Background.

The 'Reichskonkordat' between Germany and the Holy See was signed on 30 July 1933 and ratified in September of that year. The treaty was an extension of existing concordats already signed with Prussia and Bavaria Concordats have been used to create binding agreements to safeguard church interests and its freedom to act, particularly in countries that do not have strong jurisprudence guaranteeing government non-interference in religious matters or where the church seeks a privileged position under government patronage.  Accounts of 20th-century diplomatic relations between Germany and the Vatican commonly take as their starting point the political scene in the late 19th century. German Chancellor Bismarck's "Kulturkampf" ("Battle for Culture") of 1871–78 saw an attempt to assert a Protestant vision of nationalism over the new German Empire, and fused anticlericalism with suspicion of the Catholic population, whose loyalty was presumed to lie with Austria and France. The Catholic Centre Party had formed in 1870, initially to represent the religious interests of Catholics and Protestants, but was transformed by the "Kulturkampf" into the "political voice of Catholics". Bismarck's "Culture Struggle" was largely a failure.  Bismarck sought to restrict the power of the Catholic Church in Germany. He regarded the Roman Church as "the enemy within". His "Kulturkampf" included the disbanding of Catholic organizations, confiscation of church property, banishment or imprisonment of clergy, and an ongoing feud with the Vatican. According to novelist James Carroll, the end of "Kulturkampf" signaled "that the Church had successfully resisted to his face the man [Bismarck] who, according to an admiring Henry Kissinger, was 'outmaneuvered' by nobody." The Catholic Church's firm resistance to Bismarck and "Kulturkampf", including passive resistance by the Church in general and the excommunication of collaborating priests, has been used as benchmark for assessing the Church's response to the Nazis from the early 1930s through World War II.  A formal realignment of Church and state relationships was considered desirable in the aftermath of the political instability of 1918 and the adoption of the Weimar constitution for the Reich along with the new constitutions in the German states in 1919. Key issues that the Church hoped to resolve related to state subsidies to the Church, support for Catholic schools, the appointment of bishops and the legal position of the clergy. The Reich government, in turn, wished for reasons of foreign

Nazi period.

Nazis take power.

In January 1933, Hitler became Chancellor. The passing of the Enabling Act on 23 March, in part, removed the Reichstag as an obstacle to concluding a concordat with the Vatican. Hitler offered the possibility of friendly co-operation, promising not to threaten the Reichstag, the President, the States or the Churches if granted the emergency powers. With Nazi paramilitary encircling the building, he said: "It is for you, gentlemen of the Reichstag to decide between war and peace." The Act allowed Hitler and his Cabinet to rule by emergency decree for four

Negotiations.

The Catholic bishops in Germany had generally shown opposition to Hitler from the beginning of his rise to power. When the Nazi Party polled six million votes during the 14 September 1930 election, the Catholic hierarchy called on its people to examine their consciences. During the next two years, though there had been softening by some, the bishops continued to pronounce against unacceptable policies of the Nazi Party. When Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor on 30 January 1933, the bishops maintained support for the Catholic Centre Party ("Zentrum"), which in turn refused to assent to a proposal that would allow Hitler to assume full power. On 12 March 1933 Pope Pius XI received the German Cardinal Faulhaber in Rome. On his return Faulhaber reported: After my recent experience in Rome in the highest circles, which I cannot reveal here, I must say that I found, despite everything, a greater tolerance with regard to the new government....Let us meditate on the words of the Holy Father, who in a consistory, without mentioning his name, indicated before the whole world in Adolf Hitler the statesman who first, after the Pope himself, has raised his voice against Bolshevism.  At a cabinet meeting on 20 March 1933 Hitler "confidently reported" that the Centre Party had now seen the necessity of the Enabling Act and that "the acceptance of the Enabling Act also by the "Zentrum" would signify a strengthening prestige with regard to foreign countries." Early in March 1933 the bishops recommended that Catholics vote for the Centre Party in the elections scheduled for 5 March 1933. However, two weeks later the Catholic hierarchy reversed its previous policy – the bishops now allowed the Centre Party and the Bavarian Catholic Party to vote for the Enabling Act which gave Hitler dictatorial powers on 23 March. German Catholic theologian Robert Grosche described the Enabling Act in terms of the 1870 decree on the infallibility of the Pope, and stated that the Church had "anticipated on a higher level, that historical decision which is made today on the political level: for the Pope and against the sovereignty of the Council; for the Fuhrer and against the Parliament." On 29 March 1933

The concordat.

The Treaty with Additional Protocol [in brackets] was signed 20 July 1933. It was ratified and in force starting 10 September 1933 and remains in force today. The text of the concordat was released 22 July 1933 and began with a preamble that set out the common desire of both parties for friendly relations set-out in a solemn agreement.  Preamble  His Holliness Pope Pius XI and the President of the German Reich ["Paul von Hindenburg"], led by their common desire to consolidate and enhance the existing friendly relations between the Catholic Church and the state in the whole territory of the German Reich in a stable and satisfactory manner for both parties, have decided to conclude a solemn agreement which will supplement the concordats already concluded with some particular German States (Laender) and secure for the others the principles of a uniform treatment of the questions involved.  His Holiness Pope Pius XI has appointed as his plenipotentiary ["a diplomat granted full power to represent"] His Eminence the Most Revered Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli, His Holiness' Secretary of State; and the President of the German Reich ["Paul von Hindenburg"] has appointed as plenipotentiary the Vice-Chairman of the German Reich,

Reception.

The British Roman Catholic periodical "The Tablet" reported the signing of the concordat:  Already it is being said that THE POPE OF ROME thinks of nobody save his own adherents and that he does not care how Lutherans are dragooned and how Jews are harried so long as Popish bishops, monastic orders, confessional schools, and Catholic associations are allowed full freedom. We beg our Protestant and Jewish friends to put away such suspicions. As we suggested at the outset of this brief article, the Catholic Church could have done little for other denominations in Germany if she had begun thrusting out wild hands to help them while

Violations.

Nazi violations of the concordat commenced almost immediately after it was signed. The Nazis claimed jurisdiction over all collective and social activity, interfering with Catholic schooling, youth groups, workers' clubs and cultural societies. Hitler had a "blatant disregard" for the concordat, wrote Paul O'Shea, and its signing was to him merely a first step in the "gradual suppression of the Catholic Church in Germany". Anton Gill wrote that "with his usual irresistible, bullying technique, Hitler then proceeded to take a mile where he had been given an inch" and closed all Catholic institutions whose functions weren't strictly religious:  Within the same month of signing the concordat, the Nazis promulgated their sterilization law – the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased

World War II.

From 1940, the Gestapo launched an intense persecution of the monasteries, invading, searching and appropriating them. The Provincial of the Dominican Province of Teutonia, Laurentius Siemer, a spiritual leader of the German Resistance, was influential in the Committee for Matters Relating to the Orders, which formed in response to Nazi attacks against Catholic monasteries and aimed to encourage the bishops to intercede on behalf of the Orders and oppose the Nazi state more emphatically.  With the expansion of the war in the East from 1941, there came also an expansion of the regime's attack on the churches. Monasteries and convents were targeted and expropriation of Church properties surged. The Nazi authorities claimed that the properties were needed for wartime necessities such as hospitals, or accommodation for refugees or children, but in fact used them for their own purposes. "Hostility to the state" was another common cause given for the confiscations, and the action of a single

After World War II.

Pius XII put a high priority on preserving the concordat from the Nazi era, although the bishops were unenthusiastic about it and the Allies considered the request inappropriate. After the war, the concordat remained in place and the Catholic church was restored to its previous position.  When Lower Saxony passed a new school law, the Holy See complained that it violated the terms of the concordat. The federal government called upon the Federal Constitutional Court ("Bundesverfassungsgericht") for clarification. In its ruling of 26 March 1957, the court decided that the circumstances surrounding the conclusion of the concordat did not invalidate it.

Assessment.

Anthony Rhodes regarded Hitler's desire for a concordat with the Vatican as being driven principally by the prestige and respectability it brought to his regime abroad whilst at the same time eliminating the opposition of the Centre Party. Rhodes took the view that if the survival of Catholic education and youth organisations was taken to be the principal aim of papal diplomacy during this period then the signing of the concordat to prevent greater evils was justified. Many of the Centre Party deputies were priests who had not been afraid to raise their voices in the past and would almost certainly have voted against Hitler's assumption of dictatorial powers. The voluntary dissolution of the Centre Party removed that obstacle and Hitler now had absolute power and brought respectability to the state: "Within six months of its birth, the Third Reich had been given full approval by the highest spiritual power on earth". Ian Kershaw considered the role of the Centre Party in Hitler's removal of almost all constitutional restraints as "particularly ignominious."  John Cornwell views Cardinal Pacelli as being an example of a "fellow traveller" of the Nazis who, through the concordat, was willing to accept the generosity of Hitler in the educational sphere (more schools, teachers and student slots), so long as the Church withdrew from the social and political sphere, at the same time as Jews were being dismissed from universities and Jewish student slots were being reduced. He argues that the Catholic Centre Party vote was decisive in the adoption of dictatorial powers by Hitler and that the party's subsequent dissolution was at Pacelli's prompting. Michael Phayer is of the opinion that the concordat conditioned German bishops to avoid speaking out against anything that was not strictly related to church matters, leading to a muted response to the attacks on Mosaic Jews. Carlo Falconi described the concordat as "The Devil's Pact with Hitler". Albert Einstein in private conversation relating to the concordat said "Since when can one make a pact with Christ and Satan at the same time?" Daniel Goldhagen recalled how Hitler had said: "To attain our aim we should stop at nothing even if we must join forces with the devil," and that, in Goldhagen's view, is what Hitler did in agreeing the concordat with the church. Gordon Zahn felt that though the signing of the concordat was distasteful for Cardinal Pacelli it had spared the church in Germany from greater hardship and persecution.  John Cornwell's analysis ignores all the real evidence. The President of Germany at the time the Concordant with the Vatican was signed was Paul von Hindenburg. Hitler was merely the newly appointed Chancellor and Hitler was still selecting his cabinet when the Concordant was signed. The negotiations over the language of and terms of the Concordant had been concluded long before Hitler was appointed Chancellor by German President Paul von Hindenburg. Bismark engaged in many of the negotiations but never signed the Concordant due to the anti-Catholic reaction he feared.  In 1933 German President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor. The concordat was negotiated in order to placate Pope Pius XI and the Vatican by ensuring the German Church's safety. Although Hitler did not have presidential powers at the time of the treaty's signing, he already had dictatorial powers and decided the articles of the treaty.

The Reichskonkordat ("Concordat between the Holy See and the German Reich") is a treaty negotiated between the Vatican and the emergent Nazi Germany. It was signed on 20 July 1933 by Cardinal Secretary of State Eugenio Pacelli, who later became Pope Pius XII, on behalf of Pope Pius XI and Vice Chancellor Franz von Papen on behalf of President Paul von Hindenburg and the German government. It was ratified 10 September 1933 and it has been in force from that date onward. The treaty guarantees the rights of the Roman Catholic Church in Germany. When bishops take office Article 16 states they are required to take an oath of loyalty to the Governor or President of the German Reich established according to the constitution. The treaty also requires all clergy to abstain from working in and for political parties. Nazi breaches of the agreement began almost as soon as it had been signed and intensified afterwards leading to protest from the Church including in the 1937 "Mit brennender Sorge" encyclical of Pope Pius XI. The Nazis planned to eliminate the Church's influence by restricting its organizations to purely religious activities.

Le concordat du est un accord signé entre le Saint-Siège, représenté par le cardinal Pacelli (futur pape Pie XII), secrétaire d'État, et le "Reich" allemand, représenté par le vice-chancelier Franz von Papen. Ayant vu sa validité confirmée en 1957, il est encore en vigueur de nos jours.


In economics.

The original observation was in connection with population and wealth. Pareto noticed that approximately 80% of Italy's land was owned by 20% of the population. He then carried out surveys on a variety of other countries and found to his surprise that a similar distribution applied.  A chart that gave the inequality a very visible and comprehensible form, the so-called "champagne glass" effect, was contained in the 1992 United Nations Development Program Report, which showed that distribution of global income is very uneven, with the richest 20% of the world's population controlling 82.7% of the world's income. Still, the Gini index of the world shows that nations have wealth distributions that vary greatly. The Pareto principle also could be seen as applying to taxation. In the US, the top 20% of earners have paid roughly 80-90% of Federal income taxes in 2000 and 2006, and again in 2018.  However, it is important to note that while there have been associations of such with meritocracy, the principle should not be confused with further reaching implications. As Alessandro Pluchino at the University of Catania in Italy points out, other attributes do not necessarily correlate. Using talent as an example, he and other researchers state, “The maximum success never coincides with the maximum talent, and vice-versa,” and that such factors are the result of chance.  The physicist Victor Yakovenko of the University of Maryland, College Park and AC Silva analyzed income data from the US Internal Revenue Service from 1983 to 2001, and found that the income distribution among the upper class (1–3% of the population) follows Pareto's principle.

In computing.

In computer science the Pareto principle can be applied to optimization efforts. For example, Microsoft noted that by fixing the top 20% of the most-reported bugs, 80% of the related errors and crashes in a given system would be eliminated. Lowell Arthur expressed that "20 percent of the code has 80 percent of the errors. Find them, fix them!" It was also discovered that in general the 80% of a certain piece of software can be written in 20% of the total allocated time. Conversely, the hardest 20% of the code takes 80% of the time. This factor is usually a part of COCOMO estimating for software coding.

In sports.

It has been inferred that the Pareto principle applies to athletic training, where roughly 20% of the exercises and habits have 80% of the impact, and the trainee should not focus so much on a varied training. This does not necessarily mean that having a healthy diet or going to the gym are not important, but they are not as significant as the key activities. It is also important to note this 80/20 rule has yet to be scientifically tested in controlled studies of athletic training.  In baseball, the Pareto principle has been perceived in Wins Above Replacement (an attempt to combine multiple statistics to determine a player's overall importance to a team). "15% of all the players last year produced 85% of the total wins with the other 85% of the players creating 15% of the wins. The Pareto principle holds up pretty soundly when it is applied to baseball."

Occupational health and safety.

Occupational health and safety professionals use the Pareto principle to underline the importance of hazard prioritization. Assuming 20% of the hazards account for 80% of the injuries, and by categorizing hazards, safety professionals can target those 20% of the hazards that cause 80% of the injuries or accidents. Alternatively, if hazards are addressed in random order, a safety professional is more likely to fix one of the 80% of hazards that account only for some fraction of the remaining 20% of injuries.  Aside from ensuring efficient accident prevention practices, the Pareto principle also ensures hazards are addressed in an economical order, because the technique ensures the utilized resources are best used to prevent the most accidents.

Other applications.

In engineering control theory, such as for electromechanical energy converters, the 80/20 principle applies to optimization efforts.  The law of the few can be also seen in betting, where it is said that with 20% effort you can match the accuracy of 80% of the bettors.  In the systems science discipline, Joshua M. Epstein and Robert Axtell created an agent-based simulation model called Sugarscape, from a decentralized modeling approach, based on individual behavior rules defined for each agent in the economy. Wealth distribution and Pareto's 80/20 principle became emergent in their results, which suggests the principle is a collective consequence of these individual rules.  The Pareto principle has many applications in quality control. It is the basis for the Pareto chart, one of the key tools used in total quality control and Six Sigma techniques. The Pareto principle serves as a baseline for ABC-analysis and XYZ-analysis, widely used in logistics and procurement for the purpose of optimizing stock of goods, as well as costs of keeping and replenishing that stock.  In health care in the United States, in one instance 20% of patients have been found to use 80% of health care resources.  Some cases of super-spreading conform to the 20/80 rule, where approximately 20% of infected individuals are responsible for 80% of transmissions, although super-spreading can still be said to occur when super-spreaders account for a higher or lower percentage of transmissions. In epidemics with super-spreading, the majority of individuals infect relatively few secondary contacts.  The Dunedin Study has found 80% of crimes are committed by 20% of criminals. This statistic has been used to support both stop-and-frisk policies and broken windows policing, as catching those criminals committing minor crimes will supposedly net many criminals wanted for (or who would normally commit) larger ones.  Many video rental shops reported in 1988 that 80% of revenue came from 20% of videotapes. A video-chain executive discussed the ""Gone with the Wind" syndrome", however, in which every store had to offer classics like "Gone with the Wind", "Casablanca", or "The African Queen" to appear to have a large inventory, even if customers very rarely rented them.  In the mating market, 20% of men (between the ages of 25 and 50) account for about 70% of self-reported sexual partnerships with women in the United States.

Mathematical notes.

The idea has a rule of thumb application in many places, but it is commonly misused. For example, it is a misuse to state a solution to a problem "fits the 80/20 rule" just because it fits 80% of the cases; it must also be that the solution requires only 20% of the resources that would be needed to solve all cases. Additionally, it is a misuse of the 80/20 rule to interpret a small number of categories or observations.  This is a special case of the wider phenomenon of Pareto distributions. If the Pareto index α, which is one of the parameters characterizing a Pareto distribution, is chosen as α = log5 ≈ 1.16, then one has 80% of effects coming from 20% of causes.  It follows that one also has 80% of that top 80% of effects coming from 20% of that top 20% of causes, and so on. Eighty percent of 80% is 64%; 20% of 20% is 4%, so this implies a "64/4" law; and similarly implies a "51.2/0.8" law. Similarly for the bottom 80% of causes and bottom 20% of effects, the bottom 80% of the bottom 80% only cause 20% of the remaining 20%. This is broadly in line with the world population/wealth table above, where the bottom 60% of the people own 5.5% of the wealth, approximating to a 64/4 connection.  The 64/4 correlation also implies a 32% 'fair' area between the 4% and 64%, where the lower 80% of the top 20% (16%) and upper 20% of the bottom 80% (also 16%) relates to the corresponding lower top and upper bottom of effects (32%). This is also broadly in line with the world population table above, where the second 20% control 12% of the wealth, and the bottom of the top 20% (presumably) control 16% of the wealth.  The term 80/20 is only a shorthand for the general principle at work. In individual cases, the distribution could just as well be, say, nearer to 90/10 or 70/30. There is no need for the two numbers to add up to the number 100, as they are measures of different things, (e.g., 'number of customers' vs 'amount spent'). However, each case in which they do not add up to 100%, is equivalent to one in which they do. For example, as noted above, the "64/4 law" (in which the two numbers do not add up to 100%) is equivalent to the "80/20 law" (in which they do add up to 100%). Thus, specifying two percentages independently does not lead to a broader class of distributions than what one gets by specifying the larger one and letting the smaller one be its complement relative to 100%. Thus, there is only one degree of freedom in the choice of that parameter.  Adding up to 100 leads to a nice symmetry. For example, if 80% of effects come from the top 20% of sources, then the remaining 20% of effects come from the lower 80% of sources. This is called the "joint ratio", and can be used to measure the degree of imbalance: a joint ratio of 96:4 is very imbalanced, 80:20 is significantly imbalanced (Gini index: 76%), 70:30 is moderately imbalanced (Gini index: 28%), and 55:45 is just slightly imbalanced (Gini index 14%).  The Pareto principle is an illustration of a "power law" relationship, which also occurs in phenomena such as brush fires and earthquakes. Because it is self-similar over a wide range of magnitudes, it produces outcomes completely different from Normal or Gaussian distribution phenomena. This fact explains the frequent breakdowns of sophisticated financial instruments, which are modeled on the assumption that a Gaussian relationship is appropriate to something like stock price movements.

Equality measures.

Gini coefficient and Hoover index.

Using the ""A" : "B"" notation (for example, 0.8:0.2) and with "A" + "B" = 1, inequality measures like the Gini index (G) "and" the Hoover index (H) can be computed. In this case both are the same.

The Pareto principle (also known as the 80/20 rule, the law of the vital few, or the principle of factor sparsity) states that, for many events, roughly 80% of the effects come from 20% of the causes.

Le principe de Pareto, aussi appelé loi de Pareto, principe des 80-20 ou encore loi des 80-20, est un phénomène empirique constaté dans certains domaines : environ 80 % des effets sont le produit de 20 % des causes. Il a été appliqué à des domaines comme le contrôle qualité. On considère souvent que les phénomènes pour lesquels ce principe est vérifié suivent une forme particulière de distribution de Pareto.


Physics.

The Z-pinch is an application of the Lorentz force, in which a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force. One example of the Lorentz force is that, if two parallel wires are carrying current in the same direction, the wires will be pulled toward each other. In a Z-pinch machine the wires are replaced by a plasma, which can be thought of as many current-carrying wires. When a current is run through the plasma, the particles in plasma are pulled toward each other by the Lorentz force, thus the plasma contracts. The contraction is counteracted by the increasing gas pressure of the plasma.  As the plasma is electrically conductive, a magnetic field nearby will induce a current in it. This provides a way to run a current into the plasma without physical contact, which is important as a plasma can rapidly erode mechanical electrodes. In practical devices this was normally arranged by placing the plasma vessel inside the core of a transformer, arranged so the plasma itself would be the secondary. When current was sent into the primary side of the transformer, the magnetic field induced a current into the plasma. As induction requires a "changing" magnetic field, and the induced current is supposed to run in a single direction in most reactor designs, the current in the transformer has to be increased over time to produce the varying magnetic field. This places a limit on the product of confinement time and magnetic field, for any given source of power.  In Z-pinch machines the current is generally provided from a large bank of capacitors and triggered by a spark gap, known as a Marx Bank or Marx generator. As the conductivity of plasma is fairly good, about that of copper, the energy stored in the power source is quickly depleted by running through the plasma. Z-pinch devices are inherently pulsed in nature.

History.

Early machines.

Pinch devices were among the earliest efforts in fusion power. Research began in the UK in the immediate post-war era, but a lack of interest led to little development until the 1950s. The announcement of the Huemul Project in early 1951 led to fusion efforts around the world, notably in the UK and in the US. Small experiments were built at labs as various practical issues were addressed, but all of these machines demonstrated unexpected instabilities of the plasma that would cause it to hit the walls of the container vessel. The problem became known as the "kink instability".

Stabilized pinch.

By 1953 the "stabilized pinch" seemed to solve the problems encountered on earlier devices. Stabilized pinch machines added external magnets that created a toroidal magnetic field inside the chamber. When the device was fired, this field added to the one created by the current in the plasma. The result was that the formerly straight magnetic field was twisted into a helix, which the particles followed as they traveled around the tube driven by the current. A particle near the outside of the tube that wanted to kink outward would travel along these lines until it returned to the inside of the tube, where its outward-directed motion would bring it back into the centre of the plasma.  Researchers in the UK started construction of ZETA in 1954. ZETA was by far the largest fusion device of its era. At the time, almost all fusion research was classified, so progress on ZETA was generally unknown outside the labs working on it. However US researchers visited ZETA and realized that they were about to be outpaced. Teams on both sides of the Atlantic rushed to be the first to complete stabilized pinch machines.  ZETA won the race, and by the summer of 1957 it was producing bursts of neutrons on every run. Despite the researchers' reservations, their results were released with great fanfare as the first successful step on the path to commercial fusion energy. However, further study soon demonstrated that the measurements were misleading, and none of the machines were near fusion levels. Interest in pinch devices faded, although ZETA and its cousin Sceptre served for many years as experimental devices.

Fusion-based propulsion.

A concept of Z-pinch fusion propulsion system was developed through collaboration between NASA and private companies. The energy released by the Z-pinch effect accelerates lithium propellant to a high speed, resulting in a specific impulse value of 19400 s and thrust of 38 kN. A magnetic nozzle is required to convert the released energy into a useful impulse. This propulsion method could significantly reduce interplanetary travel times. For example, a mission to Mars would take about 35 days one-way with a total burn time of 20 days and a burned propellant mass of 350 tonnes.

Tokamak.

Although it remained relatively unknown for years, Soviet scientists used the pinch concept to develop the tokamak device. Unlike the stabilized pinch devices in the US and UK, the tokamak used considerably more energy in the stabilizing magnets, and much less in the plasma current. This reduced the instabilities due to the large currents in the plasma, and led to great improvements in stability. The results were so dramatic that other researchers were skeptical when they were first announced in 1968. Members of the still-operational ZETA team were called in to verify the results. The tokamak became the most studied approach to controlled fusion.

Sheared-flow stabilized.

In 2018 neutron generation from a sheared-flow stabilized Z-pinch was demonstrated by Zap Energy Inc a fusion company spin-out from University of Washington.. Flowing plasma remained stabilized 5,000 times longer than a static plasma. A mixture of 20% deuterium/80% hydrogen by pressure produced neutron emissions lasting approximately 5 μs with pinch currents of approximately 200 kA during an approximately 16 μs period of plasma quiescence. Average neutron yield was estimated to be (1.25±0.45)×10 neutrons/pulse. Plasma temperatures of 1–2 keV and densities of approximately 10 cm with 0.3 cm pinch radii were measured.

Experiments.

Z-pinch machines can be found at University of Nevada, Reno (USA), Cornell University (USA), University of Michigan (USA), Sandia National Laboratories (USA), University of California, San Diego (USA), University of Washington (USA), Ruhr University (Germany), Imperial College (United Kingdom), École Polytechnique (France), Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel), Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (Mexico), NSTRI (Iran).

In fusion power research, the Z-pinch, also known as zeta pinch, is a type of plasma confinement system that uses an electrical current in the plasma to generate a magnetic field that compresses it (see pinch). These systems were originally referred to simply as pinch or Bennett pinch (after Willard Harrison Bennett), but the introduction of the θ-pinch concept led to the need for increased clarity.

Les machines à striction axiale (ou appelées aussi Z-pinch) présentent l'une des méthodes de confinement inertiel en cours d'investigation pour le contrôle de la fusion nucléaire.


Etymology.

According to the diary of a Portuguese merchant in the early 16th century, the name of Medan was actually derived from Tamil word "Maidhan",

History.

In ancient times, the city of Medan was known as Kampung Medan (Medan Village). It was a piece of swampy land with an area of approximately 4000 ha. Some of the rivers crossing the city of Medan drain into the Straits of Malacca. These rivers are Sei Deli, Sei Babura, Sei Sikambing, Sei Denai, Sei Putih, Sei Percut and Muara Belawan.

Aru Kingdom.

The area in and around Medan city, Deli and Langkat Regency was the location of ancient Kingdom of Aru (Haru). The kingdom was established by Karo people and flourished between 13th

Founding of Medan.

Medan started as a village called Kampung Medan (Medan Village). Kampung Medan was founded by Guru Patimpus Sembiring Pelawi, a Karonese man who came from the Karo Land. Before he became a Muslim, he was a Pemena follower. Following the history of "trombo" and Hamparan Perak (XII Kuta), Guru Patimpus studied Islam from Datuk Kota Bangun. At the time, Guru Patimpus and his people wanted to meet Datuk Kota Bangun. Not only did they want to meet Datuk Kota Bangun, they also wanted to compete with him for power. Whenever Guru Patimpus went to Kota Bangun, he always passes Pulo Brayan. In Pulo Brayan, Guru Patimpus fell in love with the Princess of Pulo Brayan. Eventually, he married the princess and had two sons, Kolok and Kecik. The married couple then turned the forest area in confluence between "Deli River" and "Babura River"

Deli Sultanate.

In the 16th century there was a kingdom called Aru, with its center located where Deli Tua is now (south of Medan). In 1612 the Acehnese Sultan Iskandar Muda defeated Aru. The Acehnese appointed Hisyamsudin (later he changed his name to "Tuanku Gocah Pahlawan"), titled as Laksamana Kuda Bintan as their representative in this kingdom of East Sumatra. In 1632 Aceh established the Deli Sultanate (Jawi: کسلطانن دلي) and Gocah Pahlawan became the first king. Gocah Pahlawan opens a new land in Sungai Lalang and Percut. As Mayor

Dutch East Indies era.

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 meant strongly intensified traffic between Europe and the Far East. The Dutch started the shipping company "Stoomvaart Maatschappij Nederland" that quickly expanded to 43 steamships in 1877. The English, however, had already 3,000 ships in those days. A journey from Europe to Indonesia took approximately 40 days. Genoa, Italy became the new transit harbor for passenger ships after the opening of the Gotthard Tunnel in Switzerland. The journey was reduced to 23 days and 20 hours to Batavia (Jakarta). The ships also became bigger and more comfortable.  This resulted in an increase in cruise ships carrying predominantly white Europeans coming to Dutch East Indies as tourists for a tour of the region, including Medan as the largest tobacco plantation in Dutch East Indies at that time. To accommodate the tourists, it was deemed necessary to have European-class hotels. Therefore, in 1898, a Dutch businessman named Aeint Herman de Boer built Hotel de Boer in the northwest of the Esplanade

Japanese occupation and post independence era.

In 1942, the Japanese invaded the Dutch East Indies, arriving in Sumatra by February. Sumatra was placed under the command of the 25th Army, based in Singapore. Following the surrender of Japan in 1945, Sumatra came under the authority of the South East Asia Command headed by British Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten. On 17 August, Sukarno proclaimed Indonesia independence in Jakarta, and appointed Muhammad Hasan as governor of Sumatra. However, news of the proclamation was only announced by Hasan in Medan on 30 September. After allied troops landed in October, clashes with armed Republicans led to the Battle of Medan.  In December 1947, the Dutch established the State of East Sumatra with Medan as its capital in the area they controlled following

Geography.

Medan is in the northeastern part of Sumatra island, in North Sumatra province. Medan lies on the banks of the Deli River and Babura River which feed into a naturally sheltered harbor and then into the Straits of Malacca. It has helped the city grow in significance as a trading port. Its elevation varies between above sea level. Medan is close to the Barisan Mountains which is located in the southern part of the city and close to volcanoes such as Sibayak Mountain and Sinabung Mountain (located as far as from the city).

Climate.

Under the Köppen climate classification, Medan features a tropical rainforest climate ("Af") with no real dry season. Medan does have noticeably wetter and drier months, with its driest month (January) on average seeing about one third of the precipitation of its wettest month (October). Temperatures in

Governance.

Mayor.

Medan was governed by mayor Dr. H. Abdillah Ak, MBA in 2005–2010. However, Abdillah and his vice mayor were caught by Indonesian Corruption Eradication Commission officials in 2008. Syamsul Arifin, the Governor of North Sumatra Province, then appointed Affifudin Lubis to become the acting mayor. In 2009, Affifudin Lubis resigned from his position and the

Administrative divisions.

Medan is divided into 21 districts (), tabulated below with their areas and populations at the 2010 Census:  Based on the map, the city is centralised around Medan Petisah, Medan Baru, Medan Polonia, Medan Maimun, Medan Kota, and Medan Barat (West Medan) which act

Demographics.

The city is Indonesia's fifth most populous after Jakarta, Surabaya, Bekasi and Bandung, as well as Indonesia's largest city outside Java island. The population within the city's borders has risen from 568,000 in 1968 fourfold to 2.1 million in 2010. Much more of the population lies outside its city limits, especially in Deli Serdang Regency. The official Metropolitan area ("Wilayah Metropolitan Medan") was inhabited by 4,144,583 people in 2010, but had risen to 4,504,619 in 2015. Source: BPS Sumut

Ethnicities and languages.

Batak (including Mandailing and Karo people) and Javanese are the major ethnic groups in Medan, with sizeable Chinese, Minangkabau and Malay populations and smaller groups of Acehnese, Indians, Nias, and Sundanese people. Medan also has foreign residents from India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Thailand, China, Taiwan, Middle East and other Asian countries.  The city has diverse communities, reflected by its history. The Bataks are one of the major ethnic groups in Medan; in fact there are three Batak subethnicities residing in the city including the Toba, Karo and Mandailing Bataks. The Karo people are the natives in Medan. Meanwhile, the Toba people were employed by the

Religion.

The majority of Medan's inhabitants are Muslim, comprising approximately two thirds. There is a significant Christian

Economy.

Medan has already grown to become one of the largest metropolitan cities in Indonesia and become the center of growth in the province of North Sumatra. Now the city is an important commercial and economic hub of Indonesia. Locals, as well as many foreigners have set up their business to take advantage of its dynamism and boost its economy. Medan's economy was mainly based on tobacco, rubber, tea, palm and coffee culture and production, but growing manufacturing sector such as automotive, production of machinery, tiles, paper and pulp etc.,

Culture.

Medan is inhabited by many different ethnic groups. Malay people are the natives of the Medan area, and have deep roots in Medan. They began ruling there during the Deli Sultanate until now. The empire has many lands and property of heritage in Medan, such a palace, mosque and park. The Dutch and Chinese bringing a big contributor to the city development, include during Dutch East Indies era, many historical buildings are made by Dutch and Peranakan architecture along Jalan Kesawan and Pemuda. The arrival of Minangkabaus, Bataks, Javanese and Indian people bringing more colours to the culture of Medan, especially cuisine.

Museum.

The North Sumatra Museum is located approximately to the south from the center of the city, which is in Jalan HM. Joni 15 Medan. The Minister of Education and Culture Dr. Daoed Joesoef opened north Sumatran museum in April 1982.This museum is open on: Tuesday – Thursday (08.00 – 16.00) Friday – Sunday (08.00 – 15.30) and Closed on: Monday. This museum gives a lot of information about ethnic and cultural which exists in North Sumatra, including history and stories of the museum. Some activities that

Cuisine.

Because of its multiculturality, Medan has a wide variety of cuisines ranging from local, western, east and southern Asian, and middle eastern cuisine. The city also hosts a lot of cafes, restaurants, food centers and street vendors with varying price points.  "Nelayan" is one of the most famous restaurant in Medan, serving halal-Chinese seafood and dim sum. "Garuda" is the most popular Minangkabau and Malay restaurant in Medan which serves nasi padang and gulai, "Cahaya Baru" is an Indian restaurant located on Kampung Madras with chapati and tandoori as its most recommended food. The most visited Batak restaurant are "OnDo Batak grill" and "Tesalonika" known best for their babi panggang (Grilled pork) and Saksang.  This city is known as the culinary heaven of Indonesia, as Medan is prominent for its street hawkers which offers a great variety of cheap local delicacies. Medan has several well-known culinary spots such as Jalan Selat Panjang and Jalan Semarang for Chinese food, Jalan Pagaruyung for Indian and Malay food and Jalan Padang Bulan for Batak food.  Merdeka Walk is the first tensile structure (alfresco outdoor concept) in Indonesia, filled with a

Tourism.

Landmarks.

There are many old buildings in Medan that still retain their Dutch architecture. These include the old City Hall, the Medan Post Office, Inna Dharma Deli Hotel, "Titi Gantung" (a bridge over the railway), The "London Sumatra" building, Tjong A Fie Mansion, "AVROS", "Warenhuis", and The Tirtanadi Water Tower, mostly located around the old town Kesawan.  There are several historic places such as Maimoon Palace built in years 1887–1891, where the Sultan of Deli still lives (the Sultan no longer holds any official power), The Great Mosque of Medan built in 1906 in the Moroccan style by the Dutch architect A.J. Dingemans. both location of Maimoon Palace and The Great Mosque are close. The Mosque located on Jalan Sisingamangaraja and The Palace located on Jalan Brigjen Katamso.  Gunung Timur Temple or locally known as "Tông-Yuk-Kuàng" in

Shopping.

Medan is one of the major shopping destinations of Indonesia, along with Jakarta and Bandung. It has several markets and shopping malls offering a wide range of goods and qualities. Some of the more popular markets for tourists include Pasar Rame ("Rame Market") and Pasar Petisah

Theme parks.

There are some theme parks in the

Transportation.

Medan is connected by road, air, rail and sea. There are not many options for public transport within city and intercity.

Airport.

The new Kualanamu International Airport (KNO) was opened to the public on 25 July 2013. The new airport is the second largest airport after Soekarno-Hatta International Airport with a passengers terminal and will eventually have a capacity of 50 million passengers (2030). It is the first airport in Indonesia which has direct rail links to the city. The airport is the hub for Garuda Indonesia, Indonesia AirAsia, Lion Air, Susi Air and Wings Air. The new airport is a replacement for the Polonia Airport. Unlike

Seaport.

The Port of Belawan (Pelabuhan Belawan) is the main seaport in Medan. Located in the northeast coast of Sumatra, Belawan is situated north of Medan city and serves as a port, which is the terminus of a railway that crosses the channel south of the island by bridge.  The port was initially built in 1890 to provide a location where tobacco could be transferred directly between rail lines from the interior and deep-draft ships. The harbor expanded in 1907 with the construction of a new section intended for Chinese and indigenous traders, reserving the existing port for European shipping.

Road and highway.

Medan is connected by the Trans-Sumatran Highway, the main road across Sumatra, and the Belawan-Medan-Tanjung Morawa Toll Road, also known as the Belmera Toll

Railway.

Railway lines connect Medan to Binjai and Tanjungpura to the northwest, to port of Belawan to the north, to Tebing Tinggi and Pematang Siantar to the southeast, and also Rantau Prapat among other cities. The largest train station in Medan is Medan Station. There are also smaller stations in Medan, such as Medan Pasar, Pulu Brayan, Titi Papan, and Labuhan, and Belawan. Titi Papan and Pulu Brayan only serve as the stop for freight trains carrying oil palm and petroleum. There are

Public transport.

One of the unique features of Medan are the motorized rickshaws known as a (bentor) or, although bicycle rickshaws are also available. Becaks are found almost everywhere. Unlike the Javanese rickshaws, the driver sits on the right side of the vehicle, and can take its passenger anywhere in the city. The fare to ride a is relatively cheap and is usually negotiated beforehand.

Media.

Medan serves several radio and TV channels, and is also home to newspapers in local and foreign languages such as Indonesian, English, Chinese, Batak, Malay and others.

Television channels.

Medan has 17 national television

Radio.

RRI is the only state-owned radio in Medan, and is provided in both Indonesian and English. Several local languages are also served on the radio, such as:

Publication.

Several national and local newspapers are available in the city, with "Harian Mimbar Umum" as the oldest one. Other popular newspapers include "Harian Waspada", "Analisa", "Kompas", "Jurnal Medan", "Berita Sore", "Harian Global", "Harian Medan Bisnis", "Posmetro Medan", "Suara Indonesia Baru", and "Tribun Medan". There are also some Mandarin language newspaper such as "Harian

Sport.

Football is one of the most popular sports in Medan, with five local clubs: Persatuan Sepakbola Medan dan Sekitarnya (known as MSMS Medan), Medan Jaya, Medan Chiefs, Bintang PSMS and Medan United; and a basketball club named Angsapura Sania. Another locally popular sport

Healthcare.

Medan has more than 30 registered

Education.

As the largest city outside of Java island, Medan provides more than 827 registered elementary schools, 337 middle Schools and 288 high schools, including state-owned, private, religious, and international schools. Some notable schools are:  Medan also has 72 registered universities, academies, polytechnics, and colleges such as: Medan was previously the site of the Medan Japanese International School

Twin towns – sister cities.

Medan has sister relationships with these cities:

Medan () is the capital and largest city of the Indonesian province of North Sumatra. A regional hub and financial centre of Sumatra, it is regarded as one of the four main central cities of Indonesia, alongside Jakarta, Surabaya, and Makassar. Medan has a population of over 2.2 million within its city limits, and over 3.4 million in its built-up urban area, making it the fourth largest urban area in Indonesia. The Medan metropolitan area—which includes neighbouring Binjai, Deli Serdang Regency, and a part of Karo Regency—is the largest metropolitan area outside of Java, with 4.6 million residents. Medan is a multicultural metropolis and a busy trading city bordered by the Strait of Malacca. A gateway to the western part of Indonesia, Medan is supported by the Port of Belawan and Kualanamu International Airport, both of which are connected to the city centre via toll road and railway.

Medan (chinois : 棉兰 mián lán) est une ville d'Indonésie dans le nord de l'île de Sumatra. C'est la capitale de la province de Sumatra du Nord. Elle a le statut de "kota".


Appearances.

Films.

"The Phantom Menace" (1999).

Qui-Gon is the main character in the first episode of the prequel trilogy, "". At the age of 48, he is a Jedi Master and the mentor of an 25-year old Obi-Wan Kenobi. Unlike other, more conservative Jedi, he values living in the moment as the best way to embrace the Force. Jinn is not a member of the Jedi Council, despite being among the wisest of the Jedi.  "The Phantom Menace" opens with Qui-Gon and Obi-Wan sent to the planet Naboo to resolve a political conflict involving the Trade Federation, a corrupt business conglomerate that has blockaded the planet for political leverage. On arrival they are attacked by their host. The Jedi retreat to the planet and rescue its besieged Queen, Padmé Amidala. Their attempt to run the blockade and make way for the galactic capital of Coruscant succeeds, but the queen's ship is damaged and is forced to land on the backwater planet of Tatooine for repairs.  While searching for replacement parts on Tatooine, Qui-Gon discovers a slave boy, Anakin Skywalker, who is extraordinarily strong in the Force; a test of his blood reveals that his midi-chlorian count—a measure of Force potential—is the highest ever detected. Qui-Gon is even more intrigued when Anakin's mother, Shmi, tells him that the boy had no father. Realising Anakin might be the "Chosen One" of Jedi lore destined to bring balance to the Force, Qui-Gon bets Anakin's freedom and the spaceship parts on a pod race, which Anakin wins. The entourage leave Tatooine, but not before Qui-Gon is attacked by an unknown Sith Lord, whom he fights off. Upon returning to Coruscant, Jinn asks the Jedi Council to allow Anakin to be trained as a Jedi. Master Yoda senses fear in the boy, and the Council refuses his request. Undaunted, Qui-Gon vows that he himself will train Anakin when Obi-Wan becomes a Jedi Knight.  Amidala, R2-D2, and the two Jedi return to Naboo to liberate the planet. There, the trio are confronted by the Sith Lord from earlier, who reveals himself as Darth Maul. After an arduous lightsaber duel, Maul mortally wounds Jinn, but is subsequently defeated by Obi-Wan. Before dying, Qui-Gon makes Obi-Wan promise he will train Anakin.  Neeson was nominated for a 2000 Saturn Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Qui-Gon Jinn.

"Attack of the Clones" (2002).

In "", Yoda hears Qui-Gon's voice cry out to Anakin through the Force as Anakin slaughters a tribe of Tusken Raiders. Obi-Wan discovers that Qui-Gon's old master, Count Dooku, has become a Sith Lord; and Dooku mentions Qui-Gon as he interrogates a captured Obi-Wan, expressing grief over his former apprentice's death and arguing that Qui-Gon would have followed him in leaving the Republic had he survived.

"Revenge of the Sith" (2005).

In "", Yoda reveals to Obi-Wan that Qui-Gon has returned from the "netherworld of the Force" in order to teach both of them how to retain one's consciousness after death. In a deleted scene, Yoda hears Qui-Gon's voice before the arrival of senator Bail Organa. In the novelization, Yoda finally admits that Qui-Gon was indeed a great Jedi Master.  Liam Neeson was originally asked to record some lines of Qui-Gon for the film's deleted scene included in the novelization in which Yoda was going to speak with him. However, the scene was cut from the film despite being present in the screenplay, and Neeson's voice was never recorded.

"The Rise of Skywalker" (2019).

In "The Rise of Skywalker", Qui-Gon's voice is heard speaking to Rey, along with other past Jedi, encouraging her to battle the rejuvenated Emperor Palpatine. Neeson returned to voice the character.

Television.

"The Clone Wars" (2008–2014).

In "", the character is mentioned several times throughout the series. Qui-Gon appears in two episodes of the third season. On the mysterious planet Mortis, he informs Obi-Wan in the episode "Overlords" and later Anakin in the episode "Ghosts of Mortis" about the three beings who believe, like Qui-Gon, that Anakin is the Chosen One: the Father (the Unifying Force manifestation), the Daughter (the light side incarnation) and the Son (the dark side embodiment). Later in the sixth-season episode "Voices," Yoda is contacted by the disembodied voice of Qui-Gon. Despite his presence on Mortis, Qui-Gon is revealed to have not been able to manifest a semi-physical form. Following his deceased friend's instructions, Yoda goes on a quest across the galaxy in order to learn the secrets of becoming one with the Force as well. During one of the tests of the Force Priestesses, an illusion of Qui-Gon appears along with Jedi Master Count Dooku and Obi-Wan. It is only after Yoda passes his test that he is allowed to learn Qui-Gon's technique to retain one's consciousness after death.

"Star Wars Rebels" (2014–2018).

In "Star Wars Rebels" while he neither appears nor is mentioned, Obi-Wan finally avenges Qui-Gon Jinn's death in the season 3 episode "Twin Suns", where Obi-Wan and Darth Maul have their final duel on the planet Tatooine. Obi-Wan uses Qui-Gon's favored form of lightsaber combat to bait Maul into overextending himself, allowing him to easily slay him.  Qui-Gon's voice can be heard briefly in the season 4 episode "A World Between Worlds" among a huge number of voices from other major "Star Wars" characters throughout all three eras (Original, Prequel and Sequel) demonstrating how the eponymous realm that Ezra Bridger enters widely spans all time and space in the "Star Wars" universe.

Novels.

In 2018, a year before the twentieth anniversary of "The Phantom Menace", Lucasfilm and its current parent company, The Walt Disney Company, announced that a new novel involving Qui-Gon Jinn and Obi-Wan Kenobi, set before the events of "Menace" and titled "Master and Apprentice", will be written by Claudia Gray. It was released on February 26, 2019.

In video games.

Qui-Gon has also appeared in several "Star Wars" video games: "", "", "", "", the "Lego Star Wars" games and as a character skin (via purchased download content) in "". A version of Qui-Gon as a bird (known as Quail-Gon) is available as a playable character in "Angry Birds Star Wars II".

Legends.

With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed "Star Wars" novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film "Star Wars" were rebranded as "Star Wars Legends" and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014.

Television.

"Clone Wars" (2003–2005).

In "", Qui-Gon makes a cameo appearance in "Chapter 21". During Yoda's Force dream, Qui-Gon tells Anakin to enter the mysterious cave on Dagobah where the boy will see a vision of his future. Later when Obi-Wan reprimands Anakin for being late for his secret Knighthood ceremony, Anakin replies "as far as your wisdom goes, you're no Qui-Gon Jinn!".

Novels.

Qui-Gon's life years prior to "The Phantom Menace" is mainly detailed in the "" book series. In "The Rising Force" (set 12 years before "The Phantom Menace"), Yoda encourages Qui-Gon to take a new Padawan learner, following the failure of his previous apprentice Xanatos, who turned to the dark side of the Force years before. Qui-Gon observes a small lightsaber tournament among a group of the Temple's older students, which includes 12-year-old Obi-Wan. He takes notice of Obi-Wan's skills, but also of the boy's uncontrolled anger and refuses to train him. Shortly following the tournament, the Jedi Knight leaves for a mission to the planet Bandomeer. On the transport ship, Qui-Gon is reunited with Obi-Wan, who is also being sent to Bandomeer to begin life as an agricultural labourer. During the voyage, Qui-Gon and Obi-Wan help defend a group of Arcona from the criminal organization Offworld Corporation. After putting an end to the tense situation, the two arrive on Bandomeer, where Qui-Gon receives a letter signed by his former apprentice Xanatos.  In "The Dark Rival", it is revealed that the whole ordeal has been organized by Xanatos, now the leader of Offworld. Qui-Gon sends Obi-Wan off to his Agri-Corps duties, while he plans to meet with Xanatos to find an agreement between Offworld and Bandomeer. However, Xanatos plans to sabotage their meeting and kill Qui-Gon. The Jedi Master duels with his former apprentice, and he and Obi-Wan end Offworld's business on Bandomeer. Xanatos escapes, however. During the encounter with Xanatos, Qui-Gon discovers Obi-Wan's true potential and accepts the boy as his new Padawan. As a gift for Obi-Wan's 13th birthday, Qui-Gon gives his apprentice a special rock he found from the River of Light on his homeworld. In "The Captive Temple", Xanatos attacks the Jedi Temple and nearly assassinates Yoda, but Qui-Gon and Obi-Wan thwart his plans, and in "The Day of Reckoning", when they chase Xanatos back to his homeworld Telos, the fallen Jedi refuses to surrender and commits suicide. Qui-Gon is thus able to bring closure to a painful chapter of his life.  In "Legacy of the Jedi", set during both Qui-Gon's Padawan and Knight years, Qui-Gon and his master Dooku are sent to accompany Senator Blix Annon on a diplomatic assignment. However, space pirates infiltrate their ship and their leader turns out to be rogue Jedi Lorian Nod, a former friend of Dooku's. The two battle and Dooku lets his anger get the best of him, but Qui-Gon prevents his master from violating the Jedi Code by committing cold-blooded murder. Years after their first encounter, Qui-Gon and Obi-Wan encounter Nod and once again the fallen Jedi is incarcerated for his crimes.  In "Secrets of the Jedi" (set seven years before "The Phantom Menace"), Qui-Gon and Obi-Wan are paired with Jedi Master Adi Gallia and her Padawan Siri Tachi. The mission, which results in Qui-Gon and Adi being separated from Obi-Wan and Siri, leads to the discovery of romantic feelings between the two Jedi Padawans. Qui-Gon detects these emotions and warns Obi-Wan of his own example with Tahl, a female Jedi whose murder nearly pushed Qui-Gon over the edge to the dark side.  In "Cloak of Deception" (set a year before "The Phantom Menace"), both Jedi fight against a terrorist organization called the Nebula Front, who are secretly following Darth Sidious' orders. At the Trade Federation conference on Eriadu, Qui-Gon and Obi-Wan successfully defend Chancellor Valorum, but do not prevent the deaths of the rest of the Trade Federation Directorate, allowing the Neimoidians to take control of the Federation.

In comic books.

Aside from the graphic novelization of "The Phantom Menace", Qui-Gon appears infrequently in "Star Wars"-related comic books. His most extensive appearance thus far is in the "Stark Hyperspace War" plotline in "". In this story arc, which takes place during the same year Qui-Gon takes Obi-Wan as his apprentice, Qui-Gon and Obi-Wan fight in the titular conflict along with other Jedi such as Plo Koon and Quinlan Vos, and Qui-Gon ends up saving Nute Gunray, the future Trade Federation viceroy.

Reception.

Despite the mixed reviews that the prequel trilogy received from various movie critics, Liam Neeson's performance and character received positive reviews. Colin Kennedy from Empire Online stated in his review of the film, "Liam Neeson has manfully carried the action on his shoulders throughout (the subsequent prequels desperately miss him) and his final words – “Obi-Wan, promise... Promise me you will train the boy” - provide the movie with its only real weight." Owen Gleiberman from "Entertainment Weekly" said in his review of "The Phantom Menace", "If there’s an actor who holds "The Phantom Menace" together, it’s Liam Neeson. Tersely commanding, he gives the film its only hints of emotional dynamism."  In 2017, "Rolling Stone" placed Qui-Gon Jinn at the number 25 spot on their 50 Best "Star Wars" Characters of All Time list.

Behind the scenes.

As revealed in "The Art of Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace", director George Lucas conceived the character of Qui-Gon Jinn during pre-production of the film. This is shown by concept art where Obi-Wan Kenobi is shown alone in the Trade Federation flagship and while meeting Jar Jar Binks. Even when Qui-Gon was conceived, Lucas toyed with making him the younger Jedi, as shown in concept art depicting Obi-Wan as an old man. Lucas originally envisioned an American actor for the role of Qui-Gon, but ultimately cast Northern Irish actor Liam Neeson because he considered Neeson to have great skills and presence, describing him as a "master actor, who the other actors will look up to, who has got the qualities of strength that the character demands." Initially, Lucas had planned for Qui-Gon to have long white hair, but that idea was scrapped and Qui-Gon is depicted as having long brown hair in the film.  During the early development of "", Lucas wrote a scene featuring a ghostly Qui-Gon speaking with Yoda about Anakin. Liam Neeson was set to reprise his role, because he hinted his possible appearance in the film. However, the scene was finally deleted from the film and Neeson was never recorded, although the scene was retained in the film's novelization.  The character's name is derived from the Chinese word "qigong" (气功 or 氣功), a system of coordinated body movement, breathing, and meditation used for health, spirituality, and martial arts training that allows access to higher realms of awareness, and balance of life energy, similar to Tai chi. This is paired with the Arabic word "Jinn", meaning "genie" or "tutelary spirit." The name translates almost literally as "Guardian Spirit of the Living Force." "Jinn" could also refer to the Chinese word for power, "jin" (勁), and the martial arts concept of "fa jin", which is the explosive release of internal strength or power.

Qui-Gon Jinn () is a fictional character in the "Star Wars" franchise, portrayed by Liam Neeson. He is the main protagonist of the 1999 film "". In the film, Jinn is a Jedi Master and the mentor of Obi-Wan Kenobi. Tasked by the Jedi Council to protect Queen Padmé Amidala of Naboo, Jinn encounters a young Anakin Skywalker, whom he believes to be the prophesied "Chosen One" who will bring balance to the Force. Jinn concludes Anakin must be trained as a Jedi, much to the disapproval of the Council. Jinn later partakes in the Battle of Naboo, but is eventually killed in a duel by Sith Lord Darth Maul. In his final moments, Jinn makes Kenobi promise that he will train the young Skywalker.

Qui-Gon Jinn est un personnage de fiction apparaissant dans la saga "Star Wars". Il est interprété par l'acteur Liam Neeson.


Plot.

A young Bruce Wayne meets Andrea Beaumont while visiting his parents' grave, and they form a deep mutual attraction. That night, in one of his first crime-fighting attempts, Bruce foils an armored car robbery, but is discouraged because the criminals did not fear him. Bruce decides against avenging his parents, feeling he should do what they wanted had they lived to see him as an adult, and proposes marriage to Andrea, who accepts. However, Andrea mysteriously leaves Gotham with her father, businessman Carl Beaumont, ending her engagement in a "Dear John" letter. Believing he has lost his last chance of having a normal life, Bruce becomes Batman.  Ten years later in the present, Batman confronts a group of Gotham City crime bosses led by Chuckie Sol, who are intending to launder millions of counterfeit dollars in a casino. As Sol escapes to his car, a cloaked figure attacks him; Sol is killed when the figure causes him to drive out the side of a parking garage and crash into a neighboring building. Batman is seen immediately afterwards, and is blamed for killing Sol. Councilman Arthur Reeves tells the media Batman is a menace (despite Commissioner Gordon's protests). Attending a party at Wayne Manor, Reeves teases Bruce for allowing Andrea to leave him.  The cloaked figure murders another gangster, Buzz Bronski, in the same cemetery Bruce met Andrea. Buzz's bodyguards see the same mysterious figure flee the scene and presume it is Batman. Batman investigates Bronski's death and wanders to his parents' tombstone. He finds Andrea talking at her mother's grave, just as she had been when he first met her. She is startled by Batman's appearance and he flees, causing her to realize who he is. Batman finds evidence linking Carl Beaumont with Sol, Bronski and a third gangster: Salvatore Valestra. He breaks into Valestra's home and finds a picture of Bronski, Valestra, Sol and Beaumont seated at a table. When he visits Andrea to try to get more answers she rebuffs him, intimating she now knows his identity. Meanwhile, Valestra, believing Batman killed the others and will come for him, turns to Reeves, who rebuffs him, figuring he is a now an aged, powerless gangster. Valestra then contacts the Joker for help.  The figure arrives at Valestra's house but finds the gangster dead by Joker's hands, and through a camera strapped to Valestra's corpse, Joker sees the murderer is not Batman. The figure escapes as the house explodes. Batman pursues and fights the killer, but is interrupted by the police and rescued from arrest by Andrea. Andrea later explains she and her father had been hiding in Europe from Valestra's mob, from whom he had embezzled money; her father repaid everything, but they put out a hit for his death anyway. Bruce now believes that her father is the killer. Bruce ponders resuming his relationship with Andrea and giving up Batman. Looking at the photo of Bronski, Valestra, Sol and Beaumont, he sees Valestra's chauffeur in the background; Bruce realizes the chauffeur is actually the man who would become the Joker. Joker visits Reeves to press him for information about the killer; Reeves insists the killer is Batman, but Joker, believing Reeves is the killer, states Reeves needs to protect his own reputation and poisons him. Reeves is taken to the hospital where Batman later breaks in and interrogates him. Reeves confesses he helped the Beaumonts escape, but later told Valestra's mob Carl's location when Carl declined to help fund his first election campaign, leading Batman to realize who the killer truly is.  The cloaked figure tracks Joker to his hideout and, as Joker has also deduced, is revealed to be Andrea, intent on avenging her father's death by killing every last surviving member of Valestra's mob: with all the others dead, Joker is the last one alive, and is the one who had carried out the hit on her father. Joker fights her, but before he can kill Andrea, Batman arrives and begs Andrea to give up her quest. She refuses and disappears. After Batman and the Joker battle to a stalemate, with the amusement park about to be blown up, Andrea returns and seizes Joker, bidding Batman goodbye before vanishing with the maniacally laughing clown, and Batman barely escapes the explosions. Alfred later consoles Bruce, telling him no one could have helped Andrea. Bruce finds her locket, containing a picture of himself and Andrea, in the Batcave. Meanwhile, Andrea departs from Gotham on an ocean liner, feeling completely lost. Batman stands on top of a Gotham building when the Bat-Signal appears in the sky, and swings off into the night to continue his war on crime.

Production.

Impressed by the success of the first season of "" on Fox, Warner Bros. assigned Alan Burnett to write a story for a full-length animated film. The original idea for the film was to have Batman being captured by his enemies at Arkham Asylum and be put on a trial by them, as they wanted to show that he was guilty of making them what they had become. The idea's concept, however, was considered "too brainy", as it required Batman to be immobile for a long time, so the idea was later used in the series' episode "Trial", which was aired after the movie's release. Although the Joker does play a pivotal role in the film, it was Burnett's intention to tell a story far removed from the television show's regular rogues gallery. Burnett also cited he "wanted to do a love story with Bruce because no one had really done it on the TV show. I wanted a story that got into his head." In reality, the creative team had said that they originally didn't want to use the Joker in the film. Conversely, Paul Dini stated that the Joker was always part of the film from the beginning of its production. The writers were highly cautious of placing the Joker in the film as they did not want any connection to Tim Burton's 1989 film "Batman", but writer Michael Reaves said, "We then realized that we could make his appearance serve the story in a way that we never could in live-action." In order to keep the Joker as a solo threat, Bruce Timm and Burnett convinced frequent "Animated Series" writer Paul Dini to not use Harley Quinn in the film for that reason. The same technique was previously used in the episodes "Joker's Wild" and "The Strange Secret of Bruce Wayne".  Aiding Burnett in writing the script were Martin Pasko, who handled most of the flashback segments; Reaves, who wrote the climax; and Dini, who claims he "filled in holes here and there". The film's plot was heavily influenced by the 1987 miniseries "", written by Mike W. Barr and illustrated by Alan Davis, Paul Neary, Alfredo Alcala, Mark Farmer and Todd McFarlane. Orson Welles' 1941 classic "Citizen Kane" served as an influence for the flashbacks, a story about loss and the passage of time. The character of Hazel, the cook robot of the World of the Future Fair, was named by Burnett after Hazel the Maid (portrayed by actress Shirley Booth), "The Saturday Evening Post" protagonist of cartoonist Ted Key's TV show "Hazel". On the other hand, the design of the Phantasm went into 20 different versions until one was found which convinced the film's crew. According to Burnett, the Phantasm was like the Grim Reaper with a cape, although the idea was to make him resemble the Ghost of Christmas Future of Charles Dickens' novel "A Christmas Carol", something that even the Joker mentions in the finished version of the film. Early in production, Warner Bros. decided to release "Phantasm" as a theatrical release, rather than straight to video. That left less than a year for production time (most animated features take well over two years from finished story to final release). Due to this decision, the animators went over the scenes in order to accommodate the widescreen theatrical aspect ratio. The studio cooperated well, granting the filmmakers a large amount of creative control.  Warner Bros. also increased the production budget to $6 million, which gave the filmmakers opportunities for more elaborate set pieces. The opening title sequence featured a flight through an entirely computer-generated Gotham City. As a visual joke, sequence director Kevin Altieri set the climax of the film inside a miniature automated model of Gotham City, where Batman and the Joker were giants. This was an homage to a mainstay of "Batman" comic books of the Dick Sprang era, often featuring the hero fighting against a backdrop of gigantic props (they would later do another homage to Sprang's works in "The New Batman Adventures" episode "Legends of the Dark Knight"). From start to finish, the film was completed within eight months.

Themes.

Paul Dini intended each of the flashbacks into Batman's love life to "have a tendency to get worse, when you hope things will get better." Bruce's relationship with Andrea, which at first shows promise, eventually turns into turmoil. At first, Bruce and Andrea are set for marriage, but then Bruce is given a farewell note from Andrea cutting off their relationship. This eventually leads into Bruce's decision to become Batman. Richard Corliss of "Time" felt this scene paralleled Andrea's decision to avenge her own parents and reject love when she finds her own father murdered. Both events transform the two people (Bruce becomes Batman, Andrea becomes the Phantasm). One scene depicts Bruce Wayne at his parents' tombstone saying "I didn't count on being happy." According to Reaves, this scene was to be a pivotal moment in Bruce's tragic life, as he denies himself the opportunity to live a normal life. Reaves also stated: "When Bruce puts on the mask for the first time, [after Andrea breaks their engagement], and Alfred says 'My God!' he's reacting in horror, because he's watching this man he's helped raise from childhood, this man who has let the desire for vengeance and retribution consume his life, at last embrace the unspeakable."

Comic books and merchandise.

In December 1993, two novelizations were released. One was written by Burnett, Dini and Andrew Helfer, with the other authored by Geary Gravel.  DC Comics released a comic book adaptation written by Kelley Puckett and drawn by Mike Parobeck. The comic book adaptation was later included with the VHS release. Kenner, who had already released toys for the cartoon series, produced several tie in figures for the film, including Joker and the Phantasm (packaged unmasked, spoiling a pivotal plot point in the film). "Batman & Robin Adventures Annual #1: Shadow of the Phantasm" is a comic book sequel to the film. It was written by Dini and released in 1996. In 2015, a DC Collectibles action figure 2-pack featuring Batman and Phantasm was released.

Music.

The soundtrack was composed by Shirley Walker, the main composer for "The Animated Series". Walker cited the score as a favorite among her own compositions. In an interview with Cinemusic.com, Walker explained that the "latin" lyrics used in the Main Title were actually names of key Warner Bros. staff read backwards. The song "I Never Even Told You" was written by Siedah Garrett and Glen Ballard. It was performed by Tia Carrere. Hans Zimmer, who would later compose the score for The Dark Knight Trilogy, played the synthesizer on the score.  The score was originally released on December 14, 1993, by Reprise Records. On March 24, 2009, La-La Land Records released a limited expanded edition. The release includes all tracks found on the original release with some tracks expanded. It also features almost 30 minutes of previously unreleased material.

Original release.

All music composed by Walker except where otherwise noted.

Expanded edition release.

Previously unreleased tracks are in bold.

Reception.

Box office.

"Batman: Mask of the Phantasm" opened on December 25, 1993 in the United States in 1,506 theaters, accumulating $1,189,975 over its first 2 days. The film went on to gross $5,795,524 in the domestic total box office intake. The filmmakers blamed Warner Bros. for the unsuccessful marketing campaign. Despite this, "Mask of the Phantasm" eventually turned a profit with its various home video releases.

Critical response.

"Batman: Mask of the Phantasm" received generally positive reviews from critics. According to the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 83% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 29 reviews, with an average rating of 6.91/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Stylish and admirably respectful of the source material, "Batman: Mask of the Phantasm" succeeds where many of the live-action Batman adaptations have failed." "Empire" cited it as the best animated film of 1993, and felt it contained better storylines than Tim Burton's "Batman" and "Batman Returns". "TV Guide" was impressed with the Art Deco noir design that was presented. In addition the film's climax and Batman's escape from the Gotham City Police Department were considered to be elaborate action sequences. Richard Harrington of "The Washington Post" agreed with overall aspects that included the animation, design, dialogue and storyline, as well as Shirley Walker's film score. Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert regretted not having viewed the film during its theatrical release and gave the film a positive review on their television show, "At the Movies", when the film was released on home video, with Siskel feeling that "Phantasm" was better than "Batman Returns" and Joel Schumacher's "Batman Forever", and only slightly below "Batman".  However, Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" thought the voice performances were "flat and one-dimensional". Chris Hicks of the "Deseret News" felt "the picture didn't come alive until the third act" feeling that the animators sacrificed the visuals for the storyline. In addition, he felt Mark Hamill "stole the show." Leonard Klady of "Variety" had mixed reactions towards the film, but his review was negative overall. He felt the overall themes and morals were clichéd and cited the animation to be to the "point of self-parody".

Legacy.

Over time, the film has become a beloved cult film. In a 2010 list, IGN ranked "Mask of the Phantasm" as the 25th best animated film of all time. That same year IGN also stated it was "the Dark Knight's best big screen story" until "Batman Begins". In 2011, "Total Film" also named "Mask of the Phantasm" as one of the greatest animated movies of all time, coming in at 47th out of 50. "Time" ranked "Phantasm" as one of the 10 best superhero films ever in 2011. "Wired"s Scott Thill called Kevin Conroy "the finest Batman on record" in 2009. To commemorate the film's 20th anniversary, a screening of the film was held in Santa Monica with cast members Kevin Conroy, Dana Delany and Mark Hamill in attendance. To commemorate the film's 25th anniversary, Fathom Events rereleased the film for one day on November 12, 2018.

Home media.

"Mask of the Phantasm" was released on LaserDisc in April 1994 and on VHS in May of the same year. The VHS was reissued in April 2003 as part of a three-tape pack with "" and "". "Mask of the Phantasm" was first released on DVD in December 1999 as a snap case and in October 2005 as a keep case with the insert. The film was re-released in April 2004 as a three disc DVD box set that included "SubZero" and "Return of the Joker". That version is currently out of print. Warner Home Video re-released the film again in February 2008 as a double feature DVD with "SubZero".  The film was released as part of the Warner Archive Collection on Blu-ray on July 25, 2017, featuring new high definition transfers in and open matte presentations. The film was also included in the Blu-ray release of the "Batman: The Complete Series" box-set in the Fall 2018.

Accolades.

Alongside "The Lion King" and "The Nightmare Before Christmas", "Mask of the Phantasm" was nominated for an Annie Award in the category of Best Animated Feature, but lost to "The Lion King".

Batman: Mask of the Phantasm is a 1993 American animated superhero film featuring the DC Comics character Batman. Directed by Eric Radomski and Bruce Timm, it is a cinematic stand-alone continuation of "" and the first original theatrical film produced by Warner Bros. Animation.

Batman contre le Fantôme Masqué ou Batman: Le Masque du Phantasme au Québec ("Batman: Mask of the Phantasm") est un film d'animation américain réalisé par Eric Radomski et Bruce Timm, sorti en 1993. Il est scénarisé par Alan Burnett et Paul Dini, et produit par la Warner Bros. C'est un film dérivé de la série télévisée "Batman, la série animée".


Sources of the legend.

The origin of the myth is somewhat obscure, as it is possible that the existence of this god is an invention by a satirist. No ancient polytheistic source appears for this deity.  The earliest mention of a god of flatulence is as an Egyptian, not a Roman deity. This comes from the hostile pen of the author of the "Recognitions" dubiously attributed to Pope Clement I, in which it is reported that:  It is unlikely that Clement I was the author of the extant "Recognitiones"; these are extant chiefly in a Latin translation, presumably out of the original Greek, made by Tyrannius Rufinus in the late fourth or early fifth century. The passage of Pseudo-Clement stands within a Western Christian tradition of satire against the variety of minor deities worshipped by classical pagans; similar passages exist in "The City of God" by Saint Augustine of Hippo, and Tertullian's "Ad Nationes".  Robert Burton, in "The Anatomy of Melancholy", mentions a god "Crepitus Ventris" among a variety of other deities allegedly worshipped in classical antiquity:  Burton cites a work called "Syntagma de Diis" ("A Compendium of the Gods") by Lilius Giraldus as his source for the existence of such a god; by this reference, Burton probably meant Giraldus' "Historia de diis gentium" ("History of the Pagan Gods"); but because Burton wrote in what he called an "extemporean" style, "quicquid in buccam venit" ("whatever came into his head"), Burton's quotations and references are not always reliable. Because of Burton's mixed Latin and English style, this passage may not say that there was a god "named" "Crepitus Ventris", (Latin for "intestinal noise"), but only that there was a god of intestinal noise. The Latin word "crepitus", moreover, did not exclusively mean the sound generated by intestinal gas; it referred to squeaks, groans, knocks, and any nondescript noise in general. In "The City of God", Augustine elsewhere refers to "crepitus cymbalorum", the clang of cymbals. Medical jargon gives the name "crepitus" to the creaking or popping noises made by the joints. The is "pēdere".  Voltaire, in a passage of his "Philosophical Dictionary" devoted to changing conceptions of deity, alludes to a number of real or alleged Roman deities of a less exalted status:  Through these passages, the noun "Crepitus" moves from a common noun to a proper noun. Previous authorities had only claimed that the ancient polytheists, whether Egyptian or Roman, worshipped a god of intestinal noises. Perhaps in Burton's mention, and certainly in Voltaire, "Crepitus" is the name of a god of flatulence.

In Baudelaire.

Baudelaire criticised both the need of religion and the mediocrity of neopagan artists in a text entitled "L'École païenne" ("The Pagan School"):

In Flaubert.

Relying on Voltaire's account, Gustave Flaubert put a memorable speech into the mouth of the alleged deity Crepitus in "The Temptation of Saint Anthony":

A modern invention.

While Flaubert learned from his friend Fréderic Baudry, who in turn had consulted Alfred Maury, that "poor little Deus Crepitus does not exist; it's a modern invention," he liked his text so much that he left him in. While it is unlikely that the god Crepitus ever existed, the scene from Aristophanes is genuine; in "The Clouds" Athenians compare thunder to the sound of celestial flatulence.

Crepitus is an alleged Roman god of flatulence. It is unlikely that Crepitus was ever actually worshipped. The only ancient source for the claim that such a god was ever worshipped comes from Christian satire. The name "Crepitus" standing alone would be an inadequate and unlikely name for such a god in Latin. The god appears, however, in a number of important works of French literature.

Crepitus ou Crépitus est prétendument le dieu des pets, gaz et autres flatulences, dans la Rome antique. Il est évoqué dans plusieurs œuvres littéraires françaises, mais la seule source antique qui en parle est une satire chrétienne. Le nom "Crepitus" en latin serait inadéquat et improbable.


Early life.

Born in New York City, New York, Martin served in the U.S. Army Air Force as a navigator during World War II and then was an NYPD officer for twenty years, working his way up to detective. He got his start as a comedian while still a police officer, giving humorous presentations to the deputy commissioners.  Martin once commented that many Jewish "Seinfeld" fans told him how much his character reminded them of their fathers. Martin himself was from an Irish Catholic family.

Career.

Entering show business as a stand-in for Jackie Gleason in "The Honeymooners" in 1955–56 and as a part-time writer for Steve Allen in the 1950s, he was discovered by Mel Brooks, who cast him in "The Producers". The next year, he played the role of Hank in "Charly". He went on to act in dozens of films, including the role of Liza Minnelli's unemployed father in the hit 1981 film "Arthur" and its 1988 sequel, "". On television, he appeared in two episodes of "The Odd Couple", once in a very early episode as an irate fellow juror infuriated with Felix Unger's pesty personality and four years later as a fellow subway train passenger. Shortly after, Martin co-starred with Tony Randall for two seasons in "The Tony Randall Show" as court reporter Jack Terwilliger. Throughout the run of this show, he had second billing only to Randall himself. In 1979, he was cast as the title character in Norman Lear's final TV series concept, "". Martin was cast to play a character similar to Lear's earlier creation, "Archie Bunker", but played as a dog. Only the pilot was completed. In 1990, he co-starred with Valerie Bertinelli and Matthew Perry in the CBS sitcom "Sydney". In 1987, he appeared in the pilot episode of "21 Jump Street" as Johnny Depp's partner. In 1993, Martin played the recurring role of "Pete Peters" on the Don Rickles sit-com "Daddy Dearest". Although he was the second actor to portray Jerry's dad, Morty, in the 90s sitcom "Seinfeld", he is the one most associated with the role, as the first actor, Phil Bruns, only appeared in one episode.  In 1975, Martin originated the role of Amos Hart in "Chicago". He appeared in many more musicals during his career, most notably "South Pacific", "The Fantasticks", and "How Now, Dow Jones". Much of Martin's work has been in television, where he had a long career as a character actor. He played a gangster called the "Cheese Man" in a "Golden Girls" episode. He played a love interest for Thelma Harper in the Hawaii episode of "Mama's Family", and he played the father of Frank Fontana on "Murphy Brown". He appeared in an episode of "Full House" as Ranger Roy, the host of a popular kids' TV show. In 1981, he portrayed Ralph Marolla, father of Liza Minnelli's character in the film "Arthur" and the following year appeared on "Barney Miller" in the episode "Obituary".  In 1990, Martin was cast as the fictional father of Jerry Seinfeld, Morty Seinfeld in the sitcom "Seinfeld". His first appearance was in season 2's "The Pony Remark". Martin replaced Phil Bruns who first portrayed the character in his first appearance in Season 1's "The Stake Out". He took on the role upon showrunners Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld deciding they wanted the character of Morty Seinfeld to be harsher, as they thought Bruns was too laid-back for the character. He retained this role until the series ended in 1998.

Death.

On March 21, 2005, he died of bladder cancer in Studio City, Los Angeles, California at age 82. He was cremated, and his ashes were returned to his family.

Barney Martin (March 3, 1923 – March 21, 2005) was an American actor, comedy writer, and New York City Police Department detective. He is best known for playing Morty Seinfeld, father of Jerry, on the sitcom "Seinfeld".

Barney Martin (né le à New York aux États-Unis et mort le à Studio City aux États-Unis), est un acteur américain.


History.

Officially established on March 5, 1701 by Bishop Diego de Baños y Sotomayor in the valleys of Tocopio and Tapatapa (what is known today as the central valley of Aragua) in northern Venezuela. According to the most accepted explanation, it was named after a local indigenous chief, and refers to the "Maracayo" (Felis mitis), a small tiger. Alternative etymologies cite a local aromatic tree called Mara. Maracay experienced rapid growth during Juan Vicente Gómez's dictatorship (1908–1935). Gómez saw Maracay as a suitable place to make his residence during his rule, and ordered the construction of an Arc of Triumph, a bull plaza (a near replica of the one in Seville, Spain), an Ópera house, a Zoo, and, most notably, the Hotel Jardín (Garden Hotel), a majestic, tourist attraction with very large gardens. The city is home to the Mausoleo de Gómez (Gómez's mausoleum), where the dictator's remains are stored.

Economy and transport.

One of the most important cities in Venezuela, Maracay is primarily an industrial and commercial center, the city produces paper, textiles chemicals, tobacco, cement, cattle, processed foods, soap, and perfumes.  The areas around Maracay are agricultural: sugarcane, tobacco, coffee and cocoa stand out as the main products. There are also cattle-herding and timber-cutting activities. Activity by the Venezuelan Military also adds a great deal to Maracay's economy.  Maracay has good transportation facilities and infrastructure. The city is linked to most other important localities by the Autopista Regional del Centro (Central Regional Highway). It also has good access to Venezuela's small national railway system. The city boasts the national Hidroplane airport, located on the shore of the Lago de Valencia (Lake of Valencia). The city does not have a subway system, but one is in the planning stages.  Maracay has two airports. The Airport Mariscal Sucre (IATA MCY ICAO SVBS) and the military Air Base El Libertador (IATA MYC ICAO SVBL)

Military.

Maracay is a city heavily influenced by the military. Maracay is the cradle of Venezuelan aviation, and it is home to the two largest Air Force bases in the country. The Venezuelan F-16 fighter planes are stationed here, as well as the new Sukhoi-30MKEs acquired by the Venezuelan Government.  Other military facilities include the Fourth Armored Division of the Army and the Venezuelan Paratroopers main base and training center.  It is also home to the government-owned ammunition and weapons factory (CAVIM) that produces the Venezuelan version of the FN FAL ("Fusil Automatique Leger" - Light Automatic Rifle) rifle and the AK-103s; as well as the ammunition for both models.

Natural reserves.

The mountains on the north side of Maracay, that separate it from the coast, make up the Henri Pittier National Park, named after the Swiss naturalist that studied them. The park is a very lush rainforest, with a great variety of ferns. Two very winding roads cut through the park over the mountains to the coast. One, beginning at the North-Central part of the city known as Urbanización El Castaño, goes to the beach town of Choroní. The other, beginning at the North-Western part at the city of El Limón, goes to Ocumare de la Costa and the beaches of Cata and Cuyagua.

Higher educational institutions and cultural venues.

Maracay houses the Faculty of Veterinarians and Agronomy of the Universidad Central de Venezuela, and an extension of the Universidad de Carabobo.  The main Campus of the UNEFA (a military university open to civilians) is located here. Career choices include, Electronics, Aeronautical and Civil Engineering, as well as other disciplines such as avionics.

Museums.

The main museums are:

Religion.

The Patron Saint is Saint Joseph.  The San Sebastian's Walk is a religious catholic event with ecological and sport characteristics, which takes place the 20th of January of each year in the outskirts of the city of Maracay.  The city has no synagogue. However, nine indigenous inhabitants converted to Conservative Judaism in Valencia in 2014 after a three-year study course. In 2016, they were denied the right to emigrate to Israel by the Israeli Ministry of Interior, under the assumption that they failed to "belong to a Jewish community" in Maracay.

Sports.

Maracay is the home of the local baseball team Tigres de Aragua.  The city's Bullfight arena is the only "Maestranza" (bullfighting school) in the country. At the present day is called "Maestranza Cesar Girón"

Maracay () is a city in north-central Venezuela, near the Caribbean coast, and is the capital and most important city of the state of Aragua. Most of it falls under the jurisdiction of Girardot Municipality. The population of Maracay and its surroundings in the 2011 census was 955,362. In Venezuela, Maracay is known as "Ciudad Jardín" ("Garden City").

Maracay est une ville du Venezuela, chef-lieu de la municipalité de Girardot et capitale de l'État d'Aragua. En 2009, la population de l'agglomération est estimée à habitants, ce qui en fait l'une des cinq principales agglomérations du pays.


Biography.

Moréas was born into a distinguished Athenian family on April 15, 1856. His ancestors included two well-known men of the Greek War of Independence, namely his paternal grandfather and namesake Ioannis Papadiamantopoulos (1766–1826), born in Corinth but of ultimately Epirote ancestry (he was executed after the fall of Missolonghi), and his maternal great uncle Iakovos Tombazis (c. 1782–1829), from Hydra, who became one of the first admirals of the Greek navy. Moreas's father was Adamantios Papadiamantopoulos from Patras; a judge, scholar, and poet.  Moreas received a French education, and went to Paris in 1875 to study law at the University of Paris. While in France, he began associating with literary circles, and became acquainted with, a group of French writers that included Alphonse Allais, Charles Cros, Guy de Maupassant, and Léon Bloy. He was also an acquaintance of the Greek artist Demetrios Galanis and the Romanian poet Ion Minulescu.  Moréas died in Paris, France on March 31, 1910.

Works.

Moréas published poetry in his publications "Lutèce" and "Le Chat noir", and collected his poems into two editions, "Les Syrtes" ("The Sandbanks") and "Cantilènes", which were strongly influenced by Paul Verlaine.  He was initially a practitioner of the style of Symbolism, and wrote the "Symbolist Manifesto" (1886), which he published in the newspaper "Le Figaro", partly to redeem the reputation of the new generation of young writers from the charge of "decadence" that the press had implied. He was considered one of the most important Symbolist poets until the early 1890s.  In 1891, as Symbolism became more openly associated with anarchism, he published "Le Pèlerin passionné" which rejected Northern European and Germanic influences, such as Romanticism (as well as some aspects of Symbolism), in favor of Ancient Roman and Ancient Greek influences. This work helped initiate the "École Romane", the aesthetic of which provided Charles Maurras with the ideology necessary for the far-right philosophy "Action Française".  Moréas also wrote "Les Demoiselles Goubert", a novel, in association with Paul Adam. His most important publications were:

Jean Moréas (; born Ioannis A. Papadiamantopoulos, Ιωάννης Α. Παπαδιαμαντόπουλος; 15 April 1856 – 31 March 1910), was a Greek poet, essayist, and art critic, who wrote mostly in the French language but also in Greek during his youth.

Ioánnis A. Papadiamantópoulos (en grec : ), dit Jean Moréas, né à Athènes le et mort à Saint-Mandé (Seine) le, est un poète symboliste grec d'expression française.


Action Man (série télévisée d'animation)

Plot.

Action Man is a member of an elite multinational task force named Action Force who fight against the terrorist Dr. X and his "Council of Doom". Action Man is also portrayed as being an amnesiac who is trying to unlock the mystery of his past.

Toys.

The show introduced several new team mates for Action Man which were then made into toys. The action figures of Natalie Poole and Knuck have become very rare collectors items. At Joecon 2010, a convention exclusive Q-Force action figure of Natalie Poole was released.

Media releases.

United States.

In 2001, Lions Gate Home Entertainment and Trimark Home Video released two VHSes titled "Secret of Action Man" and "Action Man in Space", containing two episodes each. The latter was also released on DVD, containing the four episodes seen on the VHSes.  In 2003, Sterling Entertainment released a DVD called "Space Wars" containing the two episodes found on the "Action Man in Space" VHS as well as two more. It was re-released by NCircle Entertainment in 2007.  On 17 February 2015, Mill Creek Entertainment released "Action Man- The Complete Series" on DVD in Region 1. This marked the first time all episodes of the show had received a DVD release.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, the series was released on VHS by Abbey Home Entertainment and later on DVD by the company’s successor Abbey Home Media, but the episodes on the DVDs are in a random order, and many episodes have been released numerous times while several have not been released at all. This has caused confusion amongst many fans.

Action Man is an American-Canadian-British children's animated television show, created by DIC Productions, L.P. and Bohbot Entertainment. The cartoon is based on the Hasbro toy line of the same name. The show also featured live action segments before and after the main show, which they were filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood and Florida.

Une deuxième série, toujours intitulée Action Man, d'animation en 3D canadienne, en 26 épisodes de 26 minutes, a été diffusée entre le et le sur Fox Kids. En France, la série a été diffusée à partir du sur France 3.