Composition.

The primary products of petroleum fuel combustion in air are carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen. The other components exist primarily from incomplete combustion and pyrosynthesis. While the distribution of the individual components of raw (untreated) diesel exhaust varies depending on factors like load, engine type, etc., the adjacent table shows a typical composition.  The physical and chemical conditions that exist inside any such diesel engines under any conditions differ considerably from spark-ignition engines, because, by design, diesel engine power is directly controlled by the fuel supply, not by control of the air/fuel mixture, as in conventional gasoline engines. As a result of these differences, diesel engines generally produce a different array of pollutants than spark-driven engines, differences that are sometimes qualitative (what pollutants are there, and what are not), but more often quantitative (how much of particular pollutants or pollutant classes are present in each). For instance, diesel engines produce one-twenty-eighth the carbon monoxide that gasoline engines do, as they burn their fuel in excess air even at full load.  However, the lean-burning nature of diesel engines and the high temperatures and pressures of the combustion process result in significant production of NO (gaseous nitrogen oxides), an air pollutant that constitutes a unique challenge with regard to their reduction. While total nitrogen oxides from petrol cars have decreased by around 96% through adoption of exhaust catalytic converters as of 2012, diesel cars still produce nitrogen oxides at a similar level to those bought 15 years earlier under real-world tests; hence, diesel cars emit around 20 times more nitrogen oxides than petrol cars. Modern on-road diesel engines typically use selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems to meet emissions laws, as other methods such as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) cannot adequately reduce NO to meet the newer standards applicable in many jurisdictions. Auxiliary diesel systems designed to remediate the nitrogen oxide pollutants are described in a separate section below.  Moreover, the fine particles (fine particulate matter) in diesel exhaust (e.g., soot, sometimes visible as opaque dark-colored smoke) has traditionally been of greater concern, as it presents different health concerns and is rarely produced in significant quantities by spark-ignition engines. These especially harmful particulate contaminants are at their peak when such engines are run without sufficient oxygen to fully combust the fuel; when a diesel engine runs at idle, enough oxygen is usually present to burn the fuel completely. (The oxygen requirement in non-idling engines is usually mitigated using turbocharging.). From the particle emission standpoint, exhaust from diesel vehicles has been reported to be significantly more harmful than those from petrol vehicles.  Diesel exhausts, long known for their characteristic smells, changed significantly with the reduction of sulfur content of diesel fuel, and again when catalytic converters were introduced in exhaust systems. Even so, diesel exhausts continue to contain an array of inorganic and organic pollutants, in various classes, and in varying concentrations (see below), depending on fuel composition and engine running conditions.

Chemical classes.

The following are classes of chemical compounds that have been found in diesel exhaust.

Specific chemicals.

The following are classes of specific chemicals that have been found in diesel exhaust. Includes all regioisomers of this aromatic compound. See "ortho-, meta-, and para-"isomer descriptions at each compound's article.

Regulation.

To rapidly reduce particulate matter from heavy-duty diesel engines in California, the California Air Resources Board created the Carl Moyer Memorial Air Quality Standards Attainment Program to provide funding for upgrading engines ahead of emissions regulations. In 2008, the California Air Resources Board also implemented the 2008 California Statewide Truck and Bus Rule which requires all heavy-duty diesel trucks and buses, with a few exceptions, that operate in California to either retrofit or replace engines in order to reduce diesel particulate matter. The US Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) issued a health standard in January 2001 designed to reduce diesel exhaust exposure in underground metal and nonmetal mines; on September 7, 2005, MSHA published a notice in the Federal Register proposing to postpone the effective date from January 2006 until January 2011.  Sulfur content:  Unlike international shipping, that has a Sufhur limit att 3.5 % mass/mass outside ECA until 2020, where it reduces to 0,5% outside ECA, diesel for on road use and off road (heavy equipment) has been limited in all of EU since 2009  "Diesel and gasoline have been limited to 10 ppm sulfur since 2009 (for on-road vehicles) and 2011 (non-road vehicles). Mandatory specifications also apply to more than a dozen fuel parameters."

Health concerns.

General concerns.

Emissions from diesel vehicles have been reported to be significantly more harmful than those from petrol vehicles. Diesel combustion exhaust is a source of atmospheric soot and fine particles, which is a component of the air pollution implicated in human cancer, heart and lung damage, and mental functioning. Moreover, diesel exhaust contains contaminants listed as carcinogenic for humans by the IARC (part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations), as present in their List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens. Diesel exhaust pollution is thought to account for around one quarter of the pollution in the air in previous decades, and a high share of sickness caused by automotive pollution.

Occupational health effects.

Exposure to diesel exhaust and diesel particulate matter (DPM) is an occupational hazard to truckers, railroad workers, occupants of residential homes in vicinity of a rail yard, and miners using diesel-powered equipment in underground mines. Adverse health effects have also been observed in the general population at ambient atmospheric particle concentrations well below the concentrations in occupational settings.  In March 2012, U.S. government scientists showed that underground miners exposed to high levels of diesel fumes have a threefold increased risk for contracting lung cancer compared with those exposed to low levels. The $11.5 million Diesel Exhaust in Miners Study (DEMS) followed 12,315 miners, controlling for key carcinogens such as cigarette smoke, radon, and asbestos. This allowed scientists to isolate the effects of diesel fumes.  For over 10 years, concerns have been raised in the USA regarding children's exposure to DPM as they ride diesel-powered school buses to and from school. In 2013, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established the Clean School Bus USA initiative in an effort to unite private and public organizations in curbing student exposures.

Concerns regarding particulates.

Diesel particulate matter (DPM), sometimes also called diesel exhaust particles (DEP), is the particulate component of diesel exhaust, which includes diesel soot and aerosols such as ash particulates, metallic abrasion particles, sulfates, and silicates. When released into the atmosphere, DPM can take the form of individual particles or chain aggregates, with most in the invisible sub-micrometre range of 100 nanometers, also known as ultrafine particles (UFP) or PM0.1.  The main particulate fraction of diesel exhaust consists of fine particles. Because of their small size, inhaled particles may easily penetrate deep into the lungs. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the exhaust stimulate nerves in the lungs, causing reflex coughing, wheezing and shortness of breath. The rough surfaces of these particles makes it easy for them to bind with other toxins in the environment, thus increasing the hazards of particle inhalation.  A study of particulate matter (PM) emissions from transit buses running on ULSD and a mixture of biodiesel and conventional diesel (B20) was reported by Omidvarborna and coworkers, where they conclude PM emissions appeared lower in cases of mixed diesel/biodiesel use, where they were dependent on the engine model, cold and hot idle modes, and fuel type, and that heavy metals in PM emitted during hot idling were greater than those from cold idling; reasons for PM reduction in biodiesel emissions were suggested to result from the oxygenated structure of biodiesel fuel, as well as arising from changes in technology (including the use of a catalytic converter in this test system). Other studies concluded that while in certain specific cases (i.e. low loads, more saturated feedstocks,...), NOx emissions can be lower than with diesel fuel, in most cases NOx emissions are higher, and the NOx emissions even go up as more biofuel is mixed in. Pure biodiesel (B100) even ends up having 10-30% more NOx emissions compared to regular diesel fuel.

Specific effects.

Exposures have been linked with acute short-term symptoms such as headache, dizziness, light-headedness, nausea, coughing, difficult or labored breathing, tightness of chest, and irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat. Long-term exposures can lead to chronic, more serious health problems such as cardiovascular disease, cardiopulmonary disease, and lung cancer. Elemental carbon attributable to traffic was significantly associated with wheezing at age 1 and persistent wheezing at age 3 in the Cincinnati Childhood Allergy and Air Pollution Study birth cohort study.  The NERC-HPA funded Traffic Pollution and Health in London project at King's College London is currently seeking to refine understanding of the health effects of traffic pollution. Ambient traffic-related air pollution was associated with decreased cognitive function in older men.  Mortality from diesel soot exposure in 2001 was at least 14,400 out of the German population of 82 million, according to the official report 2352 of the "Umweltbundesamt Berlin" (Federal Environmental Agency of Germany).  The study of nanoparticles and nanotoxicology is in its infancy, and health effects from nanoparticles produced by all types of diesel engines are still being uncovered. It is clear, that diesel health detriments of fine particle emissions are severe and pervasive. Although one study found no significant evidence that short-term exposure to diesel exhaust results in adverse extrapulmonary effects, effects that are correlated with an increase in cardiovascular disease, a 2011 study in "The Lancet" concluded that traffic exposure is the single most serious preventable trigger of heart attack in the general public, as the cause of 7.4% of all attacks. It is impossible to tell how much of this effect is due to the stress of being in traffic and how much is due to exposure to exhaust.  Since the study of the detrimental health effects of nanoparticles (nanotoxicology) is still in its infancy, and the nature and extent of negative health impacts from diesel exhaust continues to be discovered. It remains controversial, whether the public health impact of diesels is higher than that of petrol-fuelled vehicles.

Variation with engine conditions.

The types and quantities of nanoparticles can vary according to operating temperatures and pressures, presence of an open flame, fundamental fuel type and fuel mixture, and even atmospheric mixtures. As such, the resulting types of nanoparticles from different engine technologies and even different fuels are not necessarily comparable. One study has shown that 95% of the volatile component of diesel nanoparticles is unburned lubricating oil. Long-term effects still need to be further clarified, as well as the effects on susceptible groups of people with cardiopulmonary diseases.  Diesel engines can produce black soot (or more specifically diesel particulate matter) from their exhaust. The black smoke consists of carbon compounds that have not burned because of local low temperatures where the fuel is not fully atomized. These local low temperatures occur at the cylinder walls, and at the surface of large droplets of fuel. At these areas where it is relatively cold, the mixture is rich (contrary to the overall mixture which is lean). The rich mixture has less air to burn and some of the fuel turns into a carbon deposit. Modern car engines use a diesel particulate filter (DPF) to capture carbon particles and then intermittently burn them using extra fuel injected directly into the filter. This prevents carbon buildup at the expense of wasting a small quantity of fuel.  The full load limit of a diesel engine in normal service is defined by the "black smoke limit", beyond which point the fuel cannot be completely burned. As the "black smoke limit" is still considerably lean of stoichiometric, it is possible to obtain more power by exceeding it, but the resultant inefficient combustion means that the extra power comes at the price of reduced combustion efficiency, high fuel consumption and dense clouds of smoke. This is only done in high performance applications where these disadvantages are of little concern.  When starting from cold, the engine's combustion efficiency is reduced because the cold engine block draws heat out of the cylinder in the compression stroke. The result is that fuel is not burned fully, resulting in blue and white smoke and lower power outputs until the engine has warmed. This is especially the case with indirect injection engines, which are less thermally efficient. With electronic injection, the timing and length of the injection sequence can be altered to compensate for this. Older engines with mechanical injection can have mechanical and hydraulic governor control to alter the timing, and multi-phase electrically controlled glow plugs, that stay on for a period after start-up to ensure clean combustion; the plugs are automatically switched to a lower power to prevent their burning out.  Wärtsilä states that there are two ways of forming smoke, on large diesel engines, one being fuel hitting metal and not having time to burn off. The other being, when too much fuel is in the combustion chamber.  Wärtsilä have tested an engine and compared smoke-output, when using conventional fuel system and common rail fuel system, the result shows improvement on all operation conditions when using the common rail system.

Ecological effects.

Experiments in 2013 showed that diesel exhaust impaired bees' ability to detect the scent of oilseed rape flowers.

Remedies.

General.

With emission standards tightening, diesel engines are having to become more efficient and have fewer pollutants in their exhaust. For instance, light duty truck must now have NOx emissions less than 0.07 g/mile, and in the U.S., by 2010, NOx emissions must be less than 0.03 g/mile. Moreover, in recent years the United States, Europe, and Japan have extended emissions control regulations from covering on-road vehicles to include farm vehicles and locomotives, marine vessels, and stationary generator applications. Changing to a different fuel (i.e. dimethyl ether, and other bioethers as diethyl ether ) tends to be a very effective means to reduce pollutants such as NOx and CO. When running on dimethyl ether (DME) for instance, particulate matter emissions are near-nonexistent, and the use of diesel particulate filters could even be omitted. Also, given that DME can be made from animal, food, and agricultural waste, it can even be carbon-neutral (unlike regular diesel). Mixing in bioether (or other fuels such as hydrogen) into conventional diesel also tends to have a beneficial effect on the pollutants that are emitted. In addition to changing the fuel, US engineers have also come up with two other principles and distinct systems to all on-market products that meet the U.S. 2010 emissions criteria, selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR), and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Both are in the exhaust system of diesel engines, and are further designed to promote efficiency.

Selective catalytic reduction.

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) injects a reductant such as ammonia or urea — the latter aqueous, where it is known as diesel exhaust fluid, DEF) — into the exhaust of a diesel engine to convert nitrogen oxides (NO) into gaseous nitrogen and water. SNCR systems have been prototyped that reduce 90% of the NO in the exhaust system, with commercialized systems being somewhat lower. SCR systems do not necessarily need particulate matter (PM) filters; when SNCR and PM filters are combined, some engines have been shown to be 3-5% more fuel efficient. A disadvantage of the SCR system, in addition to added upfront development cost (which can be offset by compliance and improved performance), is the need to refill the reductant, the periodicity of which varies with the miles driven, load factors, and the hours used. The SNCR system is not as efficient at higher revolutions per minute (rpm). SCR is being optimized to have higher efficiency with broader temperatures, to be more durable, and to meet other commercial needs.

Exhaust gas recirculation.

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), on diesel engines, can be used to achieve a richer fuel to air mixture and a lower peak combustion temperature. Both effects reduce NO emissions, but can negatively impact efficiency and the production of soot particles. The richer mix is achieved by displacing some of the intake air, but is still lean compared to petrol engines, which approach the stoichiometric ideal. The lower peak temperature is achieved by a heat exchanger that removes heat before re-entering the engine, and works due to the exhaust gases' higher specific heat capacity than air. With the greater soot production, EGR is often combined with a particulate matter (PM) filter in the exhaust. In turbocharged engines, EGR needs a controlled pressure differential across the exhaust manifold and intake manifold, which can be met by such engineering as use of a variable geometry turbocharger, which has inlet guide vanes on the turbine to build exhaust backpressure in the exhaust manifold directing exhaust gas to the intake manifold. It also requires additional external piping and valving, and so requires additional maintenance.

Combined systems.

John Deere, the farm equipment manufacturer, is implementing such a combined SCR-EGR design, in a 9-liter "inline 6" diesel engine that involves both system types, a PM filter and additional oxidation catalyst technologies. The combined system incorporates two turbochargers, the first on the exhaust manifold, with variable geometry and containing the EGR system; and a second a fixed geometry turbocharger. Recirculated exhaust gas and the compressed air from the turbochargers have separate coolers, and air merges before entering the intake manifold, and all subsystems are controlled by a central engine control unit that optimizes minimization of pollutants released in the exhaust gas.

Other remedies.

A new technology being tested in 2016 has been created by Air Ink which collects carbon particles using a "Kaalink" cylindrical device that is retrofitted into a vehicle's exhaust system, after processing to remove heavy metals and carcinogens, the company plans to use the carbon to make ink.

Water recovery.

There has been research into ways that troops in deserts can recover drinkable water from their vehicles' exhaust gases.

Diesel exhaust is the gaseous exhaust produced by a diesel type of internal combustion engine, plus any contained particulates. Its composition may vary with the fuel type or rate of consumption, or speed of engine operation (e.g., idling or at speed or under load), and whether the engine is in an on-road vehicle, farm vehicle, locomotive, marine vessel, or stationary generator or other application.

La fumée de Diesel est un gaz produit par un type de moteur à combustion interne fonctionnant au diesel, cela inclut également les particules émises. Sa composition peut varier avec le type de fuel, le taux de consommation ou la vitesse de fonctionnement des moteurs (c’est-à-dire, tournant au ralenti, à grande vitesse ou sous la charge minimale du moteur), et si le moteur est dans un véhicule routier, un engin agricole, une locomotive, un navire, un générateur fixe ou une autre utilisation du moteur.


History.

The basic idea has been expressed through narrative a number of times. In one "Aesop's fable" that is recorded even before Aesop's time, The Fox and the Cat, the fox boasts of "hundreds of ways of escaping" while the cat has "only one". When they hear the hounds approaching, the cat scampers up a tree while "the fox in his confusion was caught up by the hounds". The fable ends with the moral, "Better one safe way than a hundred on which you cannot reckon". Related concepts are expressed by the Centipede's dilemma, how unconscious activity is disrupted by conscious thought of it, and by the tale of Buridan's ass, a paradox of rational decision with equal options.  In Shakespeare's "Hamlet", the main character, Prince Hamlet, is often said to have a mortal flaw of thinking too much, such that his youth and vital energy are "sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought". Neema Parvini explores some of Hamlet's key decisions in the chapter "'And Reason Panders Will': Another Look at Hamlet's Analysis Paralysis".  Voltaire popularized an old Italian proverb in French in the 1770s of which an English variant is "Perfect is the enemy of good". The meaning of "The perfect is the enemy of the good" is that one might never complete a task if one has decided not to stop until it is perfect: completing the project well is made impossible by striving to complete it perfectly.  "Analysis, paralysis" appeared together in an 1803 pronouncing dictionary and later editions stating how those words are pronounced similarly. The usage of rhyming words can make aphorisms sound more truthful and be more memorable by their usage of the rhyme-as-reason effect and ode mnemonics.  In 1928 at the General Convention of the Episcopal Church, Reverend C. Leslie Glenn, National Secretary for College Work, spoke that the religious collegiate world was at risk of "paralysis by analysis" from being too speculative instead of definitive, needing real work instead of investigations.  During World War II, Winston Churchill, after hearing that the landing craft designers were spending the majority of their time arguing over design changes, sent this message: "The maxim 'Nothing avails but perfection' may be spelt shorter: 'Paralysis.'"  In 1956, Charles R. Schwartz wrote the article "The Return-on-Investment Concept as a Tool for Decision Making" in Changing Patterns And Concepts In Management stating, "We will do less guessing; avoid the danger of becoming extinct by instinct; and, by the adoption of one uniform evaluation guide, escape succumbing to paralysis by analysis."  In 1965, H. Igor Ansoff wrote the book "Corporate Strategy: An Analytic Approach to Business Policy for Growth and Expansion". He used the phrase "paralysis by analysis" in reference to those who used the approach to excess. Ansoff had referenced Schwartz's paper in couple of his papers.  In a paper published in 1970, based on a speech in 1969 and other works, Silver and Hecker wrote: The Duke group has used the term "analysis-paralysis" to point out that, if we wait until we have completely answered all the questions and solved all of the problems before training the personnel we need, we will never reach a solution. The insistent demands for further study and extensive evaluation suggested by some may only be a defense by those who do not wish to change or those who fear change.  The Oxford English Dictionary says that the earliest uses of "analysis paralysis" found in "The Times" were in the 1970s.

Software development.

In software development, analysis paralysis typically manifests itself through the Waterfall model with exceedingly long phases of project planning, requirements gathering, program design and data modeling, which can create little or no extra value by those steps and risk many revisions. When extended over too long a timeframe, such processes tend to emphasize the organizational (i.e., bureaucratic) aspect of the software project, while detracting from its functional (value-creating) portion.  Analysis paralysis often occurs, due to the lack of experience on the part of business systems analysts, project managers or software developers, as well as a rigid and formal organizational culture.Analysis paralysis can also arise from extensive experience or expertise, which serves to increase the number of options and considerations that appear at every decision point.  Analysis paralysis is an example of an anti-pattern. Agile software development methodologies explicitly seek to prevent analysis paralysis, by promoting an iterative work cycle that emphasizes working products over product specifications, but requires buy-in from the full project team. In some instances, Agile software development ends up creating additional confusion in the project in the case where iterative plans are made with no intention on having the team following through.

Sports.

Analysis paralysis is a critical problem in athletics. It can be explained in simple terms as "failure to react in response to overthought". A victim of sporting analysis paralysis will frequently think in complicated terms of "what to do next" while contemplating the variety of possibilities, and in doing so exhausts the available time in which to act.

Casual analysis paralysis.

There are additional situations in which analysis paralysis can be identified, but in which the phenomenon is often accidental or coincidental.

Personal analysis.

Casual analysis paralysis can occur during the process of trying to make personal decisions, if the decisionmaker overanalyzes the circumstance with which they are faced. When this happens, the sheer volume of analysis overwhelms the decisionmaker, weighing them down so much that they feel overwhelmed with the task, unable to make a rational conclusion.

Conversational analysis.

Although analysis paralysis can actually occur at any time, regarding any issue in typical conversation, it is particularly likely to occur during elevated, intellectual discussions. During such intellectual discussion, analysis paralysis involves the overanalysis of a specific issue to the point where that issue can no longer be recognized, and the subject of the conversation is lost. Usually, this happens because complex issues (which are often the basis of elevated, intellectual conversation) are intricately connected with various other issues, and the pursuit of these various issues makes logical sense to the participants. Below is an example of how analysis paralysis might affect a conversation about human rights:  All of these issues are closely related and each issue brings up yet another related one. The assumption is that, eventually, the analysis will move on so far astray that the initial issue of human rights becomes a sub-issue or is no longer even recognizable to the current topic under discussion.

Games.

Games provide a microcosm for decision-making where there can be adversaries, hidden or missing information, random events, complex options, and consequences. In this context, analysis paralysis denotes a state where a player is so overwhelmed by aspects of the decision tree that he or she faces that the player's turn takes an inordinate amount of time. This can be compounded in a losing position where the player is exhaustively searching for a win or purposely stalling to prevent officially losing the game. The connotation is often pejorative, implying that the slowing of the game diminished the enjoyment by other players. Some games explicitly add time deadlines (e.g. with a chess clock or egg timer). In chess this slowing of play is referred to as Kotov Syndrome and, in timed chess matches, can result in time trouble. Good game design can reduce the likelihood of analysis paralysis in gameplay. Game design itself can also be susceptible to analysis paralysis.

Preventing and overcoming.

There are many ways to help prevent or overcome the logjam of analysis paralysis. There may be many factors contributing to the cause. Lon Roberts breaks down the common definition of "analysis paralysis" into three possibly overlapping conditions of paralysis: analysis process, decision precision, and risk uncertainty. He uses this to give specific actions for each condition. Becky Kane and others give these following suggestions:

Set limits.

Set initial constraints (deadline, time, people, money, resources...) to what you are willing to commit for this plan. Setting deadlines: "Set a 'drop dead' date." "Set a deadline and hold yourself accountable." Limit the amount of info: "Curb your curiosity." "Intentionally limit the amount of information you consume."

Clarify objectives and priorities.

Having a clear goal can simplify your decisions and actions for any project. "Know your main objective."

Remember nothing is perfect.

"Recognize that the moons will never align."

Take small iterative steps.

Agile development and design thinking are two recent movements emphasizing small iterations to discover the problem space. "Approach problems with an iterative mindset." Decide something: "Stair step your decisions." Resorting to Flipism, at least to reveal your preference, can resolve seeming equal choices. Do something: "Start before you feel ready."

Change number of options.

Increasing the number of options in the beginning increases the likelihood of including a good solution (Design thinking: divergent thinking, ideation). Decreasing the number of options later simplifies the decision process (Paradox of choice, convergent thinking). You can Narrow your options in this three step process

Add or remove emotion.

Decision making works best with a mix of rational, intuitive and emotional thinking.

Talk about it.

Talking with someone can get another viewpoint. This can also help reduce groupthink. "Get a sanity check." "Get out of your own head and talk it out with someone else." It doesn't even have to be a person (see Rubber duck debugging).But make sure that you talk with a right expert only as they would guide you to the right path.

Make your best decision.

Decision fatigue can affect or even prevent good decision making. "Structure your day for the decisions that matter most." When you do make your decision, support it. "Make your decision the right one."

Analysis paralysis (or paralysis by analysis) describes an individual or group process when overanalyzing or overthinking a situation can cause forward motion or decision-making to become "paralyzed", meaning that no solution or course of action is decided upon. A situation may be deemed as too complicated and a decision is never made, due to the fear that a potentially larger problem may arise. A person may desire a perfect solution, but may fear making a decision that could result in error, while on the way to a better solution. Equally, a person may hold that a superior solution is a short step away, and stall in its endless pursuit, with no concept of diminishing returns. On the opposite end of the time spectrum is the phrase extinct by instinct, which is making a fatal decision based on hasty judgment or a gut reaction.

La paralysie d'analyse décrit un moment où une analyse trop poussée ou une trop intense réflexion à une situation peut l'amener à devenir « paralysée », ce qui signifie qu'aucune action n'a été prise, et par conséquent, aucune solution n'est proposée. Une situation est considérée comme trop compliquée et aucune décision n'est jamais prise à cause de la peur qu'un problème encore plus compliqué puisse survenir. Une personne désire une solution parfaite, mais a peur de prendre une décision qui pourrait entraîner une erreur lors de l'avancée vers une meilleure solution.


History.

In the 14th century, Thessaly had been ruled by Serbian and Greek lords and enjoyed great prosperity. It was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in successive waves, in 1386/7, the middle 1390s, and again after 1414/23, and was not completed until 1470. Trikala itself fell probably in 1395/6 (although Evliya Çelebi claims it happened as early as 1390).  The newly conquered region, however, was initially the patrimonial domain of the powerful marcher-lord Turahan Bey (died 1456) and of his son Ömer Bey (died 1484) rather than a regular province. Turahan and his heirs brought in settlers from Anatolia (the so-called "Konyalis", or "Koniarides" in Greek, since most were from the region around Konya) to repopulate the sparsely inhabited area, and soon, Muslim settlers or converts dominated the lowlands, while the Christians held the mountains around the Thessalian plain. Banditry was endemic, and led to the creation of the first state-sanctioned Christian autonomies known as "armatoliks", the earliest and most notable of which was that of Agrafa.  Thessaly was generally peaceful, but did see the occasional conflict. Thus in 1570 the Venetians raided the region of Fenarbekir (Fanari), and failed Greek uprisings occurred in 1600/1 and 1612, the first under Dionysius the Philosopher, the metropolitan bishop of Yenişehir i-Fenari (Larissa), and the second at the instigation of the Duke of Nevers, who claimed the Byzantine throne. The Greeks also rose up in various areas during the Morean War of 1684–1699, and again during the Orlov Revolt, but these insurrections were swiftly suppressed.  The 17th century saw the progressive weakening of the Ottoman central government, and the replacement of the "timar" system with the "chiflik" system in the lowlands, which were mainly concerned with agriculture (especially cotton production) and cattle-raising, while the mountain settlements experienced increased prosperity through their investment in crafts and commerce, and their organization into communal guilds. This prosperity was expressed in the growth of fairs and markets in the region's urban centres.  After 1780, the ambitious Ali Pasha of Ioannina took over control of Thessaly, and consolidated his rule after 1808, when he suppressed a local uprising. His heavy taxation, however, ruined the province's commerce, and coupled with the outbreak of the plague in 1813, reduced the population to some 200,000 by 1820. When the Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821, Greek risings occurred in the Pelion and Olympus mountains as well as the western mountains around Fenarbekir, but they were swiftly suppressed by the Ottoman armies under Mehmed Reshid Pasha and Mahmud Dramali Pasha.  After the establishment of the independent Kingdom of Greece, Greek nationalist agitation continued, with further revolts in 1841, 1854 and again during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. At the same time, despite the progressive reforms of the "Tanzimat" period, Thessaly experienced an increased concentration of the arable land by a few magnates, who reduced their tenant farmers to virtual serfdom.  Thessaly remained in Ottoman hands until 1881, when it was handed over to Greece under the terms of the Treaty of Berlin. The last Ottoman census, carried out in 1877/8, listed 250,000 inhabitants and 2,500 buildings for the "sanjak", with a total population for Thessaly (including the region of Elassona, which remained Ottoman until the Balkan Wars) estimated at 285,000 Greeks, 40,000 Turks and 40,000 Jews.

Administrative division.

For most of its history, the "sanjak" formed part of the Rumeli Eyalet. In the tax census of 1454/5, the "sanjak"covered a much larger area than today’s Thessaly region, since it included areas of Pindos that today belong to the administrative regions of Epirus and the eastern portions of Central Greece. At the time it was part of the Rumeli beylerbeylik (eyalet) and divided into four sub-provinces: the Trikala (Τirhala) vilâyet, the Larisa (Yenisehir) vilâyet, the Fanari (Fenâr) vilâyet and the Agrafa (Ağrafa) vilâyet. The capital was the city of Trikala.  According to the 17th-century geographer Hajji Khalifa, the province encompassed nine "kazas" ("districts"): Tirhala itself, Palatmina (Platamonas), Yenişehir i-Fenari (Larissa), Golo (Volos), Çatalca (Farsala), Velestin (Velestino), Alasonya (Elassona), Döminek (Domeniko), and Fenarbekir. In the 18th century, the capital was transferred from Tirhala to Yenişehir, and the "sanjak" itself was often called accordingly.  After the "Tanzimat" reforms of the 1840s, Tirhala became part of the Salonica Eyalet (at the latest by 1846). Around 1854/55, it appears as a separate "eyalet", but the source is unclear. In 1856 it became part of the Ioannina Eyalet, but in the 1863–1867 period, it certainly became an "eyalet" in its own right. Initially it probably encompassed only the old "sanjak" of Tirhala, but the 1864/65 "salname" (provincial year-book) adds the "sanjaks" of Golos (Volos), ceded from the Salonica Eyalet, Preveze (Preveza), a new province, and Avlonya (Vlora). However, in 1867, it was re-merged with the Ioannina Eyalet as a "sanjak", which is listed in 1877 as having the following "kazas": Yenişehir, Alasonya, Irmiye, Tirhala, Çatalca, Golos and Karadiğe (Karditsa).

The Sanjak of Tirhala or Trikala (Ottoman Turkish: "Sancak-i/Liva-i Tirhala"; ) was second-level Ottoman province ("sanjak" or "liva") encompassing the region of Thessaly. Its name derives from the Turkish version of the name of the town of Trikala. It was established after the conquest of Thessaly by the Ottomans led by Turahan Bey, a process which began at the end of the 14th century and ended in the mid-15th century.

Le sanjak de Trikala ou Tirhala (turc ottoman: Sancak-i / Liva-i Tirhala; grec: λιβάς / σαντζάκι Τρικάλων) était la deuxième province ottomane (sandjak ou livah) englobant la région de Thessalie.


Plot.

Following the disappearance of his beautiful but mentally handicapped daughter, Avanzio Berzaghi (Raf Vallone) travels to Milan to track her down. Local detective Duca Lamberti (Frank Wolff) investigates the city's pimps and prostitutes for clues, eventually finding the girl's burnt body in a field. Apparently the pimps disposed of the young girl when they heard investigators were looking for her. Berzaghi vows to find the girl's murderer, eventually tracking down his quarry from a clue related to the girl's teddy bear. Berzaghi exacts his revenge, but finds no satisfaction from having done so.

Production.

"La morte risale a ieri sera" was written by Biagio Proietti and director Duccio Tessari. the film is based on Giorgio Scerbanenco's 1969 novel "I milanesi ammazzano al sabato". The book was published just a few months before the author's death. Several of Scerbanenco's works featuring the detective character Duca Lamberti were adapted to film around this time, including "Milano calibro 9" in 1972 and "Il caso Venere privata" in 1970.  The film's soundtrack was composed by Gianni Ferrio, who had previously worked with Tessari on the 1969 spaghetti western "Vivi o, preferibilmente, morti", and would do so again on his 1971 giallo "Una farfalla con le ali insanguinate". Ferrio's score spans several musical styles, incorporating psychedelic rock, baroque pop and jazz.

Release.

"La morte risale a ieri sera" was distributed by Titanus in Italy on September 5, 1970. The film grossed a total of 568,294,000 Italian lire domestically. The film was later released in West Germany as "Gemordet wird nur Samtags" on July 16, 1971. The film has been distributed internationally under the titles "Death Occurred Last Night" which had a 95 minute running time in 1970 as well as "Death Took Place Last Night" and "Horror Came out of the Fog".

Reception.

From retrospective reviews, Robert Firsching wrote in AllMovie that "La morte risale a ieri sera"s plot featured "a great deal more humanity than is typical for the [crime] genre", finding that Tessari's focus on characterisation over plot was its key strength. Firsching commented on the film's score negatively, stating that Ferrio's score and its "bouncy" tone was inconsistent with the film. The film, and the character of Lamberti, have been seen as precursors to the postmodernist works of American director Quentin Tarantino.

La morte risale a ieri sera is a 1970 crime film directed by Duccio Tessari. The film was written by Tessari and Biagio Proietti and based on the novel "I milanesi ammazzano al sabato" by Giorgio Scerbanenco.

La Mort remonte à hier soir ("La morte risale a ieri sera") est un poliziottesco réalisé par Duccio Tessari, sorti en 1970.


Family and early life.

Van der Byl was born in Cape Town, the son of Joyce Clare Fleming, a Scot, and Dutch-descended Major Pieter Voltelyn Graham van der Byl, a member of Jan Smuts' South African cabinet during World War II. Like his father, Van der Byl was educated at the Diocesan College in Rondebosch but his studies were interrupted by war in 1941. He served with the South African Army during the Second World War and served with the British 7th Queen's Own Hussars; he saw active service in the Middle East, Italy and Austria.  After being demobilised, Van der Byl studied law at Pembroke College, Cambridge where his aristocratic manner stood out. "P. K." was always elegantly dressed and coiffured, and acquired the nickname "the Piccadilly Dutchman". He obtained a Third-class degree in his Part II Law examinations in 1947, and went on from Cambridge to study at the Harvard University Graduate School of Business Administration from 1947 to 1948 (although he did not obtain a degree at the latter). He also studied at the University of the Witwatersrand in South Africa.  One of the most conspicuous features of Van der Byl was his manner of speech: although his ancestry was Cape Dutch and his early life was in Cape Town, South Africa, he had what were described (by Chris Whitehead, editor of "Rhodesians Worldwide") as "what he thought was an aristocratic English nasal drawl and imperial English mannerisms". Whitehead was of the opinion that Van der Byl had "adopted" this accent, in common with others who heard him like Denis Hills, who wrote of Van der Byl having "a flow of mannered phrases which he delivers in a flawed Guards officer accent".  This personal characteristic was intensely irritating to many people including South African government ministers, but Van der Byl's aristocratic mannerisms appeared uncontentious to many Rhodesian whites. They believed that his "nasal drawl" was the product of his time as an officer in the Hussars and his Cambridge education: William Higham described him as "a popular Minister of Defence who, despite his British upper crust accent – undoubtedly honed during his swashbuckling career as an officer in the hussars – hailed from a noble Cape family."

Move to Rhodesia.

Van der Byl moved to Southern Rhodesia in 1950 to manage some of his family's tobacco farming interests, hoping to make his own fortune. Having visited the country many times as a youth, he remarked that after reading about the profits to be made from tobacco he "suddenly got a rush of blood to the crotch about the tobacco boom and decided I was going to go up there and make the family fortune in a place I liked and wanted to be in." He welcomed the move as it allowed him to indulge his hobby of big game hunting: in that year in Angola, then under Portuguese rule, he set a world record for the biggest elephant shot, which stood until 1955.

Political career.

Ministerial office.

In 1963, Winston Field appointed Van der Byl as a junior government whip, and on 16 March 1964 he was made Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Justice with responsibility for the Information Service. Although the Van der Byl family were identified as strongly liberal in South African politics, he became identified with the right wing of the party and helped to depose Field from the premiership in early April 1964, when Field failed to persuade the British government to grant Southern Rhodesia its independence. The new Prime Minister, Ian Smith, appointed him Deputy Minister for Information. At this time, Van der Byl's chief

1965 election.

In May 1965 the Rhodesian Front government went to the country in a general election with Van der Byl one of the leading campaigners. Discussion of unilaterally declaring independence had already begun. Van der Byl argued that only a small fraction of Rhodesian business opposed it; however, his campaign speeches typically included an argument against business involvement in politics. He cited Johannesburg mining interests'

UDI.

Within the government, Van der Byl was one of the loudest voices urging Ian Smith to proceed to a Unilateral Declaration of Independence. He angrily denounced the threat of sanctions from Britain, saying on 4 May 1965 that economic destruction of Rhodesia would mean total economic destruction of Zambia, formerly Northern Rhodesia. This statement was interpreted as a military threat by David Butler, the Leader of the Opposition. Van der Byl was given the task of selling the UDI to Rhodesian whites and to world opinion. In September 1965, it was announced that he would tour the United Kingdom to promote Rhodesian independence. According to David Steel, he claimed then that France and the United States would lead the international recognition of the UDI government. He was appointed Deputy Minister of Information on 22 October and so was present at, but did not sign, the Unilateral Declaration of Independence on 11 November 1965. Van der Byl was greeted by a speech strongly critical of the Rhodesian government from the

Censorship.

Internally, his policy was enforced through Ministry control of TV and radio and through censorship of newspapers. From 31 December 1965, the Ministry of Information expanded its brief and was renamed the Ministry of Information, Immigration and Tourism, which meant that it was also responsible for deciding whether to grant or revoke permits to visit Rhodesia. Several foreign journalists were expelled: John Worrall, correspondent for "The Guardian", went in January 1969. "The Rhodesia Herald", then in opposition to both the Rhodesian Front and UDI, frequently appeared with large white spaces on its news pages where censored stories had been placed. Stories and editorials personally critical of Van der Byl were immediately removed.  Censorship was tightened still further on 8 February 1966 when it was

Deportation.

Shortly after UDI, 46 academics working at University College, a racially non-segregated institution, in Rhodesia wrote to "The Times" in London, denouncing the move. Officers of the British South Africa Police visited many of those who had signed to search their houses. Shortly afterwards, the residence permit of one of the academics came up for renewal, which would normally be automatic. In fact, it was revoked and the academic was deported. Van der Byl was the responsible minister and all but admitted that the reason was his opposition to UDI.  Van der Byl's

Wider role in politics.

On 13 September 1968 he was promoted to be the full Minister of Information, Immigration and Tourism. Van der Byl's aristocratic background, military experience and academic credentials combined to give him an almost iconic status within the Rhodesian Front. Many were impressed by his exploits as a big-game hunter, which began when he shot his first lion in a garden in Northern Rhodesia at the age of 15. Writing in South Africa's "Daily Dispatch", Michael Hartnack remarked that many in the Rhodesian Front believed him to be "a 19th century-style connoisseur, a man of culture and an aristocrat-statesman", adding that "poseurs are an incipient hazard in any unsophisticated

Minister of Defence.

Van der Byl was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs and Defence on 2 August 1974. These were two distinct portfolios, the first of which (Foreign Affairs) did not amount to much in a state which lacked any form of international recognition. The Defence portfolio, at a time when Rhodesia was drifting into civil war, was an important post; although his previous political experience had been largely in the area of public relations, he was now charged with responsibilities which were central to the survival of Rhodesia. He promoted aggressive measures against the insurgents, and in so doing, he also sought to raise his own political profile. Clad in immaculately tailored battledress, he would fly by helicopter to a beleaguered army outpost; wearing dark glasses and sporting a swagger stick, deliver a

Foreign affairs.

Van der Byl took over at a time when South Africa was putting increasing pressure on the Rhodesians to make an agreement on majority rule. In March 1975, he had to fly urgently to Cape Town to explain why the Rhodesian government had detained Rev. Ndabaningi Sithole of the Zimbabwe African National Union, who was accused of plotting against other black nationalist leaders. The South Africans were extremely displeased with this action and suspected that the real reason was that the Rhodesians objected to Sithole and preferred to negotiate with Joshua Nkomo. Van der Byl was unsuccessful in reassuring the South Africans and Ian Smith was forced to follow him. Gradually the South Africans grew unwilling to help Rhodesia. The remaining 200 South African policemen transferred to help in the guerilla war were removed suddenly in August 1975, a move which appeared to precede even more disengagement. Van der Byl responded in a speech on 8 August which asserted that "The terrorists who are trained and equipped outside our border and who invade our country with the willing help of other governments are here for a much wider purpose than the overthrow of Rhodesia. They are here to

Contribution to diplomacy.

As the prominence of the issue of Rhodesia increased in the late 1970s, attention on Van der Byl increased. Reporters noted his impressively quotable lines at press conferences (such as his explanation for why the Rhodesian government did not usually give the names of guerrillas which it had hanged: "Why should we? Anyway, it's academic because they're normally dead after it"). While negotiating with the Patriotic Front put together by ZANU and ZAPU at the Geneva Conference in November 1976, he described ZANU leader Robert Mugabe as "this bloodthirsty Marxist puppet" and the Patriotic Front

Internal settlement.

The mission did fail and the internal settlement talks were resurrected, resulting in a deal on 4 March 1978. A transitional joint Council of Ministers was set up, with Van der Byl having to work with Dr Elliott Gabellah as his co-Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Patriotic Front took no notice of this accord and the guerrilla war continued; Lord Richard Cecil, a close family friend working as a photo-journalist, was killed by guerrillas on 20 April 1978 after Van der Byl had ensured he had

Lancaster House.

When "the wheels came off the wagon" (as he put it) at Lancaster House in 1979, Van der Byl greeted the event with amused detachment. He was not a member of any delegation at the conference and did not attend. The weekend after the agreement, he called on the Rhodesian Front to revitalise itself as the only true representative of Europeans in Rhodesia, and he ascribed the result of the conference to "a succession of perfidious British governments".  According to Ian Smith's memoirs, Van der Byl organised a meeting between Ian Smith and Lieutenant-General Peter Walls, Commander of the Rhodesian Army, shortly before the first

In Zimbabwe.

Van der Byl had been elected unopposed to the new House of Assembly for Gatooma/Hartley and remained a close associate of Smith, becoming Vice-President of the 'Republican Front' (later renamed the Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe). At the 1985 general election the boundaries for the White Roll seats were altered and Van der Byl fought in Mount Pleasant, opposing Chris Andersen. Andersen had broken with the Rhodesian Front to sit as an Independent and became Minister of State for the Public Service in Robert Mugabe's government. Van der Byl lost the election heavily, polling only 544 votes to 1,017 for Andersen and 466 for a third

Marriage, issue and retirement.

On 31 August 1979 at Schloss Waldstein in Deutschfeistritz, Austria, Van der Byl married Princess Charlotte Maria Benedikte Eleonore Adelheid of Liechtenstein. She was thirty years his junior, the daughter of Prince Heinrich of Liechtenstein and granddaughter of Karl I, the last emperor of Austria. The couple had three sons: Pieter Vincenz, Valerian, and Casimir.  In 1983 Van der Byl had inherited from his mother a property described as "the magnificent estate.. near Caledon in the Western Cape,"

References.

Notes  References  Bibliography

Pieter Kenyon Fleming-Voltelyn van der Byl (11 November 1923 – 15 November 1999) was a Rhodesian politician who served as his country's Foreign Minister from 1974 to 1979 as a member of the Rhodesian Front (RF). A close associate of Prime Minister Ian Smith, Van der Byl opposed attempts to compromise with the British government and domestic black nationalist opposition on the issue of majority rule throughout most his time in government. However, in the late 1970s he supported the moves which led to majority rule and internationally recognised independence for Zimbabwe.

Pieter Kenyon Fleming-Voltelyn van der Byl est un politicien rhodésien, né le au Cap et mort le dans la même ville. Membre du Front rhodésien, il a été ministre des Affaires étrangères de son pays entre 1974 et 1979. Il est un proche collaborateur du Premier ministre Ian Smith et s'oppose aux tentatives de compromis avec le gouvernement britannique et l'opposition nationaliste noire sur la question de la règle de majorité au sein du gouvernement. Toutefois, à la fin des années 1970, il soutient les initiatives conduisant à l'instauration d'un régime majoritaire et à l'indépendance du Zimbabwe.


Early life and education.

Jefferson Thomas, the youngest of seven children, was born in Little Rock to Mr. and Mrs. Ellis Thomas. His parents named him after Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States. Thomas first attended Horace Mann High School, a segregated all-black school, where he was a track athlete. In 1957, he volunteered to be among the first group of black students to integrate all-white Little Rock Central High School for the 1957–58 school year as a sophomore.  On September 4, 1957, the Little Rock Nine made an unsuccessful attempt to enter Central High School, which had been segregated. The Arkansas National Guard, under orders from the governor, and an angry mob of about 400 surrounded the school and prevented them from going in. On September 23, 1957, a mob of about 1000 people surrounded the school again as the students attempted to enter. The following day, President Dwight D. Eisenhower took control of the Arkansas National Guard from the governor and sent federal troops to accompany the students to school for protection. Both federal troops and federalized National Guard soldiers were deployed at the school for the entirety of the school year.

Career.

Despite the harassment, Thomas graduated from Central High School in May of 1960, and entered Wayne State University, Detroit. In mid-1961, he relocated to Los Angeles, California. He served as Treasurer of the NAACP Youth Council and State President of the Progressive Baptist Youth Convention. He also attended Los Angeles State College, joined the Student Government, and was elected President of the Associated Engineers. He obtained a bachelor's degree in Business Administration. Thomas also served in the U.S. Army's 9th Infantry Division as an infantryman during the Vietnam War.

Later life.

Thomas narrated the United States Information Agency's 1964 film "Nine from Little Rock". In the film Thomas said, "If Little Rock taught us nothing more, it taught us that problems can make us better. Much better." The goal of this government film, in the context of the Cold War, was to show, to countries concerned about American racism, the progress the United States had made with respect to civil rights. It achieved this goal at least in part as the film received wide acclaim (including an Academy Award) and was distributed to 97 countries.  Thomas resided in Columbus, Ohio with his wife, Mary, and a granddaughter, Amber. He served as a volunteer mentor in the Village to Child Program co-sponsored by Ohio Dominican University, where he received his Honorary Degree, "Doctor of Humane Letters", on May 13, 2001, for his lifelong efforts in human rights and equality advancement.  Thomas was a frequent speaker at numerous high schools, colleges and universities throughout the country. He was the recipient of numerous awards from local and federal governmental agencies which include the Congressional Gold Medal awarded to the Little Rock Nine by President Bill Clinton in 1999. Also, in 1999, he and the other members of the Little Rock Nine received the NAACP's prestigious Spingarn Award "for their bravery and heroism throughout Central High's first year of integration". In August 2005, the State of Arkansas honored the Little Rock Nine with statues of their likeness on the Capitol grounds.  After more than 27 years as a civil servant, Thomas retired on September 30, 2004, from the Defense Finance and Accounting Service in Columbus, Ohio. In his later years, he served on the Board of Directors for the City of Refuge Learning Academy at the First Church of God.  Thomas died from pancreatic cancer in Columbus, Ohio, two weeks before his 68th birthday. He was the first of the Little Rock Nine to die. After a funeral in Columbus, he was interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California.

Media portrayals.

In 1993, actor Tico Wells portrayed Thomas in the Disney Channel movie "The Ernest Green Story".

Jefferson Allison Thomas (September 19, 1942 – September 5, 2010) was one of the Little Rock Nine, a group of African-American students who, in 1957, were the first black students ever to attend classes at Little Rock Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. In 1999, Thomas and the other students of the Little Rock Nine were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal by President Bill Clinton.

Jefferson Allison Thomas ( - ) a été l'un des Neuf de Little Rock, un groupe afro-américain d'étudiants qui, en 1957, ont été les premiers étudiants noirs à assister à des cours à Little Rock Central High School de Little Rock en Arkansas. En 1999, Thomas et les autres élèves du groupe des Neuf de Little Rock ont reçu la Médaille d'or du Congrès par le président Bill Clinton.


History.

Background.

The inland harbour on the Walawe river and the sea harbour on the bay of Godavaya in Ambalantota Trade were an important component in the economy of ancient Sri Lanka, and Godavaya was an important maritime settlement, serving Tissamaharama and Ridiyagama in the kingdom of Ruhuna. This port was first known to be operational in the general area of Hambantota around 250 BCE, when Chinese and Arabian merchants used it as part of the maritime silk route. Around the 1st century CE, a furnace powered by monsoon winds was built near Embilipitiya, which used wind-based air supply to produce high carbon steel. This steel was exported to Rome and other European areas for the manufacture of armor and swords, with ships sailing to a port in Hambantota to obtain steel.  In 2002 Sri Lankan Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe unveiled the "Regaining Sri Lanka" programme, which identified the Hambantota Seaport for development. The proposals for the port area include a refinery, petrochemical related industries, a coal powered thermal power station and a desalination plant. The project did not proceed due to feasibility studies which showed the port as unfeasible.

Construction and opening.

Construction started on 15 January 2008, the Hambantota Port and was constructed by the Chinese companies China Harbour Engineering Company and Sinohydro Corporation. The total cost of the first phase of the project is estimated at $360 million, excluding $76.5 million for the bunker terminal. 85% of the funding was provided by the Chinese Government and the remaining 15% by the Sri Lanka Ports Authority.  Initially set to open in the first half of 2011, five months ahead of schedule, the first phase of the project was completed by November 2010.  The harbor was formally declared open on 18 November 2010, by Sri Lanka's president Mahinda Rajapaksa with a ceremonial berthing of a vessel at the port. After sailing 90 nautical miles from the Naval Base in Galle, Sri Lanka Navy's ship "Jetliner" was the first vessel to drop anchor at the harbor. Two vessels, Pradeepa 2 (a traditional sailing yacht) and a commercial cargo ship followed the jetliner ceremonially sailing into the new harbour. Pradeepa 2 was chosen in recognition of Sri Lanka's age old role as a key stopping point on the ancient east-west silk trading route. Workers unloaded the first consignment of international cargo from Myanmar from the vessel "Seruwila" at the auspicious time of 06:21 GMT. A first day cover and a special commemorative stamp were issued by the Department of Post - Sri Lanka to mark the event. The launch of the second phase of the development of the port commenced at 06:27 GMT on the same day. There is also a move to create this port as a free port due to its commercial inactivity.  However the Rajapaksa government turned down many proposals such as floating dock by China harbour Coroporation with a local investor, a proposal by a middle eastern firm to operate oil storage and bunkering was turned down due to influence from a young minister who wanted to make profit by keeping the activities under their control. Proposals for bottling factories, sugar bagging plants and grain processing plants were also refused.  The port made losses of Rs.18.8 Billion resulting the debt payment burden falling on tax payers. After the fall of Rajapaksa government Prime Minister Ranil wickremesinghe visited China to solve the issue. As a result, Sri Lanka entered into a PPP agreement with China Merchants Port company to revitalize the Port alongside the creation of a large Special Economic Zone of 15,000 acres However the plans including the Special Economic Zone received heavy opposition from Rajapaksa who threatened with social unrest.

Under HIPG.

Under the Hambantota International Port Group (HIPG) which was formed as a joined venture between CMPort and the Sri Lanka Ports Authority the Hambantota Port made a turn around from its previous "White Elephant" status. The HIPG introduced automation, represented the port in several international summits and signed agreements with international shipping companies. As a result the 9-storey administration building of the port, the Hambantota Maritime Centre became 95 percent occupied and in just one year under the new management the port made a 136% increase in the volume of ro-ro vessels handled and even diversified its services to include other port-related activities such as container handling, general cargo, passenger, bunkering, bulk terminal, gas and project cargo.

Location.

Sri Lanka is situated along the key shipping route between the Malacca Straits and the Suez Canal, which links Asia and Europe. An estimated 36,000 ships, including 4,500 oil tankers, use the route annually. However the only major port in Sri Lanka, the Port of Colombo, is catered towards container handling and is unable to provide facilities for port related industries and services. Therefore, a new port was proposed near the city of Hambantota, which has a natural harbor and is located on the southern tip of Sri Lanka close to international shipping routes.  A new port will help relieve pressure on the Colombo port, and also provide services to ships that normally take three-and-a-half-day detours from their shipping lanes to receive these services, including refueling, maintenance, logistics and buying provisions and medical supplies. Proposals to build a port in Hambantota date back over three decades, but plans never got out of conceptual stages. The Port of Hambantota project was finally launched after Mahinda Rajapaksa, who is a native of Hambantota, was elected President of Sri Lanka in 2005. A leading maritime expert, Nuwan Peiris, commented that this port is a conflict between "...the intervention of two Asian superpowers in Sri Lanka, namely China and India, in a bid to gain supremacy in the case of the former, and a proxy-battle to maintain its natural defense-perimeter in the case of latter. Chinese involvement in a harbour project (Hambantota) in the down-south of the island has given this battle a renewed intensity.".

Facilities.

The first phase of the Port of Hambantota will consist of two 600m general purpose berths, a 310m bunkering berth and a 120m small craft berth. It will also contain a bunkering facility and tank farm which will include 8 tanks for marine fuel, 3 tanks containing aviation fuel and 3 for Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG). A 15 floor administrative complex will also be constructed as part of the project.  The mouth of the natural harbor at Hambantota has a 22-metre depth. When completed, the port will have a 1.5 km long breakwater, with a minimum basin depth of 17 m. This is compared to the 15.5 m depth of the Port of Colombo. The turning circle will be 600 m. A dam will also be built to prevent flooding in nearby areas, and a seawall made of interlocking concrete blocks will protect the port from high seas.  A $550 million tax-free port zone was set up outside the port. In 2016 a 15,000 acre SEZ project was announced with 5,000 acres from Hambantota and the rest from Monaragala, Ambilipitiya and Matara.  The finished project is expected to provide indirect employment to over 50,000 people.

Future expansion.

The second phase of the Port of Hambantota project, which will include a container terminal, is expected to be completed by 2014. The second stage of the port is estimated to cost around US$750 million. The third phase will include a dockyard. Upon completion, the port will cover of land and accommodate 33 vessels at any given time, making it the largest port in South Asia.

Port operations.

The SLPA had decided to divert all vehicle shipments to the Ruhunu Magampura Mahinda Rajapaksa International port from May 31, 2012 as a measure to relieve the congestion at Sri Lanka's main port Colombo Harbour. On June 6, 2012, Ruhunu Magampura Mahinda Rajapaksa International Port officially started transshipment operations with the "N4K FRICIA" ship from Japan containing 15 vehicles and the "Ellison Sun" with 1000 vehicles from Chennai Harbour, India.  Japanese, South Korean and Indian car makers have begun transshipping increasing numbers of vehicles through the port. In the first nine months of 2014, the number of vehicles handled at Hambantota crossed the 100,000 mark, up more than 300% compared to the same period in 2013, with the number of ship calls more than doubling to 161. The biggest user of the port is the Hyundai plant near Chennai while Tata and Maruti vehicles also come from Mumbai. In future, all Hyundai vehicles made in South Korea, China and India will be transshipped through Hambantota 15,000 units a month once more yard space is available.  In April 2017, making a historic landmark in Sri Lanka, the world's largest pure car and truck carrier (PCTC), the MV "Hoegh Trigger", arrived on her maiden call at the Port of Hambantota.

Incidents.

In December 2016, a mob of workers who were believed to be backed by Rajapaksa loyalists vandalised the port and took several ships hostage. The 13-storey building which was taken over by the strikers was flooded, and CCTV systems and electricity shut down. However swift action by Navy rescued the ships and began repairing damaged infrastructure thus reducing the damage. The Rajapaksa involvement was further proven by Rajapaksa loyalists' support of the strikers and wearing of black bands in support; in addition many of the leaders of the strike well as a protest against the SEZ that happened in Hambantota alongside the strike was led by members of the Nil Balakaya, an organization created by Namal Rajapaksa. As a result, a shipping line also sent a bill of $400000 as damages to the ports authority. The said workers were politically appointed by Nil Balakaya during the Rajapaksa regime and lacks legal documents to validate their employment However the government and Navy Commander Vice Admiral Ravindra Wijegunaratne has come under extreme criticism from Civil activists and media movements over an assault on a journalist during this protest in Hambantota port.

Lease to China.

On July 28, 2017, Prime Minister Ranil Wickramasinghe announced that lease would be signed the next day and on July 29, 2017, Sri Lanka Ports Authority (SLPA) and China Merchant Port Holdings signed an agreement on the Hambantota Port to lease the port to China Merchant Port Holdings for 99 years. The government of Sri Lanka kept the ownership of the port and lease it for 99 years. The deal gave the Sri Lankan government $1.4 billion, that they will be using to pay off the debt to China. This will stop the Sri Lanka Ports Authority paying off debt of Magampura Port from the profit of the Colombo port. The deal had been delayed by several months over concerns that the port could be used for military purposes and also government had to face huge opposition to this deal from trade unions and opposition political parties who called it a sellout of the country's national assets to China. The large Chinese loans, inability of the Sri Lankan government to service the loans, and subsequent 99-year Chinese lease on the port have led to accusations that China was practicing Debt trap diplomacy.

The Hambantota Port (also known as the Magampura Mahinda Rajapaksa Port) is a maritime port in Hambantota, Sri Lanka. The first phase of the port was opened on 18 November 2010, with the first ceremonial berthing of the naval ship "Jetliner" to use the port facilities. It is named after former President Mahinda Rajapaksa. Hambantota Port is built inland and operated by the Sri Lanka Ports Authority. Total estimated construction cost of the Phase 1 of the project is US$361 million, out of which 85% was funded by the EXIM Bank of the People's Republic of China.

Le port de Hambantota est un port situé au Sri Lanka à Hambantota. Il a ouvert le et sa construction a démarré en. Son coût est de 360 millions de dollars, et a été financé à hauteur de 85 % par la banque d'exportation et d'importation de Chine.


History.

The site of present-day Central City was originally known as Morehead's Horse Mill after local resident Charles S. Morehead's steam-powered gristmill. A larger community began to develop after the 1870 advent of the Elizabethtown and Paducah Railroad. A post office was constructed the next year in 1871 and called Owensboro Junction after the projected 1872 completion of the Owensboro and Russellville Railroad. By 1873, the settlement was large enough to be incorporated by the state legislature as Stroud City, after local landowner John Stroud.  The same year, however, the du Pont's Central Coal and Iron Company began operation in the area and became so vital to the local economy that the city was reïncorporated in 1882 as Central City. Recessions replaced the E&P and the O&R with a procession of different companies, including the Owensboro and Nashville Railway, but the two rights of way always remained in separate hands, keeping Central City an important regional hub for the Illinois Central and the L&N, with train yards, roundhouses, and even an elevated rail station. Coal was mined from nearby fields, prompting explosions such as one in 1912 that killed 5 workers.  The expansion of automotive traffic in the early 20th century reduced some of Central City's importance, but it continues to service mainline freight traffic on the Paducah and Louisville Railway and trunk-line service for CSX from Madisonville to the Paradise Combined Cycle Plant, minutes south of the city.  Central City is the only city in Muhlenberg County that allows liquor to be sold by package stores and by the drink in restaurants seating at least 100 persons. Muhlenberg County is dry.

Geography.

Central City is located at (37.294989, -87.128622).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land.  Terrain in Central City is rolling hills to steep bluffs along the northern boundaries of the city along the Green River. The city, along its northwestern border, is known for its swamps and lowland area that remain at or near the water table year-round.  Most of Central City has a sandstone bedrock with #9 bituminous coal underlying the bedrock. Central City has a number of old underground coal mine shafts that still crisscross the city. Most of these old shafts date back to the early 1900s. The majority of terrain around the city limits is reclaimed land where surface mining has taken place.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 5,893 people, 2,065 households, and 1,410 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,126.2 people per square mile (435.0/km). There were 2,313 housing units at an average density of 442.0 per square mile (170.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 88.07% White, 10.67% African American, 0.05% Native American, 0.24% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.41% from other races, and 0.54% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.80% of the population.  There were 2,065 households, out of which 28.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.5% were married couples living together, 13.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.7% were non-families. 29.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.95.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 20.1% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 30.8% from 25 to 44, 22.2% from 45 to 64, and 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 116.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 120.3 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $27,371, and the median income for a family was $32,959. Males had a median income of $29,284 versus $18,265 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,637. About 18.4% of families and 20.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.3% of those under age 18 and 21.4% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Central City is home to Central City Elementary School. Central City Elementary School is a feeder school for Muhlenberg North Middle School which, in turn, feeds Muhlenberg County High School.  Central City is also home to the Muhlenberg Campus of Madisonville Community College, completed in 2001.  Central City has a lending library, a branch of the Muhlenberg County Public Library.

Economy.

Major employers in Central City include:

Arts and culture.

Everly Brothers Homecoming/Labor Day Cruise-In.

On Labor Day Weekend 1988, Central City began hosting The Everly Brothers Homecoming event to raise money for a scholarship fund for Muhlenberg County students. The Homecoming became a popular annual event for fourteen years, before ending in 2002.  Not to be discouraged, the citizens reformed the event as a weekend long cruise-in and car show that is still held annually on Labor Day Weekend.

Kentucky Women's Hall of Fame, Inc..

Sponsored by the Central City Business & Professional Women's Club, the Hall of Fame is located inside the Central City Public Library, 108 E. Broad Street and features a portrait and memorabilia gallery which includes former Governor Martha Layne Collins, Country & Western music giant Loretta Lynn, and local author, editorialist, historian, war correspondent for the Service Star and noted cultivator of roses Agnes S. Harralson. Central City Library hours are Monday 9 am - 7 pm; Tuesday - Friday 9 am - 5 pm; Saturday 9 am - 1 pm. www.mcplib.org for more info; Central City BPW meets the second Tuesday of each month in the library meeting room at 6:00 pm - visitors are welcome.

Muhlenberg County Rail Trail.

The Muhlenberg County Rail Trail is a paved trail following an old Paducah and Louisville railway route between Central City and Greenville that is open to pedestrian and non-motorized vehicle traffic. Kentucky's most extensive rail trail conversion to date, the Muhlenberg Rail Trail opened October 20, 2000 and was named "Trail of the Month" by the Rails to Trails Conservancy in May 2004. A viewing platform and birding guide are available where the trail passes through a local wetland. The Muhlenberg County Rails to Trails Committee has railbanked an additional 3 miles of abandoned rail, possibly for a later extension into McLean County.

Central City is a home rule-class city in Muhlenberg County, Kentucky, in the United States. The population was 5,978 at the 2010 census. It is also the largest city in the county and the principal community in the Central City Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Muhlenberg County.

Central City est une ville du comté de Muhlenberg dans le Commonwealth du Kentucky, aux États-Unis. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à. C'est la plus grande ville du comté.


Background.

In 1979, the United States launched an informal program to promote the "rights and freedoms of navigation and overflight guaranteed to all nations under international law." The US government said that it initiated the program because some countries were beginning to assert jurisdictional boundaries beyond traditional claims. The United States wished to stop this and, it said, diplomatic protests had seemed to be ineffective. A new customary international law could emerge if nations avoided operating their ships and aircraft in the disputed areas, and the US saw this as undesirable.  In the 1980s, US warships were passing through the straits from the Mediterranean into the Black Sea two or three times a year to "show the flag" and to claim the right of innocent passage in the coastal states. Aside from the right of free passage, US naval activity in the Black Sea served the purpose of upholding US rights under the 1936 Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits. According to a US government official, "the Dardanelles and the Bosporus form an international waterway" under that convention and "if you don't periodically reaffirm your rights you find that they're hard to revive."  Meanwhile, "The Rules of Navigation and Sojourn of Foreign Warships in the Territorial Waters and Internal Waters and Ports of the USSR," enacted by the Soviet Council of Ministers in 1983, acknowledged the right of innocent passage of foreign warships only in restricted areas of Soviet territorial waters in the Baltic, Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan; no sea lanes for innocent passage in the Black Sea were designated. Soviet vessels and aircraft were routinely dispatched to observe US warships there. In the 1980s, the Soviet Union viewed the US presence in the Black Sea as an attempt to undermine improving Soviet–American relations.  After the 1986 incident in the Black Sea, also involving USS "Yorktown" and USS "Caron", a meeting of the Soviet Defence Council was held later in the same year. At the meeting, the Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Navy Vladimir Chernavin suggested to Mikhail Gorbachev, Defense Minister Sergey Sokolov, Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze, and other senior officials that intruding foreign warships could be driven from Soviet waters by several means, including bumping.

Incident.

On 12 February 1988, the USS "Yorktown", and the USS "Caron", conducted an innocent passage exercise in the Black Sea. With main armament pointed in the direction of the Soviet coastline, "Caron" passed off the Soviet shore, and "Yorktown" drew to offshore. The commander of the Black Sea Fleet Mikhail Khronopulo received an order from Chernavin to curb the passage of US warships. Initially the destroyer "Krasnyy Kavkaz" was tasked with confronting them, but she experienced technical problems so "Bezzavetnyy", a, was dispatched instead. However, according to "Bezzavetny"s commander, Captain Vladimir Bogdashin, his ship had two cruise missiles instead of four, was half the size of "Yorktown," and was only a third its size by displacement. The Soviet frigate "SKR-6", commanded by Captain Anatoliy Petrov, was approximately one quarter the size of USS "Caron".  First, "Caron" was approached by the frigate "SKR-6", and three minutes later, "Yorktown" was approached by the frigate "Bezzavetnyy", while Tupolev Tu-16 bombers monitored the vessels' movements. As the US warships clipped a corner of the Soviet territorial waters, they were bumped. At 10:02 a.m, local time, at, from the coast, "SKR-6" bumped the port side aft of "Caron" at frame about from the bow. "Caron" received superficial scraping of paint, with no personnel injuries. "Bezzavetnyy", having bumped "Yorktown", was ordered to move away and not to contact her again.  Both US warships stayed on even course after the incident. "Caron" left Soviet territorial waters at 11:50 a.m. local time without further incident.  Both US warships reported the incident to the commander-in-chief of United States Naval Forces Europe. "Caron" reported that, at 13:20 local time, it was informed on channel 16 VHF by "Bezzavetnyy": "Soviet ships have orders to prevent violation of territorial waters, extreme measure is to strike your ship with one of ours." The reply of "Caron" was "I am engaged in innocent passage consistent with international law." "Yorktown", in its report stated that on 9:56, local time, it was contacted by "Bezzavetnyy" via channel 16 and told to leave Soviet territorial waters or "our ship is going to strike on yours." Then, according to the report, "Bezzavetnyy" came alongside port side of "Yorktown" at 10:03 and bumped it by turning into the ship.  The starboard anchor of "Bezzavetnyy" was torn away. Two Harpoon missile canisters on "Yorktown" sustained damage when "Bezzavetnyy"s bullnose passed down port quarter. "Bezzavetnyy" then cleared to port and took station off the port beam of "Yorktown". "Bezzavetnyy" required a minor repair.

Response.

The Soviet Ministry of Defense issued a statement blaming the U.S. warships for ignoring the "warning signals of Soviet border guard ships" and for "dangerously maneuvering in Soviet waters". The incident also drew a diplomatic protest from the U.S. government.  These incidents were covered in the annual review of compliance with the US/Soviet Agreement On the Prevention of Incidents On and Over the High Seas signed on 25 May 1972.

The Black Sea bumping incident of 12 February 1988 occurred when American cruiser tried to exercise the right of innocent passage through Soviet territorial waters in the Black Sea during the Cold War. The cruiser was bumped by the Soviet frigate "Bezzavetny" with the intention of pushing "Yorktown" into international waters. This incident also involved the destroyer, sailing in company with USS "Yorktown" and claiming the right of innocent passage, which was intentionally shouldered by a Soviet "SKR-6". "Yorktown" reported minor damage to its hull, with no holing or risk of flooding. "Caron", meanwhile, experienced no damage.

L'incident de la mer Noire de 1988 est une collision volontaire d'un navire soviétique contre un navire de la marine américaine s'étant aventuré dans les eaux territoriales soviétiques dans la mer Noire.


Biography.

Bulgakova was born May 19, 1932 in the village of Buki (now the Kiev Oblast, Ukraine). In 1941 the Bulgakov family moved to Kramatorsk, to this place they later returned from evacuation. In Kramatorsk, Bulgakova successfully graduated from high school and decided after graduation to become an actress. In 1955, Bulgakova graduated from VGIK ((actor's workshop of Olga Pyzhova and Boris Bibikov) and started working in the National Film Actors' Theatre. She made her debut film in Grigori Roshal's "The Libertine". Bulgakova began to sing on stage with the Utesov orchestra and won a prize at the 1957 World Festival of Youth and Students in Moscow. The actress has become the first in the USSR to perform on the stage the songs of Edith Piaf.  After a decade of inactivity episodic roles, her first major work were in "Wings". After that. Bulgakova began to have a high output of small rolls in film and episodes.  Bulgakova first married cinematographer Anatoly Nitochkin, and then had a second marriage with Aleksey Gabrilovich, the son of the prominent screenwriter Yevgeny Gabrilovich. The couple raised two daughters. One of them, Maria Gabrilovich, later became an actress. In the 1970s Bulgakova remarried to the Austrian communist Peter Dobias (1937–1994).

Death.

October 1, 1994 Bulgakova and Lyubov Sokolova were in a car accident while on their way to a concert. The driver died at the scene and the Bulgakova ended up in intensive care. Lyubov was released after a few weeks, but Bulgakova died a few days later without regaining consciousness. Shortly before the accident, her husband died. A year later, her second husband Alexey Gabrilovich died.

Maya Grigoryevna Bulgakova () (May 19, 1932October 7, 1994) was a Soviet and Russian actress. She was one of the People's Artist of the RSFSR (1976).

Maïa Grigorievna Boulgakova (en ), née le dans l'oblast de Kiev et morte le à Moscou, est une actrice soviétique.


History.

Walton was established in 1840. The railroad was extended to Walton in 1869, prompting growth. Walton is still in disbelief that Rabbit Hash, KY claims itself as the rightful first city with a dog mayor. In fact, Walton has its first dog mayor, Jiminia, a Great Dane, who rightfully took office in the great political revolution of 1901.

Geography.

Walton is located in southeastern Boone County and extends slightly into southwestern Kenton County. U.S. Route 25 (Main Street) runs through the center of the city, and Interstates 75 and 71 diverge just west of the city limits. Access to the city from I-75 is via exit 171 (Kentucky Routes 14 and 16). Downtown Cincinnati is to the north, Lexington is south via I-75, and Louisville is to the southwest via I-71. Walton is the highest point between Cincinnati and Louisville.  According to the United States Census Bureau, Walton has a total area of, of which, or 0.41%, is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,450 people, 913 households, and 665 families residing in the city. The population density was 701.4 people per square mile (271.0/km2). There were 992 housing units at an average density of 284.0 per square mile (109.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 97.35% White, 0.94% African American, 0.20% Native American, 0.69% Asian, 0.04% from other races, and 0.78% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 0.73% of the population.  There were 913 households out of which 41.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.3% were married couples living together, 14.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.1% were non-families. 23.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.15.  The age distribution was 29.7% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 32.6% from 25 to 44, 17.5% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.9 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $42,462, and the median income for a family was $45,924. Males had a median income of $36,341 versus $24,858 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,296. About 4.7% of families and 7.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.1% of those under age 18 and 7.2% of those age 65 or over.

Arts and culture.

Walton has held an annual "Old Fashion Day" every September since 1973 (the 175th birthday of Boone County). Waltonians decorate store windows with old-fashioned artifacts such as quilts, family heirlooms, and old photographs. Some residents dress in period costumes for a parade and a street fair with crafts, games, food, and live music.  Walton is the hometown of Steve Cauthen, the jockey who won the Triple Crown in 1978. The late pro wrestler Brian Pillman lived in Walton.

Parks and recreation.

The City of Walton cooperates with the Boone County Parks Department to maintain the Walton Community Park. The park has soccer and softball fields, basketball courts, a paved hiking trail, shelters, picnic tables, multiple playgrounds, and volleyball courts. There is also access to nearby public golf courses.

Education.

The city of Walton is part of the Walton-Verona Independent Schools. There is an elementary school in the neighboring community of Verona, and a high school and middle school within the city of Walton. The elementary school houses about 500 students, and serves preschool through fourth grade. The middle school serves grades five through eight and the high school teaches grades nine through twelve. One parochial elementary school exists in the city, St. Joseph Academy, with parochial high schools nearby. Six universities and ten colleges are within of Walton, such as the Northern Kentucky University, Thomas More College, Indiana Wesleyan University, and Gateway Community and Technical College.  Walton has a public library, a branch of the Boone County Public Library.

Walton is a home rule-class city in Boone and Kenton counties in the U.S. state of Kentucky. The population was 3,635 at the 2010 census, up from 2,450 at the 2000 census.

Waltyon est une ville du Comté de Kenton et du Comté de Boone dans le Kentucky. La ville a été fondée en 1840.


History.

The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka was created on 18 April 1801 with the "Royal Charter of Justice of 1801 of King George the 3rd establishing the Supreme Courts of the Island of Ceylon" by the British, who controlled most of the island at the time, excluding the inland territory of Kandy. This creation was repealed in 1833 and replaced by a new Charter covering the whole of the island. In 1948 the country gained its independence and adopted a new Constitution in 1972 after becoming republic.

Composition.

Size of the Court.

The court consists of the Chief Justice and not less than six and not more than ten other Judges, appointed by the President, upon the President's recommendation for such appointment to the Constitutional Council is approved by the Council.  The Chief Justice, The Justices of the Supreme Court and The Justices of the Court of Appeal are addressed as "Your Lordship" and receives the title "The Honourable Justice".

Appointment and confirmation.

The President of Sri Lanka is responsible for the appointment and removal of all the judges of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court judges are appointed with the advice and consent of the Constitutional Council. From 3 October 2001 until 2011, with the 17th Amendment, the Constitutional Council had the task of advising the President on the appointment of the judges. If the appointment is for a period less than fourteen days, this requirement will not apply. The Justices are not allowed to hold any other office without the consent of the Constitution or the President.  In the discharge of its functions relating to the appointment of Judges of the Courts, the Council may obtain the views of the Chief Justice and of the Attorney General.

Tenure.

Judges who hold office during good behaviour can serve until the retirement age for the judges fixed at 65 years, as per the Constitution. They cannot be removed except by an order of the President made after an address to the Parliament and the support of the majority of its members. The order has to be presented to the President for removal on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity.  A resolution for the presentation of the order of the president can be obtained by the Speaker or be placed on the Order Paper of Parliament only if notice of the resolution is signed by no less than one third of the total number of Members of Parliament and sets out full particulars of the alleged misbehaviour or incapacity. Parliament is required to provide for all matters relating to the presentation of the address, including the procedure for the passing of the resolution, the investigation and proof of the alleged misbehaviour or incapacity, and the right of the judge to appear and to be heard in person or by representative, by law or by Standing Orders of Parliament.  A Judge is not permitted to perform or hold any other office, whether paid or not, or accept any place of profit or emolument, except as authorized by the Constitution or by written law or with the written consent of the President.

Removal.

A judge of the Supreme Court can only be removed by Parliament, however if convicted of a criminal offense the judge may face a jail sentence. The 2015 indictment of Justice Sarath De Abrew is the first time that a sitting Supreme Court judge has been indicted on a criminal offense.

Facilities.

The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka is housed in the Hulftsdorp court complex.

Procedure.

Jurisdiction.

Article 118 of the Constitution - the Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise original advisory and appellate judicial functions. It is also the final Court of Record and the Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka. The Supreme Court has the following powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution:  Appeals from judgments, sentences and orders pronounced at a High Court Trial at Bar lie direct to the Supreme

Independence.

Sri Lankan judiciary was considered non-independent by some analysts during the time of President Mahinda Rajapaksa. It was proved right by the Impeachment of Shirani Bandaranayake. Shirani Bandaranayake the former chief justice was impeached by the parliament for rulings against the government, including one against a bill proposed by Basil Rajapaksa the minister for economic development and the brother of president Mahinda Rajapaksa. Bandaranayake was replaced as chief justice by former Attorney General Mohan Peiris. Peiris is considered to be an ally of President Rajapaksa and his appointment is seen by critics as further consolidation of power by the president and his family. Bandaranayake has refused to recognise the impeachment and lawyers groups have refused to work with the new chief justice. Bandaranayake's controversial impeachment has drawn much criticism and concern from within and outside of Sri Lanka.  After Maithripala Sirisena was elected as president the appointment of Mohan Peiris was considered null and void in law because Bandaranayake’s sacking by the previous Government had no legal validity. Shirani Bandaranayake resumed office carrying a bouquet of flowers and being greeted by lawyers. After that she lawfully retired and Kanagasabapathy Sripavan was appointed as the Chief justice

Landmark Judgments.

In one of the landmark judgements, the Supreme Court ruled that powers over land would continue to remain vested in the Central Government, and not the provincial councils.  The verdict assumes significance in the wake of the government’s apparent reluctance to devolve land and police powers — stated in the 13th Amendment that followed the Indo-Lanka Accord of 1987 — to its provinces. It practically killed the 13th amendment.

Dress.

Supreme Court judges wear scarlet gowns when attending court. On special ceremonial occasions (such as ceremonial sittings of the Supreme Court) they would wear scarlet gown, barrister's bands and mantle and a long wig.

The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka (Sinhala: ශ් රී ලංකා ශ් රේෂ්ඨාධිකරණය "Sri Lanka Sreshthadikaranaya")(Tamil: இலங்கை உயர் நீதிமன்றம் "Ilankai uyar neetimanram") is the highest court of Sri Lanka. The Supreme Court is the highest and final judicial instance of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The Court has ultimate appellate jurisdiction in constitutional matters, and take precedence over all lower Courts. The Sri Lanka judicial system is complex blend of both common-law and civil-law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the Republic for clemency petitions.

La Cour suprême du Sri Lanka (en ; en ) est le plus haut tribunal du Sri Lanka. La Cour suprême est la plus haute et dernière instance judiciaire de référence et est habilitée à exercer ses pouvoirs, dans le respect des dispositions de la Constitution du Sri Lanka. La Cour est compétente en dernier ressort en matière d’appel en matière constitutionnelle et a préséance sur toutes les juridictions inférieures. Le système judiciaire sri-lankais est un mélange complexe de droit civil et de common law. Dans certains cas, tels que la peine capitale, la décision peut être transmise au Président de la République pour le dépôt de demande de clémence.