designed to be easily recycled at the end of its life, and used very little power.  IBM also produced several portable and laptop PS/2s, including the "Model L40" (ISA-bus 386SX), "N33" (IBM's first notebook-format computer from year 1991, Model 8533, 386SX), "N51" (386SX/SLC), "P70" (386DX) and "P75" (486DX2).  The IBM PS/2 "Server 195" and "295" (IBM 8600) were 486-based dual-bus MCA network servers supporting asymmetric multiprocessing, designed by Parallan Computer Inc.  The IBM "PC Server 720" (IBM 8642) was the largest MCA-based server made by IBM, although it was not, strictly speaking, a PS/2 model. It could be fitted with up to six Intel Pentium processors interconnected by the Corollary C-bus and up to eighteen SCSI hard disks. This model was equipped with seven combination MCA/PCI slots.  The IBM "ThinkPad 700C", aside from being labeled "700C PS/2" on the case, featured MCA and a 486SLC CPU.

6152 Academic System.

The 6152 Academic System was a workstation computer developed by IBM's Academic Information Systems (ACIS) division for the university market introduced in February 1988. The 6152 was based on the PS/2 Model 60, adding a RISC Adapter Card on the Micro Channel bus. This card was a co-processor that enabled the 6152 to run ROMP software compiled for IBM's Academic Operating System (AOS), a version of BSD UNIX for the ROMP that was only available to select colleges and universities.  The RISC Adapter Card contained the ROMP-C microprocessor (an enhanced version of the ROMP that first appeared in the IBM RT PC workstations), a memory management unit (the ROMP had virtual memory), a floating-point coprocessor, and up to 8MB of memory for use by the ROMP. The 6152 was the first computer to use the ROMP-C, which would later be introduced in new RT PC models.

Marketing.

During the 1980s, IBM's advertising of the original PC and its other product lines had frequently used the likeness of Charlie Chaplin. For the PS/2, however, IBM augmented this character with a notorious jingle that seemed more suitable for a low-end consumer product than a business-class computing platform:  Another campaign featured actors from the television show M*A*S*H playing the staff of a contemporary (i.e. late-1980s) business in roles reminiscent of their characters' roles from the series. Harry Morgan, Larry Linville, William Christopher, Wayne Rogers, Gary Burghoff, Jamie Farr, and Loretta Swit were in from the beginning, whereas Alan Alda joined the campaign later.  The profound lack of success of these advertising campaigns led, in part, to IBM's termination of its relationships with its global advertising agencies; these accounts were reported by "Wired" magazine to have been worth over $500 million a year, and the largest such account review in the history of business.  Overall, the PS/2 line was largely unsuccessful with the consumer market, even though the PC based Models 30 and 25 were an attempt to address it. With what was widely seen as a technically competent but cynical attempt to gain undisputed control of the market, IBM unleashed an industry backlash, which went on to standardize VESA, EISA and PCI. In large part, IBM failed to establish a link in the consumer's mind between the PS/2 MicroChannel architecture and the immature OS/2 1.x operating system; the more capable OS/2 version 2.0 did not release until 1992.  The firm suffered massive financial losses for the remainder of the 1980s, forfeiting its previously unquestioned position as the industry leader, and eventually lost its status as the largest manufacturer of personal computers, first to Compaq and then to Dell. From a high of 10,000 employees in Boca Raton before the PS/2 came out, only seven years later, IBM had $600 million in unsold inventory and was laying off staff by the thousands. After the failure of the PS/2 line to establish a new standard, IBM was forced to revert to building ISA PCs—following the industry it had once led—with the low-end PS/1 line and later with the more compatible Aptiva and PS/ValuePoint lines.  Still, the PS/2 platform experienced some success in the corporate sector where the reliability, ease of maintenance and strong corporate support from IBM offset the rather daunting cost of the machines. Also, many people still lived with the motto "Nobody ever got fired for buying an IBM". In the mid-range desktop market, the models 55SX and later 56SX were the leading sellers for almost their entire lifetimes. Later PS/2 models saw a production life span that took them into the late 1990s, within a few years of IBM selling off the division.

The Personal System/2 or PS/2 is IBM's third generation of personal computers. Released in 1987, it officially replaced the IBM PC, XT, AT, and PC Convertible in IBM's lineup. Many of the PS/2's innovations, such as the 16550 UART (serial port), 1440 KB 3.5-inch floppy disk format, Model M keyboard layout, 72-pin SIMMs, the PS/2 keyboard and mouse ports, and the VGA video standard, went on to become standards in the broader PC market.

IBM PS/2 ("Personal System/2") désigne une série d'ordinateurs personnels produits par IBM en 1987. Tous ces ordinateurs furent compatibles avec le premier IBM PC (lancé lui aussi par IBM, en 1981 aux États-Unis, en 1983 seulement en France pour des raisons de traduction obligatoire de la documentation).


History.

The airline was founded by Canadian aviation pioneer Russel (Russ) Bradley and started operations as Bradley Air Services in 1946 and is still registered under that name. First Air started scheduled operations in 1973, between Ottawa and North Bay. This service was operated with an eight-seat passenger plane.  The airline opened southern gateways at Edmonton, Winnipeg, Montreal and Ottawa. Through Kuujjuaq in Nunavik and Yellowknife in the Northwest Territories (NWT), the airline provides services to 26 Inuit communities in Nunavut, Nunavik and the NWT. Service to Sanikiluaq, Nunavut is provided in partnership with Air Inuit.  In 1995, First Air acquired Ptarmigan Airways, and in 1997 Northwest Territorial Airways (also known as NWT Air), both merged into First Air. Ptarmigan Airways operated smaller turboprop aircraft types such as the Beechcraft King Air (BE-200 model), de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Turbine Beaver, DHC-6 Twin Otter and Grumman Gulfstream I propjets in addition to Cessna Citation business jet aircraft. Northwest Territorial operated Boeing 727-100 and Boeing 737-200 jetliners, Lockheed L-188 Electra propjets, Lockheed L-100 Hercules cargo turboprops and Douglas DC-3s.  First Air is wholly owned by the Inuit people of Quebec through the Makivik Corporation, which purchased the company in 1990.  On 21 August 2008, First Air fired president Bob Davis and replaced him with Scott Bateman. Davis had been president since December 1997 and had several disagreements with First Air over a period of time.  On 5 June 2009, First Air received a wide-body aircraft, a Boeing 767-223 SF (Super Freighter), which was under a three-year dry lease from (CAM) Cargo Aircraft Management, a subsidiary of Air Transport Services Group (ATSG). The 767 has since left the fleet.  After the introduction of the operationally and logistically more economical Boeing 767-223SF in March 2010, First Air retired and removed its two Boeing 727-233 aircraft from its fleet. One was one of only two combi types in the world, and the last 727-200 in North America on scheduled passenger-freight services. The other 727-233F full freighter has also been phased out. A Hawker Siddeley HS 748 turboprop (C-GFNW) was retired in March 2011. Replacing this aircraft type are two ATR 72 Combi turboprops as part of First Air's fleet replacement program. They are outfitted with a cargo handling system, and one is outfitted with a large cargo door. A first of its kind in North America, it is able to handle built Unit Load Device positions. This in turn will create a larger load capacity and flexibility reaching remote communities. One began service in the last quarter of 2011, and the second in the first quarter 2012.  In February 2011, First Air and Qikiqtaaluk Corporation (QC) started a new airline named Qikiqtani First Aviation. The new company provides services throughout Nunavut's Qikiqtani Region using First Air's fleet. Another airline, Sakku First Aviation, was started the same time in partnership with Sakku Investments Corporation in Nunavut's Kivalliq Region.  In December 2011, Scott Bateman, President and CEO, abruptly resigned his position with First Air. Kris Dolinki became President and CEO after Bateman's departure.  In October 2012, Dolinki resigned his position as President and CEO of First Air. This announcement came shortly after Makivik Corporation stated that, after many rumours, its stake in First Air was not for sale. The position of President and CEO was filled on an interim basis by Chris Ferris, First Air's Vice President of Marketing & Sales.  In March 2013, First Air/Makivik Corporation announced it had hired Brock Friesen as its new President and CEO.  On 11 April 2014, the Makivik Corporation and Norterra, owners of Canadian North, announced that they were in negotiations to merge the two airlines. According to a website set up the same day the new airline would be owned equally between the two companies and "a merger would create a stronger, more sustainable business, provide better service to customers and lead to new economic development opportunities across the North - "We believe the two companies would complement each other’s strengths." In October 2014, it was announced the merger would not go through, but First Air would still codeshare some flights with Canadian North.  In early 2015 First Air announced strategic agreements with Cargojet Airways and Summit Air. The 767 lease was transferred to Cargojet at that time and First Air is now providing ATR Turboprop services to Cargojet.  On 21 April 2015, First Air Hercules C-GUSI flew the final civilian L382 flight in Canada, bringing to an end over 45 years of commercial Lockheed Hercules service. L382 Hercules operations in Northern Canada were begun during the 1960s by Pacific Western Airlines.  In 2016, First Air/Bradley Air Services became the oldest airline in Canada still operating under its original name.  On 28 September 2018, Makivik Corporation and the Inuvialuit Corporate Group (ICG) signed a definitive agreement to merge Canadian North and First Air, awaiting government approval. The new airline would use the new First Air livery, but would operate under the name "Canadian North". On 19 June 2019, the federal government gave approval to the merger provided several terms and conditions were met.  On 1 November 2019, First Air and Canadian North completed the merger and combined schedules. Operations are now under the Canadian North name using the First Air branding. However, full integration is expected to take 12 to 18 months.

Destinations.

First Air operates scheduled services to these domestic destinations in Canada:  According to the Official Airline Guide (OAG), First Air operated scheduled passenger service from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s nonstop between Ottawa (YOW) and Boston (BOS) primarily with Hawker Siddeley HS 748 turboprops but also with Boeing 727-100 Combi jetliners as well. This was the only scheduled passenger service ever operated to the U.S. by First Air.

Codeshare agreements.

First Air has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:

Fleet.

Current fleet.

As of June 2020, First Air had the following aircraft registered with Tansport Canada:

Retired fleet.

First Air previously operated the following aircraft types:

Bradley Air Services Limited, operating as First Air, was an airline headquartered in Kanata, a suburb of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. It operated services to 34 communities in Nunavut, Nunavik, and the Northwest Territories. First Air has assisted in various humanitarian missions such as the 2010 Haiti earthquake, airlifting relief supplies and equipment. Its main base, which included a large hangar, cargo and maintenance facility, was located at Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport, with hubs at Iqaluit Airport, and Yellowknife Airport. On November 1, 2019, the airline consolidated operations with Canadian North.

Bradley Air Services Limited, compagnie aérienne qui opère sous le nom de First Air (code AITA : 7F ; code OACI: FAB), est une compagnie aérienne basée à Kanata, Ontario, Canada. Elle effectue des vols régionaux réguliers ainsi que des vols charters pour les communautés nordiques du Québec, de l'Ontario, du Manitoba, de l'Alberta, du Yukon, du Nunavut et des Territoires du Nord-Ouest. Sa base principale est située à l’aéroport international Macdonald-Cartier d’Ottawa où ses installations comprennent un large hangar qui sert également pour les besoins de maintenance des aéronefs. La compagnie est également implantée à l'aéroport d’Iqaluit ainsi qu’à l'aéroport de Yellowknife.


History.

Grimentz is first mentioned in 1052 as "Grimiens". The village was formerly known by its German name "Grimensi", however, that name is no longer used.

Geography.

Lac de Moiry is a reservoir completed 1958. Lac des Autannes is located at an elevation of. Grimentz lies at altitude above sea level.  The village lies in the Val d'Anniviers in the Pennine Alps.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the village coat of arms is "Azure between two Mullets of Four Argent a semi-orb sinister of the same and on the chief of the last four Mullets of Five of the first."

Demographics.

Grimentz has a population () of 385. Most of the population () speaks French (373 or 92.3%) as their first language, Portuguese is the second most common (16 or 4.0%) and German is the third (9 or 2.2%). There are 2 people who speak Italian.  Of the population in the village, 229 or about 56.7% were born in Grimentz and lived there in 2000. There were 65 or 16.1% who were born in the same canton, while 52 or 12.9% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 58 or 14.4% were born outside of Switzerland. , there were 168 people who were single and never married in the village. There were 213 married individuals, 18 widows or widowers and 5 individuals who are divorced.  There were 49 households that consist of only one person and 14 households with five or more people., a total of 159 apartments (15.2% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 856 apartments (81.8%) were seasonally occupied and 32 apartments (3.1%) were empty.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 57.69% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (13.26%), the SP (11.62%) and the FDP (10.84%). In the federal election, a total of 243 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 76.2%.

Economy.

There were 216 residents of the village who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 44.0% of the workforce. the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 229. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 10, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 63 of which 14 or (22.2%) were in manufacturing and 49 (77.8%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 156. In the tertiary sector; 30 or 19.2% were in the sale or repair of motor vehicles, 16 or 10.3% were in the movement and storage of goods, 58 or 37.2% were in a hotel or restaurant, 5 or 3.2% were the insurance or financial industry, 5 or 3.2% were technical professionals or scientists, 1 was in education. , there were 49 workers who commuted into the village and 29 workers who commuted away. The village is a net importer of workers, with about 1.7 workers entering the village for every one leaving.

Religion.

From the, 372 or 92.1% were Roman Catholic, while 20 or 5.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there was 1 member of an Orthodox church, and there was 1 individual who belongs to another Christian church. 9 (or about 2.23% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 1 individual (or about 0.25% of the population) did not answer the question.

Weather.

Grimentz has an average of 106.7 days of rain or snow per year and on average receives of precipitation. The wettest month is August during which time Grimentz receives an average of of rain or snow. During this month there is precipitation for an average of 10.9 days. The driest month of the year is April with an average of of precipitation over 8.6 days.

Education.

In Grimentz about 166 or (41.1%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 29 or (7.2%) have completed additional higher education (either University or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 29 who completed tertiary schooling, 48.3% were Swiss men, 41.4% were Swiss women. , there were 2 students in Grimentz who came from another village, while 36 residents attended schools outside the village.

Grimentz is a village in the district of Sierre in the Swiss canton of Valais. An independent municipality before, it merged on 1 January 2009 with neighboring Ayer, Chandolin, Saint Jean, Saint-Luc and Vissoie to form the municipality of Anniviers.

Grimentz est une localité de montagne situé à 1572 mètres d'altitude au cœur des Alpes valaisannes. Elle est aussi une station de sport d'hiver.


History.

The Collège was founded in 1986 by Philippe Mahrer, the Pre-founding advisory committee was headed by Jean Peyrelevade, members of the committee were among others, the Directors of leading French Grandes Ecoles (the Ecole Normale and the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées), as well as business leaders. M.B.A. classes started in September of the same year. In 1990, the Copernic Program was started, in cooperation with the French Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris, Ecole des Mines de Paris and ENPC. In 1992 the Actuary Diploma program was created. Other programs soon followed: the M.S. program in Applied Mathematics for Insurance, in partnership with University of Marne la Vallée, was established in 1993, while the CDI-China program started in 1994.  Up to this point, all of the CDI activities had taken place in France; in 1996, however, alumnus Knut Stannowski opened the German branch in Stuttgart with support from the Baden-Württemberg Land. The international expansion of the CDI was subsequently furthered by the opening of an agency in St. Gallen, Switzerland, in 2003 and of an office in Munich in 2008.  In 2009, by initiative of John Elkann, Vice President of, together with Marco Tronchetti Provera, President of, and Riccardo Garrone, President of, the Scuola di Alta Formazione al Management (SAFM) was established in Turin, Italy, based on the CDI model of "action learning". The school currently runs the CDI-licensed M.B.A. program for Italian graduates, fully affiliated with the one offered at Collège des Ingénieurs, and its students take a number of classes together with their French and German counterparts.

Academics.

M.B.A. Program.

Collège des Ingénieurs runs an innovative ten-month M.B.A. program in Paris, Munich and Turin. The uniqueness of the CDI M.B.A., as compared to traditional Business Administration graduate degrees, lies in being entirely financed by sponsoring companies, with an emphasis on "action learning". All admitted students, therefore, receive a fellowship which covers tuition fees and provides a stipend to cover basic living costs. Since the number of fellowships is limited, the program is renowned for being highly competitive. Furthermore, the program is also international in nature, as all students are required to take classes and sit exams in Italy, Germany, France and Switzerland as part of the program.  In turn, CDI Fellows are required to spend six months working on strategic projects at the sponsoring company; generally referred to as "mission", this is an integral part of the M.B.A. experience as it provides Fellows with an opportunity to test their newly gained competencies in a real business environment. To enhance learning, weeks of lectures are alternated with periods of company work, and Fellows are required to submit monthly reports regarding their work at the companies.  The study curriculum includes classes in accounting, strategy, marketing, entrepreneurship, innovation management, operations, corporate finance, business ethics, investments, leadership and human resources management. Moreover, throughout the year several "lectiones magistrales" are usually given by CEOs and industry experts on topics related to management, innovation and entrepreneurship.

CDI Fellows.

Admission to the CDI M.B.A. program is extremely competitive. The Paris branch alone, on average, receives more than 1500 applications every year. About 90 students are selected to become CDI Fellows and about 15 doctoral students are admitted to the program. As the school name suggests, Engineering graduates make up for the majority of the student body; throughout the years, however, graduates in mathematics, physics, natural sciences and economics have also been admitted. The selection process is based on personality and leadership capacities, as well as on excellent academic record in the engineering or scientific field (MSc, PhD level or equivalent). The admission process includes interviews.  CDI Fellows hail from a variety of countries, educational institutions and cultural backgrounds. Represented countries include France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Austria, the United States, Canada, China, South Korea, Japan and India.  In the past, CDI Fellows attended institutions such as:  In Germany, the CDI has formal co-operations with the Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes and the Stiftung der deutschen Wirtschaft (SDW).

Industry Connections.

The CDI maintains a strong alumni network, which in turn results in an extensive network of industry connections, since many former students have taken up positions in their sponsoring companies after graduation. Companies with links to the Collège include, but are not limited to:

Collège des Ingénieurs (also referred to as CDI) is a European educational institution and business school founded in Paris (France), Munich (Germany), and Torino (Italy). It provides Engineering graduates with learning opportunities in business administration and finance, in order for them to develop the key skills and competencies required to succeed in the corporate environment and to take up executive positions.

Le Collège des ingénieurs (CDI) est une institution internationale indépendante d’éducation fondée en 1986 à Paris, connue pour son diplôme de master en administration des affaires (MBA, "master of business administration") construit selon une pédagogie d'alternance intégrée de cours et d'une mission. Aujourd'hui présent sur trois sites en Europe (Paris, Munich, Turin), il sélectionne chaque année une centaine de jeunes diplômés (ingénieurs, scientifiques, médecins) originaires des grandes écoles et universités.


Biography.

He was born of humble Catholic parentage at Acquoy then in the province of Holland, now in Gelderland, the Netherlands. In 1602 he entered the University of Leuven, then in the throes of an ideological conflict between the Jesuit – or scholastic – party and the followers of Michael Baius, who swore by St. Augustine. Jansen ended by attaching himself strongly to the latter "Augustinian" party, and presently made a momentous friendship with a like-minded fellow-student, Jean du Vergier de Hauranne, afterwards "Abbé de Saint-Cyran".  After taking his degree he went to Paris, partly to improve his health by a change of scene, partly to study Greek. Eventually he joined Du Vergier at his country home near Bayonne, and spent some years teaching at the bishop's college. All his spare time was spent in studying the early Fathers with Du Vergier, and laying plans for a reform of the Church.  In 1616 he returned to Leuven, to take charge of the college of St Pulcheria, a hostel for Dutch students of theology. Pupils found him a somewhat choleric and exacting master and a great recluse from academic society. However, he took an active part in the university's resistance to the Jesuits, for they had established a theological school of their own in Leuven, which was proving itself a formidable rival to the official university faculty of divinity. In the hope of suppressing their encroachments, Jansen was sent twice to Madrid, in 1624 and 1626; the second time he narrowly escaped the Inquisition. He warmly supported the Catholic missionary archbishop (apostolic vicar) of the Catholic Holland Mission in the Dutch Republic, Philippus Rovenius, in his contests with the Jesuits, who were trying to evangelize that country without regard to the archbishop's wishes. He also crossed more than once the Dutch Calvinist–Presbyterian champion, Gisbertus Voetius, still remembered for his attacks on René Descartes.  Antipathy to the Jesuits brought Jansen no nearer to Protestantism; on the contrary, he yearned to beat them with their own weapons, chiefly by showing them that Roman Catholics could interpret the Bible in just as mystical and pietistic a manner. This became the great object of his lectures, when he was appointed regius professor of scriptural interpretation at Leuven in 1630. Still more was it the object of his "Augustinus", a bulky treatise on the theology of St. Augustine, barely finished at the time of his death. Its preparation was his chief occupation since his return to Leuven. He had introduced in this treaty a long development favourable to contrition (IIIrd part, "De gratia Christi salvatoris", book V, chap.XXI–XXV). In its appendice, titled "Erroris Massiliensium, et opinionis quorumdam recentiorum parallelon et statera", he harshly condemned the Jesuits, in particular Luis de Molina, Gabriel Vasquez and Leonardus Lessius.  But Jansen, as he said, did not mean to be a school-pedant all his life; and there were moments when he entertained political ambitions. He looked forward to a time when Flanders would throw off the Spanish yoke and become an independent Catholic republic, possibly even Flemish-ruled, according to the model of the Protestant United Provinces. These ideas became known to his Spanish rulers, and to assuage them he wrote a philippic called the "Mars gallicus" (1635), a violent attack on French ambitions generally, and on Cardinal Richelieu's indifference to international Catholic interests in particular. The "Mars gallicus" did little to help Jansen's rather persecuted theological friends in France, but it reversed Madrid's wrath with Jansen; in 1636 he was appointed bishop of Ypres (Ieper) in West Flanders by the Pope and the Spanish Court. Within two years he was however cut down by a sudden illness; the "Augustinus", the book of his life, was published posthumously in 1640.  Opposed to Jansenism, a little group of theological doctors from the Sorbonne extracted 8 propositions of Jansenius's "Augustinus", later reduced to 5, treating of the problems concerning the relation between nature and grace. They accused Jansenius of having misinterpreted St. Augustine, conflating Jansenists with Lutherans. This led Pope Innocent X to condemn in 1653 these 5 propositions in the papal bull "Cum Occasione", without attributing them to Jansenius in particular. The 5 propositions were condemned again by Pope Alexander VII three years later in the apostolic constitution "Ad sanctam beati Petri sedem". The Jesuits, who then enjoyed predominant political and theological power (including a personal confessor to the King of France), then persuaded the Pope to force all Jansenists to sign a formulary leading them to admit the papal bull and to confess to their errors. The formulary controversy led Pascal to write the famous "Lettres provinciales" (1657) in which he harshly attacked the Jesuits and their moral, in particular their casuistry.  Following this anonymous publication, the King sent spies everywhere, condemned the librarians and successfully attempted to discover the author of the "Lettres provinciales". The Jansenists of Port-Royal, Antoine Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, la Mère Angélique, Soeur Agnès, etc., were forced to sign the formulary. Although ostensibly obeying Papal authority, they added that the condemnation would only be sensible if the 5 allegedly heretical propositions were in fact found in Jansenius' "Augustinus", and claimed that they did not figure there. The Jansenists' reasoning was that the Pope had of course the power to condemn heretical propositions, but not to cause that which did not figure in Jansenius' "Augustinus" to actually be there. This strategy would impose decades of theological disputes and debate.  On the other hand, Pascal and some other Jansenists adopted a radical strategy, alleging that condemning Jansenius was equivalent to condemning the Father of the Church, St. Augustine himself, and adamantly refused to sign the formulary, with or without reserve. This in turn led to the further radicalization of the King and of the Jesuits, and in 1661 the Convent of Port-Royal was closed and the Jansenist community dissolved – it would be ultimately razed in 1710 on orders of Louis XIV. The controversy did not involve only Papal authority, but rather his authority concerning Biblical exegesis.  Further controversy led to the bull "Unigenitus", issued by Clement XI in 1713, which marked the end of Catholic toleration of Jansenist doctrine. The bull "Unigenitus", dated 8 September 1713, was produced with the contribution of, a lector at the College of Saint Thomas, the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, "Angelicum", fostered the condemnation of Jansenism by condemning 101 propositions from the "Réflexions morales" of Quesnel as heretical, and as identical with propositions already condemned in the writings of Jansen.  Up until the French Revolution, Jansenism would live on as a political force in France, supported by some chairs in the parlements of Paris. Anonymous Jansenists published a magazine called Nouvelles ecclésiastiques, which frequently featured anti-Jesuit propaganda. Eventually, Jansenists would collaborate with independent-minded Gallicanists in promoting the Jesuits' expulsion from France in 1764.

Cornelius Jansen (, ; Latinized name Cornelius Jansenius; also Corneille Jansen; 28 October 1585 – 6 May 1638) was the Dutch Catholic bishop of Ypres in Flanders and the father of a theological movement known as Jansenism.

Cornelius Jansen, plus souvent connu sous la forme latine de son nom, Jansénius, né le à Acquoy (Pays-Bas) et décédé le, fut évêque d'Ypres. Il est à l'origine d’un important mouvement politico-religieux, le jansénisme, condamné par l'Église catholique romaine en 1653 et persécuté par Louis XIV.


Early life.

Christopher Lee Rios was born on November 10, 1971 in The Bronx, New York City to parents of Puerto Rican descent. He grew up in the South Bronx neighborhood of the city, and had at least two sisters and one brother. He regularly played basketball and trained in boxing for a while. He eventually moved out of his mother's house at the age of 15, and was homeless for a period of time in the late 1980s. Later, he received a large settlement from the city stemming from an incident in 1976, where a five-year-old Rios broke his leg while playing in a park. Using his settlement money, Rios married his high school sweetheart, Liza, and the two moved into a home together. Rios struggled with depression stemming from his turbulent childhood, and turned to food as a way of coping with it. Between the ages of 18 and 21, Rios’ weight ballooned from 180lbs to 300lbs, and he was consequently unable to tie his own shoes.

Career.

During the late 1980s, he began writing rap lyrics. He later formed the underground group Full-A-Clips with Lyrical Assassin, Joker Jamz and Toom. Rios made a number of recordings with the group in the early 1990s, which have not been released. At this point Rios was operating under the alias Big Moon Dawg. After changing his stage name to Big Punisher, Rios met fellow Puerto Rican and Bronx rapper Fat Joe in 1995 and made his commercial debut on Fat Joe's second album, "Jealous One's Envy", in addition to appearing on the song, "Watch Out". He also appeared on The Beatnuts' song "Off the Books".  Later, "I'm Not a Player" (featuring an O'Jays sample) was supported by a significant advertising campaign and became an underground hit.

"Capital Punishment" (1997–1998).

In 1997, Big Pun began recording songs for his debut album "Capital Punishment". In 1997, producer Knobody's production partner Sean C took advantage of his new role as A&R at Loud Records to play Knobody's tracks to Big Pun. Suitably impressed, the rapper hired Knobody to remix "I'm Not a Player". The remixed song, featuring Joe and titled "Still Not a Player", became Big Pun's first major mainstream hit and major breakthrough for Knobody. The full-length debut "Capital Punishment" followed in 1998, and became the first album by a solo Latino rapper to go platinum, peaking at No. 5 on the "Billboard" 200. "Capital Punishment" was also nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Rap Album.

The Terror Squad collaboration album (1999–2000).

Big Pun became a member of Terror Squad, a New York-based group of rappers founded by Fat Joe, with most of the roster supplied by the now-defunct Full-A-Clips who released their debut album "The Album" in 1999. The album did not fare well commercially but it was well received critically and the album was meant to start the foundation for all other Terror Squad members to release their solo projects.

Health problems and death.

Rios struggled with weight issues his entire adult life. He weighed at age 18, which increased to at 21. His weight fluctuated in the early 1990s between obese and morbidly obese. Rios enrolled in a weight-loss program at Duke University and shed, but he prematurely quit the program and eventually regained the weight. His weight was a constant topic of argument among him and his friends to the point that Rios would not eat around them.  On February 5, 2000, Rios withdrew from a planned "Saturday Night Live" performance with Fat Joe and Jennifer Lopez due to illness. Two days later while staying at a hotel with his family in White Plains, New York, he suffered a heart attack and respiratory failure and was taken to a hospital, where he died at the age of 28 after paramedics were unable to revive him. His weight had reached a peak of at the time of his death. Rios was survived by his wife, Liza, and their three children, Star, Vanessa and Christopher Jr.

Posthumous works.

Big Pun's second album, "Yeeeah Baby", completed after his death, was released in April 2000. It peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard charts and earned gold record status within three months of its release. A posthumous compilation album, "Endangered Species", was released in April 2001. "Endangered Species" collected some of Pun's "greatest hits", previously unreleased material, numerous guest appearances, and remixed "greatest verses." As with his other albums, it also peaked in the top ten of the "Billboard" 200, reaching No. 7, but didn't sell as much as the previous Big Pun albums had. He collaborated with Fat Joe on "Duets: The Final Chapter", an album of tracks featuring The Notorious B.I.G., also deceased. The track "Get Your Grind On" begins with a Big Pun radio interview in which he said he would perform a duet with Biggie at the gates of heaven. Pun was also featured on a track from the revived Terror Squad's second album, "True Story," on the track "Bring 'Em Back" with Big L, another deceased rapper.  On May 2, 2001, the New York City Council stalled plans to rename a small portion of Rogers Place as a tribute, due to distaste over Big Pun's lyrics that "include[d] profanity and references to violence and drug dealing".  A second posthumous album was planned for release by Sony Music Entertainment in 2006 but was shelved due to a dispute with producer John "Jellybean" Benitez, who owned the publishing rights to many of the intended album's tracks. In June 2005, Liza Rios put her husband's $100,000 custom Terror Squad medallion up for auction on eBay, citing financial difficulties due to receiving no royalties from Pun's album sales.

Christopher Lee Rios (November 10, 1971 – February 7, 2000), better known by his stage name Big Pun (short for Big Punisher), was an American rapper and actor. Emerging from the underground hip hop scene in The Bronx borough of New York City in the early 1990s, he came to prominence during the latter half of the decade for his work with Fat Joe and the Terror Squad. Pun's lyrics are notable for their technical efficiency, having minimal pauses to take a breath, heavy use of alliteration as well as internal and multi-syllabic rhyming schemes. He is frequently cited as one of the best MCs of all time.

Big Pun, diminutif de Big Punisher, de son vrai nom Christopher Lee Rios, né le à New York et mort le à White Plains, est un rappeur américain d'origine portoricaine actif dans les années 1990. Il apparaît la première fois sur des albums des Beatnuts et de Fat Joe avant de signer sur le label Loud Records. La carrière de Big Pun fut stoppée net par une crise cardiaque due à son obésité. Il a laissé derrière lui une épouse, Liza Rios (rencontrée au lycée), et trois enfants. Big Pun se popularise dans la scène hip-hop underground du Bronx à la fin des années 1990.


History.

Aboriginal inhabitants.

Indigenous Australian peoples have long inhabited the area. Evidence indicates habitation dating back at least 25,000 years. It is possible that the area

European exploration.

Following European settlement, the growth of the new colony of New South Wales led to an increasing demand for arable land. Governor Lachlan Macquarie supported expeditions to open up new lands to the south of Sydney. The 1820s saw further exploration in the Canberra area associated with the construction of a road from Sydney to the Goulburn plains. While working on the project, Charles Throsby learned of a nearby lake and river from the local Indigenous peoples and he accordingly sent Wild to lead a small party to

Early settlement.

The first land grant in the region was made to Joshua John Moore in 1823 and European settlement in the area began in 1824 with the construction of a homestead by his stockmen on what is now the Acton Peninsula. Moore formally purchased the site in 1826 and named the property "Canberry" or "Canberra".  A significant influx of population and economic activity occurred around the 1850s goldrushes. The goldrushes prompted the establishment of communication between Sydney and the region by way of the Cobb & Co coaches, which transported mail and passengers. The first post

Creation of the territory.

In 1898, a referendum on a proposed Constitution was held in four of the colonies – New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. Although the referendum achieved a majority in all four colonies, the New South Wales referendum failed to gain the minimum number of votes needed for the bill to pass. Following this result, a meeting of the four Premiers in 1898 heard from George Reid, the Premier of New South Wales, who argued that locating the future capital in New South Wales would be sufficient to ensure the passage of the Bill. The 1899 referendum on this revised bill was successful and passed with sufficient

Development throughout 20th century.

In 1911, an international competition to design the future capital was held, which was won by the Chicago architect Walter Burley Griffin in 1912. The official naming of Canberra occurred on 12 March 1913 and construction began immediately.  After Griffin's departure following difficulty in implementing his project, the Federal Capital Advisory Committee was established in 1920 to advise the government of the construction efforts. The Committee had limited success meeting its goals. However, the chairman, John Sulman, was instrumental in applying the ideas of the garden city movement to Griffin's plan. The Committee was replaced in 1925 by the Federal Capital Commission.  In 1930, the ACT Advisory Council was established to advise the minister for territories on the community's concerns. In

Self-government.

In 1978, an advisory referendum was held to determine the views of ACT citizens about whether there should be self-government. Just under 64 percent of voters rejected devolved government options, in favour of the status quo. Nevertheless, in 1988, the new minister for the Australian Capital Territory Gary Punch received a report recommending the abolition of the National Capital Development Commission and the formation of a locally elected government. Punch recommended that the Hawke government accept the report's recommendations and subsequently Clyde Holding introduced legislation to grant self-government to the territory in October 1988.

Geography.

The Australian Capital Territory is the smallest mainland territory (aside from the Jervis Bay Territory) and covers a total land area of.  It is bounded by the Goulburn-Cooma railway line in the east, the watershed of Naas Creek in the south, the watershed of the Cotter River in the west and the watershed of the Molonglo River in the north-east. These boundaries were set to give the ACT an adequate water supply. The ACT extends about North-South between 35.124°S and 35.921°S, and West-East between 148.763°E and 149.399°E. The city area of Canberra occupies the north-eastern corner of this area.  The Australian Capital Territory includes the city of Canberra and some other townships such as Williamsdale, Naas, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall. The Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land (sheep, dairy cattle, vineyards and small amounts of crops) and a large area of national park (Namadgi National Park), much of it mountainous and forested.  Tidbinbilla is a locality to the south-west of Canberra that features the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve and the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex, operated by the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as part of its Deep Space Network.  There are a large range of mountains, rivers and creeks throughout the territory and are largely contained within the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers.

Climate.

The territory has a relatively dry, continental climate experiencing warm to hot summers and cool to cold winters. Under Köppen-Geiger classification, the territory has an oceanic climate ("Cfb").  January is the hottest month with an average high of. July is the coldest month when the average high drops to. The highest maximum temperature recorded in the territory was on 4 January 2020. The lowest minimum temperature was on 11 July 1971.  Rainfall varies significantly across the territory. Much higher rainfall occurs in the mountains to the west of

Geology.

Notable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the "Canberra Formation", the "Pittman Formation", "Black Mountain Sandstone" and "State Circle Shale".  In the 1840s fossils of brachiopods and trilobites from the Silurian period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near Duntroon. At the time, these were the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed. Other specific

Ecology.

Flora and fauna.

The environments range from alpine area on the higher mountains, to sclerophyll forest and to woodland. Much of the ACT has been cleared for grazing and is also burnt off by bushfires several times per century. The kinds of plants can be grouped into vascular plants, that include gymnosperms, flowering plants, and ferns, as well as bryophytes, lichens, fungi and freshwater algae. Four flowering plants are endemic to the ACT. Several lichens are unique to the territory. Most plants in the ACT are characteristic of the

Government and politics.

Territory government.

The ACT has internal self-government, but Australia's Constitution does not afford a territory legislature the high degree of independence provided to that of a state. Instead, each territory is governed under a Commonwealth statutefor the ACT, the Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988. The chief minister performs many of the roles that a state governor normally holds in the context of a state; however, the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly gazettes the laws and summons meetings of the Assembly.  Laws are made in a 25-member Legislative Assembly that combines both state and local government functions (prior to 2016, the Assembly was made up of 17 members).  Members

Judiciary and policing.

The court system of the territory consists of the Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory, the Magistrates Court of the Australian Capital Territory and the ACT Civil and Administrative Tribunal. It is unique in that the territory does not have an intermediary

Federal representation.

In Australia's Federal Parliament, the ACT is represented by five federal members: three members of the House of Representatives represent the Division of Bean, the Division of Canberra and the Division of Fenner, and it

Jervis Bay Territory.

In 1915, the "Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915" created the Jervis Bay Territory as an annexe to the Federal Capital Territory. While the Act's use of the language of "annexed" is sometimes interpreted as implying that the Jervis Bay Territory was to form part of the Federal Capital Territory, the accepted legal position is that it has been a legally distinct territory from its creation despite being subject to ACT law and, prior to ACT self-government in 1988, being administratively treated as part

Demographics.

The Australian Bureau of Statistics estimates that the population of the territory was 419,200 on 31 March 2019. The population is projected to reach to approximately 700,000 by 2058.  The overwhelming majority of the population reside in the city of Canberra.  At the, the median weekly income for people in the territory aged over 15 was $998 while the national average was $662.  The average level of degree qualification in the ACT is higher than the national average. Within the ACT, 37.1% of the population hold a bachelor's degree level or above education compared to the national figure of 20%.

City and townships.

The Australian Capital Territory consists of the city of Canberra and some surrounding townships including Williamsdale, Naas, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall.  The urban areas of Canberra are organised into a hierarchy of districts, town centres, group centres, local suburbs as well as other industrial areas and villages. There are seven districts (with an eighth currently under construction), each of which is divided into smaller suburbs, and most of which have

Ancestry and immigration.

At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were: The 2016 census showed that 32% of the ACT's inhabitants were born overseas. Of inhabitants born

Language.

At the 2016 census, 72.7% of people spoke only English at home. The

Religion.

The most common responses in the for religion in the territory were No Religion (36.2%),

Culture.

Education.

Almost all educational institutions in the Australian Capital Territory are located within Canberra. The ACT public education system schooling is normally split up into Pre-School, Primary School (K-6), High School (7–10) and College (11–12) followed by studies at university or CIT (Canberra Institute of Technology). Many private high schools include years 11 and 12 and are referred to as colleges. Children are required to attend school until they turn 17 under the ACT Government's "Learn or Earn" policy.  In February 2004 there were 140 public and non-governmental schools in ACT; 96 were operated by the Government and 44 are non-Government. In 2005, there were 60,275 students in the ACT school system. 59.3% of the students were enrolled in government schools with the remaining 40.7%

Sport.

The Australian Capital Territory is home to a number of major professional sports league franchise teams including the Canberra Raiders (rugby league), the Brumbies (rugby union), and the Canberra Capitals (basketball).  The Greater Western Sydney

Arts and entertainment.

The territory is home to many national monuments and institutions such as the Australian War Memorial, the National Gallery of Australia, the National Portrait Gallery, the National Library, the National Archives, the Australian Academy of Science, the National Film and Sound Archive and the National Museum. Many Commonwealth government buildings in Canberra are open to the public, including Parliament House, the High Court and the Royal Australian Mint.  Lake Burley Griffin is the site of the Captain James Cook Memorial and the National Carillon. Other sites of interest include the Telstra Tower, the Australian National Botanic Gardens, the National Zoo and Aquarium, the National Dinosaur Museum and Questacon – the National Science and Technology Centre.  The Canberra Museum and Gallery in the city is a repository of local

Media.

Canberra and the territory have a daily newspaper, "The Canberra Times", which was established in 1926. There are also several free weekly publications, including news magazines "CityNews" and "Canberra Weekly."  There are a number of AM and FM stations broadcasting throughout the ACT (AM/FM Listing). The main commercial operators are the Capital Radio Network (2CA and 2CC),

Infrastructure.

Health.

The Australian Capital Territory has two large public hospitals both located in Canberra: the approximately 600-bed Canberra Hospital in Garran and the 174-bed Calvary Public Hospital in Bruce. Both are teaching institutions. The largest private hospital is the Calvary John James Hospital in Deakin. Calvary Private Hospital

Transport.

The automobile is by far the dominant form of transport in Canberra and the territory. The city is laid out so that arterial roads connecting inhabited clusters run through undeveloped areas of open land or forest, which results in a low population density; this also means that idle land is available for the development of future transport corridors if necessary without the need to build tunnels or acquire developed residential land. In contrast, other capital cities in Australia have substantially less green space.  Canberra's districts are generally

Utilities.

The government-owned ACTEW Corporation manages the territory's water and sewerage infrastructure. ActewAGL is a joint venture between ACTEW and AGL, and is the retail provider of Canberra's utility services including water, natural gas, electricity, and also some telecommunications services via a subsidiary TransACT.  Canberra's water is stored in four reservoirs, the Corin, Bendora and Cotter dams on the Cotter River and the Googong Dam on the Queanbeyan River. Although the Googong Dam is located in New South Wales, it is managed by the ACT government. ACTEW Corporation owns Canberra's two wastewater treatment plants, located at Fyshwick and on the lower reaches of the

Economy.

The economic activity of the Australian Capital Territory is heavily concentrated around the city of Canberra.  A stable housing market, steady employment and rapid population growth in the 21st century have led to economic prosperity and, in 2011, CommSec ranked the ACT as the second best performing economic region in the country. This trend continued into 2016, when the territory was ranked the third best performing out of all of Australia's states and territories.  In 2017–18, the ACT had the fastest rate of growth in the nation due to a rapid growth in population, a strongly performing higher education sector as well as a significant housing and infrastructure investment.  Higher education is the territory's largest export industry. Canberra is home to a significant number of universities and higher education providers. The other major services exports of the ACT in 2017-18 were government services and personal travel. The major goods exports of the territory in 2017-18 were gold coin, legal tender coin, metal structures and fish, though these represent a small proportion of the economy compared to services exports.  The economy of the ACT is largely dependent on the public sector with 30% of the jobs in the territory being in the public sector. Decisions by the federal government regarding the public service can have a significant impact on the territory's economy.  The ACT's gross state product in 2017-18 was $39.8 billion which represented 2.2% of the overall gross domestic product of Australia. In 2017-18 the ACT economy grew by 4.0 per cent, the highest growth rate of any jurisdiction in Australia. This brought real economic growth over the three years to June 2018 to 12 per cent.

The Australian Capital Territory (ACT), known as the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) until 1938, is a federal territory of Australia containing the Australian capital city of Canberra and some surrounding townships. It is located in the south-east of the country and is an enclave within the state of New South Wales. Founded after Federation as the seat of government for the new nation, all important institutions of the Australian federal government are centred in the territory.

Le Territoire de la capitale australienne (, abrégé en ACT) est le territoire sur lequel est située la capitale fédérale australienne, Canberra. Enclavé dans le sud-est de la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud, il est le plus petit mais aussi le plus densément peuplé des territoires autonomes australiens.