Biography.

Giacomo Della Porta was born in Genova from a family of sculptors. He was influenced by and collaborated with Michelangelo, and Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, his teacher of architecture. With these two great masters he became one of the most important architects in the history of the Roman renaissance. In fact after 1563 he carried out Michelangelo's plans for the rebuilding of the Campidoglio or Capitoline Hill's open spaces where he completed the façade and steps of Palazzo Senatorio, and the "Cordonata" or the ramped steps up to the Piazza del Campidoglio.  After the death of Vignola in 1573, he continued the construction of Il Gesù, the mother church of the Jesuit order, and in 1584 modified its façade after his own designs.  He also worked on the construction of Palazzo Albertoni Spinola by acting on the load-bearing structures and internal partitions creating, through the orthogonality of the entrance gallery and the entrance hall of the Palace, a unique prospective visual effect.  From 1573 he was in charge of the ongoing construction of St. Peter's Basilica, and later, in collaboration with Domenico Fontana, completed Michelangelo's dome between 1588-1590.  It's important to underline that Della Porta and Fontana were not mere performers of Michelangelo's drawings; in fact, they had the merit of the technical execution of a firm that sanctioned an important stage of technological advances at the end of the sixteenth century. Not only did they make a noticeable change in the bend curvature of Michelangelo's projected design, making it closer to the Brunelleschi model, but inserted a series of chains in the masonry (especially in the upper part of the dome) to hold the transverse forces pushed by the vault they used high quality materials, hinging travertine plates with molten lead; features, which allowed the dome not to bear any serious damage after the earthquake of 1703. They also made the costumes with the help of sophisticated wooden finishes and drew the technical details of the 1: 1 scale dome directly on the floor of the Basilica of St. Paul outside the Walls.  Giacomo della Porta completed a number of Rome's fountains from the 16th century; these included the fountains in the Piazza del Popolo, the Fountain of Neptune, Rome and La Fontana del Moro in the Piazza Navona and Fontana delle Tartarughe very important for the Roman legends.  He died suddenly in 1602 coming back to Rome from Frascati where he was building Villa Belvedere commissioned by the Aldobrandini family.

Giacomo della Porta (1532–1602) was an Italian architect and sculptor, who worked on many important buildings in Rome, including St. Peter's Basilica. He was born at Porlezza, Lombardy and died in Rome.

Giacomo della Porta (Porlezza, 1533 - Rome, 1602) est un architecte italien de l'art maniériste de la Contre-Réforme, promoteur de l'art baroque.


Early life and career.

Richter was born in Hamelin, Lower Saxony, West Germany. He grew up in Bedford, England, United Kingdom, and his education was at Bedford Modern School and Mander College of Further Education. He studied composition and piano at the University of Edinburgh, the Royal Academy of Music, and with Luciano Berio in Florence. After finishing his studies, Richter co-founded the contemporary classical ensemble Piano Circus. He stayed with the group for ten years, commissioning and performing works by minimalist musicians such as Arvo Pärt, Brian Eno, Philip Glass, Julia Wolfe, and Steve Reich. The ensemble was signed to Decca/Argo, producing five albums.  In 1996, Richter collaborated with Future Sound of London on their album "Dead Cities", beginning as a pianist, but ultimately working on several tracks, as well as co-writing one track (titled "Max"). Richter worked with the band for two years, also contributing to the albums "The Isness" and "The Peppermint Tree and Seeds of Superconsciousness". In 2000, Richter worked with Mercury Prize winner Roni Size on the Reprazent album "In the Møde". Richter produced Vashti Bunyan's 2005 album "Lookaftering" and Kelli Ali's 2008 album "Rocking Horse".

Solo work.

Richter's solo albums include:

"Memoryhouse" (2002).

Considered a “landmark work of contemporary classical music", Max Richter's solo debut "Memoryhouse", an experimental album of "documentary music" recorded with the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra, explores real and imaginary stories and histories. Several of the tracks, such as "Sarajevo", "November", "Arbenita", and "Last Days", deal with the aftermath of the Kosovo conflict, while others are of childhood memories e.g. "Laika's Journey". The music combines ambient sounds, voices (including that of John Cage), and poetry readings from the work of Marina Tsvetaeva. BBC Music described the album as "a masterpiece in neoclassical composition." "Memoryhouse" was first played live by Richter at the Barbican Centre on 24 January 2014 to coincide with a vinyl re-release of the album.  "Pitchfork" gave the re-release an 8.7 rating, commenting on its extensive influence:In 2002, Richter’s ability to weave subtle electronics against the grand BBC Philharmonic Orchestra helped suggest new possibilities and locate fresh audiences that composers such as Nico Muhly and Michał Jacaszek have since pursued. As you listen to new work by Julianna Barwick or Jóhann Jóhannsson, thank Richter; just as Sigur Rós did with its widescreen rock, Richter showed that crossover wasn't necessarily an artistic curse.

"The Blue Notebooks" (2004).

Chosen by the Guardian as one of the best Classical works of the century, "The Blue Notebooks," released in 2004, featured the actress Tilda Swinton reading from Kafka's The Blue Octavo Notebooks and the work of Czesław Miłosz. Richter has stated that "The Blue Notebooks" is a protest album about the Iraq War, as well as a meditation on his own troubled childhood. "Pitchfork" described the album as "Not only one of the finest record of the last six months, but one of the most affecting and universal contemporary classical records in recent memory." To mark the 10th anniversary of its release, Richter created a track-by-track commentary for "Drowned in Sound", in which he described the album as a series of interconnected dreams and an exploration of the chasm between lived experience and imagination. The second track, "On the Nature of Daylight", is used in both the opening and closing sequences of the sci-fi film "Arrival".  On the eve of its 2018 re-issue, marking the 15th anniversary of its release, "Fact" named the album "one of the most iconic pieces of classical and protest music of the 21st century." The re-release included a new cover design and several new tracks that were originally composed for the project. Richter also released another single, "Cypher", which is an 8 minutes classical-electronic track based upon the theme of On the Nature of Daylight.

"Songs from Before" (2006).

In 2006, he released his third solo album, "Songs from Before", which features Robert Wyatt reading texts by Haruki Murakami.

"24 Postcards in Full Colour" (2008).

Richter released his fourth solo album "24 Postcards in Full Colour", a collection of 24 classically composed miniatures for ringtones, in 2008. The pieces are a series of variations on the basic material, scored for strings, piano, and electronics.  Discussing the album with NPR Classical in 2017 Richter stated "People were downloading ringtones at the time and I felt this was a missed opportunity for composers. That there was a space opening up, maybe a billion little loudspeakers walking around the planet, but nobody was really thinking of this as a space for creative music. So I set out to make these tiny little fragments and then, of course, in the poetic sense, the idea of these little sound carrying objects traversing the planet, I started to think of these as a connection, as a sort of postcard into somebody's life, into their space."

"Infra" (2010).

Richter's 2010 album "Infra" takes as its central theme the 2005 terrorist bombings in London, and is an extension of his 25-minute score for a ballet of the same name choreographed by Wayne McGregor and staged at the Royal Opera House. "Infra" comprises music written for piano, electronics and string quintet, plus the full performance score and material that subsequently developed from the construction of the album. "Pitchfork" described the album as "achingly gorgeous" and "The Independent" newspaper characterised it as "a journey in 13 episodes, emerging from a blur of static and finding its way in a repeated phrase that grows in loveliness."

"Recomposed by Max Richter: Vivaldi – The Four Seasons" (2012).

Richter's recomposed version of Vivaldi's "The Four Seasons", "", was premiered in the UK at the Barbican Centre on 31 October 2012, performed by the Britten Sinfonia, conducted by André de Ridder and with violinist Daniel Hope. Although Richter said that he had discarded 75% of Vivaldi's original material, the parts he does use are phased and looped, emphasising his grounding in postmodern and minimalist music. The album topped the iTunes classical chart in the UK, Germany and the US. The US launch concert in New York at Le Poisson Rouge was recorded by NPR and streamed.

"Sleep" and " From Sleep" (2015).

In 2015, Max Richter released his most ambitious project to date, "Sleep", an 8.5 hour listening experience targeted to fit a full night's rest. The album itself contains 31 compositions, most of them reaching 20–30 minutes in duration, all based around variations of 4-5 themes. The music is calm, slow, mellow and composed for piano, cello, two violas, two violins, organ, soprano vocals, synthesizers and electronics. As the album's liner notes, strings are played by the American Contemporary Music Ensemble (Ben Russell, Yuki Numata Resnik, Caleb Burhans, Clarice Jensen and Brian Snow), Vocals are provided by Grace Davidson and the piano, synthesisers and electronics are played by Richter himself.  Richter also released a 1-hour version of the project, "From Sleep", that contains roughly 1 shortened version of every "theme" from Sleep (hence its title), and is supposed to act as a shorter listening experience for the Sleep project.  Richter has described SLEEP as an eight-hour-long lullaby. It was released on CD and vinyl. The work was strongly influenced by Gustav Mahler's symphonic works.  The entire composition was performed on 27 September 2015, from midnight to 8:00 A.M. as the climax of the "Science and Music" weekend on BBC Radio 3. The performance broke several records, including the longest live broadcast of a single musical composition in the history of the network.  "Sleep" was chosen by Jarvis Cocker to be the BBC6 Album of the year for 2015 and by Pitchfork Magazine as one of the 50 best ambient albums of all time.  The full-length "Sleep" has been played live by Richter at the Concertgebouw (Grote Zaal) Amsterdam; the Sydney Opera House; in Berlin (as part of Berliner Festspiele's Maerz Musik Festival), in Madrid (as part of Veramos de la Villa) and in London (at the Barbican). In November 2017 "Sleep" was played at the Philharmonie de Paris. In September 2018 it was played in the Antwerp cathedral for an audience of 400 which were provided with beds for the night. In August 2019 it was performed in Helsinki (as part of the Helsinki Festival) in the tent arena, with half of the audience in two-person tents.  “I think of it as a piece of protest music,” Richter has said. “It’s protest music against this sort of very super industrialised, intense, mechanised way of living right now. It’s a political work in that sense. It’s a call to arms to stop what we’re doing.

"Three Worlds: Music from Woolf Works" (2017).

"Three Worlds: Music From Woolf Works" is Max Richter’s eighth album, released in January 2017. The music is taken from the score Richter composed for the ballet "Woolf Works" in collaboration with choreographer Wayne McGregor at the Royal Opera House in London, which follows a three-part structure offering evocations of three books by Virginia Woolf ("Mrs Dalloway", "", and "The Waves"). The album features classical and electronic sound as well as an original voice recording of Woolf herself.

Film and television work.

Max Richter has created numerous film and television soundtracks over the years. He rose to prominence with his score to Ari Folman's Golden Globe-winning film "Waltz with Bashir" in 2007, in which he supplanted a standard orchestral soundtrack with synth-based sounds and winning him the European Film Award for Best Composer. He also scored the independent feature film "Henry May Long", starring Randy Sharp and Brian Barnhart, in 2008, and wrote the music for Feo Aladag's film "Die Fremde" (with additional music by Stéphane Moucha).  In 2010 Dinah Washington's "This Bitter Earth" was remixed with Richter's "On the Nature of Daylight" for the Martin Scorsese film "Shutter Island". In July 2010, "On the Nature of Daylight" and "Vladimir's Blues" were featured throughout the BBC Two two-part drama "Dive", which was co-written by BAFTA-winning Dominic Savage and Simon Stevens. "On the Nature of Daylight" was also featured in an episode of HBO's television series "Luck". Four tracks—"Europe, After the Rain", "The Twins (Prague)", "Fragment", and "Embers"—were used in the six-part 2005 BBC documentary "Auschwitz: The Nazis and the Final Solution" produced by Laurence Rees. Richter also wrote the soundtrack to Peter Richardson's documentary, "How to Die in Oregon", and the score to "Impardonnables" (2011) directed by André Téchiné.  An excerpt of the song "Sarajevo" from his 2002 album "Memoryhouse" was used in the international trailer for the Ridley Scott film "Prometheus". The track "November", from the same album, was featured in the international trailer for Terrence Malick's 2012 film, "To the Wonder", and in the trailer for Clint Eastwood's 2011 film, "J. Edgar". Films featuring Richter's music released in 2011 include French drama "Sarah's Key" by Gilles Paquet-Brenner, and David MacKenzie's romantic thriller "Perfect Sense". In 2012 he composed the scores for Henry Alex Rubin's "Disconnect", and Cate Shortland's Australian-German war thriller "Lore". Richter again collaborated with Folman on "The Congress", which was released in 2013.  Richter is also the composer of the original soundtrack for the HBO series "The Leftovers" created by Damon Lindelof and Tom Perrotta, which was premiered in June 2014. Some of these compositions are included in the albums "Memoryhouse" and "The Blue Notebooks".  In 2016, Richter composed the score to "Nosedive", an episode of Charlie Brooker's "Black Mirror". Also that year, he scored Luke Scott's debut feature "Morgan" and the political thriller "Miss Sloane", while his piece "On the Nature of Daylight" opened and closed Denis Villeneuve's film "Arrival". "On the Nature Of Daylight" also closes episode 7 of "Castle Rock", "The Queen". He composed all the music in BBC One's drama "Taboo" which was broadcast in January and February 2017.  In 2017, documentary film maker Nancy Buirski used the track combining Dinah Washington's "This Bitter Earth" with Max Richter's "On The Nature of Daylight", first heard in "Shutter Island", in her film "The Rape of Recy Taylor".  In December 2017, an excerpt of Richter's re-composition of Vivaldi's The Four Seasons was used in "The Crown" season 2 as the theme for Princess Margaret's (Vanessa Kirby) turbulent courtship with photographer Anthony Armstrong-Jones (Matthew Goode).  In 2018, Richter composed music for the films "Hostiles" by Scott Cooper starring Christian Bale and Rosamund Pike, "White Boy Rick" starring Matthew McConaughey, the German film "Never Look Away", and "Mary Queen of Scots" starring Saoirse Ronan and Margot Robbie. He also composed music for the mini-series "My Brilliant Friend" on HBO.  In 2019, Richter scored the film "Ad Astra" starring Brad Pitt with additional music by Nils Frahm and Lorne Balfe. An excerpt of his rendition of "Dona nobis pacem" was used for the fifth season of the BBC series "Peaky Blinders" created by Steven Knight.

Ballet, opera, and stage works.

Richter wrote the score to "Infra" as part of a Royal Ballet-commissioned collaboration with choreographer Wayne McGregor and artist Julian Opie. The production was staged at the Royal Opera House in London in 2008. In 2011, Richter composed a chamber opera based on neuroscientist David Eagleman's book "". The opera was choreographed by Wayne McGregor and premiered at the Royal Opera House Linbury Studio Theatre in 2012. The piece received positive reviews, with London's Evening Standard saying "[it] fits together rather beautifully". Their collaboration continued in April 2014 with Wayne McGregor's 'Kairos'; a ballet set to Richter's recomposition of the Four Seasons and part of a collaborative program involving three different choreographers titled 'Notations' with Ballett Zürich. In 2015 Richter and McGregor collaborated again on a new full-length ballet, Woolf Works, based on the life of Virginia Woolf.  Crystal Pite has also choreographed a ballet to Richter's "Vivaldi Recomposed", titled "The Seasons' Canon", which premiered at the Opera National de Paris in 2016. Sol Leon and Paul Lightfoot choreographed a piece to Richter's "Exiles" for the Nederlands Dans Theater.  In 2012/13, Richter contributed music to The National Theatre of Scotland's production of "Macbeth", starring Alan Cumming. The play opened at New York's Lincoln Centre and subsequently moved to Broadway. The company had previously used Richter's "Last Days" in their acclaimed production of "Black Watch".

Other collaborations.

In 2010, Richter's soundscape "The Anthropocene" formed part of Darren Almond's film installation at the White Cube gallery in London. The composer has also collaborated with digital art collective Random International on two projects, contributing scores to the installations "Future Self" (2012), staged at the MADE space in Berlin, and "Rain Room" (2012/13) at London's Barbican Centre and MOMA, in New York.

Max Richter (; ; born 22 March 1966) is a German-born British composer. He works within postminimalism and in the meeting of contemporary classical and alternative popular musical styles. Richter is classically trained, having graduated in composition from the Royal Academy of Music, and studied with Luciano Berio in Italy.

Max Richter, né à Hamelin en Allemagne, est un musicien et compositeur germano-britannique de musique classique et électronique contemporaine, rattaché au mouvement post-minimaliste.


Economy.

The economy is based on agriculture. The town is noted for its production of onions and garlic. Both the climate and the soil structure make the town and its surroundings an ideal place for onion farming. Onions have been cultivated in the region since the 16th century. The first records of significant garlic production date to the late 18th century. International recognition of the garlic grown in Makó has been widespread since the Vienna Expo in 1873 and the Brussels Expo in 1888.  The mud of the Maros River has similar properties to some of the best in Hungary and the world; at times it is likened to that of the Dead Sea. The local spa has been one of the main tourist attractions since 1961.  With the political changes in 1989, after the break-up of the Soviet Union, Makó lost jobs in industry. Unemployment has risen in the area, to an estimated 8% in the early 21st century, and is considered a serious issue. Farmers have also suffered more economic difficulties. The town has established an industrial park to encourage that development, and the town hopes to build on its site as "The South-Eastern Gate of the European Union."  Makó has become known in the early 21st century for the nearby Makó Trough, a basin-centered gas accumulation that could be one of the largest natural gas fields in continental Europe. As of March 2007, it was not clear whether the gas can be recovered economically from this area. At the 90% probability rate, Makó had certified recoverable resources of over 600 billion cubic meters of natural gas, according to a report by the Scotia Group. This was prepared for the field's exploration concession holder, the Canada-based Falcon Oil and Gas.

History.

Makó used to be the capital of Csanád, a historic administrative county (comitatus) of the Kingdom of Hungary.  Noted Hungarian people were born or have lived in Makó. Perhaps the most prominent is the American publisher and journalist, Joseph Pulitzer, who was born to a Jewish family here on April 18, 1847. Emigrating to the United States when young, he developed as a publisher, owning and operating two newspapers in the United States: in Saint Louis, Missouri and New York City; bequeathed funds to Columbia University to establish its school of journalism, and endowed the Pulitzer Prizes in journalism and photography, as well as literature, art and music.

Jewish history.

Makó developed a Jewish community beginning in the 18th century. The Orthodox synagogue was reconstructed during the years 1999-2002 and reopened on 10 March 2002.  Jews began to settle in Makó about the middle of the 18th century, under the protection of Stanislavich, the Bishop of Csanad. In 1740, he assigned a special quarter to them. They soon formed a community, and by 1747 had established a ḥebra ḳaddisha.  The first rabbi of Makó was Judah ben Abraham ha-Levi (who occupied the rabbinate from 1778 to 1824). He was succeeded by Salomon Ullman (1826–63). Ullman wrote a commentary on certain sections of "Yoreh De'ah", under the title ""Yeri'ot Shelomoh"" (Vienna, 1854). He was followed by Anton Enoch Fischer (1864–96), former rabbi of Dunaföldvár. Fischer introduced German and (later) Hungarian in his sermons, when the community still spoke mostly Yiddish.<br> In 1904 the rabbi was Dr. A. Kecskemeti".  The community established a Jewish school in Makó in 1851, of which Marcus Steinhardt was a teacher for forty years. The community also set up a Jewish Women's Association, a Jewish students' aid society, and a Jewish women's lying-in hospital.  In 1900, Makó had 1,642 Jews, less than 5% of the total city population of 33,722. This community was largely destroyed during the Holocaust of World War II, when Jews were deported to extermination camps, where most were killed in the last year of the war.

Geography.

The former community pasture of the town near the Maros River has been preserved as part of the Körös-Maros National Park. The traditional name of the area, "Csordajárás," expresses its historic use as grazing ground for cattle.

Climate.

Makó and the surrounding region get the most sunshine in Hungary, about 85-90 sunny days a year. The sun shines more than 2,100 hours a year in Makó. The climate is relatively dry, especially in the summer, with the 100-year average of precipitation recorded at per year. The average medium temperature is.

International relations.

Twin towns — Sister cities.

Makó is twinned with:

Makó (,, Makowe,, ) is a town in Csongrád County, in southeastern Hungary, from the Romanian border. It lies on the Mureș River. Makó is home to 23,272 people and it has an area of, of which is arable land. Makó is the fourth-largest town in Csongrád County after Szeged, Hódmezővásárhely and Szentes. The town is from Hódmezővásárhely, from Szeged, from Arad, from Gyula, from Timișoara (Temesvár), and from Budapest.

Makó (en roumain "Macău") est une ville du sud-est de la Hongrie, avec une population d'environ habitants. La ville est située sur la rivière Maros, à 20 kilomètres de la frontière roumaine. La ville est traversée par la route européenne 68, qui relie la ville hongroise de Szeged (en roumain "Seghedin") et la ville roumaine de Brașov (en hongrois "Brasso").


Prizes.

Cash prizes are awarded to the top-five competitors in each discipline of piano, violin, cello, and to each of the top four competitors in the men's and women's solo vocal categories. First prize (always awarded) is US$30,000; second, US$20,000; third, US$10,000; fourth, US$5,000; and fifth, US$3,000. An additional prize, a Grand Prix of US$100,000, may be awarded to one of the gold medalists deemed outstanding by the juries. Additional awards are given for best performance of the chamber concertos and the commissioned new work.  For the 2019 competition, the prizes are as follows:

History.

Held every four years, the first competition, in 1958, included two disciplines – piano and violin. Beginning with the second competition, in 1962, a cello category was added, and the vocal division was introduced during the third competition in 1966. In 1990, a fifth discipline was announced for the IX International Tchaikovsky Competition — a contest for violin makers which traditionally comes before the main competition. In 2019, two new categories were added to the competition, woodwinds and brass.

Tianxu An incident.

On 25 June 2019, at the final round of the piano category, Chinese competitor Tianxu An was supposed to play Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1 followed by Rachmaninoff's "Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini". However, the scores on the orchestra's and conductor's stands were placed in reversed order and the Rachmaninoff piece was announced first, different from what the pianist requested. Since An didn't understand Russian, he was unaware of the situation. With the piano entry in the Rachmaninoff almost immediate, the performance "began with a failure". Following the incident, jury chair Denis Matsuev invited him to perform the program again, but An declined. The competition made an official apology and the orchestra administration suspended the responsible staff after the event. An was eventually awarded a "special prize" for his confidence and courage.

Prize winners.

Winners of the prizes and medals awarded in the given year and category.

The International Tchaikovsky Competition is a classical music competition held every four years in Moscow and Saint Petersburg, Russia, for pianists, violinists, and cellists between 16 and 32 years of age and singers between 19 and 32 years of age. The competition is named after Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and is an active member of the World Federation of International Music Competitions.

Le Concours international Tchaïkovski est l'un des concours de musique classique les plus prestigieux. Baptisé en mémoire du compositeur russe Piotr Ilitch Tchaïkovski, il se déroule à Moscou tous les quatre ans depuis 1958, année de sa création.


Biography.

Marina Gershman (later Solodkin) was born in Moscow in the Soviet Union. Solodkin studied at Moscow State University, where she gained a PhD in economic and social science. She immigrated to Israel in 1991. Solodkin died of a stroke in a hotel room in Latvia on 16 March 2013. She wrote on her Facebook page the Friday before: "In a few hours' time I will take off for Latvia in order to take part in a conference I was invited to by the Latvian Committee against Fascism... Lately, Neo-Nazism is raising its ugly head in Eastern Europe, in the post-Soviet states. We must remain vigilant."  She was survived by her husband and two children. She lived in Ashkelon.

Political career.

In Israel, Solodkin joined the Russian-immigrant party, Yisrael BaAliyah led by Soviet dissident Natan Sharansky. She was elected to the Knesset in the 1996 elections on the party's list and chaired the Committee on the Status of Women. After retaining her seat in the 1999 elections, she was appointed Deputy Minister of Immigrant Absorption, a post she regained during the 16th Knesset after Yisrael BaAliyah had merged into Likud.  Shortly before the 2006 elections Solodkin resigned from the Knesset in order to join Kadima. She gained 6th place on the party's list and was re-elected. However, in protest at not being appointed a Minister despite her high position on Kadima's list, she was absent from the swearing-in ceremony of the new government. Her absence from the cabinet was unpopular with many Russian immigrants.  She called for foreign agricultural workers to be replaced with Ethiopian immigrants, and demanded that Ariel Toaff be put on trial for his book about blood libel. She has also said that Ehud Olmert should resign over the 2006 Lebanon War.  She retained her seat in the 2009 elections after being placed tenth on the party's list. On 5 December 2012, in the days leading up to the 2013 elections, while polls showed Kadima either barely getting into the Knesset or not even passing the threshold, Solodkin announced she would not contest the elections.

Marina Solodkin (, ; 31 May 1952 – 16 March 2013) was an Israeli politician and member of the Knesset for Yisrael BaAliyah, Likud and Kadima.

Marina Solodkin, née le à Moscou en RSFS de Russie et morte le à Riga en Lettonie, est une femme politique israélienne. Elle fut membre de la Knesset.


Background and location.

During a meeting in Monaco in 1955, members of the European Broadcasting Union discussed ideas to organise a pan-European music competition, taking inspiration from Italy's Sanremo Music Festival. From that meeting, the concept of the Eurovision Song Contest was born. A decision was reached to hold the first ever contest the following year in Lugano, Switzerland. Lugano, located in the Italian speaking canton of Ticino in southern Switzerland, is the 9th largest Swiss city and the largest with an Italian speaking majority outside Italy.  The inaugural Eurovision Song Contest took place at the Teatro Kursaal, a casino and former theatre, on 24 May 1956. The theatre, designed by Italian architect Achille Sfondrini, was used for theatrical and musical performances, ballroom dance and other shows. The theatre closed shortly after the last show in April 1997 and was demolished in 2001 to make room for the extension of the Casino. Now known as Casinò Lugano, it opened again on 29 November 2002.

Format.

The programme was hosted in Italian by Lohengrin Filipello, making it the only Eurovision Song Contest to have a solo male presenter and up until the 2017 edition with a male trio, the only edition without a female presenter. The programme lasted approximately an hour and 40 minutes. Although it was mainly a radio programme, there were cameras in the studio for the benefit of those who possessed a television.  Only solo artists were allowed to enter the contest, and their songs were not to exceed three and a half minutes in length. They were accompanied by a 24-musician orchestra, which was led by Fernando Paggi, along with four guest conductors, which came from Belgium, France, Luxembourg and Italy. The interval act, whistling by the Joyeux Rossignols, had to be extended due to a delay in the voting procedure. It had been strongly recommended that each participating country have a preliminary national song contest.

Voting controversy.

Two jury members from each participating country travelled to Lugano to cast their vote on the songs, except for Luxembourg which was unable to send juries. The EBU conducted a secret voting and a system allowing the juries to also vote for the two songs representing their own country, as well as allowing the Swiss jury to vote on behalf of Luxembourg. Claims were raised that the Swiss entry won as a result of these procedures. This system was never repeated, as from the second edition of the contest onwards the voting is visible, excludes the jury's own competing country from their voting and includes individual jury members for each country.  While the results have never been officially released or confirmed, the 25 May 1956 issue of the Italian newspaper "La Stampa", published the day after the contest, claimed that each jury member ranked each song between 1 and 10 points, meaning each song could have obtained a maximum of 120 to 140 points; depending on whether jury members also voted for their own country's two songs, and that the winner, "Refrain", got in total 102 points, 72.8% of the theoretical votes available for each song

Lost tapes.

While the contest was shown and recorded for television broadcasting in some European countries (as television sets were somewhat uncommon still at this time), no copies have survived, with the exception of Lys Assia's repeat performance at the end of the contest. It is one of only two contests to not have survived completely, along with the one of 1964 (which footage was destroyed in a fire).

Participating countries.

Seven countries participated in the first ever contest, each were represented with two songs. Two more countries, Austria and Denmark, were also expected to take part in the contest, but they missed the submission deadline and therefore could not take part. Although it was thought that the were also expected to take part, it was later revealed by the EBU in January 2017 that it was a mythical fact created by fans of the contest. The EBU further went on to explain that the ""Festival of British Popular Song"", a contest created by the BBC for the United Kingdom, was the inspiration that brought in changes to the contest format from.

Conductors.

Each performance had a maestro who conducted the orchestra. The conductors listed conducted both performances for the indicated countries.

Results.

Except for the winning song, the results have never been published. Simon Barclay's book series "The Complete and Independent Guide to the Eurovision Song Contest" includes a table with what appears to be the rankings, but the author does not give a source. Under the chart, he writes that "the votes awarded have never been disclosed." According to writer Jan Feddersen, "Im Wartesaal zum großen Glück" was most likely voted No. 2 behind Lys Assia.

International broadcasts.

The participating national broadcasters sent commentators to the contest, in order to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language. Details of the commentators and the broadcasting station that they represented are shown in the table below.

The Eurovision Song Contest 1956 was the inaugural edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Lugano, Switzerland, and was held at the Teatro Kursaal on Thursday 24 May 1956

Le Concours Eurovision de la chanson 1956 fut la première édition du concours. Il se déroula le jeudi, au "Teatro Kuursal", à Lugano, en Suisse. Il fut remporté par la Suisse, pays hôte, avec la chanson "Refrain", interprétée par Lys Assia.


History.

Circular junctions existed before roundabouts, including the Circus in the city of Bath, Somerset, England, completed in 1768, part of a world heritage site; the 1821 Governor's Circle (later renamed Monument Circle) of Indianapolis, Indiana (which gave the city the nickname "The Circle City"); the 1899 Brautwiesenplatz in Görlitz, Germany; the 1907 Place de l'Étoile around the Arc de Triomphe in Paris; the 1904 Columbus Circle in Manhattan; and several circles within Washington, D.C. The operating and entry characteristics of these circles differ considerably from modern roundabouts. In 1966, the United Kingdom adopted a rule at all circular junctions that required entering traffic to give way to circulating traffic. A Transportation Research Board guide reports modern roundabout represents a significant improvement, in terms of both operations and safety, when compared with older rotaries and traffic circles.  French architect Eugène Hénard was designing one-way circular intersections as early as 1877. American architect William Phelps Eno favored small traffic circles. He designed New York City's famous Columbus Circle, which was built in 1905. In 1907, architect John McLaren designed one of the first American roundabouts for both autos and streetcars (trams) in the Hanchett Residence Park in what is now San Jose, California. The first British circular junction was built in Letchworth Garden City in 1909. The 'longabout's' elongated circle, or pill-shaped centre was originally intended partly as an traffic island for pedestrians. It was featured in the 2013 film "The World's End". Circular intersections were built in the United States, though

Modern roundabout.

A "modern roundabout" is a type of looping junction in which road traffic travels in one direction around a central island and priority is given to the circulating flow. Signs usually direct traffic entering the circle to slow and to give way to traffic already on it.  Because low speeds are required for traffic entering roundabouts, they are physically designed to slow traffic entering the junction to improve safety, so that the roads typically approach the junction radially; whereas rotaries are frequently designed to try to increase speeds, and thus have roads that enter the traffic circle tangentially.  Because of the requirement for low speeds, roundabouts usually are not used on controlled-access highways, but may be used on lower grades of highway such as limited-access roads. When such roads are redesigned to take advantage of roundabouts, traffic speeds must be reduced via tricks such as curving the approaches.  Many traffic circles have been converted to modern roundabouts, including the former Kingston traffic circle in New York and several in New Jersey. Others have been converted to signalised intersections, such as the Drum Hill Rotary in Chelmsford, Massachusetts, which is now six lanes wide and controlled by four separate intersections.

Terminology.

The word "roundabout" dates from early 20th century United Kingdom.  In U.S. dictionaries the terms "roundabout", "traffic circle", "road circle" and "rotary" are synonyms.  The U.S. Department of Transportation adopted the term "modern roundabout" to distinguish those that require entering drivers to give way to others. This article follows that convention and refers to other types as "traffic circles" or "rotaries". Many old traffic circles remain in the northeastern US. Some modern roundabouts are elongated to encompass additional streets, but traffic always flows in a loop.  In the United States, traffic engineers typically use the term "rotary" for large scale circular junctions between expressways or controlled-access highways. Rotaries typically feature high speeds inside the circle and on the approaches.  In New England, traffic circles are generally called rotaries and

Operation and design.

The fundamental principle of modern roundabouts is that entering drivers give way to traffic within the roundabout without the need for traffic signals. Conversely, older traffic circles typically require circling drivers to give way to entering traffic. Roundabouts may also have an interior lane. Generally, exiting directly from an inner lane of a multi-lane roundabout is permitted, given that the intersecting road has as many lanes as the roundabout. By contrast, exiting from an inner lane of an older traffic circle is usually not permitted and traffic must first move into the outside lane.  Vehicles circulate around the central island in one direction at speeds of. In left-hand traffic countries they circulate clockwise (looking from above); in right-hand traffic, anticlockwise.  Multi-lane roundabouts are typically less than in diameter; older traffic circles and roundabout interchanges may be considerably larger. Roundabouts are roughly the same size as signalled intersections of the same capacity.  Design criteria include:

Islands.

Modern roundabouts feature a central island and sometimes pedestrian islands at each entry or exit.

Central.

The central island may be surrounded by a truck apron that is high enough to discourage drivers from crossing over it, but low enough to allow wide or long vehicles to navigate the roundabout. The island may provide a visual barrier, to alert approaching drivers to the presence of the roundabout, and to encourage drivers to focus on the traffic in the path of the circle. A visual barrier significantly reduces the accident rate. Otherwise, vehicles anywhere in or near the circle can cause those entering to stop and wait for them to pass, even if they are opposite, which unnecessarily reduces traffic flow. The barrier may be a landscaped mound, a raised wall, a tree or tall shrubs. Road signage or flagpoles may be erected at the top of a landscaped mound.  Some communities use the island for monuments, the display of large public art or for a fountain. Pedestrians may be prohibited from crossing the circling lane(s). Access to the central island requires an underpass or overpass for safety.

Pedestrian.

For larger roundabouts, pedestrian islands at each entry/exit encourage drivers to slow and prepare to enter the circle. They also provide a refuge where pedestrians may pause mid-crossing.

Pedestrian crossing.

Pedestrian crossings at each entry/exit may be located at least one full car length outside the circle. The extra space allows pedestrians to cross behind vehicles waiting to enter the circle, and to allow

Bicycles.

Physically separated bikeways best protect cyclists. Less optimally, terminating cycle lanes well before roundabout entrances requires cyclists to merge into the stream of motor traffic, but keeps cyclists in full view of drivers, at some cost in motor vehicle speed. Cyclists may also be permitted to use pedestrian crossings.  Traditional cycle lanes increase vehicle/bicycle collisions. When exiting, a motorist must look ahead to avoid colliding with another vehicle or with pedestrians on a pedestrian crossing. As the intersection curves away from the exit, the path of an exiting vehicle is relatively straight, and so the motorist may often not slow substantially. To give

Capacity and delays.

The capacity of a roundabout varies based on entry angle, lane width, and the number of entry and circulating lanes. As with other types of junctions, operational performance depends heavily on the flow volumes from various approaches. A single-lane roundabout can handle approximately 20,000–26,000 vehicles per day, while a two-lane design supports 40,000 to 50,000.  Under many traffic conditions, a roundabout operates with less delay than signalised or all-way stop approaches. Roundabouts do not stop all entering vehicles, reducing both individual and queuing delays. Throughput further improves because drivers proceed when traffic is clear without waiting for a signal to change.  Roundabouts can increase delays in locations where traffic would otherwise often not be required to stop. For example, at the junction of a high-volume and a low-volume

Capacity modelling.

Major research on roundabout capacity has been carried out in multiple countries. Software can help calculate capacity, delay and queues. Packages include ARCADY, Rodel, Highway Capacity Software and Sidra Intersection. ARCADY and Rodel are based on the Transport Research Laboratory mathematical model. The TRL approach is derived from empirical models based on geometric parameters and observed driver behaviour with regard to lane choice. Sidra Intersection software includes roundabout capacity models developed in Australia and the US.  Research on Australian roundabouts was conducted in the 1980s at the Australian Road Research Board (ARRB). Its analytical capacity and performance models differ from the TRL model significantly, following a lane-based gap-acceptance theory including geometric parameters.  Research on U.S. roundabouts sponsored by the Transportation Research Board (TRB) and Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) culminated in a capacity model that was included in the "Highway Capacity Manual" (HCM) Edition 6 and the "TRB-FHWA Roundabout Informational Guide" (NCHRP Report 672). The HCM Edition 6 model is based on lane-based gap-acceptance theory. A recent NCHRP survey of US state transport agencies found that Sidra Intersection is the most widely used software tool in the US for roundabout analysis.

Safety.

Statistically, modern roundabouts are safer for drivers and pedestrians than both traffic circles and traditional intersections. Roundabouts are safer than both traffic circles and junctions—experiencing 39% fewer vehicle collisions, 76% fewer injuries and 90% fewer serious injuries and fatalities (according to a study of a sampling of roundabouts in the United States, when compared with the junctions they replaced). Some larger roundabouts take foot and bicycle traffic through underpasses or alternate routes.  At junctions with stop signs or traffic lights, the most serious accidents are right-angle, left-turn or head-on collisions where vehicles move fast and collide at high impact angles, e.g. head-on. Roundabouts virtually eliminate those types of crashes. Instead, most crashes are glancing blows at low angles of impact.  An analysis of the New Zealand national crash database for the period 1996–2000 shows that 26% of cyclists reported injury crashes happened at roundabouts, compared to 6% at traffic signals and 13% at priority controlled junctions. The New Zealand researchers propose that low vehicle speeds, circulatory lane markings and mountable centre aprons for trucks can reduce the problem.  The most common roundabout crash type for cyclists, according to the New Zealand study, involves a motor vehicle entering the roundabout and colliding with a cyclist who already is travelling around the roundabout (50%+ of cyclist/roundabout crashes in New Zealand fall into this category). The next most common crash type involves motorists leaving the roundabout colliding with cyclists who are continuing farther around the perimeter.

Vision-impaired pedestrians.

Poorly designed walkways increase risks for the vision-impaired, because it is more difficult than at a signalised intersection to audibly detect whether there is a sufficient gap in traffic to cross safely. At a signalised intersection, traffic comes to a stop, and an audible sound can be generated to indicate that it is time to cross.  This issue has led to a conflict

Types of circular intersections.

Large roundabouts such as those used at motorway junctions typically have two to six lanes and may include traffic lights to regulate flow.  Some roundabouts have a divider, or subsidiary deflection island, by means of which is provided a "free flow" segregated left (or right) turn lane (for the UK see Design Manual for Roads and Bridges TD 51/03) between traffic moving between two adjacent roads, and traffic within the roundabout, enabling drivers to bypass the roundabout.

Gyratory system.

The term "gyratory" (for example, Hanger Lane gyratory) is sometimes used in the United Kingdom for a large circular intersection with non-standard lane markings or priority arrangements,

Smaller, small and mini- roundabouts.

As the overall or external size of a roundabout (in the UK referred to as the Inscribed Circle Diameter – ICD) is reduced, so the maximum practicable (and prescribed) diameter for the central island is also reduced, whilst the width of the circulatory carriageway increases (due to the greater width of vehicle swept path at smaller turning radii). In most cases this results in it being too easy – certainly when traffic is light relative to capacity – for drivers to traverse the roundabout at relatively high speed, with scant regard for road markings or the potential dangers to self or conflicts with other road users. To mitigate this risk, a proportion of the circulatory carriageway – an annulus around

Mini-roundabouts.

After developing the offside priority rule, Frank Blackmore, of the UK's Transport Research Laboratory, turned his attention to the possibility of a roundabout that could be built at sites lacking room for a conventional roundabout.  Mini-roundabouts can incorporate a painted circle or a low dome, but must be fully traversable by vehicles. Motorists can drive over them when there is no other traffic, but it is dangerous to do so otherwise. Once the practice is established it may be difficult to discourage. Mini-roundabouts use the same right-of-way rules as standard roundabouts, but produce different driver behaviour. Mini-roundabouts are sometimes grouped in pairs (a double mini-roundabout) or in "chains",

Raindrop roundabouts.

These roundabouts do not form a complete circle and have a raindrop or teardrop shape. They appear at U.S. Interstate interchanges to provide a free-flowing left turn to the on-ramps and eliminating the need for turn signals and lanes. Since the entry and

Balcony roundabout.

A balcony roundabout is just an elevated roundabout. They are constructed in such a way that vulnerable road users can go underneath the roundabout and choose

Turbo roundabouts.

In the Netherlands, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Finland, Spain, Poland, Hungary, Slovenia, Czechia, North Macedonia and Croatia a relatively new type of two-lane roundabout designs is emerging, called "turbo roundabouts". These designs require motorists to choose their direction before entering the roundabout, thereby eliminating many conflicting paths and choices on the roundabout itself, so that traffic safety is increased, as well as speed and capacity. These designs, seen from above, typically result in a spiralling flow of traffic, giving them the collective name of turbo roundabouts. As a minor drawback turbo roundabouts are often marked out such that a U-turn by means of the roundabout is not possible for drivers approaching on certain arms.  Several variations of turbo roundabouts exist. They are frequently designed for the intersection of a major road crossing a road with less traffic.  An early application of the principle was a six-arm and therefore relatively large (and fast) non-circular roundabout at Stairfoot, Barnsley, South Yorkshire, which was given spiral marking about 1984. At that time the method was considered experimental and needed special consents from central authorities. The turbo roundabout was formally developed in 1996 in the Netherlands by Lambertus Fortuijn, a researcher

Motorways.

Roundabouts are generally not appropriate for placement on motorway or freeway mainlines because the purpose of such facilities is to provide for uninterrupted traffic flow. However, roundabouts are often used for the junction between the slip roads (ramps in North America) and the intersecting road. A single roundabout, grade separated from the mainlines, may be used to create a roundabout interchange. This type of junction is common in the UK and Ireland. Alternatively, separate roundabouts also may be used at the slip road intersections of a diamond interchange to create what often is referred to as a "dumbbell interchange", which is increasingly common in both Europe and North America due to its reduced need for wide or multiple bridges.  An additional use of roundabouts for high-speed junctions is the 3-level stacked roundabout—this is a roundabout interchange where "both" of the roadway mainlines are grade separated. In the United Kingdom, the M25/A3, M8/M73 and A1(M)/M18 interchanges

Signalised roundabouts.

A signalised roundabout is one where one or more entry is controlled by traffic signals, rather than by assumed priority. For each signalised entry there will also be a signalised stopline immediately upstream on the

"Magic" roundabouts/ring junctions.

"Magic roundabouts" direct traffic in both directions around the central island. They are officially known as "ring junctions". The first magic roundabout was constructed in 1972 in Swindon, Wiltshire, United Kingdom, designed by Frank Blackmore, inventor of the mini-roundabout. The roundabout joins five roads and consists of a two-way road around the central island, with five mini-roundabouts meeting the incoming roads.  The name derives from the popular children's television series, "The Magic Roundabout", and is considered "magic" because traffic flows in both clockwise and anticlockwise directions. This is achieved by surrounding the main island with one smaller roundabout per entry/exit street. This pattern directs traffic

Trams.

Tram roundabouts, which are found in many countries, merge roundabouts for individual vehicles with tram lines. Large areas are needed for tram roundabouts that include a junction between tram lines. Such systems often contain tram stops.  In France, tram roundabouts, might have radius range between less than 14 meters and more than 22 meters, althout a range between 14 and 22meters is the most common.  The concept of tramway crossing roundabout is selected by some cities. Some institution such as the French Cerema considers that the mix of priorities induces confusion and complexity in term of understanding and handling the priority: a traditional modern roundabout gives the priority to the central ring, while the tram roundabouts gives priority to the central ring with a greater priority to the tramway. This generates many collision with tramway, between 7 and 10 by tram roundabout between 2006 and 2015 in France. This generates many collision with tramway, between 0.37 and 1.01 by tram roundabout between 2006 and 2015 in France.  Tram rails usually cross roundabouts in the center. This requires traffic lights or special signalling granting the trams priority. However, there are also roundabouts where trams and vehicles use the same lane. Some roundabouts have a tram stop on their island.  In inner Melbourne, particularly in the inner suburban area of South Melbourne, where the tram network is extensive, tram tracks always pass through the central island, with drivers required to give way to vehicles approaching from their right and to trams approaching from right-angles.  The Haymarket roundabout between Royal Parade and Elizabeth Street contains a tram-stop, pedestrian crossings, three entering tram lines, traffic signals to stop vehicular traffic at each crossing point when a tram is due, service roads and a pedestrian crossing.  Brussels tram roundabouts employ multiple configurations. At the Barrière de St-Gilles/Bareel St-Gillis, tram tracks form a circle in the carriageway, while Verboekhoven and Altitude Cent/Hoogte Honderd have reserved tram tracks inside the roundabout. At Place Stéphanie/Stefaniaplein, they go straight through the center, with a slip track up the Chaussée de Charleroi/Charleroisesteenweg, while at Montgomery they tunnel underneath.  In Dublin, Ireland, the Red Cow interchange at the N7/M50 junction is grade-separated and is signal-controlled with secondary lanes (separate from the main roundabout) for those making left turns. The junction, the busiest in Ireland, had tram lines added to it with the opening of the Luas system in 2004. The

Railways.

In Jensen Beach, Florida, the main line of the Florida East Coast Railway running north–south bisects the two-lane roundabout at the junction of Jensen Beach Boulevard running east–west. It hosts three other roads and the service entrance to a large shopping plaza. Boom barriers line the railway crossings. The landscaped central island bisected by the tracks was originally curbed/kerbed, but 18-wheelers had trouble negotiating the roundabout, so the curbs were replaced with painted concrete strips. The roundabout was built in the early 2000s and improved traffic flow, although long freight trains often cause delays.  Two roundabouts in the Melbourne metropolitan area, Highett, Victoria and Brighton, have heavy rail crossing the roundabout and through the inner circle. Boom barriers protect the railway from

Hamburger roundabout/throughabout/cut-through.

These resemble a typical roundabout but are signalised and have a straight-through section of carriageway for one of the major routes. The "hamburger" name derives from the fact that the plan view resembles the cross-section through a hamburger. The United Kingdom has examples on the A580 East Lancashire Road in St Helens, on Haydock Island in Merseyside (which also features the M6 passing overhead), and on the Astley/Boothstown border. More examples are the

Bicycle-pedestrian roundabouts.

The same features that make roundabouts attractive for roadway junctions led to their use at junctions of multi-use trails. The University of California, Davis and Stanford University, as well as the Cape

A roundabout (also called a traffic circle, road circle, rotary, rotunda or island) is a type of circular intersection or junction in which road traffic is permitted to flow in one direction around a central island, and priority is typically given to traffic already in the junction.

Un carrefour giratoire, ou plus communément un giratoire, est un carrefour particulier formé d'un anneau central qui permet aux usagers de prendre n'importe quelle direction (y compris de faire un demi-tour). En Belgique, ils sont appelés ronds-points.


Biography.

Paterson was educated in the Seattle Public Schools, graduating from Ingraham High School in 1974. He attended the University of Washington, working as a repair technician for The Retail Computer Store in the Green Lake area of Seattle, Washington, and graduated "magna cum laude" with a degree in Computer Science in June 1978. He went to work for Seattle Computer Products as a designer and engineer. He designed the hardware of Microsoft's Z-80 SoftCard which had a Z80 CPU and ran the CP/M operating system on an Apple II.  A month later, Intel released the 8086 CPU, and Paterson went to work designing an S-100 8086 board, which went to market in November 1979. The only commercial software that existed for the board was Microsoft's Standalone Disk BASIC-86. The standard CP/M operating system at the time was not available for this CPU and without a true operating system, sales were slow. Paterson began work on QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System) in April 1980 to fill that void, copying the APIs of CP/M from sources including the published CP/M manual so that it would be highly compatible. QDOS was soon renamed as 86-DOS. Version 0.10 was complete by July 1980. By version 1.14 86-DOS had grown to lines of assembly code. In December 1980, Microsoft secured the rights to market 86-DOS to other hardware manufacturers.  While acknowledging that he made 86-DOS compatible with CP/M, Paterson has maintained that the 86-DOS program was his original work and has denied allegations that he referred to CP/M code while writing it. When a book appeared in 2004 claiming that 86-DOS was an unoriginal "rip-off" of CP/M, Paterson sued the authors and publishers for defamation. The judge found that Paterson failed to provide any evidence regarding "serious doubts" about the accuracy of the Gary Kildall chapter. Instead, a careful review of the Lefer notes... provides a research picture tellingly close to the substance of the final chapter' and the case was dismissed on the basis that the book's claims were constitutionally protected opinions and not provably false.  Paterson left SCP in April 1981 and worked for Microsoft from May 1981 to April 1982. After a brief second stint with SCP, Paterson started his own company, Falcon Technology, a.k.a. Falcon Systems. In 1983, Microsoft contracted Paterson to port MS-DOS to the MSX computers standard they were developing with ASCII. Paterson accepted the contract to help fund his company and completed the work on the MSX-DOS operating system in 1984. Falcon Technology was bought by Microsoft in 1986 to reclaim royalty-free licenses to MS-DOS, eventually becoming part of Phoenix Technologies. Paterson worked a second stint with Microsoft from 1986 to 1988, and a third stint from 1990 to 1998, during which time he worked on Visual Basic.  After leaving Microsoft a third time, Paterson founded another software development company, Paterson Technology, and also made several appearances on the Comedy Central television program "BattleBots". Paterson has also raced rally cars in the SCCA Pro Rally series, and even engineered his own trip computer, which he integrated into the axle of a four-wheel drive Porsche 911.

Tim Paterson (born 1 June 1956) is an American computer programmer, best known for creating 86-DOS, an operating system for the Intel 8086. This system emulated the application programming interface (API) of CP/M, which was created by Gary Kildall. 86-DOS later formed the basis of MS-DOS, the most widely used personal computer operating system in the 1980s.

Tim Paterson est un développeur américain, né en 1956, et principalement connu pour être à l'origine du populaire système d'exploitation QDOS (Quick and Dirty OS, c'est-à-dire "Système d'Exploitation vite fait mal fait"), aussi appelé 86-DOS, rebaptisé ensuite MS-DOS (abréviation de Microsoft Disk Operating System) lors de son rachat par Microsoft.


History.

The first explorer to coastal North America was the Venetian Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot), making landfall in Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland and Labrador, in 1497. His voyage to Canada and other parts of the Americas was followed by his sons Sebastiano Caboto and Janus Verrazanus (Giovanni da Verrazzano). During the New France era, France also occupied parts of Northern Italy and there was a significant Italian presence in the French military forces in the colony. Notable were Alphonse de Tonty, who helped establish Detroit, and Henri de Tonti, who journeyed with La Salle in his exploration of the Mississippi River. Italians then made up a small portion of the population; at the first Canadian census in 1871, there were only 1,035 people of Italian origin that lived in Canada. A number of Italians were imported to work as navvies in the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway.  A substantial influx of Italian immigration to Canada began in the early 20th century when over 60,000 Italians moved to Canada between 1900 and 1913. These were largely peasants from rural southern Italy and agrarian parts of the north-east (Veneto, Friuli). Approximately 40,000 Italians came to Canada during the interwar period of 1914 to 1918, predominantly from southern Italy where an economic depression and overpopulation had left many families in poverty. They primarily immigrated to Toronto and Montreal. In Toronto, the Italian population increased from 4,900 in 1911, to 9,000 in 1921, constituting almost two percent of Toronto's population. Italians in Toronto and in Montreal soon established ethnic enclaves, especially Little Italies in Toronto and in Montreal. Smaller communities also arose in Vancouver, Hamilton, Niagara Falls, Guelph, Windsor, Sault Ste. Marie, Ottawa, Sherbrooke, Quebec City and the Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean area. Many also settled in mining communities in British Columbia, Alberta, Cape Breton Island and Northern Ontario. The Northern Ontario cities of Sault Ste. Marie and Fort William were quite heavily populated by Italian immigrants. The 1905, "Royal Commission appointed to Inquire into the Immigration of Italian Labourers to Montreal and alleged Fraudulent Practices of Employment Agencies" exposed the abuses of immigration agents known as "padroni".  This migration was largely halted after World War I, new immigration laws in the 1920s, and the Great Depression limited Italian immigration. During World War II, Italian Canadians were regarded with suspicion and faced a great deal of discrimination. As part of the "War Measures Act", between 1940 and 1943, approximately 600 to 700 Italian Canadian men were arrested and sent to internment camps, such as Camp Petawawa as potentially dangerous enemy aliens with alleged fascist connections—in what was the period of Italian Canadian internment. While many Italian-Canadians had initially supported fascism and Benito Mussolini's regime for its role in enhancing Italy's presence on the world stage, most Italians in Canada did not harbour any ill will against Canada and few remained committed followers of the fascist ideology. In 1990, former prime minister Brian Mulroney apologized for the war internment to a Toronto meeting of the National Congress of Italian Canadians. In May 2009, Massimo Pacetti introduced bill C-302, an "Act to recognize the injustice that was done to persons of Italian origin through their "enemy alien" designation and internment during the Second World War, and to provide for restitution and promote education on Italian Canadian history [worth $2.5 million]", which was passed by the House of Commons on April 28, 2010; Canada Post was also to issue a commemorative postage stamp commemorating the internment of Italian Canadian citizens, however, Bill C-302 did not pass through the necessary stages to become law.  A second wave occurred after the World War II when Italians, especially from the Lazio, Abruzzo, Friuli, Veneto, Campania, Calabria, and Sicily regions, left the war-impoverished country for opportunities in a young and growing country. Many Italians from Istria and Dalmatia also immigrated to Canada, during this period, as displaced persons (see Istrian exodus). Between the early 1950s and the mid-1960s, approximately 20,000 to 30,000 Italians immigrated to Canada each year. By the 1960s, more than 15,000 Italian men worked in Toronto's construction industry, representing one third of all construction workers in the city at that time. 90 percent of the Italians who immigrated to Canada after World War II remained in Canada, and decades after that period, the community still had fluency in the Italian language. In the late 1960s, the Italian economy experienced a period of growth and recovery, removing one of the primary incentives for emigration.  Pier 21 in Halifax, Nova Scotia was an influential port of Italian immigration between 1928 until it ceased operations in 1971, where 471,940 individuals came to Canada from Italy, making them the third largest ethnic group to immigrate to Canada during that time period.  In 2010, the Government of Ontario passed Bill 103 with royal assent proclaiming the month of June as Italian Heritage Month. On May 17, 2017, the Minister of Canadian Heritage Mélanie Joly passed a unanimous motion, Motion 64, in the House of Commons of Canada to recognize the month of June as Italian Heritage Month across Canada — a time to recognize, celebrate and raise awareness of the Italian community in Canada, one of the largest outside of Italy.

Demographics.

Ethnicity.

As of the 2016 census 1,587,970 Canadian residents stated they had Italian ancestry — 4.6 percent of Canada's population, and a six percent increase from 1,488,425 population of the 2011 census. From the 1,587,970, 695,420 were single ethnic origin responses, while the remaining 892,550 were multiple ethnic origin responses. The majority live in Ontario, over 900,000, (seven percent of the population), while over 300,000 live in Quebec (four percent of the population) — constituting for almost 80 percent of the national population.

Language and immigration.

As of 2016, of the 1,587,970 population, 236,635 are Italian born immigrants, with 375,645 claiming Italian as their mother tongue.

Italian Canadian culture.

Radio and television.

Son to Italian immigrants, Johnny Lombardi was born in The Ward in 1915, and went on to found one of the first multilingual radio stations in Canada, CHIN in 1966, in Palmerston–Little Italy.  Dan Iannuzzi founded the first multicultural television station in Canada (CFMT-TV), which began operations in Toronto in 1979. Now owned by Rogers Communications, the service has spun off into two multicultural television services in southern Ontario: OMNI-1 and OMNI-2.  In 1997, a reform of the city's multicultural television station (CJNT) saw a drastic decline in the quality of all programming and major cuts to airtime. At one time, CJNT was on air for less than twelve hours a day. The CanWest Global company later purchased the station and has since improved programming. Nevertheless, there is now little Italian programming shown.  Telelatino (TLN) is widely available through cable distribution. Though offering programmes in both Spanish and Italian, most of TLN's revenue is derived from the latter.

RAI controversy.

In Canada, Rai Italia's programming was originally seen on Telelatino, a Canadian licensed channel launched in 1984 and currently majority owned by Corus together with three prominent Italian-Canadians. TLN was launched over a decade before a RAI international TV channel ever existed. TLN had provided a level of availability and variety of Italian domestic and foreign programming to Canadians that was unsurpassed anywhere outside Italy. However, in 2003, RAI pulled the Rai International programming from Telelatino and, with the help of Rogers Communications (which itself owns several multicultural stations in Toronto under the Omni Television system), petitioned the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) to allow Rai Italia to be broadcast in Canada. Although the Italian community in Montreal was in favour of admitting Rai International into the Canadian media marketplace, the Italian community in Toronto was divided, since some believed that it was a ploy by the then Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi to gain influence over Canadian Italian-language media. This theory may have been advanced by Telelatino's primary carriage of programming from Berlusconi-controlled Mediaset after RAI's Canadian launch.  Originally, the CRTC denied RAI's application, on the grounds that RAI had improperly denied supply of programming to TLN's Canadian viewers and that RAI's attempt to enter Canada on an unrestricted basis without any Canadian programming and financial obligations would be unfair competition. However, some Italian-Canadians could watch Rai Italia through grey-market satellite TV viewing cards that allowed them to watch US satellite television. Eventually, in 2005, the CRTC allowed Rai Italia to broadcast in Canada after a review of its policy on third-language foreign language TV services.

Newspapers and magazines.

The first Italian-language newspaper in Canada was "Il Lavoratore", an anti-Fascist publication which was founded in Toronto in 1936 and active for two years. Then came "La Voce degli Italo Canadesi", founded in Toronto (1938-1940) and "Il Cittadino Canadese", founded in Montreal in 1941, followed by "La Vittoria" of Toronto, in 1942-1943. After WWII came "Il Corriere Italiano", founded by Alfredo Gagliardi in Montreal in the early 1950s. "Corriere Canadese", founded by Dan Iannuzzi in 1954, is Canada's only Italian-language daily today and is published in Toronto; its weekend (English-language) edition is published as "Tandem".  Other newspapers include "Il Marco Polo" (Vancouver), founded in 1974, "Insieme" (Montreal), "Lo Specchio" (Toronto), "L'Ora di Ottawa" (Ottawa) and "Il Postino" (Ottawa). "Il Postino" was established in 2000, by a young group of local Ottawa Italian Canadians to convey the history of the Italian community in Ottawa. "Insieme" was founded by the Italian Catholic parishes of Montreal but has since been put under private ownership. It nevertheless retains an emphasis on religious articles.  "Eyetalian" magazine was launched in 1993 as a challenging, independent magazine of Italian-Canadian culture. It encountered commercial difficulty, and leaned towards a general lifestyle magazine format before concluding publication later in the 1990s. "Italo" of Montreal is published sporadically and is written in Italian, with some articles in French and English, dealing with current affairs and community news. "La Comunità", while an older publication, was taken over by the youth wing of the National Congress of Italian Canadians (Québec chapter) in the late 1990s. It experimented with different formats but was later cancelled due to lack of funding. In the 1970s the trilingual arts magazine "Vice Versa" flourished in Montreal. In, 2003 Domenic Cusmano founded "Accenti", the magazine which focused on culture and Italian-Canadian authors.

Literature.

Italian Canadian literature emerged in the 1970s as young Italian immigrants began to complete university degrees across Canada. This creative writing exists in English, French, or Italian. Some writers like Antonio D'Alfonso, Marco Micone, Alexandre Amprimoz and Filippo Salvatore are bilingual and publish in two languages. The older generation of authors like Maria Ardizzi, Romano Perticarini, Giovanni Costa and Tonino Caticchio publish in Italian or in bilingual volumes. In English the most notable names are novelists Frank G. Paci, Nino Ricci, Caterina Edwards, Michael Mirolla and Darlene Madott. Poets who write in English include Mary di Michele, Pier Giorgio DiCicco and Gianna Patriarca. In 1986 these authors established the Association of Italian-Canadian Writers, and by 2001 there were over 100 active writers publishing books of poetry, fiction, drama and anthologies. With the 1985 publication of "" by Joseph Pivato, the academic study of this literature started, leading to the exploration of other ethnic minority writing in Canada and inspiring other scholars such as Licia Canton, Pasquale Verdicchio and George Elliott Clarke. The important collections of literary works are: "The Anthology of Italian-Canadian Writing" (1998) edited by Joseph Pivato and "Pillars of Lace: The Anthology of Italian-Canadian Women Writers" (1998) edited by Marisa De Franceschi. See also "Writing Cultural Difference: Italian-Canadian Creative and Critical Works" (2015) editors Giulia De Gasperi, Maria Cristina Seccia, Licia Canton and Michael Mirolla.

Education.

On October 25, 2012, the Government of Canada announced its support of a project highlighting Italian-Canadian contribution to Canada. Funding aimed at raising awareness of the contributions of Canadians of Italian heritage in the development and settlement of Canada was announced by Julian Fantino, Minister of International Cooperation and Member of Parliament for Vaughan, on behalf of Citizenship and Immigration Canada.  Citizenship and Immigration Canada is providing $248,397 in funding under the Inter-Action Program to the Toronto district of the National Council of Italian Canadians (NCIC) to develop a curriculum intended for both primary and secondary level classes. The project is entitled "Italian Heritage in Canada Curriculum."  "The Inter-Action program aims to create opportunities for different cultural and faith communities to build bridges and promote intercultural understanding," said Minister Fantino. "This project will help promote a greater awareness of the many contributions of the Italian Canadian community to the building of Canada."  The curriculum will start with the Discovery of North America on June 24, 1497, and then turn to the various waves of immigrants that came to Canada from the 1800s to the present time. It will showcase Italian immigration to urban and rural areas across Canada and their contributions to the settlement of the west, then the building of railways, cities and infrastructure. The curriculum will recount the work of earlier generations of Italians, their plight during World War II when many were interned, and the contributions of more recent generations of Canadians of Italian heritage. It will also explore the wartime internment experiences of other cultural communities as well as their contributions to the building of Canada.

Italian Canadians (, ) comprise Canadians who have full or partial Italian heritage and Italians who migrated from Italy or reside in Canada. According to the 2016 Census of Canada, 1,587,970 Canadians (4.6% of the total population) claimed full or partial Italian ancestry. The census enumerates the entire Canadian population, which consists of Canadian citizens (by birth and by naturalization), landed immigrants and non-permanent residents and their families living with them in Canada. Residing mainly in central urban industrial metropolitan areas, Italian Canadians are the seventh largest self-identified ethnic group in Canada behind French, English, Irish, Scottish, German and Chinese Canadians.

Les Italo-Canadiens sont des citoyens du Canada d'origine italienne. En 2001, 1,2 million de Canadiens déclaraient être d'ascendance italienne. Ils sont surtout établis dans les provinces du Québec (Italo-Québécois) et de l'Ontario.


Plot summary.

Behzad, Keyvan, Ali and Jahan, journalists posing as production engineers, arrive in a Kurdish village to document the locals' mourning rituals that anticipate the death of an old woman. However, she remains alive, and the main "engineer" is forced to slow down and appreciate the lifestyle of the village.

Reception.

Reviews.

"The Wind Will Carry Us" opened to wide acclaim from critics. Many hailed it as a masterpiece; the film further cemented Kiarostami's position as one of art-house circles' favorite directors of recent years. In a hugely positive review, Jonathan Rosenbaum wrote, "This ambiguous comic masterpiece could be Abbas Kiarostami's greatest film to date; it's undoubtedly his richest and most challenging... You have to become friends with this movie before it opens up, but then its bounty is endless." The "Seattle Post-Intelligencer"'s Sean Axmaker called it "a celebration of the human spirit nothing short of sublime." Michael Atkinson, after seeing the film in the first days of 2000, said, "[This is] the best film we'll see this year," and stood by his word. J. Hoberman wrote, "It's part of the movie's formal brilliance that, suddenly, during its final 10 minutes, too much seems to be happening. "The Wind Will Carry Us" is a film about nothing and everything—life, death, the quality of light on dusty hills." The film currently holds an 86/100 score on review aggregator Metacritic, and Rotten Tomatoes reports 96% approval.

Accolades.

"The Wind Will Carry Us" was nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics. After its screening at the 1999 Venice Film Festival, the film remained unreleased in the United States until 2000; ultimately, however, this was to its benefit, since it enjoyed a rediscovery among both the public and mainstream critics in the late 2000s after many critics named it one of the best films of that decade. "Variety"'s Scott Foundas placed it ahead of Peter Watkins' "La Commune (Paris, 1871)" and Paul Thomas Anderson's "There Will Be Blood", writing: "Screened in festivals in 1999, but not released in the US until the following year, this fin de siècle/millennium fable by the great Iranian auteur seemed to anticipate many of the dramatic changes that would sweep through filmmaking over the decade to come. In it, an engineer (who turns out to be a kind of filmmaker) travels to a remote Kurdish village with the intent of photographing the funeral rites of a dying 100-year-old woman, and the witty, haunting, poetic film that follows is about his—and Kiarostami's own—struggle to complete that mission, to capture something of real life on film without violating its essence. Kiarostami himself has not worked on film since, preferring the more portable and less invasive technology of video. Call it the first true movie of the digital revolution." In a 2012 poll by the British Film Institute, six critics, including Rosenbaum, ranked "The Wind Will Carry Us" one of their 10 favorite films.

The Wind Will Carry Us (, "Bād mā rā khāhad bord") is a 1999 Iranian film by Abbas Kiarostami. The title is a reference to a poem written by the modern Iranian poet Forough Farrokhzad.

Le vent nous emportera est un film franco-iranien réalisé par Abbas Kiarostami, sorti en 1999. Il doit son titre à un poème de Forough Farrokhzad.


Championnat de Belgique de football 2004-2005

Promoted teams.

These teams were promoted from the second division at the start of the season:

Relegated teams.

These teams were relegated to the second division at the end of the season:

Battle for the 1st place.

As usual, the two giants (Sporting Anderlecht and Club Brugge) were occupying the first two places after 5 matches. Brugge was already 1st and actually stayed on top until the end. The Brussels side has indeed failed to show consistency under the management of Hugo Broos who was fired after a 0-0 draw at Gent. Under new coach (Franky Vercauteren), Anderlecht had a run of good form (after the initial 0-1 defeat against Oostende). Linked to the poor results of rivals Brugge, this situation led to a 6-point difference between the two clubs after 32 matches. The Brugge-Anderlecht game (33rd matchday) was thus decisive for both clubs. It ended with a 2-2 draw that was sufficient for the West Flemish.  Brugge title is due to its exceptional regularity against smaller teams as is shown on the following table (showing points gained by a top 4 team against the other top 4 teams) :

Battle for Europe.

As Anderlecht and Brugge rapidly ran away with the first two places, the battle for Europe was mainly consisted in the battle for UEFA Cup spots (or battle for the third place). Four teams were serious candidates: Standard, Genk, Charleroi and Gent. The latter two were soon dismissed. Before the last matchday, Standard was two points ahead of Genk but they lost their advantage after a 1-1 draw at Ostend while Genk earned a 3-1 win at Cercle Brugge. As both teams now had the same number of points and wins, a test-match had to be played (in two legs). Standard won the first match 3-1 but lost the away match 0-3 and lost the European ticket for next season.

The relegation dog fight.

After their poor early results, five teams were predicted to fight against relegation: Sint-Truiden, Mouscron and especially newcomers FC Brussels and Oostende along with Mons. Beveren joined the list after a very poor final run. Before the 33rd matchday, the table read:  Lierse and Sint-Truiden were already saved. Mons and Oostende had to win or draw to maintain suspense but they finally both lost (2-0 respectively against Mouscron and at La Louvière).

Final league table.

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The 2004-05 season of the Belgian First Division began on August 6, 2004 and ended on May 23, 2005. Club Brugge became champions on May 15, 2005 after a decisive game against long-time rivals Anderlecht. The season was full of suspense as the champions and the relegated teams were only known on the 33rd (on 34) matchday. Furthermore, the 3rd place (qualifying for UEFA Cup) had to be decided on a test-match, a fact that had not occurred recently.

Le championnat de Belgique de football 2004-2005 est la du championnat de première division belge. Le championnat oppose 18 équipes en matches aller-retour.


Sonett I.

In the 1950s, Rolf Mellde—a Saab engine developer and race enthusiast—along with Lars Olov Olsson, Olle Lindkvist, and Gotta Svensson, designed a two-seat roadster prototype in a barn in Åsaka, near Trollhättan (the site of the main Saab manufacturing facility). The limited research-and-development project, with a total budget of only, became known as the "Sonett", a name derived from the Swedish phrase "Så nätt den är" ("how neat it is", or more literally "it's so neat").  The Saab Sonett, also called the Super Sport or Saab 94, was introduced on 16 March 1956 at Stockholm's "Bilsalong" (motor show). Featuring a three-cylinder 748 cc two-stroke engine generating and a aluminium box-style chassis from Swedish designer Sixten Sason, the Sonett I was an advanced low-weight racer based on aircraft design concepts.  With a projected top speed of, the Sonett I had the prospect of success on the European race circuit, and a production run of 2,000 units was planned for 1957. However, race competition rules changed, permitting modified production cars into race classes that Saab had envisioned for its purpose-built Sonett, and the economic and marketing viability of the project faded.  Only six Sonett I vehicles were made between 1955 and early 1957, all RHD. The original prototype, known as "#1" and built with a manually crafted glass-reinforced plastic (GRP, or "fiberglass") body, served as the reference model for the other five cars. An extremely rare vehicle, only two Sonetts I exist in the United States; one was in the GM Heritage Center collection.  In September 1996, rally driver Erik Carlsson broke the Swedish record for the under–750-cc engine class with a speed of in the restored Sonett I original prototype "#1".

Sonett II.

In the early 1960s, Björn Karlström, an aircraft and automotive illustrator, and Walter Kern, an engineer at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, independently suggested a two-seat roadster with Saab components and a two-stroke engine called the "Shrike". Two prototypes were developed: the Saab MFI13 by Malmö Flygindustri, and the Saab Catherina by Sixten Sason.  After some modifications, the MFI13 was put into limited production (28 units) in 1966 as the Sonett II, manufactured at the "Aktiebolaget Svenska Järnvägsverkstäderna" (ASJ) in Arlöv. Inside Saab, it was designated model 97. A further 230 units were assembled in 1967, but as the two-stroke engine became increasingly uncompetitive in the US market, a switch to the Ford Taunus V4 engine was made in the middle of the 1967 production year, and the model was renamed the Sonett V4. Apart from the engine and related drivetrain, the Sonett II and Sonett V4 share much of their componentry. The additional weight did require some strengthening of the chassis and suspension pieces, and the wheels were half an inch wider than the four-inch units used on the Sonett II. Approximately 50 percent of the Sonett II production has survived, preserved or maintained by museums, collectors, and race enthusiasts.  Like the Sonett I prototype, the Sonett II fiberglass body was bolted to a box-type chassis with an added roll-bar to support the hard top. The entire front hood section hinged forward to allow easy access to the engine, transmission, and front suspension. Equipped with a three-cylinder, two-stroke engine generating, the Sonett II achieved 0 to 100 km/h (0–62 mph) time of 12.5 seconds, with a top speed of. All Sonett II were left hand drive (LHD). Designed as a race car, the Sonett II competed successfully against other small European roadsters, including the Austin-Healey Sprite and Triumph Spitfire, in Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) races of the period. Due to low production volume, Sonett IIs were disqualified from certain competitions. By 1967, the two-stroke engine failed to meet US emission control standards. In 2011 a two-stroke Sonett II achieved at the Bonneville Salt Flats. Of the 28 Sonett IIs manufactured in 1966 all were equipped with 841cc three cylinder two-stroke engines. SAAB produced serial numbers 29 through 258 with the two-stroke engine, serial number 259 was the first Sonett to have the V4 engine.  All Sonett II transmissions had a freewheel that could be engaged and disengaged while in motion via a pull handle down near the throttle pedal. The freewheel was required in the normal (non-oil pump engines) SAAB two stroke engines but not in the racing engines that had an oil injection system fed from a supply tank, nor in the Sonett V4 since it had a four-stroke engine with the common recirculating pressure lubrication.  The Škoda-engined ÚVMV 1100 GT was based on the Sonett II.

Sonett V4.

When Saab started using the Ford V4 engine in their 95, 96, and Monte Carlo models, an upgrade for the low-volume Sonett II became economically feasible. The Sonett V4 was introduced with a 1,500 cc Ford Taunus V4 engine in the middle of the 1967 model year starting with serial number 259. A new "bulge" hood, designed by Gunnar A. Sjögren, was required to clear the larger V4 engine, with a slight right offset to avoid obstructing the driver's view. This asymmetrical hood shape, criticized by both the automotive press and within Saab itself, contributed to the motivation for the 1970 Sonett III redesign.  The Ford V4 engine produced, and—combined with the car's lightweight chassis and fiberglass construction—allowed the V4 model to accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h (0 to 62 mph) in 12.5 seconds, with a top speed of. The V4's dashboard was wrinkle finished black, unlike the wooden panel used in the Sonett II.  Following the low-volume 1966–67 Sonett IIs, Saab ramped up Sonett V4 production to meet minimum SCCA requirements, assembling 70 units in the 1967 transition year, 900 units in 1968, and 640 units in the final 1969 production year—a total of 1,610 Sonett V4 vehicles. The 1969 models can be recognized by their taller seat backs and by having a lid for the glove compartment, while the heater was also made somewhat more efficient.  While the Sonett V4 was assembled in Sweden, nearly the entire production was exported to the United States, with an MSRP of between US$3,200 and US$3,800 (US$ to US$ in today's dollars). In addition to its unusual fiberglass body, the Sonett V4 featured advanced safety features for its day, including a roll bar, three-point seat belts, and high-back bucket seats to protect against whiplash injury. Sonett V4s also sported a few oddities compared to standard American sports cars like e.g. Corvette, such as front wheel drive; a freewheeling clutch that disengaged automatically whenever the accelerator pedal was no longer pressed, and a column-mounted shifter, rather than a typical floor-mounted shifter.  In spite of lackluster Saab marketing, unusual features, and quirky design, the Sonett V4 found a niche market in the US, propelled by successful SCCA racing performances of the Sonett II. Its primary competitors were British roadsters, including the MG Midget and MG MGB, the Triumph TR5, the TVR Grantura and the Austin-Healey Mark IV.  The Clean Air Act of 1970 prompted engineering modifications to the Ford V4 emission control system that were difficult to reconcile with the Sonett II/V4 body style which then led to the Sonett III redesign.

Sonett III.

The 1970 redesign of the Sonett V4, named the Sonett III, was initially undertaken by Sergio Coggiola, but Gunnar A. Sjögren altered it to fit the existing chassis without expensive manufacturing-line changes. Hinged rear-window glass replaced the Sonett II/V4 rear compartment hatch door. With the mandate for a "bulge-less" hood, the engine compartment opening evolved into a small front popup panel, resulting in more limited access than in the Sonett V4. Extensive engine work required the removal of the entire front hood section. To help adapt the car to US market tastes, the Sonett III featured a floor-mounted shifter (instead of the Sonett V4 column-mounted shifter) and optional dealer-installed air conditioning. The Sonett III's hidden headlamps were operated manually using a lever. US safety regulations required new low speed impact proof bumpers after 1972, significantly detracting from its Italian-inspired design. All Sonett III were LHD.  While the 1970 and 1971 model years initially had the same 1500 cc Ford Taunus V4 engine as the Sonett V4, emission control requirements reduced the available horsepower. The model years 1971 to 1974 of the Sonett III used the 1700 cc Ford V4, but to meet increasingly strict federal regulations, net power output remained the same as the 1500 cc engine, at. Still, the Sonett III accelerated from 0–100 km/h (0–62 mph) in 13 seconds, and—due to a higher differential gear ratio (42 teeth on the ring gear and 9 teeth on the pinion gear) than the standard 95/96 transmission (39:8)—achieved a top speed of, aided by a drag coefficient of 0.31 cd.  Disappointing sales, especially during the 1973 oil crisis, led Saab to end production in 1974. A total of 8,368 Sonett IIIs were manufactured between 1970 and 1974.  SAAB used the Sonett III original body also for testbuild powered by the steam engine. One of the test cars has survived and was on auction in Stockholm in July 2019.

Current valuation (United States).

, in the United States Sonett II models for sale are generally in better condition than Sonett V4 and Sonett III models. Kriss Motors Corporation compiles a Sonett valuation guide based on a survey of recent sales data; the condition of each car is classified as "Concours" (new or better-than-new condition), Excellent, Good, Fair, Restorable, or Parts Car.  The average Sonett II is in Good condition; the average Sonett V4 or III is no better than Fair condition. Fewer than 25 "concours" Sonetts were known to exist ; high-range valuations for "concours" Sonetts ranged from about US$28,000 for a Sonett III to about US$45,000 for a Sonett II.

The Saab Sonett is an automobile manufactured between 1955 and 1957 and again between 1966 and 1974 by Saab of Sweden. Sonetts shared engines and other components with Saab 96s and 95s of the same era. It was mainly intended for the lucrative American export market and was only offered intermittently in the Swedish domestic market (model years 1968 and 1972).

La Sonett est un modèle automobile Saab de sport à deux places, décliné en plusieurs versions au fil des années.


Early life.

Bosé was born in the San Fernando Hospital in Panama City, Panama, the son of Italian actress Lucia Bosè and Spanish bullfighter Luis Miguel Dominguín. He is also a cousin to the late Carmen Ordóñez, a Spanish celebrity in the bullfighting world. Bosé grew up surrounded by art and culture: Pablo Picasso and Ernest Hemingway were close friends of the family. The film director Luchino Visconti was his godfather while Pablo Picasso was the godfather to his sister Paola Dominguin.

Career.

Propelled by his famous family and their friends, Bosé started a career as an actor in 1971, taking part in various movies. He quickly found work on the basis of his talent and good looks rather than his family name. He studied acting as well as dancing and singing. Due to the lack of acting opportunities, he started exploring his talents as a singer in 1975. With the assistance of Camilo Blanes he recorded his first singles. Two years later, in 1977, Bosé signed a contract with CBS Records and he remained with them until 1984. Between 1977 and 1982, Bosè was a major teen idol in Italy, Spain, Southern Europe and in all Latin America. He had 7 top ten hits that earned him a secure spot in every televised song festival held in the aforementioned countries. By 1983 his star had severely waned in Italy, and he rarely performed there again until the 2000s, retreating to Latin American markets instead.  From 1983 to 1985, he participated in the "Llena Tu Cabeza De Rock" television specials on Puerto Rican WAPA-TV. In 1985 he enjoyed his greatest success with "Amante bandido" which topped the charts all over Latin America and in Spain. The video to that song also became one of the most widely seen Spanish music videos, with Bose playing both a Superman style superhero and an Indiana Jones type of adventurer. In Italy, where he had a parallel career singing in both Italian and English his greatest success would be in 1994 by winning Festivalbar, the second largest musical event after the Sanremo Music Festival), for the third time.

2007: Papito.

On March 20, 2007, to celebrate his 30 years as a singer, he released "Papito", an album that contains remakes of his previous songs as duets with Juanes, Alejandro Sanz, Fangoria, Ivete Sangalo, Laura Pausini, Shakira, Julieta Venegas, Ricky Martin, Amaia Montero (past member of the Spanish band La Oreja de Van Gogh), Michael Stipe, along with many other singers. Three singles were released off "Papito": the first is a re-make of his hit "Nena", featuring Mexican superstar Paulina Rubio; the second was "Morena Mía", with Mexican pop diva Julieta Venegas. The third single "Como un lobo" featured his niece Bimba Bosé. "Nena" was by far the most successful single off the album. It was nominated for a Latin Grammy for best song and became the best selling download of Spain in 2007. In the same year, Bosé was awarded the Billboard Latin Music Lifetime Achievement Award.  In 2008, Colombian President Álvaro Uribe offered him Colombian citizenship because of his efforts towards peace in Colombia, including his participation in two concerts in 2008. On March 16, 2010 he received Colombian citizenship during a ceremony in the presidential palace, Casa de Nariño.

2012-2015: Papito two and "Amo".

After several "hints" on Twitter, on September 4, 2012 he released the album "Papitwo", a follow-up to his successful "Papito". The album contained additional remakes of well-known songs from his career, again featuring artists such as Juanes on "Partisano", Bimba Bosé on "Shoot Me in the Back" and Alejandro Sanz on "Te Comería El Corazón". It also included new collaborations with singers such as Pablo Alborán on "Puede Que", Juan Luis Guerra on "Creo En Ti", Tiziano Ferro on "Amiga", Jovanotti on "Mirarte", Malú on his first hit "Linda" (first single in Spain), Joaquín Sabina on "Sol Forastero", Ximena Sariñana on "Aire Soy" (first single in the Americas) and Dani Martín on "Te Digo Amor", among others. The Hollywood actress Penélope Cruz collaborated on the unreleased song "Decirnos Adiós", composed by her brother for Bosé.  The album has two versions, a single disc with 14 previous hits remade with different artists and a deluxe one, with another CD containing 14 collaborations that Bosé made with singers during his career, including Hombres G on "Lo Noto", Raphael on "Morir de Amor", Natalia Lafourcade on "Si No Pueden Quererte", Spanknox on "Wrong in the Right Way", among others.  The album was released to coincide with Bosé's "Papitwo" Tour, which started in Madrid.  Miguel Bosé was honoured as the Latin Recording Academy Person of the Year on November 20, 2013.

2016-present: "Bosé MTV Unplugged".

On October 7, 2016, he released "Bosé MTV Unplugged", a live album that contains remakes of his previous songs as duets with Sasha Sokol, Pablo Alborán, Marco Antonio Solís, Fonseca, along with many other singers. Four singles were released off "Bosé MTV Unplugged": the first "Bambú", featuring Fonseca; the second was "Gulliver", with Mexican singer Natalia Lafourcade. The third single "Olvídame tú" with Marco Antonio Solís. "Estaré", was released as the fourth single from the album on February 7, 2017.  On February 20, 2018, Miguel Bosé performed in the 2018 Viña del Mar International Song Festival, to a sold-out audience. Bosé performed "Si Tú No Vuelves" with American duo Ha*Ash. On December 6, 2019, Bose featured on Ha*Ash's single "Si Tú No Vuelves" from the duo's "En Vivo" album.

Luis Miguel González Bosé (born April 3, 1956), usually known as Miguel Bosé, is a Spanish pop new wave musician and actor.

Luis Miguel González Bosé, devenu Miguel Dominguín Bosé puis Miguel Bosé Dominguín, également dit Miguel Bosé, est un chanteur et acteur italo-espagnol, né le à Panama. Il a enregistré vingt-deux albums, participé au tournage de trente-cinq films et à de nombreux spectacles télévisés et est actuellement directeur de théâtre. Depuis 2010, il a également la citoyenneté colombienne, qui lui a été accordée de façon honorifique.