String construction.

The end of the string that mounts to the instrument's tuning mechanism (the part of the instrument that turns to tighten or loosen string tension) is usually plain. Depending on the instrument, the string's other, fixed end may have either a plain, loop, or ball end (a short brass cylinder) that attaches the string at the end opposite the tuning mechanism. When a ball or loop is used with a guitar, this ensures that the string stays fixed in the bridge of the guitar. When a ball or loop is used with a violin-family instrument, this keeps the string end fixed in the tailpiece. Fender Bullet strings have a larger cylinder for more stable tuning on guitars equipped with synchronized tremolo systems. Strings for some instruments may be wrapped with silk at the ends to protect the string. The color and pattern of the silk often identifies attributes of the string, such as manufacturer, size, intended pitch, etc.

Winding types.

There are several varieties of wound strings available.

Roundwound.

The simplest wound strings are roundwound—with round wire wrapped in a tight spiral around either a round or hexagonal core. Such strings are usually simple to manufacture and the least expensive. They have several drawbacks, however:

Flatwound.

Flatwound strings also have either a round or hex core. However, the winding wire has a rounded square cross-section that has a shallower profile (in cross-section) when tightly wound. This makes for more comfortable playing, and decreased wear for frets and fretboards (this makes them a popular choice for fretless instruments). Squeaking sounds due to fingers sliding along the strings are also decreased significantly. Flatwound strings also have a longer playable life because of smaller grooves for dirt and oil to build up in.  On the other hand, flatwound strings sound less bright than roundwounds and tend to be harder to bend. Flatwounds also usually cost more than roundwounds because of less demand, less production, and higher overhead costs. Manufacturing is also more difficult, as precise alignment of the flat sides of the winding must be maintained (some rotation of the winding on roundwound strings is acceptable).

Halfwound, ground wound, pressure wound.

Halfwound strings, ground wound strings, or pressure wound strings are a cross between roundwound and flatwound. Such strings are usually made by winding round wire around a round or hex core first, then polishing, grinding (thus the name, "ground wound") or pressing the exterior part of the winding until it is practically flat. This results in the flat, comfortable playing feel of flatwounds, along with less squeaking, with a brightness generally between roundwounds and flatwounds. The polishing process removes almost half of the winding wire's mass; thus, to compensate for it, manufacturers use winding wire of a heavier gauge. Because of the extra manufacturing process involved they are normally more expensive than roundwounds, but less than flatwounds.

Core Types.

There are two types, or shapes, of core wire typically used in wound strings.

Hexcore.

Hexcore strings are composed of hexagonal core wire and a tight (usually round) winding. Hexcore string design prevents the winding from slipping around the core – which can occur with round core strings. This may improve tuning stability, flexibility, and reduce string breakage, compared to round core strings.

Round core.

Round core strings are composed of regular round core and a tight (usually round) winding. Round core is the traditional "vintage" way of manufacturing and results in a greater contact between the winding and the core of the string.

Gauge.

Bowed instrument strings, such as for the violin or cello, are usually described by tension rather than gauge. Fretted instruments (guitar, banjo, etc.) strings are usually described by "gauge"—the diameter of the string. The tone of a string depends partly on weight, and, therefore, on its diameter—its gauge. Usually, string manufacturers that don't describe strings by tension list string diameter in thousandths of an inch (0.001 in = 0.0254 mm). The larger the diameter, the heavier the string. Heavier strings require more tension for the same pitch and are, as a consequence, harder to press down to the fingerboard. A fretted instrument that is restrung with different string gauges may require adjustment to the string height above the frets (the "action") to maintain playing ease or keep the strings from buzzing against the frets. The action height of fretless instruments is also adjusted to suit the string gauge or material, as well as the intended playing style.

Guitar.

Steel strings for six-string guitar usually come in sets of matched strings. Sets are usually referenced either by the gauge of the first string (e.g., 9), or by pair of first and last (e.g., 9–42); measurements in thousands of an inch are the "de facto" standard, regardless of whether Imperial units are used in a country. Some manufacturers may have slightly different gauge sequences; the sample data below comes from D'Addario string charts for regular, round-wound, nickel-plated strings.

Electric guitar.

The following table displays the gauges in inches:

Acoustic guitar.

String gauge is subject to personal preferences of the musician, but acoustic guitars are typically strung with a heavier gauge than electric guitars. The need for projection due to lack of amplification is one of the main reasons for this.

Bass guitar.

Bass guitar strings are sometimes made for a particular scale length and come in short, medium, long and extra long (sometimes called super long) scale. Almost all bass guitar strings are made wound. Typical bass guitar strings come in the following gauges:

Bowed strings.

Since the 20th century, with the advent of steel and synthetic core strings, most bowed instrument string makers market their strings by tension rather than by diameter. They typically make string sets in three tension levels:"heavy", "medium", and "light" (German "stark", "mittel", and "weich"). These tension levels are not standardized between manufacturers, and do not correlate to specific diameters. One brand's medium strings may have quite a different tension from another brand's medium. Based on available historical records, gut strings were sold before 1900 in a similar way.  On the other hand, modern gut core strings with metal winding, typically have been sold either ungauged for less expensive brands, or by specific gauge. The Gustav Pirazzi company in Germany introduced the Pirazzi meter (PM) measurement early in the 20th century. One PM equals.05 mm. For example, a 14 1/2 PM gauge string has is.725 mm in diameter. Pirazzi (now known as Pirastro) continues to sell its Oliv, Eudoxa, and Passione brand premium gut core strings by PM gauge. Each string is available in 5 or more discrete gauges. Manufacturers of traditional plain gut strings, often used in historically informed performance, sell their products by light/medium/heavy, by PM, by mm or some combination.

Core materials.

Steel forms the core of most metal strings. Certain keyboard instruments (e.g., harpsichord) and the Gaelic harp use brass. Other natural materials, such as silk or gut—or synthetics such as nylon and kevlar are also used for string cores. (Steel used for strings, called music wire, is hardened and tempered.) Some violin E strings are gold-plated to improve tone quality.

Steel.

Steel or metal strings have become the foundation of strings for the electric guitar and bass. They have a nice, bright tone when compared to nylon string guitars. Their metal composition varies greatly, sometimes using many different alloys as plating. Much of the history about metal strings evolved through innovations with the piano. In fact, the first wound metal strings ever used were used in a piano. However, when it came to getting super small diameter strings with good elastic properties, the electric guitar took the metal string to the next level adapting it for the use of pickups.  Because of the higher tension of steel strings, steel strung guitars are more robustly made than 'classical' guitars, which use synthetic strings. Most jazz and folk string players prefer steel-core strings for their faster response, low cost, and tuning stability.

Nylon.

Nylon string, traditionally used for classical music, has a more mellow tone and the responsiveness of it can be enjoyed typically for folk but other styles of music use it as well (Willie Nelson performs on a nylon string guitar). Note that nylon strings don't work with magnetic pickups, which require ferrous strings that can interact with the magnetic field of the pickups to produce a signal. Nylon strings are made of a softer, less dense material and are under less tension than steel strings (about 50% less). This means they can be used on older guitars that can't support the tension of modern steel strings.  Currently, stranded nylon is one of the most popular materials for the cores of violin, viola, cello, and double bass strings. It's often sold under the trade name of "Perlon". Nylon guitar strings were first developed by Albert Augustine Strings in 1947.

Gut.

The intestine, or gut, of sheep, cattle, and other animals (sometimes called "catgut", though cats were never used as a source for this material) is one of the first materials used to make musical strings. In fact, the Ancient Greek word for string, "khordḗ," has "gut" as its original meaning.  Animal intestines are composed largely of elastomers, making them very flexible. But they are also extremely hygroscopic, which makes them susceptible to pitch fluctuation as a result of changing humidity. Exposure to moisture from the sweat of a musician's hands can cause plain (unwound) gut strings to fray and eventually break. This is not as much of a problem with wound gut strings, in which the gut core, being protected from contact with perspiration by the metal winding (and underlayer, if there is one), lasts a much longer time. Nonetheless, as such a gut string ages and continually responds to cyclic changes in temperature and humidity, the core becomes weak and brittle, and eventually breaks. Furthermore, all gut strings are vulnerable to going out of tune due to changes in "atmospheric" humidity.  However, even after the introduction of metal and synthetic core materials, many musicians still prefer to use gut strings, believing that they provide a superior tone. Players associated with the period performance movement use wound and unwound gut strings as part of an effort to recreate the sound of music of the Classical, Baroque, and Renaissance periods, as listeners would have heard it at the time of composition.  For players of plucked instruments, Nylgut strings are a recently developed alternative to gut strings. They are made from a specialty nylon and purport to offer the same acoustic properties as gut strings without the tuning problems.

Fluoropolymers (aka "Carbon").

Fluoropolymer strings are available for classical guitar, harp, and ukulele. These strings are usually traded under descriptions like "fluorocarbon", "carbon fiber", or "carbon", which is scientifically incorrect.  The so-called "Carbon" material has a higher density than nylon, so that a nylon string can be replaced by a carbon string of smaller diameter. This improves the precision of higher fretted notes, and the resulting vibrational behaviour leads to a more brilliant sound with improved harmonics. In particular, classical guitarists who feel that a nylon G string sounds too dull can use strings that include a carbon G string.

Other polymers.

Other polymers, including polyetheretherketone and polybutylene terephthalate, have also been used.

Silk.

Silk was extensively used in China for traditional Chinese musical instruments until replaced by metal-nylon strings in the 1950s. Only purely silk strings used for the guqin are still produced, while some silver-wound silk strings are still available for classical guitars and ukuleles. The quality in ancient times was high enough that one brand was praised as 'ice strings' for their smoothness and translucent appearance.

Winding materials.

Aluminum, silver, and chrome steel are common windings for bowed instruments like violin and viola, whereas acoustic guitar strings are usually wound with bronze and piano strings are usually wound with copper. To resist corrosion from sweat, aluminium may be used as a resistant alloy such as hydronalium. Classical guitar strings are typically nylon, with the basses being wound with either silver or bronze. Electric guitar strings are usually wound with nickel-plated steel; pure nickel and stainless steel are also used. Bass guitar strings are most commonly wound with stainless steel or nickel. Copper, gold, silver, and tungsten are used for some instruments. Silver and gold are more expensive, and are used for their resistance to corrosion and hypoallergenicity.  Some "historically-informed" strings use an open metal winding with a "barber pole" appearance. This practice improves the acoustic performance of heavier gauge gut strings by adding mass and making the string thinner for its tension. Specimens of such open wound strings are known from the early 18th century, in a collection of artifacts from Antonio Stradivari. "Silk and steel" guitar strings are overwound steel strings with silk filaments under the winding.

Phosphor bronze.

Phosphor bronze was introduced by D'Addario in the early 1970s. Phosphor bronze is said to keep their "new" sound longer than other strings. Small amounts of phosphorus and zinc are added to the bronze mixture. This makes the phosphor bronze slightly more corrosive resistant than 80/20 bronze.

80/20 Bronze.

80/20 bronze strings are 80 percent copper and 20 percent zinc. The zinc also gives it a brighter tone, additional hardness and slows down the aging process. With additional string coating, they are preserved even more. Although, If some of the coating is applied poorly, the strings can lose their tone in just a matter of hours, and if left in high humidity can turn a hint of green because of the copper and corrode with the time. The name "80/20 Bronze" is a misnomer, since bronze is by definition an alloy of copper and tin. "80/20 bronze" strings would be more correctly referred to as brass.

Nickel-plated steel.

Some acoustic players use strings, wound with nickel-plated-steel, meant for electric guitar. The properties of the nickel-plated strings make it a good choice for flattop guitars with sound hole-mounted magnetic pickups.

String corrosion and prevention.

All metal strings are susceptible to oxidation and corrosion. Wound strings commonly use metals such as brass or bronze in their winding. These two metals are very vulnerable to corrosion. The sebaceous gland in the player's skin produces oils that can be acidic. The oils, salts, and moisture from the player's fingers are the largest source of corrosion. The composition of the oil and the oxygen in the air also helps to oxidize and corrode the strings. In steel strings the oxygen reacts with the iron in the steel and it creates the rust. As a result, the string loses its brilliance over time. Water, another by-product of oxidation, increases the potential acid corrosion in oils. Wound strings, such as bronze acoustic strings, are very difficult to keep fresh sounding due to the lack of corrosion resistance. To help solve the corrosion problem strings are either metal plated or polymer coated. The polymer coating is claimed to reduce finger squeak and fret wear, and has better tuning capability. Some companies sell lubricating oils that slow down the oxidation process, increasing the string's life-span. These special lubricating oils are applied to the strings as a barrier to the air, to help slow the oxidation process.

Coating and plating.

Some common types of metal plating on strings include tin, nickel, gold, and silver. Some metals such as gold and silver give the strings a different sound. Among strings coated with a polymer, (polytetrafluoroethylene) Teflon is the most commonly used. Teflon is resistant to many corrosive agents such as: chlorine, acetic acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid. On the microscopic level Teflon has very tightly packed polymeric chains, and these tightly packed chains create a slippery surface that not only helps keep the oil from the player's hands off the strings but makes them smooth to play as well. Ethylene tetrafluorothylene (ETFE) is another polymer that is sometimes used to coat strings. It is abrasion and cut resistant and has many characteristics similar to Teflon.

Boiling strings (guitar and bass).

Some musicians boil guitar or bass strings to rejuvenate them. The high temperature of the boiling water helps free the strings of oil, salt, and grime from the player's hands. When a string is played, very small metal shavings from fret wear may break off and lodge between the windings of the strings. Heating the strings can expand these particles and separate them from the windings. Some players use deionized water to boil strings, believing that mineral deposits in tap water may aid corrosion of the string core. After boiling, strings may have less elasticity and be more brittle, depending on the quality of the alloys involved. Putting the strings through a cycle in the dishwasher has also been known to work.

String vibration.

A string vibrates in a complex harmonic pattern. Every time the player sets a string in motion, a specific set of frequencies resonate based on the harmonic series. The fundamental frequency is the lowest, and it is determined by the density, length and tension of the string. This is the frequency we identify as the pitch of the string. Above that frequency, overtones (or harmonics) are heard, each one getting quieter the higher it is. For example, if the fundamental pitch is 440 Hz (A above middle C), the overtones for an ideal string tuned to that pitch are 880 Hz, 1320 Hz, 1760 Hz, 2200 Hz, etc. The note names for those pitches would be A, A, E, A, C, etc. Due to the physical nature of the strings, however, the higher up the overtones go, the more out of tune (or "false") they are to the fundamental. This is an important consideration for piano tuners, who try to stretch the tuning across the piano to keep overtones more in tune as they go up the keyboard.  In a phenomenon called sympathetic vibration, a string seems to vibrate by itself. This happens when sound waves strike the string at a frequency close to the string's fundamental pitch or one of its overtones. The string is connected to this similar sound wave through the air, which picks up the vibrations of the sound waves at the same frequency, and in turn causes the string to vibrate on its own. When an outside source applies forced vibration that matches a string's natural frequency, the string vibrates.  Resonance can cause audio feedback. For example, in a setup with an acoustic guitar and a PA system, the speaker vibrates at the same natural frequency of a string on the guitar and can force it into vibrational motion. Audio feedback is often seen as an undesirable phenomenon with an acoustic guitar that is plugged into the PA system, because it causes a loud howling sound. However, with electric guitar, some guitarists in heavy metal music and psychedelic rock purposely create feedback by holding an electric guitar close to a powerful, loud guitar amplifier speaker cabinet, with the distortion turned up loud, creating unique high-pitched, sustained sounds. Jimi Hendrix and Brian May were notable users of electric guitar feedback.  For a typical high-E nylon string, the maximum transverse force is roughly 40 times greater than the maximum longitudinal force amplitude. However the longitudinal force increases with the square of the pulse amplitude, so the differences diminish with increasing amplitude. The elastic (Young's) modulus for steel is about 40 times greater than for nylon, and string tensions are about 50% greater, so the longitude and transverse force amplitudes are nearly equal.

Tensile properties.

Tuning a stringed instrument such as a guitar to pitch puts the strings under a large amount of strain, which indicates the amount of stress inside the string. Stress is relative to the stretch or elongation of the strings. As the string is tuned to a higher pitch, it gets longer and thinner. The instrument can go out of tune because if it has been stretched past its elastic limit, it will not recover its original tension. On a stress vs. strain curve, there is a linear region where stress and strain are related called Young's modulus. A newer set of strings will often be in a region on the stress vs. strain curve past the Young's modulus called the plastic region. In the plastic region, plastic deformation occurs—deformation the material cannot recover from. Thus, in the plastic region, the relationship is not linear (Young's modulus is no longer a constant). The elastic region is where elastic deformation is occurring, or deformation from where the string can recover. The linear (i.e. elastic) region is where musicians want to play their instrument.

A string is the vibrating element that produces sound in string instruments such as the guitar, harp, piano (piano wire), and members of the violin family. Strings are lengths of a flexible material that a musical instrument holds under tension so that they can vibrate freely, but controllably. Strings may be "plain", consisting only of a single material, like steel, nylon, or gut, or wound, having a "core" of one material and an overwinding of another. This is to make the string vibrate at the desired pitch, while maintaining a low profile and sufficient flexibility for playability.

En musique, et plus précisément en organologie, une corde est un fil sous tension mécanique, qui, mis en mouvement, entre en vibration et devient le siège d'une onde stationnaire produisant un son.


Overview.

"I'll Fly Away" won two 1992 Emmy Awards (Eric Laneuville for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Directing in a Drama Series for the episode "All God's Children", and for series creators Joshua Brand and John Falsey for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Writing in a Miniseries or a Special), and 23 nominations in total. It won three Humanitas Prizes, two Golden Globe Awards, two NAACP Image Awards for Outstanding Drama Series, and a Peabody Award. However, the series was never a ratings blockbuster, and it was cancelled by NBC in 1993, despite widespread protests by critics and viewer organizations.  After the program's cancellation, a two-hour movie, "I'll Fly Away: Then and Now", was produced, to resolve dangling storylines from season two, and provide the series with a true finale. The movie aired on October 11, 1993, on PBS. Its major storyline closely paralleled the true story of the 1955 murder of Emmett Till in Money, Mississippi. Thereafter, PBS began airing repeats of the original episodes, ceasing after one complete showing of the entire series. The series also aired on PAX.  The series takes its name from a Christian hymn written in 1929 by Albert E. Brumley.  In 1999, "TV Guide" ranked Lilly Harper number 15 on its list of 50 Greatest TV Characters of All Time. In 2013 it ranked the series #9 on their list of 60 shows that were "Cancelled Too Soon".

Setting.

The events of the series take place in the fictional town of Bryland, located in Bryland County.  The exact state in which Bryland is located remains unspecified throughout the series. However, at various points, these Southern states were referred to in such a manner as to eliminate them from possibly being the setting: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and the District of Columbia. Additionally, references to "counties" within the state eliminate Louisiana, where counties are called "parishes".  In "Freedom Bus", Forrest Bedford is referred to as a new U.S. Attorney "in the Fifth District", presumably a reference to the Fifth Judicial Circuit of the federal court system. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Fifth Circuit included Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, and Georgia (along with the Panama Canal Zone). Since the first five states can each be eliminated based upon statements made by characters throughout the series, the most likely setting for the series is Georgia.

I'll Fly Away is an American television drama series that aired on NBC from October 7, 1991, to February 5, 1993. Set during the late 1950s and early 1960s, in an unspecified Southern U.S. state, it starred Regina Taylor as Lilly Harper, a Black housekeeper for the family of district attorney Forrest Bedford, played by Sam Waterston. (The character's name is a peculiar twist on the name of Confederate Army General Nathan Bedford Forrest, an early leader of the Ku Klux Klan.) As the show progressed, Lilly became increasingly involved in the Civil Rights Movement, which eventually pulled in her employer, as well.

Les Ailes du destin ("I'll Fly Away") est une série télévisée américaine en un pilote de 90 minutes, 37 épisodes de 45 minutes et un téléfilm de 90 minutes, créée par Joshua Brand et John Falsey, et diffusée entre le et le sur le réseau NBC.


Medical uses.

Acne.

Minocycline and doxycycline are frequently used for the treatment of acne vulgaris. Both of these closely related antibiotics have similar levels of efficacy, although doxycycline has a slightly lower risk of adverse side effects. Historically, minocycline has been an effective treatment for acne vulgaris. However, acne that is caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a growing problem in many countries. In Europe and North America, a number of people with acne no longer respond well to treatment with tetracycline family antibiotics because their acne symptoms are caused by bacteria (primarily "Cutibacterium acnes") that are resistant to these antibiotics. In order to reduce resistance rates as well as increase the effectiveness of treatment, oral antibiotics should be generally combined with topical acne creams such as benzoyl peroxide or a retinoid (tretinoin, adapalene, etc). Minocycline itself is used both orally and topically in the treatment of acne.

Infections.

Minocycline is also used for other skin infections such as methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" as well as Lyme disease, as the one pill twice daily 100-mg dosage is far easier for patients than the four times a day required with tetracycline or oxytetracycline. Its superior ability to cross the blood-brain barrier adds to its effectiveness against Lyme disease.  Although minocycline's broader spectrum of activity, compared with other members of the group, includes activity against "Neisseria meningitidis", its use for prophylaxis is no longer recommended because of side effects (dizziness and vertigo).  It may be used to treat certain strains of methicillin-resistant "S. aureus" infection and a disease caused by drug-resistant "Acinetobacter" spp.  A list of uses includes:

Other.

Both minocycline and doxycycline have shown effectiveness in asthma due to immune-suppressing effects. Minocycline and doxycycline have modest effectiveness in treating rheumatoid arthritis. However, the 2015 American College of Rheumatology guideline for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis does not include minocycline.

Side effects.

Minocycline may cause upset stomach, diarrhea, dizziness, unsteadiness, drowsiness, mouth sores, headache, and vomiting. It increases sensitivity to sunlight, and may affect the quality of sleep and rarely causes sleep disorders. It has also been linked to cases of lupus. Prolonged use of minocycline can lead to blue-gray staining of skin, fingernails, and scar tissue. This staining is not permanent, but can take a very long time for the skin color to return to normal; however, a muddy brown skin color in sun-exposed areas is usually permanent. Permanent blue discoloration of gums or teeth discoloration may also occur. Rare but serious side effects include fever, yellowing of the eyes or skin, stomach pain, sore throat, vision changes, and mental changes, including depersonalization.  Occasionally, minocycline therapy may result in autoimmune disorders such as drug-related lupus and autoimmune hepatitis, which usually occurs in men who also developed minocycline-induced lupus; however, women are more likely to develop minocycline-induced lupus. Significant or complete recovery occurs in most people who develop minocycline-induced autoimmune problems within a period of a few weeks to a year of cessation of minocycline therapy. Autoimmune problems emerge during chronic therapy, but can sometimes occur after only short courses of a couple of weeks of therapy. Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms syndrome can occur during the first few weeks of therapy with minocycline.  Minocycline, but not other tetracyclines, can cause vestibular disturbances with dizziness, ataxia, vertigo, and tinnitus. These effects are thought to be related to minocycline's greater penetration into the central nervous system. Vestibular side effects are much more common in women than in men, occurring in 50 to 70% of women receiving minocycline. As a result of the frequency of this bothersome side effect, minocycline is rarely used in female patients.  Symptoms of an allergic reaction include rash, itching, swelling, severe dizziness, and trouble breathing. Minocycline has also been reported to very rarely cause idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri), a side effect also more common in female patients, potentially leading to permanent vision damage if not recognized early and treated.  Contrary to most other tetracycline antibiotics (doxycycline excluded), minocycline may be used in those with kidney disease, but may aggravate systemic lupus erythematosus. It may also trigger or unmask autoimmune hepatitis.  Minocycline can cause the rare condition of secondary intracranial hypertension, which has initial symptoms of headache, visual disturbances, dizziness, vomiting, and confusion. Brain swelling and rheumatoid arthritis are rare side effects of minocycline in some people.  Minocycline, like most tetracyclines, becomes dangerous past its expiration date. While most prescription drugs lose potency after their expiration dates, tetracyclines are known to become toxic over time. Expired tetracyclines can cause serious damage to the kidney due to the formation of a degradation product, anhydro-4-epitetracycline. Minocycline's absorption is impaired if taken at the same time of day as calcium or iron supplements. Unlike some of the other tetracycline group antibiotics, it can be taken with calcium-rich foods such as milk, although this does reduce the absorption slightly.  Minocycline, like other tetracyclines, is associated with esophageal irritation and ulceration if insufficient fluids are taken with the drug before sleep.  A 2007 study suggested that minocycline harms amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients. Patients on minocycline declined more rapidly than those on placebo. The mechanism of this side effect is unknown, although a hypothesis is that the drug exacerbated an autoimmune component of the primary disease. The effect does not seem to be dose-dependent because the patients on high doses did not do worse than those on the low doses.

History.

Minocycline was patented in 1961 and came into commercial use in 1971. A topical foam for treatment of acne was approved in 2019.

Society and culture.

Trade names.

Many forms of minocycline are no longer covered by patent, so it is marketed under a variety of trade names:  StoneBridge Pharma also markets Minocycline as Cleeravue-M in combination with SteriLid eyelid cleanser in the treatment of rosacea blepharitis.

Cost.

It is available as a generic medication. A month supply in the United Kingdom costs the NHS about £14 as of 2019. In the United States the wholesale cost of this amount is about US$12.  In October 2015, a bottle of 30 of tablets of one brand cost $1,040.41 wholesale. Expensive medications like this were sold through the specialty pharmacy Philidor by Valeant Pharmaceuticals International Inc in a 2015 controversial legal tangle involving both companies.

Research.

Early research has found a tentative benefit from minocycline in schizophrenia, with several trials underway. A 2014 meta-analysis found minocycline may reduce negative and total symptom scores and was well tolerated.  Current research is examining the possible neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of minocycline against the progression of a group of neurodegenerative disorders including multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Huntington's disease, and Parkinson's disease. As mentioned above, minocycline harms ALS patients.  Minocycline is also known to indirectly inhibit inducible nitric oxide synthase.  A trial found no difference between minocycline and placebo in people with Alzheimers' disease. Minocycline also has been used as a "last-ditch" treatment for toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients. Minocycline is somewhat neuroprotective in mouse models of Huntington's disease.  A 2007 study reported the impact of the antibiotic minocycline on clinical and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) outcomes and serum immune molecules in 40 MS patients over 24 months of open-label minocycline treatment. Despite a moderately high pretreatment relapse rate in the patient group prior to treatment (1.3/year pre-enrollment; 1.2/year during a three-month baseline period), no relapses occurred between months 6 and 24 on minocycline. Also, despite significant MRI disease-activity pretreatment (19/40 scans had gadolinium-enhancing activity during a three-month run-in), the only patient with gadolinium-enhancing lesions on MRI at 12 and 24 months was on half-dose minocycline. Levels of interleukin-12 (IL-12), which at high levels might antagonize the proinflammatory IL-12 receptor, were elevated over 18 months of treatment, as were levels of soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1). The activity of matrix metalloproteinase-9 was decreased by treatment. Clinical and MRI outcomes in this study were supported by systemic immunological changes and call for further investigation of minocycline in MS.  The overall antidepressant effect size of minocycline compared to placebo in a meta-analysis was -0.78, indicative of a potential antidepressant effect.

Minocycline, sold under the brand name Minocin among others, is a tetracycline antibiotic used to treat a number of bacterial infections such as pneumonia. It is generally less preferred than the tetracycline doxycycline. It is also used for the treatment of acne and rheumatoid arthritis. It is taken by mouth or applied to the skin. Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, allergic reactions, and kidney problems. Serious side effects may include anaphylaxis, a lupus-like syndrome, and easy sunburning. Use in the later part of pregnancy may harm the baby and safety during breastfeeding is unclear. It works by decreasing a bacteria's ability to make protein thus stopping its growth. Minocycline was patented in 1961 and came into commercial use in 1971. It is available as a generic medication. A month supply in the United Kingdom costs the NHS about £14 as of 2019. In the United States the wholesale cost of this amount is about US$12. In 2017, it was the 237th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than two million prescriptions.

La minocycline est un antibiotique du groupe des cyclines. Elle fait partie des tétracyclines de deuxième génération. Elle est indiquée contre nombre d'infections bactériennes. On l'utilise principalement comme antiacnéique.


History.

Indigenous Australians first inhabited the area that is now Albert Park around 40,000 years ago. The area was a series of swamps and lagoons. The main park after which the suburb was named was declared a public park and named in 1864 to honour Queen Victoria's consort, Prince Albert.  Albert Park was used as a garbage dump, a military camp and for recreation before the artificial lake was built. In 1854 a land-subdivision survey was done from Park Street, South Melbourne, to the northern edge of the parkland (Albert Road). St Vincent Gardens were laid out and the surrounding streets home to the city's most successful citizens. Street names commemorated Trafalgar and Crimean War personalities.  Heritage Victoria notes that Albert Park's St Vincent Gardens ""is historically important as the premier'square' development in Victoria based on similar models in London. It is significant as the largest development of its type in Victoria and for its unusual development as gardens rather than the more usual small park"" and ""was first laid out in 1854 or 55, probably by Andrew Clarke, the Surveyor-General of Victoria. The current layout is the work of Clement Hodgkinson, the noted surveyor, engineer and topographer, who adapted the design in 1857 to allow for its intersection by the St Kilda railway line. The precinct, which in its original configuration extended from Park Street in the north to Bridport Street in the south and from Howe Crescent in the east to Nelson Road and Cardigan Street in the west, was designed to emulate similar'square' developments in London, although on a grander scale. The main streets were named after British naval heroes. The development of the special character of St Vincent Place has been characterised, since the first land sales in the 1860s, by a variety of housing stock, which has included quality row and detached houses and by the gardens which, although they have been continuously developed, remain faithful to the initial landscape concept."  St Vincent's is a garden of significant mature tree specimens. It is registered with the National Trust and is locally significant for the social focus the gardens provide to the neighbourhood. Activities in the park range from relaxing walks, siestas to organised sports competition. The Albert Park Lawn Bowls Club was established in 1873 and the Tennis Club established 1883, on the site of an earlier croquet ground.

Geography.

Albert Park features part of the massive Albert Park and Lake (formerly South Park in the 19th century until it was also renamed after Prince Albert) and is located nearby. It is a significant state park managed by Parks Victoria. It is also known as the site of the Albert Park Circuit.

Commercial centres.

Commercial centres include Bridport Street, with its cafes and shops and Victoria Avenue, known for its cafes, delicatessens and boutiques.

Beach areas.

Albert Park has a long beach frontage, with several distinctive features, including many grand buildings (such as the Victoria Hotel, a grand hotel and former coffee palace, now café bar, built in 1887) and Victorian terrace homes; Kerferd Kiosk, an iconic Edwardian bathing pavilion and Kerferd Pier, which terminates Kerferd Road and is a jetty onto Port Phillip, used for fishing by many and sharks have occasionally been found around it.

Albert Park and Lake.

The lake is popular with strollers, runners and cyclists. Dozens of small yachts sail around the lake on sunny days. Only the north eastern part of the park and lake is actually in the suburb, the rest is in the neighbouring suburbs of South Melbourne, Melbourne, Middle Park and St Kilda.

Demographics.

At the, Albert Park had a population of 6,215. 66.2% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were England 5.4%, Greece 4.0% and New Zealand 2.5%. 74.2% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Greek at 8.0%. The most common responses for religion were No Religion 39.3% and Catholic 18.4%.

Housing.

Albert Park is composed mainly of Victorian terrace and semi-detached housing. Many residential areas are in heritage overlays to protect their character. Boyd Street, a leafy backstreet near Middle Park, is a fine example of this.

Transport.

Beaconsfield Parade is the main beachside thoroughfare, between St Kilda and Port Melbourne, which runs along the Port Phillip foreshore. Richardson Street and Canterbury Road follows a similar inland route south to St Kilda. The main road arterial is Kerferd Road, a wide boulevard lined with elm trees and a central reservation, which connects from South Melbourne's Albert Road. Pickles Street, Victoria Avenue and Mills Street are the main roads running west and east toward South Melbourne.  Several tram routes service Albert Park; route 1 along Victoria Avenue, route 12 along Mills Street and route 96 on a reservation parallel to Canterbury Road.  Until 1987, Albert Park was serviced by the St Kilda railway line, with Albert Park railway station being located at Bridport Street. The line has since been converted to serve trams, and forms a large part of the route 96 tram line.  CDC Melbourne's route 606 runs through the suburb. There are segregated cycle facilities along the beach and Canterbury Roads, with marked bicycle lanes elsewhere.

Sport.

The suburb has been home to the Formula One Australian Grand Prix since 1996. The Albert Park Circuit runs on public roads. The choice of Albert Park as a Grand Prix venue was controversial, with protests by the Save Albert Park group. In preparing the Reserve for the race existing trees were cut down and replaced during landscaping, roads were upgraded, and facilities were replaced. Both major political parties support the event. The Melbourne Supercars Championship is also held on the same circuit.  Albert Park is the home of soccer club South Melbourne FC who play out of Lakeside Stadium; aptly named due to its positioning next to Albert Park Lake. Lakeside Stadium (known then as Bob Jane Stadium) was redeveloped in 2010 to include an international standard athletics track, as well as new grandstands and administrative facilities, and is also the home of the Victorian Institute of Sport. The stadium was built on the site of the old Lake Oval, which was an historic Australian rules football venue of South Melbourne Football Club.  The Melbourne Sports & Aquatic Centre (MSAC) is a large swimming centre, which hosted squash, swimming, diving events and table tennis during the 2006 Commonwealth Games. The MSAC is also the home of the Melbourne Tigers that play in the South East Australian Basketball League.  In December 2006 polo returned to Albert Park Reserve after an absence of 100 years.  Albert Park is home to a parkrun event. The event at Albert Park is held at 8am every Saturday and starts in the Coot Picnic area, opposite the MSAC.

Albert Park is an inner suburb of Melbourne, Australia, 4 km south of Melbourne's central business district. Its local government area is the City of Port Phillip.

Albert Park est une banlieue de Melbourne. Cette bourgade qui compte habitants (2001) est située à 2 kilomètres au sud de Melbourne. Elle doit son nom au prince Albert, époux de la Reine Victoria. Deux parcs et un lac donnent à cette banlieue un certain cachet.


Exploration sites.

Abandonments.

Ventures into abandoned structures are perhaps the most common example of urban exploration. Many sites are entered first by locals and may have graffiti or other kinds of vandalism, while others are better preserved. Although targets of exploration vary from one country to another, high-profile abandonments include amusement parks, grain elevators, factories, power plants, missile silos, fallout shelters, hospitals, asylums, schools, poor houses, and sanatoriums.  In Japan, abandoned infrastructure is known as (literally "ruins"), and the term is synonymous with the practice of urban exploration. are particularly common in Japan because of its rapid industrialization (e.g., Hashima Island), damage during World War II, the 1980s real estate bubble, and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.  Many explorers find decay of uninhabited space profoundly beautiful, and some are also proficient freelance photographers who document what they see, such as those who document the infrastructure of the former USSR.  Abandoned sites are also popular among historians, preservationists, architects, archaeologists, industrial archaeologists, and ghost hunters.

Active buildings.

Another aspect of urban exploration is the practice of exploring active or "in use" buildings, which includes gaining access to secured or "member-only" areas, mechanical rooms, roofs, elevator rooms, abandoned floors, and other normally unseen parts of working buildings. The term "infiltration" is often associated with the exploration of active structures. People entering restricted areas may be committing trespass, and civil prosecution may result.

Catacombs.

Catacombs such as those found in Paris, Rome, Odessa, and Naples have been investigated by urban explorers. Some consider the Mines of Paris, comprising many of the tunnels that are not open to public tourism, including the catacombs, the "Holy Grail" due to their extensive nature and history. Explorers of these spaces are known as cataphiles.

Sewers and storm drains.

Entry into storm drains, or "draining", is another common form of urban exploration. Groups devoted to the task have arisen, such as the Cave Clan in Australia. Draining has a specialized set of guidelines, the foremost of which is "When it rains, no drains!" The dangers of becoming entrapped, washed away, or killed increase dramatically during heavy rainfall.  A small subset of explorers enter sanitary sewers. Sometimes they are the only connection to caves or other subterranean features. Sewers are among the most dangerous locations to explore owing to risk of poisoning by buildups of toxic gas (commonly methane and hydrogen sulfide).

Transit tunnels.

Exploring active and abandoned subway and railway tunnels, bores, and stations is often considered trespassing and can result in civil prosecution, due to security concerns. As a result, this type of exploration is rarely publicized. An important exception to this is the abandoned subway of Rochester, New York, the only American city with an abandoned subway system that was once operational. The Cincinnati subway is also abandoned, but was never completed. London has a number of stations on the London Underground network that have been closed over the years, with Aldwych tube station a popular location for explorers.

Utility tunnels.

Universities, and other large institutions such as hospitals, often distribute hazardous superheated steam for heating or cooling buildings from a central heating plant. These pipes are generally run through utility tunnels, which are often intended to be accessible solely for the purposes of maintenance. Nevertheless, many of these steam tunnels, especially those on college campuses, have a tradition of exploration by students. This practice was once called "vadding" at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but students there now call it roof and tunnel hacking.  Some steam tunnels have dirt floors, poor lighting and temperatures above. Others have concrete floors, bright light, and more moderate temperatures. Most steam tunnels have large intake fans to bring in fresh air and push the hot air out the back, and these may start without warning. Most active steam tunnels do not contain airborne asbestos, but proper breathing protection may be required for other respiratory hazards. Experienced explorers are very cautious inside active utility tunnels since pipes can spew boiling hot water or steam from leaky valves or pressure relief blowoffs. Often there are puddles of muddy water on the floor, making slips and falls a special concern near hot pipes.  Steam tunnels have generally been secured more heavily in recent years, due to their frequent use for carrying communications network backbone cables, increased safety and liability concerns, and perceived risk of use in terrorist activities.

Popularity.

The rise in urban exploration's popularity can be attributed to increased media attention. Recent television shows such as "Urban Explorers" on the Discovery Channel, "MTV's Fear", and the "Ghost Hunting" exploits of The Atlantic Paranormal Society have packaged the hobby for a popular audience. The fictional film "After..." (2006), a hallucinatory thriller set in Moscow's underground subways, features urban explorers caught up in extreme situations. Talks and exhibits on urban exploration have appeared at the fifth and sixth Hackers on Planet Earth Conference, complementing numerous newspaper articles and interviews.  Another source of popular information is "Cities of the Underworld", a documentary series that ran for three seasons on the History Channel starting in 2007. This series roamed around the world, showing little-known underground structures in remote locales, as well as right under the feet of densely packed city-dwellers.  With the rise in the hobby's popularity, there has been increasing discussion of whether the extra attention has been beneficial. The unspoken rule of urban exploring is "take nothing but photographs, leave nothing but footprints". However different groups such as the New Wave Urbex Smashcrew genres have different intentions and because of the rising popularity, many other individuals who may also have similar intentions are creating concern among many property owners.

Safety and legality.

Urban exploration comes with a number of inherent dangers. For example, storm drains are not designed with human access as their primary use. They can be subject to flash flooding and bad air. There have been a number of deaths in storm water drains, but these are usually during floods, and the victims are normally not urban explorers.  Many abandoned structures have hazards such as unstable structures, unsafe floors, broken glass, unknown chemicals and other harmful substances (most notably asbestos), stray voltage, and entrapment hazards. Other risks include freely roaming guard dogs and hostile squatters. Some abandoned locations may be heavily guarded by motion detectors and active security patrols, while others are more easily accessible and carry less risk of discovery.  Asbestos is a long-term health risk for urban explorers, along with contaminants from dried bird feces, which can cause pigeon-breeder's lung, a form of hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Urban explorers may use dust masks and respirators to mitigate this danger. Some sites are occasionally used by substance abusers for recreation or waste disposal, and there may be used or infected syringes en route, such as those commonly used with heroin.  The activity's growing popularity has resulted in increased attention not just from explorers but also from vandals and law enforcement. The illicit aspects of urban exploring, which may include trespassing and breaking and entering, have had critical attention in mainstream newspapers.  In Australia, lawyers for the Roads and Traffic Authority of New South Wales shut down the Sydney Cave Clan's website after they raised concerns that the portal could "risk human safety and threaten the security of its infrastructure". Another website belonging to the Bangor Explorers Guild was criticized by the Maine State Police for encouraging behavior that "could get someone hurt or killed". The Toronto Transit Commission has used the Internet to crimp subway tunnel explorations, going as far as to send investigators to various explorers' homes.  Jeff Chapman, who authored "Infiltration", writes that genuine urban explorers "never vandalize, steal or damage anything". The thrill comes from "discovery and a few nice pictures". Some explorers also request permission for entry in advance.

Rooftopping.

Rooftopping and skywalking are the ascent of rooftops, cranes, antennas, smokestacks, etc., usually illegally, to get an adrenaline rush and take selfie photos or videos. Rooftopping is different from skywalking because it is mostly about taking panoramic photographs of the scene below and safety (getting home to see and post your photos) is more important than the thrill. Skywalking has been especially popular in Russia.

Photographic documentation.

Many urban explorers adhere to the philosophy of cave explorers and outdoors hikers: "Take nothing but pictures. Leave nothing but footprints." Some are photographers who specialize in documenting urban ruins and scenes of industrial decay. Professional photographers in this field include Julia Solis, Rebecca Lilith Bathory Johnny Joo, Irishmanlost, Seph Lawless, and Andrew L. Moore. Other well-known photographers, such as Jan Saudek, use interiors of abandoned buildings as backdrops for their figurative and portrait works. In recent years the photography blog PetaPixel has run numerous stories about urban exploration photography.

Methods and technology.

Some urban explorers use head-cams such as GoPro or other helmet cameras for videos.  Some also use quadcopter drones for exploration and recording.  The location-based games "Ingress" and the following "Pokémon Go" based on the former have urban exploration elements. While some are concerned with keeping certain sites secret from the public at large, mainly to prevent vandalism, several apps dedicated to urban exploration exist.

In popular culture.

Urban exploration is featured in a number of works, in a variety of media, such as:

Urban exploration (often shortened as UE, urbex and sometimes known as roof-and-tunnel hacking) is the exploration of manmade structures, usually abandoned ruins or hidden components of the manmade environment. Photography and historical interest/documentation are heavily featured in the hobby and it sometimes involves trespassing onto private property. Urban exploration is also called draining (a specific form of urban exploration where storm drains or sewers are explored), urban spelunking, urban rock climbing, urban caving, building hacking, or mousing.

L’exploration urbaine, abrégé urbex (de l'anglais ), est une activité consistant à visiter des lieux construits et abandonnés par l'homme, mais cette pratique inclut également la visite de lieux interdits, cachés ou difficiles d'accès, tel que des tunnels de métro, des catacombes, des chantiers de constructions/rénovations et des rooftop (sommets d'immeubles, monuments...). La pratique regroupe ainsi diverses activités dites «'» comme la « cataphilie », la « toiturophilie ». L’explorateur urbain est communément désigné par le néologisme urbexeur. La pratique s'est très répandue avec l'émergence des réseaux sociaux, notamment grâce à YouTube.


Education.

In the 1950s he took hypokhâgne and khâgne at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand but, contrary to a persistent legend, he was not accepted at the École Normale Supérieure. Thereafter, he obtained a "licence de lettres" (equivalent to the Bachelor of Arts) degree in philosophy. He passed the "agrégation d'histoire" in 1958.

Career.

He was a teacher at the Lycée Lamoricière d'Oran in Algeria until 1960. He wrote a book about his experiences, published under the title "Les Français d'Algérie" (The French of Algeria) (1961).  From 1961 to 1963, he was a resident at the Thiers Foundation. From 1965 to 1977 he was first assistant and then lecturer at the "Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris" (Paris Institute of Political Science). Since 1977 he has been the director of studies at the "École des hautes études en sciences sociales" (School of higher studies in social sciences). In 2014 Nora received the Dan David Prize Award.

Publishing.

Concurrently, Nora had managed an important career in publishing. He joined Éditions Julliard in 1964, where he created the "Archives" paperback collection. In 1965 he joined Éditions Gallimard: the publishing house, which already had a good marketshare in literature, wanted to develop its social sciences sector. It was Pierre Nora who achieved this mission by creating two important collections, the "Library of social sciences" in 1966 and the "Library of histories" in 1970, as well as the "Témoins" collection in 1967.  At Éditions Gallimard, Nora published in these collections that he was directing, important works which generally constitute indispensable references in their fields of research, in particular:  This important role gave to Nora a certain power in French publishing and he was also the object of criticism. To begin, he refused in 1997 to translate Eric Hobsbawm's work, "The Age of Extremes" (1994), because of that author's "attachment to the revolutionary cause." Nora explained that context of hostility towards Communism in France was not appropriate to that type of publication, that all the editors, "like it or not, had an obligation to take account of the intellectual and ideological situation in which they had written their works".

Intellectual life.

In May 1980, Nora founded at Gallimard the review "Le Débat" with philosopher Marcel Gauchet; this quickly became one of the major French intellectual reviews. He had participated at the Saint-Simon Foundation, created in 1982 by François Furet and Pierre Rosanvallon and dissolved in 1999.  He opposed himself to the law of 23 February 2005 "supporting national recognition and national taxation in favour of French repatriations" and cosigned a petition in the daily "Libération" entitled ""Liberté pour l'histoire"". This law, at line 2 of article 4, was abrogated on 15 February 2006, establishing that research programmes must be accorded more importance in lieu of French overseas presence and that the programmes of study came to recognize the positive role.  Nora is equally well known for having directed "Les Lieux de Mémoire", three volumes which gave as their point the work of enumerating the places and the objects in which are the incarnate national memory of the French.  Nora's book "Les Français d'Algérie" (The French of Algeria) (1961) has received scholarly criticism for its bias against French Algerians ("Pied Noirs") – a prejudice held by many French intellectuals of the time. Nora posited that the French Algerians (or settlers) were different from the French of the Metropol. His opinions were developed from his two years as a high school teacher in Algiers. "The French of Algeria" is described as synthesizing "a self-righteous anti-pied noir discourse". [Todd Shepard, "The Invention of Decolonization", Cornell University Press, 2006, pp. 195 – 204.] "The French of Algiers" is often held out as a scholarly work, but as David Prochaska, American historian of French Algeria points out, it is in fact "not based on original research and is devoid of the usual scholarly apparatus". [David Prochaska, "Making Algeria French: Colonialism in Bône, 1870 – 1920", Cambridge, 1990, 6, quotes from Pierre Nora, "Les Français d’Algérie", preface by Charles-Andre Julien (Paris, 1961), 87, 98.]

Private life.

Nora is Jewish. He was married to art historian and curator Francoise Cachin.  Since 2012, he has lived with French journalist Anne Sinclair, ex-wife of journalist Ivan Levai and of former politician Dominique Strauss-Kahn.

Pierre Nora (born 17 November 1931) is a French historian elected to the Académie française on 7 June 2001. He is known for his work on French identity and memory. His name is associated with the study of new history. He is the brother of the late Simon Nora, former French officer.

Pierre Nora, né le dans le de Paris, est un historien français, membre de l'Académie française, connu pour ses travaux sur le « sentiment national » et sa composante mémorielle, sur le métier d'historien, ainsi que pour son rôle dans l'édition en sciences sociales. Son nom est associé à la Nouvelle Histoire.


Early life and family.

Raab grew up in Cologne with his sister and their parents, who owned a butcher's shop. He attended Jesuit boarding school Aloisiuskolleg in Bonn. Before entering the entertainment business, he completed an apprenticeship as a butcher in his parents' shop and studied law before dropping-out of university after five semesters. Raab lives in a suburb of Cologne and has two daughters (born 2004 and 2006) with his girlfriend Nike. Other than this, very little is known about Raab, who deliberately hides his private life from the media.

Career.

Television.

Stefan Raab became popular as host of the comedy show "Vivasion" for the German music television channel VIVA from 1993 to 1998.  In 1999, he created "TV total" which began airing in April 2001 on ProSieben, four times a week. While "TV total" started as a comedy format mainly showing and satirizing funny and embarrassing sequences from other television programs, it soon came to be more of a late night show featuring musical performances—in some ways similar to "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" or "Late Night with Conan O'Brien".  After a boxing match against Regina Halmich in 2001 (rematch 2007) and a speed skating race against Claudia Pechstein in 2002, he also created several other celebrity sports events that are produced regularly, including "TV total Turmspringen" (high diving) and "TV total Stock Car Crash Challenge" (stock car racing). He also brought fun and variety to the show by invented new sports: In November 2003, he initiated the first "official" World Wok racing Championship in Winterberg, Germany. Modified Chinese woks are used to make timed runs down an Olympic bobsled track. The championship took place annually until March 2011, in Innsbruck. The first "Autoball EM", autoball being a version of football played in cars and using an exercise ball to score goals, took place in 2007.  In 2006, Raab invented the game show "Schlag den Raab" (German for "Beat the Raab", remade for British television as Beat the Star and as "Beat your "host"" in several other European countries), in which he competed against a contestant in various disciplines. Some episodes of the show lasted more than five hours with excellent ratings.  Raab frequently organizes "PokerStars.de Nacht", a poker event featuring some celebrity names in German entertainment.  In September 2012, he announced that he would be hosting a new talk show on ProSieben which would include political guests. It began airing on 11 November 2012. It stood in direct competition with the self-titled talk show hosted by Günther Jauch.  In September 2013 Raab was one of four hosts (one from each big television network) at the Federal Election debate between Chancellor Angela Merkel and her challenger Peer Steinbrück.  In mid-2015, Raab announced his retirement from television and stated that he would remain hosting until the end of the year. The last episode of his show "TV total" aired on 16 December and the last episode of "Schlag den Raab" aired on 19 December 2015.

Music.

Raab began working as a freelance producer and composer of jingles and radio commercials in 1990 at his own studio in Cologne.  From 1994 onwards, he produced a number of popular songs, including "Böörti Böörti Vogts" (a song about Berti Vogts), "Hier kommt die Maus" ("Here comes the mouse", a tribute to the children's television series Die Sendung mit der Maus), "Maschendrahtzaun", "Wir kiffen", "Gebt das Hanf frei!" ("Legalise Dope!", featuring Shaggy and samples from German politician Hans-Christian Ströbele), "Hol' mir ma' 'ne Flasche Bier" ("Get me a bottle o' beer", containing samples from then-Chancellor Gerhard Schröder), and "Space Taxi" from the soundtrack of the movie Traumschiff Surprise - Periode 1.  He wrote the song for the German entry to the Eurovision Song Contest 1998, Guildo Horn's "Guildo hat euch lieb!", and in the Eurovision Song Contest 2000 he took part himself, performing the nonsense song "Wadde hadde dudde da?". Raab cast the German entry for the 2004 Eurovision Song Contest in a talent show contest called "SSDSGPS" ("Stefan sucht den Super-Grand-Prix-Star", "Stefan seeks the super Grand-Prix star", satirising the title of the German Idol series Deutschland sucht den Superstar, "DSDS"). The winner, Maximilian Mutzke, came in eighth place.  Bored with the Eurovision Song Contest, Raab came up with the Bundesvision Song Contest in 2005 ("Bundes"republik Deutschland = Federal Republic of Germany). The contest features representatives from each of the 16 states of Germany and stipulates that their song has to be at least partly in German.  In 2009, Raab was approached by the public broadcaster NDR, a member of the ARD broadcasting consortium, to jointly organise a national preselection in order to determine the German entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2010. It was revealed that Raab initially refused the request, but that his television network ProSieben accepted the offer to work with ARD/NDR. As a result of the cooperation, the talent show contest Unser Star für Oslo ("Our Star for Oslo") took place from 2 February 2010 onwards, stretching across 8 shows. Raab took a lead role in the programmes as head of the jury. In the national final on 12 March 2010, Lena Meyer-Landrut emerged as winner. On 29 May 2010, Meyer-Landrut won the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 with the song "Satellite", claiming the first German Eurovision victory in 28 years.  As a musician, Raab is an autodidact, playing various instruments, such as piano, drums, guitar, ukulele, and some wind instruments.

Participation at the Eurovision Song Contest.

On 19 May 2011 Raab eventually ended his Eurovision involvement as a host, chairman of the jury, composer and musical producer.

Awards.

For his television show Vivasion Raab received the "Goldener Löwe" (Golden Lion), the predecessor to "Deutscher Fernsehpreis" (German Television Award), in 1996. For "TV total" he received the "Deutscher Fernsehpreis" in 1999 as well as the comedy award "Rose d'or" in 2001.  For his talent show "SSDSGPS" he was awarded the "Adolf-Grimme-Preis" in 2005 in for the "discovery and support of young music talents". On 29 May 2005, Stefan Raab received the "Deutsch-Türkischer Freundschaftspreis" (German-Turkish Friendship Award) for his TV total specials from Istanbul in preparation for the Eurovision Song Contest 2004. He won the "Bravo Otto" in the category "Comedystar" from 2000 to 2003. In 2000 and 2005 Raab was awarded the "ECHO" (German music award) as "Best National Producer". In 2005 he also received the ECHO award as "media partner of the year").  On 29 September 2007, Raab received the "Deutscher Fernsehpreis" for "best entertainment show" for the fifth episode of "Schlag den Raab". On 6 February 2008 the show was awarded the "Goldene Kamera" (Golden Camera). Furthermore, Raab received the media award "Bambi" on 27 November 2008. In 2009 Raab won the "Herbert Award 2009" for "best television sports show" with the "TV total Turmspringen".  Madame Tussauds in Berlin has displayed a wax figure of Stefan Raab since April 2009.  As the initiator and president of the jury of the show "Unser Star für Oslo" he was awarded the "Bayerischer Fernsehpreis" (Bavarian television award) in 2010.  On 12 November 2011, Stefan Raab came second in synchronised diving, teaming with "Elton" in Munich, at the TV Total Turmspringen 2011 event. This was his first ever podium along with Elton at this event.

Controversies.

Raab has been the subject of lawsuits throughout his career, some of which have gained public attention. The two most referenced cases are:

Stefan Konrad Raab (born 20 October 1966) is a German entertainer, comedian, musician and former television host. Raab began his television career hosting the comedy show "Vivasion" in 1993. He became well known in 1994 after composing a hit single spoofing national football coach Berti Vogts. From 1999 to 2015, he hosted the late-night comedy show "TV total" and has also created a number of other television shows, such as "Schlag den Raab" and "Bundesvision Song Contest". In the early 2010s, Raab was considered the "most powerful man in German entertainment television".

Stefan Raab, de son vrai nom Stefan Konrad Raab, né le à Cologne en Allemagne, est un animateur télévision et musicien allemand.


Plot.

One of Jarry's 'pataphysical works, the novel relates the adventures of Dr. Faustroll and his companion, a lawyer named Panmuphle, on their travels in a copper skiff on a sea that is superimposed over the streets and buildings of Paris. Written in the first person by Panmuphle, the narrative describes the fantastic islands that they visit. The pair are accompanied by a monkey named Bosse-de-Nage, who perishes along the way, leaving Panmuphle wondering if he had imagined him or whether he had been real.  At the end of the novel Dr. Faustroll dies, and he sends a telepathic letter to Lord Kelvin describing the afterlife and the cosmos. The symbolism of the novel has imagination and language overriding the reality of the French capital, and the story is wryly comic and surrealistic in nature. The novel concludes with the line (in italics): ""La 'Pataphysique est la science...""  Jarry wrote of the novel: "This book will not be published in full until the author has acquired enough experience to savour all its beauties". ("Ce livre ne sera publié intégralement que quand l'auteur aura acquis assez d'experience pour en savourer toutes les beautés".)  And indeed it was published only after Jarry's death in 1907.

Influence.

As part of a general influence by dadaist literature, musician Gregory Scharpen, as part of his Thomas Carnacki project, released the "Oar of Panmuphle" album with the title referencing "Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, Pataphysician". The blackgaze band Bosse-de-Nage, which takes much of its lyrical inspiration from literary surrealism, is named after the monkey from this book.

Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, Pataphysician (original title in French: Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll pataphysicien : Roman néo-scientifique suivi de Spéculations). A novel by French Symbolist author Alfred Jarry which influenced Surrealism, it features Doctor Faustroll (an allusion to Doctor Faustus), a scientist who is born in 1898 in Circassia at the age of 63, and who dies the same year at the same age.

Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien est un ouvrage romanesque d'Alfred Jarry achevé en 1898 et édité pour la première fois en 1911 chez Fasquelle. On y suit les pérégrinations à travers Paris du Docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien, de son domestique Bosse-de-Nage, cynocéphale papion (babouin), et de l'huissier de justice René-Isidore Panmuphle, venu saisir les biens de Faustroll. C'est la Bible du Collège de Pataphysique, qui y a consacré de nombreuses exégèses.


Background.

Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with the opening of the rail link to France and a casino. Monaco's economy is now primarily geared toward finance, commerce, and tourism.

Modern times.

Low taxes have drawn many foreign companies to Monaco and account for around 75% of the $5.748 billion annual GDP income in (2011). Similarly, tourism accounts for close to 15% of the annual revenue, as the Principality of Monaco also has been a major center for tourism ever since the famed Monte Carlo Casino, which was established in 1856. The casino is alluded to in the ABBA song "Money, Money, Money".  Financial and insurance activities, along with scientific and technical activities are main contributors to GDP of Monaco. Banking sector of Monaco is rather large: in 2015 consolidated banking assets 8.42 times exceeded the country's GDP. Banks operating in Monaco traditionally specialize in private banking, asset and wealth management services.  An economic and customs union with France governs customs, postal services, telecommunications, and banking in Monaco. Before the euro, Monaco used the French franc. Now part of the Eurozone, but not the EU, Monaco mints its own euro coins.  All residents pay tax in the form of 19.6% value-added tax on all goods and services.  Monaco is noted for its activity in the field of marine sciences. Its Oceanographic Museum, formerly directed by Jacques-Yves Cousteau, is one of the most renowned institutions of its kind in the world. Monaco imports and exports products and services from all over the world. There is no commercial agriculture in Monaco; it is 100% urban.

Tax haven.

Monaco levies no income tax on individuals. The absence of a personal income tax in the principality has attracted to it a considerable number of wealthy "tax refugee" residents from European countries who derive the majority of their income from activity outside Monaco; celebrities such as Formula One drivers attract most of the attention, but the vast majority of them are less well-known business people.  In 2000, a report by the French parliamentarians, Arnaud Montebourg and Vincent Peillon, alleged that Monaco had lax policies with respect to money laundering, including within its famed casino, and that the government of Monaco had been placing political pressure on the judiciary so that alleged crimes were not properly investigated.  In 1998, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) issued a first report on the consequences of the tax havens' financial systems. Monaco did not appear in the list of these territories until 2004, when OECD became indignant regarding the Monegasque situation and denounced it in its last report, as well as Andorra, Liechtenstein, Liberia and the Marshall Islands, underlining its lack of co-operation as regards to financial information disclosure and availability.  In 2000, the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) stated: "The anti-money laundering system in Monaco is comprehensive. However, difficulties have been encountered with Monaco by countries in international investigations on serious crimes that appear to be linked also with tax matters. In addition, the FIU of Monaco (SICCFIN) suffers a great lack of adequate resources. The authorities of Monaco have stated that they will provide additional resources to SICCFIN." The Principality is no longer blamed in the 2005 FATF report, as well as all other territories. However, since 2003, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has identified Monaco, along with 36 other territories, as a tax haven.  The Council of Europe also decided to issue reports naming tax havens. Twenty-two territories, including Monaco, were thus evaluated between 1998 and 2000 on a first round. Monaco is the only territory that refuses to perform the second round, initially forecast between 2001 and 2003, whereas the 21 other territories are implementing the third and last round, planned between 2005 and 2007.

The economy of Monaco is reliant on tourism and banking. Monaco, situated on the French coast of the Mediterranean Sea, is a popular resort, attracting tourists to its casino and pleasant climate.

L'économie de Monaco, comme celle d'autres micro-États, repose sur les activités liées au tourisme mais également sur les activités financières liées à son statut fiscal particulier.


Description of the Scheimpflug principle.

Normally, the lens and image (film or sensor) planes of a camera are parallel, and the plane of focus (PoF) is parallel to the lens and image planes. If a planar subject (such as the side of a building) is also parallel to the image plane, it can coincide with the PoF, and the entire subject can be rendered sharply. If the subject plane is not parallel to the image plane, it will be in focus only along a line where it intersects the PoF, as illustrated in Figure 1.  But when a lens is tilted with respect to the image plane, an oblique tangent extended from the image plane and another extended from the lens plane meet at a line through which the PoF also passes, as illustrated in Figure 2. With this condition, a planar subject that is not parallel to the image plane can be completely in focus. While many photographers were/are unaware of the exact geometric relationship between the PoF, lens plane, and film plane, swinging and tilting the lens to swing and tilt the PoF was practiced since the mid-1800s. But, when Carpentier and Scheimpflug wanted to produce equipment to automate the process, they needed to find a geometric relationship.  Scheimpflug (1904) referenced this concept in his British patent; Carpentier (1901) also described the concept in an earlier British patent for a perspective-correcting photographic enlarger. The concept can be inferred from a theorem in projective geometry of Gérard Desargues; the principle also readily derives from simple geometric considerations and application of the Gaussian thin-lens formula, as shown in the section Proof of the Scheimpflug principle.

Changing the plane of focus.

When the lens and image planes are not parallel, adjusting focus rotates the PoF rather than merely displacing it along the lens axis. The axis of rotation is the intersection of the lens's front focal plane and a plane through the center of the lens parallel to the image plane, as shown in Figure 3. As the image plane is moved from IP to IP, the PoF rotates about the axis G from position PoF to position PoF; the "Scheimpflug line" moves from position S to position S. The axis of rotation has been given many different names: "counter axis" (Scheimpflug 1904), "hinge line" (Merklinger 1996), and "pivot point" (Wheeler).  Refer to Figure 4; if a lens with focal length f is tilted by an angle θ relative to the image plane, the distance J from the center of the lens to the axis G is given by  If v′ is the distance along the line of sight from the image plane to the center of the lens, the angle ψ between the image plane and the PoF is given by  Equivalently, on the object side of the lens, if u′ is the distance along the line of sight from the center of the lens to the PoF, the angle ψ is given by  The angle ψ increases with focus distance; when the focus is at infinity, the PoF is perpendicular to the image plane for any nonzero value of tilt. The distances u′ and v′ along the line of sight are "not" the object and image distances u and v used in the thin-lens formula  where the distances are perpendicular to the lens plane. Distances u and v are related to the line-of-sight distances by  For an essentially planar subject, such as a roadway extending for miles from the camera on flat terrain, the tilt can be set to place the axis G in the subject plane, and the focus then adjusted to rotate the PoF so that it coincides with the subject plane. The entire subject can be in focus, even if it is not parallel to the image plane.  The plane of focus also can be rotated so that it does not coincide with the subject plane, and so that only a small part of the subject is in focus. This technique sometimes is referred to as "anti-Scheimpflug", though it actually relies on the Scheimpflug principle.  Rotation of the plane of focus can be accomplished by rotating either the lens plane or the image plane. Rotating the lens (as by adjusting the front standard on a view camera) does not alter linear perspective in a planar subject such as the face of a building, but requires a lens with a large image circle to avoid vignetting. Rotating the image plane (as by adjusting the back or rear standard on a view camera) alters perspective (e.g., the sides of a building converge), but works with a lens that has a smaller image circle. Rotation of the lens or back about a horizontal axis is commonly called "tilt", and rotation about a vertical axis is commonly called "swing".

Camera movements.

Tilt and swing are movements available on most view cameras, often on both the front and rear standards, and on some small- and medium format cameras using special lenses that partially emulate view-camera movements. Such lenses are often called tilt-shift or "perspective control" lenses. For some camera models there are adapters that enable movements with some of the manufacturer's regular lenses, and a crude approximation may be achieved with such attachments as the 'Lensbaby' or by 'freelensing'.

Depth of field.

When the lens and image planes are parallel, the depth of field (DoF) extends between parallel planes on either side of the plane of focus. When the Scheimpflug principle is employed, the DoF becomes wedge shaped (Merklinger 1996, 32; Tillmanns 1997, 71), with the apex of the wedge at the PoF rotation axis, as shown in Figure 5. The DoF is zero at the apex, remains shallow at the edge of the lens's field of view, and increases with distance from the camera. The shallow DoF near the camera requires the PoF to be positioned carefully if near objects are to be rendered sharply.  On a plane parallel to the image plane, the DoF is equally distributed above and below the PoF; in Figure 5, the distances y and y on the plane VP are equal. This distribution can be helpful in determining the best position for the PoF; if a scene includes a distant tall feature, the best fit of the DoF to the scene often results from having the PoF pass through the vertical midpoint of that feature. The angular DoF, however, is "not" equally distributed about the PoF.  The distances y and y are given by (Merklinger 1996, 126)  where f is the lens focal length, v′ and u′ are the image and object distances parallel to the line of sight, u is the hyperfocal distance, and J is the distance from the center of the lens to the PoF rotation axis. By solving the image-side equation for for v′ and substituting for v′ and u in the equation above, the values may be given equivalently by  where N is the lens f-number and c is the circle of confusion. At a large focus distance (equivalent to a large angle between the PoF and the image plane),, and (Merklinger 1996, 48)  or  Thus at the hyperfocal distance, the DoF on a plane parallel to the image plane extends a distance of J on either side of the PoF.  With some subjects, such as landscapes, the wedge-shaped DoF is a good fit to the scene, and satisfactory sharpness can often be achieved with a smaller lens f-number (larger aperture) than would be required if the PoF were parallel to the image plane.

Selective focus.

The region of sharpness can also be made very small by using large tilt and a small "f"-number. For example, with 8° tilt on a 90 mm lens for a small-format camera, the total vertical DoF at the hyperfocal distance is approximately  At an aperture of "f"/2.8, with a circle of confusion of 0.03 mm, this occurs at a distance "u′" of approximately  Of course, the tilt also affects the position of the PoF, so if the tilt is chosen to minimize the region of sharpness, the PoF cannot be set to pass through more than one arbitrarily chosen point. If the PoF is to pass through more than one arbitrary point, the tilt and focus are fixed, and the lens "f"-number is the only available control for adjusting sharpness.

Derivation of the formulas.

Proof of the Scheimpflug principle.

In a two-dimensional representation, an object plane inclined to the lens plane is a line described by  By optical convention, both object and image distances are positive for real images, so that in Figure 6, the object distance "u" increases to the left of the lens plane LP; the vertical axis uses the normal Cartesian convention, with values above the optical axis positive and those below the optical axis negative.  The relationship between the object distance "u", the image distance "v", and the lens focal length "f" is given by the thin-lens equation  solving for "u" gives  so that  The magnification "m" is the ratio of image height "y" to object height  "y" and "y" are of opposite sense, so the magnification is negative, indicating an inverted image. From similar triangles in Figure 6, the magnification also relates the image and object distances, so that  On the image side of the lens,  giving  The locus of focus for the inclined object plane is a plane; in two-dimensional representation, the y-intercept is the same as that for the line describing the object plane, so the object plane, lens plane, and image plane have a common intersection.  A similar proof is given by Larmore (1965, 171–173).

Angle of the PoF with the image plane.

From Figure 7,  where u′ and v′ are the object and image distances along the line of sight and S is the distance from the line of sight to the Scheimpflug intersection at S. Again from Figure 7,  combining the previous two equations gives  From the thin-lens equation,  Solving for u′ gives  substituting this result into the equation for gives  or  Similarly, the thin-lens equation can be solved for v′, and the result substituted into the equation for to give the object-side relationship  Noting that  the relationship between ψ and θ can be expressed in terms of the magnification m of the object in the line of sight:

Proof of the "hinge rule".

From Figure 7,  combining with the previous result for the object side and eliminating ψ gives  Again from Figure 7,  so the distance d is the lens focal length f, and the point G is at the intersection the lens's front focal plane with a line parallel to the image plane. The distance J depends only on the lens tilt and the lens focal length; in particular, it is not affected by changes in focus. From Figure 7,  so the distance to the Scheimpflug intersection at S varies as the focus is changed. Thus the PoF rotates about the axis at G as focus is adjusted.

The Scheimpflug principle is the geometric rule that describes the orientation of the plane of focus, the lens plane, and the image plane of an optical system (such as a camera) when the lens plane is not parallel to the image plane. It is applicable to the use of some camera movements on a view camera. It is also the principle used in corneal pachymetry, the mapping of corneal topography, done prior to refractive eye surgery such as LASIK, and used for early detection of keratoconus. The principle is named after Austrian army Captain Theodor Scheimpflug, who used it in devising a systematic method and apparatus for correcting perspective distortion in aerial photographs; even though Captain Scheimpflug himself credits Jules Carpentier with the rule, thus making it an example of Stigler's law of eponymy.

La loi de Scheimpflug, du nom de Theodor Scheimpflug, est une loi optique concernant la photographie qui s'énonce ainsi :


Life and training.

Callot was born and died in Nancy, the capital of Lorraine, now in France. He came from an important family (his father was master of ceremonies at the court of the Duke), and he often describes himself as having noble status in the inscriptions to his prints. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a goldsmith, but soon afterward travelled to Rome where he learned engraving from an expatriate Frenchman,. He probably then studied etching with Antonio Tempesta in Florence, where he lived from 1612 to 1621. More than 2,000 preparatory drawings and studies for prints survive, but no paintings by him are known, and he probably never trained as a painter.  During his period in Florence he became an independent master, and worked often for the Medici court. After the death of Cosimo II de' Medici during 1621, he returned to Nancy where he lived for the rest of his life, visiting Paris and the Netherlands later during the decade. He was commissioned by the courts of Lorraine, France and Spain, and by publishers, mostly in Paris. Although he remained in Nancy, his prints were distributed widely through Europe; Rembrandt was a keen collector of them.

Technical innovations: échoppe, new hard ground, stopping-out.

His technique was exceptional, and was helped by important technical advances he made. He developed the échoppe, a type of etching-needle with a slanting oval section at the end, which enabled etchers to create a swelling line, as engravers were able to do.  He also seems to have been responsible for an improved recipe for the etching ground that coated the plate and was removed to form the image, using lute-makers varnish rather than a wax-based formula. This enabled lines to be etched more deeply, prolonging the life of the plate in printing, and also greatly reducing the risk of "foul-biting", such that acid gets through the ground to the plate where it is not intended to, producing spots or blotches on the image. Previously the risk of foul-biting had always been present, preventing an engraver from investing too much time on a single plate that risked being ruined by foul-biting. Now etchers could do the very detailed work that was previously the monopoly of engravers, and Callot made good use of the new possibilities.  He also made more extensive and sophisticated use of multiple "stoppings-out" than previous etchers had done. This is the technique of letting the acid dissolve lightly over the whole plate, then stopping-out those parts of the work which the artist wishes to keep shallow by covering them with ground before bathing the plate in acid again. He achieved unprecedented subtlety in effects of distance and light and shade by careful control of this process. Most of his prints were relatively small – as much as about six inches or 15 cm on their longest dimension.  One of his devotees, the Parisian Abraham Bosse spread Callot's innovations all over Europe with the first published manual of etching, which was translated into Italian, Dutch, German and English.

"Miseries of War".

His most famous prints are his two series of prints each on "the Miseries and Misfortunes of War". These are known as "Les Grandes Misères de la guerre", consisting of 18 prints published during 1633, and the earlier and incomplete "Les Petites Misères" – referring to their sizes, large and small (though even the large set are only about 8 x 13 cm). These images show soldiers pillaging and burning their way through towns, country and convents, before being variously arrested and executed by their superiors, lynched by peasants, or surviving to live as crippled beggars. At the end the generals are rewarded by their monarch. During 1633, the year the larger set was published, Lorraine had been invaded by the French during the Thirty Years' War and Callot's artwork is still noted with Francisco Goya's "Los Desastres de la Guerra" ("The Disasters of War"), which was influenced by Callot – (Goya owned a series of the prints), as among the most powerful artistic statements of the inhumanity of war.

Grotesque Dwarves.

Callot's series of "Grotesque Dwarves" were to inspire Derby porcelain and other companies to create pottery figures known as "Mansion House Dwarves" or "Grotesque Dwarves". The former title comes from a father and son who were paid to wander around the Mansion House in London wearing oversized hats that contained advertisements.  Varie Figure Gobbi – Series of 21 etchings, 1616

Jacques Callot (; – 1635) was a baroque printmaker and draftsman from the Duchy of Lorraine (an independent state on the north-eastern border of France, southwestern border of Germany and overlapping the southern Netherlands). He is an important person in the development of the old master print. He made more than 1,400 etchings that chronicled the life of his period, featuring soldiers, clowns, drunkards, Gypsies, beggars, as well as court life. He also etched many religious and military images, and many prints featured extensive landscapes in their background.

Jacques Callot, né à Nancy en 1592 et mort à Nancy le, est un dessinateur et graveur lorrain, dont l'œuvre la plus connue aujourd'hui est une série de dix-huit eaux-fortes intitulée "Les Grandes Misères de la guerre", évoquant les ravages de la Guerre de Trente Ans qui se déroulait alors en Europe.


Sevel Nord.

Sevel Nord (from Società Europea Veicoli Leggeri") is a car factory near Valenciennes, France, with manufacturing commencing in 1993. It was a joint venture between PSA Peugeot Citroën and Fiat, but Fiat sold its share to PSA in 2012. Sevel Nord continued to manufacture vans for Fiat until 2015, and from 2013 for Toyota. A third generation of light commercial vans and passenger minivans was launched in 2016.  It has a production capacity of 200,000 vehicles per year, and a total of 2,400 employees. In 2011 some 94,000 vans were manufactured, 74,000 of which were Peugeot and Citroen and 20,000 were Fiat models.  Sevel Nord has produced:

Sevel Sud.

Sevel Atessa.

The Sevel Sud (from Società Europea Veicoli Leggeri") is a car factory at Atessa Val Di Sangro, Italy. The complex is a 50-50 joint venture between FCA and Groupe PSA. The factory began manufacturing in 1981.  It occupies an area of more than 1.2 million square meters, of which 344 000 are covered. It has a production capacity of 250,000 vehicles per year, with a total of 6,300 workers employed. In 2013, Fiat and PSA announced their new investment for a new generation van, with a €550 million/€150 million split in investment, with the joint venture scheduled to run until 2019. The facelifted third generation model was launched in 2014. In September 2018 the 6 millionth vehicle (a Fiat Ducato) was built in the Sevel Atessa factory.  Production by model between 2000 and 2007 in the Fiat-Sevel Sud factory:  Source OICA.  "Note": The Fiat Ducato is also manufactured in Brazil (6,000 ex per year) and in Russia (15,000 ex per year since 2007).

Sevel Campania.

The Sevel Campania SPA (former ARVECO - Alfa Romeo Industrial Vehicles) is the second factory of the Sevel Sud located in Pomigliano d'Arco Naples. The factory produced the Fiat Ducato, Fiat Talento and the rebadged Alfa Romeo AR6 until 1994 when was closed.

Sevel Uruguay.

Sevel Uruguay, located in Montevideo, Uruguay is an assembler of automobiles branded Fiat, Alfa Romeo and Iveco. The company was founded in 1984 and since 1992 it has assembled vehicles as CKD -related kits. The vehicle identification number, however, uses the plant's own brand code 9U1.  In Uruguay these have been assembled: Fiat Uno, Fiat Uno Way, Fiat Fiorino, Fiat Punto, Fiat Palio, Fiat Palio Weekend, Fiat Siena, Fiat Strada Trekking, Fiat Stilo, Fiat Idea, Fiat Idea Adventure, Fiat Linea, Fiat Ducato and Iveco Daily. Some of the vehicles assembled in Uruguay are also marketed in Central America.

Tofaş-built vehicles.

Vehicles built by Tofaş:

Sevel S.p.A. (acronym of "Società Europea Veicoli Leggeri" - European Light Vehicle Company) is an Italian company which produces light commercial vehicles. It was established in 1978 and founded by Fiat Chrysler Automobiles and Groupe PSA. Formerly, Alfa Romeo, Lancia and Talbot were also part of the joint venture. Sevel Argentina was its subsidiary. Sevel Sud in Italy began manufacturing in 1981. Sevel Nord in France started in 1993. Fiat sold its share of Sevel Nord to PSA in 2012. A joint venture extension for Sevel Sud sees joint manufacturing remaining there until 2023.

Sevel S.p.A (Società Europea Veicoli Leggeri - Société Européenne de Véhicules Légers) est une société conjointe PSA Peugeot Citroën - Fiat Auto, spécialisée dans la production de véhicules utilitaires et monospaces créée en 1978.


Development tools.

Hypermedia may be developed in a number of ways. Any programming tool can be used to write programs that link data from internal variables and nodes for external data files. Multimedia development software such as Adobe Flash, Adobe Director, Macromedia Authorware, and MatchWare Mediator may be used to create stand-alone hypermedia applications, with emphasis on entertainment content. Some database software, such as Visual FoxPro and FileMaker Developer, may be used to develop stand-alone hypermedia applications, with emphasis on educational and business content management.  Hypermedia applications may be developed on embedded devices for the mobile and the digital signage industries using the Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) specification from W3C (World Wide Web Consortium). Software applications, such as Ikivo Animator and Inkscape, simplify the development of hypermedia content based on SVG. Embedded devices, such as the iPhone, natively support SVG specifications and may be used to create mobile and distributed hypermedia applications.  Hyperlinks may also be added to data files using most business software via the limited scripting and hyperlinking features built in. Documentation software, such as the Microsoft Office Suite and LibreOffice, allow for hypertext links to other content within the same file, other external files, and URL links to files on external file servers. For more emphasis on graphics and page layout, hyperlinks may be added using most modern desktop publishing tools. This includes presentation programs, such as Microsoft PowerPoint and LibreOffice Impress, add-ons to print layout programs such as Quark Immedia, and tools to include hyperlinks in PDF documents such as Adobe InDesign for creating and Adobe Acrobat for editing. Hyper Publish is a tool specifically designed and optimized for hypermedia and hypertext management. Any HTML editor may be used to build HTML files, accessible by any web browser. CD/DVD authoring tools, such as DVD Studio Pro, may be used to hyperlink the content of DVDs for DVD players or web links when the disc is played on a personal computer connected to the internet.

Learning.

There have been a number of theories concerning hypermedia and learning. One important claim in the literature on hypermedia and learning is that it offers more control over the instructional environment for the reader or student. Another claim is that it levels the playing field among students of varying abilities and enhances collaborative learning. A claim from psychology includes the notion that hypermedia more closely models the structure of the brain, in comparison with printed text.

Application programming interfaces.

Hypermedia is used as a medium and constraint in certain application programming interfaces. HATEOAS, Hypermedia as the Engine of Application State, is a constraint of the REST application architecture where a client interacts with the server entirely through hypermedia provided dynamically by application servers. This means that in theory no API documentation is needed, because the client needs no prior knowledge about how to interact with any particular application or server beyond a generic understanding of hypermedia. In other service-oriented architectures (SOA), clients and servers interact through a fixed interface shared through documentation or an interface description language (IDL).

Hypermedia, an extension of the term hypertext, is a nonlinear medium of information that includes graphics, audio, video, plain text and hyperlinks. This designation contrasts with the broader term "multimedia", which may include non-interactive linear presentations as well as hypermedia. It is also related to the field of electronic literature. The term was first used in a 1965 article written by Ted Nelson.

Un hypermédia est une extension de l'hypertexte à des données multimédias, qui ajoute aux informations de type texte d'autres médias comme des images, des sons, des vidéos ou encore des données multimédia. Le terme « hypermédia » a été cité pour la première fois par Ted Nelson en 1965. Il a, par la suite, été utilisé dans d'autres domaines, notamment par Chiel Kattenbelt pour désigner le théâtre.