History.

European conquest of the South Moluccas.

The Maluku Islands were the only place in the world that grew the prized spices of clove and nutmeg, making it a prime destination for European traders during the Age of Exploration. At one point, cloves were worth their weight in gold and Portuguese, Spanish, British and Dutch traders all fought to control the incredibly profitable spice trade monopoly. Eventually, the traders of the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) emerged as the dominant merchant power in Maluku. Through an effective combination of force and diplomacy, the VOC achieved a structure of indirect rule in northern Maluku and direct rule in southern Maluku.  Throughout much of the VOC era (17th and 18th centuries), the south Moluccans resisted Dutch dominance. The Banda Islands were only subdued after the indigenous power structure and organisation of trade and politics was destroyed with the extermination and eviction of the Bandanese population in 1621. To repress the autonomous traders of East Seram, the VOC organised ‘Hongi’ raiding expeditions with warrior bands from other south Maluku islands. During ‘Hongi’ raids, houses and vessels were burnt, cash crops were uprooted and most wealth was looted by the ‘Hongi’ warriors. Survivors who escaped had to start from scratch and, during two centuries of resistance, the East Seramese increasingly suffered impoverishment. However, their independent trading network was never completely destroyed.  From 1780 to 1802, the people of Seram joined an alliance of North Moluccan, Papuan and British forces in a combined revolt. Resistance leader prince Nuku (the exiled Sultan of Tidore) established himself on Seram and aimed at uniting the North and South Moluccas under his leadership. His raiders targeted South Moluccan islands under the Dutch sphere of influence. When the British left the arena in 1802 his plans were foiled and the Dutch restored their dominance.  Maluku islanders staged various rebellions during the Dutch colonisation of the Indonesian archipelago in the 19th century following the collapse of the VOC. In a famous revolt on the south Maluku island Saparua, the Dutch fort was taken by the rebel leader Pattimura, a former sergeant in the army of Britain, who had ruled the islands for a short time before returning them to the Dutch in 1816. After reinforcements were sent from the colonial capital Batavia, the insurgents were captured and Pattimura was executed in 1817.  During the independence movement of Indonesia, Indonesian republicans included South Maluku as part of the independent Indonesia they declared in 1945. Indonesia's struggle to secure its independence lasted from 1945 until 1949. After international pressure, the Dutch acknowledged a federal Indonesian republic on 27 December 1949. In the first instance, the Netherlands only acknowledged the independence of Indonesia as a federation of autonomous states, of which one was South Maluku.  On 25 April 1950, demobilized ex-Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) soldiers and other South Moluccan men who remained loyal to the Dutch crown, staged a revolt and proclaimed an independent "Republic of South Maluku" (Indonesian: "Republik Maluku Selatan"). On 17 August 1950, the Indonesian President, Sukarno, proclaimed the restoration of the unitary state of the Republic of Indonesia. Indonesia's liberal democratic system of government, whereby the cabinet would be accountable to the House of Representatives, was retained. This was a source of political instability in the young republic, with frequent changes in government until the rise of the New Order.

South Moluccan career soldiers of the colonial army.

A relatively large number of the professional soldiers serving in the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) were recruited among the population of Ambon and the surrounding South Moluccan islands. The South Moluccan islands were among the first to come under European influence in the 16th century. The Protestant mission had been more successful there than elsewhere in the East Indies; half the Ambonese population adhered to the Calvinist branch of Protestantism.  As early as 1605 armed Dutch merchantmen of the VOC captured the Portuguese fort at the location of Ambon city in the South Moluccas. It was an area already strongly influenced by the Portuguese (Portuguese family names, religion and language were common) and the Dutch developed it into the first secure base of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). During the era of the VOC, the Moluccans were not only forced to trade with the VOC only, but also to focus solely on the production of cloves. After the downfall of the VOC and the collapse of the trade in cloves, they were fully dependent on the colonial structure and found occupation in the colonial army. The Ambonese were regarded as fierce fighters, reliable soldiers and absolutely loyal to the Dutch Crown. It was precisely this reputation that made them unpopular with other Indonesian nationalities. The Malay nickname for them was "Belanda Hitam", which translates to "Black Dutch" in English. All of this put them in a difficult position during both the Japanese occupation and the Indonesian national revolution. During the Japanese occupation in the Second World War, most of the Moluccan soldiers were only briefly interned as prisoners of war (POWs). Initially, the Japanese occupation force decided to release them from military duty and send them home. However, the Japanese quickly discovered their miscalculation when the Moluccans became among the most active in the resistance movement against them. Throughout the occupied Dutch East Indies, Moluccan soldiers created underground resistance cells aiding the Allied forces. Some of these cells were active in gathering intelligence; other sleeper cells hid weapons in strategic locations waiting to take up arms during an Allied invasion. The Japanese secret police (Kempeitai) responded by torturing and beheading any suspect, which usually did not deter the Moluccans.  After the capitulation of the Imperial Japanese Army to the Allied forces, the Moluccan soldiers acted equally defiantly towards the Indonesian revolutionaries trying to fill the power vacuum left by the Japanese. Smaller scale conflicts in the Bersiap period between regrouped Moluccan fighting units and Permuda groups usually left the well-trained Moluccan fighters victorious. In their efforts to subdue the counter revolutionary RMS movement on Ambon, the newly established Tentara Nasional Indonesia (Republican Indonesian army, TNI) encountered the military prowess of the Moluccan special troops. The heavy fighting triggered them to create their own special troops. At that time the Moluccan special troops' only contemporaries were the Gurkha units of the British Indian Army.

Disbanding the colonial army.

During the Indonesian National Revolution, the Dutch had to disband the reinstated KNIL, and the native soldiers had the choice of either being demobilised or joining the army of the Republic of Indonesia. Due to a deep distrust of the Republican leadership, which was predominantly Javanese Muslim, this was an extremely difficult choice for the Protestant Ambonese, and only a minority chose to serve with the Indonesian Army. Disbanding proved a complicated process and, in 1951, two years after the transfer of sovereignty, not all soldiers had been demobilised. The Dutch were under severe international pressure to disband the colonial army and temporarily made these men part of the regular Dutch army, while trying to demobilise them in Java. Herein lay the source of the discontent among the Moluccan soldiers as, according to the KNIL policy, soldiers had the right to choose the place where they were to be discharged at the end of their contract. The political situation in the new Republic of Indonesia was initially unstable and, in particular, controversy over a federal or centralised form of the state resulted in armed conflicts in which Ambonese ex-KNIL men were involved. In 1950 an independent Republic of the South Moluccas (Indonesian: RMS, Republik Maluku Selatan) was proclaimed at Ambon. The RMS had strong support among the Ambonese and former Moluccan KNIL soldiers. As a consequence the Moluccan soldiers located outside the South Moluccas demanded to be discharged at Ambon. But Indonesia refused to let the Dutch transport these soldiers to Ambon as long as the RMS was not repressed, fearing prolonged military struggle. When after heavy fighting the RMS was repressed at Ambon, the soldiers refused to be discharged there. They now demanded to be demobilised at Seram, where pockets of resistance against Indonesia still existed. This was again blocked by Indonesia.

Invasion of Ambon.

At the time of the proclamation 1739 KNIL troops, including 1080 Ambonese were stationed at Ambon. These soldiers became the backbone of the APRMS. After a naval blockade of the Indonesian navy, an invasion of Ambon took place on 28 September 1950. The APRMS fled from the town of Ambon before the invading Indonesian troops had taken up positions in old Dutch fortifications in the hills over looking the town. From here they waged guerilla warfare. The TNI occupied the northern half of the island, but were halted by fierce Ambonese resistance at the one-kilometre wide isthmus, which links the southern half. On 5 November the city of Ambon fell into the hands of the Indonesian army. The RMS government went to Ceram in December to continue the RMS battle in the form of a guerilla war.

Demobilisation of the Moluccan soldiers to the Netherlands.

The Dutch government finally decided to transport the remaining men and their families to the Netherlands. They were discharged on arrival and 'temporarily' housed in camps until it was possible for them to return to the Moluccan islands. In this way around 12,500 persons were settled in the Netherlands, more or less against their will and certainly also against the original plans of the Dutch government. The reaction of the Dutch government to the settlement of the Moluccan soldiers was exactly the opposite of the reaction to the Indo repatriates. Whereas the latter were defined as fellow-citizens who had to be integrated as quickly and as fully as possible, the Moluccans were considered to be temporary residents who had to be repatriated to Indonesia. They were 'temporarily' housed in camps, mostly in rural areas and near small towns. A special agency was set up to manage all matters concerning these temporary residents, the 'Commissariaat Ambonezenzorg' (CAZ). the camps included the former Nazi transit camp Westerbork.  To deal with all kinds of daily matters the CAZ created'representatives' in the camps who regulated the lives of the inhabitants in accordance with the rules. These representatives were (mostly) recruited from among the non-commissioned officers, who were in this way able, to a certain extent, to re-establish their status in the new circumstances. The housing situation in the camps resembled in many ways the barracks of the colonial army, where the soldiers were housed, together with their families, under the direct supervision of non-commissioned officers. This specific housing situation contributed greatly to the isolation of the Moluccan population from Dutch society. The camps, and later the neighbourhoods, became enclaves where the schools, though officially Dutch in programme and language, became exclusively Moluccan and where access to the labour market was geographically often restricted. Even when it became more and more obvious that there was no possibility to repatriate the ex-servicemen to Indonesia, the Dutch government did not formulate a radically different policy.  This situation dragged on until 1970 when the CAZ was finally dissolved and normal ministerial and other agencies became responsible. The Dutch government had at last admitted that the Moluccans were not temporary residents and that their future lay in the Netherlands. Still, in 1968 more than 80 percent of the Moluccans were still without official citizenship, i.e. stateless. The ex-soldiers were deeply frustrated by the demise of the colonial army. The KNIL had offered not only an income, but also a whole way of life in which their status was secure. They had always been loyal to the Dutch Crown and had felt betrayed when their services were no longer rewarded. In response they had pinned their hopes on an independent RMS and had expected that the Dutch would help them to realise it.  These feelings continued and were even strengthened in the years of isolated settlement in the Netherlands. There seemed to be only one worthwhile ideal and that was the creation of the RMS. But whatever the merits of this ideal, the Moluccans in the Netherlands could do nothing to bring its realisation any nearer. Moreover, the isolated situation in the camps and neighbourhoods had given rise to a type of expressive leadership that could only manifest itself in opposing and confronting the CAZ and the Dutch in general.

South Moluccan terrorist action in the Netherlands.

This situation led to growing tension and to splits within the RMS movement. The older generation of leaders of the RMS movement saw their authority challenged. Finally the crisis in the Ambonese communities exploded in a decade of violence against internal rivals and Dutch society. A series of terrorist attacks started in 1970 with a raid on the residence of the Indonesian ambassador in Wassenaar. The Dutch reaction to this attack was restrained. The attackers received mild sentences and were still seen as misguided idealists. Within the Moluccan community the 'boys of action' gained great prestige. This fueled further terrorist actions in 1975 and 1977. As with the attack in Wassenaar, the aims of these actions were not very clear; apart from restoring unity within the RMS movement, it is difficult to see any concrete objectives in the vague rhetoric and impossible political demands made by the attackers. Attacks on a train and on a village school in 1977 led to a final escalation of the violence. The Dutch government saw no other way out than to use military force to end the action. Meanwhile, support for this kind of action within the Moluccan community was ebbing. Instead of reuniting the Moluccans in the Netherlands, this radicalism threatened to lead to more division. When, in 1978, a group of youngsters raided the seat of the provincial government in Assen, they received not the slightest support.

Second and third generation Moluccans in the Netherlands.

Towards the end of this period of terrorist violence, the Dutch government had already dropped the idea that the Moluccans were temporary residents, but had not been able to create a channel of communication through which to discuss and implement policy measures that opened a way to the future. The social situation left much to be desired; school attainment was low and unemployment high. Earlier attempts to set up a communal platform for the government and Moluccan representatives had not been successful, because of antagonism within the Moluccan communities and impossible political demands made at the outset by the Moluccans. In 1976 a platform was formed where government policy measures could be discussed with representatives of the Moluccan community, the IWM (Dutch abbreviation for: Inspraakorgaan Welzijn Molukkers). In 1978 a substantial White Paper (De Problematiek van de Molukkers in Nederland) was sent by the government to parliament. It offered measures to enhance Moluccan participation in Dutch society, in particular in the fields of education and the labour market.  The IWM has proved a valuable communication channel for communal projects. A case in point was the plan to create thousands of jobs for Moluccans in government service. The primary goal was to combat high unemployment, but a secondary goal was to open up a particular section of the labour market where Moluccans were significantly underrepresented. The recognition that employment, education and social welfare in general were important fields where the situation of the Moluccan population, and especially of the new generation, had to be improved, was a positive development. Partly because the second generation was already much more oriented to Dutch society, partly as a result of the policy of affirmative action, participation in the labour market and in the school system developed positively after 1980. Levels of educational attainment rose, unemployment levels were lower and the jobs fulfilled were also somewhat higher in scale. In general the second-generation Moluccans made a great leap forward in this period, compared to the first'soldier generation'.  The situation of the Moluccans in the Netherlands is at present remarkably different from that in 1970. Practically all Moluccans are now Dutch citizens. This makes it more difficult to give the precise number of Moluccans in the Netherlands, though research shows that there are to date about 40,000 persons who can be classified as Moluccan. A majority of this population identifies itself to a certain extent with the Moluccan islands where their families once came from, but this identification seems less and less an impediment to integration in Dutch society. In this sense the Moluccans have at last become 'normal immigrants'.  Notwithstanding Moluccan integration into modern Dutch society has halted terrorist radicalisation, up to the 1990s the Netherlands were reminded yearly of the traumatic side of their colonial past, when celebrations of the RMS independence declaration frequently resulted in angry sentiments or even serious rioting in the streets of the capital. In the 1950s and 1960s Moluccan musicians made their mark together with artists from the Indo community. In the 1980s, bands like Massada were popular. Massada's hitsong "Sajang e" is the only song in the Malay language to reach number one in the Netherlands. Also from the South Moluccan community in the Netherlands is the singer songwriter Daniel Sahuleka. In Indonesia, many famous musicians are ethnic Moluccans, like popstar Glenn Fredly, who toured the Netherlands in 2008 and acknowledged Daniel Sahuleka as one of his main inspirations. In the 21st century new generations of South Moluccans in the Netherlands have chosen ways to manifest their heritage and express themselves, by performing traditional Tifa music and Cakalele dances, but also by expressing themselves with contemporary music like hip-hop. In addition, in Dutch football many South Moluccans in the Netherlands have made a name for themselves, including Simon Tahamata and Bobby Petta as well as Denny Landzaat and Giovanni van Bronckhorst, whose mothers are Moluccan.

Exile.

The main stronghold of the rebellious RMS group on Ambon was defeated by Indonesian forces in November 1950, while a smaller scale guerilla struggle continued on Ceram until 1962. The defeat on Ambon however resulted in the flight of the self-declared RMS government from the islands, and the formation of a government in exile in the Netherlands. The following year some 12,000 Moluccan soldiers accompanied by their families went to the Netherlands, where they established a "Republic of the South Moluccas" government-in-exile.  During their exile parts of the RMS movement have committed terror attacks in the Netherlands. Most research argues that the attacks were caused by frustration over the lack of support from the Dutch government.  The first attack took place in 1970 at the Indonesian Ambassador's house at Wassenaar, during which a Dutch policeman was shot and killed. This attack was followed up in 1975 with the hijacking of a train at Wijster which was spontaneously supported by another, improvised, attack on the Indonesian consulate in Amsterdam. Three hostages were executed in the train and one Indonesian man was mortally wounded while trying to escape the consulate. In 1977 another train was hijacked, this time at De Punt, supported by a primary school hijack at Bovensmilde. These actions were ended with force by marines of the Bijzondere Bijstands Eenheid (BBE) in which six hijackers and two hostages died. The last action took place in 1978 when the provincial building in Assen was occupied. This action too was ended by BBE marines.  From the 1980s to the present day no such actions re-occurred.  Junus Effendi Habibie, A previous Indonesian ambassador to the Netherlands and brother to the third president of Indonesia, has said that he would do all he can to facilitate the repatriation of first generation Moluccans to their homeland, if they would stop aiming at an independent state.

Presidents.

Dr. Chris Soumokil J.D. was the RMS president in 1954 who went into hiding and led the armed guerilla struggle on Ceram island. He was only captured by the Indonesian Army in Ceram on 2 December 1962. Brought to trial before a military tribunal in Jakarta, he was sentenced to death and executed under President Suharto's rule on 12 April 1966.  The first president in exile was Prof. Johan Manusama (1966–1993).  The government-in-exile continues to exist, with Frans Tutuhatunewa M.D. as head of state (1993–2010). However it no longer advocates violent action towards either the Netherlands or Indonesia. The president in exile has said that the young generations should focus on their education and development opportunities in the Netherlands if they want to potentially support and develop the South Moluccas.  John Wattilete became RMS president in April 2010. He is the first to come from the second generation of Moluccans in the Netherlands and is regarded as more pragmatic than previous leaders.

State Symbols.

Flag.

The RMS flag is vertical blue, white, green, red (1:1:1:6) and has proportions 2:3. It was first hoisted 2 May 1950 at 10.00 AM. Two days later the government gave the explanation of the flag. Blue symbolises the sea and loyalty, white stands for purity, peace and the white beaches, green the vegetation, and red the ancestors and blood of the people.

Coat of arms.

The RMS coat of arms depicts the white Moluccan dove called 'Pombo'. The white dove is seen as a symbol of positivity and a good omen. The 'Pombo' is shown, about to start flying, the wings half opened and in its beak a peace branch, the chest tattooed with a crossed 'parang','salawaku' and spear.  The blazon of the RMS coat of arms state the words 'Mena - Moeria'. This slogan is derived from the original Melanesian Moluccan language. Since ancient times it is yelled by the steerer and paddlers of the traditional Moluccan rowing boats called 'Kora Kora', to synchronise their strokes during off shore expeditions. It literally means 'Front - Back', but is also translated as 'I go - We follow' or 'One for all - All for One'.

Anthem.

The RMS anthem is called "Maluku tanah airku", which translates to English as "Maluku my homeland," and was written by Chris Soumokil and O. Sahalessy in the Malay language, with Melanesian Moluccan words mixed in. Original text <poem>Oh Maluku, tanah airku, Tanah tumpah darahku. Ku berbakti kepadamu Slama hari hidupku. Engkaulah pusaka raya Yang leluhur dan teguh. Aku junjung selamanya Hingga sampai ajalku. Aku ingat terlebih Sejarahmu yang pedih.  Oh Maluku, tanah airku, Tanah datuk-datukku. Atas via dolorosa Engkau hidup merdeka. Putra-putri yang sejati Tumpah darah bagimu. Ku bersumpah trus berbakti Serta tanggung nasibmu. Aku lindung terlebih Sejarahmu yang pedih.  Mena-Muria, printah leluhur Segenap jiwaku seru. Bersegralah membelamu Seperti laskar yang jujur. Dengan prisai dan imanku Behkan harap yang teguh. Ku berkurban dan berasa Karena dikaa ibuku Ku doakan terlebih Mena-Muria, hiduplah!</poem> English translation <poem>Maluku, my homeland, My land of origin. I devote my strength to thee As long as I may live. Thou art my great heritage Uplifted above all. I will always honor thee Until my dying day. I will recall in memory Above all thy harrowing history.  Maluku, my homeland, Land of my ancestors. Through this road of suffering Will we reach liberty. Thy true sons and daughters Have shed their blood for thee. I am sworn to dedication To keep thy future safe. Above all I will protect thee And thy harrowing history.  Onwards without fear, the higher call I yell wholeheartedly. I hasten to defend thee As an army just and true. With shield and faith And above all in great resilience I will sacrifice and struggle. For thou art my cradle And above all I will pray That our sacred call may forever live.</poem>

Contemporary developments.

Recent political developments in the Netherlands.

The Indonesian ambassador to the Netherlands, Yunus Effendi Habibie, told Radio Netherlands Worldwide in 2009 that Indonesia was pleased that the exiled Moluccan government is no longer striving for an independent state. According to the ambassador, Moluccans already have autonomy, so the present situation need not be changed. He rejects full Moluccan independence. Habibie's comments come in response to a decision by the designated new president of the Moluccan government-in-exile, John Wattilete's words that an independent Moluccan state is no longer its absolute priority. Although independence is still the ultimate goal, he says he would be satisfied with a form of autonomy similar to that introduced in Aceh. "The most important thing is that Moluccans themselves are in charge."  John Wattilete became RMS president in April 2010. He is the first to come from the second generation of Moluccans in the Netherlands and is regarded as more pragmatic than previous leaders. However one day before Indonesian President Yudhoyono's planned state visit to the Netherlands, the first such visit since 1970, Wattilete issued legal proceedings to have him arrested upon entering the country. Although legal experts called this action senseless and without much chance of success, Yudhoyono canceled his visit the next day.

Recent political developments in Indonesia.

The South Moluccan people are predominantly Christian, unlike most regions in Indonesia which are overwhelmingly Muslim. The South Moluccan Republic, however, was also supported by some Moluccan Muslims in the region at that time. Today, while the majority of Christians on the Moluccas do not support separatism, the memory of the RMS and its separatist objectives still resonates in Indonesia. Moluccan Christians, during the sectarian violence of 1999–2002 in the Moluccas, were accused by Muslim groups of having independence as their goal. This accusation has been useful in galvanizing Muslims to fight (Laskar Jihad), and the situation has not been aided by the fact that some diaspora Moluccan Christian groups have taken up the RMS banner.  In the Moluccas, the Malino II Accord was signed to end conflict and create peace in the Moluccas, asking Moluccans "to reject and oppose all kinds of separatist movements, among others the Republic of South Moluccas (RMS), that threaten the unity and sovereignty of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia". However, during the visit to Ambon of the Indonesian president in the summer of 2007, RMS sympathisers disturbed ceremonies by performing the Moluccan war dance and hoisting the RMS flag.  Since 1999, a new organization known as the Maluku Sovereignty Front (FKM) has operated in Ambon, stockpiling weapons and flying the RMS flag in public places. The leader of the FKM organisation, Alex Manuputty, has fled to the United States, but continues to support independence.

South Maluku, officially the Republic of South Maluku, is an unrecognized secessionist republic in the southern Maluku Islands archipelago in Maritime Southeast Asia that claims the islands of Ambon, Buru, and Seram as part of its territory, all of which are currently part of the Indonesian province of Maluku.

La république des Moluques du Sud ("Republik Maluku Selatan") est un État non reconnu créé en 1950 dans l'archipel indonésien des Moluques.


Early years.

Baron Jean-Jacques Baude was born in Valence, Drôme on 19 February 1792, where his father was Attorney General. He started work in his father's office in the prefecture of Tarn. Towards the end of the reign of Napoleon he joined the administration. He was appointed in turn sub-prefect of Confolens on 8 April 1813, sub-prefect of Roanne on 2 November 1814 and sub-prefect of Saint-Étienne on 4 June 1815. Baude recognized Louis XVIII of France in the first restoration, but on the return of Napoleon placed himself at the head of the guards who opposed the advance of the Duke of Angoulême on Lyon.  After the battle of Waterloo he resigned and published "Le Lundi gras et le mercredi des Cenres" (Fat Monday and Ash Wednesday), which was condemned by the royal court of Grenoble. He then became involved in financing public works. He wrote a remarkable work on "Navigation de la Loire au-dessur de Briare" in 1826. He continued to attack the government in the liberal press. As editor of "Le Temps" he signed the protest of journalists against the ordinances of King Charles X of France.

July Monarchy.

The July Revolution, which brought his political friends to power, at first gave Baude an important place in the Orléanist party. He was named Secretary of the Municipal Commission of Paris on 29 July 1830. On 1 August 1830 he was named Secretary General of the Ministry of the Interior, and for a few days was acting Minister until François Guizot took the portfolio on 11 August 1830. He was then general director of bridges and roads, and of mines, and Councillor of State. On 28 October 1830 he was elected a Deputy for the department of the Loire. On 10 November, when the Count of Montalivet succeeded Guizot, Baude was appointed Under-Secretary of State for the Interior. On 26 December 1830 he replaced Treilhard at the Prefecture of Police, and remained in charge until 25 February 1831.  On 14 February 1831, the anniversary of the death of Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry, Baude had to deal with disturbance that were suppressed by the National Guard. This led to questions in the Assembly and he was replaced. On 15 March 1831 Baude presented a proposal supported by the president of the council, Casimir Périer, that was adopted, to ban king Charles X of France, his descendants and allies of his descendants in perpetuity from French territory. This was adopted after discussions and amendments.  Baude failed to be reelected on 5 July 1831. On 1 March 1832 he was elected for Roanne. He generally voted for the majority. He was reelected on 21 June 1834, on 4 November 1837 and on 9 July 1842. He failed to be reelected on 1 August 1846, which ended his career in the Assembly. After returning to private life he authored various papers on the navigation of the Loire, the Isthmus of Suez, Algeria, and the Channel coast (1859). He died in Paris on 6 February 1862.

Publications.

Publications included:

References.

Citations  Sources

Jean-Jacques Baude (19 February 1792 - 6 February 1862) was a French administrator and politician. He was a deputy from 1830 to 1839, and again from 1842 to 1846.

Le baron Jean-Jacques Baude est un haut fonctionnaire et homme politique français né à Valence (Drôme) le et mort à Paris le.


Historic vessel fleet.

The historic fleet of the San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park is moored at the park's Hyde Street Pier. The fleet consists of the following major vessels:  The fleet also includes over one hundred small craft.

Visitor Center.

The Visitor Center is housed in the park's 1909 waterfront warehouse, located at the corner of Hyde and Jefferson streets. The City of San Francisco declared the four-story brick structure a historic landmark in 1974, and the building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. Inside, exhibits (including a first order Fresnel lighthouse lens and a shipwrecked boat) tell the story of San Francisco's colorful and diverse maritime heritage. The visitor center also contains a theater and a ranger-staffed information desk.

Maritime Museum.

The maritime museum was until recently housed in a Streamline Moderne (late Art Deco) building that is the centerpiece of the Aquatic Park Historic District, a National Historic Landmark at the foot of Polk Street and a minute's walk from the visitor center and Hyde Street Pier. The building was originally built (starting in 1936) by the WPA as a public bathhouse, and its interior is decorated with fantastic and colorful murals, created primarily by artist and color theoretician Hilaire Hiler. The architects were William Mooser Jr. and William Mooser III.

Maritime Research Center.

The Maritime Research Center is the premier resource for San Francisco and Pacific Coast maritime history. Originating in 1939, the collections have become the largest maritime collection on the West Coast and the largest museum and research collection in the National Park Service.  The collections include more than:

Supporting associations.

The park is supported by several cooperating associations. One of these is the San Francisco Maritime National Park Association.

Location and access.

The Visitors Center, Hyde Street Pier and Maritime Museum are all situated adjacent to the foot of Hyde Street and at the western end of the Fisherman's Wharf district. The park headquarters and Maritime Research Center are located in Fort Mason, some 10 minutes walk to the west of the other sites. The Beach and Hyde Street terminal of the San Francisco cable car system adjoins the main site, while the Jones Street terminal of the F Market historic streetcar line is some 5 minutes walk to the east.  Opening times and fees for the various sites can be found on the park's website, see 'External links' below.

Open water swimming.

Aquatic Park is a popular place for open water swimming, both for recreation and training. The South End Rowing Club and Dolphin Club are located in Aquatic Park. Recently there have been several incidents of swimmers being bitten by sea lions.

Bibliography.

Bill Pickelhaupt, "San Francisco's Aquatic Park," Charleston, SC, 2005,

The San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park is located in San Francisco, California, United States. The park includes a fleet of historic vessels, a visitor center, a maritime museum, and a library/research facility. The park used to be referred to as the San Francisco Maritime Museum, however the former 1951 name changed in 1978 when the collections were acquired by the National Park Service. Today's San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park was authorized in 1988; the maritime museum is among the park's many cultural resources. The park also incorporates the Aquatic Park Historic District, bounded by Van Ness Avenue, Polk Street, and Hyde Street.

Le San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park se situe dans la ville de San Francisco en Californie, sur la côte Pacifique des États-Unis.


Life.

He seems to have been the son of Jean d’Orgemont, a middle-class man from Lagny who owned buildings on rue Saint-Antoine in Paris, or the son of the Pierre d’Orgemont who appears in the wills of Louis X and Philippe le Long.  Pierre d’Orgemont studied law and began his career as a mere lawyer in 1340 in the Parlement de Paris where he was made master clerk in May 1347 then first president in 1355. He proved loyal to the French crown during John II of France's captivity in France after capture at the battle of Poitiers, notably during the revolt of the Estates General in 1357 led by Étienne Marcel. This gained d'Orgemont recognition from the dauphin, the future Charles V of France. On 20 November 1373 he became the only ever chancellor of France to be elected by a college of electors. This college had been summoned together by Charles V:  Such a procedure was never revived by Charles' successors.  At Christmas 1373 Pierre d'Orgemont was made a knight. He remained chancellor until his retirement in 1380, following the death of Charles, who made him executor of his will - he then became maître des requêtes to the parlement de Paris. He also contributed to editing the Grandes Chroniques de France for 1350-1380. In 1384 he was made chancellor of the Dauphiné by Charles VI of France. On 26 May 1386 he bought the lordship of Chantilly from the last Bouteillier de Senlis. He soon began to build an impressive moated château, completed after his death by his son Amaury.

Pierre (I) d’Orgemont (c. 1315, Lagny-sur-Marne - 23 June 1389, hôtel des Tournelles, Paris) was a French politician of the Hundred Years' War era.

Pierre () d’Orgemont est né à Lagny-sur-Marne vers 1315 et mort à Paris en 1389. Il semble être le fils de Jean d’Orgemont, bourgeois de Lagny qui possédait des immeubles à Paris, rue Saint-Antoine. À moins qu'il soit le fils du Pierre d’Orgemont qui figure dans les testaments de Louis X et de Philippe le Long.


Club career.

Genoa and Milan.

After playing for the Veloce Calcio di Savona youth side, Panucci started his professional career with Genoa in 1990, and made his Serie A debut with the club during the 1991–92 Serie A season; following his impressive performances during the 1992–93 season, which saw him score 3 goals in 30 appearances, he moved to A.C. Milan in July 1993, at the age of 20. A talented prospect, he was originally brought in as a younger, more attack-minded alternative to the incumbent right-back Mauro Tassotti, who had held the position for over a decade, and was expected to be a back-up. However, Panucci began to work his way into the starting lineup under manager Fabio Capello, appearing in 19 league matches and scoring twice as Milan won domestic and European titles. He also demonstrated his versatility by lining up at left-back in the 1994 UEFA Champions League Final, while Tassotti played on the right, and Paolo Maldini and Filippo Galli in the centre, filling in for the injured Franco Baresi and the suspended Alessandro Costacurta, who were normally the club's starting central defensive pair; despite several important absences, Milan defeated Barcelona 4–0 to win the title. Nonetheless, it was Tassotti, not Panucci, who traveled to the United States that summer as part of the Italian World Cup selection under Arrigo Sacchi. For his performances, Panucci won the Bravo Award, as the best Under-23 player in Europe.  In the following season, Panucci established himself as the club's first-choice right-back, starting 28 of 34 matches in Serie A, and fully broke into the senior national team. Milan started the season strongly, winning both the Supercoppa Italiana and the UEFA Super Cup, but finished fourth in the league, behind champions Juventus, while they lost out to Vélez Sársfield in the 1994 Intercontinental Cup final, and to Ajax in the Champions League final that season. Panucci had one of his best offensive seasons in 1995–96, scoring five goals, while helping to form the league's tightest defence, and one of the greatest of all time, alongside internationals Baresi, Maldini, and Costacurta, as Milan regained the Italian championship. The sweeping changes across Europe as a result of the Bosman ruling, however, opened up new opportunities. After winning 6 titles with A.C. Milan, midway through the 1996–97 season, Panucci left the club for Real Madrid, joining former A.C. Milan coach Fabio Capello at the Spanish giants.

Real Madrid, Inter and journeyman.

At Real Madrid, Panucci became the first Italian to play for the Spanish club. Arriving in winter, he soon unseated the previous right-back, Carlos Secretario with his excellent performances, and formed a highly aggressive fullback pairing, starting alongside Brazilian star Roberto Carlos, who played on the left. This was a strong period for Real Madrid on the field, as the club immediately won the league in 1997, but a chaotic one on the sidelines as managers Capello, Jupp Heynckes, Guus Hiddink, and John Toshack followed one another in rapid succession. The high point for Panucci at this stage of his career came in 1998, when he won his second Champions League title against Juventus. Once more, however, he was not selected for the national team, missing out on the World Cup under manager Cesare Maldini. After a disappointing 1998–99 season in which Real Madrid only managed to capture the Intercontinental Cup, losing out in the UEFA Super Cup, and finishing well behind rivals FC Barcelona in La Liga, Panucci elected to return to Italian football.  Panucci later transferred to Inter in 1999, and represented the club during the 1999–2000 season. Panucci was not able to re-capture his previous form during his time with Inter, and frequently clashed with manager Marcello Lippi, later struggling to gain playing time while the team endured a difficult season. Inter finished the season with a fourth-place league finish, also reaching the Coppa Italia final. In August 2000, he was sent on loan to Chelsea, where he scored once in the UEFA Cup against St. Gallen, but only made 8 appearances in the Premier League, failing to find the back of the net. He subsequently moved to French side AS Monaco for the second half of the season, making 9 league appearances and scoring 3 goals. He made 5 league appearances for the club the following season, before returning to Italy to play for Roma in 2001.

Roma.

After a great deal of travelling throughout his career, Panucci finally settled at Roma. He joined the Roman club in the 2001–02 campaign, the year after the "Giallorossi" had won the national title, and immediately won the 2001 Supercoppa Italiana. He went on to become a key player and one of the leaders of the club, and was the team's permanent starting right-back. In July 2002, he was signed permanently for €9.81 million.  Panucci, a reliable leader both on and off the field, often took the responsibility to speak for the team in moments of difficulty, as seen after Roma's shock elimination from the Champions League in 2007. He proved to be a decisive player for the club during the 2006–07 season, scoring several goals, and contributed to Roma's Coppa Italia victory with his performances, scoring a brace in a 6–2 win in the first leg of the final against Inter. Panucci started the 2007–08 season strongly, immediately winning the 2007 Supercoppa Italiana over Inter, although he later lost his place as the club's starting right-back to Cicinho, and was played mainly as a back-up central defender. He was later able to fight his way back into the starting line-up for the second half of the season, scoring several goals (five in Serie A, and one in the UEFA Champions League), as Roma finished second in the league, and defended their Coppa Italia title.  His prolific offensive performances continued through to the opening of the 2008–09 season, despite the club's poor run of form, as he scored 2 goals in the league against Reggina and Atalanta, and 2 more in the UEFA Champions League, against Cluj and Chelsea. On 25 January 2009, Panucci was dropped from Roma's first team squad after refusing to sit on the bench for a league match against Napoli, and was later also excluded from the Champions League squad list. Due to his difficult relationship with manager Luciano Spalletti, he announced his intention to leave Roma, but no serious bidder was found in the January transfer window and he ultimately stayed, returning to the first team on 28 February after he officially apologised to his fellow players and the club management. He was sent off in the second Derby della Capitale of the 2008–09 season after a heated on-pitch clash with Lazio player Stephan Lichtsteiner following his hard challenge on the Swiss defender. His contract with Roma ended on 30 June 2009, which he had signed in October 2005, making him a free agent.  He played a total of 311 matches, scoring 29 goals for Roma, becoming the highest-scoring defender in the club's history.

Parma.

On 30 July 2009, Panucci signed for Parma on a one-year deal; he made his debut with the club on 23 August, away at Udinese in the first match of the season, and scored his first goal for Parma on 13 December against Bologna. On 23 February 2010, Panucci left Parma by mutual consent seven months after joining them.  On 22 August, Panucci announced his immediate retirement from football citing, "I had offers, but I just don't feel the hunger anymore."

International career.

Panucci had a successful career with the Italy national under-21 football team, winning consecutive under-21 European Championship titles in 1994 and 1996 under manager Cesare Maldini.  After missing out on the Italy squad that reached the final of the 1994 FIFA World Cup, Panucci made his senior Italy debut on 7 September 1994 against Slovenia in a UEFA Euro 1996 qualifying match. He missed out on the squad for the final tournament, however, following a dispute with Italian national coach Arrigo Sacchi. Despite missing out on the European Championship squad, he was named the captain of the Italian national team that took part at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, under his former youth coach Maldini. As he spent the following seasons abroad, however, he was once again excluded from Maldini's team for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, and he was also left out of Dino Zoff's squad for UEFA Euro 2000 due to his lack of playing and irregular performances with Inter; it was not until the 2002 World Cup, under manager Giovanni Trapattoni, that Panucci became a regular in the Italian team.  In the 2002 World Cup, Panucci was widely blamed for failing to clear a pass that led to the equalising goal for co-hosts South Korea by Seol Ki-Hyun in the dying minutes of regulation time in the round of 16; Ahn Jung-hwan scored the golden goal of the match in extra time, which eliminated the Italian team from the tournament. In the first half of regulation time, Panucci had also conceded a controversial penalty, after referee Byron Moreno judged him to have pulled down Seol Ki-Hyeon in the box; Ahn's spot kick was saved by Italy's goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon, however.  After taking part in Italy's unsuccessful campaign at Euro 2004 in Portugal, assisting Antonio Cassano's goal in a 1–1 draw against Sweden in Italy's second group match of the tournament, Panucci did not play for Italy for over three years. Despite his performances and the lack of genuine quality Italian right-backs, he was ignored by Marcello Lippi, whom he had fallen out with in his days at Inter Milan, during the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, as Italy went on to win the final tournament in Germany. The 34-year-old, however, was given a second chance by coach Roberto Donadoni, who called him up for the Euro 2008 qualifiers against Georgia, Scotland, and the Faroe Islands.  Panucci expressed his delight at earning his 50th Italy cap in the stadium where he began his career for the "Azzurri" in the 2–0 win over Georgia in their Euro 2008 qualifying tie in Genoa at the Stadio Luigi Ferraris. It was really emotional for me to play in an arena where I grew up. It may have seemed a little scripted but I'll never forget the standing ovation I received.  On 17 November 2007, Panucci managed to score his first international goal for Italy since April 2002, when he headed a crucial injury-time winning goal against Scotland in their Euro 2008 qualifying Group B match. Italy then managed to clinch their place at the European Championship finals.  On 13 June 2008, in Italy's second group match at Euro 2008, Panucci scored Italy's first goal of the tournament in a 1–1 draw against Romania, and became the oldest player to score in outfield play in the competition, and Italy's all-time oldest goalscorer, at the age of 35 years, 2 months and 1 day at the time; the latter record was later broken by Fabio Quagliarella in 2019. He later also conceded a penalty, which was saved by Italy goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon. Panucci finished his Italy career with 57 total caps, scoring four goals.

Style of play.

Panucci was a quick, strong, competitive, and versatile player, who was primarily deployed as a right-back, but was also capable of playing on the left or in the centre, or also as a wing-back. Although he was at times criticised for being overly temperamental or for suffering occasional lapses in concentration, he made a name for himself throughout his career as a composed, defensive-minded full-back, who was known for his work-rate, defensive consistency, and for being comfortable in possession; he also possessed significant stamina, as well as notable physical and athletic attributes. He was primarily renowned for his ability in the air as a footballer, frequently scoring with his head from set pieces; his aerial prowess, along with his accurate distribution, precise crossing, good technical skills, and ability to make attacking runs down the flank, also allowed him to contribute offensively to his team's play, with goals and assists; with 34 goals in Serie A, he is among the most prolific defenders in the history of the Italian league. In his later career, as he lost his pace, he mainly played as a central defender, where he stood out for his leadership, tenacity, and tactical intelligence, earning the nickname "El Grinta" from commentator Carlo Zampa.

Post-playing career.

After his retirement, Panucci became a football pundit and color commentator for SKY Italia.  In 2011, he took part in the Italian edition of "Dancing with the Stars".

Managerial career.

Panucci left his job as a pundit on 19 March 2012 to accept an offer from Maurizio Zamparini as team manager of Palermo, working alongside director of football and scouting chief Luca Cattani. On 24 April 2012, he resigned from his position just over a month after he took the job.  On 23 July 2012, he was invited by Fabio Capello to work as his assistant in his work as a head coach of Russia national football team. He left his position after the end of the 2014 FIFA World Cup.  In 2013 he qualified for the UEFA Pro Licence.  On 18 March 2015, he was named as manager of Serie B team Livorno replacing Ezio Gelain.  In June 2016, he was appointed as head coach of Ternana signing a one-year contract.

Albania national team.

On 19 July 2017, Panucci was appointed as the Albania national football team head coach signing a 2 years and 4 months contract with the Albanian Football Association, replaced fellow Italian coach Gianni De Biasi which resigned in previous month. He started his work immediately traveling to Basel, Switzerland in July 2017 to watch Taulant Xhaka playing for FC Basel. However Xhaka was an unused substitute in the game and later was forced by Basel's coach along with all fellow unused substitutes in that game to train on the pitch post-match. After being in the stadium for the game among his assistant Ervin Bulku, Panucci waited outside to meet Xhaka but unfortunely this meeting did not happen as Xhaka, being unsatisfied with Basel's coach decision, went home immediately and did not notice Panucci's SMS. Panucci then travelled to Zürich to see fellow Albanian midfielder Burim Kukeli who played with FC Zürich. In his first gathering with Albania national team for the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification matches against Liechtenstein and Macedonia on 2 and 5 September 2017, Panucci brought 3 new players, Iván Balliu, the Spanish-born Albanian descent which previously played for Spain under-17 side, Valon Ahmedi and Hysen Memolla, both former Albanian under-21 internationals. In his first match in charge on 2 September against Liechtenstein, he led Albania to a 2–0 victory at the Elbasan Arena After a 2–0 home loss against Turkey in the first UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying match on 22 March 2019, Panucci was sacked the following day; during his tenure as head coach for Albania he only achieved four wins and two draws in 15 matches.

Personal life.

Panucci is half Italian and half Czech.  Panucci was chosen a captain of Italian national team at 1996 Olympics. However, he was forced to fly home because of an injury. Initially, Panucci planned to take TWA flight 800 from New York to Rome via Paris, but experienced a loss of baggage from Atlanta. He was informed about a later direct Alitalia flight to Milan and decided to choose it instead. That day (17 July 1996) TWA Flight 800 exploded and crashed into the Atlantic Ocean near East Moriches, New York and all 230 passengers died.

Career statistics.

International.

International goals.

"Italy score listed first, score column indicates score after each Panucci's goal."

Honours.

Club.

A.C. Milan  Real Madrid  A.S. Roma

International.

Italy

Christian Panucci (; born 12 April 1973) is an Italian former footballer and former manager of the Albania national team. In his playing career he played as a defender. A versatile footballer, he began his career as a right-back, but was also capable of playing on the left; as he lost his pace in his later career, he was usually deployed as a centre back, due to his strength in the air.

Christian Panucci est un ancien footballeur italien, né le à Savona. Son poste de prédilection était arrière droit mais il pouvait aussi jouer en défense centrale.


History.

With its base centered on the Hawiye clan, the United Somali Congress was founded in Rome in January, 1987. Its military wing was formed in late 1987 in Ethiopia, and led by General Mohamed Farrah Aidid until his demise in 1996. He was succeeded by his son Hussein Mohamed Farrah, by which time the Aidid faction of the organization was also known as the Somali National Alliance (SNA), often the USC/SNA.  The USC was formed in response to severe acts against the Hawiye tribe by the government of Mohamed Siaad Barre. During the period of 1987 to 1991, president Barre launched massive crack downs and use of force against the Hawiye in their homeland in Southern and Central Somalia. The most notable incidents were in Central Somalia in the area near Galkacyo in November 1989 which resulted in the deaths of many civilians at the hands of the Somali National Army. These mass deaths resulted in the future USC Chairman, General Mohammed Farah Aidid quitting his post as Somali Ambassador to India and joined the USC training camps in Mustahiil, Ethiopia.  Military successes by the USC would be instrumental in bringing about the ouster of the Barre government on January 26, 1991, but the USC failed to manage a political settlement with its rivals, the SNM, SPM and the SSDF, and also fragmented within its own leadership after Ali Mahdi Muhammad was declared interim President.  Upon the naming of Ali Mahdi Muhammed as President, the USC split into two. The USC/SNA emerged under Mohammed Aidid and the United Somali Congress/Somali Salvation Alliance (USC/SSA) of Ali Mahdi Muhammed. The USC/SNA came under the control of Mohamed Aidid's son, Hussein Mohamed Farah Aidid after the father's death in 1996. The USC/SSA eventually came under control of the Deputy Chairman, Musa Sudi Yalahow.  Both USC factions made peace with each other in August 1998, though this caused a violent split between Yalahow and Ali Mahdi Muhammed, and fighting continued in Mogadishu. Eventually both Hussein Aidid and Yalahow reconciled and joined the Somali Reconciliation and Restoration Council (SRRC) in 2002, in opposition to the Transitional National Government (TNG). This caused a rift between the USC/SSA supporters of Yalahow and Omar Muhamoud Finnish (also known as Mahmud Muhammad Finish), who continued to support the TNG. Fighting between the two caused many deaths in Mogadishu.  In 2001, Hussein Aidid founded the Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council (SRRC), a new armed opposition group. Growing out of the Somali National Alliance, it was originally formed to oppose the nascent Transitional National Government (TNG) and the Juba Valley Alliance (JVA) in the 2001–2004 period. However, it eventually settled its differences with the government in 2004, with some moderate leaders incorporated into the new interim administration.

The United Somali Congress (USC) was one of the major rebel organizations in Somalia. Formed in 1987, it played a key role in the ouster of the government of Siad Barre in 1991, and became a target of the Unified Task Force campaign in 1993. Following infighting, the USC later splintered into smaller groups. By 2004, with the establishment of a Transitional National Government (TNG), a process of disarmament was put in motion and some moderate ex-USC leaders were incorporated into the new interim administration.

L', "USC" est une organisation politico-militaire somalienne issue en majorité du clan Hawiye, fondée à Rome en pour s'opposer au régime de Siyaad Barre. Basé dans le centre du pays, l'organisation prend la capitale Mogadiscio en. Durant les années 1990, elle éclate en plusieurs factions rivales qui se livrent une guerre fratricide. Une partie d'entre elles rallient le gouvernement fédéral de transition au début des années 2000.


Staphylococcus aureus résistant à la méticilline

Signs and symptoms.

In humans, "Staphylococcus aureus" is part of the normal microbiota present in the upper respiratory tract, and on skin and in the gut mucosa. "S. aureus" usually carried without symptoms. However, along with similar bacterial species that can colonize and act symbiotically, can cause disease if they begin to take over the tissues they have colonized or invade other

Risk factors.

A select few of the populations at risk include:  As many as 22% of people infected with MRSA do not have any discernable risk factors.

Hospitalized people.

People who are hospitalized, including the elderly, are often immunocompromised and susceptible to infection of all kinds, including MRSA; an infection by MRSA is called healthcare-associated or hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant "S. aureus" (HA-MRSA). Generally, those infected by MRSA stay infected for just under 10 days, if treated by a doctor, although effects

Prison inmates and military recruits.

Prisons and military barracks can be crowded and confined, and poor hygiene practices may proliferate, thus putting inhabitants at increased risk of contracting MRSA. Cases of MRSA in such populations were first reported in the United States and later

Animals.

Antibiotic use in livestock increases the risk that MRSA will develop among the livestock; strains MRSA ST 398 and CC398

Athletes.

Locker rooms, gyms, and related athletic facilities offer potential sites for MRSA contamination and infection. Athletes have been identified as a high-risk group. A study linked MRSA to the abrasions caused by artificial turf. Three studies by the Texas State Department of Health found the infection rate among football players was 16 times the national average. In October 2006, a high-school football player was temporarily paralyzed

Children.

MRSA is becoming a critical problem in children; studies found 4.6% of patients in U.S. health-care facilities, (presumably) including hospital nurseries, were infected or colonized with MRSA. Children and adults who come

Mechanism.

Antimicrobial resistance is genetically based; resistance is mediated by the acquisition of extrachromosomal genetic elements containing genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics. Examples of such elements include plasmids, transposable genetic elements, and genomic islands, which can be transferred between bacteria through horizontal gene transfer. A defining characteristic of MRSA is its ability to thrive in the presence of penicillin-like antibiotics, which normally prevent bacterial growth by inhibiting synthesis of cell wall material. This is due to a resistance gene, "mecA", which stops β-lactam antibiotics from inactivating the enzymes (transpeptidases) critical for cell wall synthesis.

SCC"mec".

Staphylococcal cassette chromosome "mec" (SCC"mec") is a genomic island of unknown origin containing the antibiotic resistance gene "mecA". SCC"mec" contains additional genes beyond "mecA", including the cytolysin gene "psm-mec", which may suppress virulence in HA-acquired MRSA strains. In addition, this locus encodes strain-dependent gene regulatory RNAs known as "psm-mec"RNA. SCC"mec" also contains "ccrA" and "ccrB"; both genes encode recombinases that mediate the site-specific integration and excision of the SCC"mec" element from the "S. aureus" chromosome. Currently, six unique SCC"mec" types ranging in size from 21–67 kb have been identified; they are designated types I–VI and are distinguished by variation in "mec" and "ccr" gene complexes. Owing to the size of the SCC"mec" element and the constraints of horizontal gene transfer, a minimum of five clones are thought to be responsible

"mecA".

"mecA" is a biomarker gene responsible for resistance to methicillin and other β-lactam antibiotics. After acquisition of "mecA", the gene must be integrated and localized in the "S. aureus" chromosome. "mecA" encodes penicillin-binding protein 2a (PBP2a), which differs from other penicillin-binding proteins as its active site does not bind methicillin or other β-lactam antibiotics. As such, PBP2a can continue to catalyze the transpeptidation reaction required for peptidoglycan cross-linking, enabling cell wall synthesis even in the presence of antibiotics. As a consequence of the inability of PBP2a to

Arginine catabolic mobile element.

The arginine catabolic mobile element (ACME) is a virulence factor present in many MRSA strains but

Strains.

Acquisition of SCC"mec" in methicillin-sensitive "S. aureus" (MSSA) gives rise to a number of genetically different MRSA lineages. These genetic variations within different MRSA strains possibly explain the variability in virulence and associated MRSA infections. The first MRSA strain, ST250 MRSA-1, originated from SCC"mec" and ST250-MSSA integration. Historically, major MRSA clones ST2470-MRSA-I, ST239-MRSA-III, ST5-MRSA-II, and ST5-MRSA-IV were responsible for causing hospital-acquired MRSA (HA-MRSA) infections. ST239-MRSA-III, known as the Brazilian clone, was highly transmissible compared to others and distributed in Argentina, Czech Republic,

Diagnosis.

Diagnostic microbiology laboratories and reference laboratories are key for identifying outbreaks of MRSA. Normally, a bacterium must be cultured from blood, urine, sputum, or other body-fluid samples, and in sufficient quantities to perform confirmatory tests early-on. Still, because no quick and easy method exists to diagnose MRSA, initial treatment of the infection is often based upon "strong suspicion" and techniques by the treating physician; these include quantitative PCR procedures, which are employed in clinical laboratories for quickly detecting and identifying MRSA strains.  Another common laboratory test is a rapid latex agglutination test that detects the PBP2a protein. PBP2a is a variant penicillin-binding protein that imparts the ability of "S. aureus" to be resistant to oxacillin.

Microbiology.

Like all "S. aureus" (also abbreviated SA at times), methicillin-resistant "S. aureus" is a Gram-positive, spherical (coccus) bacterium about 1 micron in diameter. It does not form spores and it is not motile. It is frequently found in grape-like clusters or chains. Unlike methicillin-susceptible "S. aureus" (MSSA), MRSA is slow-growing on a variety of media and has been found to exist in mixed colonies of MSSA. The "mecA" gene, which confers resistance to a number of antibiotics, is always present in MRSA and usually absent in MSSA; however, in some instances, the "mecA" gene is present in MSSA but is not expressed. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing is the most precise method for

Prevention.

Screening.

In health-care settings, isolating those with MRSA from those without the infection is one method to prevent transmission. Rapid culture and sensitivity testing and molecular testing identifies carriers and reduces infection rates.  MRSA can

Handwashing.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention offers suggestions for preventing the contraction and spread of MRSA infection which are applicable to those in community settings, including incarcerated populations, childcare center employees, and athletes. To prevent the spread

Isolation.

Excluding medical facilities, current US guidance does not require workers with MRSA infections to be routinely excluded from the general workplace. The National Institutes of Health recommend that those with wound drainage that cannot be covered and contained with a clean, dry bandage and those who cannot maintain good hygiene practices be reassigned. Workers with active infections are excluded from activities where skin-to-skin contact is likely to occur. To prevent the spread of staphylococci or MRSA

Restricting antibiotic use.

Glycopeptides, cephalosporins, and in particular, quinolones are associated with an increased risk of

Public health considerations.

Mathematical models describe one way in which a loss of infection control can occur after measures for screening and isolation seem to be effective for years, as happened in the UK. In the "search and destroy" strategy that was employed by all UK hospitals until the mid-1990s, all hospitalized people with MRSA were immediately isolated, and all staff were screened for MRSA

Decolonization.

As of 2013, no randomized clinical trials had been conducted to understand how to treat nonsurgical wounds that had been colonized, but not infected, with MRSA, and insufficient studies had been conducted to understand how to treat surgical wounds that had been colonized with MRSA. As of 2013, whether strategies to eradicate MRSA colonization of people in nursing

Community settings.

Maintaining the necessary cleanliness may be difficult for people if they do not have access to facilities such as public toilets with handwashing facilities. In the United Kingdom, the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992 require businesses to provide toilets for their employees, along with washing facilities including soap or other suitable means of cleaning. Guidance on

Agriculture.

The World Health Organization advocates regulations on the use of antibiotics in

Treatment.

Antibiotics.

Treatment of MRSA infection is urgent and delays can be fatal. The location and history related to the infection determines the treatment. The route of administration of an antibiotic varies. Antibiotics effective against MRSA can be given by IV, oral, or a combination of both, and depend on the specific circumstances and patient characteristics. The use of concurrent treatment with vancomycin or other beta-lactam agents may have a synergistic effect.  Both CA-MRSA and HA-MRSA are resistant to traditional anti-staphylococcal beta-lactam antibiotics, such as cephalexin.

Skin and soft-tissue infections.

In skin abscesses, the primary treatment recommended is removal of dead tissue, incision, and drainage. More information is needed to determine the effectiveness of specific antibiotics therapy in surgical site infections (SSIs). Examples of soft-tissue infections from MRSA include ulcers, impetigo, abscesses, and

Children.

In skin infections and secondary infection sites, topical mupirocin is used successfully. For bacteremia and endocarditis, vancomycin or daptomycin is considered. For children with MRSA-infected bone

Endocarditis and bacteremia.

Evaluation for the replacement of a prosthetic valve is considered. Appropriate antibiotic therapy may be administered

Respiratory infections.

CA-MRSA in hospitalized patients pneumonia treatment begins before culture results. After the susceptibility to antibiotics is performed, the infection may be treated with vancomycin or linezolid for up to 21 days. If the pneumonia is complicated by the accumulation of pus in the pleural cavity surrounding the lungs, drainage

Bone and joint infections.

Cleaning the wound of dead tissue and draining abscesses is the first action to treat the MRSA

Infected implants.

MRSA infection can occur associated with implants and joint replacements. Recommendations on treatment are based upon the length of time the implant has been in place. In cases of a

Central nervous system.

MRSA can infect the central nervous system and form brain abscess, subdural empyema, and spinal epidural

Other infections.

Treatment is not standardized for other instances of MRSA infection in a wide range of tissues. Treatment varies for MRSA infections related to: subperiosteal abscesses, necrotizing pneumonia, cellulitis, pyomyositis, necrotizing fasciitis, mediastinitis, myocardial, perinephric, hepatic, and splenic abscesses, septic

Epidemiology.

Worldwide, an estimated 2 billion people carry some form of "S. aureus"; of these, up to 53 million (2.7% of carriers) are thought to carry MRSA.

HA-MRSA.

In a US cohort study of 1,300 healthy children, 2.4% carried MRSA in their nose. Bacterial sepsis occurs with most (75%) of cases of invasive MRSA infection. In 2009, there were an estimated 463,017 hospitalizations due to MRSA, or a rate of 11.74 per 1,000 hospitalizations. Many of these infections are less serious, but the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimate that there are 80,461 invasive MRSA infections and 11,285 deaths due to MRSA annually. In 2003, the cost for a hospitalization due

CA-MRSA.

In a US cohort study of 1,300 healthy children, 2.4% carried MRSA in their noses. There are concerns that the presence of

LA-MRSA.

Livestock associated MRSA (LA-MRSA) has been observed

History.

In 1961, the first known MRSA isolates were reported in a British study, and from 1961 to 1967, infrequent hospital outbreaks occurred in Western Europe and Australia, with methicillin then being licensed in England to treat resistant infections. Other reports of MRSA began to be described in the 1970s. Resistance to other antibiotics was documented in some strains of "S. aureus". In 1996, vancomycin resistance was reported in Japan. In many countries, outbreaks of MRSA infection were reported to be transmitted between hospitals. The rate had increased to 22% by 1995, and by 1997 the level of hospital "S. aureus" infections attributable to MRSA had reached 50%.  The first report of community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) occurred in 1981, and in 1982, a large outbreak of CA-MRSA occurred among intravenous drug users in Detroit, Michigan. Additional outbreaks of CA-MRSA were reported through the 1980s and 1990s, including outbreaks among Australian Aboriginal populations that had never been exposed to hospitals. In the mid-1990s, scattered reports of CA-MRSA outbreaks among US children were made. While HA-MRSA rates stabilized between 1998 and 2008, CA-MRSA rates continued to rise. A report released by the University of Chicago Children's Hospital comparing two periods (1993–1995 and 1995–1997) found a 25-fold increase in the rate of hospitalizations due to MRSA among children in the United States. In 1999, the University of Chicago reported the first deaths from invasive MRSA among otherwise healthy children in the United States. By 2004, the genome for various strains of MRSA were described.  The observed increased mortality among MRSA-infected people arguably may be the

In the media.

MRSA is frequently a media topic, especially if well-known personalities have announced that they have or have had the infection. Word of outbreaks of infection appears regularly in newspapers and television news programs. A report on skin and

Research.

Various antibacterial chemical extracts from various species of the sweetgum tree (genus "Liquidambar") have been investigated for their activity in inhibiting MRSA. Specifically, these are: cinnamic acid, cinnamyl cinnamate, ethyl cinnamate, benzyl cinnamate, styrene, vanillin, cinnamyl alcohol, 2-phenylpropyl alcohol, and 3-phenylpropyl cinnamate.  The delivery of inhaled antibiotics along with systematic administration to treat MRSA are being developed. This may improve the outcomes of those with cystic fibrosis and other respiratory infections. Phage therapy has been used for years in MRSA in eastern countries, and studies are ongoing in western countries.  MRSA will be included in experiments and cultured on the International Space Station to observe the effects of zero gravity on its evolution.

Methicillin-resistant "Staphylococcus aureus" (MRSA) refers to a group of Gram-positive bacteria that are genetically distinct from other strains of "Staphylococcus aureus". MRSA is responsible for several difficult-to-treat infections in humans. MRSA is any strain of "S. aureus" that has developed, through horizontal gene transfer and natural selection, multiple drug resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. Beta-lactam (β-lactam) antibiotics are a broad-spectrum group that include some penams (penicillin derivatives such as methicillin and oxacillin) and cephems such as the cephalosporins. Strains unable to resist these antibiotics are classified as methicillin-susceptible "S. aureus", or MSSA.

Le "Staphylococcus aureus" résistant à la méticilline (SARM) ou, en (MRSA) est un "Staphylococcus aureus" (couramment appelé « Staphylocoque doré ») caractérisé par sa résistance à un antibiotique, la méticilline (ou méthicilline).


Symbolic employment of "und" or "u.".

Before 1867, the territories under the control of the Habsburg monarch in Vienna used "kaiserlich und königlich" or the hyphenated "kaiserlich-königlich" interchangeably. Neither of the spellings defined a hierarchy among the Habsburg dynastic kingdoms, principalities, duchies, and other bodies politic. The Habsburg monarchs ruled the kingdoms of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia as their Kings. The title "Emperor" applied to their role as heads of the conglomerate of the mostly German states called the Holy Roman Empire until 1806. The same title, "Emperor", came to identify their role as rulers of the newly named Austrian Empire that the Habsburgs attributed so from 11 August 1804.  The name "Imperial-Royal Army" was used from 1745, as "Royal" referred to the Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary, which was not part of the Holy Roman Empire, but under Habsburg rule.  After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Hungarians insisted on the "und" ("and"), not the hyphen, in all usage in line with the new autonomous status of the kingdom within the Habsburg lands. Use of the phrase "Kaiserlich "und" königlich" was decreed in a letter written by the Emperor on October 17, 1889 for the military, the navy and the institutions shared by both parts of the empire. Subsequently, the abbreviation "k.k." only referred to the institutions of the "Austrian" part of Austria-Hungary (Cisleithania). The abbreviation "m.k." (Hungarian: "magyar királyi"), or "kgl. ung." (German: "königlich ungarisch"), both meaning "Royal Hungarian", was applied in reference to the governmental bodies of the Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania).  In official documents, the abbreviation used provides information on the lands targeted:

Other uses.

The ubiquity of this phrase in all administrative matters made it a synonym for the Habsburg administration, sometimes referred to as the "k. u. k. monarchy" in Central European publications through the present. Other languages of the Habsburg Monarchy retained the German abbreviation or used it interchangeably with their own − "c. i kr." in Croatian, "c. a k." or "c.-k." in Czech, "cs. és kir." in Hungarian, "I.R." in Italian, "c. i k." or "C.K." in Polish, often hyphenated ("cezaro-crăiesc") in Romanian, "c. a k." in Slovak, "c. kr." in Slovenian.  The abbreviation "k.k." gave rise to the noun "Kakania" (spelling out the letter "K" [kah] twice as well as reminiscent of "caca" in the Central European languages). It was intended to describe the Habsburg Monarchy as a state of mind, bureaucratic and with a highly stratified formal society. A discussion of "Kakania" became a highlight of the first volume of Robert Musil's novel "The Man Without Qualities" (1930).

The German phrase kaiserlich und königlich (, "Imperial and Royal"), typically abbreviated as k. u. k., k. und k., k. & k. in German (in all cases the "und" is always spoken unabbreviated), cs. és k. (császári és királyi)" in Hungarian, c. a k. (císařský a královský)" in Czech, C. i K. (Cesarski i Królewski)" in Polish, c. in k. (cesarski in kraljevski)" in Slovenian, c. i kr. (carski i kraljevski)" in Bosnian and Croatian, and I.R. ("Imperiale Regio") in Italian, refers to the court/government of the Habsburgs in a broader historical perspective. Some modern authors restrict its use to the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary from 1867 to 1918. During that period, it indicated that the Habsburg monarch reigned simultaneously as the Kaiser" (Emperor of Austria) and as the "König" (King of Hungary), while the two territories were joined in a real union (akin to a two-state federation in this instance). The acts of the common government, which was responsible only for the Imperial & Royal ("I&R") Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the I&R Ministry of War and the I&R Ministry of Finance (financing only the two other ministries), were carried out in the name of "His Imperial and Royal Majesty", and the central governmental bodies had their names prefixed with "k. u. k."

KuK (écrit "k. u. k.", "k. und k.", ou, plus rarement, "k. & k.") est l'acronyme de l'expression "kaiserlich und königlich" (prononcer [kaɪzɐlɪç ʔʊnt ˈkøːnɪklɪç]), impérial et royal en allemand. Ces qualificatifs étaient employés par le gouvernement austro-hongrois, à l'époque de 1867 à 1918 où l'empire d'Autriche et le royaume de Hongrie étaient réunis en union réelle au sein d'une même entité politique. L'appellation "kaiserlich-königlich" ("k. k."), en revanche, ne se réfère depuis qu'à la partie autrichienne, les pays de la Cisleithanie.


Effusion into vacuum.

Effusion from an equilibrated container into outside vacuum can be calculated based on kinetic theory. The number of atomic or molecular collisions with a wall of a container per unit area per unit time (impingement rate) is given by:  formula_1  If a small area formula_2 on the container is punched to become a small hole, the effusive flow rate will be:  formula_3  Where formula_4 is the molar mass. Note that the outside vacuum has zero pressure, hence formula_5 is the pressure difference between two sides of the hole.  The average velocity of effused particles is:  formula_6  Combined with the effusive flow rate, the recoil/thrust force on the system itself is:  formula_7  An example is the recoil force on a balloon with a small punched hole flying in vacuum.

Measures of flow rate.

By the kinetic theory of gases, the kinetic energy for a gas at a temperature formula_8,  where formula_10 is the mass of one molecule, formula_11 is the root-mean-square speed of the molecules and formula_12 is the Boltzmann constant. The average molecular speed can be calculated from the Maxwell speed distribution as formula_13(or, equivalently, formula_14). The rate at which a gas of molar mass M effuses (typically expressed as the "number" of molecules passing through the hole per second) is then  Here ΔP is the gas pressure difference across the barrier, A is the area of the hole, N" is the Avogadro constant, R is the gas constant and T" is the absolute temperature. Assuming the pressure difference between the two sides of the barrier is much smaller than formula_16, the average absolute pressure in the system ("i.e." formula_17), it is possible to express effusion flow as a volumetric flow rate as follows:  or  Where formula_20 is the volumetric flow rate of the gas, formula_16 is the average pressure on either side of the orifice, and formula_22 is the hole diameter.

Effect of molecular weight.

At constant pressure and temperature, the root-mean-square speed and therefore the effusion rate are inversely proportional to the square root of the molecular weight. Gases with a lower molecular weight effuse more rapidly than gases with a higher molecular weight, so that the "number" of lighter molecules passing through the hole per unit time is greater. This is why a balloon filled with low molecular weight helium ("M" = 4) deflates faster than an equivalent balloon full of higher molecular weight oxygen ("M" = 32). However the total "mass" of the escaping molecules is directly proportional to the square root of the molecular weight and is less for lighter molecules.

Graham's law.

Scottish chemist Thomas Graham (1805–1869) found experimentally that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of its particles. In other words, the ratio of the rates of effusion of two gases at the same temperature and pressure is given by the inverse ratio of the square roots of the masses of the gas particles.  where formula_24 and formula_25 represent the molar masses of the gases. This equation is known as Graham's law of effusion.  The effusion rate for a gas depends directly on the average velocity of its particles. Thus, the faster the gas particles are moving, the more likely they are to pass through the effusion orifice.

Knudsen effusion cell.

The Knudsen effusion cell is used to measure the vapor pressures of a solid with very low vapor pressure. Such a solid forms a vapor at low pressure by sublimation. The vapor slowly effuses through a pinhole, and the loss of mass is proportional to the vapor pressure and can be used to determine this pressure. The heat of sublimation can also be determined by measuring the vapor pressure as a function of temperature, using the Clausius–Clapeyron relation.

In physics and chemistry, effusion is the process in which a gas escapes from a container through a hole of diameter considerably smaller than the mean free path of the molecules. Such a hole is often described as a "pinhole" and the escape of the gas is due to the pressure difference between the container and the exterior. Under these conditions, essentially all molecules which arrive at the hole continue and pass through the hole, since collisions between molecules in the region of the hole are negligible. Conversely, when the diameter is larger than the mean free path of the gas, flow obeys the Sampson flow law.

En chimie, l'effusion est le passage d'un gaz par un trou sans collisions moléculaires. Les collisions seront absentes si le diamètre du trou est très inférieur au libre parcours moyen des molécules, de sorte que les collisions entre les molécules dans la région du trou soient négligeables.


Career.

As of 2006, Sakamura leads the ubiquitous networking laboratory (UNL), located in Gotanda, Tokyo as well as the T-Engine forum for consumer electronics. The joint goal of Sakamura's Ubiquitous Networking specification and the T-Engine forum, is to enable any everyday device to broadcast and receive information. It is essentially a dusted-off TRON, paired with a competing standard to RFID.  Since the foundation of the T-Engine forum, Sakamura has been working on opening Japanese technology to the world. His previous brainchild, TRON, the universal RTOS used in Japanese Consumer Electronics has had limited adoption in other countries. Sakamura has inked deals with Chinese and Korean universities to work together on Ubiquitous Networking. He has also worked with French software components manufacturer NexWave Solutions, Inc.

Ubiquitous Communicator.

The "Ubiquitous Communicator" ("UC") is a mobile computing device designed by Sakamura for use in ubiquitous computing. On September 15, 2004, YRP-UNL announced in Japan that it has started the production of a new model after creating five prototypes over three years. The model was used in trial tests circa late 2004. The new model (weighing about 196 grams) contains new features: RFID reader compatible for ucode, a two megapixel CCD camera, a secondary 300,000 pixel camera for video phone, support for wireless network technologies, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and IrDA, VoIP phone feature, SD and mini-SD card slots, fingerprint authentication, and encryption co-processor as options. It was expected to be sold for three hundred thousand yen (twenty seven hundred dollars).

Honors.

In May, 2015, Sakamura received the prestigious ITU150 award from ITU along with Bill Gates, Robert E. Kahn, Thomas Wiegand, Mark I. Krivocheev, and Martin Cooper. The following is the citation given by ITU:... Today, the real-time operating systems based on the TRON specifications are used for engine control on automobiles, mobile phones, digital cameras, and many other appliances, and are believed to be the among most popular operating systems for embedded computers around world. The R&D results from TRON Project are useful for ubiquitous computing. For example, UNL joined the standardization efforts at ITU-T and helped produce a series of Recommendations, including H.642 “Multimedia information access triggered by tag-based identification”. The idea behind H.642 series is based on de facto “ucode” standard developed by UNL for communication in the age of the Internet of Things... For his achievements, Sakamura has won many awards: Takeda Award, the Medal with Purple Ribbon from the Japanese government, Okawa Prize, Prime Minister Award, and Japan Academy Prize. He is a fellow and the golden core member of the IEEE Computer Society.

, as of April 2017 is a Japanese professor and dean of the Faculty of Information Networking for Innovation and Design at Toyo University, Japan. He is a former professor in Information science at the University of Tokyo (through March 2017). He is the creator of the real-time operating system architecture TRON.

Ken Sakamura (坂村 健 "さかむら けん", né le ) est un informaticien japonais et un professeur de l'université de Tokyo. Il est le chef et le créateur du Projet TRON depuis 1984.