Early life.

Beckman was born in Cullom, Illinois, a village of about 500 people in a farming community. He was the youngest son of George Beckman, a blacksmith, and his second wife Elizabeth Ellen Jewkes. He was curious about the world from an early age. When he was nine, Beckman found an old chemistry textbook, Joel Dorman Steele's "Fourteen Weeks in Chemistry", and began trying out the experiments. His father encouraged his scientific interests by letting him convert a toolshed into a laboratory.  Beckman's mother, Elizabeth, died of diabetes in 1912. Beckman's father sold his blacksmith shop, and became a travelling salesman for blacksmithing tools and materials. A housekeeper, Hattie Lange, was engaged to look after the Beckman children. Arnold Beckman earned money as a "practice pianist" with a local band, and as an "official cream tester" running a centrifuge for a local store.  In 1914, the Beckman family moved to Normal, located just north of Bloomington, Illinois, so that the young Beckmans could attend University High School in Normal, a "laboratory

University education.

Beckman attended the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign beginning in the fall of 1918. During his freshman year, he worked with Carl Shipp Marvel on the synthesis of organic mercury compounds, but both men became ill from exposure to toxic mercury. As a result, Beckman changed his major from organic chemistry to physical chemistry, where he worked with Worth Rodebush, T. A. White, and Gerhard Dietrichson. He earned his bachelor's degree in chemical engineering in 1922 and his master's degree in physical chemistry in 1923. For his master's degree he studied the thermodynamics of aqueous ammonia solutions, a subject introduced to him by T. A. White.  Soon after arriving at the University of Illinois, Beckman joined the Delta Upsilon fraternity. He was initiated into Zeta chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma, the chemistry fraternity, in 1921 and the Gamma Alpha Graduate Scientific Fraternity in December 1922.  Beckman decided to go to California Institute

Teaching and consultancy at Caltech.

During his time at Caltech, Beckman was active in teaching at both the introductory and advanced graduate levels. Beckman shared his expertise in glass-blowing by teaching classes in the machine shop. He also taught classes in the design and use of research instruments. Beckman dealt first-hand with the chemists' need for good instrumentation as manager of the chemistry department's instrument shop. Beckman's interest in electronics made him very popular within

National Inking Appliance Company.

In 1934, Millikan referred I. H. Lyons from the National Postal Meter Company to Arnold Beckman. Lyons wanted a non-clogging ink so that postage could be printed by machines, instead of having clerks lick stamps. Beckman's solution was to make ink with butyric acid, a malodorous substance. Because of this ingredient, no manufacturer wanted

pH Meter.

Sunkist Growers was having problems with its own manufacturing process. Lemons that were not saleable as produce were made into pectin or citric acid, with sulfur dioxide used as a preservative. Sunkist needed to know the acidity of the product at any given time, and the colorimetric methods then in use, such as readings from litmus paper, did not work well because sulfur dioxide interfered with them. Chemist Glen Joseph at Sunkist was attempting to measure the hydrogen-ion concentration in lemon juice electrochemically, but sulfur dioxide damaged hydrogen electrodes, and non-reactive glass electrodes produced weak signals and were fragile.  Joseph approached Beckman, who proposed that instead of trying to increase the sensitivity of his measurements, he amplify his results. Beckman, familiar with glassblowing, electricity, and chemistry, suggested a design for a vacuum-tube amplifier and ended up building a working apparatus for Joseph. The glass electrode used to measure pH was placed in a grid circuit in the vacuum tube, producing an amplified signal which could then be read by an electronic meter. The

Spectrophotometry.

Ultraviolet.

In 1940, the equipment needed to measure light energy in the visible spectrum could cost a laboratory as much as $3,000, a huge amount at that time. There was also growing interest in examining ultraviolet spectra beyond that range. Just as Beckman had created a single easy-to-use instrument for measuring pH, he made it a goal to create an easy-to-use instrument for spectrophotometry. Beckman's research team, led by Howard Cary, developed several models.  The new spectrophotometers used a prism to separate light into its absorption spectrum and a phototube to electrically measure the light energy across the spectrum. They allowed the user to plot the light absorption spectrum of a substance, giving a standardized "fingerprint", characteristic of a compound. With Beckman's model D, later known as the DU spectrophotometer, National Technical Laboratories successfully provided the first easy-to-use single instrument containing both the optical and electronic components needed for ultraviolet-absorption spectrophotometry. The user could insert a sample, dial up the desired wavelength of light, and read the amount of absorption of

Infrared.

Beckman and his company were involved in a number of secret projects. There was a critical shortage of rubber, which was used in jeep and airplane tires and in tanks. Natural sources from the Far East were unavailable because of the war, and scientists sought a reliable synthetic substitute. Beckman was approached by the Office of Rubber Reserve about developing an infrared spectrophotometer to aid in the study of chemicals such as toluene and butadiene. The Office of Rubber Reserve met secretly in Detroit with Robert Brattain of the Shell Development Company, Arnold O. Beckman, and R. Bowling Barnes of American Cyanamid. Beckman was asked to secretly produce a hundred infrared spectrophotometers to be used

Other secret projects.

Helipot.

At the same time that Beckman was approached about infrared spectrometry, he was contacted by Paul Rosenberg. Rosenberg worked at MIT's Radiation Laboratory. The lab was part of a secret network of research institutions in both the United States and Britain that were working to develop radar, "radio detecting and ranging". The project was interested in Beckman because of the high quality of the tuning knobs or "potentiometers" which were used on his pH meters. Beckman had trademarked the design of the pH meter knobs, under the name "helipot" for "helical potentiometer". Rosenberg had found that the helipot was more precise, by a factor of ten,

Pauling oxygen meter.

Linus Pauling at Caltech was also doing secret work for the military. The National Defense Research Committee called a meeting on October 3, 1940, wanting an instrument that could reliably measure oxygen content in a mixture of gases, so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines and airplanes. Pauling designed the Pauling oxygen meter for them. Originally approached to supply housing boxes for the meter by Holmes Sturdivant, Pauling's assistant, Beckman was soon asked to produce the entire instrument.  While

Manhattan Project.

Beckman instruments were also used by the Manhattan Project. Scientists in the project were attempting to develop instruments to measure radiation in gas-filled, electrically charged ionization chambers in nuclear reactors. It was difficult to get reliable readings because the signals were weak. Beckman realized that with a relatively minor adjustment – substituting an input-load resistor for

Battling smog.

In postwar Southern California, including the area of Pasadena where the Beckmans lived, smog was becoming an increasing topic of conversation, as well as an unpleasant experience. First characterized as "gas attacks" in 1943, suspicion fell on a variety of possible causes including the smudge pots used by orange growers, the smoke produced by local industrial plants, and car exhausts. The Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce was one of the organizations concerned about the possible causes and effects of smog, as it related both to industry (and jobs) and to quality of life in the area. Beckman was involved with the Chamber of Commerce.  In 1947, California governor Earl Warren signed a statewide air pollution control act, authorizing the creation of Air Pollution Control Districts (APCDs) in every county of the state. The Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce asked Beckman to represent them in dealing with creation of a local APCD. The new APCD, when formed, asked Beckman to become the scientific consultant to the Air Pollution Control Officer. He held the position from 1948 to 1952.  The Air Pollution Control Officer in question was Louis McCabe, a geologist with a background in chemical engineering. McCabe initially suspected that smog was a result of sulfur dioxide pollution, and proposed that the county convert the suspected pollutant into fertilizer through a costly process. Beckman was not convinced that sulfur dioxide was the real culprit behind Los Angeles smog. He visited Gary, Indiana, where steps were being taken to address sulfur dioxide pollution, and was struck by the characteristic smell of sulfur in the air. Returning, Beckman convinced McCabe that they needed to search for a different cause.  Beckman got in touch with a Caltech

Electronics.

John J. Murdock held substantial stock in National Technical Laboratories. He and Arnold Beckman signed a stock option agreement by which Beckman could purchase Murdock's NTL stock from his estate after his death. When Murdock died in 1948, Beckman was able to gain a controlling interest in the company. On April 27, 1950, National Technical Laboratories was renamed Beckman Instruments, Incorporated. In 1952, Beckman Instruments became a publicly traded company on the New York Curb Exchange, generating new capital for expansion, including overseas expansion.

Cermets.

Helipot Corporation, the spinoff company that Beckman had created when NTL's board were dubious about electronics, was reincorporated into Beckman Instruments and became

Centrifuges.

In 1954, Beckman Instruments acquired ultracentrifuge maker Spinco (Specialized Instruments Corp.), founded by Edward Greydon Pickels in

Semiconductors.

In 1955, Beckman was contacted by William Shockley. Shockley, who had been one of Beckman's students at Caltech, led Bell Labs research program into semiconductor technology. Semiconductors were, in some ways, similar to cermets. Shockley wanted to create a new company, and asked Beckman to serve on the board. After considerable discussion, Beckman became more closely involved: he and Shockley signed a letter of intent to create the Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory as a subsidiary of Beckman Instruments, under William Shockley's direction. The new group would specialize in semiconductors, beginning with the automated production of diffused-base transistors.  Because Shockley's aging mother lived in Palo Alto, Shockley wanted to establish the laboratory in nearby Mountain View, California. Frederick Terman, provost at Stanford University, offered the firm space in Stanford's

Computers and automation.

Beckman also saw that computers and automation offered a myriad of opportunities for integration into instruments, and the development of new instruments. Beckman Instruments purchased Berkeley Scientific Company in the 1950s, and later developed a Systems Division within Beckman Instruments "to develop and build industrial data systems

Philanthropy.

The 1960s were a time of change for the Beckmans. Mabel fell in love with a house by the sea in Corona del Mar near Newport Beach, California. They bought the house in 1960, renovated it, and lived there together until Mabel's death in 1989.  Beckman also chose to retire. He and his wife Mabel became increasingly active as philanthropists, with the stated intention of giving away their personal wealth before their deaths. In 1964, Beckman was asked to become chairman of the Caltech Board of Trustees, and accepted the position. He had been a member of the board since 1953. In 1965, he retired as president of Beckman Instruments, and became instead the chairman of its board of directors. On November 23, 1981, he agreed to sell the company, which was then merged with SmithKline to form SmithKline Beckman.  The Beckmans' first major philanthropic gift went to Caltech. In supporting Caltech, they expanded on the long-term relationship that Beckman had begun as a student at Caltech, and continued as a teacher and trustee. In 1962, they funded the construction of a concert hall, the Beckman Auditorium, designed by architect Edward Durrell Stone. Over a period of years, they also supported the Beckman Institute, Beckman Auditorium, Beckman Laboratory of Behavioral Sciences, and Beckman Laboratory of Chemical Synthesis at the California Institute of Technology. In the words of Caltech's president emeritus David Baltimore, Beckman "has shaped the destiny of Caltech." The Beckmans are also named in

Awards and honors.

In 1971, Beckman was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science (Sc.D.) degree from Whittier College.  Arnold Beckman was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1976. Beckman was inducted into the Junior Achievement US Business Hall of Fame in 1985. In 1987, he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in Akron, Ohio. In 2004 he received its Lifetime Achievement Award.  In 1989, Beckman received the Charles Lathrop Parsons Award for public service from the American Chemical Society. He was inducted into the Alpha Chi Sigma Hall of Fame in 1996. In 2000, he received a Special Millennium Edition of the Othmer Gold Medal from the Chemical Heritage Foundation in recognition of his multifaceted contributions to chemical and scientific heritage.  Beckman was awarded the National Medal of Technology in 1988. It is the highest honor the United States can confer to a US citizen for achievements related to technological progress President George H. W. Bush presented Beckman with the National Medal of Science Award in 1989, "for his leadership in the development of analytical instrumentation and for his deep and abiding concern for the vitality of the nation's scientific enterprise.". He had previously been recognized by the Reagan administration as one of about 30 citizens receiving the 1989 Presidential Citizens Medal for exemplary deeds of service.  Beckman was awarded the Order of Lincoln, the state of Illinois' highest honor, by The Lincoln Academy of Illinois, in 1991.  Beckman was awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1999.  Asteroid 3737 Beckman was named after Arnold O. Beckman in 1983.  The Arnold O. Beckman High School in Irvine, California which has a focus in science education, was named in honor of Arnold O. Beckman. It was not, however, funded by Beckman.  The Beckman Coulter Heritage exhibit, which discusses the work of scientists Arnold Beckman and Wallace Coulter, is located at the Beckman Coulter headquarters in Brea, California.

Arnold Orville Beckman (April 10, 1900 – May 18, 2004) was an American chemist, inventor, investor, and philanthropist. While a professor at California Institute of Technology, he founded Beckman Instruments based on his 1934 invention of the pH meter, a device for measuring acidity, later considered to have "revolutionized the study of chemistry and biology". He also developed the DU spectrophotometer, "probably the most important instrument ever developed towards the advancement of bioscience". Beckman funded the first transistor company, thus giving rise to Silicon Valley. After retirement, he and his wife Mabel (1900-1989) were numbered among the top philanthropists in the United States.

Arnold Orville Beckman (né le à Cullom dans l'Illinois, décédé le à La Jolla (Californie)) est un chimiste, industriel et philanthrope américain. Enseignant au California Institute of Technology, il inventa le pH-mètre en 1934 et créa la société Beckman Instruments pour distribuer commercialement son invention, considérée comme Il a mis au point le spectrophotomètre à ultraviolet ; il a subventionné la première société de fabrication de transistors, et contribué par là à la naissance de la Silicon Valley. Avec sa femme Mabel (1900-1989), il se consacra ensuite à l'action philanthropique.


Geographical distribution.

The long-tailed goral (also known as the Chinese gray goral) was and is sparsely found in the wild throughout China, Russia, and Korea, as well as the Himalayas. The main population in the wild today is found in Russia where there is a population of about 600 which is in decline; in other places the populations are below 200.  Many of these animals are kept in zoos throughout the world. (e.g., The Wilds of Ohio, Saint Louis Zoo, Woodlands Park Zoo, Seattle WA, Los Angeles Zoo, Minnesota Zoo)

Indian Zoo.

In 1982, 18 gorals died in captivity in the Indian Zoo. Their deaths were caused by taeniasis parasitic disease, pneumonia, gastroenteritis, and hepatitis.

Habitat.

The long-tailed goral prefers high elevations with rocky, dry, steep, cliff-ridden mountains. They make their homes near sparsely vegetated cliffs with small crevices where they can hide from danger. These areas are sometimes covered by evergreen and deciduous forests, and gorals are occasionally found feeding on exposed grassy ridges.

Group size.

The goral is a group-oriented species and lives in herds with two to 12 individuals. The groups consist of females, kids, and younger males; older males tend to be solitary.

Group range.

The animals tend to stay within a 100-acre range; this can be different for males in rut. Males in rut will travel long distances over rough terrain to find as many females to fertilize as possible.

Description.

The long-tailed goral appears very similar to goats. Males can weigh 62-93 lbs and females 49-77 lbs. Lengths can vary anywhere from 32 to 51 inches and shoulder height 20-31 inches. They are even-toed ungulates of the goat-antelope family. The tips of their horns curve back and have distinct rings. There are openings between their hooves. The face of a goral is flat like that of a serow, and the nose and eyes are very close together. It has brown fur with shades of gray; the outer fur is long. The bushy tail is usually dark brown or black in color. Females usually are lighter in shade than that of males; their horns are smaller than males' horns.

Diet.

Gorals are considered to be browsers because they eat a wide variety of grasses, woody material, and nuts and fruits. In the summer months, they tend to feed on the many grasses that grow on the mountains. Throughout the winter, they browse on woody twigs and leaves of trees and shrubs; they have been known to eat nuts, such as acorns, and a few fruits.

Life span.

The goral's average lifespan in the wild is 10–15 years, although a captive goral was aged at 17 years." The females will go into a 30- to 40-hour estrus cycle once per year, when they can be fertilized by a male. At the end of a 215-day gestation period, they give birth to one offspring, or very rarely twins." Breeding within the zoo systems has been successful, with the San Diego Zoo especially so.

Conservation.

The long-tailed goral is protected under Appendix I of CITES, and numerous reserves have been set aside, but they are not the main focus of the reserves; however, they are protected when they are on these properties. In China, the long-tailed goral is a Class II species, meaning it is protected. It is poorly enforced because of the animals' uses in traditional medicine. The only conservation effort is bringing these animals into captivity within the zoo system, which should prevent it from going extinct. Poaching of wild gorals is increasing; they are poached for their fur, meat, and horns. They are also poached because some of their parts are used in traditional medicine. Their natural predators are also affecting the population. Their predators include lynx, snow leopards, tigers, and wolves in some regions.  The agriculture business has not been kind to the goral; their habitat is being destroyed rapidly by the slash-and-burn technique — their natural habitats are being farmed and used for livestock. The domestic livestock are grazing off all the grasses, leaving nothing for the native goral to eat. They are losing space in zoos, because they are not a very well known animal. The gorals are being replaced with more popular animals, such as tigers, lions, and bears; this is strictly an economic issue, because better known animals at the zoo attract more guests which therefore increases profits.  Eliminating poaching will be difficult, since the most common reason is sustenance hunting. Increasing ecotourism would bring money to the poachers, so they would not have to further exploit the goral population. Captive populations in zoos are healthy, so reintroduction of this species is possible. The goral has been on the endangered species list for some time, but the species' conservation status has not changed. As long as the population continues to decline, the long-tailed goral's outlook is not a healthy one.

The long-tailed goral or Amur goral ("Naemorhedus caudatus") is a species of ungulate of the family Bovidae found in the mountains of eastern and northern Asia, including Russia, China, and Korea. A population of this species exists in the Korean Demilitarized Zone, near the tracks of the Donghae Bukbu Line. The species is classified as endangered in South Korea, with an estimated population less than 250. It has been designated South Korean natural monument 217. In 2003, the species was reported as being present in Arunachal Pradesh, in northeast India.

Le Goral à longue queue ("Nemorhaedus caudatus") est un capriné vivant dans les montagnes du nord-est de l'Asie, en Russie, Chine et Corée.


History.

The area was first settled in the 1760s, and incorporated as "Waterville" in 1829. The name "Waterville Valley" was adopted in 1967.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, of which is water, comprising 0.05% of the town. The highest point in Waterville Valley is the North Peak of Mount Tripyramid, at above sea level.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 257 people, 121 households, and 75 families residing in the town. The population density was 4.0 people per square mile (1.5/km2). There were 1,097 housing units at an average density of 16.9 per square mile (6.5/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.28% White, 1.95% Asian, 0.78% from other races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.56% of the population.  There were 121 households out of which 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.5% were married couples living together, 9.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.0% were non-families. 34.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.72.  In the town, the population was spread out with 22.2% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 20.6% from 25 to 44, 37.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.3 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $40,417, and the median income for a family was $55,625. Males had a median income of $34,167 versus $34,063 for females. The per capita income for the town was $26,400. About 6.8% of families and 6.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.7% of those under the age of eighteen and none of those sixty five or over.

Education.

The Waterville Valley Elementary School is also known as the "Little Red School" and has forty-one students enrolled for kindergarten through 8th grade (2011-2012 school year). The children at the school are able to bike, swim, ski, skate, and play tennis in Waterville Valley. There is a recreation department attached to the "Little Red School".

Waterville Valley is a town in Grafton County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 247 at the 2010 census.

Waterville Valley est une ville américaine située dans le New Hampshire. Sa population est de 257 habitants en 2000. Il s'agit également d'une populaire station de sports d'hiver où de nombreuses compétitions (comme la coupe du monde de ski alpin) se sont tenues.


International career.

Galván played his first game of his 8-year international career for Argentina in 1975. He played for Argentina at the 1975 Pan American Games. The indisputable highlight of his footballing career came in 1978 when he was selected to represent Argentina at the Argentina 78 tournament. He was lucky enough to play in the World Cup Final in the Monumental, where Argentina beat the Netherlands 3-1 after extra time, to win their first World Cup.  Galván was selected to play for Argentina at Spain 82, but the "albicelestes" had a disappointing campaign, eliminated in the 2nd group phase. He retired from international football one year later in 1983, at the age of 35. Galván made a total of 34 appearances for Argentina.

Club career.

Galván started his career in 1970 at Talleres de Córdoba, the club where he spent the majority of his career. He never won a major trophy with the club but did help Talleres achieve second (1977) and fourth place (1976, 1978) in the Nacional Championship, and third place (1980) in the Metropolitano Championship. The Metropolitano and Nacional championships were Argentine football tournaments that existed between 1967 and 1984. The Metropolitano formed one half of the Argentine 1st division taking place in the first half of the year, while the Nacional took place in the 2nd half of the year.  Galván left the Talleres in 1982 after giving a 12-year service to the club, and went on to play for a string of provincial teams including Talleres' main rivals Belgrano de Córdoba.  In 1986 Galván moved to Bolivia to play for Bolívar in La Paz, but his stay there didn't last long, and he returned to play for Talleres in 1987. He left professional football to play for Sportivo Fernandez in his home province of Santiago del Estero in 1988, and finally for Talleres de Jesus Maria in 1989, where he retired from football at the age of 41.

Honours.

Club.

Talleres de Córdoba  Loma Negra

International.

Argentina

Luis Adolfo Galván (born 24 February 1948 in Fernández, Santiago del Estero) is a retired Argentine footballer, who played in the centre back position. He is perhaps most famous for having been part of the 1978 World Cup winning team.

Luis Adolfo Galván (né le à Fernández, province de Santiago del Estero) est un footballeur argentin au poste de défenseur central, qui a remporté la coupe du monde 1978 avec l'équipe d'Argentine.


Background.

French explorer Jacques Cartier in the 1540s made the first written records of the Indians in America, although French explorers and fishermen had traded in the region near the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River estuary a decade before then for valuable furs. Cartier wrote of encounters with the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, also known as the "Stadaconan" or "Laurentian" people who occupied several fortified villages, including "Stadacona" and "Hochelaga". He recorded an on-going war between the Stadaconans and another tribe known as the "Toudaman".  Wars and politics in Europe distracted French efforts at colonization in the St. Lawrence Valley until the beginning of the 17th century, when they founded Quebec in 1608. When the French returned to the area, they found both sites abandoned by the Stadacona and Hochelaga and completely destroyed, and they found no inhabitants in this part of the upper river valley—although the Iroquois and the Huron used it as hunting ground. The causes remain unclear, although some anthropologists and historians have suggested that the Mohawk Nation of the Iroquois Confederacy destroyed or drove out the St. Lawrence Iroquoians. Before 1603, Champlain had formed an alliance against the Iroquois, as he decided that the French would not trade firearms to them. The northern Indians provided the French with valuable furs, and the Iroquois interfered with that trade. The first battle with the Iroquois in 1609 was fought at Champlain's initiative. Champlain wrote, "I had come with no other intention than to make war". He and his Huron and Algonkin allies fought a pitched battle against the Mohawks on the shores of Lake Champlain. Champlain single-handedly killed three chiefs with an "arquebus" despite the war chiefs' "arrowproof body armor made of plaited sticks".  In 1610, Champlain and his French companions helped the Algonquins and the Hurons defeat a large Iroquois raiding party. In 1615, he joined a Huron raiding party and took part in a siege on an Iroquois town, probably among the Onondaga south of Lake Ontario in New York. The attack ultimately failed, and Champlain was injured.

Dutch competition.

In 1610-1614, the Dutch established a series of seasonal trading posts on the Hudson and Delaware rivers, including one on Castle Island at the eastern edge of Mohawk territory near Albany. This gave the Iroquois direct access to European markets via the Mohawks. The Dutch trading efforts and eventual colonies in New Jersey and Delaware soon also established trade with the coastal Delaware tribe (Lenape) and the more southerly Susquehannock tribe. The Dutch founded Fort Nassau in 1614 and its 1624 replacement Fort Orange (both at Albany) which removed the Iroquois' need to rely on the French and their allied tribes or to travel through southern tribal territories to reach European traders. The Dutch supplied the Mohawks and other Iroquois with guns. In addition, the new post offered valuable tools that the Iroquois could receive in exchange for animal pelts. They began large-scale hunting for furs to satisfy demand among their peoples for new products.  At this time, conflict began to grow between the Iroquois Confederacy and the tribes supported by the French. The Iroquois inhabited the region of New York south of Lake Ontario and west of the Hudson River. Their lands were surrounded on all sides but the south by Algonquian-speaking tribes, all traditional enemies, including the Shawnee to the west in the Ohio Country, the Neutral Nation and Huron confederacies on the western shore of Lake Ontario and southern shore of Lake Huron to the west, and the Susquehannock to their south. These tribes were historically competitive with and sometimes enemies of the Iroquois, who had Five Nations in their confederacy.

Beaver Wars begin.

In 1628, the Mohawks defeated the Mahicans, pushing them east of the Hudson River and establishing a monopoly of trade with the Dutch at Fort Orange, New Netherland. The Susquehannocks were also well armed by Dutch traders, and they effectively reduced the strength of the Delawares and won a protracted war with the English-dominated Province of Maryland. By the 1630s, the Iroquois had become fully armed with European weaponry through their trade with the Dutch.  The Iroquois relied on the trade for firearms and other highly valued European goods for their livelihood and survival. They used their growing expertise with the arquebus to good effect in their continuing wars with the Algonquins and Hurons, and other traditional enemies. The French, meanwhile, outlawed the trading of firearms to their Indian allies, though they occasionally gave arquebuses as gifts to individuals who converted to Christianity. The Iroquois attacked their traditional enemies the Algonquins, Mahicans, Montagnais, and Hurons, and the alliance of these tribes with the French quickly brought the Iroquois into conflict directly with the colonists.  The expansion of the fur trade with Europe brought a decline in the beaver population in the region, and the animal had largely disappeared from the Hudson Valley by 1640. "American Heritage Magazine" notes that the growing scarcity of the beaver in the lands controlled by the Iroquois in the middle 17th century accelerated the wars. The center of the fur trade shifted north to the colder regions of southern Ontario, an area controlled by the Neutral and Huron tribes who were close trading partners with the French.

Course of war.

With the decline of the beaver population, the Iroquois began to conquer their smaller neighbors. They attacked the Wenro in 1638 and took all of their territory, and survivors fled to the Hurons for refuge. The Wenro had served as a buffer between the Iroquois and the Neutral tribe and their Erie allies. The Neutral and Erie tribes were considerably larger and more powerful than the Iroquois, so the Iroquois turned their attention to the north and the Dutch encouraged them in this strategy. At that time, the Dutch were the Iroquois' primary European trading partners, with their goods passing through Dutch trading posts down the Hudson River. As the Iroquois' sources of furs declined, however, so did the income of the trading posts.  In 1641, the Mohawks traveled to Trois-Rivières in New France to propose peace with the French and their allied tribes, and they asked the French to set up a trading post in Iroquoia. Governor Montmagny rejected this proposal because it would imply abandonment of their Huron allies.  In the early 1640s, the war began in earnest with Iroquois attacks on frontier Huron villages along the St. Lawrence River in order to disrupt the trade with the French. In 1645, the French called the tribes together to negotiate a treaty to end the conflict, and Iroquois leaders Deganaweida and Koiseaton traveled to New France to take part in the negotiations. The French agreed to most of the Iroquois demands, granting them trading rights in New France. The next summer, a fleet of 80 canoes traveled through Iroquois territory carrying a large harvest of furs to be sold in New France. When they arrived, however, the French refused to purchase the furs and told the Iroquois to sell them to the Hurons, who would act as a middleman. The Iroquois were outraged and resumed the war.  The French decided to become directly involved in the conflict. The Huron and the Iroquois had an estimated 25,000 to 30,000 members each. The Hurons and Susquehannocks formed an alliance to counter Iroquois aggression in 1647, and their warriors greatly outnumbered those of the Iroquois. The Hurons tried to break the Iroquois Confederacy by negotiating a separate peace with the Onondaga and Cayuga tribes, but the other tribes intercepted their messengers and put an end to the negotiations. During the summer of 1647, there were several small skirmishes between the tribes, but a more significant battle occurred in 1648 when the two Algonquin tribes passed a fur convoy through an Iroquois blockade. They succeeded and inflicted high casualties on the Iroquois. In the early 1650s, the Iroquois began attacking the French themselves, although some of the Iroquois tribes had peaceful relations with them, notably the Oneida and Onondaga tribes. They were under control of the Mohawks, however, who were the strongest tribe in the Confederation and had animosity towards the French presence. After a failed peace treaty negotiated by Chief Canaqueese, Iroquois moved north into New France along Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River, attacking and blockading Montreal. By 1650, they controlled the area from the Virginia Colony in the south up to the St. Lawrence. In the west, the Iroquois had driven the Algonquin-speaking Shawnee out of the Ohio Country and seized control of the Illinois Country as far west as the Mississippi River. In January 1666, the French invaded the Iroquois and took Chief Canaqueese prisoner. In September, they proceeded down the Richelieu but were unable to find an Iroquois army, so they burned their crops and homes. Many Iroquois died from starvation in the following winter. During the following years, the Iroquois strengthened their confederacy to work more closely and create an effective central leadership, and the five tribes ceased fighting among themselves by the 1660s. They also easily coordinated military and economic plans, and they increased their power as a result. Indian raids were not constant, but they terrified the inhabitants of New France, and some of the heroes of French-Canadian folklore are individuals who stood up to such attacks. Dollard des Ormeaux, for example, died in May 1660 while resisting an Iroquois raiding force at the Battle of Long Sault, the confluence of the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa Rivers, but saved Montreal by his actions. In 1692, 14 year-old Marie-Madeleine Jarret successfully frustrated an Iroquois attack on Fort Verchères.

Defeat of the Huron.

In 1648, the Dutch authorized selling guns directly to the Mohawks rather than through traders, and promptly sold 400 to the Iroquois. The Confederacy sent 1,000 newly armed warriors through the woods to Huron territory with the onset of winter, and they launched a devastating attack into the heart of Huron territory, destroying several key villages, killing many warriors, and taking thousands of people captive for later adoption into the tribe. Among those killed were Jesuit missionaries Jean Brebeuf, Charles Garnier, and Gabriel Lallemant, each of whom is considered a martyr of the Roman Catholic Church. The surviving Hurons fled their territory to seek assistance from the Anishinaabeg Confederacy in the northern Great Lakes region. The Ottawa tribe temporarily halted Iroquois expansion further northwest, but the Iroquois controlled a fur-rich region and had no more tribes blocking them from the French settlements in Canada.  Diseases had taken their toll on the Iroquois and neighbors in the years preceding the war, however, and their populations had drastically declined. To replace lost warriors, they worked to integrate many of their captured enemies by adoption into their own tribes. They invited Jesuits into their territory to teach those who had converted to Christianity. The Jesuits also reached out to the Iroquois, many of whom converted to Roman Catholicism or intermingled its teachings with their own traditional beliefs.

Defeat of the Erie and Neutral.

The Iroquois attacked the Neutrals in 1650, and they completely drove the tribe from traditional territory by the end of 1651, killing or assimilating thousands. The Neutrals had inhabited a territory ranging from the Niagara Peninsula westward to the Grand River valley.  In 1654, the Iroquois attacked the Erie tribe, but with less success. The war lasted for two years, and the Iroquois destroyed the Erie confederacy by 1656, whose members refused to flee to the west. The Erie territory was located on the southeastern shore of Lake Erie and was estimated to have 12,000 members in 1650. The Iroquois were greatly outnumbered by the tribes that they subdued, but they achieved their victories through the use of firearms purchased from the Dutch.

French counterattack.

The Iroquois continued to control the countryside of New France, raiding to the edges of the walled settlements of Quebec and Montreal. In May 1660, an Iroquois force of 160 warriors attacked Montreal and captured 17 colonists. The following year, 250 warriors attacked and took ten captives. In 1661 and 1662, the Iroquois made several raids against the Abenakis who were allied with the French. The French Crown ordered a change to the governing of Canada. They put together a small military force made up of Frenchmen, Hurons, and Algonquins to counter the Iroquois raids, but the Iroquois attacked them when they ventured into the countryside. Only 29 of the French survived and escaped; five were captured and tortured to death by the Iroquois. Despite their victory, the Iroquois also suffered a significant number of casualties, and their leaders began to consider negotiating for peace with the French.  The tide of war began to turn in the mid-1660s with the arrival of the Carignan-Salières Regiment, a small contingent of regular troops from France and the first group of uniformed professional soldiers in Canada. A change in administration led the New France government to authorize direct sale of arms and other military support to their Indian allies. In 1664, the Dutch allies of the Iroquois lost control of the New Netherland colony to the English. In the immediate years after the Dutch defeat, European support waned for the Iroquois.  In January 1666, the French invaded the Iroquois homeland in New York. The first invasion force of 400 to 500 men was led by Daniel de Rémy de Courcelle. His men were greatly outnumbered by the Iroquois and were forced to withdraw before any significant action could take place, but they took Chief Canaqueese prisoner.  The second invasion force was led by Alexandre de Prouville, the "Marquis de Tracy" and viceroy of New France, from his base in Quebec City. The invasion force of about 1,300 men moved out in the fall of 1666. They found the Mohawk villages deserted, so they destroyed the villages and their crops. Prouville de Tracy seized all the Mohawk lands in the name of the king of France and forced the Mohawks to accept the Roman Catholic faith and to adopt the French language, as taught by Jesuit missionaries. The Iroquois sued for peace and France agreed.

Peace with France and Iroquois expansion.

Once peace was achieved with the French, the Iroquois returned to their westward conquest in their continued attempt to take control of all the land between the Algonquins and the French. Eastern tribes such as the Lakotas were pushed across the Mississippi onto the Great Plains in the early 18th century, where they adopted the horse culture and nomadic lifestyle for which they later became known. Other refugees flooded the Great Lakes area, resulting in a conflict with existing tribes in the region. In the Ohio Country, the Shawnee and Miami tribes were dominant. The Iroquois quickly overran Shawnee holdings in central Ohio, forcing them to flee into Miami territory. The Miamis were a powerful tribe and brought together a confederacy of their neighboring allies, including the Pottawatomie and the Illini confederation who inhabited Michigan and Illinois. The majority of the fighting was between the Anishinaabeg Confederacy and the Iroquois Confederacy.  The Iroquois improved on their warfare as they continued to attack even farther from their home. War parties often traveled by canoes at night, and they would sink their canoes and fill them with rocks to hold them on the river bottom. They would then move through the woods to a target and burst from the wood to cause the greatest panic. After the attack, they returned to their boats and left before any significant resistance could be put together. The lack of firearms caused the Algonquin tribes the greatest disadvantage. Despite their larger numbers, they were not centralized enough to mount a united defense and were unable to withstand the Iroquois. Several tribes ultimately moved west beyond the Mississippi River, leaving much of the Ohio Valley, southern Michigan, and southern Ontario depopulated. Several Anishinaabe forces numbering in the thousands remained to the north of Lakes Huron and Superior, and they were later decisive in rolling back the Iroquois advance. From west of the Mississippi, displaced groups continued to arm war parties and attempt to retake their land.  Beginning in the 1670s, the French began to explore and settle the Ohio and Illinois Country from the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, and they established the post of Tassinong to trade with the western tribes. The Iroquois destroyed it to retain control of the fur trade with the Europeans. The Iroquois also drove the Mannahoac tribe out of the northern Virginia Piedmont region in 1670, and they claimed the land by right of conquest as a hunting ground. The English acknowledged this claim in 1674 and again in 1684, but they acquired the land from the Iroquois by a 1722 treaty.  During a raid into the Illinois Country in 1689, the Iroquois captured numerous prisoners and destroyed a sizable Miami settlement. The Miami asked for aid from others in the Anishinaabeg Confederacy, and a large force gathered to track down the Iroquois. Using their new firearms, the Confederacy laid an ambush near South Bend, Indiana, and they attacked and destroyed most of the Iroquois party, and a large part of the region was left depopulated. The Iroquois were unable to establish a permanent presence, as their tribe was unable to colonize the large area, and the Iroquois' brief control over the region was lost. Many of the former inhabitants of the territory began to return.

Defeat of the Susquehannocks.

With the tribes destroyed to the north and west, the Iroquois turned their attention southward to the Susquehannocks. They attained the peak of their influence in 1660, and they were able to use that to their advantage in the following decades. The Susquehannocks had become allied with the Maryland Colony in 1661, as the colonists had grown fearful of the Iroquois and hoped that an alliance would help block the northern tribes' advance on the colonies. In 1663, the Iroquois sent 800 warriors into the Susquehannock territory. The Susquehannocks repulsed them, but the unprovoked attack prompted the colony of Maryland to declare war on the Iroquois.  By supplying Susquehannock forts with artillery, the Maryland colonists turned the tables on the Iroquois. The Susquehannocks took the upper hand and began to invade Iroquois territory, where they caused significant damage. This warfare continued intermittently for 11 years. In 1674, the Maryland colonists changed their Indian policy, negotiated peace with the Iroquois, and terminated their alliance with the Susquehannocks. In 1675, the militias of Virginia and Maryland captured and executed the Susquehannock chiefs, whose growing power they feared. The Iroquois drove the warriors from traditional territory and absorbed the survivors in 1677.

Resumption of war with France.

English colonization began to move into the former Dutch territory of upper New York State, and the colonists began to form close ties with the Iroquois as an alliance in the face of French colonial expansion. They began to supply the Iroquois with firearms as the Dutch had. At the same time, New France's governor Louis de Buade tried to revive the western fur trade. His efforts competed with those of the Iroquois to control the traffic and they started attacking the French again. The war lasted ten years. In 1681, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle negotiated a treaty with the Miami and Illinois tribes. France lifted the ban on the sale of firearms to the Indians, and colonists quickly armed the Algonquin tribes, evening the odds between the Iroquois and their enemies.  With the renewal of hostilities, the militia of New France was strengthened after 1683 by a small force of regular French navy troops in the Compagnies Franches de la Marine, who constituted the longest serving unit of French regular troops in New France. In June 1687, Governor Denonville and Pierre de Troyes set out with a well organized force to Fort Frontenac, where they met with the 50 sachems of the Iroquois Confederacy from their Onondaga council. These 50 chiefs constituted the top leaders of the Iroquois, and Denonville captured them and shipped them to Marseilles, France to be galley slaves. He then travelled down the shore of Lake Ontario and built Fort Denonville at the site where the Niagara River meets Lake Ontario. This site was previously used by La Salle for Fort Conti from 1678 to 1679, and was later used for Fort Niagara which still exists. The Iroquois retaliated by destroying farmsteads and slaughtering entire families. They burned Lachine to the ground on August 4, 1689. Frontenac replaced Denonville as governor for the next nine years (1689–1698), and he recognized the danger created by the imprisonment of the sachems. He located the 13 surviving leaders and returned with them to New France in October 1698.  During King William's War (1688–1697), the French formed raiding parties with Indian allies to attack English colonial settlements, as the English had allied themselves with the Iroquois against the French, carrying out the Schenectady massacre in the Province of New York, the Raid on Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, and the Battle of Fort Loyal in Portland, Maine. The French and their allies killed settlers in the raids and carried some back to Canada. Settlers in New England raised money to redeem the captives, but some were adopted into the tribes. The French government generally did not intervene when the Indians kept the captives. Throughout the 1690s, the French and their allies also continued to raid deep into Iroquois territory, destroying Mohawk villages in 1692 and raiding Seneca, Oneida, and Onondaga villages. The English colonists and Iroquois banded together for operations aimed at New France, but these were largely ineffective. The most successful incursion resulted in the 1691 Battle of La Prairie. The French offensive was not halted by the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick that brought peace between France and England, but it ended English participation in the conflict.

Peace.

The Iroquois began to see the English as a greater threat than the French in 1698. The English had begun colonizing Pennsylvania in 1681, and the continued colonial growth there began to encroach on the southern border of the Iroquois territory. The French policy began to change towards the Iroquois after nearly 50 years of warfare, and they decided that befriending them would be the easiest way to ensure their monopoly on the northern fur trade and stop English colonization. The English colonies heard of the treaty and immediately set about to prevent it from being agreed to. It would result in the loss of Albany's fur trade with the Iroquois and, without their protection, the northern flank of the English colonies would be open to French attack. Nevertheless, the French and Indians signed the treaty.  The French and 39 Indian chiefs signed the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701. The Iroquois agreed to stop marauding and to allow refugees from the Great Lakes to return east. The Shawnee eventually regained control of the Ohio Country and the lower Allegheny River. The Miami tribe returned to take control of Indiana and northwest Ohio. The Pottawatomie went to Michigan, and the Illinois tribe to Illinois. The peace lasted into the 1720s.

Aftermath.

In 1768, several colonies purchased the "Iroquois claim" to the Ohio and Illinois Country and created the Indiana Land Company to hold the claim to all of the Northwest. It maintained a claim to the region using the Iroquois right of conquest until the company was dissolved in 1798 by the United States Supreme Court.

The Beaver Wars, also known as the Iroquois Wars or the French and Iroquois Wars (), encompass a series of conflicts fought intermittently during the 17th century in America. They were battles for economic welfare throughout the Saint Lawrence River valley in Canada and the lower Great Lakes region which pitted the Iroquois against the northern Algonquians and the Algonquians' French allies. From medieval times, Europeans had obtained furs from Russia and Scandinavia. American pelts came on the market during the 16th century, decades before the French, English, and Dutch established permanent settlements and trading posts on the continent. Basque fishermen chasing cod off Newfoundland's Grand Banks bartered with local Indians for beaver robes to help fend off the Atlantic chill. By virtue of their location, the tribes wielded considerable influence in European–Indian relations from the early seventeenth century onwards.

Les guerres franco-iroquoises sont une série de guerres entre la Nouvelle-France et l'Iroquoisie. Elles ont connu un paroxysme à la fin des années 1680, mais ont débuté bien avant. Les Iroquois sont historiquement proches de leurs partenaires commerciaux de la Nouvelle-Néerlande, néerlandais jusqu'en 1666, puis anglais. Ces derniers entraient en guerre contre la France à partir de 1689.


Characterization.

Despite living in Newport and marrying a "Newpsie", it becomes apparent that Sandy does not consider himself to be "one of them". His blue-collar, single-parent-upbringing in The Bronx contrasts with that of his wife Kirsten. Like long-time next door neighbor Julie Cooper, he was not raised in the affluent Newport lifestyle but unlike Julie, he generally disassociates himself from his counterparts. He usually does not fail to make known his distaste for the shallow, materialistic and pampered ways of his contemporaries who were born and bred in that lifestyle, even going so far as to describe Harbor School teachers as "preppy little savages" and calling the housewives' social gatherings "Newpsie Conventions".  As the more easy-going parent, Sandy's "hippie parenting" sometimes clashed with Kirsten's more strict and firm style. He prefers to let his children learn the error of their ways by experiencing the consequences themselves.

Character arc.

Season 1.

Sandy has a mainly stable relationship with Kirsten and Seth, albeit with the occasional problem surfacing. Unresolved issues of trust and jealousy rise to the surface with regards to Kirsten's former childhood sweetheart, Jimmy Cooper, who is also their next-door neighbor in Season 1.  He leaves the Public Defender's Office to go into private practice at Patridge, Savage and Khan, along with his former colleague from the District Attorney's office, Rachel Hoffman. She causes tension between Sandy and Kirsten when Kirsten finds Sandy enjoying a drink with Rachel one night while he was supposed to be at a meeting. Later on, Sandy and Rachel get involved in a case against Caleb's company, the Newport Group. Both were accused by Caleb of having an affair because they had been spending a lot of time together and working very late. Not long afterwards, when Rachel and Sandy were working late in her apartment, she indeed makes a play for him, but he rejects her advances. He and Kirsten then attempt to set her up with the newly divorced Jimmy, to no avail.

Season 2.

Rebecca Bloom, an old flame of Sandy's, came back into their lives, causing difficulties between him and Kirsten. This contributed towards her growing alcohol problem, and the distance between her and Sandy caused her to almost have an affair with a magazine editor, Carter Buckley, although he left before anything happened. This came to a head when Kirsten's father, Caleb Nichol, died which caused Kirsten's drinking problem to run out of control, forcing the entire Cohen family (including Ryan) and Kirsten's sister Hailey to stage an intervention and put her in rehab.

Season 3.

He has had many new problems with the underhanded nature of business in the real estate world in his new job as CEO of the Newport Group. This once again has caused a strain on his home life, although the season three finale saw him making the decision to return to being a public defender after revisiting his old office and seeing what it was like.

Season 4.

In the fourth season, Sandy helps Ryan sort things out with Kevin Volchok, who was responsible for the death of Marissa and he was also the one who talks Ryan into helping Taylor, who was in the middle of a divorce from her French husband, Henri-Michel.  Later in the season, Sandy bumps into a man at the New Year's Eve party and investigates further. The man is revealed to be Ryan's father, Frank Atwood, whom Sandy meets. Frank wants to see Ryan, so Sandy tells Ryan who refuses. Frank tells Sandy that he has cancer so Kirsten invites him to dinner but Sandy is suspicious. It is later revealed Frank lied in a last-ditch attempt to see Ryan, prompting Sandy to punch him in front of everyone.  Sandy helps in the preparation for Kirsten's fortieth birthday. He finds a mail truck, exactly the same model as the one that both of them lived in Berkeley, while his real present to her was two first-class tickets around the world. When he tells a stunned Kirsten, she announces that she is having a baby. After an earthquake hits Newport Beach, Sandy finds Kirsten on the ground, and tries to help her up, but had difficulties because of the falling objects around them. At the hospital, Sandy and Kirsten discover that they are going to have a daughter.

Series finale.

Six months later, he and Kirsten move to Berkeley; back to the house where they had Seth. It is in this house that Seth and Ryan's sister, Sophie Rose, starts her life. In the flashforward set five years later, Sandy is now a law professor at UC Berkeley.

Creation and characterization.

The character is based on the show's creator Josh Schwartz who told: "The dynamic between Sandy and Seth is very much based on me and my dad. He said about Sandy: "He is never a man who can refuse to help someone."

Reception.

In 2004, "TV Guide" ranked Sandy number 25 on its 50 Greatest TV Dads of All Time list. BuddyTV ranked him number 7 on its of the "15 Hottest TV Dads". AOL TV placed him in its Top 20 TV Dads.

Sanford "Sandy" Cohen is a fictional character and the main protagonist on the FOX series "The O.C.", portrayed by Peter Gallagher.

Sanford « Sandy » Cohen est un personnage fictif du feuilleton télévisé "Newport Beach". Il est interprété par l'acteur Peter Gallagher.


Description.

The Madagascan grebe is around 25 cm long. It can be identified in its breeding plumage, consisting of a blackish cap and line down the neck, often reddish rear ear-coverts and sides of the neck, pale grey cheeks, throat and foreneck. Some individuals have a narrow whitish line under the eye between the cap and ear-coverts.

Distribution and habitat.

The species is widespread throughout western and central Madagascar. Pairs can commonly be found near lakes. Surveys in the late 1990s recorded the species at 25 'Important Bird Areas' distributed throughout Madagascar, but it is suspected to be undergoing rapid declines. Numbers on Lake Alaotra have plummeted: in 1985 several hundred individuals were recorded, only 10–20 in 1993, and none in 1999. The forested lakes of the northwest plateau may harbour 100-200 individuals. The current total population may number as few as 1,500-2,500 individuals.  "T. pelzelnii" appears to prefer shallow, freshwater lakes and pools, with a dense covering of lily-pads, but it has also been found in several much deeper lakes. Has occasionally been seen near brackish waters and slow-flowing rivers.

Ecology.

The Madagascan grebe probably feeds mostly on insects, but is also known to take small fish and crustaceans. It is generally sedentary, but will move in search of more suitable habitat. The breeding season may span the months of August to March. Although breeding pairs are typically territorial, communally nesting groups of 150 individuals have been recorded. Nests are built on a floating structure of aquatic plants, anchored to offshore vegetation, normally waterlilies.

Threats.

The Madagascan grebe is currently classified as vulnerable by the IUCN. One of the most serious threats for the species is natural habitat loss by conversion for rice cultivation and cash crops. It is also being threatened by the introduction of exotic fish and fishery practice. At Lake Alaotra, adults are preyed on by carnivorous snakehead fish. They also in danger of entanglement in monofilament gill-nets. The introduction of exotic herbivorous fish (T. zillii) has considerably limited the development of aquatic vegetation and favoured the Little Grebe ("T. ruficollis"). Competition with "T. ruficollis" is threatening "T. pelzelnii", however both are considered vulnerable species. Increasing use of pesticides and fertilizers further exerts a damaging influence on freshwater ecosystems in Madagascar.  The present decline in the population is expected to accelerate over the next 10 years as increasing wetland conversion and overfishing continues to restrict the species to small lakes that are inaccessible and unsuitable for human use.

Conservation.

Various conservation actions are currently underway that benefit the Madagascan grebe. It has been recorded in six protected areas. To prioritise the wetlands for protection, a monitoring procedure has been proposed that uses birds, particularly "T. pelzelnii", as indicators. The Malagasy government has recently ratified the Ramsar Convention, which is likely to improve conservation measures for wetlands and initiate dedicated studies of the decline of this species.

The Madagascan grebe ("Tachybaptus pelzelnii") is a grebe found only in western and central Madagascar. The binomial name commemorates the Austrian ornithologist August von Pelzeln. It is classified as endangered by the IUCN, with a population of less than 5,000. It is threatened by habitat loss, predation by carnivorous fish, and competition with introduced species.

Le Grèbe malgache ("Tachybaptus pelzelnii") est une espèce de podicipédidé endémique de Madagascar. Le nom binomial de l'espèce a été donné en l'honneur de l'ornithologue autrichien August von Pelzeln.


Club career.

Benítez was born in Santísima Trinidad (Asunción). After playing for modest clubs in his country he arrived in Spain at the age of 23, purchased by Atlético Madrid, but appeared very rarely for the "Colchoneros", being often demoted to its reserves and also being loaned twice, notably to CP Mérida which he helped promote from the second division by scoring a team-best ten goals in only five months.  Released by Atlético in the 1995 summer, Benítez signed with fellow La Liga side RCD Espanyol, going on to experience his best years: alternating between the starting XI and the bench, he amassed 166 competitive appearances for the Catalans, helping them to the 2000 conquest of the Copa del Rey.  Already in his 30s and dealing with some injuries, Benítez left Espanyol in January 2002, returning to his country and signing with Asunción's Club Olimpia. In his first year with Olimpia he helped the team to win Copa Libertadores, and the following season he won Recopa Sudamericana. In the years until his retirement he appeared for several clubs, and also returned to Spain, playing with UD Almería in the second level.  Benítez started his coaching career in 2008, taking charge of lowly Club Silvio Pettirossi as it was experiencing its first season in the Primera División – short-lived, as the side dropped down two tiers in as many years.

International career.

Courtesy of his solid Espanyol performances, Benítez gained all of his 30 caps for the Paraguayan national team. He was selected for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, playing in all four matches as the country reached the round-of-16 and netting in the 3–1 group stage win over Nigeria.  Benítez was also selected for the 1999 Copa América, played on home soil, scoring three times: this included one in Paraguay's 1–1 quarter-final clash against Uruguay, where he also missed the decisive penalty shootout attempt.

Miguel Ángel Benítez Pavón (born 19 May 1970), also known as Peque Benítez, is a Paraguayan retired footballer who played as a forward.

Miguel Ángel Benítez Pavón, surnommé Peque Benítez (né le à Santísima Trinidad au Paraguay), est un footballeur paraguayen. Jouant au poste de milieu de terrain, il fait partie de l'équipe du Paraguay qui fait trembler l'équipe de France en huitièmes de finale du Mondial 98 à Lens.


Early years.

Aris Velouchiotis was born in Lamia, Greece in 1905, to an upper urban class family. His father was Dimitrios Klaras, a well-known lawyer in the area and his mother was Aglaia Zerva. Initially Klaras studied journalism, but later attended and graduated from the Geoponic School of Larissa. He left for Athens, where he did various jobs, participated in the leftist and antimilitary movement and later became a member of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE). During the 1920s and 30s he was jailed several times for different offenses.  He became an editor in the communist "Rizospastis" and wrote several articles for the socialist revolution. In 1931, an article of Klaras caused the intervention of the authorities, who closed the newspaper and proceed at trial the editors. The newspaper was republished as "Neos Rizospastis".  During the Ioannis Metaxas dictatorship (1936–1941), he was arrested for his communist ideas and jailed in the Aegina prison, where he was tortured. However, during his trial he managed to escape but was arrested again in 1939 and sent to a prison in Corfu. He remained imprisoned there until signing a "statement of renouncement of KKE and of the communist ideology", a very humiliating act for a communist at the time.

World War II: From Klaras to Aris.

During World War II, he fought as an artillery private of the Hellenic Army at the Albanian front against the Italian army, until the German invasion in April 1941 and Greece's subsequent surrender and occupation.  After Germany's offensive campaign in the Soviet Union, the Greek Communist Party championed the creation of the National Liberation Front (EAM), and Klaras was sent to Central Greece (Greek Roumeli) to assess the potential for the development of a guerrilla movement against the occupation forces in this area. His proposals were adopted by the party, and in January 1942, Klaras moved to the mountains to start setting up guerrilla groups.  The first appearance of the partisans organised by Klaras occurred on June 7, 1942 in the village of Domnista in Evrytania in Central Greece. There he presented himself as Major of Artillery (for gaining extra prestige among the villagers) with the nom de guerre of "Aris Velouchiotis" (from Ares, the Greek god of war, and Velouchi, a local mountain) and proclaimed the existence of the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS). Initially, he collected also the traditional local mountain living bandits in order to create a small group of experts in guerrilla fighting. Velouchiotis as a leader applied steely discipline and managed to have under his commands a considerable number of guerillas. Starting with only 15 men, ELAS' power finally comprised up to 50,000 guerillas.  One of the most important early operations of the Greek resistance movement (in which Velouchiotis and his fighters, after negotiations with the British, agreed to participate alongside Napoleon Zervas's republican EDES resistance forces and twelve British saboteurs under the leadership of Major E. C. W. "Eddie" Myers) was the blowing-up of the Gorgopotamos railway viaduct, south of Lamia, on November 25, 1942 (Operation Harling). The destruction of the viaduct cut the single Thessaloniki-Athens rail line, thus the line connecting the Balkans with southern Greece, but did not disrupt any supply lines—as would have been the case had it happened, as the British intended, two months earlier—to Erwin Rommel's German forces in Northern Africa, as it took place one month after the commencement of the El Alamein battle on October 23, 1942, in which Rommel was badly defeated by the British.  The destruction of the Gorgopotamos viaduct was to be the last operation where the communist-influenced ELAS organisation fought alongside Greek Republican resistance forces, such as the EKKA's 5/42 Evzones Regiment (military arm of EKKA) and EOEA (National Groups of Greek Guerillas, "Εthnikes Omades Ellinon Antarton", military arm of EDES). But despite the signing of an agreement in July 1943 between the three main Resistance groups (EAM/ELAS, EDES and EKKA) to cooperate and to subject themselves to the Allied Middle East High Command under General Wilson (the "National Bands Agreement"), in the political field, the mutual mistrust between EAM and the other groups escalated. EAM-ELAS was by now the dominant political and military force in Greece, and EDES and EKKA, along with the British and the Greek government-in-exile, feared that after the inevitable German withdrawal, it would try to dominate the country and establish a soviet regime The rift ultimately led to a civil war in late 1943 and early 1944, in which ELAS attacked EDES, EOEA and destroyed EKKA's 5/42 Evzones Regiment, executing its leader Col. Dimitrios Psarros.

Liberation and expulsion from the Communist Party.

In October 1944, when the Nazis evacuated Greece, ELAS was the dominant force in most of the Greek cities, except Athens, while EAM had established its own government, the PEEA.  Velouchiotis passed from Central Greece to Peloponnese to clear the region from the Security Battalions, and gave several battles against them.  The British, with units of the Greek Army, were landed in Greece (Operation Manna) and a new government was formed under Georgios Papandreou, the leader of the Greek National Unity Government, which was established following the Treaties of Lebanon and Caserta. Velouchiotis returned to Central Greece and made a speech in his native town, Lamia.  During the "Dekemvriana" events in Athens, he was sent by the Party to Epirus, where he attacked the forces of Zervas' EDES. EDES evacuated the region of Epirus and passed to the Ionian islands.  When the Varkiza agreement was signed to end the Dekemvriana fighting between EAM forces and governmental/British forces in Athens, he personally with General Sarafis signed the demobilisation of the ELAS army. But afterwards, he vehemently refused to comply regarding the agreement as a betrayal of the guerillas.  The leadership of the Communist Party, under Nikos Zachariadis, consequently accused him of treachery, of being a "suspicious and adventurous element" and spurned him as a member of KKE. The Communist Party was always suspicious of Klaras' actions since he was a simple member, and even when he founded ELAS, partly cause of his old renouncement of the party and his fickle character.

Death.

Velouchiotis moved again to the mountains of Central Greece in order to start an insurgency (see Greek Civil War) against the new government and the British allies who supported them (considering them worse than Germans). He was reported to have denounced the sell-out to the British in the Varkiza Agreement to lay down the National Resistance arms; particularly moving was the sight of his elite massed Mavroskoufides (Black Berets) openly mourning. He was outmanoeuvred by the KKE leadership and resolved to leave Greece; he repeatedly requested permission from the party to be allowed to depart, but was refused.  His intention was to create a new ELAS and a "National Independence Front" (MEA). Though most of his associates abandoned him, he was reported to have continued to conduct guerrilla activities until June 1945. He was denounced by the KKE Central Committee and increasingly isolated, until he was ambushed with his unit in the mountain of Agrafa (some say that he was set up or even betrayed by KKE contacts) by para-military groups controlled by the Athens government. Aris and his second in command, Giannis Aggeletos (nom de guerre: Leon Tzavellas), were isolated by the main unit and finally he committed suicide with his comrade, either by a hand grenade or by a bullet, on the same day he learned that he was denounced by the communist party.  Rumors want him to "have committed suicide with his commander Tzavellas when his thoughts were that there is no better future for his revolution".  The corpses of Velouchiotis and Tzavellas were subsequently decapitated, and the heads displayed (a practice of the pre-war Greek State and Police for the common mountain bandits), hanging from a lamp post in the central square of the town of Trikala.  When British Labour government members of Parliament objected to the barbarity of the operation, they received the reply that the display was in accordance to an "ancient Greek war custom".  Following the rehabilitation in Greece of the EAM/ELAS and subsequently of the Communist party itself (after the end of the Greek military junta), busts and statues of Aris Velouchiotis have been erected in his native town; recently the KKE moved discreetly for Velouchiotis' rehabilitation, following in turn the expulsion of the KKE's wartime leader (who had denounced him), Nikos Zachariadis.

Relationship with Zervas.

Coincidently, the two leaders of the Greek Resistance were distant cousins. Zervas was descendant from the famous Souliote clan of Zervades, who after the destruction of Souli by the Ottomans fled to Aitoloakarnania, while Klaras' mother was of Souliote descent, from a family related to Zervades. However, Zervas had never before seen Velouchiotis before their first meeting during the Resistance era.

Legacy.

Velouchiotis is one of the most controversial figures of modern Greek history. His personality and action was mythologised during his life and after his death. Supporters consider him a symbol of Greek resistance against the occupying powers, the founder and creator of the biggest guerrilla army in the Greek history (ELAS) and a hero of the communist cause. Critics see him as a perpetrator of atrocities and murders against rural people who were perceived as opponents of communism; a basic instigator of the Red Terror. In his memories he appreciates his military abilities. However, he was a man of strong patriotic beliefs. He was especially strict to Greeks who sought collaboration with the occupying forces, with his companions who broke the organized discipline, and people who approved the involvement of the British in Greek politics since he considered the British a threat to the patriotic cause of the Resistance.

Athanasios Klaras (; August 27, 1905 – June 16, 1945), better known by the "nom de guerre" Aris Velouchiotis (), was the most prominent leader and chief instigator of the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS), the military branch of the National Liberation Front (EAM), which was the major resistance organization in occupied Greece from 1942 to 1945.

Áris Velouchiótis (en grec ; né le 27 août 1905 à Lamía, mort le 16 juin 1945 à Arta, Mesounda) de son vrai nom Thanássis Kláras () a été le dirigeant principal de l'Armée populaire de libération nationale grecque (Εθνικός Λαϊκός Απελευθερωτικός Στρατός, ELAS).


Hungary.

The Kígyós (Hungarian: snake) originates in Hungary from two streams.  One stream, the "Bokodi-Kígyós-csatorna", itself originates from two smaller streams west of the city of Baja. One stream springs out at the village of Rém, other one at Borota. The streams meet at Felsőszentiván and continue to the south, next to the villages of Bácsbokod and Bácsborsód.  Another stream, the "Mátételkei-Kígyós-csatorna" originates north of the village of Tataháza, and it flows to the south next to the village of Mátételke. The river comes close to the Serbian border but turns west, flowing next to the village of Katymár.  East of Katymár, right before it crosses the Serbian border, two rivers join and from that point the river is generally known as the Plazović.

Serbia.

In Serbia, the river turns west, flowing only within the area of Sombor municipality of the province of Vojvodina. Passes next to the village of Riđica and spills over into a series of bogs ("Sekeš", "Trska", "Šupljina") between the villages of Bácsszentgyörgy (in Hungary) and Rastina (in Serbia). East of Bezdan, the river turns south before it empties into the Great Bačka Canal, near the village of Bački Monoštor. Between the villages of Bački Breg and Kolut, the Plazović flows next to the Bački Breg fishpond.

Characteristics.

The Plazović belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin.  The river is known to cause floods, especially in 1970 and 2004, but in the past it was also known for drying out completely, like in 1952. High water level is helped by the very abundant vegetation in the river's bed, which also makes the water look dark brown. During cold winters, the river freezes.  The river is neither channeled nor navigable.

The Plazović (Serbian Cyrillic: Плазовић) or Kiđoš (; Serbian Cyrillic: Киђош), is a river in southern Hungary and northern Serbia. It flows entirely within the Bačka region, and during its 129 km long course, on a section of only 15 km, it crosses the Hungarian-Serbian border eight times (92 km in Hungary, 37 km in Serbia).

Le Plazović ou Kiđoš, en serbe cyrillique Плазовић/Киђош et en hongrois Kígyós est une rivière du sud de la Hongrie et du nord de la Serbie. Il coule entièrement dans la région de la Bačka.


History.

Tree-ring dating indicates that construction and refurbishing of Cliff Palace was continuous approximately from 1190 CE through 1260 CE, although the major portion of the building was done within a 20-year time span. The Ancestral Puebloans who constructed this cliff dwelling and the others like it at Mesa Verde were driven to these defensible positions by "increasing competition amidst changing climatic conditions". Cliff Palace was abandoned by 1300, and while debate remains as to the causes of this, some believe that a series of megadroughts interrupting food production systems is the main cause. Cliff Palace was rediscovered in 1888 by Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason while out looking for stray cattle.

Description.

Cliff Palace was constructed primarily out of sandstone, mortar and wooden beams. The sandstone was shaped using harder stones, and a mortar of soil, water and ash was used to hold everything together. "Chinking" stones were placed within the mortar to fill gaps and provide stability. Many of the walls were decorated with colored earthen plasters, which were the first to erode over time. Many visitors wonder about the relatively small size of the doorways at Cliff Palace; the explanation being that at the time the average man was under, while the average woman was closer to Cliff Palace contains 23 kivas (round sunken rooms of ceremonial importance) and 150 rooms and had a population of approximately 100 people. One kiva, in the center of the ruin, is at a point where the entire structure is partitioned by a series of walls with no doorways or other access portals. The walls of this kiva were plastered with one color on one side and a different color on the opposing side. "It is thought that Cliff Palace was a social, administrative site with high ceremonial usage." Archaeologists believe that Cliff Palace contained more clans than the surrounding Mesa Verde communities. This belief stems from the higher ratio of rooms to kivas. Cliff Palace has a room-to-kiva ratio of 9 to 1. The average room-to-kiva ratio for a Mesa Verde community is 12 to 1. This ratio of kivas to rooms may suggest that Cliff Palace might have been the center of a large polity that included surrounding small communities.  A large square tower is to the right and almost reaches the cave "roof". It was in ruins by the 1800s. The National Park Service carefully restored it to its approximate height and stature, making it one of the most memorable buildings in Cliff Palace. It is the tallest structure at Mesa Verde standing at tall, with four levels. Slightly differently colored materials were used to show that it was a restoration.

Cliff Palace is the largest cliff dwelling in North America. The structure built by the Ancestral Puebloans is located in Mesa Verde National Park in their former homeland region. The cliff dwelling and park are in the southwestern corner of Colorado, in the Southwestern United States.

Cliff Palace est la plus grande habitation creusée dans un versant de plateau d'Amérique du Nord. L'antique édifice Pueblo est situé dans le Parc national de Mesa Verde, aux États-Unis dans le coin Sud-Ouest de l'État du Colorado, pays du peuple Anasazi.


Life cycle.

Female eucharitids oviposit rows of eggs into plant tissue, such as leaves and stems, away from ant colonies. The eggs are a translucent white and are about 0.19 mm long and 0.08 mm wide. They are elliptical and flat on one side. As the eggs mature, they turn a brown color and ten days after oviposition, they hatch. The larvae are solely responsible for their entry into the ant colony and the parasitism of their host. They are 0.13 mm long and are able to travel several inches on the leaf but do not leave the egg cluster. After six to seven days, they attach themselves to foraging ants heading back to their brood; however, sometimes they will attach themselves to other insects, using them as intermediate hosts. Once in the brood, the larvae will attach to their host larva. Some Eucharitidae are external parasites while others are internal parasites; however, all eucharitid species finish their development as ectoparasites.  Limited feeding on the host occurs until the host pupates, after which, most of it is consumed by the wasp. Usually, only one parasite per host is found, but in some cases, superparasitism occurs, and two to four wasps will attach to, and emerge from one host. Once the wasps emerge, the ant colony grooms and feeds them as if they were part of the ants’ brood. In some instances, worker ants have been observed assisting the wasps to emerge from their host. The wasps gain acceptance in these ways, and the ants show no signs of aggression because the wasps acquire their host's odor upon entry into the colony. By mimicking the odor of their host, eucharitid wasps are able to keep themselves safe until the scent wears off, at which point they begin to leave the ant colony and begin mating.  Adult wasps emerge from the ant nest in the morning; the males emerge before the females. In most cases, the males swarm one to two feet above the nest, and as soon as the females emerge, mating occurs. However, the males of certain species, such as "Kapala terminalis", calmly wait on foliage surrounding the nest until the females emerge. Many times, the males will begin mating with the females before they have a chance to take flight, and in some instances, mating will occur while the wasps are still inside the ants' nest. After mating, the females lay all their eggs in one day. The egg capacity of each female is 1000 to 10000.

Anatomy.

Most eucharitids are between 2.0 and 5.4 mm long and vary from metallic colors to black. They have 13 or fewer segments on their antennae, but some have up to 26.  The main anatomical characteristics of eucharitid wasps are:

Subfamilies.

The number of subfamilies of Eucharitidae has changed over the years, but the three most widely accepted are Oraseminae, Eucharitinae, and Gollumiellinae.

Oraseminae.

Oraseminae are parasitic on the ant genus "Pheidole" (Myrmicinae), as well as the fire ant in southern South America and the little red fire ant in the Caribbean. They are distributed worldwide in tropical regions, such as Costa Rica, Ecuador, Brazil, and Argentina. They are also native to Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Delaware, and Colorado.  The Oraseminae female punctures the plant tissue on which she will oviposit, and places an egg inside of each incision. The eggs are deposited on the edges of the underside of leaves, and are sometimes found in the buds and stems of the plant. They have been known to oviposite on blueberry leaves, tea leaves (Das), oak leaves, olive leaves, mango leaves, flower heads, and banana fingers. Species of Eucharitidae are consistent in their choice of leaf for oviposition.  Because Oraseminae eggs are laid on plants that are not always visited by foraging ants, the larvae will most often attach to intermediate hosts, or “insect prey” that will eventually be devoured by ants. Sometimes, however, foraging ants are present and there is no need for an intermediate host. Upon arriving at the ants’ brood, the larva burrows into the host's thorax and feeds there. The wasp feeds until the host larva pupates; after the host pupates, the wasp will resume feeding until it emerges from its host. The average time of development from planidia to adult is 29.5 days; the average pupal stage is 8.2 days.  Because Oraseminae larvae, pupae, and adults are easily distinguished from their host, the wasps disguise themselves by passively obtaining the odor of the fire ants. After a few days in the nest, the odor wears off and the ants begin to notice the wasps are not a part of their brood. At this point, the wasps leave the nest to mate and lay eggs. Though Oraseminae have a high fertility rate, only a small percentage of eggs survive to adulthood.

Eucharitinae.

Eucharitinae are parasites of poneromorph ants, Ectatommatinae, Ponerinae, and Formicinae, although one genus from Australia is parasitic on the bulldog ant.  Female Eucharitinae bear up to 4500 eggs and begin oviposition soon after emerging from the nest. They deposit their eggs in groups of eight to 15 on plant buds, on the undersides of leaves or on fruit skin. Eucharitinae attach themselves to foraging ants and do not use an intermediate host. Some species of Eucharitinae, such as "Kapala terminalis" and other "Kapala" sp., have been known for their jumping capabilities. They stand erect on the plant on which they hatched, and without any distinguishable preparation, jump about 10 mm from the leaf onto a foraging ant. The larvae are external parasites of their hosts, and are not noticed due to their acquisition of the host’s odor. After the wasps are fully developed, they emerge in large numbers. The males swarm around the nest in wait of the females. Mating takes place immediately, and oviposition occurs soon after. A fossil genus, "Palaeocharis" is known from Eocene Baltic amber.

Gollumiellinae.

Gollumiellinae are unique in that they hook their eggs onto the plants and connect a ropey secretion to them, which stand erect. This acts as an attraction mechanism for "Paratrechina" ants. Gollumiellinae larvae burrow into the hosts' thoraces and feed there. The rest of its life cycle is similar to the aforementioned life cycle of eucharitids.

Biological control.

Eucharitids are candidates for biological control because each subfamily targets a specific ant genus. On the other hand, some eucharitids, including the genus "Kapala", are classified as pests for several different reasons. First, a few days after oviposition occurs, the leaves dry up where each egg was located. Second, tea leaves with such marks reportedly do not have as strong of a flavor as tea leaves without these marks. Third, not all eucharitids have a significant effect on the size of their hosts' colony.  "Orasema" species are sometimes used as means of biological control for many ants, including the fire ant and little fire ant, because pesticides can cause damage to the environment, and they do not always work on fire ants. In addition, at least two eucharitid species groups are specialized parasites of these ants. Heraty stated, “Leaving aside the philosophical problems associated with introducing any organism for biological control, I believe that species of "Orasema" do have potential as biological control agents and deserve more study.”

The Eucharitidae are a family of parasitic wasps. Eucharitid wasps are members of the superfamily Chalcidoidea and consist of three subfamilies: Oraseminae, Eucharitinae, and Gollumiellinae. Most of the 55 genera and 417 species of Eucharitidae are members of the subfamilies Oraseminae and Eucharitinae, and are found in tropical regions of the world.

Les Eucharitidae sont une famille d'insectes entomophages parasitoïdes exclusifs de fourmis. Cette famille d'hyménoptères relève de la super-famille des Chalcidoidea.


Name.

In Serbian Cyrillic the village is known as Бајмок, in Serbian Latin as "Bajmok", in Hungarian as "Bajmok", in Bunjevac as "Bajmok" or "Bajmak", in Croatian as "Bajmak" (since 2009) or "Bajmok" (before 2009), and in German as "Nagelsdorf".

History.

The first written documents relating to Bajmok came from the fifteenth century. Then the village was for the first time officially mentioned as a village. King Matthias gave it to his mother, Erzebet Szilágyi. The deed of donation was confirmed on 16 February 1462.  During Ottoman administration (16th-17th century), two villages with this name were mentioned: Bajmok and Novi Bajmok. Both villages had about 20 houses. Population was composed of ethnic Serbs. These villages existed until the beginning of the 18th century when they were abandoned.  The village was rebuilt between 1770 and 1785. In this time, settlers were mainly Bunjevci and Hungarians. At the time of the Hungarian revolution, in the fields of this village there was a conflict between the Hungarian and the Vojvodinian Serb army, won by the Hungarians.  In 1910, population of the village was mainly composed of Hungarians, Bunjevci and Germans, with some Serbs living there as well.  After World War I, new Serb settlers came to the village. During the Second World War, this village was under the Hungarian occupation. Many of the citizens were exiled from their homes (including the Hungarian population) to make room for Csango newcomers. Bajmok was liberated from the Hungarian fascists on 19 October 1944.  After World War II, 2,090 (mostly Serb) colonists settled in Bajmok, which enlarged village population to 11,789.  Until 1991, the largest ethnic group in the village were Hungarians. By the 2002 census, Serbs were listed as the single largest ethnic group in Bajmok.

Demographics.

According to the last official census done in 2011, the village of Bajmok has 7,414 inhabitants.

Ethnic groups.

The ethnic composition of the village according to the 2002 census:

Bajmok (;, ) is a village located in the municipality of Subotica, in the North Bačka District, Vojvodina, Serbia. The village is ethnically mixed and its population numbered 7,414 inhabitants as of 2011 census.

Bajmok (en serbe cyrillique : ; en hongrois : ) est une localité de Serbie située dans la province autonome de Voïvodine et sur le territoire de la Ville de Subotica, district de Bačka septentrionale. Au recensement de 2011, elle comptait habitants.


Life.

Early years.

Chanel was born in the hamlet of La Potière near Montrevel-en-Bresse, Ain département, France. Son of Claude-François Chanel and Marie-Anne Sibellas he was the fifth of eight children. From about the age of 7 to 12 he worked as a shepherd. The local parish priest persuaded his parents to allow Peter to attend a small school the priest had started. After some local schooling, his piety and intelligence attracted the attention of a visiting priest from Cras, Fr. Trompier, and he was put into Church-sponsored education at Cras in the autumn of 1814. He made his first communion on 23 March 1817.  It was from that time that Chanel's attraction for the missions abroad began. His interest began when he read letters from missionaries to America sent back by Bishop Louis William Valentine Dubourg. He later said, "It was that year that I formed the idea of going to the foreign missions." In 1819 he entered the minor seminary at Meximieux where he won several awards and class prizes in Latin, Christian doctrine and speech. He attended Belley in 1823, and the major seminary at Brou in 1824.  Chanel was ordained on 15 July 1827 and spent a brief time as an assistant priest at Ambérieu-en-Bugey. At Ambérieu he also read letters from a former curate from that parish who was at that time a missionary in India. There he met Claude Bret, who was to become his friend and also one of the first Marist Missionaries. The following year, Chanel applied to the Bishop of Belley for permission to go to the missions. His application was not accepted and instead he was appointed for the next three years as parish priest of Crozet, which he revitalized in that short time.  Chanel's zeal was respected, and his care, particularly of the sick in the parish, won the hearts of the locals. During this time, Chanel heard of a group of diocesan priests who were hopeful of starting a religious order to be dedicated to Mary, the Mother of Jesus

Marist and missionary.

In 1831, at the age of 28, Chanel joined the forming Society of Mary (Marists), who would concentrate on local missions and foreign missionary work. Instead of selecting him as a missionary, however, the Marists appointed him as the spiritual director at the seminary of Belley, where he stayed for five years. In 1833, he accompanied Fr. Jean-Claude Colin to Rome to seek approval of the nascent Society. In 1836, the Marists, formally approved by Pope Gregory XVI, were asked to send missionaries to the territory of the southwest Pacific. Chanel, professed a Marist on 24 September 1836, was made the superior of a band of seven Marist missionaries that set out on 24 December from Le Havre. They were accompanied by Bishop Jean Baptiste Pompallier who was to become the first Roman Catholic bishop of New Zealand.  Chanel traveled first to the Canary Islands (8 January 1837), where his friend, Fr. Claude Bret, caught a flu-like virus which led to his death at sea (20 March 1837). Next, Chanel traveled to Valparaíso, Chile (28 June), where the French Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary ("Picpus Fathers"), who had care of the Apostolic Vicariate of Eastern Oceania, had their base. His third and fourth stops were in the Gambier Islands (13 September) and in Tahiti (21 September), where the group transferred to the ship "Raiatea". In that ship, they set sail (23 October) to drop off two missionaries at Wallis, the main seat of the mission in Tonga. The missionaries arrived at Vava’u but were not welcome, and thus continued their journey to Futuna. Pierre Chanel went to neighboring Futuna, accompanied by a French lay brother Marie-Nizier Delorme. They arrived on 8 November 1837 with an English Protestant layman named Thomas Boag, who had been resident on the island and had joined them at Tonga seeking passage to Futuna.

Martyrdom.

The group was initially well received by Futuna's king, Niuliki. Chanel struggled to learn the language but mastered it. Despite little apparent success and severe want, he maintained endless patience and courage. It was a difficult mission, requiring him to cope with isolation and acclimate to different foods and customs, but it eventually began to bear some fruit. A few natives had been baptized while a few more were being instructed. King Niuliki believed Christianity would undermine his authority as high priest and king. When his son, Meitala, sought to be baptized, the king sent a favored warrior, his son-in-law, Musumusu, to "do whatever was necessary" to resolve the problem. Musumusu went to Meitala and the two fought. Musumusu, injured in the fracas, went to Chanel feigning need of medical attention. While Chanel tended him, a group of others ransacked his house. Musumusu took an ax and clubbed Chanel to death. Chanel died on 28 April 1841.

Relics.

Bishop Pompallier heard of the death of Chanel on 4 November 1841 while he was at Akaroa and arranged for a French naval corvette commanded by the Comte du Bouzet, "L’Allier", to accompany the mission schooner "Sancta Maria" and sail on 19 November for Wallis and Futuna, taking with him Philippe Viard. The two vessels arrived at Uvea on 30 December 1841. The bishop sent Viard to Futuna, where he landed on 18 January 1842. A chief named Maligi, who had not agreed to Chanel's murder, agreed to disinter Chanel's body and brought it to the "L’Allier" the next day, wrapped in several local mats.  The ship's doctor, M. Rault, was able to verify the identity of the remains, bearing in mind the description of the manner of Chanel's death given previously by Marie-Nizier. The doctor undertook to embalm the remains, so that they could be kept, wrapping them in linen and placing them in a cask. The schooner "Sancta Maria" transported the body back to Kororāreka, New Zealand, arriving on 3 May 1842.  The relics remained in the Bay of Islands until 1849, when they were accompanied by Petitjean to Auckland, New Zealand – most likely early in April 1849. They left New Zealand on 15 April 1849 by the ship "Maukin", and arrived in Sydney, Australia, on 4 May. Rocher received the container that held the bones and took it to the Procure Chapel at Gladesville in Sydney on 7 May. Rocher was very careful in making the decision as to when to send the container on to England and France. He looked for a trustworthy captain, and a reliable person in London to receive the consignment, attend to the customs, and have it sent on to Lyon. Early in 1850, Bernin, pro-vicar for Bishop Douarre, vicar-apostolic of New Caledonia, had to leave for France. He left Sydney for London on the "Waterloo" on 1 February 1850, taking Chanel's remains with him. On 1 June 1850, the remains arrived at the motherhouse of the Society of Mary in Lyon. The relics were returned to Futuna in 1977. The skull was returned to Futuna in 1985.

Conversions in Futuna.

Bishop Pompallier sent Catherin Servant, François Roulleaux-Dubignon and Marie Nizier to return to the island and they arrived on 9 June 1842. Eventually, most islanders converted to Catholicism. Musumusu himself converted and, as he lay dying, expressed the desire that he be buried outside the church at Poi so that those who came to revere Chanel would walk over his grave to reach it.  As a form of penitence, a special action song and dance known as the eke, was created by the people of Futuna shortly after Chanel's death. The dance is still performed in Tonga.

Veneration.

Chanel was declared a martyr and beatified in 1889. He was canonized on 12 June 1954 by Pope Pius XII. Chanel is recognized as the protomartyr and patron saint of Oceania. His feast day is 28 April.

Legacy.

Marist priests and brothers working in Oceania cover a territory as big as Western Europe. The area includes six independent nations and two French territories. The Marist Oceania province is the largest in the Society of Mary.

Saint Peter Chanel (12 July 1803 – 28 April 1841), born Pierre Louis Marie Chanel, was a Catholic priest, missionary, and martyr.

Pierre Chanel, l'un des nombreux saint Pierre, est né le à la ferme de la Potière à Cuet dans la commune de Montrevel-en-Bresse (Ain). Il a évangélisé l'île de Futuna (Pacifique Sud), où il a été tué le, devenant ainsi le premier martyr de l'Océanie.