The sport.

All that is known about the extinct sport is comes from one written eye-witness account, one engraving, oral tradition and archaeology. An Englishman named William Mariner who lived in Tonga between 1806 and 1810 described:  A 1793 engraving by the French Captain D’Entrecasteaux corroborates Mariner’s story.

The mounds.

In Tongan, pigeon snaring mounds are called "sia heu lupe". The general shape of a pigeon snaring mound was described as “more or less circular platforms, 20-35 m wide and 0.6-5 m high, with a flat top. The characteristic feature of the Tongan pigeon mound is a circular central pit, 5—7 m in diameter, which has stone-faced walls. Some pigeon mounds in addition have large stone-lined pits filled with large boulders. The function of these structures is unknown.” The central depression puzzles archaeologists because it is not described in William Mariner’s account and no one knows how it was used to snare the pigeons. There are also many mounds, especially in Ha’apai, that do not have the depression.  While "sia heu lupe" can be found throughout Tonga, and even in American and West Samoa, the best studied are those in the Ha’apai Island Group, where many were constructed in the 15th and 16th centuries by the Mata’uvave line of chiefs. A 1990-1992 archeological survey of northern Ha’apai by Simon Fraser University identified two on Nukunamo island, one on the northern tip of Foa Island, none on Lifuka Island, eight on U’oleva Island, one on Tatafa Island and none on ‘Uiha Island. One of these mounds, called Sialufotu on U’oleva island, is known as the personal mound the Mata’uvave and is the largest known "sia heau lupe" in Tonga.  The Simon Fraser study classified mounds into one of three types: mounds with central depression lacking stacked-stone retaining walls, complex mounds with stone retaining walls and access ramps, and flat-topped mounds. As pigeon mounds were created not only for the sport but to project status, the second type would exalt the highest status of the three as it required the highest investment of labor.  The Simon Fraser study also found several characteristics of pigeon mounds. "First, they were situated in areas without a large, if any, human population and this would have facilitated an expansive cover of forest growth to which pigeons would be attracted... Second, the mounds were constructed in protected areas that, while within the proximity to the shore, tended toward the center line of the island upon which they were built... this pattern conforms to the expected flight path of a migrating pigeon flock as it might be pursued by hunters."

The culture of pigeon snaring.

Constructing pigeon snaring mounds required substantial investments of labor from many people, but the sport was tabu, or forbidden, to all but the Tongan chiefs. Any pigeons captured by commoners were to be given to chiefs, and anyone caught eating a pigeon could be punished by "whipping or even death".  The sport could be played for rather basic, small mounds, so the variety in size ornamentation of the mounds is attributed to their projection of status for the chiefs who commissioned their construction. According to one historian, "pigeon mounds, together with the royal tombs (langi), can be considered as the highest ranking sites in Tonga." The larger one’s mound, the higher one’s status.

Pigeon snaring was sport played exclusively by Tongan chiefs atop artificial mounds. The appearance of these mounds began in the 12th century but its popularity waned after centuries. By the 1700s, when Europeans began visiting Tonga and recording their observations, the sport was no longer played regularly. By the early 1800s, it was not played at all.

Un sia heu lupe est un monticule artificiel servant à la chasse au pigeon pratiquée par les chefs traditionnels tongiens. Ces monticules ont une forme circulaire avec un puits central et un mur de pierre. L'un des rares "sia heu lupe" encore debout est actuellement menacé par un projet d'ubarnisation.


Specifications.

The T19 Howitzer Gun Motor Carriage was similar to the M3 Half-track, as it shared the same chassis, engine, suspension, armor, and fuel tank. It was 20 ft 2 in long, 7 ft 3.5 in wide, 7 ft 8 in high, with a weight of 9.54 short tons. The suspension consisted of semi-elliptical longitudinal leaf springs for the wheels and vertical volute springs for the tracks. It was powered by a White 160AX, 147 hp, 386 in, six-cylinder gasoline engine with a compression ratio of 6.3:1. It was capable of a maximum road speed of 45 mph. The power-to-weight ratio was 14.7 hp/ton.  The vehicle was operated by a crew of six. Maximum armor was only 0.5 inch at the windshield and 0.25 inches everywhere else. The armament consisted of one 105 mm M2A1 howitzer (equipped with eight rounds of ammunition) with a single.50 caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gun (equipped with 300 rounds of ammunition) for local defense.

Development.

In the autumn of 1941, when the Armored Force expanded, an urgent need for self-propelled artillery arose. Although a full-track chassis was preferred, the situation required the use of whatever vehicles were immediately available. The M3 Half-track was selected to carry a 105 mm M2A1 howitzer. Although this design had originally been suggested in September 1941, it had not been taken up. However, the urgency of the requirement resulted in the approval by the Adjutant General and the construction of a prototype was authorized by OCM 17391, dated 31 October 1941; the new vehicle designated as the 105 mm Howitzer Motor Carriage T19.  As with other American self-propelled guns produced during the early World War II period, the prototype was assembled and tested at the Aberdeen Proving Ground. The M2 recoil mechanism and other parts of the M2 howitzer carriage were used in the vehicle mounting. After several tests, the gun carriage proved fragile on bumpy terrain. The problem was corrected by reinforcing the frame, and redesigning the howitzer mount. Demountable headlights were recommended because of the muzzle blast, although they were not available for early production models. Early models had no shield for the howitzer either, but a foldable shield was added during testing. The gun faced forward, like many other half-track models. The total traverse was 40 degrees and the elevation was from −5 to +35 degrees. The armored windshield cover was remounted so it could fold onto the hood. After further testing, it was accepted for production.  After the design was accepted, a prototype was shipped to Diamond T as a guide for production. The first production vehicle was delivered to the US Army in January 1942. A total of 324 T19s had been made by the time production ended in April 1942.

Service history.

The T19 HMC was designed as a stopgap measure until better self-propelled artillery pieces were made; it served in the Tunisia Campaign in North Africa in 1942–43. It was employed mainly in most battalions' headquarter platoons, and the "cannon companies" of infantry divisions. The T19 was soon replaced in armored divisions by the M7 Priest, a 105 mm howitzer on a fully tracked chassis.  It served with only a few units in Sicily and Italy. On one occasion in Sicily, a T19 company (part of the 16th Infantry Regiment) halted a German tank attack by destroying six tanks, for the loss of one T19. That unit was later awarded the Presidential Unit Citation. A few served as late as 1945 in southern France. It was finally declared obsolete in July 1945. That month, the contractor Brown & McLaughlin converted 90 T19s into M3A1 Half-tracks.

The T19 Howitzer Motor Carriage (HMC), was a howitzer mounted on a M3 Half-track chassis. It saw service during World War II with the U.S. Army. Its secondary armament consisted of an air-cooled M2 machine gun for local defense. It was produced by Diamond T between January 1942 and April 1942.

Le T19 Howitzer Carriage Motor (HMC) est canon automoteur de l'United States Army. Le véhicule est conçu sur la base d'un obusier de monté sur un châssis de Half-Track M3. Il est produit à par Diamond T entre et. Il participe à la Seconde Guerre mondiale et sert principalement dans la campagne d'Afrique du Nord, lors de l'opération Husky et la campagne d'Italie, et plus tard lors de l'invasion du sud de France en 1944.


Élections au Parlement de La Rioja de 2015

Overview.

Electoral system.

The Parliament of La Rioja was the devolved, unicameral legislature of the autonomous community of La Rioja, having legislative power in regional matters as defined by the Spanish Constitution and the Riojan Statute of Autonomy, as well as the ability to vote confidence in or withdraw it from a President of the Autonomous Community. Voting for the Parliament was on the basis of universal suffrage, which comprised all nationals over eighteen, registered in La Rioja and in full enjoyment of their political rights. Additionally, Riojans abroad were required to apply for voting before being permitted to vote, a system known as "begged" or expat vote ().  The 33 members of the Parliament of La Rioja were elected using the D'Hondt method and a closed list proportional representation, with a threshold of 5 percent of valid votes—which included blank ballots—being applied regionally. Parties not reaching the threshold were not taken into consideration for seat distribution.  The electoral law provided that parties, federations, coalitions and groupings of electors were allowed to present lists of candidates. However, groupings of electors were required to secure the signature of at least 1 percent of the electors registered in La Rioja. Electors were barred from signing for more than one list of candidates. Concurrently, parties and federations intending to enter in coalition to take part jointly at an election were required to inform the relevant Electoral Commission within ten days of the election being called.

Election date.

The term of the Parliament of La Rioja expired four years after the date of its previous election. Elections to the Parliament were fixed for the fourth Sunday of May every four years. The previous election was held on 22 May 2011, setting the election date for the Parliament on Sunday, 24 May 2015.  The President of the Autonomous Community had the prerogative to dissolve the Parliament of La Rioja and call a snap election, provided that no motion of no confidence was in process, no nationwide election was due and some time requirements were met: namely, that dissolution did not occur either during the first legislative session or within the legislature's last year ahead of its scheduled expiry, nor before one year had elapsed since a previous dissolution. In the event of an investiture process failing to elect a regional President within a two-month period from the first ballot, the Parliament was to be automatically dissolved and a fresh election called. Any snap election held as a result of these circumstances would not alter the period to the next ordinary election, with elected deputies merely serving out what remained of their four-year terms.

Opinion polls.

The table below lists voting intention estimates in reverse chronological order, showing the most recent first and using the dates when the survey fieldwork was done, as opposed to the date of publication. Where the fieldwork dates are unknown, the date of publication is given instead. The highest percentage figure in each polling survey is displayed with its background shaded in the leading party's colour. If a tie ensues, this is applied to the figures with the highest percentages. The "Lead" column on the right shows the percentage-point difference between the parties with the highest percentages in a given poll. When available, seat projections are also displayed below the voting estimates in a smaller font. 17 seats were required for an absolute majority in the Parliament of La Rioja.

The 2015 Riojan regional election was held on Sunday, 24 May 2015, to elect the 9th Parliament of the autonomous community of La Rioja. All 33 seats in the Parliament were up for election. The election was held simultaneously with regional elections in twelve other autonomous communities and local elections all throughout Spain.

Les élections au Parlement de La Rioja de 2015 (en espagnol : "") se sont tenues le dimanche afin d'élire les trente-trois députés de la neuvième législature du Parlement de La Rioja.


Spacecraft.

"Johannes Kepler" consisted of two sections: the Propulsion Module, with four main engines and 28 smaller maneuvering thrusters, and the Integrated Cargo Carrier, which attached directly to the ISS and could hold up to eight standard payload racks. The four solar wings of the spacecraft provided up to 4,800 watts of electrical power to its rechargeable batteries.  The ATV's rendezvous and docking system mounted a telegoniometer, which functioned as a radar system, and two videometers, which fired laser pulses at cube-shaped reflectors on the ISS' "Zvezda" service module for range detection. The nose of the spacecraft contained rendezvous sensors and Russian docking equipment.

Mission payload.

GeoFlow II.

"Johannes Kepler" delivered the GeoFlow II hydrodynamics experiment container to the ISS. This experiment was designed to observe liquid movements in microgravity, and compare them with computer simulations, thus helping scientists to understand convection currents within the Earth's mantle.

Mission summary.

Launch.

On 16 February 2011 UTC, "Johannes Kepler" was launched on an Ariane 5ES rocket from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. The launch was conducted by Arianespace on behalf of the ESA.  The first launch attempt, on 15 February 2011, was halted four minutes before lift-off, due to an erroneous signal from one of the rocket's fuel tanks.

Docking.

Docking with the ISS was completed on 24 February 2011 at 15:59 UTC, after a 15-minute delay. The spacecraft traveled over eight days to catch up with the space station, and arrived at the aft port of the station's "Zvezda" service module. During the rendezvous operations, ATV-2 traveled a total of 2.5 million miles. The docking occurred as ATV-2 and the ISS flew over the coast of Liberia in western Africa. Hooks and latches engaged a few minutes later to firmly attach ATV-2 to the ISS.  The "Johannes Kepler" mission marked the first time European astronauts were on board the International Space Station during an ATV mission, with Italian astronaut Paolo Nespoli welcoming the ATV's arrival. ESA astronaut Roberto Vittori was also aboard the ISS at the same time as the ATV, having arrived on Space Shuttle "Endeavour" on the STS-134 mission in May 2011.

ISS altitude Increase.

"Johannes Kepler" was used to boost the ISS's standard altitude from about 350 kilometers (220 statute miles) to 400 km (248 miles). The higher altitude has lower atmospheric drag, which reduces the propellant needed annually to maintain the station's altitude from 6,800 kg (15,000 lb) to roughly 3,630 kg (8,000 lb), depending on atmospheric conditions. The ATV used about 4,500 kg (9,900 lb) of rocket fuel to accomplish this change, with the reboost occurring incrementally over several months.

End of mission and deorbit.

On 20 June 2011, "Johannes Kepler" undocked from the ISS. At 18:30 UTC (20:30 CEST) that same day, while preparing to deorbit, the ATV was forced to conduct a debris-avoidance maneuver, using some of its remaining fuel to move into a safe orbit after NASA warned of a potential collision with orbital debris. On 21 June 2011, the ATV deorbited, burning up in the atmosphere as planned over the South Pacific Ocean at around 22:44 CET.

The "Johannes Kepler" ATV, or Automated Transfer Vehicle 002 (ATV-002), was an uncrewed cargo spacecraft built to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). It was launched on 16 February 2011 by the European Space Agency (ESA). "Johannes Kepler" carried propellant, air and dry cargo weighing over, and had a total mass of over, making it, at the time, the heaviest payload launched by the ESA. The spacecraft was named after the 17th-century German astronomer Johannes Kepler.

"Johannes Kepler" ATV, ou Automated Transfer Vehicle 002 (ATV-002), est le second ATV, nommé Johannes Kepler, du nom de l'astronome allemand. Le choix de ce nom a été soutenu par l'Agence spatiale allemande (DLR), alors que l'année 2009 est le jubilé de la publication de l'œuvre majeure de Kepler, "Astronomia nova" où il énonce les deux premières lois de Kepler.


Élections à la Junte générale de la principauté des Asturies de 1983

Overview.

Electoral system.

The General Junta of the Principality of Asturias was the devolved, unicameral legislature of the autonomous community of Asturias, having legislative power in regional matters as defined by the Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the regional Statute of Autonomy, as well as the ability to vote confidence in or withdraw it from a President of the Principality.  Transitory Provision First of the Statute established a specific electoral procedure for the first election to the General Junta of the Principality of Asturias, to be supplemented by the provisions within Royal Decree-Law 20/1977, of 18 March, and its related regulations. Voting for the General Junta was on the basis of universal suffrage, which comprised all nationals over eighteen, registered in Asturias and in full enjoyment of their civil and political rights. The 45 members of the General Junta of the Principality of Asturias were elected using the D'Hondt method and a closed list proportional representation, with a threshold of five percent of valid votes—which included blank ballots—being applied regionally. Parties not reaching the threshold were not taken into consideration for seat distribution. Seats were allocated to constituencies, which were established as follows:  Each constituency was allocated a fixed number of seats: 32 for the Central District, 5 for the Eastern District and 8 for the Western District.

Election date.

The Council of Government of the Principality of Asturias, in agreement with the Government of Spain, was required to call an election to the General Junta of the Principality of Asturias within from 1 February to 31 May 1983. On 7 March 1983, it was confirmed that the first election to the General Junta of the Principality of Asturias would be held on Sunday, 8 May, together with regional elections for twelve other autonomous communities as well as nationwide local elections, with the election decree being published in the Official Gazette of the Principality of Asturias and of the Province on 10 March.

Background.

The approval of a statute of autonomy for the Principality of Asturias was subject to the "slow-track" procedure set down under Article 143 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978. This route had been favoured by the governing party of Spain, the Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD), and more reluctantly by the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), the Communist Party of Spain (PCE) and the People's Alliance (AP), which had initially advocated for the "fast-track" route of Article 151; the difference between both procedures being the pace in the process of devolution.  Starting in October 1977, deputies and senators from the four parties having won parliamentary representation in Asturias at the 1977 Spanish general election—PSOE, UCD, AP and PCE—initiated procedures for requesting the central government a pre-autonomic regime for the region, which was granted in 1978 through the establishment of a Regional Council with Socialist Rafael Fernández at its head and members from the aforementioned four political parties. The autonomy Statute was finally approved in 1981 after the signing of the "autonomic pacts" between UCD and PSOE, coming into force on 31 January 1982.  The first regional government of the autonomous community came to be formed by a PSOE–PCE coalition in April 1982. The investiture process to re-elect Rafael Fernández to the post had came under trouble over discrepancies on the government composition, after the PSOE unsuccessfully attempted to invite all other parties into a national unity government or form a single-party government without the PCE until the celebration of the first regional election, and with the PCE's refusal to support the PSOE candidate without entering the regional cabinet risking a political deadlock or a UCD–AP government in the region. While as president, Fernández maintained a moderate profile aimed at broadening the PSOE's support ahead of the incoming 1982 and 1983 elections, with the Principality having become both an experiment on the Socialists's government capabilities at large as well as an electoral stronghold for the party.

Parliamentary status.

The composition of the provisional General Junta was determined by the provisions of Transitory Provision Second of the Statute, which established that its members be indirectly elected as follows:  As a result, the composition of the provisional General Junta of the Principality of Asturias, upon its constitution in March 1982, was established as indicated below:  The 1982 Spanish general election resulted in changes in the composition of the provisional regional assembly, in accordance with the new seat distribution of Cortes Generales members in the region. Changes shown include former UCD provincial deputy Manuel Rodríguez Zapico leaving the UCD's parliamentary caucus and joining the Mixed Group as an independent on 23 March 1982.

Parties and candidates.

The electoral law allowed for parties and federations registered in the interior ministry, coalitions and groupings of electors to present lists of candidates. Parties and federations intending to form a coalition ahead of an election were required to inform the relevant Electoral Commission within fifteen days of the election call, whereas groupings of electors needed to secure the signature of at least one-thousandth of the electorate in the constituencies for which they sought election—with a compulsory minimum of 500 signatures—disallowing electors from signing for more than one list of candidates. A minimum of three deputies was required for the constitution of parliamentary groups in the General Junta of the Principality of Asturias.  Below is a list of the main parties and electoral alliances which contested the election:  The electoral disaster of the Union of the Democratic Centre (UCD) in the October 1982 general election and the outcome of its extraordinary congress held in December, in which the party's leadership chose to transform the UCD into a christian democratic political force, brought the party to a process of virtual disintegration as many of its remaining members either switched party allegiances, split into new, independent candidacies or left politics altogether. Subsequent attempts to seek electoral allies ahead of the incoming 1983 local and regional elections, mainly the conservative People's Alliance (AP) and the christian democratic People's Democratic Party (PDP), had limited success due to concerns from both AP and UCD over such an alliance policy: AP strongly rejected any agreement that implied any sort of global coalition with UCD due to the party's ongoing decomposition, and prospects about a possible PDP–UCD merger did not come into fruition because of the latter's reluctance to dilute its brand within another party. By the time the UCD's executive had voted for the liquidation of the party's mounting debts and its subsequent dissolution on 18 February 1983, electoral alliances with the AP–PDP coalition had only been agreed in some provinces of the Basque Country and Galicia.  Together with AP, the PDP had agreed to maintain their general election alliance—now rebranded as the People's Coalition—for the May local and regional elections, with the inclusion of the Liberal Union (UL), a political party created in January 1983 out of independents from the AP–PDP coalition in an attempt to appeal to former UCD liberal voters. The Coalition had seen its numbers soar from late February as a result of many former members from the UCD's christian democratic wing joining the PDP.  The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) chose not to field incumbent president Rafael Fernández as their leading candidate, after several clashes between Fernández and the party's regional leadership, instead proposing Pedro de Silva, secretary general of the Socialist Parliamentary Group in the Congress of Deputies up until then, for the post of regional premier.

Opinion polls.

he tables below lists opinion polling results in reverse chronological order, showing the most recent first and using the dates when the survey fieldwork was done, as opposed to the date of publication. Where the fieldwork dates are unknown, the date of publication is given instead. The highest percentage figure in each polling survey is displayed with its background shaded in the leading party's colour. If a tie ensues, this is applied to the figures with the highest percentages. The "Lead" column on the right shows the percentage-point difference between the parties with the highest percentages in a given poll.  The table below lists weighted voting intention estimates. When available, seat projections are also displayed below (or in place of) the voting estimates in a smaller font; 23 seats were required for an absolute majority in the General Junta of the Principality of Asturias.  The table below lists raw, unweighted voting preferences.

Aftermath.

Under Article 32 of the Statute, investiture processes to elect the president of the Principality of Asturias required of an absolute majority—more than half the votes cast—to be obtained in the first ballot. If unsuccessful, new ballots would be held within 48-hour periods requiring only of a simple majority—more affirmative than negative votes—to succeed. In the event of the investiture process failing to elect a regional president within a two-month period from the first ballot, the General Junta was to be automatically dissolved and a fresh election called, with elected deputies merely serving out what remained of their four-year terms.  On 17 June 1983, Pedro de Silva, the candidate proposed by the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), was elected as new president of the Principality with an absolute majority of votes.

The 1983 Asturian regional election was held on Sunday, 8 May 1983, to elect the 1st General Junta of the Principality of Asturias. All 45 seats in the General Junta were up for election. The election was held simultaneously with regional elections in twelve other autonomous communities and local elections all throughout Spain.

Les élections à la Junte générale de la principauté des Asturies de 1983 (en ) se sont tenues le dimanche, afin d'élire les quarante-cinq députés de la première législature de la Junte générale de la principauté des Asturies.


History of deaf education in the United States

Early history.

Before the 1800s, few, if any, educational opportunities existed for deaf children in America. Some wealthy families sent their children to Europe's schools, but many non-high class children had no access to education.

Early oral education in the United States.

In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, many wealthy colonists sent their deaf children to Europe to receive schooling. The best known deaf educational institution was the Braidwood Academy in Edinburgh, Scotland, established in 1760 by Thomas Braidwood as the "Academy for the Deaf and Dumb." The Braidwood Academy was an expensive private oral school that was very secretive about its methods, only sharing their methodology with a few select people.  The Bolling family, who lived in Virginia, were the most prominent colonists to send their deaf children to the Braidwood Academy. Thomas Bolling and his wife Elizabeth Gay (who was also his first cousin) had three deaf children, John, Mary, and Thomas Jr., as well as at least two hearing children. John was the first of the three children to go to the Braidwood Academy in 1771, with Mary and Thomas Jr. arriving later. The three Bolling children arrived back in the United States in 1783; however, they became ill shortly after arriving home, and John died on October 11, 1783. Because of this, it cannot be determined how effective the ten years of oral instruction he received were. Mary and Thomas Jr. lived for at least another four decades, and comments about Thomas Jr. noted that he was a "miracle of accomplishments."  The next generation of hearing Bollings had deaf children, and they wanted their children to be educated in the United States. William, the last child of Thomas and Elizabeth, married his first cousin Mary, who bore five children, two of whom were deaf. The couple's first deaf child, William Albert, drove his father's desire to create a school for the deaf in America. William Bolling met John Braidwood, a descendant of Thomas Braidwood, after he arrived in America in 1812. Bolling invited Braidwood to stay in his home as Braidwood sorted out a more permanent living arrangement. Braidwood discussed with Bolling his desire to open a school similar to the Braidwood Academy in America. After many setbacks, the Cobbs School was established in 1815. It closed about a year and a half later, in the fall of 1816, when Braidwood's personal problems caused him to leave the school and Bolling could no longer financially maintain it.

Early manual education in the United States.

In 1812 in New England, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet met a little girl named Alice Cogswell, who inspired him to create a school for the deaf in the United States. In 1815, he traveled to Europe to gain insight on their methods of teaching deaf students. He attempted to learn from the Braidwood system, but the administrators wanted him to sign a contract, remain at the school for several years to be trained in oralism, and agree to keep the teaching methods of the school a secret; Gallaudet refused this. He attended a lecture in France by Abbé Sicard showcasing two successful pupils of Paris' National Institution for Deaf-Mutes, Jean Massieu and Laurent Clerc. Gallaudet spent several months at the school, and he convinced Clerc, a thirty-year-old assistant teacher, to return with him to Hartford, Connecticut. Back in America, they established the Connecticut Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, which was later named the American School for the Deaf, in 1817. Gallaudet was the director, and Clerc was the first deaf teacher in America. Alice Cogswell was one of the first seven students.  For most of the remainder of the century, education of deaf children using sign language, a practice known as manualism, continued to grow. Approximately forty percent of all teachers were deaf. More than thirty schools for the deaf were opened, the majority of which were manual. William Willard was the first deaf superintendent in America and founded Indiana School for the Deaf in 1843. Gallaudet College (now Gallaudet University) was founded in Washington, D.C in 1864 with Thomas Gallaudet's son, Edward Miner Gallaudet, as the school's superintendent. Edward Miner Gallaudet strongly believed in the use of sign language and had a number of arguments with Alexander Graham Bell, an oralist.  Before the 1860s and before the American Civil War, manual language was very popular among the Deaf community and also supported by the hearing community. The hearing community viewed deafness as “[isolating] the individual from the Christian community”. At the time, the people of the United States were fairly religious (notably Christian), and the hearing-advantaged believed that sign language opened deaf individuals' minds and souls to God. Through this, the hearing community believed that manualism brought deaf people closer to God and opened deaf people to the Gospel, which brought manualism general acceptance.  Prior to the 1860s, the American hearing community viewed manualism, sign language, as an art, and naturally beautiful. They also thought of deaf people who signed as being like the Romans because of the pantomimes that are a part of the language.

Change from predominantly manual education to oral education.

By the end of the American Civil War in the late 1860s, the argument for “Survival of the Fittest” was applied to the issue of education for the deaf as a result of a Darwinist perspective of Evolution. This movement brought manualists arguing their view that signs were closer to nature because the first thing babies learn to do is gesture, which is akin to sign language. To the Deaf community, manualism was at the time considered a gift from God. During this particular time in the United States, oralism was coming about which gave some a negative view of manualism because, it was argued, it was not a natural language.  Support for oralism gained momentum in the late 1860s and the use of manualism started to decrease. Many in the hearing community were now in favor of the evolutionary perspective, which depicted deaf people who used manual language akin to “lower animals”. Some hearing people viewed speech as what separated humans from animals, which in turn caused manual language to be viewed as unhumanlike. The first schools for oralism opened in the 1860s were called The New York Institution for the Improved Instruction of Deaf Mutes and The Clarke Institution for Deaf-Mutes (now the Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech).  At that time the teaching of manual language was restricted because the American Hearing Society saw deaf people who used it as different, as foreigners, or as a group with a separate language that was a threat to the hearing society. Members of the hearing community who were in favor of oralism took offense to deaf people having their own group identity and refusing to integrate within the greater community.  Oralists believed that the manual language made deaf people different, which in turn led them to believe that deaf people were abnormal. Oralists believed that the teaching of oralism allowed deaf children to be more normal. Oralists strongly believed that deaf children should put as much effort as possible into learning how to live in spite of their disabilities, thus promoting the teaching of lip reading, mouth movements, and use of hearing technology. Oralists also argued that if deaf people continued the use of manual language as their form of communication, they would never integrate within the rest of society.  It has been remarked that the better-funded northern schools switched to oralism while their poorer southern counterparts kept signing because it was difficult to hire new oralist teachers.  A model figure for oralism and against the usage of sign language was Alexander Graham Bell, who created the Volta Bureau in Washington, D.C. to pursue the studies of deafness. Two other Americans who encouraged the founding of oralist schools in the United States were Horace Mann and Samuel Gridley Howe, who travelled to Germany to see their oral schools and who wished to model them.  In 1880, an event called the Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf (which, despite the name, was actually the first) took place. The Second International Congress was an international meeting of deaf educators from at least seven countries. There were five delegates from America and around 164 delegates total in attendance. The Congress was planned and organized by a committee created by the Pereire Society, a group that was against sign language. More than half of the people invited were known oralists; therefore, the Congress was biased and most, if not all, of the resolutions that were voted on by the delegates gave results in favor of the oral method. Many of the resolutions were worded in ways that supported the oral method, such as "Considering the incontestable superiority of speech over signs in restoring the deaf-mute to society, and in giving him a more perfect knowledge of language,/Declares –/That the Oral method ought to be preferred that of signs for the education and instruction of the deaf and dumb". Until the 1890s, deaf education in the United States was limited to children, but Lillie Eginton Warren and her assistant, Edward B. Nichie, expanded the teaching to adults.

Early 20th century.

After the Congress, deaf education in America changed. Manualists, those who advocated for sign language usage, were effectively "kicked out" and replaced with teachers who used the pure oral method. Deaf teachers were removed from the profession and replaced with hearing ones. Most schools switched to the oral method or were created as oral schools in the first place, and few manual schools remained in existence. The work of deaf educators in the oralist schools, who were mostly women, was to prepare the deaf children for life in the hearing world, which required them to learn English, speech, and lipreading. All students that were sent to the oral schools were forced to use the oral method, and oralist schools restricted the deaf students' use of American Sign Language (ASL) in class and in public. Students in pure oral programs were not allowed to sign in class and were also forbidden to sign in dormitories. Students caught signing were punished, but students continued to learn sign from each other anyway. One type of punishment used on deaf students was to force them to wear white gloves that were tied together to prevent them from using signs. Those who were not successful under the oral method after several years were transferred to manual classes and considered "oral failures" who would never know anything or be able to make it in the world. Some consider this the "Dark Age of Oralism".  Edith Mansford Fitzgerald opposed these views, as a deaf woman who felt that the oralist methods had stunted her learning. In 1926, she published a book, entitled "Straight Language for the Deaf: A System of Instruction for Deaf Children" was published in 1926 and was widely influential in the field of deaf education. Her "Fitzgerald Key" at one point was used in around 75% of the institutes teaching the deaf.

Instructors.

In the early 20th century there was an increase of instructors who were deaf in many schools for the deaf. In America one of the biggest debates the deaf community had with the institutions was whether to hire more instructors who were deaf instead of hearing. Part of the reason why parents of students who are deaf wanted instructors who were deaf was to allow their children to have a role model, by allowing more instructors who were deaf allowing their children to see a possible future for themselves through their instructors.

Late 20th century.

The almost exclusive use of the pure oral method in deaf education continued well into the twentieth century. Then, during the late 1960s, Roy Kay Holcomb coined the term "Total Communication". This term described an educational philosophy he popularized where the child could use the communication method that worked best for them given their needs. If a child learned better with American Sign Language or an English sign system, they were taught using that method. If a different method worked better with another child, they received their instruction that way. Some schools using the oral method changed to Total Communication; others just added sign into their existing program or simply allowed children to sign amongst themselves without punishment. Often, the "sign languages" used in oral programs were constructed Manually Coded English (MCE) systems such as Seeing Essential English or Signing Exact English or were ASL signs in English word order. The programs used these systems in order to use them with speech in a practice known as Sign Supported Speech or Simultaneous Communication.

Deaf President Now.

In 1988, Gallaudet University students decided that they would take matters of their education into their own hands. The sixth president of Gallaudet had announced in late 1987 that he would be resigning his position as president. By early 1988, the committee that selected the candidates had narrowed it down to three finalists, two of which, Dr. Harvey Corson and Dr. I. King Jordan, were deaf, and one of which, Dr. Elisabeth Zinser, was hearing. On March 6, it was announced hastily through press release (even though the selection committee was supposed to come on campus) that Zinser, the only hearing candidate, had become the seventh president of the university. There had been rallies beforehand for a deaf president (most notably on March 1), but on the 6th, the rallying changed into protest. Students and faculty went on marches, made signs, and gave demonstrations. The students locked the gates to the university and refused let the school open until Zinser resigned. Under intense pressure from the students protesting, Zinser resigned on the fifth day of the protest, March 10. Many students decided to stay on campus instead of going on Spring Break, which was scheduled to begin on March 11. Two days later, on March 13 Jane Spilman resigned and was replaced by Phil Bravin as chair of the Board of Trustees, a taskforce was created to figure out how to achieve a 51% majority of deaf people on the Board of Trustees, and no one received any punishment for being in the protest. I. King Jordan was named eighth president—and first deaf president—of Gallaudet University.  Deaf President Now changed deaf education. Before the protest, a select few deaf people held doctorates; however, since the protest, the number of deaf people pursuing and earning advanced degrees has steadily increased. Also, schools for the deaf across America have had “mini DPNs” where students demanded deaf superintendents and senior administrators. In addition, collegiate programs were created in other countries that did not previously have them (such as Japan, Sweden, and South Africa). Deaf President Now not only affected deaf education in America, but it also affected deaf education worldwide.  In 1990, cochlear implants were approved for children two years of age and up. This drastically changed education for deaf children. More children than ever were migrated out of bilingual-bicultural residential schools and into oral schools and mainstream programs with no extra supports. Parents were not encouraged to sign with their children because it was feared that it would slow down their speech, even though research has shown that the opposite is true. This move from residential schools to day schools and mainstreaming has caused many residential programs to downsize.

Instructors.

In the most recent years the deaf community has been fighting hard for more instructors who are deaf in the public school system. In 1991 Carlsbad Unified School District parents went to the school board to complain about the lack of any instructors who are deaf. Many parents stated that their children are not getting the best education they could be getting because of the lack of representation of instructors who are deaf. However, the department head of the deaf education program says his instructors are trained for deaf and hard of hearing students. Many parents felt that having the background of understanding of deaf education is vastly different from being a person who is deaf.

Today.

Today, there are a few different methods used in the education of deaf children in the United States.  All deaf students, regardless of placement, receive an Individualized Education Program (IEP) that outlines how the school will meet the student's individual needs. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that students with special needs be provided with a Free Appropriate Public Education in the Least Restrictive Environment that is appropriate to the student's needs. Government-run schools provide deaf education in varying degrees of settings ranging from full inclusion to schools for the deaf.

Bilingual-bicultural education.

In this educational method, deafness is not seen as a medical issue; it is instead seen as a cultural issue. In the bilingual-bicultural program, it is advocated that children who are deaf be taught ASL as a first language, then be taught written and/or spoken English as a second language. Bilingual-bicultural programs emphasize that English and ASL are equal languages, and they work to help children develop age-appropriate levels of fluency in both languages. The bilingual-bicultural approach holds the belief that deaf children are visual learners as opposed to auditory learners, and therefore, academic content should be fully accessible to all deaf students (i.e. not contingent on spoken receptive/expressive skills, which may vary across students), so academic content is delivered in ASL and/or written English. Since it is not possible to simultaneously produce grammatically correct, fluent American Sign Language and spoken English, only one language is used at a time. Because there is no risk in learning sign language, the bilingual-bicultural approach mitigates the risk of language deprivation (a condition that arises when children have limited access to both spoken and sign language). Many bilingual-bicultural schools have dormitories, and deaf children can either commute to the school daily or stay in a dormitory as part of the residential program and visit their families on weekends and/or holidays and school vacations.

Residential programs.

A residential program is an educational program in which a student lives at a school for the deaf during the week and goes home on weekends or holidays instead of commuting to the school daily. In residential programs, deaf children are fully immersed in Deaf culture. At a residential school, all students are deaf or hard of hearing, so deaf students are not looked at as different. They have "a common heritage,... a common language,... and a set of customs and values". People at deaf schools help pass on "Deaf folklore and folklife (jokes, legends, games, riddles, etc.)" from one generation to the next. Deaf parents of deaf children often send their children to residential schools so that they may participate in the Deaf community and culture. Hearing parents are often a bit more reluctant because they do not want to be separated from their children. The first deaf woman to hold the position of superintendent of a residential school for the deaf in the U.S. was Gertrude Galloway.

Auditory-oral and auditory-verbal education.

The auditory-oral and auditory-verbal methods, sometimes referred to collectively as listening and spoken language, are forms of oral education. These methods are based on the belief that a deaf child can learn to listen and speak and that families do not need to learn sign language or cued speech. These methods are presented as communication options, and they rely on a large amount of parental involvement. Children who use this option may be placed in a continuum of educational placements including oral schools, such as Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech, self-contained classrooms for deaf students in public schools, or mainstream classrooms with hearing students. Though some deaf children can learn to use hearing devices to speak and understand language, that is not the case for all deaf children. Therefore, auditory-oral "only" education puts children at risk of language deprivation: a condition that arises when children have limited access to both spoken and sign language. Unlike children who receive auditory-oral-only education, deaf children who use both signed and spoken language speak as well as their hearing counterparts.

Mainstreaming and inclusion.

This educational method is what occurs when a deaf child attends public school in regular classes for at least part of the school day. Students may receive accommodations such as itinerant teachers, interpreters, assistive technology, notetakers, and aides. Inclusion can have benefits including daily interaction with hearing students and the opportunity to live at home, but it can also have drawbacks such as isolation and limited availability of support.

The history of deaf education in the United States began in the early 1800s when the Cobbs School of Virginia, an oral school, was established by William Bolling and John Braidwood, and the Connecticut Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, a manual school, was established by Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc. When the Cobbs School closed in 1816, the manual method, which used American Sign Language, became commonplace in deaf schools for most of the remainder of the century. In the late 1800s, schools began to use the oral method, which only allowed the use of speech, as opposed to the manual method previously in place. Students caught using sign language in oral programs were often punished. The oral method was used for many years until sign language instruction gradually began to come back into deaf education.

L'Histoire de l'éducation des sourds aux États-Unis commence au début des années 1800, lorsqu'une école d'oralisme "Cobbs School" a été créé par William Bolling et John Braidwood, puis en 1817, l'école The Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons, une école "signante", a été créé par Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet et Laurent Clerc. Lorsque Cobbs School est fermé en 1816, la méthode signante, qui s'appelle ici la langue des signes américaine, est devenue courante dans les écoles de sourds pour la plupart de la fin du siècle. Dans les années 1860, les écoles ont commencé à utiliser la méthode orale en remplaçant la méthode signante. Les étudiants qui ont communiqué par la langue des signes dans les programmes orales ont été souvent punis. La méthode orale a été utilisée pour de nombreuses années jusqu'à ce que, en 1965, la langue des signes a progressivement commencé à revenir dans l'éducation des sourds après de nombreux années d'interdiction.


Properties.

Solute properties.

Hydron compounds are hydrophilic (ionic) solutes. While displaying a preference for solvents with high relative static permittivity (dielectric constants), they dissolve not only in polar compounds, but also in nonpolar compounds.  The hydron (a completely free or "naked" hydrogen atomic nucleus) is too reactive to occur in many liquids, even though it is sometimes visualized to do so by students of chemistry. A free hydron would react with a molecule of the liquid to form a more complicated cation. Examples are the hydronium ion in water-based acids, and, the unstable cation of fluoroantimonic acid, the strongest superacid. For this reason, in such liquids including liquid acids, hydrons diffuse by contact from one complex cation to another, via the Grotthuss mechanism.

Acidity.

The hydron ion can incorporate an electron pair from a Lewis base into the molecule by adduction: Because of this capture of the Lewis base (L), the hydron ion has Lewis acidic character. The hydron ion is a strong Lewis acid, able to capture one Lewis base.  The hydrated form of the hydrogen cation, the hydronium (hydroxonium) ion, is a key object of Arrhenius' definition of acid. Other hydrated forms, the Zundel cation, which is formed from a proton and two water molecules, and the Eigen cation, which is formed from a hydronium ion and three water molecules, are theorized to play an important role in the diffusion of protons though an aqueous solution according to the Grotthuss mechanism. The hydron itself is crucial in more general Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, which extends the concept of acid–base chemistry beyond aqueous solutions.  Other isotopes of hydrogen are too unstable to be relevant in chemistry.

History of the term.

The term "hydron" is recommended by IUPAC to be used instead of "proton" if no distinction is made between the isotopes proton, deuteron and triton, all found in naturally occurring undifferentiated isotope mixtures. The name "proton" refers to isotopically pure H. On the other hand, referring to the hydron as simply "hydrogen ion" is not recommended because hydrogen anions also exist.  The term "hydron" was defined by IUPAC in 1988. Traditionally, the term "proton" was and is used in place of "hydron". The latter term is generally only used in the context where comparisons between the various isotopes of hydrogen is important (as in the kinetic isotope effect or hydrogen isotopic labeling). Otherwise, referring to hydrons as protons is still considered acceptable, for example in such terms as protonation, deprotonation, proton pump, or proton channel. The transfer of in an acid-base reaction is usually referred to as "proton" transfer. Acid and bases are referred to as "proton" donors and acceptors correspondingly.  99.9844% of natural hydrons (hydrogen nuclei) are protons, and the remainder (about 156 per million in sea water) are deuterons (see Deuterium), except for some very rare natural tritons (see Tritium).

In chemistry, a hydron is the general name for a cationic form of atomic hydrogen, represented with the symbol. However, this term is avoided and instead "proton" is used, which strictly speaking refers to the cation of protium, the most common isotope of hydrogen. The term "hydron" includes cations of hydrogen regardless of their isotopic composition: thus it refers collectively to protons (H) for the protium isotope, deuterons (H or D) for the deuterium isotope, and tritons (H or T) for the tritium isotope. Unlike most other ions, the hydron consists only of a bare atomic nucleus.

Un hydron est un cation hydrogène, de symbole H. Comme l'atome d'hydrogène neutre n'a qu'un électron, un hydron est un noyau nu (sans électrons).


Design and construction.

The airport is designed for 13 million passengers per year and will receive 12 fingerdocks. The lead construction company is China International Fund, which was founded in Hong Kong in 2003. The Chinese built a construction village named, meaning "Chinese village", with accommodation for worker and material depots, east of Luanda in Viana. Since the end of the civil war in 2002, economic growth in Angola has accelerated.  The passenger terminal occupies 160 000 square metres, while the cargo terminal is 6 200 square metres with an annual capacity of 35,000 tonnes of cargo. Two runways are to be built. The northern runway is 4,200 meters long, while the southern runway is 3,800 meters long, both measuring 60 meters in width. Construction was suspended at the end of 2007, due to financial revaluation by the Angolan government. The construction costs, which are financed entirely by China, were estimated at US$3,8 billion (2015). Complementary infrastructure, such as shops, hangars, restaurants, offices and a nearby hotel are not included.  The total area of the airport is planned for at least 50 square-kilometers.  The project includes the construction of a rail link to the capital, to the province of Luanda and possibly to the neighboring province of Malanje. A road connection to Luanda requires that the existing road from Luanda to Malange is greatly expanded. The road is subject to frequent traffic jams.  The project is staffed almost exclusively by Chinese workers, which caused protests by the local population. This led to occasional riots, eventually calmed by police and military.

Angola International Airport ("Aeroporto Internacional de Angola" in Portuguese) is a major airport under construction near the Angolan capital of Luanda. The site was selected in 2004. It is located 40 kilometers southeast of the city center in the Bom Jesus commune. It will be an alternative to existing Quatro de Fevereiro International Airport. Chinese companies and the Brazilian company Odebrecht are constructing the airport. The first phase was completed in 2012. The originally scheduled 2015/2016 opening was delayed until 2022.

L'aéroport international d'Angola (en portugais : "Aeroporto Internacional de Angola") est un aéroport en construction situé à Bom Jesus dans la municipalité de Ícolo e Bengo, environ à sud-est de Luanda en Angola. La livraison est prévue en 2022.


Description.

33 South Sixth Street is a 52-story office building located in the heart of Minneapolis's 64-square block skyway system. Construction on the building began in 1981 and it opened in 1983 as one of the tallest buildings in Minneapolis. Current tenants include Target Corporation, and law firms Meagher & Geer, and Stoel Rives. The typical floors are for a total of of office space and in the retail mall.  The attached Minneapolis City Center consists of a retail mall, renovated in 2005, with five skyway connections, the Minneapolis Marriott at City Center, a 583-room full-service four plus star hotel, and a 687-stall parking garage. The mall is anchored by Saks Fifth Avenue Off Fifth, Marshalls, and Fogo de Chao. The mall also includes a mix of national retail and restaurant tenants including Brooks Brothers, Allen Edmonds, General Nutrition Center, UPS, Leeann Chin, Naf Naf, and others located on the first two floors. Local retailers include Len (casual men's and women's fashion boutique), Pacifier (luxury infant and toddler apparel and toys), along with others.  Sports Authority announced in May 2016 that it would be shuttering all of its US stores, leaving City Center with a large vacancy on the corner of 7th Street and Nicollet Avenue in August 2016.  Rosa Mexicano quietly shuttered its downtown Minneapolis location at Hennepin Avenue and 6th Street in November 2016. A new tenant has been in the works to fill that corner anchor space.  The exterior of the building is faced with precast concrete panels tinted light brown. The east and west facades consist of four wide bays, divided by pilasters which extend to become the spandrel panels. Each wide bay is further divided into three smaller bays with a square window. The north and south facades consist of seven bays with only the first and last being divided. The five central bays are wider with dark-tinted glass set into dark frames. The precast panels extend to cover the retail pod which does little to make the structure more visually appealing, and might even do it a disservice by making it appear more bulky than it really is. Architecture critic Larry Millett calls it a "big architectural oaf" and adds that the precast concrete panel cladding is "designed, quite successfully, to achieve maximum unattractiveness."  The design of the tower is very similar to One HSBC Center in Buffalo.

33 South Sixth, formerly known as International Multifoods Tower, is a skyscraper in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It was designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and stands 52 stories tall at. Its name comes from its address: 33 South Sixth Street, Minneapolis. It was completed in 1983 as headquarters for International Multifoods Corporation which occupied the structure until 1997 when it moved to suburban Wayzata. Although the corporate offices relocated, the name remained until 2003 under the terms of its lease. Adjacent to the tower is the Minneapolis City Center shopping mall which occupies the ground level, skyway, and third levels.

La Multifoods Tower, aussi appelée Minneapolis City Center est un gratte-ciel situé au 33 South 6th Street dans la ville de Minneapolis aux États-Unis. Avec 203 mètres et 52 étages, il s'agit du quatrième plus haut immeuble de la ville.


Formation.

After experiencing considerable difficulties in fighting the French "Chasseurs Alpins" in the Vosges Mountains during the Battle of the Frontiers, the German Army determined to create its own specialized mountain units. The Royal Bavarian 1st and 2nd Snowshoe Battalions ("Kgl. Bayerisches Schneeschuhbataillon I & II") were formed in Munich, Bavaria on November 21, 1914. A third battalion was formed in April 1915 from the 4th, 5th and 6th companies of the second battalion. In May 1915, the three battalions were brought together with a fourth (formed from troops of the other battalions and Bavarian "Landwehr" troops) to form the 3rd Jäger Regiment ("Jäger Regiment Nr. 3"). In October 1915, the designation "Schneeschuhbataillon" was eliminated.  Also in May 1915, the previously separate Bavarian 1st, 2nd and 2nd Reserve Jäger Battalions were joined to form the Royal Bavarian 1st Jäger Regiment ("Kgl. Bayer. Jäger Regiment Nr. 1"). The Prussian 10th, 10th Reserve and 14th Reserve Jäger Battalions were also joined together, forming the 2nd Jäger Regiment ("Jäger Regiment Nr. 2").  These units, along with the elite Royal Bavarian Infantry Lifeguards Regiment ("Infanterie-Leib-Regiment"), the Bavarian Army bodyguard regiment, became the core of the Alpenkorps, and were complemented with additional artillery, machinegun and other support units. The Alpenkorps was officially founded on May 18, 1915, with Bavarian "Generalleutnant" Konrad Krafft von Dellmensingen as its commander, and Bavarian "Generalmajor" Ludwig Ritter von Tutschek and Prussian "Generalmajor" Ernst von Below as his brigade commanders.

Operations.

First campaigns in the Dolomites and France.

Although Germany and Italy were not at war until 1916, the Alpenkorps was immediately dispatched to reinforce the thinly occupied front line in the Dolomite mountains. It did not undertake offensive actions, but defended the front against repeated attacks by the Italian Alpini until Austria was able to extract enough forces from the eastern war theatre and relocate them to the new front. The unit had an air arm, which was FFA 9, flying Pfalz Parasol aircraft. After four months, the Alpenkorps returned briefly to the Western Front, as now the Austrian defenders were sufficient in numbers and entrenched enough to hold the front on their own. The Austrian "Kaiserschützen" honored the men of the Alpenkorps by awarding them their unit insignia: the Edelweiss.

Serbia.

After only a week in France and the Dolomites, the Alpenkorps was sent to fight in the Serbian Campaign.

Verdun.

The Alpenkorps returned to France in March 1916. After a short respite, it entered into the Battle of Verdun in June 1916. The regiments of the Alpenkorps lost over 70% of their strength in the fighting around Fort Vaux and Fleury. After leaving the line, the regiments were reconstituted, and in mid-July 1916 the 3rd Jäger Regiment was transferred from the division. The 2nd Brigade headquarters was eliminated and the Alpenkorps became a triangular division with 1st Brigade controlling the other two "Jäger" regiments and the "Infanterie-Leib-Regiment".

Romania.

Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente on August 27, 1916. In September, the Alpenkorps was dispatched to fight in the Romanian Campaign. The "Infanterie-Leib-Regiment" suffered a number of losses in the mountain fighting in Romania, including one of its most prominent members, Prince Heinrich of Bavaria, a major and battalion commander. The Alpenkorps remained in Romania until April 1917 and then again returned to the Western Front. In August 1917, the Alpenkorps returned to Romania and participated in the final battles there in the wake of the Kerensky Offensive.

Caporetto.

In September 1917, the Alpenkorps was sent once more to the Italian Front to reinforce the Austrian Army for the upcoming 12th Battle of the Isonzo. By this point, the Royal Württemberg mountain battalion (""Königlich Württembergisches Gebirgsbataillon"") had been attached to the division, and one of its members, the later-"Generalfeldmarschall" Erwin Rommel, would distinguish himself at Caporetto in November. Another company commander who distinguished himself at Caporetto, the "Infanterie-Leib-Regiment"'s Ferdinand Schörner, would also rise to Field Marshal in World War II.

France.

The Alpenkorps returned to the Western Front in 1918. It participated in the Battle of the Lys in April and fought in the Battle of Picardy in the Hundred Days Offensive. In October, it returned to the Balkans, where it was at the time of the Armistice.

Traditions.

The Alpenkorps was dissolved after the end of hostilities, but the traditions of its constituent regular units were carried on in the Reichswehr and then the Wehrmacht. The Edelweiss became the symbol of the German "Gebirgsjäger". Although the Bundeswehr does not formally carry the traditions of any pre-1945 units, the "Gebirgsjäger" continued to wear the Edelweiss cap badge and informally maintain the traditions of the Alpenkorps.

The Alpenkorps was a provisional mountain formation of division size formed by the Imperial German Army during World War I. It was considered by the Allies to be one of the best in the German Army.

L' (« corps alpin ») est une unité de l'armée allemande créée en 1915 qui combat lors de la Première Guerre mondiale. Formé pour le combat en montagne dans le Tyrol, l'Alpenkorps développe une forte capacité offensive et est le précurseur des divisions d'attaque de l'armée allemande. Cette unité est considérée comme une des meilleures unités de l'armée allemande.


Professional career.

After playing with the youth clubs of Chemosvit, Gavel began his professional career in the German 2nd Division with Karlsuhe, during the 2001–02 season. He then moved to the German 1st Division club Giessen 46ers in 2004. He was named the German League's Rookie of the Year in 2006.  After that, he joined the Spanish League club Murcia in 2006. He then joined the Greek League club Aris Thessaloniki for the 2008–09 season. He then joined the Slovak League club Chemosvit for the start of the 2009–10 season, before signing with the German 1st Division club Brose Baskets that same season.  He was named the BBL Best Defensive Player in 2012. In 2013, he won the award again, and was as well named the BBL Finals MVP, after he won his 4th straight German League title.  On July 22, 2014, Gavel signed a two-year contract with the German champion Bayern Munich. On July 8, 2016, it was announced that he signed a two-year extension with the team. Gavel announced his retirement on August 28, 2018.

Coaching career.

In the 2019–20 season, Gavel would be the head coach of OrangeAcademy of the German third tier ProB.

International career.

Slovak national team.

Gavel played at the 2005 World University Games. He was a member of the senior men's Slovak national basketball team. Some of the tournaments that he played in with the Slovak senior men's national team included: the FIBA EuroBasket 2005 Division B, the FIBA EuroBasket 2007 Division B, the FIBA EuroBasket 2009 Division B, and the FIBA EuroBasket 2011 Division B. He also played at the FIBA EuroBasket 2013 qualification tournament.

German national team.

In July 2015, two months before EuroBasket 2015, Gavel expressed his desire to represent the senior German national team. On 13 August 2015, FIBA permitted him to switch to the German national team. Gavel made his debut for Germany on 14 August 2015, against Croatia.

Anton Gavel (born October 24, 1984) is a Slovak-German former professional basketball player who last played for Bayern Munich of the Basketball Bundesliga (BBL). He is a 1.89 m (6 ft 2 in) tall combo guard who primarily played at the shooting guard position.

Anton Gavel, né le, à Košice, en Tchécoslovaquie, est un joueur slovaque naturalisé allemand de basket-ball. Il évolue au poste de meneur.


Career.

Waters was born in Iowa and started singing semi-professionally in high school. After school, she sang for the Jerry Gray Hotel Jazz Band. Her family moved to Denver and she started listening to Billie Holiday, whose life and singing had a profound influence on her.  In the early 1960s she followed the recommendation of friends to move to New York. Albert Ayler heard her in a dining club and introduced her to Bernard Stollman, the owner of the experimental jazz label ESP-Disk. Her most influential albums, "Sings" (1965) and "College Tour" (1966) were made for this label.  Her best known recording is a nearly fourteen minute version of the traditional song "Black Is the Colour (Of My True Love's Hair)" (from "Sings"), which is rendered in a haunting, anguished wail.  In the late 1960s, she spent time in Europe and then left the music world to raise her son (born in 1969) in California. Almost 30 years later she recorded the album "Love Songs" in 1996 and began performing in public again. This included reunion concerts with pianist Burton Greene at two music festivals in May 2003: Visions Festival in New York and Le Weekend in Stirling.  In 2004 she released "You Thrill Me: A Musical Odyssey," a collection of rare and unissued recordings from the years 1962–1979. ESP-Disk reissued "Sings" and "College Tour" on a single CD ("The Complete ESP-Disk Recordings") in 2006.  She returned in 2019 with the album "Live" (Blank Forms) recorded at the First Unitarian Congregational Church in Brooklyn. The album was followed in 2020 by another live recording entitled "An Evening In Houston" (Clean Feed).  On June 5th, 2020 she released an unissued 1970 LP titled "Plays" via her own label.

Patty Waters (born March 11, 1946) is a jazz vocalist best known for her free jazz recordings in the 1960s for the ESP-Disk label.

Patty Waters, née le, est une chanteuse de jazz, reconnue pour ses enregistrements free jazz dans les années 1960 sur le label ESP-Disk. Bien qu'elle ait peu enregistré depuis, elle est de plus en plus reconnue comme une artiste innovante dans l'art du chant et dont l'influence va au-delà du jazz.


Early life and education.

Kak was born to Ram Nath Kak, a government veterinary doctor and Sarojini Kak in Srinagar, India. His brother is the computer scientist Avinash Kak and his sister is the literary theorist Jaishree Odin.  Kak received a Bachelor of Engineering degree from the Regional Engineering College, Srinagar (now the National Institute of Technology, Srinagar) and a Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi in 1970.

Academic career.

During 1975-1976, Kak was a visiting faculty at Imperial College, London, and a guest researcher at Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill. In 1977, he was a visiting researcher at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay. In 1979, he joined Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, where he was appointed the Donald C. and Elaine T. Delaune Distinguished Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering. In 2007, he joined the Computer Science department at Oklahoma State University–Stillwater.  Kak has published on the history of science, the philosophy of science, and the history of mathematics.  He was featured as one of the pioneers of quantum learning in the journal NeuroQuantology edited by Cheryl Fricasso and Stanley Krippner. Kak had proposed an efficient three-layer feed-forward neural network architecture and developed four corner classification algorithms for training it. Despite being criticized for scalability issues; it invoked attention within the electronic hardware community. Kak has argued that there are limits to artificial intelligence and that it cannot equate the biological equivalent.  Kak is the Regents Professor of Computer Science Department at Oklahoma State University–Stillwater and an honorary visiting professor of engineering at Jawaharlal Nehru University.  On 28 August 2018, he was appointed member of the Prime Minister's Science, Technology and Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC) in India.

Indology.

Kak primarily advocates for an autochthonous origin of the Indo-Aryans from Punjab ("Indigenous Aryans" hypothesis) in contradiction of the scholarly consensus about the validity of Indo-Aryan migration theory; Kak reads the promotion of the latter theory to stem from racist tendencies. Scholars have noted his charges to be without any basis, lacking in any critical examination and primarily intended to promote Hindu supremacy.  Kak has also claimed to find evidences of advanced computing and astronomy in the Rig Veda, in what Noretta Koertge deems to be a "social constructivist and postmodern attack on modern science". He insists that Vedic scientists discovered the physical laws by Yogic meditation and that it is a valid scientific method which can be only evaluated within the paradigm of Vedic assumptions and by those who have attained Yogic enlightenment. He has also asserted a belief in the superiority of Hindus over Muslims. Philosopher Meera Nanda summarized some of Kak's views on the matter in a 2004 critique: according to Kak, Hindus built "cultural empires" without military conquest, in contrast to Muslim "military empires" reliant on conquest.  Meera Nanda writes about Kak being revered as a stalwart of Hindutva and one of the leading “intellectual Kshatriyas”. Edwin Bryant calls him to a well read and articulate spokesman for the Indigenous Aryan hypothesis and for other issues concerning ancient Indian science and culture.  Scholars have rejected his theories in entirety and his writings have been heavily criticized. Acute misrepresentation of facts coupled with wrong observations, extremely flexible and often self-contradictory analysis, cherry picking of data and forwarding of easily disprovable hypotheses have been located. His understanding of linguistics and subsequent assertion have been challenged. Romila Thapar calls Kak an amateur historian whose views on the Indus Civilization were fringe and who was part of a group that had more to do with waging political battles at the excuse of history. Michael Witzel noted him to be a revisionist and part of a "closely knit, self-adulatory group", members of which often write together and/or profusely copy from and cite one another, thus rendering the whole scene into a virtually indistinguishable hotchpotch. Garrett G. Fagan, a noted critic of pseudo-archaeology has concurred with Witzel. Similar concerns of his being a Hindutva-based revisionist have been echoed by other writers. In a critique of faulty scientific reasoning in Hindutva ideologies and theories, Alan Sokal sarcastically criticized Kak as "one of the leading intellectual luminaries of the Hindu-nationalist diaspora" Koertge as well as Meera Nanda have remarked that Kak's work advances a Hindutva-based esoteric pseudoscience narrative that seeks to find relatively advanced abstract physics in Vedic texts and assign Indian indigenousness to the Sanskrit-speaking Indic Aryans in a bid to prove the superiority of the ancient Hindu civilization.  While Kak's interpretation has been included in recent overviews of astronomy in the Vedic period in India and the West, his chronology and astronomical calculations have been critiqued by several Indologists, such as Michael Witzel, and historians such as Kim Plofker.

Reviewed works.

Archaeoastronomy - "The Astronomical Code of the Rigveda".

In the book, Kak proposes that the organization of hymns in the Rig Veda was dictated by an astronomic code concerning the courses of planets—length of solar year and lunar year, the distance between sun and earth et al. He then leverages the proposition to argue for the existence of a tradition of sophisticated observational astronomy as far back as 3000 or 4000 BCE. Kak also states that the construction of fire-altars were a coded representation of their astronomic knowledge and that the Vedic civilisation were aware of the speed of light. He prepared the section on archaeoastronomical sites in India for the thematic study on "Heritage Sites of Astronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention" prepared for UNESCO by the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Astronomical Union (IAU).  Kim Plofker rejected Kak's probabilistic analysis of the presence of planetary period numbers in the Rigveda's hymn number combinations, showing that Kak's apparent matches have "no statistical significance whatever". Witzel has rejected his analysis to be suffering from several shortcomings and questioned his usage of arbitrary multiplication factors to lead to the results. Kak's method depends on the structure of the Rigveda as redacted by the shakhas in the late Brahmana period, well within the Indian Iron Age, when it was organized into mandalas ("books"). According to Witzel, this leaves Kak's approach attempt to date the text flawed, because this process of redaction took place long after the composition of the individual hymns during the "samhita prose" period. Witzel concludes that the entire issue boiled down to an over-interpretation of some facts that were internally inconsistent and more, to the creativeness of Kak who was pre-motivated to find evidence of astronomy at every verse of Rig Veda. Meera Nanda criticized the arbitrary and absurd nature of Kak's analysis at length and noted his method to be "breathtakingly ad hoc" which "reads like numerology." M A Mehendale, in a review over "Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute", criticized the book for its many shortcomings which did not stand the scrutiny of rigor and remarked it to contain inaccurate and misleading statements. S. G. Dani, a Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar prize recipient rejected Kak's hypothesis as unscientific and highly speculative with extremely vague details and whose results were statistically insignificant.  Klaus Klostermaier in his book "A Survey of Hinduism" praised Kak, for opening up an "entirely new approach to the study of Vedic cosmology from an empirical astronomical/mathematical viewpoint". Klostermaier's books have been heavily criticized for offering pro-Hindu views that have little currency in scholarship.

Influence.

Kak's work influenced Raja Ram Mohan Roy's 1999 book "Vedic Physics: Scientific Origin of Hinduism," which sought to prove that the RigVeda was coded per the laws of quantum and particle physics. Kak wrote the foreword to this book commending Roy's interpretations as a new way of looking at Vedic Physics. Meera Nanda, one of Kak's foremost critics, noted the result to be a "shameful demeaning of physics as well as the Vedas" and resembling "ravings of mad men".

"In Search of the Cradle of Civilization".

Kak co-authored "In Search of the Cradle of Civilization" (1995), equating the Vedic Aryans with the Harappans. and thus, participating in the political controversy around the "indigenous Aryans" theory. The chronology espoused in this book is based on the archaeoastronomical readings obtained by correlating textual references and archaeological remains.  A review by Indian archaeologist M. K. Dhavalikar over "Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute" noted it to be a "beautifully printed" contribution that made a strong case for their indigenous theory against the supposed migratory hypotheses but chose to remain silent on certain crucial aspects which need to be convincingly explained. Guy Beck showered glowing praises on the book in his review over the "Yoga Journal." Klostermaier et al. praised the book. Prema Kurien noted that the book sought to distinguish expatriate Hindu Americans from other minority groups by demonstrating their superior racial and cultural ties with the Europeans.

The Nature of Physical Reality.

Stanley Krippner, an American psychologist, praised the book as an engaging read that would leave readers wiser.

Subhash Kak (born 26 March 1947, Srinagar) is an Indian-American computer scientist and a Hindutva-based historical revisionist. He is the Regents Professor of Computer Science Department at Oklahoma State University–Stillwater, an honorary visiting professor of engineering at Jawaharlal Nehru University, and a member of the Indian Prime Minister's Science, Technology and Innovation Advisory Council (PM-STIAC).

Subhash Kak est un informaticien américain indien, né le à Srinagar, au Cachemire. Il est professeur et a été chef du département des sciences informatiques à l'Université de l'Oklahoma où il a contribué à la cryptologie et aux réseaux de neurones artificiels.


History.

2007–09: Formation and "Bretton".

Lower Than Atlantis formed in 2007 while the members were attending college. Guitarist Ben Sansom asked guitarist Mike Duce if he wished to form a band with Ben's brother Luke, who would provide vocals. Alongside them was bassist Richard Wilkinson and drummer Matt Britz. Ben and Luke Sansom, and Britz had previously been in Aboycalledhero. They were initially called Atlantis. Duce said they renamed it to Lower Than Atlantis "because Atlantis sounds like your dad's covers band." Around this time, they released "Demo 2007". Following line-up changes, such as the addition of drummer Josh Pickett, bassist Stephen Minter, and Duce becoming the band's frontman, they began working on what would become their first EP, "Bretton". Duce taught himself how to sing and play guitar at the same time while playing along to the band's "Demo 2007" release. "Bretton" was released through Small Town on 18 October 2008. In June 2009, the band toured with We Stare at Mirrors. Through this tour, drummer Eddy Thrower met Duce and Sansom. We Stare at Mirrors bassist Declan Hart "thought Lower Than Atlantis were meth-heads. Their reputation was just "mental"." Partway through the touring cycle for the EP, the band had further line-up changes.

2009–11: "Far Q" and "World Record".

They recorded their next release and first full-length album, "Far Q", with Daniel Lancaster (of Hertfordshire band Proceed) at Studio Glasseye in Hatfield, England. It was released in March 2010 on A Wolf at Your Door Records in the UK, under the Distort Entertainment label in Canada and for rest of Europe under Redfield Records on limited Mediabook-CD and limited white vinyl. This release retained some element of the band's punk roots whilst gearing itself more towards post-hardcore/melodic hardcore influences. Before that Redfield Records release a 10" split-vinyl in February 2010 with the single "Far Q" together with tracks from Grace.Will.Fall, Talk Radio Talk and MNMTS.  Their second full-length album, "World Record", was recorded at Outhouse Studios in Reading, England, and released via A Wolf at Your Door Records on 25 April 2011. It took strong alternative rock influences from bands such as Jimmy Eat World and Foo Fighters. "World Record" saw the band make a significant breakthrough both in terms of growth at live shows and radio airplay.

2012–13: Island Records and "Changing Tune".

At the last show of their headline tour in support of second album "World Record" on 27 January 2012, the band announced that they had signed to Island Records. They then played a string of festivals such as Hit the Deck, Camden Crawl, Slam Dunk, Download, Y Not, Hevy and the Festival Republic Stage at Reading & Leeds festivals, all in the summer of 2012. On 14 September 2012, Lower Than Atlantis were the penultimate act at Butserfest and headlined Underground Festival on 30 September in Gloucester.  The band's third album "Changing Tune", recorded early in 2012 at Rockfield Studios in Wales, was released on 1 October 2012, reaching no. 25 in the UK Official Album Charts. The album was accompanied by a UK headline tour that started in Exeter on 1 October and finished in London on 11 October. The album's first single, "Love Someone Else", was premiered on Zane Lowe's evening show on Radio 1 on 16 July 2012. This single had a similar sound to "World Record".  The band recorded a Christmas single entitled "Merry Christmas (Wherever You Are)" in 2012. After its premier on Zane Lowe's show, the hashtag #LTAforchristmasnumber1 became one of the top trending hashtags in the UK on Twitter. The track was also featured in the Christmas episode of Made in Chelsea.  They were the support act for All Time Low's UK tour during February 2013, and also played dates in the UK 6–16 February and a date in Paris, France, on 18 February.  In April 2013, the band embarked on their biggest UK headline tour to date, "The Fuck It to the Man Tour". On the tour, they had support from Dinosaur Pile-Up, The Xcerts and Blitz Kids.

2014–16: Sony Records and "Lower Than Atlantis".

On 29 April 2014, the band announced through their Facebook and Twitter pages that they had signed to Sony Records and that their new album would be released via the label. Shortly afterwards, they were announced to be playing the NME stage at Reading and Leeds Festival later that year. On 2 June, the band released the lead single from the new record, 'Here We Go'. The song went on to become their most successful single to date. In July and into the start of August, Lower Than Atlantis went on a UK tour with Decade and Yearbook. On 12 August 2014, the band released the second single from their self-titled 4th album, 'English Kids In America', along with a Music Video which was compiled from tour footage from their trip to America. The song was first played on BBC Radio One. The album was released on 6 October to very positive reviews from critics; praising the balance between development and maturity and the band's sound while maintaining the sound of the Rock genre.  In November 2014. UK, magazine Rock Sound rated Lower Than Atlantis as their #1 album of 2014. In the same month, the band supported A Day to Remember on their UK tour along with Decade. In December 2014, Lower than Atlantis announced details of a UK & Ireland tour with support from PVRIS and We Are The Ocean. In April 2015, front man Mike Duce spoke to GiggingNI.com about their musical direction, songwriting and past travels to Ireland. Weeks before their first 2015 tour began, it was revealed that all dates completely sold out.  On September 18, 2015 the band released "Get Over It". The song had been recorded three weeks prior. A music video for the song was directed by Andrew Groves. Thrower came up with the concept for the video, Duce explained that the band have "done a few different bits on this record and I think we wanted something that was direct but also a little more cinematic." Following the release of the 'Get Over It' the song spent a near record-breaking 13 weeks at number one on the Kerrang! Chart. A deluxe edition of the album (Lower Than Atlantis: Black) was released with a second disc including 'Get Over It', four other previously un-released tracks, four studio covers, two covers recorded in the BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge, and four songs from the original album recorded acoustically. The band then embarked and their biggest headline tour yet including a sold-out performance at the Roundhouse in London.  In August 2016 they played yet again at Reading and Leeds Festival but this time on the more prestigious Main Stage, opening for acts such as Die Antwoord, Boy Better Know and Chvrches.

2016–2019: "Safe in Sound".

On August 15, 2016 the band and its members each posted photos on their Instagram accounts about their new single titled "Work for It", which was played for the first time on BBC Radio 1 the following night. The single was available on iTunes at midnight.  On August 24, 2016 the band announced a 7-date UK tour that would take place in March 2017. They have said that it will be their "biggest ever UK tour".  On 2 December 2018, the group announced they would be breaking up following three shows in May 2019.

Musical style.

Lower Than Atlantis formed as a hardcore punk band and their harsh initial style is evident on their debut EP "Bretton". With each studio album, however, they introduced more melody and made their music more accessible. Thus, their 2010 debut album "Far Q" was categorized by critics as melodic hardcore, post-hardcore, and punk rock, while already a year later they moved into alternative rock, hard rock, and pop rock territory with "World Record". Their subsequent albums remained within this territory and went even further from their hardcore roots.

Lower Than Atlantis were an English rock band from Watford, Hertfordshire. They formed in 2007 as a hardcore punk band and gradually shifted into a melodic rock sound over five studio albums, their last being 2017's "Safe in Sound". The band consisted of lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist Mike Duce, bassist Declan Hart, drummer Eddy Thrower, and lead guitarist Ben Sansom. They announced in December 2018 that they would be disbanding after a final 3 tour dates in 2019.

Lower Than Atlantis est un groupe de rock indépendant et alternatif britannique composé de quatre musiciens et formé en 2007. Leur premier album studio, "Far Q", est publié en 2010.


History.

2015: "Season of Glass", "Flower Bud" and rise in popularity.

On January 15, 2015, GFriend released their five-track debut EP "Season of Glass". The lead single "Glass Bead" was composed by Seo Yong-bae and Iggy. The album debuted at number twelve on Gaon's weekly chart. The group started promotions for their album on January 16 on KBS's music program "Music Bank". According to YouTube, the M/V of "Glass Bead" ranked number nine in top ten "Most Viewed K-Pop Videos Around the World in January 2015". On January 28, 2015, "Billboard" named GFriend as one of "Top 5 K-Pop Artists to Watch in 2015".  GFriend released their second EP "Flower Bud" and the music video for the lead single "Me Gustas Tu" on July 23, 2015. GFriend started their group promotions on the same date as the album release, July 23, 2015, on Mnet's "M Countdown".  The group garnered international attention after a fan-taken video of GFriend members continuing and completing a performance of "Me Gustas Tu" despite continuously falling on a slippery stage went viral in September 2015. The group was praised for their professionalism, especially Yuju, who fell a total of eight times and suffered a twisted finger during the performance.  On September 17, 2015, GFriend made headlines again as the only girl group to be nominated in the 2015 MTV Europe Music Awards "Best Korean Act" category alongside boy groups B1A4, BTS, Got7, and VIXX.  "Me Gustas Tu" entered the Gaon Year-End Top 100 chart as the 38th best selling song of 2015. "Me Gustas Tu" and "Glass Bead" were also ranked 18th and 44th respectively in the 2015 Bugs Year-End Top 100.

2016: "Snowflake", first music show wins, "Showtime" and "LOL".

On January 25, 2016, GFriend released their third EP titled "Snowflake" with the lead single "Rough". "Rough" is the last song to complete GFriend's high school concept trilogy along with "Glass Bead" and "Me Gustas Tu". GFriend started the promotions for "Snowflake" on January 26 on SBS MTV's music program "The Show". The album debuted at number ten on "Billboard"'s World Albums Chart, and the music video of "Rough" on YouTube ranked number three in top ten "Most Viewed K-Pop Videos Around the World in January 2016".  On February 2, GFriend received their first music show win for their song "Rough" on "The Show". They subsequently won another fourteen awards on the music shows, this included winning their first triple crowns on "M Countdown", "Music Bank", "Show Champion", and "Inkigayo". With a total of 15 wins, it placed second with the number of wins for girls groups, behind Apink who recorded a total of 17 wins with "Luv". Their song "Rough" was also ranked first in Gaon Chart's First Half of 2016 chart rankings.  On June 15 it was announced that GFriend will star alongside Mamamoo on a new season of Showtime. On June 29, Source Music started promotions for GFriend first studio album "LOL", which stands for both "Laughing Out Loud" and "Lots of Love". "LOL" was released on July 11 with the lead single "Navillera", and had more than 60,000 pre-ordered copies worldwide. On July 19, GFriend earned their first music show win for the album's single "Navillera" on "The Show".  Towards the end of the year, YouTube revealed the top 10 K-pop MVs most beloved by South Koreans in 2016. "Rough" and "Navillera" were ranked 2nd and 10th respectively in that list. "Rough" and "Navillera" were also ranked 2nd and 11th respectively in the 2016 Bugs Year-End Top 100. "Rough" was also ranked 13th in "Billboard"'s 20 Best K-Pop Songs of 2016: Critic's Picks. At the end of the year show "2016 KBS Song Festival", the peak viewer ratings for the whole show were recorded during GFriend's "Rough" performance at 10.3%. "Rough" also became the most downloaded song in 2016 according to Gaon Chart's 2016 Year End Download Chart.

2017: First fan-meeting, "The Awakening" and "Parallel".

On February 23, Source Music announced that GFriend were set to make a comeback on March 6. On February 27, it was revealed that their fourth EP will be titled "The Awakening" with the lead single "Fingertip". "The Awakening" global pre-orders exceeded 100,000 copies, which is higher than their past album LOL at 60,000. Additionally, the album also debuted at No. 5 on "Billboard"s World Album chart.  In April 2017, GFriend held their first fan meeting, titled "Dear Buddy".  On August 1, GFriend released their fifth EP, "Parallel", with the lead single "Love Whisper". In September, they released the repackage album "Rainbow" with the lead single "Summer Rain".

2018: First solo concert, "Time for the Moon Night", Japanese debut, "Sunny Summer" and "Memoria".

GFriend started the year with their first solo concert since debut, titled “Season of GFriend”, on January 6 and 7, 2018. GFriend signed with King Records.  Their sixth EP, "Time for the Moon Night", set a new record for the group, taking the top spot in 10 countries around the world on iTunes. It also debuted at number #1 on top Download, Album & Social chart on Korea's top chart Gaon, and sold more than 84,000 copies in South Korea. The following week, it was reported that the group tied with Girls' Generation and Twice as the girlgroups with the most entries in the Top 10 of the "Billboard" World Albums Chart, with 5 entries each. In the second week of album promotion, GFriend won six awards in South Korean music programs, making "Time for the Moon Night" the first song of 2018 to win all the prizes in musical programs.  In late May, the group went to Japan to promote their compilation-album "GFriend 1st Best" which was released on May 23. GFriend Japan's debut album peak at no. 10 in Oricon weekly album chart.  On July 19, GFriend released a summer EP, "Sunny Summer". GFriend made a debut in Billboard's Social 50 chart at no. 30, a week after the release of the album.  On October 10, GFriend released their first Japanese single album, "Memoria /夜 (Time for the moon night)". The single album debuted at no. 6 on the Oricon weekly singles chart and no. 5 on the "Billboard" Japan weekly top singles sales.

2019: "Time for Us", back-to-back Japanese singles and "Fever Season".

On January 14, GFriend released their second studio album, "Time for Us," with the lead single "Sunrise". "Time for Us" became the group's highest selling Korean album with more than 86,000 copies sold based on the Gaon Chart. On February 13, GFriend released their second Japanese single album, "Sunrise (JP ver.)/La Pam Pam". On March 13, GFriend released their third Japanese single album, "Flower/Beautiful".  On July 1, GFriend released their eighth EP, "Fever Season", with lead single "Fever". The EP consists of eight tracks, including an instrumental version of their lead single. The group also promoted in Japan by collaborating with Japanese pop group Sonar Pocket and released Japanese single album, "Oh Difficult – Sonar Pocket×GFriend", on July 3.  On November 13, GFriend released their first Japanese studio album, "Fallin' Light", with its lead single of the same name.

2020: "回:Labyrinth" and "回:Song of the Sirens".

On February 3, GFriend released their ninth EP, "", with the lead single "Crossroads". This marked the group's first Korean comeback after the acquisition of Source Music by Big Hit Entertainment in 2019.  The group will make a comeback on July 13 with their tenth EP, "回:Song of the Sirens".

Awards and nominations.

They won their first award, "Best New Female Artist", on November 7, 2015 at Melon Music Awards. Their first music show win was on "The Show" with "Rough" on February 2, 2016, after which the group went on to receive a total of 15 music show wins during the song's promotion. During their "Navillera" promotions they got a total of 14 music show wins, making them the girl group with most wins gained within a year with a total of 29 wins.

GFriend () is a six-member South Korean girl group formed by Source Music in 2015. The group consists of Sowon, Yerin, Eunha, Yuju, SinB, and Umji. They made their debut with the EP "Season of Glass" on January 15, 2015. GFriend won several 2015 female rookie awards and has garnered momentum since their debut despite being from a small company.

GFriend (en coréen : 여자친구 Yeojachingu) ou GirlFriend est un girl group sud-coréen composé de six jeunes filles. Le groupe a été formé par le label Source Music en 2015. Elles font leurs débuts avec le mini-album "Season of Glass" le. GFriend obtient des scores impressionnants sur différents programmes de classement musicaux 12 jours seulement après leurs débuts. Elles sont également connues pour leur danses puissantes et énergiques.