Design.

Development.

Article 181 of the Treaty of Versailles limited the German "Reichsmarine" to six battleships of the " or types" and six old light cruisers. These obsolete ships could not be replaced until they were at least twenty years old, and their replacements could displace no more than and, respectively. In February 1922, the major naval powers signed the Washington Naval Treaty; Germany was not invited to attend, but she would be held to the same qualitative limitations as the signatories. By the early 1920s, the cruisers of the Reichsmarine were old enough to permit replacement;, the three "Königsberg"-class cruisers, and were built later in the decade to replace the older vessels.  The 1930 London Naval Treaty formally divided cruiser types into two categories: heavy cruisers, armed with guns, and light cruisers, armed with guns. The Treaty of Versailles still prohibited Germany from building heavy cruisers, but the rise of Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party to power in 1933 led to the formal rejection of the Treaty of Versailles. After pulling out of the Geneva Conference in 1933, Hitler argued that if the other European powers did not disarm to parity with Germany, they should accept German rearmament. The German navy, renamed the "Kriegsmarine" on 21 May 1935, was now free to pursue rearmament. Germany concluded the Anglo-German Naval Agreement with Great Britain, which set German naval strength at 35% of the size of the Royal Navy. This permitted Germany to build of heavy cruisers, enough for five 10,000-ton ships.  The design for the first three of the five "Admiral Hipper"-class ships was prepared in 1934–1935. "Seydlitz" and "Lützow" were initially designed as light cruisers; their design was prepared in 1934–1936. These last two ships were to be armed with four triple turrets housing guns, as opposed to the four twin guns on the first three ships. The "light cruisers" were otherwise planned to follow the same particulars as their three "heavy" half-sisters. On 14 November 1936, the Navy decided to complete the final two ships identically to the other members of the class.

General characteristics.

The ships of the "Admiral Hipper" class varied slightly in size. "Admiral Hipper" was long at the waterline and overall. After the installation of a clipper bow during fitting out, her overall length increased to. The ship had a beam of. "Blücher" was long at the waterline and overall; with the clipper bow, her overall length was. Her beam was. Both ships had a designed draft of and a full load draft of. "Prinz Eugen" was at the waterline and long overall; with the clipper bow, her overall length was. Her beam was and a draft of standard and 7.2 m at full load. "Seydlitz" and "Lützow" were long overall, with beams of and drafts of standard and at full load.  Although nominally within the 10,000-ton limit, the ships of the "Admiral Hipper" class significantly exceeded the figure. "Admiral Hipper" and "Blücher" had a designed displacement of and a full load displacement of. "Prinz Eugen"s displacement increased slightly, to designed and full load. "Seydlitz" and "Lützow" grew heavier still, at designed and full load.  The ships' hulls were constructed from longitudinal steel frames. The hulls were divided into fourteen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for 72 percent of the length of the keel. The "Kriegsmarine" regarded the ships as good sea boats, with gentle motion. At low speed, however, they were affected unpredictably by wind and currents. The ships heeled up to fourteen degrees and lost up to 50% speed with the rudder hard over at high speed. The ships had a standard complement of 42 officers and 1,340 enlisted men. Wartime modifications increased the crew to 51 officers and 1,548 sailors. The ships carried several smaller vessels, including two picket boats, two barges, one launch, one pinnace, and two dinghies.

Machinery.

The "Admiral Hipper"-class ships were powered by three sets of geared steam turbines. "Admiral Hipper"s and "Blücher"s engines were built by Blohm & Voss, while "Prinz Eugen"s turbines were built by Germaniawerft. The turbines installed on "Seydlitz"s and "Lützow"s engines were manufactured by Deschimag. Steam was provided in the first three ships by twelve ultra-high-pressure boilers. "Seydlitz" and "Lützow" were equipped with nine double-ended high-pressure boilers. "Admiral Hipper"s and "Prinz Eugen"s boilers were manufactured by Wagner, while the boilers for the other three ships were built by La Mont.  Each turbine drove a three-bladed screw in diameter. The ships' engines were rated at for a top speed of. They carried of fuel oil as designed, though the ships could carry up to. At a cruising speed of, the ships had a maximum range of.  Steering was controlled by a single rudder. "Admiral Hipper" and "Blücher" were equipped with three electricity plants with four diesel generators and six turbo-generators each; the diesel generators supplied 150 kW apiece, four of the six turbo-generators provided 460 kW, and the final pair provided 230 kW. Total electrical output was 2900 kW. "Prinz Eugen", "Seydlitz", and "Lützow" were equipped with three 150 kW diesel generators, four 460 kW turbo-generators, one 230 kW turbo-generator, and one 150 kW AC generator, for a total of 2870 kW. All five ships' electrical plants operated at 220 volts.

Armament.

The three completed ships were armed with eight SK C/34 guns in four twin turrets. The ships were supplied with between 960 and 1,280 rounds of ammunition, or 120 to 160 rounds per gun. The guns were mounted in Drh LC/34 turrets, which enabled depression to −10° and elevation to 37°. At maximum elevation, the gun could reach out to. It fired a projectile at a muzzle velocity of. The projectiles included armor-piercing shells, base-fuzed and nose-fuzed high-explosive (HE) warheads. Each ship was also supplied with 40 illumination rounds that weighed and had a muzzle velocity of. The four gun turrets built for "Seydlitz" were emplaced as coastal artillery pieces in the Atlantic Wall. Only the two forward turrets had been installed on "Lützow" when she was delivered to the Soviet Union.  The ships' heavy anti-aircraft battery consisted of twelve SK C/33 guns in twin mountings. These guns were supplied with a total of 4,800 rounds of ammunition. The mounts were the Dopp LC/31 type, originally designed for earlier SK C/31 guns. The LC/31 mounting was triaxially stabilized and capable of elevating to 80°. This enabled the guns to engage targets up to a ceiling of. Against surface targets, the guns had a maximum range of. The guns fired fixed ammunition weighing ; the guns could fire HE and HE incendiary rounds, as well as illumination shells.  Close-range anti-aircraft weaponry initially consisted of twelve SK C/30 guns and eight Flak 38 guns. The 3.7 cm gun was a single-shot gun, with a rate of fire of around 30 rounds per minute. At its maximum elevation of 85°, the gun had a ceiling of. The 2 cm gun was a magazine-fed automatic weapon, firing at up to 500 rounds per minute. Twenty and forty-round magazines were supplied for the guns; The guns were supplied with 16,000 rounds of ammunition. Later in the war, the light anti-aircraft batteries for "Admiral Hipper" and "Prinz Eugen" were modified. Four 3.7 cm guns were removed and the number of 2 cm guns had increased to twenty-eight. In 1944, "Prinz Eugen"s 3.7 cm guns were replaced by fifteen Flak 28 guns. By 1945, the ship's light anti-aircraft battery comprised twenty 4 cm guns and eighteen 2 cm guns; "Admiral Hipper" mounted sixteen 4 cm guns and fourteen 2 cm guns.  The ships' armament was rounded out by twelve torpedo tubes; they were mounted in four triple launchers on the ships' main deck. The ships carried twenty-four G7a torpedoes, twelve loaded in the tubes and one reload for each. The G7a torpedo carried a warhead. It had three-speed settings; in 1939, it could reach at, at, and at, its maximum speed setting. The radial engine was improved during the war, which improved performance. The ranges increased to,, and, respectively. "Admiral Hipper" also carried 96 EMC mines; these mines were contact mines and had a 300 kg explosive charge.

Armor.

The five "Admiral Hipper"-class ships were protected by Krupp steel armor, of both "Wotan Hart" and "Wotan Weich" types. The ships had two armored decks to protect the ship from vertical attacks. The upper deck was thick amidships to protect the ships' vitals. At either end, the deck was reduced to thickness. The bow and stern was not protected by deck armor. The main armored deck was thick. Both decks were "Wotan Hart" steel. The main armored belt was thick amidships and reduced to thick aft. An interior 20 mm thick torpedo bulkhead protected the ships' vitals from underwater attack.  The ships' main battery turrets were protected with thick faces and 70 mm thick sides. Their roofs were also 70 mm thick. The 10.5 cm guns were equipped with thick gun shields. The forward conning tower had thick sides and a thick roof. The rear conning tower was significantly less well armored, with only splinter protection. Their sides were 30 mm thick with a 20 mm thick roof. The anti-aircraft fire directors were also given splinter protection, with thick shields.

Construction.

"Admiral Hipper" ordered as "H", as a replacement for the light cruiser. She was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg under construction number 501, on 6 July 1935. She was launched on 6 February 1937 and fitting out work was completed two years later in April 1939; the ship was commissioned into the "Kriegsmarine" on 29 April 1939. "Blücher", ordered as "G" to replace, was built by the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel, under construction number 246. Her keel was laid on 15 August 1936 and launched 8 June 1937. Work on the ship was finished by 20 September 1939, the day she was commissioned into the "Kriegsmarine". "Prinz Eugen", the last ship of the class to be completed, was ordered from the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel as "J" under construction number 564. She was laid down on 23 April 1936 and launched on 22 August 1938. She was commissioned into the "Kriegsmarine" on 1 August 1940.  "Seydlitz" and "Lützow" were both built by the Deutsche Schiff- und Maschinenbau shipyard in Bremen; "Seydlitz" was ordered as "K", under construction number 940, and "Lützow" was ordered as "L" under construction number 941. "Seydlitz" was laid down on 29 December 1936 and "Lützow" followed her on 2 August 1937. The ships were launched on 19 January 1939 and 1 July 1939, respectively. Work ceased on "Seydlitz" when she was approximately 95 percent complete. In October 1939, the Soviet Union approached Germany with a request to purchase the then unfinished "Prinz Eugen", "Seydlitz", and "Lützow", along with plans for German capital ships, naval artillery, and other naval technology. The "Kriegsmarine" denied the request for "Seydlitz" and "Prinz Eugen", but agreed to sell "Lützow".

Service history.

"Admiral Hipper".

"Admiral Hipper" led the assault on Trondheim during Operation "Weserübung"; while en route to her objective, she sank the British destroyer. In December 1940, she broke out into the Atlantic Ocean to operate against Allied merchant shipping, though this operation ended without significant success. In February 1941, "Admiral Hipper" sortied again, sinking several merchant vessels before eventually returning to Germany via the Denmark Strait. The ship was then transferred to northern Norway to participate in operations against convoys to the Soviet Union, culminating in the Battle of the Barents Sea on 31 December 1942, where she was damaged and forced to withdraw by the light cruisers and.  Enraged by the defeat at the battle, Adolf Hitler ordered the majority of the surface warships scrapped, though Admiral Karl Dönitz was able to convince Hitler to retain the surface fleet. As a result, "Admiral Hipper" was returned to Germany and decommissioned for repairs. The ship was never restored to operational status, however, and on 3 May 1945, Royal Air Force bombers severely damaged "Admiral Hipper" while she was in Kiel. Her crew scuttled the ship at her moorings, and in July 1945, she was raised and towed to Heikendorfer Bay. She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1948–1952; her bell resides in the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich.

"Blücher".

Following her commissioning in November 1939, "Blücher" conducted a series of sea trials and training exercises in the Baltic, which lasted until March 1940. She was pronounced ready for service with the fleet on 5 April 1940. Assigned to Group 5 during the invasion of Norway in April 1940, the ship served as "Konteradmiral" Oskar Kummetz's flagship. The ship led the flotilla of warships into the Oslofjord on the night of 8 April, to seize Oslo, the capital of Norway. Two old coastal guns in the Oscarsborg Fortress engaged the ship at very close range, scoring two damaging hits. Two torpedoes fired by land-based torpedo batteries struck the ship, causing serious damage. A major fire broke out aboard "Blücher", which could not be contained. After a magazine explosion, the ship slowly capsized and sank, with major loss of life.  The wreck remains on the bottom of the Oslofjord; several salvage attempts were considered after 1963, but none were carried out. The ship's screws were removed in 1953 and divers removed over of fuel oil from the ship's bunkers in 1994, though oil from inaccessible fuel tanks is still leaking from the sunken ship. At the time the divers removed the oil, they also recovered one of her Ar 196 floatplanes, which is preserved in Stavanger.

"Prinz Eugen".

"Prinz Eugen" saw extensive action during Operation Rheinübung, an attempted breakout into the Atlantic Ocean with the battleship "Bismarck" in May 1941. The two ships engaged the British battlecruiser and battleship in the Battle of Denmark Strait, during which "Hood" was destroyed and "Prince of Wales" was severely damaged. "Prinz Eugen" was detached from "Bismarck" during the operation to raid Allied merchant shipping, but this was cut short due to engine troubles. After putting into occupied France and undergoing repairs, the ship participated in Operation Cerberus, a daring daylight dash through the English Channel back to Germany. In February 1942, "Prinz Eugen" was deployed to Norway, although her time stationed there was cut short when she was torpedoed by the British submarine days after arriving in Norwegian waters. The torpedo severely damaged the ship's stern, which necessitated repairs in Germany.  Upon returning to active service, the ship spent several months training new officer cadets in the Baltic before serving as artillery support to the retreating German Army on the Eastern Front. After the German collapse in May 1945, the ship was surrendered to the British Royal Navy before being transferred to the US Navy as a war prize. After examining the ship in the United States, the US Navy assigned the cruiser to the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in the Bikini Atoll. After surviving both atomic blasts, "Prinz Eugen" was towed to Kwajalein Atoll where she ultimately capsized and sank in December 1946. The wreck remains partially visible above the water; one of her screws was salvaged and is on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial in Germany.

"Seydlitz".

At the time construction on "Seydlitz" was halted, she was approximately 95 percent complete. The unfinished ship remained inactive until March 1942, when the "Kriegsmarine" decided to pursue aircraft carriers over surface combatants. "Seydlitz" was among the vessels chosen for conversion into auxiliary aircraft carriers. Renamed "Weser", conversion work began on the ship in May 1942. The majority of the superstructure was cut away, with the exception of the funnel, to prepare for the installation of a flight deck and an aircraft hangar. In total, approximately of material from the ship was removed.  As a carrier, the ship was to have had a complement of ten Bf 109 fighters and ten Ju 87 dive-bombers. She would have been armed with an anti-aircraft battery of ten 10.5 cm SK C/33 guns in dual mounts, ten 3.7 cm SK C/30 guns in dual mounts, and twenty-four 2 cm Flak 38 guns in quadruple mounts. Conversion work was halted in June 1943, however, and the incomplete vessel was towed to Königsberg where she was eventually scuttled on 29 January 1945. The ship was seized by the advancing Soviet Army and was briefly considered for cannibalization for spare parts to complete her sister ship "Lützow", which had been purchased by the Soviet Navy before the war. This plan was also abandoned, and the ship was broken up for scrap.

"Lützow".

In October 1939, the Soviet Union requested the purchase of the incomplete "Lützow". After a series of negotiations, the "Kriegsmarine" agreed to the sale in February 1940, at the price of 150 million Reichsmarks. The transfer was completed on 15 April. The vessel was still incomplete when sold to the Soviet Union, with only half of her main battery of eight guns installed and much of the superstructure missing. Renamed "Petropavlovsk" in September 1940, work on the ship was effected by a German-advised Soviet shipyard in Leningrad. Still unfinished when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the ship briefly took part in the defense of Leningrad by providing artillery support to the Soviet defenders. She was sunk by German artillery in September 1941 and raised a year later in September 1942. After repairs were effected, the ship was renamed "Tallinn" and used in the Soviet counter-offensive that relieved Leningrad in 1944. After the end of the war, the ship was used as a stationary training platform and as a floating barracks before being broken up for scrap sometime between 1953 and 1960.

Notes.

Notes  Citations

The "Admiral Hipper" class was a group of five heavy cruisers built by Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine" beginning in the mid-1930s. The class comprised, the lead ship,,,, and. Only the first three ships of the class saw action with the German Navy during World War II. Work on "Seydlitz" stopped when she was approximately 95 percent complete; it was decided to convert her into an aircraft carrier, but this was not completed either. "Lützow" was sold incomplete to the Soviet Union in 1940.

La classe Admiral Hipper est une classe de cinq croiseurs lourds de la marine allemande, dont trois seulement ont été achevés. Le nom de la classe fait référence à l'"admiral" Franz von Hipper.


Career.

Burlacu began singing at age of seven. She studied violin at the music school in Bălți and graduated from the College of Music in Balti as a violinist. In 1993 she went to the Academy of Music in Chisinau to study jazz and folk music. After graduation in 1997, Burlacu stepped on the professional scene. She has performed in Germany, France, Ireland, Romania, Ukraine, Belarus, and China. She has won numerous awards at national and international festivals in jazz, pop, and folk.  From 1998 until 2011, Burlacu worked as a singer in the vocal jazz band Univox. From 2005 to 2007, she was a professor of jazz voice at the Academy of Music, Theatre and Fine Arts in Moldova. In 2006, she won a scholarship from the Soros Foundation. In 2007, Burlacu participated in an international tour with the Cuban band Buena Vista Social Club in Romania. In 2008, she represented Moldova at the Eurovision Song Contest with the song "Century of Love". In 2009, she participated in the Golden Stag Festival, where she reached the finals in Brasov, Romania.  From 2009 to the present, she performed with the National Symphony Orchestra TeleRadio-Moldova, as well with the jazz bands Alex Calancea Band, ANGRY Band, and the folk music band Taraf lăutăresc. In 2010, she toured Europe with Alex Calancea Band. In 2011, Burlacu participated in the concert Women Day in the celebration Forty Years La Francophonie organized by UNESCO in Paris. In 2012, she released an album of Christmas carols, "Să ningă cerul peste noi", and participated in a charity concert with the Black & White and Jazz Big Band (Tiraspol) in the National Theatre of Opera and Ballet.  She gave numerous recitals in the Main Square of the Republic of Moldova in a concert dedicated to the Independence Day of Moldova. She attended the Moldovan Festival in London, taking part in social and charity projects. She was named Goodwill ambassador to the United Nations Population Fund in Moldova.  In 2013, she implemented a long-held dream and appeared in "The Erotic Carousel" by David Hare and directed by George Tavadze at the Eugene Ionesco theater in Chisinau.  In 2014, at the invitation of the Association Connexions Moldavie and with the support of the Office for Diaspora Relations, Burlacu held two concerts, Winter Jazz in Paris and Luxembourg, where she was warmly welcomed by Moldovan diaspora representatives and heads of the Moldovan Embassy in Belgium and France. This was the first official concert of representatives of Moldovan Culture in Luxembourg.

Geta Burlacu (, born Georgeta Povorozniuc on 22 July 1974) is a Moldovan singer. She represented Moldova in the Eurovision Song Contest 2008 with the song "A Century of Love".

Geta Burlacu de son vrai nom Georgeta Povorozniuc est une chanteuse moldave née le. Elle représente la Moldavie au Concours Eurovision de la chanson en 2008 avec la chanson "A century of love" mais échoua en demi-finale en terminant.


History.

Overview.

Despite periods of peaceful co-existence, wars with Native Americans resulted in substantial territorial gains for colonists from the United Kingdom. Wars continued intermittently after independence, and an ethnic cleansing campaign known as Indian removal gained for ethnically European settlers more valuable territory on the eastern side of the continent.  George Washington began a policy of United States non-interventionism which lasted into the 1800s. The United States promulgated the Monroe Doctrine in 1821, in order to stop further European colonialism and to allow the American colonies to grow further, but desire for territorial expansion to the Pacific Ocean was explicit in the doctrine of Manifest Destiny. The giant Louisiana Purchase was peaceful, but the Mexican–American War of 1846 resulted in the annexation of 525,000 square miles of Mexican territory. Elements attempted to expand pro-U.S. republics or U.S. states

1700s–1800s: Indian Wars and Manifest Destiny.

Yale historian Paul Kennedy has asserted, "From the time the first settlers arrived in Virginia from England and started moving westward, this was an imperial nation, a conquering nation." Expanding on George Washington's description of the early United States as an "infant empire", Benjamin Franklin wrote: "Hence the Prince that acquires new Territory, if he finds it vacant, or removes the Natives to give his own People Room; the Legislator that makes effectual Laws for promoting of Trade, increasing Employment, improving Land by more or better Tillage; providing more Food by Fisheries; securing Property, etc. and the Man that invents new Trades, Arts or Manufactures, or new Improvements in Husbandry, may be properly called Fathers of their Nation, as they are the Cause of the Generation of Multitudes, by the Encouragement they afford to Marriage." Thomas Jefferson asserted in 1786 that the United States "must be viewed as the nest from which all America, North & South is to be peopled. [...] The navigation of the Mississippi we must have. This is all we are as yet ready to receive.".

1800s: Filibustering in Central America.

In the older historiography William Walker's filibustering represented the high tide of antebellum American imperialism. His brief seizure of Nicaragua in 1855 is typically called a representative expression of Manifest destiny with the added factor of trying to expand slavery into Central America. Walker failed in all his escapades and never had official U.S.

1800s–1900s: New Imperialism and "The White Man's Burden".

A variety of factors converged during the "New Imperialism" of the late 19th century, when the United States and the other great powers rapidly expanded their overseas territorial possessions. Some of these are used as examples of the various forms of New Imperialism.  Roosevelt claimed that he rejected imperialism, but he embraced the near-identical doctrine of expansionism. When Rudyard Kipling wrote the imperialist poem "The White Man's Burden" for Roosevelt, the politician told colleagues that it was "rather poor poetry, but good sense from the expansion point of view." Roosevelt was so committed to dominating Spain's former colonies that he proclaimed his own corollary to

1918: Wilsonian intervention.

When World War I broke out in Europe, President Woodrow Wilson promised American neutrality throughout the war. This promise was broken when the United States entered the war after the Zimmermann Telegram. This was "a war for empire" to control vast raw materials in Africa and other colonized areas, according to the contemporary historian and civil rights leader W. E. B. Du Bois. More recently historian Howard Zinn argues that Wilson entered the war in order to open international markets to surplus US production. He quotes Wilson's own declaration that In a memo to Secretary of State Bryan, the president described his aim as "an open door to the world". Lloyd Gardner notes that Wilson's original

1941–1945: World War II.

The Grand Area.

In an October 1940 report to Franklin Roosevelt, Bowman wrote that “the US government is interested in any solution anywhere in the world that affects American trade. In a wide sense, commerce is the mother of all wars.” In 1942 this economic globalism was articulated as the “Grand Area” concept in secret documents. The US would have to have control over the “Western Hemisphere, Continental Europe and Mediterranean Basin (excluding Russia), the Pacific Area and the Far East, and the British Empire (excluding Canada).” The Grand Area encompassed all known major oil-bearing areas outside the Soviet Union, largely at the behest of corporate partners like the Foreign Oil Committee and the Petroleum Industry War Council. The US thus avoided overt territorial acquisition, like that of the British and French empires, as being too costly, choosing the cheaper option of forcing countries to open their door to American capitalism.  Although the United States was the last major belligerent to join World War II, it began planning for the post-war world from the conflict's outset. This postwar vision originated in the Council on Foreign Relations

1947–1952 Cold War in Western Europe: "Empire by invitation".

Prior to his death in 1945, President Roosevelt was planning to withdraw all U.S. forces from Europe as soon as possible. Soviet actions in Poland and Czechoslovakia led his successor Harry Truman to reconsider. Heavily influenced by George Kennan, Washington policymakers believed that the Soviet Union was an expansionary dictatorship that threatened American interests. In their theory, Moscow's weakness was that it had to keep expanding to survive; and that, by containing or stopping its growth, stability could be achieved in Europe. The

Post-1954: Korea, Vietnam and "imperial internationalism".

Outside of Europe, American imperialism was more distinctly hierarchical “with much fainter liberal characteristics.” Cold War policy often found itself opposed to full decolonization, especially in Asia. The United States decision to colonize some of the Pacific islands (which had formerly been held by the Japanese) in the 1940s ran directly counter to America's rhetoric against imperialism. The functioning of the Grand Area and the Open Door in Asia meant a new “imperial internationalism” wherein wars were fought to ensure a steady supply of raw materials from the global periphery to the core society in the United States and Western Europe. In this spirit, General Douglas MacArthur described the Pacific as an “Anglo-Saxon lake.” At the same time, the U.S. did not claim state control over much mainland territory but cultivated friendly members of the elites of decolonized countries—elites which were usually

American exceptionalism.

American exceptionalism is the notion that the United States occupies a special niche among the nations of the world in terms of its national credo, historical evolution, and political and religious institutions and origins.  Philosopher Douglas Kellner traces the identification of American exceptionalism as a distinct phenomenon back to 19th-century French observer Alexis de Tocqueville, who concluded by agreeing that the U.S., uniquely, was "proceeding along

Views of American imperialism.

Journalist Ashley Smith divides theories of the U.S. imperialism into 5 broad categories: (1) "liberal" theories, (2) "social-democratic" theories, (3) "Leninist" theories, (4) theories of "super-imperialism", and (5) "Hardt-and-Negri" theories.  There is also a conservative, anti-interventionist view as expressed by American journalist John T. Flynn:  A "social-democratic" theory says that imperialistic U.S. policies are the products of the excessive influence of certain sectors of U.S. business and government—the arms industry in alliance with military and political bureaucracies and sometimes other industries such as oil and finance, a combination often referred to as the "military–industrial complex." The complex is said to benefit from war profiteering and looting natural resources, often at the expense of the public interest. The proposed solution is typically unceasing popular vigilance in order to apply counter-pressure. Chalmers Johnson holds a version of this view.  Alfred Thayer Mahan, who served as an officer in the U.S. Navy during the late 19th century, supported the notion of American imperialism in his 1890 book titled "The Influence of Sea Power upon History." Mahan argued that modern industrial nations must secure foreign markets for the purpose of exchanging goods and, consequently, they must maintain a maritime force that is capable of protecting these trade routes.  A theory of "super-imperialism" argues that imperialistic U.S. policies are not driven solely by the interests of American businesses, but also by the interests of a larger apparatus of a global alliance among the economic elite in developed countries. The argument asserts that capitalism in the Global North (Europe, the U.S., Japan, and others) has become too entangled to permit military or geopolitical conflict between these countries, and the central conflict in modern imperialism is between the Global North (also referred to as the global core) and the Global South (also referred to as the global periphery), rather than between the imperialist powers.

Political debate after September 11, 2001.

Following the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, the idea of American imperialism was re-examined. In November 2001, jubilant marines hoisted an American flag over Kandahar and in a stage display referred to the moment as the third after those on San Juan Hill and Iwo Jima. All moments, writes Neil Smith, express U.S. global ambition. "Labelled a war on terrorism, the new war represents an unprecedented quickening of the American Empire, a third

Academic debates after September 11, 2001.

In 2001-2010 numerous scholars debated the "America as Empire" issue. Harvard historian Charles S. Maier states:  Harvard professor Niall Ferguson states: French Political scientist Philip Golub argues: A leading spokesman for America-as-Empire is British historian A. G. Hopkins. He argues that by the 21st century traditional economic imperialism was no longer in play, noting that the oil companies opposed the American invasion of Iraq in 2003. Instead, anxieties about The negative impact of globalization on rural and rust-belt America were at work, says Hopkins: Conservative Harvard professor Niall Ferguson concludes that worldwide military and economic power have combined to make the U.S. the most powerful empire in history. It is a good idea he thinks, because like the successful British Empire in the 19th century it works to globalize free markets, enhanced the rule of law and promote representative government. He fears, however, that Americans lack the long-term commitment in manpower and money to keep the Empire operating.  The U.S. dollar is the "de facto" world currency. The term petrodollar warfare refers to the alleged motivation of U.S. foreign policy as preserving by force the status of the United States dollar as the world's dominant reserve currency and as the currency in which oil is priced. The term was coined by

U.S. foreign policy debate.

Annexation is a crucial instrument in the expansion of a nation, due to the fact that once a territory is annexed it must act within the confines of its superior counterpart. The United States Congress' ability to annex a foreign territory is explained in a report from the Congressional Committee on Foreign Relations, "If, in the judgment of Congress, such a measure is supported by a safe and wise policy, or is based upon a natural duty that we owe to the people of Hawaii, or is necessary for our national development and security, that is enough to justify annexation, with the consent of the recognized government of the country to be annexed."  Prior to annexing a territory, the American government still held immense power through the various legislations passed in the late 1800s. The Platt Amendment was utilized to prevent Cuba from entering into any agreement with foreign nations and also granted the Americans the right to build naval stations on their soil. Executive officials in the American government began to determine themselves the supreme authority in matters regarding the recognition or restriction of independence.  When asked on April 28, 2003, on Al Jazeera whether the United States was "empire building," Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld replied, "We don't seek empires. We're not imperialistic. We never have been."  However, historian Donald W. Meinig says imperial behavior by the United States dates at least to the Louisiana Purchase, which he describes as an "imperial acquisition—imperial in the sense of the aggressive encroachment of one people upon the territory of another, resulting in the subjugation of that people to alien rule." The U.S. policies towards the Native Americans, he said, were "designed to remold them into a people more appropriately conformed to imperial desires."  Writers and academics of the early 20th century, like Charles A. Beard, in support of non-interventionism (sometimes referred to as "isolationism"), discussed American policy as being driven by self-interested expansionism going back as far as the writing of the Constitution. Some politicians today do not agree. Pat Buchanan claims that the modern United States' drive to empire is "far removed from what the Founding Fathers had intended the young Republic to become."  Andrew Bacevich argues that the U.S. did not fundamentally change its foreign policy after the Cold War, and remains focused on an effort to expand its control across the world. As the surviving superpower at the end of the Cold War, the U.S. could focus its assets in new directions, the future being "up for grabs," according to former Under Secretary of Defense for Policy Paul Wolfowitz in 1991. Head of the Olin Institute for Strategic Studies at Harvard University, Stephen Peter Rosen, maintains:  In, the political activist Noam Chomsky argues that exceptionalism and the denials of imperialism are the result of a systematic strategy of propaganda, to "manufacture opinion" as the process has long been described in other countries.  Thorton wrote that "[...]imperialism is more often the name of the emotion that reacts to a series of events than a definition of the events themselves. Where colonization finds analysts and analogies, imperialism must contend with crusaders for and against." Political theorist Michael Walzer argues that the term hegemony is better than empire to describe the U.S.'s role in the world. Political scientist Robert Keohane agrees saying, a "balanced and nuanced analysis is not aided... by the use of the word 'empire' to describe United States hegemony, since 'empire' obscures rather than illuminates the differences in form of rule between the United States and other Great Powers, such as Great Britain in the 19th century or the Soviet Union in the twentieth".  Since 2001, Emmanuel Todd assumes the U.S.A. cannot hold for long the status of mondial hegemonic power, due to limited resources. Instead, the U.S.A. is going to become just one of the major regional powers along with European Union, China, Russia, etc. Reviewing Todd's "After the Empire", G. John Ikenberry found that it had been written in "a fit of French wishful thinking." The thinking proved to be "wishful" indeed, as the book became a bestseller in France for most of 2003.  Other political scientists, such as Daniel Nexon and Thomas Wright, argue that neither term exclusively describes foreign relations of the United States. The U.S. can be, and has been, simultaneously an empire and a hegemonic power. They claim that the general trend in U.S. foreign relations has been away from imperial modes of control.

U.S. military bases.

Chalmers Johnson argued in 2004 that America's version of the colony is the military base. Chip Pitts argued similarly in 2006 that enduring U.S. bases in Iraq suggested a vision of "Iraq as a colony."  While territories such as Guam, the United States Virgin Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico remain under U.S. control, the U.S. allowed many of its overseas territories or occupations to gain independence after World War II. Examples include the Philippines (1946), the Panama Canal Zone (1979), Palau (1981), the Federated States of Micronesia (1986), and the Marshall Islands (1986). Most of them still have U.S. bases within their territories. In the case of Okinawa, which came under U.S. administration after the Battle of Okinawa during the Second World War, this happened despite local popular opinion. In 2003, a Department of Defense distribution found the United States had bases in over 36 countries worldwide, including the Camp Bondsteel base in the

Benevolent imperialism.

One of the earliest historians of American Empire, William Appleman Williams, wrote, "The routine lust for land, markets or security became justifications for noble rhetoric about prosperity, liberty and security."  Max Boot defends U.S. imperialism, writing, "U.S. imperialism has been the greatest force for good in the world during the past century. It has defeated communism and Nazism and has intervened against the Taliban and Serbian ethnic cleansing." Boot used "imperialism" to describe United States policy, not only in the early 20th century but "since at least 1803." This embrace of empire is made by other neoconservatives, including British historian Paul Johnson, and writers Dinesh D'Souza and Mark Steyn. It is also made by some liberal hawks, such as political scientists Zbigniew Brzezinski and Michael Ignatieff.  British historian Niall Ferguson argues that the United States is an empire and believes that this is a good thing: "What is not allowed is to say that the United States is an empire and that this might not be wholly bad." Ferguson has drawn parallels between the British Empire and the imperial role of the United States in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, though he describes the United States' political and social structures as more like those of the Roman Empire than of the British. Ferguson argues that all of these empires have had both positive and negative aspects, but that the positive aspects of the U.S. empire will, if it learns from history and its mistakes, greatly outweigh its negative aspects.  Another point of view implies that United States expansion overseas has indeed been imperialistic, but that this imperialism is only a temporary phenomenon, a corruption of American ideals, or the relic of a past era. Historian Samuel Flagg Bemis argues that Spanish–American War expansionism was a short-lived imperialistic impulse and "a great aberration in American history," a very different form of territorial growth than that of earlier American history. Historian Walter LaFeber sees the Spanish–American War expansionism not as an aberration, but as a culmination of United States expansion westward.  Historian Victor Davis Hanson argues that the U.S. does not pursue world domination, but maintains worldwide influence by a system of mutually beneficial exchanges. On the other hand, Filipino revolutionary General Emilio Aguinaldo felt as though American involvement in the Philippines was destructive: "The Filipinos fighting for Liberty, the American people fighting them to give them liberty. The two peoples are fighting on parallel lines for the same object." American influence worldwide and the effects it has on other nations have multiple interpretations.  Liberal internationalists argue that even though the present world order is dominated by the United States, the form taken by that dominance is not imperial. International relations scholar John Ikenberry argues that international institutions have taken the place of empire.  International relations scholar Joseph Nye argues that U.S. power is more and more based on "soft power," which comes from cultural hegemony rather than raw military or economic force. This includes such factors as the widespread desire to emigrate to the United States, the prestige and corresponding high proportion of foreign students at U.S. universities, and the spread of U.S. styles of popular music and cinema. Mass immigration into America may justify this theory, but it is hard to know whether the United States would still maintain its prestige without its military and economic superiority., In terms of soft power, Giles Scott-Smith, argues that American universities:

American imperialism consists of policies aimed at extending the political, economic, and cultural influence of the United States over areas beyond its boundaries. Depending on the commentator, it may include military conquest, gunboat diplomacy, unequal treaties, subsidization of preferred factions, economic penetration through private companies followed by intervention when those interests are threatened, or regime change.

L’impérialisme américain est une expression utilisée pour désigner, de manière critique et polémique, l'influence des États-Unis dans les domaines politiques, militaires, économiques et culturels à l'échelle mondiale. Ces termes impliquent généralement une appréciation défavorable, notamment lorsqu'ils évoquent la suprématie militaire américaine.


Early life and education.

Born in Overbrook, Pennsylvania to a Latin American family on May 23, 1954 and raised in West Chester, Pennsylvania, Rodriguez earned his commission from the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York in 1976. He was recruited by Tom Cahill to play for the Army Black Knights football team and earned varsity letters in football and baseball.

Military career.

Rodriguez commanded at every level across the United States Army. His assignments included the Commanding General of the United States Army Forces Command, the International Security Assistance Force – Joint Command (IJC) in Afghanistan, the 82nd Airborne Division, the 2nd Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division, and the 2nd Battalion, 502nd Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault). He also commanded companies of the 75th Ranger Regiment, and 1st Armored Division.  Rodriguez's extensive combat experiences include: G-3 Planner, XVIII Airborne Corps, Operation Just Cause, 1989 – 1990; Operations Officer, 1st Battalion, 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 82nd Airborne Division, Desert Shield/Desert Storm, 1990 – 1991; Assistant Division Commander, 4th Infantry Division (Mechanized), 2002 – 2003; Commander, Multi-National Division-Northwest, 2005; Special Assistant to the Commander, Multi-National Corps-Iraq, 2006; Commander, Joint Task Force-82 in Afghanistan, 2017 – till date; and Deputy Commander, United States Forces Afghanistan and Commander, International Security Assistance Force Joint Command.  Rodriguez holds a Master of Arts in National Security and Strategic Studies from the United States Naval War College and a Masters of Military Art and Science from the United States Army Command and General Staff College.  On 11 November 2011, Rodriguez received the Abraham Lincoln Award during a Veterans Day celebration at the Union League of Philadelphia. Union Leagues were founded during the Civil War to support President Abraham Lincoln and the preservation of the Union; Philadelphia's, established in 1862, was the first. First presented to Major General Ulysses S. Grant, the award, which recognizes patriotism and service to country, has been bestowed on many distinguished civilian and military leaders, including former Chairman of the Federal Reserve, Alan Greenspan; Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, General David H. Petraeus, and General Raymond T. Odierno.

Dates of rank.

United States Military Academy class of 1976  <br>

Awards and decorations.

Rodriguez' military decorations include:

David M. "Rod" Rodriguez (born May 23, 1954) is a retired United States Army four-star general who served as the Commander of the United States Africa Command from April 2013 to July 2016.

David M. Rodriguez est un officier général américain de l'armée de terre des États-Unis né à West Chester (Pennsylvanie), ayant, depuis 2011, le grade de général.


History.

The museum, a registered charity, was founded in 1932 in the Jewish communal headquarters in Bloomsbury. In 1995, it moved to its current location in Camden Town. Until 2007 it had a sister museum in Finchley, operated by the same charitable trust and sited within the Sternberg Centre. The Camden branch reopened in 2010 after two years of major building and extension work. The £10 million renovation was funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund and private donations.  The museum buildings in Albert Street are part of a row of Grade II listed buildings.

Collections.

The museum houses a major international-level collection of Jewish ceremonial art including the Lindo lamp, an early example of a British Hanukkah menorah. The building includes a gallery entitled "Judaism: A Living Faith", displaying the museum's noted collection of Jewish ceremonial art. This collection has been awarded "designated" status by the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council in recognition of its outstanding national importance. The museum's "Holocaust Gallery" includes items and filmed survivor testimony from Leon Greenman, who was one of the few British subjects to be interned in the death camps section at Auschwitz.  The museum also has exhibitions recounting the history of Jewish life in England, supported by a diverse collection of objects. There are also collections of paintings, prints and drawings, and an archive of photographs, which consists mainly of black and white photographs from the 1900s to the 1940s.

Exhibitions.

There are two temporary exhibition spaces. The third floor houses major exhibitions, with smaller exhibitions in the temporary exhibition space on the ground floor.  Its current major temporary exhibition, "Charlotte Salomon: Life? or Theatre?", runs from 8 November 2019 to 1 March 2020.

The Jewish Museum London is a museum of British Jewish life, history and identity. The museum is situated in the London Borough of Camden, North London. It is a place for people of all faiths to explore Jewish history, culture, and heritage. The museum has a dedicated education team, with an extensive programme for schools, community groups and families. Charles, Prince of Wales is a patron of the museum.

Le Musée juif de Londres (Jewish Museum) est un musée sur la vie quotidienne et l'art juifs, installé au 129-131, Albert Street, dans le quartier de Camden Town.


Etymology.

Ākāśavānī (आकाशवाणी) is a Sanskrit word meaning 'celestial announcement' or 'voice from the sky/heaven'. In Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, Akashvanis are often featured in stories as a medium of communication from heaven to mankind.  'Akashvani' was first used in the context of radio by M. V. Gopalaswami in 1936 after setting up India's first private radio station in his residence, "Vittal Vihar" (about two hundred yards from AIR’s current Mysore radio station). "Akashvani" was later adopted as All India Radio's on-air name in 1957.

History.

Broadcasting began in June 1923 during the British Raj with programs by the Bombay Presidency Radio Club and other radio clubs. According to an agreement on 23 July 1927, the private Indian Broadcasting Company Ltd (IBC) was authorized to operate two radio stations: the Bombay station which began on 23 July 1927, and the Calcutta station which followed on 26 August 1927. The company went into liquidation on 1 March 1930. The government took over the broadcasting facilities and began the Indian State Broadcasting Service (ISBS) on 1 April 1930 on an experimental basis for two years, and permanently in May 1932 it then went on to become All India Radio on 8 June 1936.  On 1 October 1939, the External Service began with a broadcast in Pushtu. It was intended to counter radio propaganda from Germany directed at Afghanistan, Persia and Arab nations. 1939 also saw the opening of the Dhaka station of Eastern India, in what is now Bangladesh. This station catered and nurtured the pioneers of Bengali intellectuals. The foremost among them, Natyaguru Nurul Momen, became the trail-blazer of the talk-show in 1939. He wrote and directed the first modern radio-play for this station in 1942. When India became independent in 1947, the AIR network had only six stations (Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, Chennai, Lucknow, and Tiruchirappalli). The three radio stations at Lahore, Peshawar and Dhaka remained in what became Pakistan after the division. The total number of radio sets in India at that time was about 275,000. On 3 October 1957, the "Vividh Bharati" Service was launched, to compete with Radio Ceylon. Television broadcasting began in Delhi in 1959 as part of AIR, but was split off from the radio network as "Doordarshan" on 1 April 1976. FM broadcasting began on 23 July 1977 in Chennai, and expanded during the 1990s.  Deccan Radio (Nizam Radio 1932), the first radio station in Hyderabad State (now Hyderabad, India), went live on air on 3 February 1935. It was launched by Mir Osman Ali Khan the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad with a transmitting power of 200 Watts. On 1 April 1950, Deccan Radio was taken over by the Indian Government, and in 1956 it was merged with All India Radio (AIR). Since then, it has been known as AIR-Hyderabad (100 kW).

Domestic services.

AIR has many services in a number of languages, each serving different regions across India.

Vividh Bharati.

Vividh Bharati is one of the best-known services of All India Radio. Its name roughly translates as "Diverse Indian". It is also known as the Commercial Broadcasting Service or CBS. Commercially, it is the most accessible AIR network and is popular in Mumbai and other large cities. Vividh Bharati offers a wide range of programs including news, film music, short plays, music and comedy. It operates on different medium wave-band as well as FM frequencies in each city.  Some programs broadcast on Vividh Bharati are:

Regional services.

The headquarters of the Regional Deputy Directors General are located in Delhi and Chandigarh (NR), Lucknow and Bhopal (CR), Guwahati (NER), Kolkata (ER), Mumbai and Ahmedabad (WR), Chennai and Bangalore (SR). All frequencies are in kHz, unless otherwise noted. Most of the channels are also available online.

External services.

The external services of All India Radio are broadcast in 27 languages to countries outside India via high-power shortwave band broadcasts. Medium wave is also used to reach neighbouring countries. In addition to broadcasts targeted at specific countries by language, there is a General Overseas Service broadcasting in English with 81⁄4 hours of programming each day aimed at a general international audience. The external broadcasts were begun on 1 October 1939 by the British government to counter the propaganda of the Nazis directed at the Afghan people. The first broadcasts were in Pushto, beamed to Afghanistan and the North-West Frontier Province. Broadcasts soon began in other languages including: Dari, Persian, Arabic, English, Burmese, Japanese, Chinese, Malay and French. The external services broadcast in 16 foreign and 11 Indian languages, with a total program output of 701⁄4 hours per day on medium and shortwave frequencies.  Two high powered FM stations of All India Radio are being installed in Amritsar and Fazilka in the Punjab to supplement the programs broadcast from transmitters operating from Jalandhar, New Delhi, Chandigarh and Mumbai and to improve the broadcast services during unfavourable weather conditions in the border regions of Punjab.  Today, the External Services Division of All India Radio broadcasts daily with 57 transmissions with almost 72 hours or programming covering over 108 countries in 27 languages, of which 15 are foreign and 12 Indian. The foreign languages are: Arabic, Baluchi, Burmese, Chinese, Dari, French, Indonesian, Persian, Pushtu, Russian, Sinhala, Swahili, Thai, Tibetan and English (General Overseas Service). The Indian languages are Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Konkani, Kashmiri, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Nepali, Punjabi, Saraiki, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.  The longest daily broadcast is the Urdu Service to Pakistan, around the clock on DTH (direct-broadcast satellite) and on short- and medium wave for 121⁄4 hrs. The English-language General Overseas Service is broadcast 81⁄4 hours daily. During Hajj, there are special broadcasts beamed to Saudi Arabia in Urdu. AIR is planning to produce programmes in the Baluchi language.  The external services of AIR are also broadcast to Europe in DRM (Digital Radio Mondiale) on 9950 kHz between 1745–2230 UTC. These external transmissions are broadcast by high-power transmitters located at Aligarh, Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Gorakhpur, Guwahati, Mumbai and Panaji on shortwave and from Jalandhar, Kolkata, Nagpur, Rajkot and Tuticorin on medium wave. Soon All India Radio Amritsar will also start a booster service on the FM band. Some of these transmitters are 1000 kW (1 MW) or 500 kW. Programs are beamed to different parts of the world except for the Americas and the reception quality is very good in the target areas. In each language service, the program consists of news, commentary, a press review, talks on matters of general or cultural interest, feature programmes, documentaries and music from India and the target region. Most programs originate at New Broadcasting House on Parliament Street in New Delhi, with a few originating at SPT Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad, Jalandhar, Kolkata, HPT Malad Mumbai, Thiruvananthapuram and Tuticorin.  The External Services Division of AIR is a link between India and rest of the world, especially in countries with Indian emigrants and people of Indian origin. It broadcasts the Indian point of view on matters of national and international importance, and demonstrates the Indian way of life through its programs. QSL cards (which are sought-after by international radio hobbyists) are issued to radio hobbyists by AIR in New Delhi for reception reports of their broadcasts.

Direct-To-Home.

Direct-to-home (DTH) service is a satellite broadcast service in which a large number of radio channels are digitally beamed down over a territory from a high-power satellite. AIR broadcasts various national and regional stations available to listen on DD Free Dish. The DTH signals can be received directly at homes using a small-sized dish receiver unit containing a dish antenna installed on a building’s rooftop or on a wall facing clear south and one indoors. DTH service is offered on twenty one channels via Insat.

Other services.

Digital Radio Mondiale.

Details of the Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM) transmissions and frequencies are as follows:  Above transmissions are in addition to following existing DRM txn's:

News-on-phone.

All India Radio launched news-on-phone service on 25 February 1998 in New Delhi; it now has service in Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Indore, Patna and Bangalore. The service is accessible through Subscriber trunk dialing (STD), International Direct Dialing (ISD) and local calls. There are plans to establish the service in 11 additional cities including: Ahmedabad, Bhopal, Guwahati, Gwalior, Jabalpur, Jaipur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Ranchi, Shimla and Thiruvananthapuram. English and Hindi hourly news bulletins may be heard live. News in MP3 format may be directly played from the site, and filenames are time-stamped. AIR news bulletins are available in nine regional languages: Tamil, Kannada, Gujarati, Bengali, Marathi, North East, Punjabi, Telugu and Urdu.

Documentaries.

There is a long tradition of broadcasting documentary features on AIR. There is great interest in radio documentaries, particularly in countries like India, Iran, South Korea and Malaysia. The most prominent broadcaster of English Features was Melville de Mellow, and of Hindi Features, Shiv Sagar Mishra. This format has been revived by AIR producers across India because of its flexibility, its relative low cost to produce, its messaging potential and its creative potential.

Central Drama Unit.

AIR's Central Drama Unit (CDU) is responsible for the national broadcast of plays. Plays produced by the CDU are translated and produced by regional stations. Since its inception in the 1960s, the unit has produced more than 1,500 plays, and the CDU houses a repository of old scripts and productions. The National Programme of Plays is broadcast by the CDU on the fourth Thursday of each month at 9.30 pm. Each play included in the National Programme of Plays is produced in 22 Indian languages and broadcast at the same time by all regional and national network stations. The CDU also produces Chain Plays, half-hour dramas broadcast in succession by a chain of stations.

Social Media Cell.

The News Service Division's Social Media Cell was established on 20 May 2013 and is responsible for providing AIR news on new media platforms such as websites, Twitter, Facebook, and SMS.

All India Radio (AIR), officially known since 1956 as Akashvani ("Voice from the Sky"), is the national public radio broadcaster of India and is a division of Prasar Bharati. It was established in 1936. It is the sister service of Prasar Bharati's Doordarshan, an Indian television broadcaster. Headquartered in the Akashvani Bhavan building in New Delhi, it houses the Drama Section, the FM Section, the National Service, and is also home to the Indian television station Doordarshan Kendra, (Delhi).

All India Radio (également baptisée "Aakashvani" – आकाशवाणी –, littéralement « "Les ondes venues du ciel" » en hindi) est la société de radiodiffusion nationale indienne.


Construction.

Originally namesaked "Provence" and was renamed "Rubis" on 18 December 1980. Being the lead ship of the class, fine-tuning was long, notably needing over 1000 hours of underwater testing before commissioning. Fielded on December 11, 1976 and launched on July 7, 1979.

Active service.

The "Rubis" commenced active service on February 23, 1983.  In 1985 she evacuated three DGSE agents who sailed to New Zealand on the yacht Ouvéa to participate in the bombing of Rainbow Warrior, then scuttled their yacht.  Later in 1991, the "Rubis" formed part of the French naval contribution to the Gulf War. Between September 1992 and July 1993, "Rubis" undertook a major refitting which upgraded to the level of the "Améthyste". Soon after, on 17 July 1993, the "Rubis" collided with the tanker "Lyria", as the "Rubis" was surfacing, causing minor damages and injuries.  The "Rubis" also took part in "Operation Trident", the 1999 bombing campaign over Yugoslavia, by protecting the aeronaval group. Along with the "Améthyste", the boat was one of the two submarines who interdicted the Kotor straits to the Serbian Navy, thus effectively forbidding its use. The boat also gathered information for the coalition.  In 2002, the "Rubis" protected "Task Force 473" in the Indian Ocean, during "Operation Hercules", the naval part of the invasion of Afghanistan.  On 18 July 1996, the fourragère of the "Ordre de la Libération" was awarded to the submarine and the crew, as a legacy of the "Rubis" of the Second World War, which had been awarded the medal.  On 30 March 2007, while submerged, "Rubis" hit the bottom, damaging her bow and sonar. The boat returned to operations in July 2008. "Rubis" was expected to be decommissioned in the beginning of 2017 but underwent modernization and has returned to service as of 2019.

Decorations.

Since June 5, 2012, the fanion of "Rubis" was decorated with the Cross for Military Valour with one palm.

Le Rubis (S 601 ; ex "Provence") is a first-generation nuclear attack submarine and head of the Rubis-class series of the French Navy assigned to the attack nuclear submarine squadron and named after French submarine "Rubis" which distinguished capability during World War II.

Le sous-marin nucléaire d'attaque (SNA) Rubis est le navire de tête des six SNA de type Rubis de la Marine nationale française. Il est affecté à l'escadrille des sous-marins nucléaires d'attaque (ESNA) et est basé à Toulon. Depuis le sa ville marraine est Nuits-Saint-Georges.


History.

The earliest mention of Rhizon dates back to the 4th century BCE, as the main fortress in the Illyrian state where Queen Teuta took refuge during the Illyrian Wars. The degree of Hellenization at Rhizon was very high. In Roman times, Rhizinium is documented as an "oppidum civium Romanorum", and the most prosperous time for Roman "Rhizinium" came during the 1st and 2nd centuries, when huge villas were made in the area and the city had 10,000 inhabitants. Five mosaics are the most valuable remains of that period - not only for Risan but also for Montenegro. Circa 500 it became the see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Risano. The invasions of the Avars and Slavs left the city deserted. The last reference of a Roman bishop in Risan dates back to 595.  In the 10th century, the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus includes Risan among the inhabited towns of Travunia, while the priest of Doclea considers Rissena to be a district.  During the Middle Ages, Risan lost the significance it used to have in the ancient times. No later than the 13th century, the Italians provided the bulk of a henceforward unbroken series of Latin Catholic Bishops of Risano until its suppression circa 1630. In the mid-15th century, Risan was referred to as a town of Herceg Stjepan. In 1466, the Venetians offered to give Brač island and a palace in Split to Herceg Stjepan, in exchange for his two towns (Risan and Novi) in the Boka Kotorska. In 1482, the Turks took Risan, together with Herceg Novi, from Herceg Stjepan's son Vlatko, using it as a base for its corsairs to pirate Venetian shipping sailing from their nearby holdings of Cattaro and Perasto.  Only in 1688 Risan became Venetian as part of the Albania Veneta with the Venetian name of "Risano", enjoying a temporary economic growth. In the following centuries Risan has had the same fate as the whole of Dalmatia. It was for a few years during World War II part of the Kingdom of Italy in the Italian Governatorate of Dalmatia and actually it is part of the newly independent Montenegro.  According to the 1627 population census, Risan had 800 citizens. 570 were Muslims, 150 Orthodox and 80 Catholic.

Modern Risan.

In the present-day Risan, there are no elements that could connect it to the medieval town. Risan by the sea was probably just a settlement. However, on the Gradina hill, above the famous archeological site of Carine, a fortification is situated containing remains of an Illyrian acropolis, as well as the medieval and Turkish stratum. The position of the fortification was excellent, particularly for the control of Risan – Onogošt route, while the hilltop itself was inaccessible.  Today Risan is a small port with roughly 2000 inhabitants (in 1900: around 5000 inhabitants; of them 80% Orthodox Christians, 20% Catholics) where logs from the vast virgin forests of the Bijela gora are shipped mostly to Italy. Risan is a tourist destination that has a hotel called after its most famous citizen, Queen Teuta, with accompanying fine beaches.  Risan is in the northern section of the Municipality of Kotor

Risan (, (Montenegrin and Serbian Cyrillic: Рисан) is a town in the Bay of Kotor, Montenegro. It traces its origins to the ancient settlement of Rhizon, the oldest settlement in the Bay of Kotor.

Risan (en serbe cyrillique : ) est un village du sud du Monténégro, dans la municipalité de Kotor. C'est la plus ancienne colonie des bouches de Kotor.


Geology.

The range was formed as molten lava cooled to form hard rock in the cores of volcanoes 26-27 million years ago. The source of the lava was from the East Australia hotspot. The cores of the hills contain columns of comendite from lava which cools quickly into a hard rock. The surrounding softer rocks have been eroded in the subsequent time, forming the spectacular volcanic plugs that remain today. The peaks' location relative to each other exhibits an alignment that is believed to have occurred due to fracturing. Mt Ngungun consists of sub-volcanic rock, also known as a hypabyssal rock, an intrusive rock emplaced at medium-to-shallow depths within the crust and has intermediate grain size, and often porphyritic texture between that of volcanic and plutonic rocks.

Peaks.

Each of the peaks is protected within the Glass House Mountains National Park. Some of the peaks display vertical columns, particularly Mount Coonowrin, Mount Ngungun and Mount Beerwah at the Organ Pipes. These columns are the result of lava contraction. Scattered throughout the hills are shallow caves which have been formed by wind erosion on rocks that were softened by groundwater. The peaks are culturally significant to the traditional owners, the Gubbi Gubbi people. Under a native title claim, access to the peaks could be restricted as they are considered spiritual places. To the south east of the Glass House Mountains township is an Aboriginal bora ring. The names of each mountain in the range are:

Aboriginal cultural knowledge.

The Glass House Mountains are located in the traditional lands of the Jinibara and Gubbi Gubbi people. Local Natives have an elaborate legend about the mountains.

Public access.

The mountains are managed by Queensland National Parks and are promoted as a tourist asset. Historically bushwalking and climbing has been undertaken for more than a century. However the two largest mountains have been closed by National Parks in recent years. Firstly, Coonowrin was closed in 1999 as a result of a geological report and the development of an adjacent rock quarry. Secondly, the walking track used to access Mt Beerwah was closed in 2009 as the result of a rock collapse from the caves area across the main tourist track and was reopened January 2016. Tibrogargan and Ngungun are open to the public for bushwalking and climbing.

Flora and Fauna.

There are many different types of plants including trees, grass, bushes and the occasional shrub. Animals that live there include birds, reptiles, frogs, bats, rats, cats and mammals. The Elf Skink, a small lizard, also populates the area.

The Glass House Mountains are a cluster of thirteen hills that rise abruptly from the coastal plain on the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, Australia. The highest hill is Mount Beerwah at 556 metres above sea level, but the most identifiable of all the hills is Mount Tibrogargan which from certain angles bears a resemblance to a face staring east towards the ocean. The Glass House Mountains are located near Beerburrum State Forest and Steve Irwin Way. From Brisbane, the mountains can be reached by following the Bruce Highway north and taking the Glass House Mountains tourist drive turn-off onto Steve Irwin Way. The trip is about one hour from Brisbane. The Volcanic peaks of the Glass House Mountains rise dramatically from the surrounding Sunshine Coast landscape. They were formed by intrusive plugs, remnants of volcanic activity that occurred 26-27 million years ago. Molten rock filled small vents or intruded as bodies beneath the surface and solidified into land rocks. Millions of years of erosion have removed the surrounding exteriors of volcanic cores and softer sandstone rock.

Les monts Glass House sont un groupe de onze collines qui se dressent sur la plaine côtière de la Sunshine Coast, au Queensland, en Australie. La plus haute montagne est le mont Beerwah ( d'altitude) mais le plus identifiable de tous est le mont Tibrogargan qui apparaît comme un singe géant assis au bord du chemin et regardant la mer.


Geography.

Today the convent houses the Museum zu Allerheiligen, an art museum and a natural history museum, the monastery garden, and the buildings of the former convent, including the library. The former monastery's building complex is located at the center of the historic old city of the municipality of Schaffhausen in the Canton of Schaffhausen, includes the oldest buildings that still exist in Schaffhausen.

History.

The development of the city of Schaffhausen is closely linked to the "Nellenburg" noble family who became extinct around 1100 AD. Various archaeological finds and the building of the present church of St. Johann (John) date back to around 1000 AD. The Earls (German: "Grafen") "von Nellenburg" recognized the importance of the geographical area as a transshipment of goods on the Rhine river, and the order to bypass the "Rheinfall" waterfalls, controlled by the Wörth Castle. The monastery was founded by Eberhard von Nellenburg in 1049, on 22 November it was consecrated by Pope Leo IX, and in 1064 the construction works were completed. The church was dedicated to the Saviour, the Holy Cross, the Virgin Mary and All the Saints. In 1067 count Eberhard strengthened his rule in Schaffhausen, and received by Pope Alexander II comprehensive protection and sovereign rights for the monastery. Allerheiligen became, instead of the Reichenau Abbey, the new grave lay by the founding family, and various renovations and additions. Eberhard became after 1075 a Benedictine monk in the abbey, and died there in 1078 or 1079. He was buried in the outdoor crypt that was built for the family.  In the so-called Investiture Controversy conflict between the Roman Catholic church in Rome and the secular power, the pope loyal Count Burkhard von Nellenburg, the son and heir of Eberhard, conformed in 1080 all of the rights of the monastery. The monastery was directly subordinate to the Pope, and received the vast estate of the family, the free election of the abbot, and the mint money market as well as the town of Schaffhausen. Thus the abbot became the new lord of the city. Burkhard remained the monastery's "Vogt", and motivated the Abbot William to join with some monks from the Hirsau Abbey, to reform the monastery on the model of Hirsau.  After more than four centuries of economic and political decline, Michael Eggendorfer, the last abbot of the monastery, initiated the last renovations in 1521/22. During the Reformation in Switzerland, the abbey was abolished, and the Cathedral became the second main city church in 1524.

Convent buildings.

The first extensions of the abbey included the east wing of the convent building with the chapter house of the monks on the ground floor, and a dormitory with latrines upstairs. In the west, the monastery gate, a two-storey house for guests and lay brothers were added, built around the three-aisled Basilica with a three-apsed choir, a transept and a double tower facade to the west. The westerly courtyard was also built in the foundation era, preceded by a single goal, which was flanked by two chapels. About this door system, there was possibly the entrance to the Nellenburg Palatinate, once the residence of the family. The monastery was modeled on the church buildings of the Cluny Abbey. The monastery consists of a cloister, the garden, the two-winged, two-storey convent buildings and the domestic buildings. In the mid-1460s Abbot Berchtold Wiechser initiated the construction of the "Bindhaus" (cooperage) over the large wine cellar. In 1521/22 a new convent house with monk cells instead of the old hospital, as well as a Beguine house were built. In 1529 the convent buildings were redeveloped as houses. Twelve years later, the city council moved the municipal cemetery in the former eastern cloister garden. In the winter of 1543, a boys' school was established. The cloister garden was used from 1577 to 1874 as the cemetery for the privileged citizens of Schaffhausen.

Münster Schaffhausen.

"Eberhard von Nellenburg" also financed the monastery's church third central tower to the west, extended with a new chancel choir grown in the apex outdoor crypt, as a burial chamber, and a subsequent courtyard. Around 1090, the church was partially demolished to make place for a larger Cathedral. Late Romanesque expansions were added between 1150 and 1250. Abbot Ullrich initiated the construction of the cathedral tower, the present herb garden, the building of the hospital and the novitiate, as well as a loggia. The St. Johann's chapel was vaulted, and upstairs was a further chapel. The ornately decorated semi-circular arched lunettes of the former upper chapel, are among the finest examples of Romanesque architectural sculpture in the monastery, and are on display in the museum. In 1521/22 the old St. Mary's chapel was rebuilt into the "Annakapelle". In addition, the small cemetery chapel in the now "Oswaldkapelle", and the abbey's chapel of St. Michael and Erhard were built.

Bibliothek am Münsterplatz.

In the Middle Ages, the library was located in the Benedictine monastery, in the Franciscan mendicant and in St. Johann's church. After the Reformation the books were placed in the sacristy of St. Johann. The collection increased by gifts and purchases since 1540, and it was called "Bibliotheca publica" or "Liberey", but still mainly used by the clergy. In 1636 citizens founded the municipal library, geared towards the sciences and arts, the present "Stadtbibliothe" (city library). In the 18th century two private reading societies re-established the Ministerialbibliothek, being the book collection in the St. Johann church. Since 1923 the city library has been located on the "Münsterplatz" Square, situated in a building that was built in 1554 as an urban granary. Between 1993 and 1995, the library was remodeled and expanded by an underground magazine, serving also as the cantonal library.

Museum zu Allerheiligen.

The building complex was rebuilt between 1921 and 1938 into a museum, to house "the great artistic and cultural historical collections, clubs, and private had gathered over decades, to be a place of storage and presentation". The museum exhibited during the first decades in the fields of archeology, history and art, focusing primarily on craft-oriented and categories as chronologically structured tours. An important extension was the integration of natural history collections and the construction of a natural history permanent exhibition. Since then, the museum also hosts regular natural history exhibitions.  Its extensive permanent collections and temporary exhibitions, the museum provides a wide variety of topics: Interdisciplinary special exhibitions stimulate discussion with current cultural and scientific themes, as well by the universality of the medieval monastery, the imposing cathedral, the idyllic herb garden and the largest freely accessible cloister of Switzerland. It is operated by financial contribution of the canton of Schaffhausen, foundations, associations and sponsorships.

Facilities.

Public transportation is provided by the S-Bahn Zürich line S16 (ZVV), S22 (ZVV) and S33 (ZVV), or in general by SBB railway or Deutsche Bahn DB to Schaffhausen main station. Local bus lines provides the stops "Rhybadi/IWC" by line 5 and "Schifflände" by line 8.  The museum is closed on Mondays, usually the museum is open from 11:00 (11 am) to 17:00 (5 pm); after hours visits are available by appointment, as well as guided tours for groups. The monastery's buildings houses the museum, as well as the museum's shop, a restaurant and rooms for seminars. The staff of the museum consists of approximately 25 employees.

Cultural heritage of national importance.

The abbey and the library are listed in the Swiss inventory of cultural property of national and regional significance as "Class A" objects of national importance.

Kloster Allerheiligen (All Saints abbey) is a former Benedictine monastery in the Swiss municipality of Schaffhausen in the Canton of Schaffhausen. The church "Münster Allerheiligen" is the oldest building in Schaffhausen, and houses also the "Museum zu Allerheiligen".

L'Abbaye de Tous-les-Saints, appelée en allemand "" est un monastère de Suisse. Situé à Schaffhouse, l'établissement bénédictin a été fondé en 1049 par Eberhard VI de Nellenburg. Il comptait, aux côtés des abbayes d'Hirsau et de St. Blasien, parmi les abbayes de l'Ordre de Cluny au sein du Saint-Empire romain germanique.