Format.

Competition.

The SuperLiga began as a league with a playoff system in an attempt to boost ratings and improve competition. After the first season however, the SuperLiga changed its format. The 2007–08 season was the first to be played in a more traditional format. The league no longer divided into a play-off and play-out group midway through the campaign. Instead, the 12 teams began playing each other three times in a more conventional league format. After two seasons with that format the Football Association of Serbia decided to add 4 teams to the SuperLiga. The 2009–10 season will be the first with a 16 team league played in a conventional league format of one home and one away match rather than the previous 3 match encounters. This drops the match schedule from 33 rounds to 30.  As of the 2015-16 season, the league reverted to its previous playoff system, whereby the top 8 placed teams compete in the championship round at the end of the season and the 8 lowest placed teams play in the relegation playoff round. The two bottom placed teams are relegated to the second division, the Serbian Prva Liga. The third lowest-placed team is then sent to a relegation playoff against the third-placed team in the second division. Whichever team wins will play in the SuperLiga the following season.

Qualification for UEFA competitions.

The champions of the SuperLiga are drawn into the primary qualifying rounds for the UEFA Champions League, while the second and third placed teams are drawn into the primary qualifying rounds for the UEFA Europa League.

History.

The Yugoslav First League started being played in 1923, and gathered the best clubs from the former Yugoslavia. In 1991, clubs from Slovenia and Croatia left and formed their own league systems, and in 1992 so did the clubs from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia. The Yugoslav First League was played since 1992 with clubs from Serbia and Montenegro, until 2006, when Montenegro declared independence and subsequently formed its own league system. Since 2006 the league is formed exclusively by clubs from Serbia and got renamed into Serbian SuperLiga.

First League of Serbia and Montenegro (1992–2006).

In 1992 the Yugoslav First League became the First League of FR Yugoslavia ("Prva savezna liga" or "Meridian SuperLiga") and was played since then with the clubs from Serbia and Montenegro.  The league winner had access to the UEFA Champions League qualifications rounds, and the 2nd, 3rd and the Cup winner had played in the UEFA Cup. The bottom clubs would be relegated to the two Second Leagues depending on the republic they were based in, the Second League of Serbia ("Druga savezna liga Srbija") and the Second League of Montenegro ("Druga savezna liga grupa Crna Gora").  In 2002, FR Yugoslavia changed its name to Serbia and Montenegro, and the league was named First League of Serbia and Montenegro between 2002 and its dissolution, in 2006. In 2006 Serbia and Montenegro separated and formed their own top leagues (Serbian SuperLiga and Montenegrin First League). Serbian SuperLiga was officially declared the successor of the First Leagues of FR Yugoslavia and Serbia and Montenegro.  A total of 41 clubs participated between 1992 and 2006, being 34 from Serbia, 6 from Montenegro and one from Bosnia and Herzegovina (Borac Banja Luka was temporarily based in Serbia in early 1990s). A total of 3 clubs were champions, all from Serbia, Partizan (8 times), Red Star (5 times) and Obilić (once).

Serbian Superliga (2006–).

A total of 28 clubs participated between 2006 and 2013 in the Serbian Superliga. After 14 seasons, Partizan has won 8 championship titles and Red Star has won 6 championship title. Also, Partizan is a record holder of winning 6 consecutive champion titles.

All-time table 2006–2019.

The following is a list of clubs who have played in the Serbian SuperLiga at any time since its formation in 2006 to the current season. Teams playing in the 2019–20 Serbian SuperLiga season are indicated in bold. A total of 34 teams have played in the Serbian SuperLiga. The table is accurate as of the start of the 2019–20 season.  League or status at 2019–20:

Current clubs.

Map.

The following 16 clubs compete in the Jelen SuperLiga during the 2019–20 season.

Stadiums.

Serbian top level football has been played in 27 stadiums since its formation in 2006. The top-three stadiums by clubs who are competing currently ( 2019-2020 ) in the Serbian top flight are by seating capacity are Belgrade-based Red Star Stadium, Partizan Stadium and FK Radnicki Nis stadium Cair Stadium.  Below are the ten largest stadiums in Serbia of clubs who are competing or have competed in the Serbian top division of football. Currently in the below list only five of these clubs are competing in the Serbian top flight them been as follows : Red Star, Partizan, Vojvodina, Radnicki Nis and Spartak Subotica.

Players.

Top scorers.

Bold denotes players still playing in the Serbian SuperLiga.
 "Italics" denote players active outside the Serbian SuperLiga.

Most appearances.

Foreign players.

"See List of all former and current foreign football players in Serbia"

Superliga records and statistics.

Attendance  Single game  Players  Clubs  Season  Goalkeepers

UEFA ranking.

The following data indicates Serbian coefficient rankings between European football leagues.

The Golden Star.

Based on an idea of Umberto Agnelli, the honor of "Golden Star for Sports Excellence" was introduced to recognize sides that have won multiple championships or other honours by the display of gold stars on their team badges and jerseys.  The current officially sanctioned SuperLiga stars are:

Broadcasting rights.

Television.

Serbian Superliga games are broadcast live on Arena Sport in countries of Ex-Yugoslavia. 02.TV starts broadcasting Serbian Superliga from March 2019. SportKlub Slovenia is also broadcasting live Serbian Superliga matches.  The Eternal derby is the game that attracts most attention from the foreign media. In 2010, the 139th Eternal derby was broadcast in 19 countries and over 60 foreign correspondents were present.

Internet.

Matches of Serbian Superliga are broadcast on the website www.kliksport.rs.

The Serbian SuperLiga ( / Superliga Srbije), known as the Linglong Tire SuperLiga for sponsorship reasons, is a Serbian professional league for football clubs.

Le championnat de Serbie de football aussi appelé en serbe latin Linglong Tire Super liga Srbije (serbe cyrillique : Линглонг Тире Супер лига Србије) a été créé en 1992-1993, comme championnat de Serbie-et-Monténégro (alors Yougoslavie jusqu'en 2003). Mais il existe réellement depuis la totale indépendance du pays en 2006. Le championnat est globalement dominé par les deux géants de l'ex-Yougoslavie que sont l'Étoile rouge de Belgrade et le FK Partizan Belgrade


Motives.

Religion.

Many religions (Judaism and some branches of Christianity, including The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Catholic Church) encourage procreation. The Amish are among the fastest-growing populations in the world, with an average of 6.8 children per family.  A recent movement among conservative Protestants, known as the Quiverfull movement, advocates for large families. Some scholars note that Quiverfull resembles other world-denying fundamentalist movements which grow through internal reproduction and membership retention, such as Haredi Judaism, the Amish, Laestadians in Finland and Sweden and the Salafi movement in the Muslim world. Many such groups grow relative to other categories, as seculars and moderates may have by contrast transitioned as far as below-replacement fertility, in certain groups.

Ethnic culture.

The!Kung San people in southern Africa do not practice birth control.

Intention to have children.

An intention to have children is a substantial fertility factor in actually ending up doing so, but childless individuals who intend to have children immediately or within 2 or 3 years are generally more likely to succeed than those who intend to have children in the long term. There are many determinants of the intention to have children, including:

Natalistic politics.

Some countries with population decline offer incentives to the people to have large families as a means of national efforts to reverse declining populations. Incentives may include a one-time baby bonus, or ongoing child benefit payments or tax reductions. Some impose penalties or taxes on those with fewer children. Some nations, such as Japan, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan, have implemented, or tried to implement, interventionist natalist policies, creating incentives for larger families among native stock. Immigrants are generally not part of natalist policies.  Paid maternity and paternity leave policies can also be used as an incentive. For example, Sweden has generous parental leave wherein parents are entitled to share 16 months' paid leave per child, the cost divided between both employer and State.  Books advocating natalist policies include "What to Expect When No One's Expecting" by Jonathan V. Last.

Russia.

Vladimir Putin's government is also using natalist policies by giving rewards and promoting more children in families.

Hungary.

The Hungarian government of Viktor Orbán in 2019, announced pecuniary incentives (including eliminating taxes for mothers with more than 3 children, and reducing credit payments and easier access to loans), and expanding day care and kindergarten access.

Antinatalism.

Antinatalism, or anti-natalism, is a philosophical position that assigns a negative value to birth. Antinatalists argue that people should refrain from procreation because it is ethically bad. In scholarly and in literary writings, various ethical foundations have been adduced for antinatalism. Some of the earliest-surviving formulations of the idea that it would be better not to have been born come from ancient Greece. The term "antinatalism" was used probably for the first time as the name of the position by Théophile de Giraud (born 1968) in his book "L'art de guillotiner les procréateurs: Manifeste anti-nataliste".

Natalism (also called pronatalism or the pro-birth position) is a belief that promotes the reproduction of human life. The term comes from the Latin adjective for "birth", "nātālis".

Le populationnisme est une doctrine politico-sociale, favorable à l'accroissement de la population d'un territoire ou d'un État par la natalité et/ou l'immigration. Elle est le plus souvent opposée au malthusianisme.


History of discovery.

The species has had a long history riddled with misidentifications, which are now mostly resolved. A skull and jaw found on a beach in Mackay, Queensland, in 1882, provided the basis for the initial description of this species by H. A. Longman in 1926. Other researchers were not convinced, and felt this specimen might instead represent a Pacific form of True's beaked whale or a female bottlenose whale. Almost 30 years after Longman's original publication, a second skull was discovered near Danane, Somalia (1955). This specimen likely stranded on the coast, but was subsequently processed into fertilizer. Only the skull survived. Biologist Joseph C. Moore used this skull, together with the original Mackay specimen, to effectively demonstrate that Longman's beaked whale was a unique species and elevated it to its own genus, "Indopacetus".  Dalebout et al. (2003) used a combination of genetic and morphological analyses to identify four further specimens, including a complete adult female with a fetus found in the Maldives in January 2000. The other remains consisted of a skull from Kenya collected some time before 1968, and two juvenile males from South Africa from strandings in 1976 and 1992. Based on morphological analyses, Dalebout et al. concluded that the genus "Indopacetus" was a valid one. The external appearance and colour pattern of this species was also revealed, and a firm connection was established with the mysterious tropical bottlenose whales that had been sighted in the Indian and Pacific Oceans since the 1960s. While this paper was in press, a specimen that was first misidentified as a Baird's beaked whale washed up in Kagoshima, Japan, in July 2002.

Description.

Longman's beaked whales look rather similar to both mesoplodont beaked whales and bottlenose whales, which led to a great deal of taxonomic confusion. The Maldives female had a robust body like the bottlenoses, although this may be a distortion, since the less-decomposed female specimen from Japan had a laterally compressed body typical of "Mesoplodon". The juvenile specimens have a very short beak similar to a bottlenose whale, but the adult females seen so far have had rather long beaks sloping gently into a barely noticeable melon organ. Additionally, the dorsal fins of adult specimens seem unusually large and triangular for beaked whales, whereas in juveniles they are rather small and swept back.  An adult male specimen has yet to wash up, but sightings of the tropical bottlenose whale indicate they have a rather bulbous melon, two teeth located towards the front of the beak, and scars from fighting with the teeth. Scars from cookiecutter sharks are also rather common on the whale. The rather unusual coloration of the juveniles helped connect the Longman's to the tropical bottlenose whale; both have dark backs behind the blowholes, which quickly shade down to a light gray and then white. The blackness from the back extends down to the eye of the whale except for a light spot behind the eye, and then continues on in a line towards the flipper, which is also dark.  Dark markings are also present on the tip of the beak and rostrum. The females have a simpler coloration; the body is typically grayish except for a brown head. The coloration appears to be rather variable in this species. The female specimen from the Maldives was 6 m (20 ft) in length, with a 1-m (3-ft) fetus, and the Japanese female was 6.5 m (22 ft) in length. Reports of tropical beaked whales put them even longer, in the 7– to 9-m (23– to 29.5-ft) range, which is larger than any mesoplodont and more typical of a bottlenose whale. No weight estimation or reproductive information is known.

Population and distribution.

Strandings and sightings indicate the species ranges across the Indian Ocean from southern and eastern Africa to the Maldives, Sri Lanka, and east to Myanmar, with a Pacific range extending from Australia to Japan. However, if the sightings of tropical beaked whales are taken into account, the range of this whale is more extensive; they have been sighted from the Arabian Sea including the Gulf of Aden to Guadalupe Island and the Gulf of California (the sightings off Mexico (in 1992 and 1993) are probably extralimital, as they are associated with abnormally warm water during El Niño events). Sightings in the Gulf of Mexico are possible, which may indicate they are present in the tropical Atlantic Ocean, as well. The most frequent observations have occurred off the coasts of Hawaii. Although only a single specimen has washed up in Hawaii, they are apparently rather common; a 2002 survey estimated 766 animals. No other population estimates exist for other locales, although a single individual was apparently identified in the Comoro Islands in the summer of 2002–2003. One whale was observed from a whale-watching vessel off Choshi in December, 2015. Possible sightings were made off Tokara Islands and Bonin Islands, as well. They have also recorded off New Caledonia.  The range of Longman's beaked whales was once considered to be restricted to warmer waters of Pacific, but stranding records in recent years revealed they may migrate further north to sub-Arctic regions such as off Hokkaido. No occurrence has been confirmed in the Sea of Japan, but a possible Longman's beaked whale stranded on a beach near Vladivostok in 2011.  In 2009, the first confirmed sighting was made of tropical bottlenose whales in the southern Bay of Bengal. In the summer and fall of 2010, researchers aboard the NOAA ship "McArthur II" made two sightings of groups of tropical bottlenose whales off Hawaii. The first sighting consisted of a "large, active group" of over 70 individuals surfacing rapidly and breaching on occasion; the second sighting, late in October, did not last as long, as the group "ran away". Increasingly more sightings and strandings have been recorded in Taiwan and surrounding small islands such as at Yilan the Green Island, and Orchid Island. An entangled individual was saved by local fishermen off Pakistan in 2015.  Since Dalebout et al. (2003), additional strandings have been reported in the Philippines (2004), Taiwan and Myanmar (2005), the Andaman Islands (2009), and Maui (2010).

Behavior.

Tropical bottlenose whale observations indicate they travel in larger groups than any other local species of beaked whales. The size of the pods ranges from the tens up to 100, with 15 to 20 being typical, and the groups appear very cohesive. Their pods are sometimes associated with other species, such as short-finned pilot whales, bottlenose dolphins, spinner dolphins, and humpback whales. Tropical bottlenose whales have been known to breach the surface, and they normally have visible, but short, blows. Their dives last between 11 and 33 minutes, with one individual diving for least 45 minutes.

Conservation.

No records report the whale being hunted, although individuals have been trapped in fishing nets off Sri Lanka and a stranding in Taiwan in 2005 involving a cow-calf pair may have been due to nearby naval exercises. Due to their rather uncommon nature, their conservation status is unknown. The tropical bottlenose whale is covered by the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MOU).

The tropical bottlenose whale ("Indopacetus pacificus"), also known as the Indo-Pacific beaked whale and Longman's beaked whale, was considered to be the world's rarest cetacean until recently, but the spade-toothed whale now holds that position. As of 2010, the species is now known from nearly a dozen strandings and over 65 sightings.

La baleine à bec de Longman ("Indopacetus pacificus") a longtemps été considérée comme la baleine la plus rare. Elle n'avait jamais été vue vivante avant le 16 novembre 2013. Les uniques preuves de son existence étaient 2 crânes découverts en 1882 (au Queensland) et 1955 (en Somalie) ainsi que les restes d'une douzaine d'échouages survenus entre 1968 au Kenya et 2002 au Japon. Les observations ont conduit à penser qu'elle vit dans l'océan Indien et au sud-ouest de l'océan Pacifique.


Theatre.

In the early days of film the word "photoplay" was quite commonly used for motion pictures. This illustrates how a movie can be thought of as a photographed play. Much of the production for a live-action movie is similar tot that of a theatre play, with very similar contributions by actors, a theatre director/film director, producers, a set designer, lighting designer, costume designer, composer, etc. Much terminology later used in film theory and film criticism was already applied for theatre, such as mise en scene.  Many early films by Edison's company, Max Skladanowsky and other pioneers, consisted of popular vaudeville acts performed in

Shadow play.

The earliest projection of images was most likely done in primitive shadowgraphy dating back to prehistory. It evolved into more refined forms of shadow puppetry, mostly with flat jointed cut-out figures which are held between a source of light and a translucent screen. The shapes of the puppets sometimes include translucent color or other types of detailing. Plato seemed to hint at shadow puppetry in his "Allegory of the Cave" (circa 380 BCE) but no other signs

Camera obscura.

Projection of images can occur naturally when rays of light pass through a small hole and produce an inverted image on a surface in a dark area behind the hole. This phenomenon is known as camera obscura or pinhole image. Its oldest known recorded description is found in Chinese Mohist writings dated to circa 400 BCE. However, people have probably witnessed and made use of occurrences of the phenomenon since prehistoric times. It has been suggested that distortions in the shapes of animals in many paleolithic cave paintings were possibly based on distortions seen in pinhole images formed through tiny holes in tents or in screens of animal hide. Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits, especially in temple worship, are thought to possibly have been conjured up by means of camera obscura or proto magic lantern projections. In Arab and European science the camera obscura was used in darkened rooms since circa 1000 CE to study light and especially sun eclipses.  Very occasionally the camera obscura was thought of as an instrument for live projections of performances to entertain an audience inside a darkened room. Purportedly Arnaldus de Villa Nova did so at the end of the 13th century.  The use of a lens in the opening of a wall or closed window shutter of a darkened room to project clearer images has been dated back to 1550.  Giambattista della Porta's very popular and influential "Magia Naturalis" helped popularize the camera obscura. In the 1558 first edition of the book series, Della Porta advised to use a convex mirror to project the image onto paper and

Magic lantern and other image projectors.

The "trotting horse lamp" [走馬燈] has been known in China since before 1000 CE. It is a lantern which on the inside has cut-out silhouettes attached to a shaft with a paper vane impeller on top, rotated by heated air rising from a lamp. The silhouettes are projected on the thin paper sides of the lantern and appear to chase each other. Some versions showed more motion with the heads, feet or hands of figures connected with fine iron wire to an extra inner layer and triggered by a transversely connected iron wire. The lamp would typically show images of horses and horse-riders.  Several scholars and inventors, like Giovanni Fontana (circa 1420), Leonardo da Vinci (circa 1515) and Cornelis Drebbel (1608) possibly had early image projectors before the invention of the Magic Lantern. Athanasius Kircher's 1645 first edition of "Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae" included a description of his forerunner to the magic lantern: the "Steganographic Mirror". This was a primitive projection system with a focusing lens and text or pictures painted on a concave mirror reflecting sunlight, mostly intended for long distance communication. Kircher also suggested projecting shadow puppets and living flies from the surface of the mirror. The book was widely distributed and may have offered some inspiration for Christiaan Huygens' invention of the magic lantern in 1659.  Moving images were possibly projected with the magic lantern since its invention; Christiaan Huygens' 1659 sketches for slides show a skeleton taking his skull off his neck and placing it back. Techniques to add motion to

Raree show.

Peep shows or "raree shows" were viewed through a hole in a box (sometimes fitted with a lens or magnifying glass) and were very popular in Europe from the 17th to 19th century. The view inside could be an exhibition of any kind of pictures, objects, puppets or whatever a travelling showman thought customers would pay for to look at. A showman often provided dramatic narration

Motion pictures before film.

Stroboscopic principle.

Several possible examples of very early sequential images can be found in paleolithic cave paintings, on a 5,200-year old pottery bowl found in Iran, in an Egyptian mural approximately 4000 years old (found in the tomb of Khnumhotep at the Beni Hassan cemetery) and several other examples. However, it is very unlikely that these could be viewed in motion before the invention of stroboscopic animation in the 1830s.  In 1825, the thaumatrope used a stroboscopic effect that made the brain combine incomplete pictures on either side of a twirling cardboard disc into one logical image. The effect was incorrectly attributed to the so-called "persistence of vision" in the retina. The technology of the thaumatrope can also be used to display very simple and repetitive animation when each side of the card depicts one of two phases of an action. However, this option was only recognized much later.  Joseph Plateau experimenting with spinning discs since the mid-1820s, mainly in attempts to measure the duration of impressions of different colours. Along the way he had discovered a type of abstract animation discs by counter-rotating

1847–1869: Early stroboscopic animation projection.

Stampfer also suggested using the stroboscopic principle on "transparencies" and Plateau thought it might find application in phantasmagoria. It seemed a simple and logical next step, but in practice it turned out to be relatively complicated. Apart from mica and glass there were hardly any transparent materials that could be used and it took years before mechanisms were developed that enabled fluent animation to be projected.  In 1843, T.W. Naylor (an experimenter from Newcastle about whom little else is known) published

1849–1870: Photography in motion.

After the introduction of photography in 1839, it took circa 10 years before this new technique was occasionally combined with phénakisticopes and proto-zoetropes. Stereoscopic photography, which became very popular in the early 1850s, led to the belief that photography could be further developed into a perfect illusion of reality. Stereoscopic recordings with motion and colour were the logical next steps. Before the necessary photographic emulsions and mechanics were fast enough to capture a photographic sequence in real-time, early attempts recorded simulated motion sequences by photographing different poses and/or positions separately. This technique became known as stop motion much later.  In 1849, Joseph Plateau published a note about improvements for the Fantascope. He combined the stroboscopic disc with aspects of his Anorthoscope to create a 27 cm translucent disc (oiled paper on a cardboard frame) that was lit from behind and had a stroboscopic 4-slit black metal shutter disc in front. The pictures, 16 in Plateau's example, were designed with a 4 to 5 anamorphic width to compensate the deformation of the resulting image. The animation could be seen with both eyes by several people at the same time, with greatly improved image quality. A screen behind the translucent disc blocked the light, except for a cutout trapezoid area that corresponded with the space where the figures were visible at the proper position. A gear system for the rotation ensured that the image would appear in the right area. Plateau used

1860s–1878: Du Mont, Ducos du Hauron and Donisthorpe's early patents and concepts.

During the 1850s the first examples of instantaneous photography had appeared, which further inspired hope for the possibilities of motion photography.  In 1860, John Herschel envisioned the stereoscopic representation of scenes in action. He figured that photography could already, or would soon be able to take snap-shots in one tenth of a second and that a mechanism was possible "by which a prepared plate may be presented, focused, impressed, displaced, secured in the dark, and replaced by another within two or three tenths of a second". Apparently without knowledge of Duboscq's stéréofantascope, Herschel believed the "phenakistoscope" (sic) could very well be adapted into a viewer for stereoscopic motion photography pairs. He also had high

1874–1890s: The chronophotograpers.

Jules Janssen developed a large photographic revolver to document the stages of the transit of Venus in 1874, regarded as an important method to determine the Astronomical Unit (the distance between earth and the sun). Several copies of the device were used at different geographic points. Many negative images of the different phases of Venus passing in front of the sun were captured on glass discs, in an early form of time-lapse photography. Unfortunately, the quality was not sufficient for a calculation of the Astronomical Unit. Several photographic revolver discs with images have been preserved, but research

1887-1895: Anschütz' Electrotachyscope.

Between 1886 and 1894 Ottomar Anschütz developed several different versions of his Schnellseher, or Electrotachyscope. The first version, presented between 1887 and 1890, had 24 chronophotographic images on a rotating disk, illuminated from behind by a fast succession of electric flashes from a Geissler tube. Four to seven spectators could watch the images on an

1877-1900: Projection praxinoscope and Théâtre Optique.

Émile Reynaud already mentioned the possibility of projecting moving images in his 1877 patent application for the praxinoscope. He presented a praxinoscope projection device at the Société française de photographie on 4 June 1880, but did not market his "praxinoscope a projection" before 1882. He then further developed the device into the Théâtre Optique which could project longer sequences with separate backgrounds, patented in 1888. He created several

Other developments.

Optics developed during the scientific revolution with a theory of lenses.  In 1740 and 1748, David Hume published "Treatise of Human Nature" and "An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding", arguing for the associations and causes of ideas with visual images, forerunners to the language of film.  Phonographic recording of sound was invented in the 19th century.  Photographic film was created in the 19th century. The crucial invention of celluloid was made in 1855 by Alexander Parkes, a substance he initially called Parkesine. This was marketed from 1869 by John and Isaiah Hyatt.

Precursors of film are concepts and devices that have much in common with the later art and techniques of cinema. Precursors of film are often referred to as precinema, or 'pre-cinema'. Terms like these are disliked by several historians, partly because they seem to devalue the individual qualities of these media by presenting them as a small step in the development of a later invention. For instance: the flip book, zoetrope and phenakistiscope are very tactile devices that allow study and play by manipulating the motion by hand, while the projected image in cinema is intangible. Such devices as the zoetrope were not replaced by cinema: they were still used after the breakthrough of film. Furthermore, many early media examples are also part of a tradition that not only shaped cinema, but also home video, video games, computer-generated imagery, virtual reality and much more. The study of early media devices is also part of a wider and less teleological approach called media archaeology.

Le terme précinéma désigne les procédés inventés au cours du, pour reconstituer le mouvement à partir de dessins ou de photographies, disposés sur un support circulaire revenant cycliquement à son point de départ. Les procédés du précinéma sont antérieurs à une invention capitale qui va délivrer le spectacle présenté de sa répétition cyclique : le film souple, mis au point en 1887 par l'Américain John Carbutt, constitué de nitrate de cellulose (le celluloïd), que l'industriel George Eastman met sur le marché en 1888, débité en rouleaux de de large, enduits ou non de substance photosensible. Si les procédés antérieurs n'ont pas été pour autant abandonnés à cette époque car ils avaient un marché spécifique, 1888 semble la date clé qui sépare le précinéma du cinéma. Les bandes dessinées ou les alignements de photographies du précinéma présentaient une saynète qui durait une à deux secondes au maximum. Grâce au film souple, les spectacles représentés peuvent durer une dizaine de secondes, voire quelques dizaines de secondes, et, très rapidement, permettront de présenter des films de plusieurs dizaines de minutes.


Early campaigns.

Tokhtamysh appears in history in 1376, trying to overthrow his uncle Urus Khan, ruler of the White Horde, and fleeing to the great Timur. Tokhtamysh outlived Urus and both his sons, and forcefully ascended to the throne of the White Horde in 1378, with Timur's backing.  Tokhtamysh dreamt of emulating his ancestors and made plans to reunite the Golden Horde. In 1380, he invaded the Blue Horde by fording across the Volga, and defeated Mamai during the Second Battle of the Kalka River. The ruler of the Blue Horde, Mamai, was killed shortly after the Battle of Kulikovo, marking Tokhtamysh's victory and the reunification of the Golden Horde.

Campaign against Moscow.

Dmitry Donskoy had raised a large army to defeat and suppress the Mongol–Tatar hordes, and, after defeating Mamai during the Battle of Kulikovo, could not raise another army against Tokhtamysh Khan.  Having reunited the Blue and White Hordes into the Golden Horde, in 1382, Tokhtamysh led a successful campaign against Russia as a punishment for the Kulikovo defeat - setting back, though not ending, the Russian aspiration to free themselves of Tatar rule. In just six years, Tokhtamysh had reunified the lands of the Golden Horde from Crimea to Lake Balkhash.  After three days of siege, Tokhtamysh was faced with a stalemate, until Donskoy's brothers-in-law prince of Nizhnii Novgorod Dmitry of Suzdal tricked citizens into surrendering the city. The destruction of Moscow led to Dimitry's surrender to the authority of Tokhtamysh at the end of 1382. Tokhtamysh also took Donskoy's son Vasily I of Moscow hostage.

Decline.

Tokhtamysh started to act as a sovereign ruler, which must have worried his former suzerain Timur, who as a result invaded Tokhtamysh twice; in 1391 and in 1395, eventually supplanting him and imposing Temür Qutlugh as a khan of Golden Horde. Tokhtamysh took refuge in Lithuania, at the court of grand duke Vytautas.  In 1397 both rulers signed a treaty in which Tokhtamysh confirmed Vytautas as a rightful ruler of Ruthenian lands that were once part of the Golden Horde, and now belonged to Lithuania, in exchange of military assistance. It is possible that the treaty required Vytautas to pay tribute from these lands once the khan regained his throne. Vytautas probably was planning to establish himself as overlord in Tatar lands. This joint expedition, supported by Polish volunteers under Spytek of Melsztyn, was defeated on 12 August 1399 in the Battle of the Vorskla River by forces led by Temiir Kutlugh and Nogay emir Edigü. The defeat was disastrous, ending Vytautas's ambitious policy in Pontic steppe and forcing Tokhtamysh to seek refuge again, this time in Siberia. About twenty princes, among them Andrei of Polatk and Dmitry of Briansk were killed, along with many prominent lords, like Spytko.  Tokhtamysh died in Siberia in 1406.

Wars against Tamerlane.

Believing he could defeat the Ilkhanate Chobanids and capture the disputed territories of the Caucasus since the days of Berke Khan, in 1385 Tokhtamysh, with an army of 50,000 (or five "tumens"), invaded Persia and took Tabriz. Returning north they took 200,000 slaves from the Caucasus, including tens of thousands of Armenians from the districts of Parskahayk, Syunik, and Artsakh. This proved to be a fatal error for Tokhtamysh, who moved north from the Caucasus, thus allowing his Ilkhanate rivals to side with Timur, who annexed Persia to his own expanding kingdom. Furious, Tokhtamysh turned back and made war on his former ally.  Eventually, Tokhtamysh conceded defeat and withdrew to the steppe. However, in 1387 he suddenly invaded Transoxiana, the heart of Timur's realm. Unfortunately for Tokhtamysh, heavy snow forced him back to the steppe.  In 1395, the scenario reached its climax as Timur attacked the Golden Horde and defeated Tokhtamysh at the Terek. Timur sacked cities of the Golden Horde such as Azov (Tana), Astrakhan and Tokhtamysh's capital, Sarai Berke. Timur captured artisans and craftsmen of the Golden Horde, and placed a puppet ruler, Koirichak, on the throne of the White Horde and appointed Temür Qutlugh khan of the Horde. Tokhtamysh escaped to the Ukrainian steppes and asked for help from the Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania. In the great Battle of the Vorskla River (1399) the combined forces of Tokhtamysh and Vytautas were defeated by two of Timur's generals, khan Temur Qutlugh and emir (murza, visir) Edigu. The defeated Tokhtamysh was killed near present-day Tyumen by Edigu's men in 1406.  He was the last khan who minted coins with Mongolian script.

Family.

He had 8 sons;

Tokhtamysh (Tatar: Тухтамыш/Tuqtamış), (c. 1342–1406) a prominent Khan of the Blue Horde, briefly unified the White Horde and Blue Horde subdivisions of the Golden Horde into a single state. He descended from Genghis Khan's grandson, Tuqa-Timur.

Tokhtamych ou Toqtamich (dérivé du mongol "togtoo"- : établir), khan de la Horde d'or, qu'il réunifia (Horde bleue et Horde blanche), de 1376 à 1395, mort en 1406.


Applications.

A common use for the S/PDIF interface is to carry compressed digital audio for surround sound as defined by the standard IEC 61937. This mode is used to connect the output of a DVD player or computer, via optical or coax, to a home theatre amplifying receiver that supports Dolby Digital or DTS. Another common use is to carry two channels of uncompressed digital audio from a CD player to an amplifying receiver.

Hardware specifications.

S/PDIF was developed at the same time as the main standard, AES3, used to interconnect professional audio equipment in the professional audio field. This resulted from the desire of the various standards committees to have at least sufficient similarities between the two interfaces to allow the use of the same, or very similar, designs for interfacing ICs. S/PDIF remained nearly identical at the protocol level, but changed the physical connectors from XLR to either electrical coaxial cable (with RCA connectors) or optical fibre (TOSLINK; i.e., F05 or EIAJ optical), both of which cost less than the XLR connection. The RCA connectors are typically colour-coded orange to differentiate from other RCA connector uses such as composite video. The cable was also changed from 110 Ω balanced twisted pair to 75 Ω coaxial cable, using RCA jacks.  Signals transmitted over consumer-grade TOSLINK connections are identical in content to those transmitted over coaxial connectors, though TOSLINK S/PDIF commonly exhibits higher jitter.

Protocol specifications.

S/PDIF is used to transmit digital signals of a number of formats, the most common being the 48 kHz sample rate format (used in DAT) and the 44.1 kHz format, used in CD audio. In order to support both systems, as well as others that might be needed, the format has no defined data rate. Instead, the data is sent using biphase mark code, which has either one or two transitions for every bit, allowing the original word clock to be extracted from the signal itself.  S/PDIF is meant to be used for transmitting 20-bit audio data streams plus other related information. To transmit sources with less than 20 bits of sample accuracy, the superfluous bits will be set to zero. S/PDIF can also transport 24-bit samples by way of four extra bits; however, not all equipment supports this, and these extra bits may be ignored.  S/PDIF protocol is identical to AES3 with one exception: the channel status bit differs in S/PDIF. Both protocols group 192 samples into an audio block, and transmit one channel status bit per sample, providing one 192-bit "channel status word" per channel per audio block. The meaning of the channel status word is completely different between AES3 and S/PDIF. For S/PDIF, the 192-bit status word is identical between the two channels and is divided into 12 words of 16 bits each, with the first 16 bits being a control code.  Bits 8–14 of the control code are a 7-bit category code indicating the type of source equipment, and bit 15 is the "L-bit", which (for most category codes) indicates whether copy-restricted audio is original (may be copied once) or a copy (does not allow recording again). The L-bit is only used if bit 2 is zero, meaning copy-restricted audio. The L-bit polarity depends on the category, with recording allowed if it is 1 for DVD-R and DVR-RW, but 0 for CD-R, CD-RW, and DVD. For plain CD-DA (ordinary nonrecordable CDs), the L-bit is not defined, and recording is prevented by alternating bit 2 at a rate of 4–10 Hz.

Limitations.

The receiver does not control the data rate, so it must avoid bit slip by synchronizing its reception with the source clock. Many S/PDIF implementations cannot fully decouple the final signal from influence of the source or the interconnect. Specifically the process of clock recovery used to synchronize reception may produce jitter. If the DAC does not have a stable clock reference then noise will be introduced into the resulting analog signal. However, receivers can implement various strategies that limit this influence.  TOSLINK optical fiber, unlike coaxial cables, are immune to ground loops and RF interference. The fiber core of TOSLINK, however, may suffer permanent damage if tightly bent.

S/PDIF (Sony/Philips Digital Interface) is a type of digital audio interconnect used in consumer audio equipment to output audio over reasonably short distances. The signal is transmitted over either a coaxial cable with RCA connectors or a fiber optic cable with TOSLINK connectors. S/PDIF interconnects components in home theaters and other digital high-fidelity systems.

Le format S/PDIF (acronyme de, "Interface numérique Sony/Philips"), ou CEI 958, permet de transférer des données audionumériques. Ce standard conçu par les sociétés Sony et Philips peut être considéré comme la version grand public du format audionumérique professionnel AES/EBU. Il a été défini en 1989.


Maladie en rapport avec la mutation du gène PLP1

Signs and symptoms.

Hallmark signs and symptoms of Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease include little or no movement in the arms or legs, respiratory difficulties, and characteristic horizontal movements of the eyes left to right.  The onset of Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease is usually in early infancy. The most characteristic early signs are nystagmus (rapid, involuntary, rhythmic motion of the eyes) and low muscle tone. Motor abilities are delayed or never acquired, mostly depending upon the severity of the mutation. Most children with Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease learn to understand language, and usually have some speech. Other signs may include tremor, lack of coordination, involuntary movements, weakness, unsteady gait, and over time, spasticity in legs and arms. Muscle contractures often occur over time. Mental functions may deteriorate. Some patients may have convulsions and skeletal deformation, such as scoliosis, resulting from abnormal muscular stress on bones.

Cause.

Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease is caused by X-linked recessive mutations in the major myelin protein proteolipid protein 1 ("PLP1"). This causes hypomyelination in the central nervous system and severe neurological disease.  The majority of mutations result in duplications of the entire "PLP1" gene. Deletions of "PLP1" locus (which are rare) cause a milder form of Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease than is observed with the typical duplication mutations, which demonstrates the critical importance of gene dosage at this locus for normal CNS function.

Diagnosis.

The diagnosis of Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease is often first suggested after identification by magnetic resonance imaging of abnormal white matter (high T2 signal intensity, i.e. T2 lengthening) throughout the brain, which is typically evident by about 1 year of age, but more subtle abnormalities should be evident during infancy. Unless a family history consistent with sex-linked inheritance exists, the condition is often misdiagnosed as cerebral palsy. Once a "PLP1" mutation is identified, prenatal diagnosis or preimplantation genetic diagnostic testing is possible.

Classification.

The disease is one in a group of genetic disorders collectively known as leukodystrophies that affect growth of the myelin sheath, the fatty covering—which acts as an insulator—on nerve fibers in the central nervous system. The several forms of Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease include classic, connatal, transitional, and adult variants.  Milder mutations of the "PLP1" gene that mainly cause leg weakness and spasticity, with little or no cerebral involvement, are classified as spastic paraplegia 2 (SPG2).

Treatment.

No cure or standard treatment for Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease has been developed. Outcomes are variable: people with the most severe form of the disease do not usually survive to adolescence, although with milder forms, survival into adulthood is possible.

Research.

In December 2008, StemCells, Inc received clearance in the United States to conduct a phase I clinical trials of human neural stem cell transplantation. The trial did not show meaningful efficacy and the company has since gone bankrupt.  In 2019 Paul Tesar used CRISPR and antisense therapy in a mouse model of Pelizaeus–Merzbacher with success. Iron chelation as a potential treatment is also being studied.

Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease is an X-linked neurological disorder that damages oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system. It is caused by mutations in proteolipid protein 1 ("PLP1"), a major myelin protein. It is characterized by hypomyelination and belongs to a group of genetic diseases referred to as leukodystrophies.

Les maladies en rapport avec la mutation du gène PLP1 sont des troubles de la formation de la myéline dont l'expression phénotypique vont de la maladie de Pelizaeus-Merzbacher à la paraplégie spastique familiale liée à l'X.


Biography.

Born in Porto's downtown neighbourhood of Foz Velha, Rosa started participating in cross-country races while in high-school.  In 1980 she met José Pedrosa, the man who would eventually be her personal trainer for her entire career. Rosa Mota's first marathon was at the European Championships of 1982, hosted by Athens, Greece - the first Women's Marathon ever. Mota was not one of the favourites for gold, but she easily beat Ingrid Kristiansen to win her first marathon.  This success was typical of Rosa Mota's career, as she usually finished well in the prestigious marathons. She was awarded the bronze medal in the first Women's Olympic Marathon in Los Angeles Olympic Games. Her personal best time was 2:23:29 in the 1985 Chicago Marathon. Mota won the Chicago Marathon twice.  European Champion in 1986, and World Champion in Rome 1987, she kept on winning with the Olympic gold medal in Seoul 1988, where with 2 km left in the race, she attacked, winning by 13 seconds from silver medalist Lisa Martin.  In 1990, she returned to Boston to win for a third time beating Uta Pippig. After that she attempted to defend her European Marathon Championship in Split. She ran from the front and had a lead of over 1.5 minutes at the half way mark, but she was caught at the 35 km mark by Valentina Yegorova. They battled to the finish and Mota won by a slim margin of 5 seconds. As of 2006, winning a third European Championships marathon was unprecedented for both men and women. She won the Lisbon Half Marathon 1991  Despite all her success Rosa Mota was suffering from sciatica and asthma as a child, yet, in 1991, she continued winning, this time the London Marathon. Later that year, Mota had to abandon the Tokyo World championships and she finally considered retirement after failing to finish the 1992 London marathon.  Mota ran 21 marathon races between 1982 and 1992. She averaged two marathons a year for a decade and won 14 of those races.

After retirement.

Considered an Ambassador of Sport, in 1998 she won the Abebe Bikila Award for contributions to the development of long-distance race training. The trophy was awarded at the end of the International Race for Friendship, sponsored by the United Nations, taking place in the morning before the New York City Marathon.  Rosa Mota was one of the most popular personalities of Portuguese sport in the late 20th century, alongside Eusébio, Carlos Lopes and Luís Figo.  Rosa Mota carried the Olympic Flame along the roads of Athens before the 2004 Summer Olympics in Greece.

Rosa Maria Correia dos Santos Mota, (; born 29 June 1958) is a Portuguese former marathon runner, one of her country's foremost athletes, being the first sportswoman from Portugal to win Olympic gold. Mota was the first woman to win multiple Olympic marathon medals as well as being the only woman to be the reigning European, World, and Olympic champion at the same time. On the 30th Anniversary Gala of the Association of International Marathons and Distance Races (AIMS) she was distinguished as the greatest female marathon runner of all time.

Rosa Mota, née le à Porto, est une ancienne athlète portugaise qui courait sur marathon. Elle est surnommée par les Portugais " a nossa rosinha" et fait partie des sportifs portugais les plus populaires au même titre qu' Eusebio ou Luis Figo.


Biography.

Sigeric was educated at Glastonbury Abbey, where he took holy orders. He was elected Abbot of St Augustine's in about 975 to 990, and consecrated by Archbishop Dunstan as Bishop of Ramsbury in 985 or 986. He was transferred to the see of Canterbury in 990. He may have been a disciple of Dunstan's.  Sigeric made the pilgrimage to Rome following the Via Francigena to receive his pallium circa 990, and contemporary records of this journey still exist.  It was Sigeric who advised King Æthelred (the Unready) to pay a tribute to the invading Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard in 991. Æthelred presented Sweyn with 10,000 pounds of silver, in response to which Sweyn temporarily ceased his destructive advance into England, though he later returned for further tribute. Sweyn's ever-increasing demands in the following years resulted in a debilitating tax later known as the Danegeld, payable by the inhabitants of Æthelred's territories.  In 994, Sigeric paid tribute to the Danes to protect Canterbury Cathedral from being burned. In the same year, a diploma granting rights to the diocese of Cornwall and Bishop Ealdred of Cornwall stated that it was written by Sigeric, but it is unlikely that the document was actually written by the archbishop.  While Sigeric was an abbot, Ælfric dedicated a book of translated homilies to him. He also advised King Æthelred to found Cholsey Abbey in Berkshire in honour of King Edward the Martyr, as well as having Edward memorialised at Shaftesbury Abbey.  Sigeric died on 28 October 994. He was buried in Christ Church, Canterbury. His will left wall hangings to Glastonbury as well as a valuable collection of books to his church at Sonning.

Sigeric (died 28 October 994) was the Archbishop of Canterbury from 990 to 994. It is unclear whether the epithet "The Serious" originated from his learning, or if it derived from transliteration of his name into Latin as "Serio".

Sigéric est archevêque de Cantorbéry de 989 ou 990 à sa mort, le. Il est à l'origine de la plus ancienne description d'un des itinéraires de la "Via Francigena", réseau emprunté par les pèlerins venant de France pour se rendre à Rome.


Inspiration and description.

The painting, inspired by "Majas on the Balcony" by Francisco Goya, was created at the same time and with the same purpose as "Luncheon in the Studio".  The three characters, who were all friends of Manet, seem to be disconnected from each other: while Berthe Morisot, on the left, looks like a romantic and inaccessible heroine, the young violinist Fanny Claus and the painter Antoine Guillemet seem to display indifference. The boy in the background is probably Manet's son, Léon. Just behind the railings, there are a hydrangea in a ceramic pot, and a dog with a ball below Morisot's chair.  This was the first portrait of Morisot by Manet. Manet adopts a restrained colour palette, dominated by white, green and black, with accents of blue (Guillemet's tie) and red (Morisot's fan).  Manet made many preparatory studies, painting the four subjects individually many times: Guillemet as many as fifteen times. A preparatory study for "The Balcony" was painted at Boulogne in 1868. This unfinished portrait of Fanny Claus, the closest friend of Manet’s wife Suzanne Leenhoff; Claus married Manet's friend Pierre Prins in 1869. The work was bought after Manet's death in a studio sale by John Singer Sargent. The portrait had only been seen once in public since it was first painted in 1868, but in 2012 the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford succeeded in raising the funds to acquire it and keep it permanently in a public collection in the United Kingdom.

Reception.

The painting was not well received when it was exhibited at the Paris Salon in 1869. The aggressive and bold green of the balcony rails drew much attention, as evidenced by the article devoted to the work by the in 1878 which stated: "This painting was exhibited at the Salon of 1869 and is one of those who contributed to form this reputation for eccentricity realistic, this reputation of bad taste that was attached to Mr. Manet." The press considered the painting as "discordant". The contrast of colours (the background completely black, the white faces and clothes, the blue tie of the man, and the green railings) contributes to create an atmosphere of "mystery".  Manet deliberately eschewed any sense of connection between the figures, treating them more like objects in a still life than living people. None of them looks at the others. One commentator, the caricaturist Cham, sarcastically called for the shutters to be closed. Morisot herself said " ("I look more peculiar than ugly; it seems that people asking about it have used the words femme fatale to describe me."). Albert Wolff described it as "coarse art"" at "the level of house painters".  Manet kept the painting until his death in 1883, hanging it near his painting of "Olympia". It was bought from the sale of Manet's estate in February 1884 by Gustave Caillebotte, who paid 3,000 francs. Caillebotte displayed it in a prominent position in his house at Gennevilliers. On his death in 1894, Caillebotte's will left the painting, with other works, to the French state. It was displayed at the from 1896 to 1929, then at the until 1986 (from 1947, at the ). It was transferred to the in 1986.  Surrealist René Magritte painted "Perspective II: Manet's Balcony" in 1950, a commentary on the present work. On the balcony are four coffins (one "seated") in place of the four people. Michel Foucault said of Magritte's painting, "" (It is this limit of life and death, of light and darkness, which is there, manifested by these three characters). Magritte told Foucault, "For me the setting of "The Balcony" offered a suitable place to put coffins. The'mechanism' at work here might form the object of a learned explanation, which I am unable to provide. The explanation would be valid, indeed beyond question, but that would not make it any less mysterious."

The Balcony ("French: Le balcon") is an 1868-69 oil painting by the French painter Édouard Manet. It depicts four figures on a balcony, one of whom is sitting; the painter Berthe Morisot, who married Manet's brother Eugène in 1874. In the centre is the painter Jean Baptiste Antoine Guillemet. On the right is Fanny Claus, a violinist. The fourth figure, partially obscured in the interior's background, is possibly Léon Leenhoff, Manet's son. It was exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1869, and then kept by Manet until his death in 1883. It was sold to the painter Gustave Caillebotte in 1884, who left it to the French state in 1894. It is currently held at the Musée d'Orsay, in Paris.

Le Balcon est un tableau réalisé par le peintre Édouard Manet et présenté au Salon de Paris de 1869. La toile représente notamment Berthe Morisot (à gauche), qui deviendra en 1874 la belle-sœur de Manet, et le peintre Antoine Guillemet.


Real mode.

In the 8086 processor, the interrupt table is called IVT (interrupt vector table). The IVT always resides at the same location in memory, ranging from codice_1 to codice_2, and consists of 256 four-byte real mode far pointers (256 × 4 = 1024 bytes of memory).  A real mode pointer is defined as a 16-bit segment and a 16-bit offset into that segment. The segment is expanded internally by the processor to 20 bits by shifting it 4 bits to the left, thus limiting real mode interrupt handlers to the first 1 megabyte of memory. The first 32 vectors are reserved for the processor's internal exceptions, and hardware interrupts may be mapped to any of the vectors by way of a programmable interrupt controller.  On the 80286 and later, the size and locations of the IVT can be changed in the same way as it is done with the IDT in protected mode (i.e., via the LIDT instruction) though it does not change the format of it. The 80286 also introduced the high memory area, which raises the address limit in real mode by 65,520 bytes.  A commonly used x86 real mode interrupt is, the Video BIOS code to handle primitive screen drawing functions such as pixel drawing and changing the screen resolution.

Protected mode.

In protected mode, the IDT is an array of 8-byte descriptors stored consecutively in memory and indexed by an interrupt vector. These descriptors may be either interrupt gates, trap gates or task gates. Interrupt and trap gates point to a memory location containing code to execute by specifying both a segment (present in either the GDT or LDT) and an offset within that segment. The only difference between these two is that an interrupt gate will disable further processor handling of hardware interrupts, making it especially suitable to service hardware interrupts, while a trap gate will leave hardware interrupts enabled and is thus mainly used for handling software interrupts and exceptions. Finally, a task gate will cause the currently active task-state segment to be switched, using the hardware task switch mechanism to effectively hand over use of the processor to another program, thread or process.  The protected mode IDT may reside anywhere in physical memory. The processor has a special register () to store both the physical base address and the length in bytes of the IDT. When an interrupt occurs, the processor multiplies the interrupt vector by 8 and adds the result to the IDT base address. With help of the IDT length, the resulting memory address is then verified to be within the table; if it is too large, an exception is generated. If everything is okay, the 8-byte descriptor stored at the calculated memory location is loaded and actions are taken according to the descriptor's type and contents.  A fully populated IDT is 2KB (256 entries of 8 bytes each) in length. It is not necessary to use all of the possible entries: it is sufficient to populate the IDT up to the highest interrupt vector used, and set the IDT length portion of the accordingly.  Vectors 0–31 are reserved by Intel for processor generated exceptions (general protection fault, page fault, etc.). Though currently only vectors 0–20 are used by the processor, future processors may create incompatibilities for broken software which use these vectors for other purposes.

Hardware-generated exceptions.

All INT_NUM between 0x0 and 0x1F, inclusive, are reserved for exceptions; INT_NUM bigger than 0x1F are used for interrupt routines. (Note that the IBM PC did not always obey this rule, for instance using interrupt 5 to indicate the Print Screen key was pressed.)

Hooking.

Some Windows programs hook calls to the IDT. This involves writing a kernel mode driver that intercepts calls to the IDT and adds in its own processing. This has never been officially supported by Microsoft, but was not programatically prevented on its operating systems until 64-bit versions of Windows, where a driver that attempts to use a kernel mode hook will cause the machine to bug check.

The Interrupt Descriptor Table (IDT) is a data structure used by the x86 architecture to implement an interrupt vector table. The IDT is used by the processor to determine the correct response to interrupts and exceptions.

L'IDT (de l'anglais "") est une table de données situé dans la mémoire d'un ordinateur d'architecture x86, et permettant au microprocesseur de gérer les interruptions.


Background of the Salon of 1863.

The Paris Salon, sponsored by the French government and the Academy of Fine Arts, took place annually, and was a showcase of the best academic art. A medal from the Salon was assurance of a successful artistic career; winners were given official commissions by the French government, and were sought after for portraits and private commissions. Since the 18th century, the paintings were classified by genre, following a specific hierarchy; history paintings were ranked first, followed by the portrait, the landscape, the "genre scene", and the still life. The jury, headed by the Comte de Nieuwerkerke, the head of the Academy of Fine Arts, was very conservative; near-photographic but idealized realism was expected.  Much intrigue often went on to get acceptance, and to be given a good place in the galleries. In 1851, Gustave Courbet managed to get one painting into the Salon, "Enterrement à Ornans", and in 1852 his "Baigneuses" was accepted, scandalizing critics and the public, who expected romanticized nudes in classical settings, but in 1855 the Salon refused all of Courbet's paintings. As early as the 1830s, Paris art galleries mounted small-scale, private exhibitions of works rejected by the Salon jurors. Courbet was obliged to organize his own exhibit, called "Le Realism", at a private gallery. Private exhibits attracted far less attention from the press and patrons, and limited the access of the artists to a small public.  In 1863 the Salon jury refused two thirds of the paintings presented, including the works of Gustave Courbet, Édouard Manet, Camille Pissarro and Johan Jongkind. The rejected artists and their friends protested, and the protests reached Emperor Napoleon III. The Emperor's tastes in art were traditional; he commissioned and bought works by artists such as Alexandre Cabanel and Franz Xaver Winterhalter, but he was also sensitive to public opinion. His office issued a statement: "Numerous complaints have come to the Emperor on the subject of the works of art which were refused by the jury of the Exposition. His Majesty, wishing to let the public judge the legitimacy of these complaints, has decided that the works of art which were refused should be displayed in another part of the Palace of Industry."  More than a thousand visitors a day visited the Salon des Refusés. The journalist Émile Zola reported that visitors pushed to get into the crowded galleries where the refused paintings were hung, and the rooms were full of the laughter of the spectators. Critics and the public ridiculed the "refusés", which included such now-famous paintings as Édouard Manet's "Déjeuner sur l'herbe" and James McNeill Whistler's "". But the critical attention also legitimized the emerging avant-garde in painting.  The Impressionists successfully exhibited their works outside the traditional Salon beginning in 1874. Subsequent Salons des Refusés were mounted in Paris in 1874, 1875, and 1886, by which time the popularity of the Paris Salon had declined for those who were more interested in Impressionism.

Works in the exhibition.

Le déjeuner sur l'herbe.

Rejected by the Salon jury of 1863, Manet seized the opportunity to exhibit "Déjeuner sur l'herbe" and two other paintings in the 1863 Salon des Refusés. "Déjeuner sur l'herbe" depicts the juxtaposition of a female nude and a scantily dressed female bather in the background, on a picnic with two fully dressed men in a rural setting. The painting sparked public notoriety and stirred up controversy and has remained controversial, even to this day. Odilon Redon, for example, did not like it. There is a discussion of it, from this point of view, in Proust's "Remembrance of Things Past".  One interpretation of the work is that it depicts the rampant prostitution in the "Bois de Boulogne", a large park at the western outskirts of Paris, at the time. This prostitution was common knowledge in Paris, but was considered a taboo subject unsuitable for a painting. Indeed, the "Bois de Boulogne" is to this day known as a pick-up place for prostitutes and illicit sexual activity after dark, just as it had been in the 19th century.  Émile Zola comments about "Déjeuner sur l'herbe":  "The Luncheon on the Grass" is the greatest work of Édouard Manet, one in which he realizes the dream of all painters: to place figures of natural grandeur in a landscape. We know the power with which he vanquished this difficulty. There are some leaves, some tree trunks, and, in the background, a river in which a chemise-wearing woman bathes; in the foreground, two young men are seated across from a second woman who has just exited the water and who dries her naked skin in the open air. This nude woman has scandalized the public, who see only her in the canvas. My God! What indecency: a woman without the slightest covering between two clothed men! That has never been seen. And this belief is a gross error, for in the Louvre there are more than fifty paintings in which are found mixes of persons clothed and nude. But no one goes to the Louvre to be scandalized. The crowd has kept itself moreover from judging "The Luncheon on the Grass" like a veritable work of art should be judged; they see in it only some people who are having a picnic, finishing bathing, and they believed that the artist had placed an obscene intent in the disposition of the subject, while the artist had simply sought to obtain vibrant oppositions and a straightforward audience. Painters, especially Édouard Manet, who is an analytic painter, do not have this preoccupation with the subject which torments the crowd above all; the subject, for them, is merely a pretext to paint, while for the crowd, the subject alone exists. Thus, assuredly, the nude woman of "The Luncheon on the Grass" is only there to furnish the artist the occasion to paint a bit of flesh. That which must be seen in the painting is not a luncheon on the grass; it is the entire landscape, with its vigors and its finesses, with its foregrounds so large, so solid, and its backgrounds of a light delicateness; it is this firm modeled flesh under great spots of light, these tissues supple and strong, and particularly this delicious silhouette of a woman wearing a chemise who makes, in the background, an adorable dapple of white in the milieu of green leaves. It is, in short, this vast ensemble, full of atmosphere, this corner of nature rendered with a simplicity so just, all of this admirable page in which an artist has placed all the particular and rare elements which are in him.  Émile Zola incorporated a fictionalized account of the 1863 scandal in his novel "L'Œuvre" "(The Masterpiece)" (1886).

Symphony in White no 1.

In 1861, after returning to Paris for a time, James Abbott McNeill Whistler painted his first famous work, "". This portrait of his mistress and business manager Joanna Hiffernan was created as a simple study in white; however, others saw it differently. The critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary thought the painting an allegory of a new bride's lost innocence. Others linked it to Wilkie Collins's "The Woman in White", a popular novel of the time, or various other literary sources. In England, some considered it a painting in the Pre-Raphaelite manner. In the painting, Hiffernan holds a lily in her left hand and stands upon a bear skin rug (interpreted by some to represent masculinity and lust) with the bear's head staring menacingly at the viewer.  Countering criticism by traditionalists, Whistler's supporters insisted that the painting was "an apparition with a spiritual content" and that it epitomized his theory that art should be concerned essentially with the arrangement of colors in harmony, not with a literal portrayal of the natural world.  Whistler started working on "The White Girl" shortly after December 3, 1861, with the intention of submitting it to the prestigious annual exhibition of the Royal Academy. In spite of bouts of illness, he finished the painting by April. The white paint Whistler used contained lead, and his work on the seven-foot high canvas had given the artist a dose of lead poisoning. The portrait was refused for exhibition at the conservative Royal Academy in London. Whistler then submitted the painting to the Paris Salon of 1863, where it was also rejected. The public was able to see the painting exhibited with other rejected works, in the Salon des Refusés. The Salon des Refusés was an event sanctioned by Emperor Napoleon III, to appease the large number of artists who joined forces to protest the harsh jury decisions in 1863 Of the over 5,000 paintings submitted in 1863, 2,217 were rejected.  In a letter to George du Maurier in early 1862 Whistler wrote of the painting:  Whistler submitted the painting to the Academy, but according to Joanna Hiffernan, he expected it to be rejected. The previous year, in 1861, another painting had caused a minor scandal. Edwin Henry Landseer's "The Shrew Tamed" showed a horse with a woman resting on the ground nearby. The model was named as Ann Gilbert, a noted equestrienne of the period, however it was soon rumored that it was actually Catherine Walters, the notorious London courtesan. Whistler's painting was reminiscent enough of Landseer's that the judges were wary of admitting it. "White Girl" was submitted to the Academy along with three etchings, all three of which were accepted, while the painting was not. Whistler exhibited it at the small Berners Street Gallery in London instead. The next year, Whistler tried to have the painting exhibited at the "Salon" in Paris – the official art exhibition of the Académie des Beaux-Arts – but it was rejected there as well. Instead, it was accepted at the alternative "Salon des Refusés" – the "exhibition of rejects" that opened on May 15, two weeks after the official "Salon".  Although Whistler's painting was widely noticed, he was upstaged by Manet's more shocking painting "Le déjeuner sur l'herbe". The controversy surrounding the paintings was described in Émile Zola's novel "L'Œuvre" (1886). The reception Whistler's painting received was mostly favourable, however, and largely vindicated him after the rejection he had experienced both in London and in Paris. The painting was greatly admired by his colleagues and friends Manet, the painter Gustave Courbet and the poet Charles Baudelaire. The art critic Théophile Thoré-Bürger saw it in the tradition of Goya and Velázquez. There were, however, those who were less favourable; certain French critics saw the English Pre-Raphaelite trend as somewhat eccentric.

Legacy.

Art historian Albert Boime wrote: "The Salon des Refusés introduced the democratic concept of a multi-style system (much like a multi-party system) subject to the review of the general jury of the public."

The Salon des Refusés, French for "exhibition of rejects" (), is generally an exhibition of works rejected by the jury of the official Paris Salon, but the term is most famously used to refer to the "Salon des Refusés" of 1863.

Le Salon des refusés s'ouvre à Paris le en marge du Salon officiel et expose, dans douze salles du Palais des Champs-Élysées, annexe du Palais de l'Industrie, œuvres d'artistes, à l'initiative de Napoléon III lui-même, qui jugeait le jury officiel trop sévère, ce dernier ayant refusé œuvres sur les qui lui furent présentées.


Homeland and historical accounts.

Bede places the homeland of the Jutes on the other side of the Angles relative to the Saxons, which would mean the northern part of the Jutland Peninsula. Tacitus portrays a people called the Eudoses living in the north of Jutland, and these may have been the later Iutae. The Jutes have also been identified with the Eotenas ("ēotenas") involved in the Frisian conflict with the Danes as described in the Finnesburg episode in the poem "Beowulf" (lines 1068–1159). Others have interpreted the "ēotenas" as "jotuns" ("ettins" in English), meaning giants, or as a kenning for "enemies".  Disagreeing with Bede, some historians identify the Jutes with the people called Eucii (or "Saxones Eucii"), who were evidently associated with the Saxons and dependents of the Franks in 536. The Eucii may have been identical to a little-documented tribe called the Euthiones (Ευθίωνες in Ancient Greek) and probably associated with the Saxons. The Euthiones are mentioned in a poem by Venantius Fortunatus (583) as being under the suzerainty of Chilperic I of the Franks. This identification would agree well with the later location of the Jutes in Kent, since the area just opposite to Kent on the European mainland (present-day Flanders) was part of Francia. Even if Jutes were present to the south of the Saxons in the Rhineland or near the Frisians, this does not contradict the possibility that they were migrants from Jutland.  Another theory, known as the "Jutish hypothesis" – a term accepted by the "Oxford English Dictionary" – claims that the Jutes may be synonymous with the Geats of southern Sweden or their neighbours, the Gutes. The evidence adduced for this theory includes: However, the tribal names possibly were confused in the above sources (an error that demonstrably occurred in sources discussing the death of the seventh-century Swedish king Östen, for example). In both "Beowulf" (8th – 11th centuries) and "Widsith" (late 7th - 10th century), the "Eotenas" (in the Finn passage) are clearly distinguished from the "Geatas".

Language.

The Germanic dialect that the Jutes spoke is unknown; currently, no information or credible source can be found on their language. However, Jutes likely had used a traditional Germanic form of the Runic alphabet. Most scholars agree that they spoke either a group of Proto-Norse languages or an Ingvaeonic language, but which dialect of Germanic language was spoken remains a matter of dispute.

Settlement in southern Britain.

The Jutes, along with some Angles, Saxons, and Frisians, sailed across the North Sea to raid and eventually invade Roman Britain, from the late fourth century onwards, either displacing, absorbing, or destroying Romanised British kingdoms in south-east Britain. According to Bede, the Jutes established four kingdoms: Some evidence indicates that the Haestingas people who settled in the Hastings area of Sussex, in the 6th century, may also have been Jutish in origin.  While detecting their influences in Kent (for example, the practice of partible inheritance known as gavelkind) is commonplace, the Jutes in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight vanished, probably assimilated to the surrounding Saxons, leaving only the slightest of traces. One recent scholar, Robin Bush, even argued that the Jutes of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight were victims of a form of ethnic cleansing by the West Saxons. Bede clearly states this was the King of Wessex’s intention in 686 but remains silent on whether a massacre actually occurred. However, Bush's theory has been the subject of debate amongst academics, including a counter-hypothesis that only the aristocracy were wiped out.  The culture of the Jutes of Kent shows more signs of Roman, Frankish, and Christian influence than that of the Angles or Saxons. Funerary evidence indicates that the pagan practice of cremation ceased relatively early and jewellery recovered from graves has affinities with Rhenish styles from the Continent, perhaps suggesting close commercial connections with Francia. The Quoit Brooch Style has been regarded as Jutish, from the fifth century.

The Jutes (), Iuti, or Iutæ (, ) were a Germanic people. According to Bede, the Jutes were one of the three most powerful Germanic peoples of their time in the Nordic Iron Age, the other two being the Saxons and the Angles.

Les Jutes sont un peuple germanique de la mer du Nord localisé aux premiers siècles de l'ère chrétienne dans la partie méridionale de la péninsule du Jutland au Danemark, à laquelle ils ont donné leur nom.


Fictional character biography.

Much like their "father" Venom, Carnage produced an offspring: a third symbiote. Carnage felt only dislike and hatred towards his new spawn, even before he "gave birth" to it, both fearing that it could become much stronger than himself, and being generally disgusted at the thought of giving birth (reflecting the attitudes of Carnage's host, Cletus Kasady). At the same time, Carnage's rival and "father" Venom became aware that Carnage was "pregnant" and sought out Carnage to talk about this new symbiote. Carnage had resolved to kill his spawn as soon as it was born. Venom was doing his best to protect the new symbiote, with the intention of raising it to become his new partner. Venom was also concerned that, as the 1,000th symbiote of their line, the new symbiote could potentially become psychotic and violent because of genetic breakdown.

Patrick Mulligan.

After the birth of his "son", Carnage felt too weak to kill his newborn (due in no small part to his attempt to repress the birth after burying himself). Since he could not kill his newborn, he implanted it into Patrick Mulligan and fled, intending to kill him later and destroy the new symbiote when he was up to strength.  Prior to being implanted with the alien symbiote, Mulligan was one of New York City's finest cops, yet troubled with various personal problems. His stressful job, along with the strain of his new family (his wife, Gina, was pregnant with their first son, Edward) were taking their toll. One night while on duty, he came across the site where Carnage was giving birth to the new symbiote. Carnage, needing a host to hide the symbiote to keep it from Venom, bonded it to Mulligan. Carnage resolved to kill both Mulligan and the symbiote since they were not yet strong enough to manifest a super-powered costume like the Venom and Carnage symbiotes. Venom still hoped to use this new symbiote as a partner, and fought Carnage to a standstill to protect Mulligan and the symbiote, whom he christened Toxin, after himself.  At first, Mulligan didn't realize what had happened to him. Before long, the Toxin symbiote had matured enough to gain both conscious thought and the strength to form a symbiote costume on Mulligan's body. After Carnage attacked Gina and Edward at their home, Mulligan realized the symbiote was a danger to both himself and his family. During a subsequent confrontation between Venom, Carnage, and Toxin, Venom realized Mulligan was dedicated to a life of virtue, or as close as he could come under the symbiote's influence. When it became clear that Toxin was easily as strong as either of his predecessors, and was still growing, Venom and Carnage formed a temporary pact to destroy him.  Spider-Man stumbled into the final confrontation among the symbiote trio, and helped Toxin. After they fended off Venom and Carnage, Toxin had a conversation with Spider-Man, filling him in on what had happened to him. Spider-Man encouraged him, and Toxin resigned himself to a life of battling his base symbiote urges while trying to harness his power for good. He left his wife and child, and the police force, to try to come to terms with his new life.  In 2005, after Spider-Man joined the New Avengers, Marvel introduced a six-issue "Toxin" limited series, which followed Toxin's battles with various supervillains escaped from the Raft as a result of events at the beginning of "The New Avengers" series. The series also portrayed his constant battle to keep the symbiote under control; as the host and symbiote minds had conversations and arguments with each other. Throughout the miniseries, he battled King Cobra, the Wrecker, Piledriver, and Razor Fist.  At one point, trying to live with Toxin became too much for Mulligan, who attempted suicide by throwing himself in front of a train. The Toxin symbiote intervened at the last moment, saving Mulligan and claiming that Mulligan didn't really want to die. When Mulligan pressed the issue, it became clear that, unlike the Venom and Carnage symbiotes, Toxin is not sure it could survive on its own and find a new host.  In the limited series, Razor Fist murdered Mulligan's father, but Toxin begins to show signs of a heroic behavior; he tracked Razor Fist down, but rather than slaughtering him (as both the symbiote and Razor Fist himself urge), Toxin controls himself and turns Razor Fist over to the police. Mulligan reconciled with his estranged wife Gina by 'introducing' her to the Toxin symbiote as a way of explaining why he walked out on his family.  Mulligan and the symbiote co-operate peacefully with an agreement: Mulligan will be in complete control of the symbiote, if he allows Toxin two hours of "playtime" each night. However, in those two hours, Toxin is not allowed to commit any acts of grand theft, arson, or homicide.

Eddie Brock.

The Toxin symbiote later appears in an underground lab in Las Vegas, having been taken and its host, Pat Mulligan, killed by Blackheart. The Crime Master sends his underling Jack O'Lantern and blackmails his enemy Venom into retrieving the symbiote. A fight with security personnel results in Jack O'Lantern taking the Toxin symbiote and fleeing. Blackheart is revealed to have bound pieces of the symbiote to clones of X-23 while it was in his possession. He also retained a small sample of the symbiote in a test tube because he needed an "alien's flesh" as an ingredient in a ritual to bring hell to Earth.  Along with Venom, Anti-Venom, Hybrid and his sister Scorn, Toxin is mentioned as being the next option to stop Carnage's rampage in the Midwest after the Avengers are defeated. However, the US military is unable to find Toxin, leaving it up to the hybrid symbiotes and Scorn to stop Carnage.  After killing Hybrid and Scream, Eddie Brock follows Venom into Crime Master's headquarters as part of his plan to destroy all symbiotes. During the ensuing fight between Venom and Crime Master's underlings, Crime Master locks Brock up and forcibly bonds him to the symbiote, making him the new Toxin. Brock joins the Savage Six to fight Venom, but is severely burned in the fight.  Eddie and the Toxin symbiote eventually track down Venom and discover a group of creatures called the "symbiote slayers" that are determined to destroy the symbiotes. Venom and Toxin have to team up to fight the "slayers". After this, Toxin agrees to leave Venom alone, and Eddie Brock as Toxin reclaims his title as the.

All New, All Different Marvel.

Brock and the Toxin symbiote appear once more in the All New, All Different Marvel miniseries "Carnage", where Brock serves in a task force led by John Jameson, in hopes to entrap the recently escaped Carnage, who has hidden himself in a mine-shaft. Toxin is considered "Plan B" to the force, and Brock's transformation into Toxin is manually controlled through a button. The symbiote's look has changed into resembling Agent Venom's, in which he sports red body armor. However, at the end of the "Carnage" miniseries, Eddie Brock loses the suit.  Carnage has taken hold of the book known as the Darkhold, to resurrect Chthon, Eddie Brock ultimately sacrifices the symbiote in the final issue against Chthon.

Powers and abilities.

Toxin possessed the special abilities of his two symbiote predecessors: he can stick to walls (which originally came from when Spider-Man was a host of the Venom symbiote), can change his identity to that of a completely different person, and also has unlimited webbing. With Patrick Mulligan as the host, the suit is red from the abdomen up and black from the abdomen down. With Eddie Brock as the host, it resembles a combination of Venom and Carnage but with the entire body red—light on the chest, and dark on the arms and lower body. Toxin can also blend in with his surroundings and become undetectable, an ability he gained from his grandfather, and he can form solid weapons from his limbs, an ability first seen in his father. Toxin also seems to have some sort of quick-healing ability like his predecessors, as his wounds from his first battle with Razor Fist healed remarkably quickly. Unlike the others, Toxin can track anyone—not just other symbiotes or symbiote host—within the entire city of New York and possibly farther, as long as he has something to begin from.  Unlike many of the other symbiotes, Toxin did not try to take over the mind of his human host. Instead, the symbiote actually thinks and voices its opinions to the human host (as evidenced in Toxin's "Cut to the Chase" storyline). The symbiote usually speaks when the host is in his "human form", and acts very immature and childlike because of its nascent existence, once refusing to aid Pat in battle until he apologized for an earlier argument. In addition, he seems to have a stronger resistance to sonics and intense heat compared to Carnage, though this does not mean that Toxin is more resistant to violent urges: it can get carried away with violence and fighting crime, even if it's a petty crime. When he's not angry or fighting, Toxin is slim and smooth-lined, although still well muscled, closely resembling Carnage or Spider-Man in his symbiote costume. When he becomes upset or aggressive, he grows into his much bigger and stronger form (like Venom), with vicious fangs and long curving claws.  The symbiote recently developed a venomous bite after bonding to Eddie Brock.

Toxin or the Toxin symbiote is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character has been depicted as an antihero and at times a supervillain. He is the third major symbiote of the Spider-Man series, the ninth known to have appeared in the comics outside of the Planet of the Symbiotes storyline, and the first symbiote that Spider-Man considers an ally, despite temporary alliances with Venom on numerous occasions. The first host of the Toxin symbiote is former NYPD police officer Patrick Mulligan. Toxin later bonded to Eddie Brock as his second host after Patrick Mulligan was killed.

Toxin est un personnage de fiction appartenant à l'univers de Marvel Comics. Créé par Peter Milligan et Clayton Crain, il apparaît pour la première fois dans le deuxième épisode de la mini-série de comics "Venom vs. Carnage" en 2004. Il eut ensuite droit à sa propre mini-série de six épisodes. Il est le troisième symbiote d'importance apparu dans l'univers Marvel, le neuvième à apparaître hors de la saga "Planet of the Symbiote", et le seul que Spider-Man considère vraiment comme un allié, malgré quelques alliances avec Venom.


Biography.

Daughter of a wool-spinner, Anne Marie Dubernet came from a modest family in Lot-et-Garonne. She sold corsets at the Grands Magasins du Louvre and on 24 August 1887 married the director-proprietor, Olympe Hériot (1833–1899), to whom she had already borne two children. They had four children in total, including Virginie Hériot, who became a competitive sailor.  In 1894 they moved to a mansion in Paris. Widowed in 1899, Anne Marie inherited her husband's fortune in accordance with his will. In 1903 she redeveloped a site of on the Rue de la Faisanderie in Paris, commissioning architect Hans-Georg Tersling to build a mansion, which she sold in 1928.  In 1904 she bought a yacht, "Ketoomba", which she renamed "Salvador". She wrote a memoir of her voyages ("Croisière en Méditerranée" (Coulommiers, P. Brodard, 1905, 298 pages, in-8)). Around 1904, she commissioned architect Edouard Arnaud to build the Villa Cypris in Roquebrune-Cap-Martin on the French Riviera.  On 16 December 1908 she remarried to Roger Douine Hippolytus (died 1925).  During the First World War, she turned her château in Essoyes into a hospital. She sold this in 1929. In 1917 she donated 1.5 million francs to enlarge an orphanage founded in 1884 by her first husband in the grounds of his Château de La Boissière in La Boissière-École. In 1920 she donated to the orphanage the Castel de Barbe-Brulée near Cancale to serve as a holiday home.  Thanks to her generosity she was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur on 5 June 1921 by the order of Marshal Philippe Pétain.  She was buried in the family vault in La Boissière-École.

Sources.

"Translator's note: These are in French."

Anne Marie Dubernet known as Cyprienne Dubernet, Madame Olympe Hériot and later Madame Roger Douine (1857 – 5 December 1945), was a French patron of the arts and philanthropist, who was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur.

Anne Marie dite "Cyprienne" Dubernet (1857-1945), Madame Olympe Hériot, puis Madame Roger Douine, est une mécène, philanthrope et personnalité mondaine française née le à Nérac (Lot-et-Garonne) et morte à Paris le. D'abord simple vendeuse aux Grands Magasins du Louvre avant d'en épouser le directeur-propriétaire Olympe Hériot, son étonnante destinée évoque celle de Denise dans le roman d'Émile Zola "Au Bonheur des Dames" (1883), lui-même inspiré de la saga des Grands Magasins du Louvre.


System.

The Vallée Blanche Cable Car has fixed track cables (one each direction) carrying 12 groups of 3 small cabins each which are pulled by a haulage rope of in a single loop.  The cabins take some 30 to 35 minutes for the whole distance, including 5 short stops corresponding the stops of the cabins arriving in the stations at either end.  The cabins run from the Aiguille du Midi station ( altitude) across a span of over "Vallée Blanche", a glacier and snow valley, to the "Gros Rognon" station (). The Gros Rognon station is not a passenger station—it contains the counterweights of the fixed cables and the rails bending the horizontal direction of the cables by some 8° to the right.  Beyond the Gros Rognon, the cabins cross the Géant Glacier and snow valley, a span of between supports. Although the cables sag by some, the cabins still have a clearance of some to the glacier underneath.  Between the rocks of the Large and the Small Flambeau, three long steel cables are installed, which take over the role of the cable support ("Pylône suspendu / Suspended Support Pillar"). During construction, it was decided to build this unique configuration, because the glacier is unsuitable for high tower construction. Between the anchors of these cables at either side, there is a difference in altitude of, resulting in these cables having a horizontal inclination of some 23° to the direction of the tramway.  From this support the cable car runs to Pointe Helbronner ( altitude).  The two peaks have their own cable car system connecting them to their nearby villages. The French Téléphérique de l'Aiguille du Midi connects the peak of Aiguille du Midi to the village of Chamonix, while the Italian Skyway Monte Bianco (Funivie Monte Bianco) connects the peak of Pointe Helbronner to the village of La Palud, just north of Courmayeur.

Incidents.

On 29 August 1961, the cable car was badly damaged when a Republic F-84F Thunderstreak of the French "Armée de l'Air" tore its hauling cable. Three cars crashed and six people were killed. Pilot Bernard Ziegler landed his damaged plane safely. The upward cable was undamaged, but 81 riders had to wait many hours for rescue.  On September 8, 2016 110 people were stranded when the cable cars stopped. They needed to be evacuated by helicopter.

The Vallée Blanche Cable Car () (), (previously ), is a passenger cable car linking a mountain peak above Courmayeur (Italy) to a peak above Chamonix (France) by passing over the Mont Blanc massif, in the Alps. The engineering was developed by Vittorio Zignoli of Polytechnic University of Turin. No helicopters were used, and all the workers were chosen among locals and alpine guides. After a construction period of four years, it began service in 1958. The cable car connects the peaks of "Aiguille du Midi" ( altitude) and "Pointe Helbronner" ( altitude), over a distance of some. This tourist attraction spans the valleys between the two peaks, high above the Mont Blanc Tunnel, which carries automotive passenger and freight traffic under the two peaks.

La télécabine Panoramic Mont-Blanc, située dans le massif du Mont-Blanc, est, techniquement, un téléphérique véritable (avec 1 câble porteur fixe et 1 câble tracteur) de type pulsé permettant d'effectuer un parcours aérien de en à peu près 30 à 35 minutes, au-dessus de la vallée Blanche et du glacier du Géant, depuis l'aiguille du Midi située en France à, jusqu'à la pointe Helbronner marquant la frontière avec l'Italie à. La remontée fut inaugurée en 1957.