History.

The Cree have lived in the region for many centuries but were nomadic. In 1803, the Hudson's Bay Company founded Fort George, a trading post on the north shore which was relocated to the largest island in the mouth of La Grande River in 1837. Fort George became a permanent village as the local Cree population abandoned their nomadic way of life in the early 20th century and settled nearby. In 1940, its population was about 750 and grew to almost 2,000 in 1980.  In the mid 1970s, the construction of the James Bay hydro-electric project began, diverting upstream rivers into La Grande watershed, increasing its flow significantly, resulting in erosion of Fort George Island (also called Governor's Island) and disruption to the formation of a solid ice cover in winter. In response, the Quebec Government built a new community on the mainland's south shore, relocating the population and some 200 houses to the new site in 1981. The village was renamed Chisasibi (official name: Cree Nation of Chisasibi). At the same time, the Fort George Relocation Corporation was formed to oversee the relocation.

The Cree Nation of Chisasibi.

Chisasibi is the most northern Cree village accessible by road, and the northernmost community with year-round road access in eastern North America. A paved road, running from Radisson, and parallel to the Grand River, connects Chisasibi to the James Bay Road (French: "Route de la Baie James"). The James Bay Road (formerly part of Route 109) was built from 1971 to 1974 as part of the James Bay hydroelectric project and connects Matagami to Radisson. Chisasibi Airport is located just west of the village and Air Creebec operates scheduled service from this airport. Though this is the most northern village, this is not where the road ends. From LG-1 (La Grande-1 generating station), the road continues north to a location called Longue Pointe (Long Point). It is the farthest one can go by road east of the Hudson Bay.  Many Cree in Chisasibi engage in hunting, trapping, and fishing activities but all catch is meant for local consumption. Other economic activity includes local services (health care and education), employment by Hydro-Québec and some hospitality services. An elected Chief and Council help administer the Cree Nation of Chisasibi Office.  Other Cree villages near Chisasibi are Whapmagoostui, to the north in Nunavik, on the eastern shore of Hudson Bay near the Northern village of Kuujjuarapik, and Wemindji, about to the south.

Demographics.

The population of Chisasibi comprises approximately 4,000 Cree, about 250 Inuit, and 300 non-native people. Statistics Canada's 2011 Census shows a total population of 4,484. 2006 Census shows the median age of the population is 24.1 years old, the percentage of the population aged 15 and over is 66.2, and the total number of census families was 960.  Total private dwellings (excluding seasonal cottages): 788 (total: 885)

Languages.

Cree and Inuit are spoken as the first language in Chisasibi, in addition to English, as a primary language for official dealings. Only 7.8% of the residents of Chisasibi speak one or both of the official languages as a mother tongue. There has been criticism of the Quebec language policy with respect to native languages, particularly Cree, many related to Hydro-Québec's hydroelectric dam project in the James Bay region.  Mother tongues:

Education.

The Cree School Board operates Waapinichikush Elementary School and the James Bay Eeyou School (JBES; ; ), a high school. Eeyou opened in 1980. Previously the school provided boarding services for high school students for students from other villages of the James Bay region: Eastmain, Whapmagoostui, and Wemindji as at the time all high school classes in the region were in Chisasibi. Eeyou has 398 students.

Climate.

Chisasibi has a subarctic climate (Köppen "Dfc"), typical of the central latitudes of Quebec, with very cold and snowy winters and mild, rainy summers.

Chisasibi ( meaning Great River) is a village on the eastern shore of James Bay, in the Eeyou Istchee equivalent territory (ET) in northern Quebec, Canada. It is situated on the south shore of La Grande River (the Grand River), less than from the river's mouth. Chisasibi is one of nine Cree villages in the region, and is a member of the Grand Council of the Crees of Quebec. The territory surrounding Chisasibi is part of the Eeyou Istchee James Bay Territory, of which parts are jointly managed by the municipalities of the Jamésie TE and the Cree Regional Authority of the Eeyou Istchee TE.

Chisasibi (cri : ᒋ<unk>ᓯᐱ) est une terre réservée crie pour la Nation crie de Chisasibi située à l'est de la baie James dans le territoire d'Eeyou Istchee dans le Nord-du-Québec au Canada. Il s'agit du lieu habité le plus septentrional au Québec accessible par route.


Design and description.

The "Apollo"-class cruisers were enlarged versions of the preceding. "Rainbow" displaced, which made the ship heavier than some of her sister ships. This was due to being among the ten vessels in the class sheathed in wood and copper for tropical service. This added to their displacement. The "Apollo"-class cruisers were long between perpendiculars and overall. Sheathed vessels had a beam of and a draught of. The cruisers were propelled by a two shaft, two-cylinder triple expansion engine powered by steam from three double-ended and two single-ended boilers creating at natural draught and at forced draught. This gave the cruisers a maximum speed of at natural draught and at forced draught. The "Apollo" class carried of coal for fuel. With full bunkers of coal, the cruisers had a range of at.  "Rainbow"s main armament was two single-mounted QF guns placed along the centreline of the forecastle and poop deck. This was augmented by six QF guns placed three on each side of the upper deck amidships. The secondary armament of eight QF 6-pounder (57 mm) guns were all situated on the upper deck with four placed between the 4.7-inch guns amidships, two placed forward and aft firing through embrasured ports. The cruisers were also fitted with four torpedo tubes, of which three were installed on the upper deck, two broadside abreast the mainmast and one in the bow. The fourth torpedo tube was situated in the stern on the main deck. The "Apollo" class had a armoured deck where flat and armoured deck where sloped. The cruisers had a armoured glacis over the hatch where the engine cylinders projected above the deck. The conning tower had of armour and the gun shields.

Service history.

Royal Navy.

"Rainbow" was ordered as part of the Naval Defence Act of 1889. The vessel's keel was laid down by Palmers at Hebburn-On-Tyne in England on 30 December 1889. The cruiser was launched on 25 March 1891 and entered service in 1892, completing in January 1893.  "Rainbow" served on the China Station in Hong Kong from 1895 to 1898 and in Malta from 1898 to 1899. She had an operating cost that was deemed excessive and between 1900 and 1909, saw very little service. Most of her operations at this time were closer to England. On 17 December 1901 she was commissioned at Devonport by Captain Thomas Young Greet for service in the cruiser squadron as an additional ship in home waters. She arrived back at Devonport from a tour of the Mediterranean with the squadron in April 1902, and took part in the fleet review held at Spithead on 16 August 1902 for the coronation of King Edward VII. Captain Charles Delabere Granville was appointed in command on 20 August 1902, and visited Souda Bay, Crete with other ships of the squadron for combined manoeuvres the following month. In October 1902 she was order back to Devonport for a refit. During the following years, she saw a severe reduction in fleet support due to her high operating cost, resulting in only minor modernization. Her crew rotation at this time was used as a training cycle. In 1904, the cruiser was restricted to harbour duty. In early 1909, the Admiralty ordered her decommissioned and placed on the inactive list.

Royal Canadian Navy.

"Rainbow" was presented to Canada in 1910, and was recommissioned HMCS "Rainbow" on 4 August. She and were purchased from the Admiralty to be used as training ships at Royal Naval College of Canada in Halifax, Nova Scotia. During discussions on the type of cruisers to be sent to Canada, the Admiralty believed that the "Apollo"-class cruiser was the right choice. Canada paid $225,000 to acquire "Rainbow", using outstanding money from the Marine and Fisheries Department. Before departing Great Britain, the ships required alterations to make them suitable for training. This required new heating systems, an up-to-date galley, the latest in Marconi wireless, the enlargement of the cadet gunroom and principal messes and the removal of the obsolete secondary armament.  After commissioning, "Rainbow" was assigned to the west coast of Canada and was the first Canadian ship to sail around South America by the Strait of Magellan. After a 12-week passage of over the cruiser arrived at Esquimalt, British Columbia on 7 November 1910. However, after commissioning, the status of the Canadian vessels and their ability to operate without direction from the Admiralty kept the new ships within coastal waters. This limited "Rainbow" to fisheries patrols until the matter was settled. In 1911, the cruiser had her 6-pounder guns removed and replaced with QF 12-pounder 12 cwt naval guns. Her service was quiet on the west coast, performing ceremonial duties, training and coastal fisheries patrol, notably apprehending the American fishing schooner "Edrie" in February 1913 for illegal fishing. When "Niobe" was laid up in 1913, her crew was sent west to fill out "Rainbow"s complement. In July 1914, "Rainbow" was called to Vancouver to assist with an international incident that was unfolding. "Komagata Maru", a Japanese merchant ship filled with Sikh immigrants from India, challenged Canada's immigration law, designed to prevent immigration from South Asia. The ship's passengers were not permitted to disembark even though they were British subjects and the ship had sat in Vancouver harbour for two months. After the local authorities were rebuffed in their attempts to make the ship leave, "Rainbow" was ordered to intervene. After some discussion with the passengers, who had taken over the vessel, those aboard "Komagata Maru" agreed to leave Vancouver only when supplies for the ship were provided. "Komagata Maru" sailed from Vancouver on 23 July, escorted by "Rainbow". Twenty of the passengers were killed upon returning to Budge Budge, India, after they resisted an attempt to forcibly return them to Punjab.  When the First World War broke out, "Rainbow" was sent to cover the withdrawal of the British sloops, and, which had been engaged protecting British citizens during civil unrest in Mexico. She was the largest armed ship the Allies had at the time in the western Pacific Ocean and was ordered to find and engage ships of the Imperial German Navy in the Pacific Ocean; in particular the light cruisers and. "Rainbow" never met either of these ships, although she missed "Leipzig" by only a day at San Francisco. The vessel remained the only source of protection for shipping in western North America until the arrival of the Japanese armoured cruiser. Following the destruction of the German Pacific Fleet at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, the greatest threat to shipping in Pacific was considered to be armed German raiders and "Rainbow" was considered to be a match for all but the fastest. However, in 1915, her patrols were shortened due to the lack of a collier to refuel "Rainbow" while out on patrol.  In early 1916, "Rainbow" was still patrolling the west coast of North America, performing reconnaissance on German shipping. On 23 April 1916, she seized the German-owned but American-flagged schooner "Oregon" and then followed that up by seizing the Mexican-flagged schooner "Leonor" on 2 May. The cruiser returned to Esquimalt with the prizes in tow on 30 May. In 1916 and early 1917, "Rainbow" was used to transport $140,000,000 in Russian gold bullion (valued in 1917 Canadian dollars), between Esquimalt and Vancouver. This money was placed in trust with Canada by the Russian government for protection due to the impending Russian revolution.  The Royal Canadian Navy found that the cost of operating "Rainbow" was using up too much of the West Coast naval operations budget, and the crew of "Rainbow" were sorely needed on the Atlantic coast for the fight against the U-boats. "Rainbow" was decommissioned and deactivated on 8 May 1917, her crew sent east. On 5 July she was recommissioned in Esquimalt as a depot ship. She served in this capacity until 1 June 1920, when she was sold for scrap to a Seattle shipbroker.

HMCS "Rainbow was an protected cruiser built for Great Britain's Royal Navy as HMS "Rainbow entering service in 1892. "Rainbow" saw time in Asian waters before being placed in reserve in 1909. In 1910 the cruiser was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy for service on the west coast. At the outbreak of the First World War, "Rainbow" was the only major Commonwealth warship on the western coast of North America. Due to age, the cruiser was taken out of service in 1917 and sold for scrap in 1920 and broken up.

Le NCSM "Rainbow" est un croiseur protégé de la classe Apollo qui servit dans la "Royal Navy" puis dans la marine royale canadienne. Avec le NCSM "Niobe", il s'agit de l'un des deux premiers navires de combat de l'histoire militaire canadienne.


Taxonomy.

The genus Seiurus is currently treated as monotypic, containing only the ovenbird; it is genetically distinct from all other species in the family Parulidae, probably the first genus to evolve separately from the rest of the family.  Before the recent genetic studies were carried out, the waterthrushes were also included in "Seiurus"; these are now treated separately in the genus "Parkesia" as they are not very closely related to the ovenbird.  The species name "aurocapilla" is a noun phrase, so the original spelling is retained, not changed according to the gender of the genus name; Linnaeus originally named it "Motacilla aurocapilla", and the ending is not changed to -"us" as commonly cited in the past. Etymologically "aurocapilla" comes from Latin and means "golden haired" and "Seiurus" is from Ancient Greek "seiō", "to shake", and "oura", "tail".

Description.

Ovenbirds are large wood warblers and may sometimes be confused by the untrained for a thrush. Adults measure long and span across the wings. They weigh on average, with a range of. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is, the tail is, the bill is and the tarsus is. They tend to be heavier in winter and particularly at the start of their migration. They have olive-brown upperparts and white underparts heavily streaked with black; the flanks have an olive hue. A white ring surrounds the eyes, and a black stripe runs below the cheek. They have a line of orange feathers with olive-green tips running along the top of their head, bordered on each side with blackish-brown. The orange feathers can be erected to form a small crest. The eyes and the upper part of the thin pointed beak are dark, while the lower beak is horn-colored and the legs and feet are pinkish.  Males and females look alike. Immature birds have tawny fringes to the tertiary remiges and sometimes buff-tipped outer primary wing coverts. Most conspicuously, the olive-green tips of the crown feathers, which are hardly visible in adult birds, are far larger in extent in immatures and cover the orange crown-stripe almost or completely.  The main song of the ovenbird is a series of strident, relatively low-pitched, bisyallabic motives repeated without pause about eight times and increasing in volume. Usually, the second syllable in each motive is sharply accented: ""chur-tee’ chur-tee’ chur-tee’ chur-tee’ chur-TEE chur-TEE chur-TEE!"" Male ovenbirds utter a sweet chattering song in the air at twilight, after the manner of the skylark, incorporating portions of the main song into a jumble of sputtering notes and mimicry as they dive back to earth. The call is a variably pitched, sharp ""chik!"" Some variations recall the common call note of a downy woodpecker. If the bird is excited, it may repeat this call several times. The fight call is a high, rising "siiii".

Range and ecology.

Their breeding habitats are mature deciduous and mixed forests, especially sites with little undergrowth, across Canada and the eastern United States. For foraging, it prefers woodland with abundant undergrowth of shrubs; essentially, it thrives best in a mix of primary and secondary forest. Ovenbirds migrate to the southeastern United States, the Caribbean, and from Mexico to northern South America. The birds are territorial all year round, occurring either singly or (in the breeding season) as mated pairs, for a short time accompanied by their young. During migration, they tend to travel in larger groups however, dispersing again once they reach their destination.  In winter, they dwell mainly in lowlands, but may ascend up to ASL e.g. in Costa Rica. The first migrants leave in late August and appear on the wintering grounds as early as September, with successive waves arriving until late October or so. They depart again to breed between late March and early May, arriving on the breeding grounds throughout April and May. Migration times do not seem to have changed much over the course of the 20th century.  This bird seems just capable of crossing the Atlantic, as there have been a handful of records in Norway, Ireland and Great Britain. However, half of the six finds were of dead birds. A live ovenbird on St Mary's, Isles of Scilly in October 2004 was in bad condition, and died despite being taken into care.  Ovenbirds forage on the ground in dead leaves, sometimes hovering or catching insects in flight. This bird frequently tilts its tail up and bobs its head while walking; at rest, the tail may be flicked up and slowly lowered again, and alarmed birds flick the tail frequently from a half-raised position. These birds mainly eat terrestrial arthropods and snails, and also include fruit in their diet during winter.  The nest, referred to as the "oven" (which gives the bird its name), is a domed structure placed on the ground, woven from vegetation, and containing a side entrance. The female usually lays 4-5 eggs speckled with brown or gray. Only the female incubates, for 11-14 days. Young are altricial and are fed by both parents. First flight is at 8-11 days of age.  The placement of the nest on the ground makes predation by snakes, red squirrels, and chipmunks ("Tamias") a greater concern than for tree-nesting birds. Chipmunks have been known to burrow directly into the nest to eat the young birds. The female can perform a distraction display, simulating a crippled bird, when a potential predator is in the vicinity of the nest.  The ovenbird is vulnerable to nest parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird ("Molothrus ater"), which is becoming more plentiful in some areas. However, the ovenbirds' numbers appear to be remaining stable. Altogether, it is not considered a threatened species by the IUCN.

In literature.

It is the subject of a poem by Robert Frost, "The Oven Bird", published in his poetry collection "Mountain Interval" in 1916. Robert Bly also makes reference to "the nimble oven bird" in his short poem "The Slim Fir Seeds."

The ovenbird ("Seiurus aurocapilla") is a small songbird of the New World warbler family (Parulidae). This migratory bird breeds in eastern North America and winters in Central America, many Caribbean islands, Florida and northern Venezuela.

La Paruline couronnée ("Seiurus aurocapilla", synonyme "Seiurus aurocapillus") est une espèce de passereau appartenant à la famille des Parulidae. C'est la seule espèce du genre Seiurus.


Biography.

Early life.

Joseph-Marie Timon-David was born on January 29, 1823 in Marseille, into a wealthy and deeply Christian family, which had experienced the trials of the French Revolution. His father spent much of Joseph's youth abroad. Joseph was the fifth child of the family, an endearing, sensitive, imaginative, willing, intelligent and intuitive boy. His mother educated him with tact and patience, which is not the case for all the teachers to whom he is entrusted during his childhood. The memory of their harsh methods of education will remain with him.  In 1833 his father died; then cholera struck Marseille. In 1835, his mother decided to send him to study at the Jesuit Collège Saint-Michel in Friborg, Switzerland. Friborg makes a deep impression on him. There he meets religious teachers in education and immerses himself in their educational methods. For him, Collège Saint Michel will be "the prototype of a house of education".

Priesthood.

In 1842, Bishop Eugene de Mazenod sent Timon-David to Paris to the seminary of Saint Sulpice. At St. Sulpice Joseph will become ultramontane, a fervent defender of the Pope, in reaction to the current Gallicanism. There he meets Dom Guéranger, restorer of Solesmes Abbey, who will open to him the meaning and beauty of the liturgy.  Shortly before his ordination, providential meetings in Paris and Marseilles made him aware of the spiritual needs of the working class. He was ordained as a Roman Catholic priest in June 1846. On June 29, 1846, during his first Mass, he committed himself to the service of the poor.  His parishioners were mostly working-class youths. His style was festive.  Timon-David devotes the next twenty-three years to the apostolate of young workers. Gradually, through painful and unsuccessful attempts, he decided to adopt the methods a priest of Marseille, Father Jean-Joseph Allemand, had applied to train the youth of the bourgeoisie; a small religious congregation was at the service of his work.  With his training in Freiburg and Saint Sulpice, on November 1, 1847, Timon-David opened, with the collaboration of Jean Joseph Allemand's Institute of Youth Work, "the work of the working class youth". Under the guidance of his spiritual advisor, Father John of the Sacred Heart, Timon-David gives it his personal stamp, calling it the "Work of the Sacred Heart". Devotion to the Sacred Heart will characterize Timon-David's life.

Foundation of the Congregation.

Seeing the quality and scope of what was being accomplished, Bishop Eugene de Mazenod urges Father Timon-David to found a religious congregation in the service of the work. Father Timon does not believe himself capable of it. But, on November 20, 1852, he founded the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in Marseille. The bishop recognizes both the work and the religious community, and gives them as patron the Sacred Heart of Jesus. The community will experience some difficult tests. It was not until 1859 that the community really began to exist. The work, meanwhile, continues and grow. In 1857, Bishop Mazenod named Abbé Timon-David a canon.  1859 is a pivotal year for Timon-David. The community takes shape and stabilizes. He and his method of direction of the works of youth begin to be known. In France the concern to evangelize young workers fascinates many priests. Timon is pressed to publish an account of his methods. From that moment until the end of his life, many will come from all over France, to observe his approach. Timon, while always giving priority to the young people of his house and to his community, will travel around France to explain his Method; he will multiply his writings; he will always be the promoter of a frankly Christian education that is not afraid to invite young people to go as far as possible on the path of holiness.  In 1864 he opened, annexed to the work, the School of the Sacred Heart to widen the educative influence of the work. Inspired by Saint Joseph Calasanz, whose biography he will write, he opens a new house in Marseille. However, the small community will face ten years of difficulties with Mazenod's successors. On July 8, 1876, recognition of the Congregation as a clerical Congregation of pontifical right will put an end to all these trials.

Death.

Timon continues all his work with his anti-revolutionary royalist ideas. He opens a house in Aix, and one in Beziers. The community is growing little. When he dies on April 10, 1891, in his native Marseille, he knows the work of his life can continue. Until the end, despite all the hassle and notoriety, he remained faithful to his vow of servitude to working class youth.  Avenue Timon-David located in the 13th arrondissement of Marseille is named after him.

Writings.

He was the author of a hagiography (biography) of St. Joseph Calasanctius (Marseille, 1883), and "Method of direction of youth works: patronages, circles, schools, small seminars, etc. (1859-1875)", 3rd ed. Marseille: Impr. E. Court-Payen, 1892.

Father Joseph-Marie Timon-David (1823-1891) was a French priest. He was the founder of the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus ("Congrégation du Sacré-Coeur de Jésus" in French, also known after him as the Timon David Fathers, abbreviation S.C.J.).

Joseph-Marie Timon-David (né le à Marseille et mort le dans la même ville) est un prêtre catholique français. Ému par la misère spirituelle et humaine des jeunes ouvriers il se sent poussé à se consacrer entièrement à leur éducation chrétienne à travers les loisirs et une formation spirituelle sérieuse et adaptée. « "Ici on joue, ici on prie" », telle sera la présentation de son « "Œuvre de Jeunesse" » et de son « "École" ».


History.

Virginia was laid out in 1892, and named after Virginia, the native state of a large share of the lumbermen in the area at that time. A post office has been in operation at Virginia since 1893. Virginia was incorporated in February 1895. It was a logging community first, then it was developed as an iron mining community. The mines in the Virginia area were prosperous and setting new records consistently by the late 1890s. The main population boom began after mining camps were built for entrepreneurs and financiers including Andrew Carnegie, Leonidas Merritt, Jay Cooke, John D. Rockefeller, William J. Olcott, James J. Hill, and others. With the use of diamond drills, mules, and a massive labor force, the mines were able to move millions of tons per year and ship them out of the Twin Ports of Duluth and Superior, as well as Two Harbors.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of ; is land and is water. Lakes in Virginia include Silver Lake and Bailey Lake. The area was originally named "Qeechaquepagem" by an Ojibwe tribe, which roughly means “lake of the north birds”.  Virginia is part of the Quad Cities, which also include nearby Eveleth, Gilbert, and Mountain Iron.

Economy.

Virginia is located on the Mesabi Range, one of the sub-regions within Minnesota's Iron Range. Virginia is considered the commerce center of the Mesabi Range. Virginia serves as a shopping, industrial, educational, and medical hub for the surrounding communities.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 8,712 people, 4,242 households, and 2,019 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 4,738 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 94.7% White, 0.6% African American, 1.0% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.5% of the population.  There were 4,242 households of which 21.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.7% were married couples living together, 12.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 52.4% were non-families. 46.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.95 and the average family size was 2.74.  The median age in the city was 44.9 years. 18.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.8% were from 25 to 44; 27.9% were from 45 to 64; and 22% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.9% male and 52.1% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 9,157 people, 4,333 households, and 2,270 families living in the city. The population density was 486.1 people per square mile (187.7/km2). There were 4,692 housing units at an average density of 249.1 per square mile (96.2/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 95.17% White, 0.46% African American, 2.24% Native American, 0.55% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.17% from other races, and 1.40% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.80% of the population. 21.4% were of Finnish, 13.3% German, 9.9% Norwegian, 8.8% Italian, and 7.8% Swedish ancestry.  There were 4,333 households out of which 22.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.4% were married couples living together, 10.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 47.6% were non-families. 42.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 19.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.00 and the average family size was 2.73.  In the city, the population was spread out with 19.0% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 25.0% from 25 to 44, 23.3% from 45 to 64, and 23.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.9 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $28,873, and the median income for a family was $43,419. Males had a median income of $38,834 versus $22,473 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,776. About 10.6% of families and 15.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.6% of those under age 18 and 10.0% of those age 65 or over.

Arts and culture.

Virginia is the home of the Land of the Loon festival, an annual event in June.

Parks and recreation.

Olcott Park.

"Olcott Park" is a city park in Virginia. It has a fountain in the northern part of the park, built in 1937. Also, there is a bandstand in the center, used mainly for city band performances. To the south, it borders Parkview Learning Center (see education), to the east 9th Avenue West, to the north 9th Street North, and to the west Greenwood Cemetery. Olcott Park is also home to the Olcott Park Greenhouse. Olcott Park is named after William J. Olcott who headed the Oliver Iron Mining Company, which was the largest mining company on the Iron Range for decades.

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Virginia is a regional transportation hub within the Mesabi Range. Major roadways include U.S. Highway 53, U.S. Highway 169, and State Highway 135 (MN 135). Other main routes include 2nd Avenue West, 12th Avenue West, 13th Street South, 8th Street South, and 9th Street North. The downtown area of Virginia is centered along Chestnut Street.

Education.

The public high school is Virginia High School, and the public elementary schools are Parkview Learning Center (early childhood programs through second grade) and Roosevelt Elementary (grades three through six). The higher education institution for the city is Mesabi Range Community and Technical College. The Virginia Public Library is also featured as an educational place for people of all ages. Marquette Catholic School is a private elementary school operated by the Duluth Diocese. Northland Learning Center, a cooperative alternative school for students with disciplinary problems or other special circumstances, operates in the former James Madison Elementary School, which is still owned by ISD No. 706.

Media.

Television.

Stations serving Virginia are received from the Duluth television market:

Climate.

The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfb" (Warm Summer Continental Climate). Summers are warm, sometimes hot, and winters are severely cold.

Virginia is a city in Saint Louis County, Minnesota, United States, on the Mesabi Iron Range. The population was 8,712 at the 2010 census. According to a water tower in the middle of town, the city's nickname is the "Queen City", or "Queen City of the North". Virginia ranks among the top ten most dangerous cities in Minnesota when controlling for population size.

Virginia est une ville du comté de Saint Louis, dans l’État du Minnesota, aux États-Unis. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


Playing career.

Club career.

Tottenham Hotspur.

Bunjevčević joined Tottenham Hotspur in May 2001 from Red Star Belgrade for a reported fee of £5 million. He made his Premier League debut on 18 August against Aston Villa in a 0–0 draw. In September of the 2001-02 season Tottenham played Chelsea in the league and Bunjevčević suffered a fractured cheekbone which left him out of the squad till December.  Starting only in League Cup matches, during the 2004-05 season he scored his only goals (two) for the club (in the 6–0 away defeat of Oldham Athletic on 22 September in the competition, and a late equaliser in the 4–3 away win against Bolton Wanderers on 29 October that took the game into extra time). He was released on 26 May 2006 after five years at White Hart Lane and making a total of 58 appearances in all competitions.

ADO Den Haag.

After release by Tottenham, Bunjevčević joined Dutch outfit ADO Den Haag. He played at the club for one season before retiring.

International career.

Bunjevčević was a member of the FR Yugoslavia side at the UEFA Euro 2000 but he did not appear in any matches. In total, he collected sixteen caps between 1998 and 2003 for the national side.

Administrative career.

At the beginning of March 2008 he was named as Red Star Belgrade's sporting director, replacing Stevan Stojanović in the position. Bunjevčević worked at the post under club president Toplica Spasojević. On 2 September 2008 Bunjevčević left Red Star Belgrade along with club president Spasojević.  By December 2014, it had been 3 years since he became the chairman of FK Zemun.  In May 2016, Bunjevčević was elected into an executive board of the Football Association of Serbia under a new president, Slaviša Kokeza.  He became sport director of the association, managing among others the appointment of the national team coach.

Personal life.

His younger brother Mirko was also a footballer.

Death.

On 20 May 2018, Bunjevčević suffered an aneurysm followed by a stroke and had to undergo emergency surgery. While in hospital care, the Serbian national team at the FIFA World Cup beat Costa Rica 1-0, and the team captain and only scorer Aleksandar Kolarov dedicated the goal and the win to Bunjevčević. On 28 June 2018, Bunjevčević died at the age of 45 after over a month in a coma.

Goran Bunjevčević (, ; 17 February 1973 – 28 June 2018) was a Serbian footballer who played as a defender in Serbia, England and the Netherlands.

Goran Bunjevčević (en serbe cyrillique : Горан Буњевчевић), né le à Karlovac (Yougoslavie "aujourd'hui en" Croatie) et mort le à Belgrade (Serbie), est un footballeur serbe, international yougoslave, qui évoluait au poste de défenseur.


Plot.

A New York City police detective named Jim Dunbar and his partner are ambushed by a gunman with an AK-47. Three other officers are out of ammunition, and Dunbar's partner is frozen in fear. Dunbar takes action but also takes a bullet leaving him blind. He sues the police force and is allowed to keep his job despite his blindness. He is partnered with Detective Karen Bettancourt who doubts his ability to effectively do his job. He also must deal with self-doubt and his wife Christie's doubts by seeing a psychiatrist.

Production.

"Blind Justice" is a co-production of Steven Bochco Productions and Paramount Television. In 2003 during early pre-production on the then-untitled series Bochco said of "Blind Justice", "it ain't like any cop show you've ever seen before." Bochco said he got the idea for the series from seeing The Blind Boys of Alabama at a concert in Hollywood and noticing how they came on stage in a line, each holding on to the shoulder of the man in front of him. On May 18, 2004 ABC announced that they had ordered "Blind Justice" as a mid-season replacement to fill the spot in their scheduled left by "NYPD Blue" which was to end part way through the 2004-05 television season. The start of production on the series in Los Angeles was announced on October 25, 2004.  The main setting of the series is the police precinct in New York City's Chinatown. Exterior shots were filmed at a precinct in Brooklyn. The pilot was filmed in part on location in New York and on the stages of 20th Century Fox and on the streets of Los Angeles. The pilot episode had its first public screening in mid-January, 2005 at the Mall of America in Minneapolis, Minnesota as part of ABC's attempt to promote their mid-season schedule. The other shows premiering were "Grey's Anatomy", "Eyes", "Supernanny", and "Jake in Progress".  Kramer Morgenthau was the cinematographer for the pilot and together with director Gary Fleder established the basic visual presentation of "Blind Justice". For the series Bochco employed two cinematographers, Jeff Jur and Ric Bota, who worked on alternate episodes to allow for more time to visually develop the individual episodes. "Blind Justice" was the first scripted series to be broadcast on ABC with video description for the visually impaired, where available (FCC regulations for Descriptive Video Service would not come into force for seven more years).

Reception.

Kevin D. Thompson of Cox News Service said "Blind Justice" is "worth your attention mostly because of Ron Eldard's standout performance as Dunbar", a character whom he described as "one of TV's most intriguing new characters." Vikki Ortiz of the "Milwaukee Journal Sentinel" watched the premiere with members of the Badger Association of the Blind and Visually Impaired in Milwaukee and found that generally they considered it a realistic portrayal of what it is like to be blind, citing use of proper commands being given to his guide dog and having Detective Bettancourt lead him with her arm. Ortiz mentioned that several people did say that it was unrealistic that he would be allowed to carry a gun. In her review of the pilot Alessandra Stanley of "The New York Times" found that "Blind Justice" "is at its best when portraying how people react to the character Jim Dunbar". Stanley goes on to say in her review that "the scenes at the precinct when he first returns to work are intelligently and delicately written. His heroism, and the groundbreaking lawsuit he filed, turned him into a celebrity cop, and his colleagues on the force greet him with graceless courtesy and palpable resentment. Dunbar is blind, but in a previous generation, he could have been black or female and encountered a similar kind of churlishness."  Robert Bianco of "USA Today" was less receptive to "Blind Justice". Bianco wrote a column solely on concepts worse than "Blind Justice", of which he said, "As bad ideas go, Blind Justice's gun-toting blind guy isn't even a patch on some of the truly awful concepts that have made it to series." Matthew Gilbert of "The Boston Globe" said Detective Dunbar "might as well be wearing a note pinned to his back reading 'I have courage, integrity, and kids really like me.'" Gilbert goes on to say that "Blind Justice" "settles for the sort of nobler than-thou portrayal that marred the final seasons of Bochco's "NYPD Blue"." He concludes his review by saying, "In the episodes sent to critics, the murder suspects are straight out of central casting, from the wigged-out serial killer to the abusive dad. Ultimately, they seem to be there merely to provide our knight in shining armor a few hard-to-miss targets." Samantha Force of "The Michigan Daily" said that the idea of a disabled cop returning to work was believable but that a blind cop can carry a loaded gun simply by signing a liability waiver is ridiculous. Force concedes that the show does point out its own flaws with the premise by having Dunbar's coworkers express concerns about his ability to use his gun if the need arose. Force concluded her review by saying, "this show is a good watch if the viewer is able to suspend their disbelief and take the premise at face value. For those viewers out there who want their dosage of realism in drama, "Blind Justice" is not the pill for you."

Episodes.

"Blind Justice" was broadcast on Tuesdays at 10:00 pm on ABC. The series finale was shown on the west coast June 21, 2005, after game 6 of the 2005 NBA Finals. As it was a regional broadcast there are no national ratings available for the episode. The series briefly had a syndicated run on Sleuth Channel in 2009.

Blind Justice is an American crime drama television series created by Steven Bochco about a blind New York City police detective. It was introduced mid-season on March 8, 2005, to fill the time slot left by Bochco's highly successful "NYPD Blue", which had just aired its final episode after a 12-year run. The show ran for only one season, with 13 episodes broadcast.

Blind Justice est une série télévisée américaine en 13 épisodes de 42 minutes, créée par Steven Bochco et diffusée entre le et le sur le réseau ABC.


Taxonomy.

"Loxodonte" was proposed as the generic name for African elephants by Georges Cuvier in 1824. This name refers to the lozenge-shaped enamel of the molar teeth, which differs significantly from the shape of the Asian elephant's molar enamel. "Loxodonte" was latinized to "Loxodonta" by an anonymous author in 1827.  "Elephas" ("Loxodonta") "cyclotis" was the scientific name proposed by Paul Matschie in 1900 who described the skulls of a female and a male specimen collected by the Sanaga River in southern Cameroon.

Phylogeny.

The African forest elephant was long considered to be a subspecies of the African elephant, together with the African bush elephant. Morphological and DNA analysis showed that they are two distinct species.  The taxonomic status of the African pygmy elephant ("Loxodonta pumilio") was uncertain for a long time. Phylogenetic analysis of the mitochondrial genome of nine specimens from museum collections indicates that it is an African forest elephant whose diminutive size or early maturity is due to environmental conditions.  Phylogenetic analysis of nuclear DNA of African bush and forest elephants, Asian elephant, woolly mammoth and American mastodon revealed that the African forest elephant and African bush elephant form a sister group that genetically diverged at least 1.9 million years ago. They are therefore considered distinct species. Gene flow between the two species might have occurred after the split, though. Analysis of ancient DNA from living and extinct elephantids indicates that the African forest elephant is one of three ancestors of the straight-tusked elephant ("Palaeoloxodon antiquus").

Characteristics.

The African forest elephant has a grey skin, which looks yellow to reddish after wallowing. It is sparsely covered with black coarse hair, which is long around the tip of the tail. The length of the tail varies between individuals from half the height of the rump to almost touching ground. It has five toenails on the fore foot and four on the hind foot. Its oval-shaped ears have small elliptical-shaped tips. Its large ears help to reduce body heat; flapping them creates air currents and exposes the ears' inner sides where large blood vessels increase heat loss during hot weather. Its back is nearly straight. Its tusks are straight and point downwards.

Size.

Bulls reach a shoulder height of. Females are smaller at about tall at the shoulder. They reach a weight of. Foot print size ranges from.

Trunk.

The tip of the trunk of African elephants has two finger-like processes. The trunk is a prehensile elongation of its upper lip and nose. This highly sensitive organ is innervated primarily by the trigeminal nerve, and thought to be manipulated by about 40–60,000 muscles. Because of this muscular structure, the trunk is so strong that elephants can use it for lifting about 3% of their own body weight. They use it for smelling, touching, feeding, drinking, dusting, producing sounds, loading, defending and attacking.

Tusks and molars.

The African forest elephant's tusks are straight and point downwards. Both male and female African elephants have tusks that grow from deciduous teeth called tushes, which are replaced by tusks when calves are about one year old. Tusks are composed of dentin, which forms small diamond-shaped structures in the tusk's center that become larger at its periphery. A conical layer on their tips consisting of tooth enamel is usually worn off when the elephant is five years old.  The African forest elephant has pink tusks, which are thinner and harder than the tusks of the African bush elephant. The length and diameter vary between individuals. Tusks of bulls grow throughout life, tusks of cows cease growing when they are sexually mature. They use their tusks for marking and debarking trees, digging for roots, minerals and water, to rest and protect the trunk, and also for defense and attack.  The tusks are used to push through the dense undergrowth of their habitat. Their tusks can grow to about long and can weigh between.

Distribution and habitat.

The African forest elephant is distributed in the evergreen moist deciduous Upper Guinean forests in Ivory Coast and Ghana. Populations in Central Africa range in large contiguous rainforest tracts from Cameroon to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The largest stable population lives in Gabon.

Behaviour and ecology.

The African forest elephant lives in family groups. Groups observed in the rain forest of Gabon's Lopé National Park between 1984 and 1991 comprised between three and eight individuals. Groups of up to 20 individuals were observed in the Dzanga-Sangha Complex of Protected Areas, comprising adult cows, their daughters and subadult sons. Family members look after calves together, called allomothering. Once young bulls reach sexual maturity, they separate from the family group and form loose bachelor groups for a few days, but usually stay alone. Adult bulls associate with family groups only during the mating season. Family groups travel about per day and move in a home range of up to. Their seasonal movement is related to the availability of ripe fruits in Primary Rainforests. They use a complex network of permanent trails that pass through stands of fruit trees and connect forest clearings with mineral licks.  In Odzala-Kokoua National Park, groups were observed to frequently meet at forest clearings indicating a fission–fusion society. They stayed longer when other groups were also present. Smaller groups joined large groups, and bulls joined family units.

Diet.

The African forest elephant is an herbivore. Elephants observed in Lopé National Park fed mostly tree bark and leaves, and at least 72 different fruits. To supplement their diet with minerals, they congregate at mineral-rich waterholes and mineral licks.  Elephant dung piles collected in Kahuzi-Biéga National Park contained seeds and fruit remains of "Omphalocarpum mortehanii", junglesop ("Anonidium mannii"), "Antrocaryon nannanii", "Klainedoxa gabonensis", "Treculia africana", "Tetrapleura tetraptera", "Uapaca guineensis", "Autranella congolensis", "Gambeya africana" and "G. lacourtiana", "Mammea africana", "Cissus dinklagei", and "Grewia midlbrandii". Dung piles collected in a lowland rain forest in the northern Republic of Congo contained seeds of at least 96 plant species, with a minimum of 30 intact seeds and up to 1102 large seeds of more than in a single pile. Based on the analysis of 855 dung piles, it has been estimated that African forest elephants disperse a daily mean of 346 large seeds per of at least 73 tree species; they transport about a third of the large seeds for more than.  Seeds passed by elephant gut germinate faster. The African forest elephant is one of the most effective seed dispersers in the tropics and has been referred to as the "megagardener of the forest" due to its significant role in maintaining plant diversity. In the Cuvette Centrale, 14 of 18 megafaunal tree species depend on seed dissemination by African forest elephants, including wild mango ("Irvingia gabonensis"), "Parinari excelsa" and "Tridesmostemon omphalocarpoides". These 14 species are not able to survive without elephants. African forest elephants provide ecological services that maintain the composition and structure of Central African forests.

Communication.

Since this species is newly recognized, little to no literature is available on communication and perception. For these mammals, hearing and smell are the most important senses they possess because they do not have good eyesight. They can recognize and hear vibrations through the ground and can detect food sources with their sense of smell. Elephants are also an arrhythmic species, meaning they have the ability to see just as well in dim light as they can in the daylight. They are capable of doing so because the retina in their eyes adjusts nearly as quickly as light does.  The elephant's feet are sensitive and can detect vibrations through the ground, whether thunder or elephant calls, from up to 10 miles away.

Reproduction.

Females reach sexual maturity between the age of 8 and 12 years, depending on the population density and nutrition available. On average, they begin breeding at the age of 23 and give birth every 5–6 years. As a result, the birth rate is lower than the bush species, which starts breeding at age 12 and has a calf every 3–4 years. That time allows mothers to devote all the attention that the calf needs to teach it all the complex tasks that come with being an elephant, such as using their trunk to eat, wash, and drink.  Baby elephants weigh around at birth. Almost immediately, they can stand up and move around, allowing the mother to roam around and forage, which is also essential to reduce predation. The baby suckles using its mouth while its trunk is held over its head. Their tusks do not come until around 16 months and calves are not weaned until they are roughly 4 or 5 years old. By this time, their tusks are around 14 cm long and begin to get in the way of suckling.  Forest elephants have a lifespan of about 60 to 70 years and mature slowly, coming to puberty in their early teens. Males generally pass puberty within the next year or two of females. Between the ages of 15 and 25, males experience "musth", which is a hormonal state they experience marked by increased aggression. The male secretes fluid from the temporal gland between its ear and eye during this time. Younger males often experience musth for a shorter period of time, while older males do for a longer time. When undergoing musth, males have a more erect walk with their heads high and tusks inward, they may rub their heads on trees or bushes to spread the musth scent, and they may even flap their ears, accompanied by a musth rumble, so that their smell can be blown towards other elephants. Another behavior affiliated with musth is urination. Males allow their urine to slowly come out and spray the insides of their hind legs. All of these behaviors are to advertise to receptive females and competing males they are in the musth state.  The females are polyestrous, which means that they are capable of conceiving multiple times a year, which is a reason as to why they do not appear to have a breeding season. However, there does appear to be a peak in conceptions during the two rainy seasons of the year. Generally, the female conceives after two or three matings. Although the female has plenty of room in her uterus to gestate twins, twins are rarely conceived. The female African forest elephant's pregnancy lasts 22 months. Based on the maturity, fertility, and gestation rates, African forest elephants have the capabilities of increasing the species' population size by 5% annually under ideal conditions.

Threats.

Both African elephant species are threatened foremost by habitat loss and habitat fragmentation following conversion of forests for plantations of non-timber crops, livestock farming, and building urban and industrial areas. As a result, human-elephant conflict has increased. Poaching for ivory and bushmeat is a significant threat in Central Africa.  Civil unrest, human encroachment, and habit fragmentation leaves some elephants confined to small patches of forest without sufficient food. In January 2014, International Fund for Animal Welfare undertook a relocation project at the request of the Ivory Coast government, moving four elephants from Daloa to Assagny National Park.

Poaching.

Genetic analysis of confiscated ivory showed that 328 tusks of African forest elephants seized in the Philippines between 1996 and 2005 originated in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo; 2,871 tusks seized in Hong Kong between 2006 and 2013 originated in Tridom, the tri-national Dja-Odzala-Minkébé protected area complex and the adjacent Dzanga Sangha Reserve in the Central African Republic. So did partly worked ivory confiscated between 2013 and 2014 at warehouses in Togo comprising of tusks. The hard ivory of the African forest elephant makes for more enhanced carving and fetches a higher price on the black market. This preference is evident in Japan, where hard ivory has nearly monopolized the trade for some time. Premium quality bachi, a traditional Japanese plucking tool used for string instruments, are contrived exclusively from African forest elephants tusks. In the impenetrable and often trackless expanses of the rain forests of the Congo Basin, poaching is extremely difficult to detect and track. Levels of off-take, for the most part, are estimated from ivory seizures. The scarcely populated and unprotected forests in Central Africa are most likely becoming increasingly alluring to organized poacher gangs.  Late in the 20th century, conservation workers established a DNA identification system to trace the origin of poached ivory. Due to poaching to meet high demand for ivory, the African forest elephant population approached critical levels in the 1990s and early 2000s. Over several decades, numbers are estimated to have fallen from approximately 700,000 to less than 100,000, with about half of the remaining population in Gabon. In May 2013, Sudanese poachers killed 26 elephants in the Central African Republic's Dzanga Bai World Heritage Site. Communications equipment, video cameras, and additional training of park guards were provided following the massacre to improve protection of the site. From mid-April to mid-June 2014, poachers killed 68 elephants in Garamba National Park, including young ones without tusks.  At the request of President Ali Bongo Ondimba, twelve British soldiers traveled to Gabon in 2015 to assist in training park rangers following the poaching of many elephants in Minkebe National Park.

Bushmeat trade.

It is not ivory alone that drives African forest elephant poaching. Killing for bushmeat in Central Africa has evolved into an international business in recent decades with markets reaching New York and other major cities of the United States; and the industry is still on the rise. This illegal market poses the greatest threat not only to forest elephants where hunters can target elephants of all ages, including calves, but to all of the larger species in the forests. There are actions that can be taken to lower the incentive for supplying to the bushmeat market. Regional markets, and the international trade, require the transporting of extensive amounts of animal meat which, in turn, requires the utilisation of vehicles. Having checkpoints on major roads and railroads can potentially help disrupt commercial networks. In 2006, it was estimated that 410 African forest elephants are killed yearly in the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests.

Conservation.

In 1986, the African Elephant Database was initiated with the aim to monitor the status of African elephant populations. This database includes results from aerial surveys, dung counts, interviews with local people and data on poaching.  Both African elephant species have been listed by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora on CITES Appendix I since 1989. This listing banned international trade of African elephants and their body parts by countries that signed the CITES agreement. Hunting elephants is banned in the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Côte d'Ivoire, and Senegal.  African forest elephants are estimated to constitute up to one-third of the continent's elephant population, but have been poorly studied because of the difficulty in observing them through the dense vegetation that makes up their habitat. Thermal imaging has facilitated observation of the species, leading to more information on their ecology, numbers, and behavior, including their interactions with elephants and other species. Scientists have learned more about how the elephants, who have poor night vision, negotiate their environment using only their hearing and olfactory senses. They also appeared to be much more active sexually during night compared to the day, which was unexpected.

The African forest elephant ("Loxodonta cyclotis") is one of the two living African elephant species. It is native to humid forests in West Africa and the Congo Basin. It is the smallest of the three living elephant species, reaching a shoulder height of. Both sexes have straight, downpointing tusks, which erupt when they are 1–3 years old. It lives in family groups of up to 20 individuals. Since it forages on leaves, seeds, fruit, and tree bark, it has been referred to as the'megagardener of the forest'. It contributes significantly to maintain the composition and structure of the Guinean Forests of West Africa and the Congolese rainforests.

L'éléphant de forêt d'Afrique (Loxodonta cyclotis) est un mammifère mégaherbivore de la famille des Éléphantidés, plus petit que les autres éléphants d'Afrique et typiquement forestier (bien qu'épisodiquement aussi présent en zone de transition vers la savane). C'est l'une des deux espèces du genre "Loxodonta" (et des trois espèces d'éléphants existant actuellement). Cette espèce est moins connue que celle de l'éléphant de savane en raison d'obstacles écologiques et politiques, qui l'ont rendue plus difficile à étudier et à protéger. Elle a disparu d'au moins 75 % de son aire naturelle de répartition et, là où elle est encore présente, elle régresse à un rythme alarmant, alors que les chercheurs montrent qu'elle joue un rôle écologique très important. Ses populations sont fragmentées et ont chuté de 62 % de 2002 à 2011. L’espèce a perdu, en 10 ans, près de 80 % de sa population dans un vaste parc pourtant sanctuarisé, au Gabon, son principal pays d'accueil. Elles ne sont plus, vers 2015, que le dixième de ce qu'elles étaient historiquement. Sa régression semble toujours liée aux activités humaines (chasse, déforestation notamment). En tant que mégaherbivore consommant un grand nombre de plante et producteur de bouses, il a une influence importante sur l'écosystème forestier et son faciès.


Traditions.

The word "Hoya".

The University admits that the precise origin of the term "Hoya" is unknown. At some point before 1893, and likely before 1891, students versed in classical languages combined the Greek "hoia" or "hoya", meaning "what" or "such", and the Latin "saxa" to form "Hoya Saxa!", or "What Rocks!" This cheer may either refer to the stalwart defense of the football team, or to the baseball team, which was nicknamed the "Stonewalls", or to the actual stone wall that surrounds the campus. Father William McFadden, S.J., campus Jesuit and the team's in-house announcer at the Capital One Arena, has disputed the Greek and Latin origin, suggesting the classical words were retroactively applied to a nonsensical cheer. After World War I, the term "Hoya" was increasingly used on campus, including for the newspaper and the school mascot. In 1920, students began publishing the campus's first sports newspaper under the name "The Hoya", after successfully petitioning the Dean of the College to use it instead of the proposed name, "The Hilltopper". "Hilltoppers" was also a name sometimes used for the sports teams. By the fall of 1928, the newspaper had taken to referring to the sports teams as the Hoyas. This was influenced by a popular half time show at football games, where the mascot, a dog nicknamed "Hoya," would entertain fans.  Georgetown's unique team name has caused opponents to mock Georgetown with chants including "What's a Hoya?" Harrison High School, located in Kennesaw, Georgia, is the only other institution in the country licensed to share this name. However, Georgetown Preparatory School, which separated from the University in 1927, uses the name "Little Hoyas" for its sports teams and shares the University's blue and gray color scheme.

Mascot.

Georgetown's nickname is The Hoyas, but its mascot is "Jack the Bulldog." Various breeds of dogs have been used by the sports teams as mascots since the early 1900s. Several notable bull terriers like Sergeant Stubby and "Hoya" were used at football games in the 1920s, as was a Great Dane in the 1940s. However, in 1951, the school suspended its football program because of the increasing cost of the game financially and academically, which left the school without an official live mascot.  In 1964, the school permitted exhibition football games to resume, and students financed the purchase of a young English bulldog named Royal Jacket, whom they intended to rename "Hoya", but he only responded to the callname "Jack". This breed was chosen to represent the school because of their "tenacity." The athletics department subsequently adopted as its logo a drawing of a bulldog sporting a blue and gray freshman beanie. The original Jack retired in 1967, but the name was carried over to his successors. In 1977, the university began the tradition of dressing up a student in a blue and gray bulldog costume, replacing the live bulldog, though several dogs periodically joined the costumed mascot during the 1980s and 1990s.  In 1999, Scott R. Pilarz, S.J., with the help of the Hoya Blue fan club, revived the tradition of an official live bulldog named Jack, to work along with the costumed mascot. When Pilarz left for the University of Scranton in 2003, taking Jack with him, Georgetown secured a new bulldog puppy and found another Jesuit, Christopher Steck, S.J., to care for him. The current bulldog is named "John S. Carroll," a play on the name of Georgetown's founder, which name allows for continuation of the "Jack the Bulldog" nickname. After Jack injured his leg in 2012, two Georgetown parents donated a younger bulldog puppy, who the school refers to as "Jack Jr."

Colors.

Blue and gray are the official colors of Georgetown University and its athletic teams. The colors are an important reminder of the school's past. During the American Civil War, Prussian blue was commonly used in Union uniforms, while cadet grey was used in Confederate uniforms. These colors were introduced by the rowing team in 1876, who deemed blue and gray "appropriate colors for the [Boat] Club and expressive of the feeling of unity between the Northern and Southern boys of the College." Girls from neighboring Georgetown Visitation sewed the original uniforms together for the team and presented the Boat Club with a blue and gray banner reading "Ocior Euro" (Swifter than the Wind).  The basketball and lacrosse teams use gray as their primary color in home jerseys, with blue in away jerseys. White is also frequently used as an accent to these colors, and is actually the main color in the football and baseball teams' away jerseys and the soccer team's home jerseys. Campus spirit groups often encourage students to "bleed Hoya blue," a slogan used on teeshirts and bumper stickers sold to fans. Fans are generally encouraged to wear gray to home games, and sellouts are referred to as a "gray out." Though various shades are used, the primary ones suggested by the school's identification policy are pantone 409 and pantone 282, which is the same shade as Oxford Blue.

Fight song.

The Georgetown Fight Song, known as "There Goes Old Georgetown", is actually an amalgamation of three songs, only the oldest of which, 1913's "The Touchdown Song", contains the lyric "here goes old Georgetown". Students combined a version of "The Touchdown Song" with "Cheer for Victory", written in 1915, and "The Hoya Song", written in 1930, both of which are included in their entirety. The authors of these songs, and of the combined version, are unknown.  Georgetown's fight song is rare among U.S. university fight songs for mentioning other colleges by name. Specifically, it mentions Yale University, Harvard University, Princeton University, College of the Holy Cross, the United States Naval Academy, and Cornell University, who were all rivals of Georgetown in the early to mid-20th century, and mocks their fight songs. In recent years the Hoyas only play Cornell and Holy Cross regularly (in football), and many of these schools no longer use the fight songs that Georgetown's song mocks.

Sports sponsored.

Georgetown University fields 23 varsity level sports teams, 11 men's teams, 11 women's teams, and one co-ed team. Intercollegiate sports include (inaugural season in parentheses):

Baseball.

Baseball is Georgetown's oldest sport, with the first recorded game taking place in 1866, and the team formally organized and sanctioned in 1870. The Hoyas have seen little national success, with no appearances in the NCAA Division I Baseball Championship since the event was established in 1947. The team was once known as the Stonewalls, and is one possible source of the Hoya Saxa cheer famous among all Georgetown sports teams. The Hoyas play their home games at Shirley Povich Field, a 1,500 seat stadium located in Bethesda, Maryland and named for "Washington Post" sports columnist Shirley Povich. The stadium was built in 2000. The Hoyas also utilize three lighted batting cages and two bullpen areas located on campus above Yates Field House, and adjacent to Kehoe Field.

Basketball.

The Georgetown University men's basketball team is the most well-known Hoya program. Georgetown's first intercollegiate men's basketball team was formed in 1907. Former Georgetown great Patrick Ewing is the head coach. The Hoyas historically have been well regarded not only for their team success, but also for their ability to generate players that after graduation succeed both on the court, such as Patrick Ewing, and off, such as Paul Tagliabue and Henry Hyde. The team has reached the NCAA Tournament Final Four five times including the 1984 national championship, and has won the Big East Tournament seven times, and has also won or shared the Big East regular season title ten times.  The women's basketball also plays in the Big East Conference, and are coached by James Howard. The team was first formed in 1970, and joined the Big East in 1983. They play their home games on campus at McDonough Gymnasium. The women's team so far has not seen the same success as the men's, and have only been invited to the NCAA tournament three times, reaching the Sweet Sixteen in 1993 and 2011, and the second round in 2010. They have been invited to the Women's National Invitation Tournament, five times, progressing furthest in 2009 by reaching the fourth round.

Football.

The football team at Georgetown was first formed on November 1, 1874, with the earliest recorded games dating to 1887. By the 1940s, Georgetown had one of the better college football teams in America, and played in the 1941 Orange Bowl, where they lost 14–7 to Mississippi State. As the college game became more expensive after World War II, however, Georgetown's program began to lose money rapidly. The Hoyas last successful season was 1949, when they lost in the Sun Bowl against Texas Western. However the program was losing too much money, and on March 22, 1951, the university's president canceled the football program.  In 1964, Georgetown allowed its students to start a football program as an exhibition-only club sport. Varsity football resumed in 1970 at what later became known as the Division III level. Today, Georgetown plays at the Division I Football Championship Subdivision, competing in the Patriot League and perennially plays against Ivy League schools. The Hoyas have also begun a cross-town rivalry with Howard University for a championship known as the D.C. Cup.  "Big Jim" Ricca, an NFL defensive end and offensive lineman, graduated in 1949 and was the last Hoya to play in an NFL game. In 2007, the Washington Redskins made Alex Buzbee a reserve player, becoming the first Georgetown player on an NFL team since Ricca retired in 1956. The 2011 Georgetown Football team finished 8-3, which was their first winning season since the 1999 campaign, giving them a second place in the conference.

Golf.

The men's golf team has won four Big East Conference championships: 1998, 2010, 2016, and 2018. The women's golf team has won two Big East Conference championships: 2017 and 2018. They are coached by Tommy Hunter, who was named Big East Coach of the Year in 2010. They have crowned two national champions: Maurice McCarthy Jr. in 1928 and John Burke in 1938.

Lacrosse.

Both the men's and women's lacrosse teams have been highly competitive in recent years, both in conference and tournament play. A men's lacrosse team was first organized in 1951, and entered Division 1 play in 1970. The team played in the Eastern College Athletic Conference until the 2010 season, when the Big East Conference created a men's league. The men's team made the NCAA Tournament each season from 1996–2007, reaching the Final Four in 1999.  The women's lacrosse team was formed in 1977, and won the first 6 consecutive Big East titles from 2001–2006. The Lady Hoyas reached the NCAA Women's Lacrosse Championship final in both 2001 and 2002. In 2005, their first season under new coach Ricky Fried, the team went 13–5 and made the NCAA Tournament for the 8th straight year. Both the men's and women's teams play their home games on Multi-Sport Field.

Rowing.

Rowing at Georgetown has a distinguished history dating back to the founding of the Boat Club in 1876. The team was however suspended from 1909 to 1920 due to lack of interest, and involvement in World War I. Georgetown added a men's lightweight team in 1963, a women's team in 1975, and a women's lightweight team in 1996.  The men have won 5 national championships at the Intercollegiate Rowing Association Regatta, the most recent being the men's varsity lightweight fours with coxswain on June 5, 2016. The first national championship win was in 1991 with the varsity heavyweight fours with coxswain.  Under the guidance of coaches Luke Agnini and Steve Full, Georgetown competes as a member of the top leagues in American rowing, the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges and Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges. Georgetown's four crew teams have seen success in recent years, including trips to the Henley Royal Regatta and entry into the Eastern Sprints for the men's heavyweight and lightweight teams and second-in-the-nation finishes for both men's and women's lightweight teams. Many Georgetown oarsmen and -women have gone on to represent the United States on national and Olympic teams. The lightweight women's team has earned bronze medals at Women's Eastern Sprints in the Lightweight Women's Varsity 8+ in 2013 and the Lightweight Women's Varsity 4+ in 2015. The LW8+ crew earning bronze in 2013 was later named Row2k Crew of the Week.  The university rents space in Thompson Boat Center, though it has ongoing plans to build a new boathouse closer to campus. For land workouts, Georgetown rowers have access to the Rowing Training Center, a refurbished storeroom beneath the Leavey Center that was repurposed into an erg room in 2013 (its underground, windowless location has inspired numerous nicknames such as the "Thunder Dungeon"). Notable Georgetown crew alumni include walk-on Mike Vespoli, the founder and chief executive officer of Vespoli USA, Inc.; U.S. team athletes Mike Altman and Jack Carlson; and actor Bradley Cooper.

Sailing.

The sailing team competes in the Middle Atlantic Intercollegiate Sailing Association (MAISA) of the Inter-Collegiate Sailing Association (ICSA). Under coach Mike Callahan has been ranked number 1 nationally in the ICSA Sailing World College Rankings on multiple occasions. The team sails from the Washington Sailing Marina Andrew Campbell was named U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) Male Sailing Athlete of the Year in 2002 and 2005, and ICSA College Sailor of the Year in 2006. He is one of the six team members awarded as College Sailors of the Year on seven occasions, as Nevin Snow has taken the prize twice, in 2015 and 2016. Campbell helped lead the team to the first of their 14 Inter-Collegiate Sailing Association National Championships since 2001, and are the reigning national co-ed champions. During this time the team also won seven MAISA conference championships, known as the America Trophy. After the team's 2013 national championship, they were invited to participate in the 2014 World University Match Racing Championships in Trentino, Italy, on Lago di Ledro, which they won 7–1, besting nineteen teams from fourteen countries. The Hoyas won the Leonard M. Fowle Trophy to the best overall collegiate team in 2006.

Soccer.

The men's soccer team was organized in 1952, and won a national championship in 2019. That year was their second national title game, having been runners up in 2012, with nine total NCAA Tournament appearances. They play in the Big East Conference, and have won the conference tournament four times and the regular season seven times. They are coached by Brian Wiese, and play their home games on campus at North Kehoe Field. The women's soccer team began play in 1991, have been coached by Dave Nolan since 1999, and share the same home field. The women's team has been to the NCAA Tournament twice, in 2007 and 2010, when they advanced to the quarterfinals.  Six players from the men's soccer team have played professionally for Major League Soccer: Phil Wellington (drafted in 1996), Brandon Leib (1997), Eric Kvello (1999), Dan Gargan 2004 (Selected 43rd overall in the 2005 MLS Supplemental Draft), Jeff Curtin 2005 (1st round draft Pick #14 overall), and Steve Neumann 2014 (1st round draft pick in 2014 MLS SuperDraft, 4th overall pick). Ricky Schramm, who played on the 2006 Hoyas, was drafted in the 3rd round by D.C. United. Women's team star Ingrid Wells has played on the United States U-23 women's national soccer team and for Göteborg FC.

Tennis.

Georgetown University has both men's and women's varsity tennis teams. In March 2019 federal prosecutors indicted Gordon Ernst, the former Georgetown head coach of the men's and women's teams from 2006 until 2017, for accepting more than $2.7 million in bribes from parents to secure their children’s Georgetown admission by allegedly falsely designating at least 12 applicants, including those who did not play tennis competitively, as recruits for the Georgetown tennis team as part of the 2019 college admissions bribery scandal. Ernst was charged with racketeering conspiracy and ordered to forfeit $2.7 million, a home in Chevy Chase, Maryland, his Chevy Chase country club membership, and a financial account.

Track and field.

Georgetown has been nationally successful in both cross country and track and field. The men and women's track and field teams practice off-campus at Duke Ellington Track in neighboring Burleith. The men's and women's teams have both been ranked #1 by the U.S. Track & Field and Cross Country Coaches Association in recent years, both nationally and in the Mid-Atlantic Region. In 2011, the women's cross country program won Georgetown's only other team NCAA Championship by besting Big East rival Villanova. Chris Miltenberg, women's cross country coach, won the 2011 NCAA coach of the year for women's cross country. Patrick Henner is the director of men's and women's track and field. Georgetown track and field has won 21 individual NCAA National Championships, being 15 by male athletes and 6 by female athletes. The first individual NCAA National Champion was Charles Capozzoli in cross country in 1952. To date, there have also been 11 National Champions in indoor and 9 National Champions in outdoor NCAA track and field championships.

NCAA team championships.

Georgetown has won 3 NCAA Division 1 team national championships.

NCAA individual championships.

Georgetown has won 23 NCAA Division 1 individual national championships:  Georgetown has also won 1 NCAA Division 2 individual national championship:

Club teams.

Georgetown University fields numerous club sports teams. They range from club versions of varsity sports, such as tennis or basketball, to sports for which there is no varsity equivalent, such as men and women's Water Polo Clubs or Ultimate Frisbee. The university began supporting club teams in 2000. Though other teams exist, such as the Georgetown University Croquet Society, the Club Sports Board at Georgetown supports eleven men's club teams, ten women's, and three co-ed teams (year founded in parentheses):

Boxing.

The men's and women's boxing teams compete as part of the United States Intercollegiate Boxing Association. The women's boxing team won the 2019 USIBA national championship.

Rugby.

The Georgetown University Rugby Football Club is the intercollegiate men's rugby union team that represents Georgetown in the USA Rugby Division II competition. It was founded in the spring semester of 1967 by former members of the Washington D.C. Rugby Football Club including graduate student Michael Murphy. In 2005, Georgetown's first reached the Final Four of the USA Rugby Collegiate Division II National Tournament. The "Hoya Ruggers" again reached for the semifinals in 2009 in Palo Alto, California, and have had an undefeated 2009-10 season.  A women's rugby team was founded in 2000, and plays in Division II in the Potomac Rugby Union (PRU). They have won the PRU championship four consecutive times from 2006 to 2009. They have also been invited to the Mid-Atlantic Rugby Football Union tournament three times, and were runners-up in 2006-07.

Ice hockey.

Georgetown's ice hockey team plays in the ACHA Division II in the Atlantic Coast Collegiate Hockey League (ACCHL) as one of three teams whose primary conference is not the Atlantic Coast Conference. Since joining this conference in 2003, the team has won the conference championship four times, in 2004-05, 2006–07, 2007–08, and again in 2012-13. The team previously played in the Division III Mason-Dixon Collegiate Hockey Association, where it won the league championship in 1997, 1999, and 2000. In 2001 and 2002, they were invited to the national tournament of the American Collegiate Hockey Association, which the team had joined in 1999. Coach Brad Card now leads the team, taking over the bench for Coach John Kokidko. The team plays its home matches at the Washington Capitals' practice arena, Kettler Capitals Iceplex in Ballston, Arlington, Virginia at the Ballston Common Mall.

Athletic directors.

After Bernard Muir left the position as the Director of the Athletic Department on May 11, 2009, a year long search for a replacement began. Dr. Daniel R. Porterfield, Senior Vice President for Strategic Development, served as Interim Director of Athletics beginning June 3, 2009, until Lee Reed took the position on April 15, 2010.

In popular culture.

With the rise of Georgetown's men's basketball team in the 1980s, the Hoyas became increasingly associated with the black community in the United States and in the Washington, DC, area in particular. Consequently, Georgetown came to be referenced in work by African-American artists, including Spike Lee's "She's Gotta Have It", Outkast's "Aquemini" and Jay-Z's "Kingdom Come".

The Georgetown Hoyas are the intercollegiate athletics teams that officially represent Georgetown University, located in Washington, D.C. Georgetown's athletics department fields 23 men's and women's varsity level teams and competes at the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level as a member of the Big East Conference, with the exception of the Division I FCS Patriot League in football. In late 2012, Georgetown and six other Catholic, non-FBS schools announced that they were departing the Big East for a new conference. The rowing and sailing teams also participate in east coast conferences. The men's basketball team is the school's most famous and most successful program, but Hoyas have achieved success in a wide range of sports.

Les Hoyas de Georgetown (en anglais : "Georgetown Hoyas") sont un club omnisports universitaire de l'Université de Georgetown (Washington, D.C.). Les équipes des Hoyas participent aux compétitions universitaires organisées par la "National Collegiate Athletic Association". Georgetown fait partie de la division "Big East Conference" tandis que l'équipe de football américain évolue en "Patriot League".


Geography and access.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the island has a land area of, which is the property of the federal government. Liberty Island is located in the Upper New York Bay within the waters of Jersey City, Hudson County, New Jersey. It is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. The historical developments which led to this construction made Liberty Island an exclave of one state, New York, in another, New Jersey. Liberty Island is east of Liberty State Park in Jersey City and is southwest of the Battery in Lower Manhattan.

State sovereignty disputes.

There have been a number of disputes regarding the jurisdictional status of Liberty (Bedloe's) Island.

State dispute.

An unusual clause in the 1664 colonial land grant that outlined New Jersey's borders reads: "westward of Long Island, and Manhitas Island and bounded on the east part by the main sea, and part by Hudson's river" rather than at the river's midpoint, as was common in other colonial charters.  In 1824 the City of New York attempted to assert a jurisdictional monopoly over the growing steam ferry service in New York Harbor in "Gibbons v. Ogden". It was deemed by the court that interstate transport would be regulated by the federal government. This did not resolve the border issue. In 1830, New Jersey planned to bring suit, but the matter was resolved with a compact between the states ratified by US Congress in 1834 which set the boundary line between them as the midpoint of the shared waterways. This would place Bedloe's (Liberty) Island and Ellis Island in New Jersey; however, the compact included an exception specifying that they remain territory of New York. This was later confirmed by the US Supreme Court in a 1908 case which also expounded on the compact.  In 1987, U.S. Representative Frank J. Guarini and Gerald McCann, then mayor of Jersey City, sued New York City, contending that New Jersey should have dominion over Liberty Island because it is on the New Jersey side of the state line. By default, since the court chose not to hear the case, the existing legal status was unchanged. Portions of the island that are above water are part of New York, while riparian rights to all of the submerged land surrounding the statue belong to New Jersey. The southwestern section,, of the island was created by land reclamation.  In 1998, the United States Supreme Court decided the state jurisdiction of the nearby Ellis Island in "New Jersey v. New York". Being mostly constructed of artificial infill, New Jersey argued and the court agreed that the 1834 compact covered only the natural parts of the island, and not the portions added by infill. Thus it was agreed that the parts of the island made of filled land belonged to New Jersey while the original natural part belonged to New York. This proved impractical to administer and New Jersey and New York subsequently agreed to share jurisdiction of the entire island. This special situation only applies to Ellis Island and part of Shooters Island.

Federal ownership.

Liberty Island has been owned by the federal government since 1801, first as a military installation and now as a national landmark. Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and Liberty Island, listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1966, encompasses land in both states, control of which is superseded by the United States. The undisputed boundary between New Jersey and New York is in the center of the Hudson River and the Upper New York Bay, with Liberty Island situated well on the New Jersey side of the water line with Liberty Island itself an exclave of the State of New York and a part of New York City, allowing the state and city of New York to retain sovereignty of Liberty Island, serve process there and collect sales tax from Liberty Island souvenir shops.  In response to a FAQ about whether the Statue of Liberty is in New York or New Jersey, the National Park Service, which oversees Liberty Island, cites the 1834 compact. Question 127 on a naturalization examination piloted in 2006 asks "Where is the Statue of Liberty?" The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services gives "New York Harbor" and "Liberty Island" as preferred answers, but notes that "New Jersey", "New York", "New York City", and "on the Hudson" are acceptable.  The Statue of Liberty itself is claimed as a symbol by both New York and New Jersey. It was featured on New York license plates from 1986 through 2000 and on a special New Jersey license plate celebrating Liberty State Park in Jersey City. The statue is also seen on the New York state quarter. The national monument was the symbol of the Central Railroad of New Jersey (which operated along the present-day the Raritan Valley Line), whose railroad terminal is nearby.  Though it is uninhabited, the United States Geological Survey includes it as part of New York's 10th congressional district. Both New York City and Jersey City have assigned the island lot numbers. Utility services, including electricity, water, and sewage, to Liberty and Ellis Islands are provided from the New Jersey side, while mail is delivered from the Battery in New York.

Public access.

Two ferry slips are located at the southwestern side of Liberty Island. No charge is made for entrance to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service that all visitors must use, as private boats may not dock at the island. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953. The ferries depart from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and the Battery in Lower Manhattan.

History.

Great Oyster Island.

At the time of European colonization of the Hudson River estuary in the mid-17th century, much of the west side of Upper New York Bay contained large tidal flats which hosted vast oyster beds, a major source of food for the Lenape native people who lived there at the time. Several islands were not completely submerged at high tide. Three of them (later known as Bedloe's/Love/Liberty, Ellis, and Black Tom) were given the name Oyster Islands ("oester eilanden") by the Dutch settlers of New Netherland, the first European colony in the Mid-Atlantic states. The oyster beds would remain a major source of food for nearly three centuries. Land reclamation, started by the 1870s, particularly by the Lehigh Valley Railroad and Central Railroad of New Jersey, eventually obliterated the beds, engulfed one island and brought the shoreline much closer to the others.

Bedloe's Island.

After the surrender of Fort Amsterdam by the Dutch to the British in 1664, the English governor Richard Nicolls granted the island to Captain Robert Needham. It was sold to Isaac Bedloe on December 23, 1667. The island was retained by his estate until 1732 when it was sold for five shillings to New York merchants Adolphe Philipse and Henry Lane. During their ownership, the island was temporarily commandeered by the city of New York to establish a smallpox quarantine station.  In 1746, Archibald Kennedy (later 11th Earl of Cassilis) purchased the island and a summer residence was established, along with construction of a lighthouse. Seven years later, the island is described in an advertisement (in which "Bedlow's" had become "Bedloe's", along with an alternate name of "Love Island") as being available for rental:  In 1756, Kennedy allowed the island to again be used as a smallpox quarantine station, and on February 18, 1758, the Corporation of the City of New York bought the island for £1,000 for use as a pest house.  When the British troops occupied New York Harbor in the lead-up to the American Revolutionary War, the island was to be used for housing for Tory refugees, with the "HMS Eagle" docked next to it, but on April 2, 1776, the buildings constructed on the island for their use were burned to the ground.

Fort Wood.

On February 15, 1800, the New York State Legislature ceded the island to the federal government, for the construction of a defensive fort to be built there (along with Governors Island and Ellis Island). Construction of a fort on the island in the shape of an 11-point star began in 1806 and was completed in 1811, protecting New York from British invasion in the upcoming conflict. Following the War of 1812, the star-shaped fortification was named Fort Wood after Lt. Col Eleazer Derby Wood who was killed in the Siege of Fort Erie in 1814, a major American defensive victory against British troops near the war's end. The granite fortification followed an 11-pointed star fort layout with mounting 24 guns. A larger fort mounting 77 guns was proposed under the third system of US fortifications but was not built.  By the time it was chosen for the Statue of Liberty in the 1880s, the fort was outmoded and obsolete, disused and its substantial stone walls were then used as the distinctive base for the Statue of Liberty given by the Third French Republic for the American 1876 centenary celebrations. It had become a part of the base for the Statue of Liberty after the island was first seen by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, the statue's sculptor. The National Park Service (which had been created in 1916) took over operations of the island in two stages: in 1933, and the remainder in 1937. The military installation was completely removed by 1944.

Statue of Liberty.

The statue, entitled "Liberty Enlightening the World", was a gift from the people of France to mark the American Centennial. It was agreed that the Congress would authorize the acceptance of the statue by the President of the United States, and that the War Department would facilitate its construction and presentation.  The construction of the statue was completed in France in July 1884. The cornerstone was laid on August 5, 1884, and after some funding delays, construction of the pedestal was finished on April 22, 1886. The statue arrived in New York Harbor on June 17, 1885, on board the French frigate "Isère", was stored for eleven months in crates waiting for its pedestal to be finished, and was then reassembled in four months. On October 28, 1886, the Statue of Liberty was unveiled by President Grover Cleveland. The name Liberty Island was made official by Congress in 1956.

Museums.

American Museum of Immigration.

The American Museum of Immigration formerly operated at Liberty Island. It was dedicated on September 26, 1972, in a ceremony presided over by President of the United States Richard Nixon. The museum closed in 1991 following the opening of the Ellis Island Immigration Museum.

Statue of Liberty Museum.

On October 7, 2016, construction started on the new Statue of Liberty Museum on Liberty Island. The new $70 million, museum is able to accommodate all of the island's visitors, as opposed to the former museum, which only 20 percent of the island's daily visitors could visit. The original torch is located here along with exhibits relating to the statue's construction and history. There is a theater where visitors can watch an aerial view of the statue. The museum, designed by FXFOWLE Architects, is integrated with the parkland around it. It is being funded privately by Diane von Fürstenberg, Michael Bloomberg, Jeff Bezos, Coca-Cola, NBCUniversal, the family of Laurence Tisch and Preston Robert Tisch, Mellody Hobson, and George Lucas. Von Fürstenberg headed the fundraising for the museum, and the project raised more than $40 million in fundraising as of groundbreaking. The museum opened on May 16, 2019.

Liberty Island is a federally owned island in Upper New York Bay in the United States. Its most notable feature is the Statue of Liberty ("Liberty Enlightening the World"), a large statue by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi that was dedicated in 1886. Long known as Bedloe's Island, it was renamed by an act of the United States Congress in 1956. Part of New York State, the island is an exclave of the New York City borough of Manhattan, surrounded by the waters of Jersey City, New Jersey.

, est une petite île inhabitée de la (« baie supérieure de New York », partie septentrionale de la baie de New York), sur laquelle est érigée la statue de la Liberté. Sa superficie est de (précisément ).


Overview.

Minato Mirai 21 was originally proposed as one of Yokohama's six major development plans by the mayor of Yokohama, Ichio Asukata, in 1965. After several assessments and review sessions, actual construction started in 1983. The area where it is located was once known as Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Yokohama shipyard and the Japanese National Railways classification yard, Takashima wharf and Shinko wharf of Port of Yokohama. Conducted as an urban renewal and reclaimed land project, the port and industrial areas once divided the two city centers of Kannai and the Yokohama Station area. With the development of Minato Mirai 21, the two city centers were linked and now form part of the business and central 'core' of Yokohama. The name "Minato Mirai 21", was selected by a public opinion poll, and means "Port of the Future [in] the 21[st century]".  The area is now flourishing as one of the newest urban business districts in the Greater Tokyo Metropolitan area, symbolized by Landmark Tower, Japan's third tallest skyscraper, the three Queens Square Towers, which contain a large shopping mall, the Pacifico Yokohama convention center, the Intercontinental Hotel, the Cosmo Clock 21 Ferris wheel, and more. Next to Landmark Tower is the Yokohama Museum of Art.  The area is an important business center, with Nissan Motors, JGC Corporation, Chiyoda Corporation and other major corporations locating their headquarters and branches in the Minato Mirai area. Today, about 79,000 people work in Minato Mirai 21.  Minato Mirai 21 also attracts numerous tourists along with the nearby Yokohama Chinatown. In 2010, it received approximately 58 million visitors. Due to the beautiful view, bay proximity, cruise ships docked at Ōsanbashi Pier, skyscrapers, and the graceful Yokohama Bay Bridge, Minato Mirai 21 has become a symbol of Yokohama and its skyline, and is frequently featured in images of the city.

Attractions.

Major attractions in the area include:

Major hotels.

Major hotels in the area with over 300 guestrooms include:

, often known as simply Minato Mirai and abbreviated as MM, is the central business district of Yokohama, Japan. Initially developed in the 1980s, Minato Mirai 21 was designed as a large master-planned development and new urban center planned to connect Yokohama's traditionally important areas and commercial centers of Kannai and the Yokohama Station area.

Le est le quartier d'affaires de la ville japonaise de Yokohama. Ce quartier, situé au nord de la gare Sakuragi-cho, abrite notamment un musée de la marine, le musée d'art moderne et de la photographie réalisé par l'architecte japonais Kenzō Tange, le parc d'attractions "Cosmo World" et sa grande roue Cosmo Clock 21 ainsi que la "Landmark Tower" qui est, avec ses, l'un des immeubles les plus haut d'Asie.


Plot.

Judd Holdren, in what was only his second starring screen role, plays Captain Video, the leader of a group of crime-fighters known as the Video Rangers. He faces an interplanetary menace, as the evil dictator of the planet Atoma, Vultura (Gene Roth) and his lackey, the traitorous earth scientist Dr. Tobor (George Eldredge) are planning to conquer the earth.

Production.

"Captain Video: Master of the Stratosphere" was the only serial adapted from television.  It was one of Katzman's first forays into science fiction and was soon followed by "The Lost Planet.  As produced by Sam Katzman, the serial had a production budget much larger than the famously small budget of the DuMont Television Network's live daily television series.  Captain Video and his teenaged sidekick, the otherwise nameless "Video Ranger" (Larry Stewart), must make frequent visits both to Atoma and to another distant planet, Theros. Both Atoma and Theros are filmed at Bronson Canyon, and Vasquez Rocks, so to distinguish the two, the Atoma footage is tinted pink and the Theros footage is tinted green in the original release prints. These colored scenes were processed by Cinecolor.  This was the second of only three science fiction serials released by Columbia. The third, "The Lost Planet" (1953), is a virtual sequel although with different character names.

Release.

Theatrical.

"Captain Video: Master of the Stratosphere" was very successful when first released to theaters, and kept playing long after other serials had been retired to the vaults. It is one of only two serials that Columbia reissued three times (in 1958, 1960, and 1963).

Critical reception.

Harmon and Glut describe this serial as a "rather shoddy, low budget space cliffhanger."

Gadgets.

The serial includes several science fiction gadgets of the era. The Opticon Scillometer was used for looking through walls. Objects were made to disappear with the Isotropic Radiation Curtain. The Mu-ray Camera could photograph lingering images after the event. Temporary madness could be caused with the Psychosomatic Weapon. A variation on Radar was entitled the Radionic Directional Beam and the Radionic Guide and a Vibrator gun that worked like a Tazer.

Captain Video: Master of the Stratosphere is an American adventure horror science fiction film 15-chapter serial released by Columbia Pictures in 1951. It was directed by Spencer Gordon Bennet and Wallace A. Grissel with a screenplay by Royal G. Cole, Sherman I. Lowe and Joseph F. Poland, based on a treatment by George H. Plympton. The serial is unique for several reasons--- in particular, it is the only film serial ever based on a television program, "Captain Video and His Video Rangers".

Captain Video: Master of the Stratosphere est un film américain réalisé par Spencer Gordon Bennet et Wallace Grissell, sorti en 1951.