Meteorological history.

A broad area of low pressure formed over the western Caribbean Sea on October 8, and it persisted until October 11, when a tropical wave reached the area and caused the convection to organize, resulting in the development of a low-level circulation. Convection increased and organized around the circulation's center late on October 12, and the system organized into Tropical Depression Thirteen on October 13 off the north coast of Honduras. The depression continued to organize over the favorable conditions present in the Caribbean Sea, and attained tropical storm status later on October 13, when it was assigned the name Irene. Operationally, the system remained a tropical wave until it already reached tropical storm strength.  Tropical Storm Irene strengthened as it moved northward, and reached maximum sustained winds of 70 mph (115 km/h) early on October 14. Operationally, Irene was upgraded to a hurricane on October 14, although later analysis after the hurricane season indicated it remained a tropical storm until later. Irene continued to move towards the north-northeast, crossed over the western portion of the Isla de la Juventud as a strong tropical storm, and hours later, it struck mainland Cuba near Batabano. The storm was able to strengthen further over the Florida Straits, and Irene attained hurricane status on October 15. It passed over Key West, turned more to the north-northeast, and struck mainland Florida at Cape Sable as an 80 mph (130 km/h) hurricane. Irene entered the Atlantic Ocean near Jupiter, Florida early on October 16, still as a Category1 hurricane. It turned to the north, remained a hurricane despite little convection, then turned to the northeast in response to an approaching upper-level trough. Just offshore, Irene moved parallel to the coastlines of South Carolina and North Carolina on October 17. On October 18, as it interacted with very warm ocean waters and the upper level trough, Irene rapidly intensified, reaching peak winds of 110 mph (175 km/h) with a pressure of 952 mbar, a Category2 hurricane. Despite its strength, the circulation was very asymmetrical, and the convection was not particularly organized. The hurricane continued to accelerate to the northeast, steadily weakening until becoming extratropical on October 19 to the south of Newfoundland. The extratropical storm continued to the northeast until becoming absorbed by another, larger extratropical storm late that same day.

Preparations.

In Cuba, slightly over 228,000 residents were evacuated from low-lying areas before the storm. Around 10% stayed in temporary shelters, while the rest stayed with family or friends. Included in the evacuation total were 6,000 tourists and over 1,000 residents in rickety houses. Workers protected tobacco leaves by moving them to sealed warehouses, and transported cattle and livestock to higher ground. The hurricane forced the closure of schools and the cancellation of some flights. The Cuban government issued a hurricane watch for Pinar del Río Province, Havana, Havana Province, and Isla de la Juventud 21 hours before Irene hit. These areas, along with Matanzas Province, were upgraded to a hurricane warning 15 hours before Irene hit the area.  Initially, forecasters predicted Irene to parallel the west coast of Florida, weakening to a tropical storm before making landfall on the west-central portion of the state. However, when a more eastward track became evident, officials in Monroe, Charlotte, Lee, and Manatee Counties issued evacuation orders for people in mobile homes and recreational vehicles. In addition, Key West issued a curfew during the storm's onslaught. The National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane warning from Florida City around the Florida Peninsula to Boca Grande, including all the Florida Keys and the Dry Tortugas. A tropical storm warning was also issued from Florida City northward to Savannah, Georgia. In addition, the majority of flights during Irene's passage were cancelled in Miami International Airport. Governor Jeb Bush declared a state of emergency on Florida the day before Irene made landfall, and ordered for the activation of the Florida National Guard to aid in disaster efforts.  While moving northward off the coast of Florida, Irene was initially expected to make landfall along the South Carolina coastline, prompting the National Hurricane Center to issue a hurricane warning from Edisto Beach, South Carolina to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. Because of this, voluntary evacuation orders were issued for portions of South Carolina. However, when the track shifted further to the east, mandatory evacuation orders were issued for coastal areas of North Carolina, with tens of thousands removed from their homes. The evacuation order included several beach towns; those living in low-lying areas and mobile homes were advised to seek shelter. In addition, many of those left homeless from Hurricane Floyd's passage just weeks before were evacuated to shelters. Jim Hunt, the Governor of North Carolina, declared a state of emergency, with the state's emergency management team switching from a recovery objective towards a preparations mission.

Impact.

Irene killed 19 people (16 indirectly) and caused $800 million ($937 million 2006 USD) in damage. Most of the damage and deaths occurred due to the torrential rain the storm caused.

Cuba.

While crossing Cuba, Irene produced heavy rainfall, totaling as high as 35.6 inches (905 mm) in Manaca-Iznaga. A rainfall total of 11.9 inches (303 mm) was noted at Playa Girón in Matanzas Province. The city of Havana reported 4.8 inches (122 mm), while many other locations reported more than 7inches (178 mm). In addition, the city of Havana recorded a peak wind gust of 78 mph (126 km/h).  The flooding caused by Irene damaged more than 471,000 acres (1,900 km2) of sugar cane and 39,000 acres (158 km2) of banana plantations. Irene's rainfall also flooded tobacco fields. Throughout the country, Irene's rainfall damaged 27,336 houses and caused the total loss of 730. 13 hospitals were also affected to some extent. 154 sectors of Havana lost power due to the storm. In all, four people were killed by the storm in Cuba, two of whom in Havana due to electrocution.

Florida.

While moving through the Florida Keys, Irene produced a storm surge of up to 2.3 feet (0.7 m) in Key Vaca, while Key West reported a surge of 1.5 feet (0.5 m). The hurricane produced sustained winds peaking at 79 mph (127 km/h); it also produced strong gusts, the strongest of which was clocked at 102 mph (164 km/h) at Big Pine Key. Irene produced heavy rainfall in the Keys, including 12 inches (305 mm) of rain in Key West. The rainfall flooded roads throughout the Keys, prompting officials to close 50 miles (80 km) of U.S. Highway 1. Irene spawned a tornado in Islamorada, causing heavy damage to three houses. Moderate wind gusts caused power outages throughout the Keys, but damage was overall minor.  Despite moving across the state as a minimal hurricane, there were no reports of hurricane-force winds on mainland Florida. The highest official recorded wind report was 60 mph (97 km/h) in Miami Beach, while the highest accurate wind gust was 71 mph (114 km/h) in Vero Beach. In addition to the National Weather Service Reports, the South Florida Water Management District reported higher wind gusts near Lake Okeechobee of up to 93 mph (150 km/h) in Belle Glade, though these were likely caused by small-scale meso-cyclone-induced downbursts. Irene produced heavy rainfall across southeastern Florida, peaking at 17.45 inches (443 mm) at Boynton Beach, though many areas in the Miami Metropolitan Area received from 10 to 15 inches (255 to 380 mm). One F1 and three F0 tornadoes touched down in Broward and Palm Beach counties, injuring three people. Strong wind gusts left 700,000 people without power from Miami to West Palm Beach, including the National Hurricane Center. The center briefly lost power, but during an hour and a half delay to reboot the computers, they obtained information from computers in the Mid-West and Washington, D.C. Officials from the Florida Power & Light Company were unable to repair power lines due to strong wind gusts, while Irene's flooding submerged underground lines, preventing repairs until the waters subsided. Five people, including three in one family, were killed when they walked through electrified waters due to downed power lines. The rains from Irene flooded roads and canals, stalling numerous cars. Three people drowned when they drove their vehicles into the canals. The floodwaters persisted for nearly a week in areas, displacing hundreds from their homes and isolating thousands. Property damage in southeastern Florida totalled $262 million.  Irene also caused severe agricultural damage in southeastern Florida totalling to $338 million Floodwaters killed 30 cattle at one farm, though the owners protected the rest of their 1700 cattle by raising the feeding areas above the flood plain. According to an initial estimate, the flooding destroyed between 5% and 15% of fruit groves along its path. The flooding delayed the winter planting of corn and bell peppers and damaged tomato plants, forcing Miami-Dade County growers to replant damaged crops. The hurricane also damaged sugar cane, vegetables, and citrus crops, with citrus canker spreading after the storm passed through the area. Due to the crop damage, the U.S. Department of Agriculture declared Broward, Collier, Miami-Dade, and Monroe Counties as disaster areas. This qualified eligible farmers for low-interest emergency loans. After moderate beach erosion from previous hurricanes Dennis and Floyd, Irene caused significant beach erosion on the eastern Florida coastline. The erosion exposed the foundations of private homes, leaving some uninhabitable. Beach erosion damage totalled to $21 million. Many beach access points were closed until more sand could be pumped in, or until the stairways were rebuilt. Strong north winds and high seas severely destroyed or damaged docks in the Indian River Lagoon. Heavy rainfall, ranging from 5 to 9inches (127 to 229 mm) in Martin and St. Lucie counties flooded 260 homes. Strong wind gusts from 60 to 70 mph (97 to 113 km/h) severely damaged 34 houses and caused light damage to 1,114 homes in Martin, St. Lucie, and Brevard Counties. In addition the winds damaged 465 mobile homes, 15 severely, and destroyed one. 555 commercial buildings also experienced light damage, and gusty winds downed about 1,000 trees. Rough seas broke a large barge free from its mooring into a bridge on Florida Highway 528. In Flagler County, the hurricane caused severe damage to four homes, and minor damage to 173 houses and 18 businesses. Damage in northeastern Florida totaled to $51 million.

Bahamas.

Hurricane Irene passed near the northwestern Bahamas, causing moderate flooding and spawning a few tornadoes. One tornado caused damage in Marsh Harbour and killed one on Abaco island. Four indirect deaths occurred when a truck drove off a wet pier during a downpour.

Carolinas and Mid-Atlantic.

Hurricane Irene dropped moderate rainfall ranging from 5to 6inches (125 to 150 mm) in eastern South Carolina. The flooding closed several roads, including some in western Georgetown County which were washed out. Moderate wind gusts of up to 48 mph (77 km/h) in Charleston downed trees and power lines, causing sporadic power outages. The winds also caused minor beach erosion along the coastline.  While paralleling the coast of North Carolina, Irene produced heavy rainfall across the state, peaking at 11 inches (280 mm) in Ernul with several other locations reporting over 6 inches (152 mm). The rainfall caused severe river flooding in North Carolina, many of which had not receded from Hurricane Floyd's passage less than a month earlier. Due to the runoff, the Tar, Cape Fear, and Neuse Rivers all crested above their banks. The flooding also caused a dam in south-central Hoke County to overflow. Irene spawned two tornadoes; an F0 in Onslow County and an F2 in Weeksville. The F2 destroyed two trailers, damaged several houses, and injured one person. The heavy flooding closed several roads throughout North Carolina, causing several traffic accidents. Hurricane Irene was indirectly responsible for one death when a man hydroplaned on a wet road and crashed. Despite the severe flooding, Hurricane Irene caused little damage in North Carolina.  Hurricane Irene also produced heavy rainfall in southeastern Virginia of up to 12 inches (305 mm) in Chesapeake. The rainfall resulted in widespread street flooding, with some locations reporting flooding of up to 4 feet (1.2 m). In Delaware, precipitation ranged from in Kent County to almost in Selbyville, located along the state's southern end. The rainfall caused some flooding in poor drainage areas, but little damage occurred. Over southern New Jersey, the storm dropped up to of rain in Beach Haven, while radar estimates indicated that up to fell in some areas. Farther north, Irene produced wind gusts of in the northern portions of the state. In the city of Englewood, an, unmounted security gate fell, killing an 87-year old woman. A combination of Irene and an approaching cold front produced approximately of rainfall and gusts between over coastal areas of Massachusetts, while a peak total of precipitation fell and gusts reached on Nantucket. Winds toppled trees branches and power lines, while a tree fell on a car, causing minor injuries to its two occupants.

Aftermath.

Following the hurricane, the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement launched an emergency appeal for Cuba. The appeal raised $217,498 (1999 CHF) to supply hygiene items, household goods, water purification tablets, and water containers to the 12,000 living in temporary shelters. The appeal asked for repair supplies and to improve the response capacity of the national society for future disasters. The Cuban Red Cross mobilized over 4,500 volunteers to the affected areas to provide first aid to injured, distribute meals and medical supplies, and collaborate with blood banks. The government-controlled media broadcast system guaranteed repair items, though many people remained in damaged houses in the weeks after the storm.  Just days after Irene moved through Florida, President Bill Clinton declared 18 counties as disaster areas. The declaration allowed affected businesses and homeowners to apply for federal assistance, such as money for temporary housing, minor home repairs, or disaster-related expenses. In addition, the president issued an emergency declaration for Florida, which released federal resources to aid in debris removal and emergency services. In addition, President Clinton declared the 66 counties in North Carolina eligible for assistance due to Hurricane Floyd were also eligible for more assistance due to damage from Irene.  In the Bahamas, township volunteers assisted in cleanup efforts. The Royal Bahamas Defence Force distributed hurricane relief supplies to those affected.

Hurricane Irene was a hurricane that produced somewhat heavy damage across southern Florida in October 1999. The ninth named storm and the sixth hurricane of the season, Irene developed in the western Caribbean Sea on October 13 from a tropical wave. It moved northward, hitting western Cuba before attaining hurricane status. Irene struck Florida on October 15 as a Category1 hurricane, first at Key West and later near Cape Sable. The storm moved across the state and tracked northward over the Gulf Stream. It approached the Carolinas but remained offshore. Irene turned eastward and significantly intensified into a strong Category 2 hurricane on October 18. By the following day, the system became extratropical due to cooler waters to the southeast of Newfoundland and was quickly absorbed by another extratropical low.

L’ouragan Irene est le neuvième système tropical ayant atteint le niveau de tempête tropicale et le sixième celui d'ouragan pendant la saison cyclonique 1999 dans l'océan Atlantique nord. Il s'est développé sur la partie ouest de la mer des Caraïbes le 13 octobre à partir d'une onde tropicale, s'est ensuite dirigé vers le nord pour toucher le nord-ouest de Cuba en tant que tempête tropicale, et y donner des pluies diluviennes, avant de tourner vers le sud de la Floride où il a causé d’importants dégâts ayant la force d'un ouragan de catégorie 1 de l'échelle de Saffir-Simpson. Une fois sur le Gulf Stream il est passé à la catégorie 2 puis s'est dirigé vers le nord-est en faiblissant.


Description.

'KORbin' is a modern cluster-flowered floribunda rose cultivar. It is commercially available in two main forms: a bush and a standard, both produced by a form of grafting known as budding. The size and shape of bush forms depend on growing conditions and pruning regime: it is usually about high and wide, though in hot climates it can reach high and if lightly pruned can become a graceful shrub. Leaves are small, light green and glossy. Blooms are about 5 cm in diameter and have 25 to 35 petals. They grow in clusters on long stems. Buds are long and pointed. The fragrant flowers usually appear abundantly throughout the year.

Origin.

The cultivar was developed by prolific German rose breeder Reimer Kordes in Germany in 1958. He and his father Wilhelm had initially specialised in developing bush roses that were suitable for small gardens. The parent varieties of 'KORbin' are 'Robin Hood', a red hybrid musk rose, developed by Joseph Pemberton in 1927 in England, and 'Virgo', a white hybrid-tea rose bred in France by Charles Mallerin in 1927.  The plant was registered under the cultivar name 'KORbin' by Kordes in 1958 and given the trade name Schneewittchen. The cultivar is known as Fée des Neiges in French and Iceberg in English.

Awards and recognition.

In 1958, 'KORbin' was awarded a Royal National Rose Society Gold Medal. The cultivar was selected as the "World Favourite Rose" of 1983 by the World Federation of Rose Societies and is listed in their "Rose Hall of Fame". The German ADR title granted in 1960 was taken away in 2004.  Stamps depicting the cultivar were issued in Romania in 1970 and New Zealand in 1975.

Related cultivars.

A number of sports of 'KORbin' have been discovered:  Because of its positive qualities, 'KORbin' was an important parent of the English Roses bred by David Austin and others: 1983 – 'Graham Thomas' and 'Perdita'; 1984 – 'Belle Story', 'Dove' and 'Heritage'; 1985 – 'Emanuel'; 1986 – 'Claire Rose', 'English Garden' and 'Swan'.

Cultivation.

Although plants are generally disease free, they may suffer from black spot in more humid climates or in situations where air circulation is limited. Plants tolerate shade, though they perform best in full sun. In North America they are able to be grown in USDA Hardiness Zones 4b and higher. In Australia, plants are suited to all but northern tropical areas. The hardiness and popularity of the cultivar have seen its widespread use in cultivation across the world, occasionally leading to claims that it is "overdone" as a garden plant.  The blooms are suited for use as cut flowers. Both the shrub form and grafted standard may be grown in large containers. Iceberg rose is a prolific bloomer even in hot regions like Lahore.

"Rosa" KORbin is a white floribunda rose cultivar bred by Kordes in Germany in 1958. It is also known as Iceberg, Fée des Neiges and Schneewittchen. 'KORbin' is among the world's best known roses.

Fée des Neiges est un cultivar fort répandu de rosier floribunda. C'est un des rosiers les plus vendus au monde car il est fort prisé pour l'abondance de sa floraison et pour sa robustesse. Il a été distingué comme rose favorite du monde, en 1983. Il est remarquable par la blancheur de ses pétales.


Amateur career.

Patterson attended Harrison High School in Kennesaw, Georgia, and helped Harrison win the Georgia state championship as a senior in 1998. That year, he had a batting average of.528 with 81 runs scored, 22 home runs, 61 RBI and 38 stolen bases in 38 games. Patterson was named to the "Baseball America" and "USA Today" first-team All-America teams, and was selected by USA Baseball as its Amateur Player of the Year and as the Baseball Coaches Association's co-national high school Player of the Year. Patterson was also named a "Baseball America" second-team selection after his junior season.

Professional career.

Chicago Cubs.

Patterson was selected by the Chicago Cubs as the third overall pick in the 1998 Major League Baseball draft. He made his professional debut in 1999 with the Lansing Lugnuts of the Class-A Midwest League, and was selected as that league's "Prospect of the Year" after leading the league in slugging percentage (.592), extra base hits (72) and triples (17). He also batted.320 with 20 homers and 79 RBI, and was named to the league's all-star team both at mid-season and postseason. "Baseball America" named Patterson the league's top prospect. After the 1999 season, he played in the Arizona Fall League and was that league's youngest player. He batted.368 with 4 home runs, 24 RBI, and 8 stolen bases in 35 games, and was named to the league's all-star team.  In 2000, Patterson was promoted to the Double-A West Tenn Diamond Jaxx of the Southern League. He was named to the league's mid-season and postseason all-star team, and was named the league's top prospect by "Baseball America". Patterson batted.268 with 22 home runs and 82 RBI, finishing second in the league in home runs.  After playing in the 2000 Southern League playoffs, Patterson was called up from the minors to play for the Cubs. He made his Major League debut on September 18, 2000, against the Milwaukee Brewers. The next day Patterson recorded his first Major League hit, a home run off Juan Acevedo. He finished the 2000 season with seven hits in 42 at bats, and two home runs.  Patterson did not start playing a full season until 2002, when he finished with a.253 batting average. In 2003, he batted.298 with 55 RBI in only 83 games before suffering a torn ACL while running to first on a base hit against the St. Louis Cardinals on July 6. The injury ended Patterson's 2003 campaign.  Patterson played 157 games in 2004, with a.266 batting average, 24 home runs, and 72 RBI in 631 at-bats. His on-base plus slugging of.771, while only average, is his best of the six seasons in which he played more than 83 games. He had the lowest range factor (2.18) among all starting Major League center fielders in 2004.  In the 2005 season Patterson did not do well. On July 7, he was sent down to the Triple-A Iowa Cubs. The demotion came after the Cubs had lost a season-high eight games in a row. Published reports indicated that center fielder Félix Pie, the Cubs' top prospect, was slated to be called up from Double-A West Tenn in July when Patterson was sent down.  Patterson was back up with the Major League team on August 9, after his one-month stint in Triple-A Iowa.

Baltimore Orioles.

Patterson was traded by the Cubs to the Orioles on January 9, 2006, for Class-A Minor league players Nate Spears and Carlos Perez. On February 10, 2007 Patterson signed a 1-year deal worth $4.3 million to avoid arbitration. In his first of two years with the Orioles, he batted.276 with 16 home runs and 53 RBI. He also stole 45 bases, which ranked third in the American League. Patterson's contract was not renewed after the 2007 season.

Cincinnati Reds.

On March 3, 2008, the Cincinnati Reds signed Patterson to a minor league contract. At the end of Spring training, he was added to the 40-man roster. Dusty Baker, manager of the Reds and Patterson's manager in Chicago, was instrumental in signing Patterson. Baker often voiced his opinion on Patterson saying he thought Patterson is still a developing player.  Patterson was invited to the Reds' spring training camp, and he started the 2008 season in center field for Cincinnati. Platooning with utility man Ryan Freel, Patterson began the season well. Gradually his average deteriorated, culminating in an 0–8 performance during Cincinnati's 18-inning loss to San Diego on May 25. The following day top outfield prospect Jay Bruce was called up from the Triple-A Louisville Bats to start in center field, demoting Patterson to the Reds' bench. On May 28, Patterson accepted a reassignment to Triple-A Louisville. The demotion lasted only one week, however, when Patterson was recalled to replace Ryan Freel, who went to the disabled list with a strained right hamstring on June 4. Patterson ended the season with a.205 batting average and.238 OBP.

Washington Nationals.

On December 18, 2008, Patterson signed a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training with the Washington Nationals.  Due to Josh Willingham being placed on the bereavement list, Patterson had his contract purchased from the Triple-A Syracuse Chiefs on June 13, 2009. He hit.302, with six home runs and 23 RBIs in a 39 games with the Chiefs, but hit only.133 with 2 stolen bases in 5 games for the Nationals. He was reassigned to Triple-A on June 20, 2009. He was released by the Nationals on July 29, 2009.

Milwaukee Brewers.

Patterson signed a minor league contract with the Milwaukee Brewers on August 1, 2009. Patterson hit well with the AAA affiliate Nashville Sound, batting.331 with a.963 OPS over 29 games and 124 at-bats. However, he struggled with the parent club, where his BA, OBP, and SLG were all.071 over 11 games and 14 at-bats.

Seattle Mariners.

Patterson signed a minor league contract with the Seattle Mariners on December 9, 2009. However, he opted out of his contract on March 31, 2010 after being informed he had not made the Major League team.

Return to Baltimore.

On April 21, 2010, Corey agreed to re-join the Orioles on a 1-year minor league deal. He was promoted to the Orioles on May 12, 2010  On July 9, 2010, Patterson hit his first career grand slam against the Texas Rangers. It was a remarkable feat as Patterson faced the season's eventual saves leader and rookie of the year in the hard throwing Neftalí Feliz, with a 2–2 count and two outs in the top of the 9th inning representing the tying run. Patterson drilled his pitch over the right field fence to tie the game at 6. Jake Fox hit a solo homer in the top of the 10th for the game winner.

Toronto Blue Jays.

On December 21, 2010, Patterson signed a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training with the Toronto Blue Jays. He began the season on the Major League roster, but on the disabled list because of a head injury. Patterson made his regular season debut as a Blue Jay on April 11, 2011 against the Seattle Mariners, hitting a home run and finishing the night 2–4 with 2 RBI

St. Louis Cardinals.

On July 27, 2011, Patterson was traded to the St. Louis Cardinals with Octavio Dotel, Marc Rzepczynski and Edwin Jackson for Colby Rasmus, P. J. Walters, Trever Miller and Brian Tallet.

Return to Milwaukee.

On January 30, 2012, Patterson signed a minor league contract to return to the Brewers organization. He played 117 games for Nashville Sounds, the AAA team of the Brewers, batting.251 with 39 RBI in 390 plate appearances. For the first season since his Major League debut, he did not play in the Major Leagues.

New York Mets.

He signed a minor league contract with the New York Mets in February 2013. The Mets released Patterson in March 2013.

Seattle Mariners.

He signed a minor league contract with the Seattle Mariners on April 30, 2013 but was released on June 6, after hitting only.175 in 19 games for the AAA Tacoma Rainiers.

New York Yankees.

Patterson signed a minor league deal with the New York Yankees on June 21, 2013. He elected free agency on November 4, 2013.

Donald Corey Patterson (born August 13, 1979) is an American former professional baseball center fielder. Currently, he is the manager of the Brookhaven Bucks in the Sunbelt Baseball League. He is the older brother of outfielder Eric Patterson, and the son of former NFL defensive back Don Patterson.

Donald Corey Patterson (né le 13 août 1979 à Atlanta, Géorgie, États-Unis) est un joueur de champ extérieur qui joue dans les Ligues majeures de baseball de 2000 à 2011. Il termine sa carrière de 12 saisons par une victoire en Série mondiale 2011 avec les Cardinals de Saint-Louis.


Outline of the text.

The sutra consists of twenty-seven chapters:  The story ends at the very moment when the Buddha has finally manifested all the qualities of awakening and is fully equipped to influence the world, as he did over the next forty-five years by continuously teaching the Dharma and establishing his community of followers.

The Borobudur reliefs.

The Borobudur reliefs contain a series of panels depicting the life of the Buddha as described in the "Lalitavistara Sutra". In these reliefs, the story starts from the glorious descent of the Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park.  As an example of how widely the sutra was disseminated, the "Lalitavistara Sutra" was known to the Mantranaya (Vajrayana) practitioners of Borobudur, who had the text illustrated by stonemasons.

Historical context.

In the early 20th century, P. L. Vaidya believed that the finished Sanskrit text dated to the 3rd century A.D.  The text is also said to be a compilation of various works by no single author and includes materials from the Sarvastivada and the Mahayana traditions.  Concerning the origins of the text, the Dharmachakra Translation Committee states:

Translations into French.

Foucaux, Édouard. "Le Lalitavistara : l’histoire traditionnelle de la vie du Bouddha Çakyamuni". Les Classiques du bouddhisme mahāyāna, Musée National des Arts Asiatiques Guimet, vol. 19. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1892. Reprinted as "Le Lalitavistara : l'histoire traditionnelle de la vie du Bouddha Çakyamuni", Les Deux Océans, 1988, 1992, 450 p.,

Numerals.

In the "Lalitavistara", the Buddha explains to a mathematician named Arjuna the system of numerals in multiples of 100, starting from a koti (in later literature 10^7 but this is uncertain) to a tallakshana (10^53 then).

The Lalitavistara Sūtra is a Sanskrit Mahayana Buddhist sutra that tells the story of Gautama Buddha from the time of his descent from Tushita until his first sermon in the Deer Park near Varanasi. The term "Lalitavistara" has been translated "The Play in Full" or "Extensive Play," referring to the Mahayana view that the Buddha’s last incarnation was a "display" or "performance" given for the benefit of the beings in this world.

Le Lalitavistara Sūtra (Soutra du Jeu en déploiement) un sûtra qui présente une biographie du Bouddha Shākyamuni de sa dernière existence jusqu’au premier enseignement qu'il donna à Bénarès, à l'âge de trente-cinq ans environ.


Construction and commissioning.

"Bahia" was part of a large 1904 naval building program by Brazil. Also planned as part of this were the two dreadnoughts, ten destroyers, three submarines and a submarine tender. With a design that borrowed heavily from the British scout cruisers, "Bahia"s keel was laid on 19 August 1907 in Armstrong Whitworth's Elswick, Newcastle upon Tyne yard. Construction took about a year and a half, and she was launched on 20 January 1909 with Madame Altino Correia being the sponsor on behalf of Madame Dr. Araugo Pinho. The process of fitting out pushed her completion date to 2 March 1910, after which she sailed to Brazil, arriving in Recife on 6 May. The new cruiser—the third ship of the Brazilian Navy to honor the state of Bahia—was commissioned into the navy shortly thereafter on 21 May 1910. As a class, "Bahia" and "Rio Grande do Sul" were the fastest cruisers in the world when they were commissioned, and the first in the Brazilian Navy to utilize steam turbines for propulsion.

Mutiny.

Brazil's economy was suffering from a severe recession at the same time "Bahia" was commissioned. This economic hardship, the racism prevalent in all branches of the Brazilian armed forces, and the severe discipline enforced on all navy ships, spawned a mutiny known as the (Revolt of the Lash) among sailors on the most powerful ships.  Unhappy with the violent treatment they were receiving, black sailors on the dreadnought battleship began planning an uprising early in 1910, choosing João Cândido Felisberto—an experienced sailor later known as the "Black Admiral"—as their leader. In mid-November, a sailor was sentenced to be flogged in front of his fellow sailors, even though the practice had been banned by law. The punishment was administered and continued even after the sailor fainted, infuriating the nascent mutineers. Although they were not ready and could not revolt immediately, they quickened their preparations and rebelled on 21 November, earlier than originally planned. They killed several officers and the captain of "Minas Geraes", while other officers were forced off the ship. The revolt quickly expanded to the battleship, the elderly coastal defense ship, and "Bahia". While joining the revolt, the crew of the scout cruiser murdered one of their officers. During this time, discipline on the rebelling ships was not relaxed; daily drills were conducted and Felisberto ordered all liquor to be thrown overboard. The crews of the torpedo boats remained loyal to the government, and army troops moved to the presidential palace and the coastline, but neither group could stop the mutineers. The fact that many who manned Rio de Janeiro's harbor defenses were sympathetic to the mutineers' cause, coupled with chance that the capital might be bombarded by the mutinous ships, forced the National Congress of Brazil to give in to the rebels' demands. These included the abolition of flogging, improved living conditions, and the granting of amnesty to all mutineers. The government also issued official pardons and a statement of regret; its submission resulted in the rebellion's end on 26 November, when control of the four ships was handed back to the navy.

First World War.

In the opening years of the First World War, the Brazilian Navy was sent out to patrol the South Atlantic with French, British and American naval units, although its ships were not supposed to engage any threat outside territorial waters as Brazil was not at war with the Central Powers. The country also tried to ensure that it remained totally neutral; "Bahia" and "Rio Grande do Sul" were sent to Santos in August 1914 to enforce neutrality laws when it was reported that the German raider was lying in wait off that port for British and American merchant ships. Brazil joined the Entente and declared war on the Central Powers on 26 October 1917.  On 21 December 1917, the Brazilian Navy—at the behest of the British—formed a small naval force with the intent of sending it to the other side of the Atlantic. On 30 January 1918, "Bahia" was made the flagship of the newly organized (Naval Division in War Operations, abbreviated as DNOG), under the command of Rear Admiral Pedro Max Fernando Frontin. The other ships assigned to the squadron were "Bahia"s sister "Rio Grande do Sul", destroyers,, and, tender, and tugboat "Laurindo Pita".  The DNOG sailed for the British colony of Sierra Leone on 31 July. Since other allied countries helped with logistics, little was provided by Brazil aside from the ships themselves and the men crewing them. Despite the threat of a U-boat attack, they were forced to stop several times so "Belmonte" could transfer necessities such as coal and water to the other ships. They reached Freetown safely on 9 August and remained in the port until 23 August when they departed for Dakar. While on this section of the voyage, "Bahia", "Rio Grande do Sul", "Rio Grande do Norte", "Belmonte" and "Laurindo Pita" spotted an apparent torpedo heading for "Belmonte", but it missed. "Rio Grande do Norte" then fired several shots and depth-charged what the force believed to be a U-boat. While the official Brazilian history of the ship definitively claims to have sunk a submarine, author Robert Scheina notes that this action was never confirmed, and works published about U-boat losses in the war do not agree.  After arriving in Dakar on 26 August, the DNOG was tasked with patrolling a triangle with corners at Dakar, Cape Verde and Gibraltar; the Allies believed that this area was rife with U-boats waiting for convoys to pass through. As such, the Brazilian unit's mission was to patrol for mines laid by German minelaying submarines and to make sure that convoys passing through would be safe. Complications arose when both "Bahia" and "Rio Grande do Sul" had problems with their condensers, a matter which was made much worse by the hot, tropical climate in which the ships were serving.  In early September, the squadron was struck by the Spanish flu pandemic. The contagion began aboard "Bahia", spread to the other ships of the squadron and remained present for seven weeks. At one point, 95% of some of the ships' crews were infected; 103 died overseas, and 250 died in Brazil after returning there. On 3 November, "Bahia", three of the four destroyers, and the tugboat were sent to Gibraltar for operations in the Mediterranean Sea. They arrived on 9 or 10 November, escorted by the American destroyer, but the fighting ceased on the 11th when the Armistice with Germany was signed. Sometime in early 1919, "Bahia", accompanied by four destroyers, voyaged to Portsmouth, England; they then traveled across the English Channel to Cherbourg, arriving there on 15 February. The commander of the squadron, Admiral Pedro Max Fernando Frontin, met with the Maritime Prefect prior to the commencement of "social events"; these lasted until 23 February, when the ships moved to Toulon and Frontin journeyed overland to Paris. The DNOG was dissolved on 25 August 1919.

Modernization and inter-war years.

In 1925–26, "Bahia" underwent significant modernization. The original five turbines were replaced by three Brown–Curtis turbines, while the original ten boilers were replaced by six Thornycroft oil-burning boilers, which necessitated the addition of a third funnel. The former coal bunkers, along with some of the space freed up by the decrease in boilers, were converted to hold of oil. These modifications resulted in "Bahia"s top speed increasing to. All of the boats on board were replaced, and three Madsen guns, a Hotchkiss machine gun, and four torpedo tubes were added to give the ship a defense against aircraft and more power against surface ships, respectively. Still, in 1930 "The New York Times" labeled "Bahia" and the other warships in Brazil's navy as "obsolete" and noted that nearly all were "older than the ages considered effective by powers signatory to the Washington and London Naval Treaties."  On 28 June 1926, the "Ludington Daily News" reported that "Bahia" would pay a visit to Philadelphia, accepting an invitation from the United States government to participate in the sesquicentennial celebrations. In mid-1930, "Bahia" and "Rio Grande do Sul"—under the command of Heráclito Belford Gomes—escorted Brazil's President-elect Júlio Prestes to the United States. Traveling on board the Brazilian-Lloyd ocean liner, Prestes was returning American then-President-elect Herbert Hoover's visit to Brazil in December 1928. The cruisers and met the three ships about off Sandy Hook and honored Prestes with a 21-gun salute. After spending five hours in the Ambrose Channel due to fog, Prestes traveled on a launch to a pier, during which "Bahia" rendered one 21-gun salute and Fort Jay offered two. After arriving ashore, he traveled to City Hall before speeding down to Washington, D.C. He stayed in the United States for eight days before departing for France on the White Star Line's. "Bahia" and "Rio Grande do Sul" were berthed at the Brooklyn Navy Yard for the visit.  During the Brazilian Revolution of 1930, "Bahia" served with "Rio Grande do Sul"—until that ship defected—and five or six destroyers off the coast of Santa Catarina; they were once again commanded by Belford Gomes. Two years later, when the state of São Paulo rebelled in the Constitutionalist Revolution, "Bahia"—under the command of Frigate Captain Lucas Alexandre Boiteux—and other vessels blockaded the rebel-held port of Santos. "Bahia" was under repair from 1934 into 1935. In November 1935, "Bahia" and "Rio Grande do Sul" sailed to Natal, the capital of Rio Grande do Norte, to lend support against another rebellion. As part of their mission, they were ordered to sink the steamship "Santos" on sight, as several escaping leaders of the revolution were on board.  From 17–22 May 1935, "Bahia" and "Rio Grande do Sul"—joined at an unknown point by the Argentine battleships and, the heavy cruisers and, and five destroyers—escorted, with Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas embarked, up the (River Plate) to Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina. Vargas was returning visits from the presidents of Argentina and Uruguay, Agustín Pedro Justo and Gabriel Terra. Vargas and Justo planned to be present at the opening session of the Pan-American Commercial Conference on 26 May, and open a Chaco War peace conference, before "São Paulo" conveyed Vargas to Montevideo, Uruguay for meetings with Terra.  On 2 March 1936, "Bahia" escorted "Veinticinco de Mayo", which had the Argentine Navy Minister Rear Admiral Eleazar Videla embarked, and "Almirante Brown" in the last part of their journey to Rio de Janeiro.

Second World War.

After Brazil's entrance into the Second World War on 21 August 1942, which took effect on 31 August, "Bahia" was used extensively during the Atlantic campaign for escorts and patrols; sources conflict as to the actual number—either 67 and 15 or 62 and 11. In total, she traveled in 358 days, and played a role in shepherding over 700 merchant ships. She and "Rio Grande do Sul" were labeled by the United States Naval Institute's magazine "Proceedings" as being "oversized destroyers" that were "relatively slow".  "Bahia" was modernized again twice during the war, in both 1942 and 1944; these modernizations were not as extensive as those of the 1920s. Two of her guns were replaced with L/23 AA guns, her Madsen guns were replaced with seven Oerlikon 20 mm cannons in single mounts, and a director for these guns was installed. Two depth charge tracks were added, improved range-finders were added to the guns, and sonar and radar were fitted, in addition to other minor modifications. The Brazilian Navy's official history of the ship reports these modifications, but does not specify which were undertaken in which year.  On 3 June 1943, while "Bahia" was escorting the convoy BT 12, she located an underwater mine and destroyed it with one of her Madsen guns. On 10 July, while at, "Bahia" received a sonar contact and depth-charged what the Brazilian Navy's official history of the ship reports might have been the German submarine, which was sunk later that month in the same area (off Rio de Janeiro) by American and Brazilian aircraft. In November 1944, "Bahia" joined the American light cruiser and destroyer escort in escorting "" troopship, which was carrying the 4th transportation of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force's troops heading to Italy.

Loss.

Allied warships were assigned to patrol in the Atlantic as rescue ships at the end of hostilities in the European theater, stationed near routes frequented by military transport aircraft carrying personnel from Europe to the continuing war in the Pacific. "Bahia" was one such ship, stationed northeast of Brazil around near the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago on 4 July 1945. Crewmen were conducting anti-aircraft target practice, firing the ship's 20 mm guns at a kite that was being towed behind the ship. One of them shot it down, but also accidentally hit the depth charges on the stern; the ship lacked guide rails that would normally prohibit the guns from being aimed at the ship. The resulting explosion knocked out all power on the ship and sank her in about three minutes.  The survivors of the blast endured four or five days of no food, high temperatures, and full exposure to the sun on their makeshift rafts. "The New York Times" reported that some were driven mad by these conditions and simply jumped into the water, where they were devoured by sharks. From this point on, sources vary greatly. According to an article in "Time" magazine, "Bahia" loss was not discovered until 8 July, when 22 survivors were picked up by the freighter "Balfe". Naval historian Robert Scheina, however, says that the disaster was revealed when "Rio Grande do Sul" arrived on station four days after the sinking to take "Bahia" place and could not find her.  Sources also disagree on the number rescued and final death toll. The official history of the ship gives 36 rescued and 336 dead, and the "Navios de Guerra Brasileiros" gives 36 and 339. Contemporaneous news articles also published varying numbers; "The Evening Independent" stated that the ship carried 383 men, though it did not give any more information. "The New York Times" gave figures of 28 saved and 347 lost, while the "St. Petersburg Times" gave 32 and 395. Sources do agree, however, that four American sound technicians were killed.  Rescued crewmen believed that they had hit a mine which detonated one of the ship's magazines. Vice Admiral Jorge Dodsworth Martins, Brazil's chief of naval intelligence, thought that "Bahia" could have been mined or torpedoed by, which surrendered under strange circumstances in Mar del Plata, Argentina on 10 July (some two months after Germany's surrender), but the Argentine Naval Ministry stated that it would have been impossible for the submarine to travel from the site of the sinking to Mar del Plata in six days (4–10 July). was also heading to Argentina seeking asylum, and it was also accused of sinking "Bahia". However, military investigations by the US and Brazilian navies concluded that the cruiser had been sunk due to the gunnery accident.

Bahia was the lead ship of a two-vessel class of cruisers built for Brazil by the British company Armstrong Whitworth. Crewmen mutinied in November 1910 aboard "Bahia",,, and, beginning the four-day (Revolt of the Lash). Brazil's capital city of Rio de Janeiro was held hostage by the possibility of a naval bombardment, leading the government to give in to the rebel demands which included the abolition of flogging in the navy. During the First World War, "Bahia" and her sister ship were assigned to the (Naval Division in War Operations), the Brazilian Navy's main contribution in that conflict. The squadron was based in Sierra Leone and Dakar and escorted convoys through an area believed to be heavily patrolled by U-boats.

Le Bahia est un croiseur léger de la Marine brésilienne, navire principal de la classe du même nom, construit en 1910 par la société de construction navale britannique Armstrong Whitworth et coulé en 1945.


Administrative history.

Lanarkshire was historically divided between two administrative areas. In the mid-18th century it was divided again into three wards: the upper, middle and lower wards with their administrative centres at Lanark, Hamilton and Glasgow, respectively, and remained this way until the Local Government Act of 1889. Other significant settlements include Coatbridge, East Kilbride, Motherwell, Airdrie, Blantyre, Cambuslang, Rutherglen, Wishaw Bellshill and Carluke.  In 1975, the county council was abolished and the area absorbed into the larger Strathclyde region, which itself was divided into new council areas in 1996. The old area of Lanarkshire is now occupied by the council areas of:  North Lanarkshire and South Lanarkshire have a joint board for valuation and electoral registration. There is also a joint health board, which does not cover Rutherglen and the surrounding area in South Lanarkshire. Without the northern portion of North Lanarkshire, this is also a Lieutenancy area.

Coat of arms.

Lanarkshire was granted a coat of arms by the Lord Lyon on 24 December 1886. The arms is: Party per chevron gules and argent, two cinquefoils pierced in chief ermine, and in base a man's heart counter-changed. The cinquefoils come from the arms of the Clan Hamilton, and the heart from the arms of the Clan Douglas, the two main local families. The crest is a demi-eagle displayed with two heads, sable beaked gules. The motto is "VIGILANTIA".

Geography.

Lanarkshire occupies the valley of the river Clyde, which crosses the county from the north-west to south-east. It is predominantly flat and agricultural, rising to the south with the Lowther Hills of the Southern Uplands, with Culter Fell on the border with Peeblesshire being the highest point at 748 m (2,454 ft). In the east a small portion of the Pentland Hills lie in the county, in the vicinity of Tarbrax and Dunsyre. In the far south lies the Daer Reservoir. Northern Lanarkshire is dominated by the Glasgow conurbation, Scotland's largest city, though some small bodies of water can be found such as the Roughrigg Reservoir, Lilly Loch, Hillend Reservoir, Forrestburn Reservoir and Black Loch.

Mining industry.

From the mid-eighteenth century to the early twentieth century Lanarkshire profited from its rich seams of coal in places such as Glenboig. As the coal industry developed around Glasgow in the 1700s the price of coal to the city rose under the control of a cartel of coal owners. The solution was to carve out a canal to take advantage of the good (and uncontrolled) coal deposits of the Monklands area. By 1793, the Monklands canal was completed and the Lanarkshire coal industry thrived. The resulting boom lasted for over 100 years but reached its peak by the second decade of the twentieth century and even two world wars failed to halt the contraction. Output in the county continued to fall and the National Coal Board concentrated investment in Ayrshire, Fife and the Lothians. By 1970 there were only four collieries left in Lanarkshire and the closure of Cardowan in 1983 brought the long decline to an end.

Transport.

The M74 motorway links Glasgow with Carlisle and points further south, with the M8 linking the city to Edinburgh. Glasgow and the surrounding areas are well served by numerous roads and train lines. The West Coast Main Line cuts north-south across the county and connects Glasgow with Manchester, Birmingham and London. Glasgow is also served by the Glasgow Subway.

Events.

Lanarkshire hosted the International Children's Games in August 2011. A total of 1,300 competitors and coaches, along with administrators and delegates, representing 77 cities from 33 countries worldwide attended.

Maps.

Digitised historic and modern maps of Lanarkshire are available from National Library of Scotland including:

Lanarkshire, also called the County of Lanark (, ) is a historic county in the central Lowlands of Scotland. Historically, Lanarkshire was the most populous county in Scotland, containing as it does most of Glasgow and the surrounding conurbation. In earlier times it had considerably greater boundaries, including neighbouring Renfrewshire until 1402. Lanarkshire is bounded to the north by Stirlingshire and Dunbartonshire (this boundary is split into two sections owing to Dunbartonshire's Cumbernauld exclave), to the northeast by West Lothian and Mid Lothian, to the east by Peeblesshire, to the south by Dumfriesshire, and to the west by Ayrshire and Renfrewshire.

Le Lanarkshire ("Siorrachd Lannraig" en gaélique écossais et "Coontie o Lanrickshire" en Scots) est un ancien comté d'Écosse et une région de lieutenance. Il est bordé au nord par le Stirlingshire et une portion détachée du Dunbartonshire, au nord-est par le Stirlingshire, le West Lothian, à l'est par le Peeblesshire, au sud-est et au sud par le Dumfriesshire, au sud-ouest par le Dumfriesshire et l'Ayrshire, et à l'ouest par l'Ayrshire, le Renfrewshire et le Dunbartonshire.


Early life.

Randal Howard Paul was born on January 7, 1963, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Carol (née Wells) and Ron Paul, who is also a politician and physician. The elder Paul was a U.S. Representative from Texas and ran for President of the United States three times. The middle child of five, his siblings are Ronald "Ronnie" Paul Jr., Lori Paul Pyeatt, Robert Paul, and Joy Paul-LeBlanc.  Paul was baptized in the Episcopal Church and identified as a practicing Christian as a teenager.  Despite his father's libertarian views and strong support for individual rights, the novelist Ayn Rand was not the inspiration for his first name. Growing up, he went by "Randy", but his wife shortened it to "Rand."  The Paul family moved to Lake Jackson, Texas, in 1968, where he was raised and where his father began a medical practice and for

Medical career.

After completing his residency in ophthalmology, Paul moved to Bowling Green, Kentucky. He has held a state-issued medical license since moving there in 1993. He received his first job from John Downing of Downing McPeak Vision Centers, which brought him to Bowling Green after completing his residency. Paul worked for Downing for about five years before parting ways. Afterwards, he went to work at the Graves Gilbert Clinic, a private medical group in Bowling Green, for 10 years before creating his own practice in a converted one-story house across the street from Downing's office. After his election to the U.S. Senate, he merged his practice with Downing's medical practice. Paul has faced two malpractice lawsuits between 1993 and 2010; he was cleared in one case while the other was settled for $50,000. His medical work has been praised by Downing and he has medical privileges at two Bowling Green hospitals. In April 2020, after recovering from COVID-19, Paul began volunteering at a hospital in Bowling Green, assisting them in their response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Kentucky.  Paul specializes in cataract and glaucoma surgeries, LASIK procedures, and corneal transplants. As a member of the Bowling Green Noon Lions Club, Paul founded the Southern Kentucky Lions Eye Clinic in 2009 to help provide eye surgery and exams for those who cannot afford to pay. Paul won the Melvin Jones Fellow Award for Dedicated Humanitarian Services from the Lions Club International Foundation for his work establishing the Southern Kentucky Lions Eye Clinic.

National Board of Ophthalmology.

In 1995, Paul passed the American Board of Ophthalmology (ABO) boards. Prior to this, in 1992, the ABO had changed its certification program, which had previously awarded lifetime certifications, instead requiring doctors to recertify every 10 years. Those who had already been given lifetime certification were allowed to keep it (according to the ABO, they would not legally have been able to rescind these certifications). Shortly after this change, Paul began a campaign to protest it. This effort culminated in 1997 with him creating, "along with 200 other young ophthalmologists", the National Board of Ophthalmology (NBO) to offer an alternative certification system, at a

Political activism.

Paul was head of the local chapter of the Young Conservatives of Texas during his time at Baylor University. In 1984, Paul took a semester off to aid his father's primary challenge to Republican Senator Phil Gramm.  While attending Duke University School of Medicine, Paul volunteered for his father's 1988 Libertarian presidential campaign.  In response to President Bush's breaking his election promise to not, Paul founded the North Carolina Taxpayers Union in 1991. In 1994, Paul founded the anti-tax organization Kentucky Taxpayers United (KTU), and was chair of the organization from its inception. He has often cited his involvement with KTU as the foundation of his involvement with state politics. The group examined Kentucky legislators' records on taxation and spending and encouraging politicians to publicly pledge to vote uniformly against tax increases.  Paul managed his father's successful 1996 Congressional campaign, in which the elder Paul returned to the House after a twelve-year absence. The elder Paul defeated incumbent Democrat-turned-Republican Greg Laughlin in the Republican primary, despite Laughlin's support from the NRCC and Republican leaders such as Newt Gingrich and George W. Bush.  "The Wall Street Journal" reported in 2010 that, although Paul had told a Kentucky television audience as recently as September 2009 that KTU published ratings each year on state legislators' tax positions and that "we've done that for about 15 years", the group had stopped issuing its ratings and report cards after 2002 and had been legally dissolved by the

Election to U.S. Senate.

Primary campaign.

At the beginning of 2009, there was movement by political supporters of his father to draft Paul in a bid to replace beleaguered Republican Kentucky senator Jim Bunning. Paul's potential candidacy was discussed in the "Los Angeles Times" and locally in the Kentucky press. Paul's father said, "Should Senator Bunning decide not to run, I think Rand would make a great U.S. Senator." On April 15, 2009, Paul gave his first political speech as a potential candidate at a Tea Party rally held in his town of Bowling Green, Kentucky,

General campaign.

In the 2010 general election, Paul faced Kentucky Attorney General Jack Conway. The campaign attracted $8.5 million in contributions from outside groups, of which $6 million was spent to help Paul and $2.5 million to help Conway. This money influx was in addition to the money spent by the candidates themselves: $6 million by Paul and $4.7 million by Conway.  On June 28, 2010, Paul supporters held their first post-primary online fundraising drive, this time promoted as a "money blast".  Paul's campaign got off to a rough start after his comments on the Civil

U.S. Senate.

112th Congress (2011–2013).

Paul was sworn in on January 5, 2011, along with his father, who was simultaneously in the House of Representatives.  Paul was assigned to be on the Energy and Natural Resources, Health, Education, Labor and Pensions, Homeland Security and Government Affairs, and Small Business committees. Paul also formed the Senate Tea Party Caucus with Jim DeMint and Mike Lee as its inaugural members. His first legislative proposal was to cut $500 billion from federal spending in one year. This proposal included cutting the Department of Education by 83 percent and the United States Department of

113th Congress (2013–2015).

For the 113th Congress, Paul was added to the Foreign Relations committee and retained his spot on the Health, Education, Labor and Pensions, Homeland Security and Government Affairs, and Small Business committees.  On March 6–7, 2013, Paul engaged in a filibuster to delay voting on the nomination of John O. Brennan as the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. Paul questioned the Obama administration's use of drones and the stated legal justification for their potential use within the United States. Paul held the floor for 12 hours and 52 minutes. He ceded to several Republican senators and Democratic senator, Ron Wyden, who generally also questioned drone usage. Paul said his purpose was to challenge drone policy in general and specifically as it related to noncombatants on U.S. soil. He requested a pledge from the Administration that noncombatants would not be targeted on U.S. soil. Attorney General Eric Holder responded that the President is not authorized to deploy extrajudicial punishment without due process, against non-combatant citizens. Paul answered that he was "quite

114th Congress (2015–2017).

In the beginning of 2015, Senator Paul re-introduced the Federal Reserve Transparency Act. Paul also introduced the FAIR Act, or Fifth Amendment Integrity Restoration Act, which would restrict civil forfeiture proceedings. Paul spoke for ten and a half hours on May 20, 2015, in opposition to the reauthorization of Section 215 of the Patriot Act. Sections of the Patriot Act were prevented from being reauthorized on June 1.  After the death of Antonin Scalia in February 2016,

115th Congress (2017–2019).

In March 2017, Paul introduced the Stop Arming Terrorists Act that would prohibit the use of United States Government funds to provide assistance to Al Qaeda, Jabhat Fateh al-Sham, and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and to countries supporting those organizations. On March 16, Senator John McCain accused Paul of being an agent of Vladimir Putin after Paul objected to adding Montenegro to NATO. Paul responded the following day by saying McCain "makes a really, really strong case for term limits", suggesting McCain had become "a little unhinged" as a result of his seniority. On April 7, McCain said he did not pay attention to any of Paul's rhetoric and that the latter did not have "any real influence" in the United States Senate.  Paul questioned President Trump's April 2017 missile strike to Syria by saying, "While we all condemn the atrocities in Syria, the United States was not attacked." He said that further action should not be taken without congressional authorization.  Paul was one of 22 senators to sign a letter to President Donald Trump urging the President to have the United States withdraw from the Paris Agreement in May 2017. According to the Center for Responsive Politics, Paul has received over $250,000 from oil, gas and coal interests since 2012. In July, Rand Paul joined

116th Congress (2019–present).

In January 2019, Paul condemned Senator Mitt Romney for writing an editorial criticizing President Trump. Paul said that Romney's criticism of Trump's character was bad for the country and for the Republican Party.  On July 17, 2019, Paul blocked Senator Kirsten Gillibrand's motion for unanimous consent on a bill renewing the September 11th Victim Compensation Fund along with Utah Senator Mike Lee. The fund was estimated to run out by the end of the year; the bill would renew it until the year 2090. Paul argued that he was not blocking the bill, but rather seeking a vote on an amendment that would offset the new spending by other spending cuts due to the deficit. In a segment on Fox News, which went viral, comedian Jon Stewart and 9/11

2016 presidential campaign.

Background.

Paul was considered a potential candidate for the Republican nomination for the Presidency of the United States since at least January 2013. He delivered the Tea Party response to President Barack Obama's State of the Union address on February 13, 2013, while Marco Rubio gave the official Republican response. This prompted some pundits to call that date the start of the 2016 Republican primaries. That year, he spoke at the Conservative Political Action Conference in Washington D.C., where he won the 2016 Presidential straw poll. Paul went on to win the straw poll for the next two years as well, leading to some considering Paul to be a front runner for the nomination, although CPAC attendees are typically considered younger and more libertarian-minded than average Republican voters.  In a speech at the GOP Freedom Summit in

Senate re-election.

In April 2011, Paul filed to run for re-election to his Senate seat in 2016. Had he become the Republican presidential (or vice-presidential) nominee, state law would prohibit him from simultaneously running for re-election. In March 2014, the Republican-controlled Kentucky Senate passed a bill that would allow Paul to run for both offices, but the Democratic-controlled Kentucky House of Representatives declined to take it up.  Paul

Exit from presidential campaign.

Paul announced the suspension of his presidential campaign on February 3,

Political positions.

A supporter of the Tea Party movement, Paul has described himself as a "constitutional conservative". He is generally described as a libertarian, a term he both embraced and rejected during his first Senate campaign. He supports term limits, a balanced budget amendment, and the Read the Bills Act, in addition to the widespread reduction of federal spending and taxation. He favors a flat tax rate of 14.5% for individuals and business, while eliminating the FICA payroll taxes, as well as taxes on inheritance, gifts, capital gains, dividends, and interest. Paul has frequently appeared on "Infowars" with radio show host and right-wing conspiracy theorist Alex Jones. Ideologically, the American Conservative Union has given Paul a lifetime conservative rating of 96% and the Conservative Review gave him a 92% score. As of February, 2020, according to FiveThirtyEight, Paul had voted with President Trump's position on congressional issues 70% of the time. Since the 2016 Republican primary, when Paul was highly critical of Trump, he has "become one of the president’s closest allies despite occasionally voting against Trump's nominees and legislative proposals."

Social issues.

On social issues, Paul describes himself as "100% pro life", believing that legal personhood begins at fertilization. In 2009, his position was to ban abortion under all circumstances. Since 2010, he has said he would allow for a doctor's discretion in

Foreign policy.

Unlike his more stridently "non-interventionist" father, Paul concedes a role for American armed forces abroad, including permanent foreign military bases. He has said that he blames supporters of the Iraq War and not President Obama for the growth in violence that occurred in 2014, and that the Iraq War "emboldened" Iran. Dick Cheney, John McCain and Rick Perry responded by calling Paul an isolationist, but Paul has pointed to opinion polls of likely GOP primary voters as support for his position. In 2011, shortly after being elected, Paul proposed a budget which specified $542 billion in defense spending.

Criminal justice issues.

Paul has focused on criminal justice reform as a legislative priority. He introduced the Justice Safety Valve Act in 2013 to provide judges with greater sentencing flexibility, the Civil Rights Voting Restoration Act in 2014 to restore voting rights for non-violent felons, the REDEEM Act in 2014 to allow sealing and expungement for non-violent crimes, the FAIR Act in 2014 to rein in police use of civil asset forfeiture, the RESET Act in 2014 to address the crack sentencing disparity and how drugs are weighed, the Police CAMERA Act in 2015 to increase the use of body cameras by police, the Stop Militarizing Our Law Enforcement Act in 2015 to reduce the use of military equipment by police, the MERCY Act in 2015 to restrict the use of solitary confinement on juveniles, the Pretrial Integrity and Safety Act in 2017 to encourage states to reform bail policies, the

Government surveillance.

As a critic of warrantless surveillance of Americans, Paul says "the Fourth Amendment is equally as important as the Second Amendment" and has called for conservatives to more strongly defend Fourth Amendment rights. In 2015 Paul spoke for ten and a half hours on the Senate floor against

Climate change.

Paul is uncertain regarding the causes behind global warming; he believes the scientific opinion on climate change is "not conclusive." Paul said pollution emissions are

Disease control.

On February 2, 2015, Paul generated controversy by suggesting that states should not require parents to vaccinate their children, because parents should have the freedom to make that decision for their children. In an interview with CNBC on February 2, Paul clarified this statement, commenting "I'm not arguing vaccines are a bad idea. I think they

Personal life.

Paul is married to Kelley Paul (née Ashby), a freelance writer. They were married on October 20, 1990, and have three sons, William (born 1992), Duncan, and Robert. William and Duncan attended the University of Kentucky, while Robert attended a private school in the Washington, D.C. area. They reside in Bowling Green, Kentucky. They are active members of the Presbyterian church.

2017 assault.

On November 3, 2017, Paul was assaulted by a neighbor, Rene Boucher (then aged 59), a retired anesthesiologist. Paul, who is deaf in one ear, was wearing noise-cancelling headphones while mowing his lawn, reportedly enabling Boucher to tackle him without his own approach being noticed.  Boucher was arrested and charged with one count of fourth-degree assault and released on a $7,500 bond. Paul sustained five broken ribs, of which three were displaced fractures. Boucher's attorney, Matthew Baker, described it as "a very regrettable dispute between two neighbors over a matter that most people would regard as trivial". The dispute was over Paul repeatedly leaving tree yard debris near his property line

2020 COVID-19 diagnosis.

Paul announced on March 22, 2020, that he had tested positive for coronavirus (COVID-19) amid an ongoing pandemic of the disease. He was the first member of the United States Senate to test positive. Paul received bipartisan criticism from his Senate colleagues after it was discovered

Randal Howard Paul (born January 7, 1963) is an American politician and physician serving as the junior United States Senator from Kentucky since 2011. He is the son of former U.S. Representative Ron Paul of Texas who was a presidential candidate in 1988, 2008, and 2012.

Randal Howard Paul, dit Rand Paul, né le à Pittsburgh, est un homme politique américain, membre du Parti républicain et sénateur du Kentucky au Congrès des États-Unis depuis 2011. Il est élu lors des élections de 2010 avec 55,7 % des voix et est réélu lors des élections de 2016 avec 57,3 % des voix.


Meteorological history.

A broad surface trough extended from the western Atlantic Ocean into the Gulf of Mexico in early September 2002. At the same time, a westward-moving tropical wave entered the gulf on September 10 and spawned a weak low along the trough, with little associated thunderstorm activity. On September 11, an upper-level low over the United States moved into the Gulf and became cut off from the flow, allowing atmospheric convection to develop to the east of the tropical wave. The surface low organized, and convection formed closer to the center of the low. At 0000 UTC on September 12, a Hurricane Hunters aircraft was able to find a well-defined center of circulation; the National Hurricane Center (NHC) thus designated it a tropical depression while it was about south of Pensacola, Florida.  After being designated, the cyclone became disorganized, and contained little deep and persistent convection; with dry air infringing on the western edge of the storm, substantial intensification was deemed unlikely. Despite being sheared, the cyclone neared tropical storm status later that day, though it remained a depression due to a partially non-tropical appearance. Initially, the depression meandered towards the northeast due to weak steering currents, and it intensified into a tropical storm at 0600 UTC. As such, it was named Hanna by the National Hurricane Center. Over the next 24 hours, the low-level center rotated around the mid- and upper-level centers, and the entire tropical storm turned southwestward by late September 12. After a jog to the northwest, the low-level center became separated from the convection. Meandering, the storm started to turn northward under the steering currents of a southwesterly flow associated with an approaching mid-level trough. Hanna then strengthened sharply to reach to its peak intensity of 60 miles per hour (100 km/h) at 0000 UTC on September 14.  Convection shifted towards the eastern semicircle of the circulation, while the still-exposed center became malformed and elongated. On September 14, the poorly organized cyclone crossed southeastern Louisiana, turned towards the north-northeast and made a second landfall close to the Alabama–Mississippi border at 1500 UTC that day, still at its peak strength. The storm dissipated rapidly as it proceeded inland, and the remnant low pressure area moved into Georgia and South Carolina.

Preparations.

Shortly after the formation of the storm, the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch for the coastal area between Pascagoula, Mississippi and the Suwannee River in Florida. A tropical storm warning for the region between Grand Isle, Louisiana and Apalachicola, Florida replaced the watch, though it was discontinued east of Apalachicola. All tropical cyclone warnings and watches were discontinued by 1800 UTC on September 14, as there was no longer a need for the advisories. After the landfall, officials issued flood watches for inland parts of Mississippi and Alabama as well as for western portions of Georgia and the Carolinas. On Dauphin Island in Alabama, some residents boarded up windows and filled sandbags provided by local fire departments to prepare for Hanna. The Red Cross opened 10 shelters throughout the Gulf Coast region.

Impact.

The total damage caused by Tropical Storm Hanna amounted to about $20 million—equivalent to $23 million in 2008 USD.

U.S. Gulf Coast.

In Louisiana, damage was light, as the majority of Hanna's convective activity was to the east. Rainfall was mostly less than 1 inches (25 mm), and little rise in tide was reported. Little or no damage occurred in neighboring Mississippi, where similar effects were reported.  Damage was greater in Alabama, where rain reached at Coden and at Belle Fontaine. Sustained winds of were reported at Dauphin Island, with gusts up to. The lowest barometric pressure was also at Dauphin Island; it reportedly fell to 1005 mb. Storm tides of caused minor coastal flooding and beach erosion in some areas, including along the causeway that crosses the Mobile Bay. One tornado, an F0 on the Fujita Scale, touched down in south Mobile County, knocking down trees. Some residents were left without electric power, and there was flooding on both ends of Dauphin Island, leading to road closures. The storm forced the evacuation of some residents on the western end of the island. In addition to the heavy rains, trees were downed in parts of Baldwin County.  In Florida, peak gusts were recorded at near Pensacola Beach. The winds, combined with associated thunderstorms, caused minor damage, and brought down small trees and power lines. Throughout Walton County, Hanna left approximately 15,000 customers without power, forming a statewide total of 20,000 power outages. Due to high winds, bridges to offshore islands were closed. Minor beach erosion was reported along the coast of Walton, Bay and Gulf counties. Three people drowned in high surf; one near Pensacola Beach, one at Seagrove Beach and another at Panama City Beach. The fatalities prompted a local Police Major to comment, "People are getting into the water and not paying attention to the warning flags." Heavy rain fell throughout the central and western Panhandle; the highest reported total was, at Chipley. As a result, rivers topped their banks, while county roads and homes in Perry, as well as streets in the Tallahassee region, were flooded. The total damage in Florida is estimated at $400,000 (2002 USD).

Eastern United States.

Hanna dropped heavy rainfall across much of Georgia, peaking at at Donalsonville, at Carrollton, and at Embry. Although the heaviest rainfall was mostly confined to southwestern parts of the state, precipitation was widespread within a northwest–northeast feeder band over central and northern Georgia. Associated with the band was up to of rainfall in a matter of hours, as well as gusty thunderstorms. The highest rainfall totals from this individual band were limited to an area north of a line from Atlanta to Athens. The heavy rainfall helped to relieve a persistent drought, bringing vegetation back to life. However, climatologists determined that the rainfall did not fully alleviate the dry conditions. The band of thunderstorms produced gusts of, downing trees and power lines. In the Atlanta metropolitan area, 48,000 customers received power outages. The winds tore a roof off a house and damaged a number of mobile homes. The heavy rainfall caused severe flooding; in Donalsonville, 250 houses and 50 businesses suffered water damage, while another 35 were damaged in nearby Miller County. Roads were flooded, including parts of U.S. Route 27. Crop damage was significant in the state. According to the Georgia Farm Services Agency, $19 million (2002 USD; $22 million 2008 USD) in damage to cotton and peanut crops were reported. Due to the flooding and damage, Governor Roy Barnes declared Seminole, Miller and Decatur counties federal disaster areas.  Moderate to heavy rain extended as far north as the Carolinas, and light showers reached the Delmarva Peninsula. Locations in western South Carolina picked up around 3 inches (75 mm) of rainfall, causing flooding on some roads and highways. Various streams and ponds topped their banks, and flood waters on some roads reached an estimated deep. On South Carolina Highway 20, a motorist became stranded in high waters, and nearby houses were damaged. The rainfall delayed a football game at Williams-Brice Stadium for about 50 minutes. Farther northward, the remnants of Tropical Storm Hanna contributed to around 1 inch (25 mm) of rainfall in New England, particularly in Vermont.

Tropical Storm Hanna was a moderately strong tropical storm that affected the Gulf Coast and Southeastern regions of the United States. The tenth tropical cyclone and eighth named storm of the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season, Hanna formed through the complex interaction of a surface trough, a tropical wave, and an upper-level low pressure system, a disturbance in the upper atmosphere. Designated a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on September 12, the storm remained disorganized throughout its duration, though it attained tropical storm status and a peak intensity of, with winds of 60 miles per hour (100 km/h). Hanna crossed extreme southeastern Louisiana, and made a second landfall along the Alabama–Mississippi border.

La tempête tropicale Hanna est une tempête modérée qui a affecté les états de la Côte du Golfe et les régions du Sud-est des États-Unis.


Life.

Michael Sittow was born in 1468 or 1469 in Reval to a wealthy family. His father was painter and wood-carver Clawes (Claves, Claes) van der Sittow (Suttow) and his mother was Margarethe Molner. He was the eldest of three brothers, followed by Clawes and Jasper.  The origins of Clawes van der Sittow (? - 1482) are not clear - he might have originated from the village of Zittow near Wismar or he could have been of Flemish origin. He arrived in Reval in 1454 and became a citizen in 1457. Clawes was a wealthy man for an artist, owning several houses in the city. He became an assessor in the artists' guild in 1479. Clawes van der Sittow married Margarethe Molner (? - 1501) in 1468. She was a Swedish-speaking Finn and the daughter of a wealthy merchant Olef Mölner (Olef Andersson Mölnare).  At first Michel Sittow studied painting and sculpture in his father's workshop, while attending the city school to learn Latin, arithmetic and singing. After his father's death in 1482, Michel continued his studies in Bruges from 1484 to 1488. It is thought that he worked as an apprentice in the leading Netherlandish workshop of Hans Memling. Michel Sittow became an independent master between 14881491/92, although he did not become a master in the local Bruges guild. Working as a portrait painter, he travelled in southern Europe, as traits of French and Italian art became apparent in his work.  From 1492 Sittow worked in Toledo, Spain for Isabella of Castille as court painter. Isabella assembled academicians and painters from several countries to her court. Sittow became known as Melchior Alemán ("the German") in the court, although letters of Emperor Maximilian and Margaret of Austria speak also of a painter "Mychel Flamenco" ("Michael the Fleming"), who may have been Michael Sittow. Sittow was the highest-paid painter in the queen's court, receiving a salary of 50,000 maravedis a year (Juan de Flandes, the second highest paid artist, received 20,000 maravedis). Sittow collaborated with Juan de Flandes on the series of small panels of the lives of Christ and the Virgin for the queen.  Officially Sittow worked for Isabella until her death in 1504, although he had left Spain two years before and was presumably working in Flanders for the queen's Habsburg son-in-law Philip the Handsome and daughter-in-law Margaret of Austria, painting a portrait of Philibert the Good, Duke of Savoy.  Suggestions that Sittow may have visited London in about 1503–05 to paint portraits of Henry VII (National Portrait Gallery, London) are no longer accepted.  When Philip died in 1506, Sittow lost his patron again. In the same year, he returned to Reval where his stepfather, the glass-maker Diderick van Katwijk had seized his parents' houses, as Michael's mother had died in 1501. Van Katwijk had journeyed to Brabant in 1501 and offered a property settlement to Sittow that the latter refused. As the local court did not support Sittow's claim for inheritance, he had to go to the Court of Higher Instance in Lübeck. He won the case in Lübeck, but could not officially register his parents' houses as his property until the death of his stepfather in 1518.  In 1507 Michael Sittow joined the Guild of Kanut (, ), the local painters' guild and married in 1508. Despite being a renowned master in Europe, Sittow was accepted only as a journeyman and was required to paint a masterpiece before becoming a full master craftsman in the guild. Sittow completed various local orders and worked for the St. Peter's Church in Siuntio, Finland.  In 1515 Sittow was again in Spain, this time to claim outstanding debts incurred by Isabella of Castile, and it is significant that in the documentation for his claim he is referred to as 'pintor criado de madama la prinçesa doña Margarita', that is the painter of Margaret of Austria. It seems likely that this was the case at least a year earlier. In 1514 Sittow visited Copenhagen, to paint the portrait of Christian II of Denmark. The portrait was part of the diplomacy for the betrothal of Christian II to Margaret's niece Isabella of Austria. The portrait that is held in Copenhagen's Statens Museum for Kunst is probably a copy of a lost original or a second copy ordered from Sittow.  The same year Sittow also painted a portrait of Mary Tudor, today in the Vienna Kunsthistorisches Museum, as part of the betrothal negotiations. This portrait has been frequently mis-identified as Catherine of Aragon. Two other Sittow paintings of Mary Magdalen (Detroit) and the Virgin Mary (Berlin) may also use the same model, or take the portrait as their starting point – the use of members of royal households as models for sacred figures is found in court art in the Netherlands at this time. The Berlin Virgin formed the other half of a diptych with the Washington portrait of Diego de Guevara, a Spanish courtier with the Habsburgs, otherwise best known for giving the Arnolfini Portrait to Archduchess Margaret of Austria, governor of the Spanish Netherlands.  From the Netherlands, Sittow returned to Spain and worked for Ferdinand II of Aragon, followed in 1516 by the Spanish King Carlos I, the future Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. When Charles V abdicated from power he took Sittow's wooden sculpture of the Virgin and three paintings with him to his retirement in the monastery of Yuste. It is possible that Sittow travelled to Spain in an attempt to recover an unpaid salary from queen Isabel of Castille.  In 1516 (possibly 1517 or 1518) Michael Sittow returned to Reval. In 1518, he married Dorothie, a daughter of a merchant named Allunsze. Their son Michel died shortly after birth. In 1523, Sittow became the Aldermann (guild-master) of the Guild of Kanut. Michael Sittow died of the plague in Reval between 20 December 1525 and 20 January 1526. He is buried in the cemetery of the almshouse of the Church of the Holy Spirit ().

Works by Michael Sittow.

The name of Michael Sittow was nearly unknown for centuries, until in 1914 Max J. Friedländer put forward a hypothesis that "Master Michiel", court painter of Queen Isabella, is the author of the diptych discovered near Burgos, depicting the "Virgin and Child" on one side and a "Knight of the Order of Calatrava" on the other. In subsequent decades scholars put together a picture of Master Michiel's career in Spain, the Netherlands and in Denmark, but it was not until 1940 that the Baltic-German historian Paul Johansen identified the mysterious Master Michiel as Michael Sittow from Reval.  Michael Sittow specialized mainly in small devotional works and portraits, which sometimes project a melancholy mood. His style is heavily influenced by his teacher Hans Memling and also show influence of the elegance found in portraits by Jean Perréal. Sittow used translucent layers of paint to achieve highly refined and subdued color harmonies, combined with light effects and sensitivity to texture. E. P. Richardson described Sittow's work "/../an artist somewhat like Van Dyck in a later epoch; a brilliant painter of religious subjects, but of outstanding qualities as a portrait painter. His portraits are among the finest of their time, vivid, candid, crisply elegant and reserved."  Few surviving paintings can be attributed to Sittow with certainty, and there are many problems of attribution around his work. Though his biography is well documented, the only works that can be attributed to him with certainty are two rather atypical very small panels from a large series mostly by Juan de Flandes for Queen Isabella. The attributions of both the portrait (today in Washington, D.C.) called Don Diego de Guevara (d. Brussels 1520, a nobleman whose family came from Santander in northern Spain; valued member of the Habsburg court in Burgundy), and the painting of the "Virgin and Child" which together with it once formed a diptych, are nearly certain, as Diego's illegitimate son Felipe de Guevara mentions his father's portrait by Sittow.  Most of Sittow's paintings are not signed and dated – the only painting that can be dated with certainty is the portrait of Christian II of Denmark. There are more than thirty works attributed to Michael Sittow, however, most of them have not been verified by documentation as his.  Many of his paintings (mentioned in various documents) and almost all of his sculptures have not been preserved.  Among works no longer considered to be by Sittow are:

In literature.

Michael Sittow (as Michel Sittow) is the main character in Jaan Kross' short story "Four Monologues on St. George" (, 1970). The book is written in the form of a judicial inquiry and explores such issues as nationhood, political exile and cultural assimilation. It was awarded the most prestigious short prose award in Estonia, the Friedebert Tuglas Short Story Award.

Michael Sittow ( 1469 – 1525), also known as Master Michiel, Michel Sittow, Michiel, Miguel and many other variants, was a painter from Reval (now Tallinn, Estonia) who was trained in the tradition of Early Netherlandish painting. For most of his life, Sittow worked as a court portrait painter, for Isabella of Castille, the Habsburgs and others in Spain and the Netherlands. He was one of the most important Flemish painters of the era.

Michel Sittow, également connu sous le nom de Maître Michiel et de bien d'autres variantes, né vers 1469 à Reval (maintenant Tallinn, Estonie), où il est mort en 1525 ou 1526, est un peintre estonien.


Biography.

White began his career as medieval historian focusing on the history of Latin monasticism in Sicily during the Norman Period but realized the coming conflict in Europe would interfere with his access to source materials. While at Princeton he read the works of Richard Lefebvre des Noëttes, and Marc Bloch. This led to his first work in the history of technology, "Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages" in 1940.  Noettes was a retired French cavalry officer who made his hobby the history of horses. He wrote that the utilization of animals in antiquity was inefficient because the ancients were limited by the technologies of their period, specifically the lack of horseshoes and a bad harness design. White expanded Noettes’ conclusions into a thesis of his own that encompassed the relationship of the newly realized efficient horse and the agricultural revolution of the time.  White pointed to new methods of crop rotation and plowing and tied them to the rise of manor-based collective farming and the shift in European prosperity and power from the Mediterranean to the North. White also touched on the stirrup, the lateen sail, the wheel barrow, the spinning wheel, the hand crank, water-driven mills and wind mills. He concluded: "The chief glory of the later Middle Ages was not its cathedrals or its epics or its scholasticism: it was the building for the first time in history of a complex civilization which rested not on the backs of sweating slaves or coolies but primarily on non-human power" and he credited this as well as Western primacy in technology to Western theology's "activist" tradition and "implicit assumption of the infinite worth of even the most degraded human personality" and its "repugnance towards subjecting any man to monotonous drudgery."  In 1942, White published a paper titled "Christian Myth and Christian History" in which he wrote about the relationship between historians and Christianity. He wrote: "Having lost faith that God revealed himself uniquely at one single point in history, we are relapsing into the essentially static or repetitive view of the time-process typical of antiquity and of the East" and "the Virgin Mother, undefiled yet productive, bearing Christ into the world by the action of the Spirit of God, is so perfect an analogue of the most intimate experience of the soul, that powerful myth has sustained dubious history; for, to the believer, myth and history have been one" and "Christianity above all other religions has rashly insisted that its myth really happened in time" and "we stand amid the debris of our inherited religious system." White held out hope for a Christianity that celebrated its myths and made no pretensions to history, and saw Catholicism as the most progressive in this respect.  At Mills College, White published on education and women, including "Women's Colleges and the Male Dominance" (1947), "Unfitting Women for Life" (1949), "Educating Women in a Man's World" (1950), and "The Future of Women's Education" (1953).

Medieval technology and social change.

At UCLA, he used a set of lectures from 1957 to form his best-known work, "Medieval Technology and Social Change" in 1962. This book revisited almost all the themes from "Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages" 22 years earlier, but included a controversial theory about the stirrup. White contended in the first section of the book that the stirrup made shock combat possible, and therefore had a crucial role in shaping the feudal system. He believed this was the motivation for Charles Martel to accelerate confiscation of church-held lands and distribute it to his knights, who would bear the cost of themselves with expensive horses in to support him in battle. In the second section of the book, White explained the shift in power from the Mediterranean to Northern Europe as a result of increased productivity due to technological changes that produced a "heavy plow," better harnesses for horses to pull the plow, and a three-field crop rotation scheme. In the third part of the book, he examined medieval machines that converted motion and energy. The most notable was the compound crank. The work elicited over 30 reviews, many of which were hostile. P. H. Sawyer and R. H. Hilton wrote the most scathing of the early reviews, beginning with:  "Technical determinism in historical studies has often been combined with adventurous speculations particularly attractive to those who like to have complex developments explained by simple causes. The technical determinism of Professor Lynn White Jr., however, is peculiar in that, instead of building new and provocative theories about general historical development on the basis of technical studies, he gives a misleadingly adventurist cast to old-fashioned platitudes by supporting them with a chain of obscure and dubious deductions from scanty evidence about the progress of technology."  Nevertheless, the book remains in print and still stands as a seminal work in the field.

The historical roots of present-day ecologic crisis.

In 1967, White conjectured that the Christian influences in the Middle Ages were at the root of ecological crisis in the 20th century. He gave a lecture on December 26, 1966, titled, "The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis" at the Washington meeting of the AAAS, that was later published in the journal "Science". White's article was based on the premise that "all forms of life modify their context", i.e. every living organism in some way alters its environment or habitat. He believed man's relationship with the natural environment was always a dynamic and interactive one, even in the Middle Ages, but marked the Industrial Revolution as a fundamental turning point in our ecological history. He suggests that at this point the hypotheses of science were married to the possibilities of technology and our ability to destroy and exploit the environment was vastly increased. Nevertheless, he also suggests that the mentality of the Industrial Revolution, that the earth was a resource for human consumption, was much older than the actuality of machinery, and has its roots in medieval Christianity and attitudes towards nature. He suggests that "what people do about their ecology depends on what they think about themselves in relation to things around them." Citing the Genesis creation story he argued that Judeo-Christian theology had swept away pagan animism and normalized exploitation of the natural world because:  He posited that these beliefs have led to an indifference towards nature which continues to impact in an industrial, "post-Christian" world. He concludes that applying more science and technology to the problem will not help, that it is humanity's fundamental ideas about nature that must change; we must abandon "superior, contemptuous" attitudes that makes us "willing to use it [the earth] for our slightest whim." White suggests adopting St. Francis of Assisi as a model in imagining a "democracy" of creation in which all creatures are respected and man's rule over creation is delimited.

The debate.

White's ideas set off an extended debate about the role of religion in creating and sustaining the West's destructive attitude towards the exploitation of the natural world. It also galvanized interest in the relationship between history, nature and the evolution of ideas, thus stimulating new fields of study like environmental history and ecotheology. Equally, however, many saw his argument as a direct attack on Christianity and other commentators think his analysis of the impact of the Bible, and especially Genesis is misguided. They argue that Genesis provides man with a model of "stewardship" rather than dominion, and asks man to take care of the world's environment. Others, such as Lewis W. Montcrief, argue that our relation to the environment has been influenced by many more varied and complex cultural/historical phenomena,and that the result we see today cannot simply be reduced to the influence of the Judeo-Christian tradition. Later responses to his article include criticism not just of the central argument but also of the validity of his suggestion "I propose Francis as a patron saint for ecologists." Jan J Boersema's article "Why is St Francis of Assisi the patron saint of ecologists?" in "Science and Christian Belief" 2002 (vol 14 pp. 51–77). Boersema argues that the historical evidence for Francis's status as such a patron saint is weak both in Francis' own writings and in the reliable sources about his life.

Medieval technology and religion.

White was an historian, but had also earned a master's degree at Union Theological Seminary and was the son of a Calvinist professor of Christian Ethics, and considered religion integral to the development of Western technology. From his "Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages" of 1940, through his "Dynamo and Virgin Reconsidered" of 1958, to his "Medieval Technology and Social Change" (Oxford University Press, 1962), his work refuted the assumption that the Middle Ages were too preoccupied with theology and/or chivalry to concern themselves with technology, the assumption behind Henry Adams' antitheses of Virgin vs. dynamo, but widespread elsewhere as well.

White's view of writing history.

His work tied together that of many predecessors, above all that of Marc Bloch, to whose memory "Medieval Technology and Social Change" is dedicated. White argued, "Since, until recent centuries, technology was chiefly the concern of groups which wrote little, the role which technological development plays in human affairs has been neglected," and declared, "If historians are to attempt to write the history of mankind, and not simply the history of mankind as it was viewed by the small and specialized segments of our race which have had the habit of scribbling, they must take a fresh view of the records, ask new questions of them, and use all the resources of archaeology, iconography, and etymology to find answers when no answers can be discovered in contemporary writings."

Lynn Townsend White Jr. (April 29, 1907 – March 30, 1987) was an American historian. He was a professor of medieval history at Princeton from 1933 to 1937, and at Stanford from 1937 to 1943. He was president of Mills College, Oakland, from 1943 to 1958 and a professor at University of California, Los Angeles from 1958 until 1987. Lynn White helped to found the Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) and was president from 1960 to 1962. He won the Pfizer Award for "Medieval Technology and Social Change" from the History of Science Society (HSS) and the Leonardo da Vinci medal and Dexter prize from SHOT in 1964 and 1970. He was president of the History of Science Society from 1971 to 1972. He was president of The Medieval Academy of America from 1972–1973, and the American Historical Association in 1973.

Lynn Townsend White, jr (1907-1987) est un historien médiéviste américain, professeur d’histoire à l’université de Californie à Los Angeles, auteur de nombreuses études sur l'histoire des techniques, et surtout de la célèbre thèse sur « Les racines historiques de notre crise écologique ». C'est une conférence prononcée le à Washington, devant l’assemblée annuelle de l’American Association for the Advancement of Science, et originellement publiée dans la prestigieuse revue "Science" de l’AAAS, en.