Origin and path.

The Periyar has a total length of approximately and a catchment area of, of which is in Kerala and is in Tamil Nadu.

Sources.

The source of the Periyar lies high in the Western Ghats. It is variously claimed to be located in Kerala and in the neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu. The state of Kerala has asserted during the hearings on the Mullaperiyar issue in the Supreme Court of India that the Periyar originates in Kerala, flows entirely through Kerala and joins the sea in the Kerala. This has also been admitted by the state of Tamil Nadu in the court. The source of the river lies in the remote forests of the Periyar Tiger Reserve. Various sources indicate the origin of the river to be Chokkampatti Mala, a peak on the southern boundary of the Periyar Tiger Reserve.  There are alternate claims for a Tamil Nadu origin, indicating that the Periyar originates in the Sivagiri peaks of Sundaramala, Tamil Nadu. However, the Supreme Court of India in its judgement on the Mullaperiyar issue in 2014, made it clear that Tamil Nadu is not a riparian state of the river Periyar but the river itself is an inter-State river.

Course.

In its early course, the river flows in a narrow north sloping valley starting from the Chokkampatti hills and extending north about, with a number of sharp lateral ridges running down to it from east and west. After flowing from its origin and on reaching Mount Plateau at its eastern end, it is joined by the west-flowing Mullayar—an important tributary—at Mullakudy. During this journey the Periyar traverses through the Periyar Tiger Reserve, flowing across or forming the boundaries between various sections of the reserve. Going downstream, it defines a part of the border between Periyar section of the reserve in the east and Sundaramala section in the west and then the borders between Moolavaigai and Thannikudy sections in the east and Ummikuppan, Mlappara and Aruvioda sections in the west before reaching the Periyar Lake.  The Mullaperiyar dam is constructed at the confluence of the Periyar and Mullayar to create the Periyar Thekkady lake and reservoir, as well as the Periyar National Park. The area belonging to Tamil Nadu in the Periyar basin is located far down the river from the Mullaperiyar Dam site. This area is drained by the tributary Nirar, which is diverted to Tamil Nadu as a part of inter-state Parambikulam-Aliyar Project (PAP) agreement.  From Periyar Thekkady lake and reservoir, some water is diverted eastwards to Tamil Nadu via a tunnel. The diverted water, after power generation, is let into the Suruliar river (a tributary of the Vaigai River) thereby resulting in an inter-basin transfer of water. Downstream of the Mullaperiyar dam, the Periyar continues to flow northwestward for, exiting the Periyar Tiger Reserve and passing through Vandiperiyar, Elappara and Ayyappancoil to the Idukki reservoir formed by the Idukki, Cheruthoni and Kulamavu dams. The Idukki dam is constructed across the Periyar river on the famous Idukki gorge formed by the Kuravan and Kurathi hills.  The main Periyar below the Idukki reservoir flows due north parallel to the western edge of the Idukki plateau and is joined by the Perinjakutty from the east and Muthirapuzha from the north. After the confluence with Muthirapuzha, the river flows northwestwards and enters Ernakulam district at Neriamangalam. It is joined by its major tributary, the Idamalayar, upstream of the Bhoothathankettu barrage. After receiving the waters of the Idamalayar river, the Periyar flows west along the midlands of Ernakulam district.  At Aluva, the river bifurcates into the Marthandavarma and the Mangalapuzha branches. The Mangalapuzha branch joins Chalakudy River and empties into the Lakshadweep Sea at Munambam, and the Marthandavarma branch flows southwards, again dividing into two near Kunjunnikkara island, going through the Udhyogamandal area and finally draining into the Cochin backwater system (part of Vembanad Lake) at Varappuzha. The Vembanad backwaters are connected to the Lakshadweep Sea at Cochin and Kodungallur.

Tributaries.

Its major tributaries are:  Minor tributaries are: Muthayar, Perunthuraiar, Chinnar, Cheruthony, Kattappanayar  Although the Chalakudy river in strict geological sense is a tributary of the Periyar, for all practical purposes it is treated as a separate river by Government and other agencies. Chalakudy river itself has a catchment area of, with in Kerala and in Tamil Nadu.

Basin.

The Periyar basin spreads over an area of, most of it in central Kerala. It lies between latitudes 9°15’30"N and 10°21’00"N and longitudes 76°08’38"E and 77°24’32"E. The river drains parts of Idukki, Ernakulam and Thrissur districts in Kerala and Coimbatore district in Tamil Nadu. The basin has an inverted "L" shape with a maximum width at the intersection. The length-width ratio is 6:1. Most of the streams flow in deep gorges with steep valleys along the highlands of the basin. Coming out of the hills, the Periyar flows west and its basin occupies the northern part of Ernakulam district, covering the region from Neriamangalam through Aluva to Varapuzha and Munambam.  The Periyar is an 8th order stream with considerable development of tributary network. The average drainage density of the basin is 2.46 km/ km with a total number of first order streams of 15,773. The total stream length inclusive of all orders in the basin is. The river originates from the high hills of the Western Ghats and the influence of tectonism can be evidenced from the stream pattern and presence of structural valleys. Forests occupy nearly (28%) of the basin area whereas cardamom and settlement with mixed tree crops occupy an area of and respectively. The basin is ecologically sensitive. Nearly 80% of the total area situated in the high ranges are susceptible to erosion and mass movements.  Anamudi, at the highest peak in South India, is the highest point in the basin.

Cardamom Hills.

The upper part of the Periyar basin extends across the Cardamom Hills. In the north, these hills extend up to the high Munnar saddle running east to Chokkanad Mala and further on to Kolukkumala on the eastern edge of the Ghats. In the south, the hills reach up to the westerly spur at Chokkampatti Mala. This section of the basin is divided into three parts.

Source - Southern Cardamom Hills.

The southernmost part of the Cardamom Hills i.e. the source of Periyar River is a narrow valley extending south of Kumily. This is the southern extreme of the Periyar basin. It is less than wide and is about long. The upper catchments of Periyar extend as a wedge deep into the northeastern corner of the neighboring Pandalam Hills. This section of the Cardamom Hills extends deep into but is clearly separated from the Pandalam Hills. The main Western Ghats watershed line forming the eastern border of the Cardamom Hills is highest to the southeast of the Kumily Gap. Here the High Wavies branch off towards north-west into Tamil Nadu, with some peaks reaching elevations of over along the border between Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Further south, the ridge along the watershed line is heavily forested. This part of the Cardamom Hills is called the Sivagiri Range and it extends south up to Chokkampatti Mala which is at the junction of Pamba and Periyar River basins. The southern boundary of the Cardamom Hills runs along a westerly spur hill starting from the Chokkampatti Mala which initially runs north and then turns northwest almost parallel to the Sivagiri Range. This ridge separates the basin of Pamba from Periyar. From its source near Chokkampatti Mala initially Periyar flows north between these two heavily forested ridges. The valley floor is at an elevation of and the ridges on either side often reach. This valley of Periyar at its source and the valley of Kunthi River in the Silent Valley are the only two forested higher valleys in the Western Ghats left intact even now. The Periyar Tiger Reserve is mostly within this southernmost part of the Cardamom Hills.

Cardamom Hills plateau.

A poorly defined ridge that runs from near Chakkupallam (north of Kumily) on the border between Kerala and Tamil Nadu extending southwest to near Vallakkadavu segregates the upper reaches of Periyar from the rest of the Cardamom Hills. Immediately downstream of Mullaperiyar dam, Periyar cuts through this ridge. North of this ridge, the Cardamom Hills extend up to the high Munnar saddle. Here, east of the river channel, the undulating plateau rises up to the watershed line of the Western Ghats. This section drains into the Periyar through the Perinjankutty Ar and the drainage channel is essentially from south-east to north-west. This portion of the Cardamom Hills is on an average high. The northern edge of the Cardamom Hills bordering the High Range Plateau on the other hand slopes steeply to the south and is drained by Panniyar. The Panniyar joins the Muthirapuzha, which drains the High Range Plateau section of the Periyar Basin in the north. The crestline of the Cardamom Hills in this section along the border with Theni and Kambam, in comparison with the rest of the main watershed line of the Cardamom Hills and the High Ranges, is low, reaching up to only about. East of Chakkupallom, a small part of the adjacent Vaigai basin protrudes from Tamil Nadu into Kerala in this section. This portion of the Periyar basin is drier than all other west sloping parts of the Western Ghats. It has no significant extent of natural forests remaining anywhere. At the turn of the 20th century, it was fully covered by evergreen forests.

Idukki Sub-plateau.

The portion west of the main Periyar channel which flows from south to north here, is the true Idukki sub-plateau. This is the lowest part of the Cardamom Hills sloping towards the north in which the Idukki reservoir is located. It is separated from the rest of the Cardamom Hills by the deep channel of the Periyar River. The sub-plateau extends north from near Ayyappankoil to near Neriamangalam. Its western border is the clearly demarcated scarp face of the Ghats descending to the plains of Thodupuzha. This high western crestline separates the Periyar catchment from the Manimala, Meenachil and Moovattupuzha drainage basins. It ends in the north along the channel of Periyar from Neriamangalam to Panamkutty. The catchment of Kattappana Ar located beyond the southeastern corner of the Idukki reservoir also falls in this portion. A southwest to northeast ridge called the Chekuthan Mala separates the Idukki Sub-plateau from the Peermade Plateau as well as the main mass of Cardamom Hills. Its eastern boundary is a northwest to southeast ridge separating the Idukki reservoir from the Kallar/Perinjankutty tributary of Periyar which drains the main Cardamom Hills. The Idukki Subplateau is at an average elevation of. This area was heavily forested till the 1950s but now only three small fragments of forest vegetation alone remain. The largest is within the Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary. South of Vagamon, the tributaries of Meenachil, Manimala and Pamba have eroded away extensive areas of the Periyar basin between Ayyappankovil and Vallakkadavu. The Periyar only has a narrow strip of the Cardamom Hill tableland to flow northward here.

High Range Plateau.

The High Range Plateau is located around Munnar and Devikulam. It has an average elevation of about and drains to the south through Muthirapuzha into Periyar. The high Rajamala-Anamudi-Umayamala part of the main Anamalai ridge forms its northern boundary. A spur ridge starting from the main Anamalai ridge, going south immediately to the west of Munnar and continuing on to Parvathi Mala forms the western boundary of the High Range Plateau. This ridge separates the High Ranges from the Lower Periyar Valleys further to the west. The eastern edge of the High Range plateau runs north from Kolukkumala, at the junction of the High Range Plateau with the Cardamom Hills, and continues onto the Top Station along the border between Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The High Range portion is essentially the south and west draining slopes of the main Anamalai ridge with the Cardamom Hills located to its south. All the northern slopes of the main Anamalai ridge falling within Kerala drain into Idamalayar and Pooyamkutty Ar, both tributaries of Periyar.  The High Range Plateau has been almost totally transformed by tea plantations and hydroelectric dams. The original forest was mostly of the Shola-Grassland type. From the biodiversity value, this unit is of special importance because of its specialized high altitude flora and fauna.

Lower Periyar Valleys.

The lower valleys of Idamalayar and Pooyamkutty Ar constitute the Lower Periyar Valleys. The exceedingly violent impact of very heavy rainfall on a likely geologically unstable part of the Western Ghats where there is extensive faulting has caused accelerated weathering and erosion, carving out a complex of deep valleys on the western face of the High Range Plateau. This topographically complex segment of the Western Ghats extends from near Neriamangalam in the southwest to Panamkutty in the southeast along the Periyar River and continues north up to the watershed divide between the Periyar and the Chalakudy Basins. Its eastern border is the main Anamalai ridge. This section of western slope of the Western Ghats is deeply dissected and has geographical as well as ecological characteristics found nowhere in the Western Ghats. To the south of this section is the Idukki sub-plateau and to the southeast, the Cardamom Hills. The western edge of Panniyar and Muthirapuzha Basins form the eastern border of this section. The Parvathimudi-Umayamala ridge forms the northeastern corner of the Lower Periyar Valleys.  Towards north, the Lower Periyar Valleys and the Periyar Basin extend up to the Idamala gorge cut by Periyar’s northernmost tributary – Idamalayar. The basin is bounded in the north by the ridge separating Sholayar from the Idamala River. This ridge is a spur hill extending from near Valaparai in Tamil Nadu, projecting far west into Kerala. The Idamala gorge separates the Sholayar forests in the Nelliyampathies towards the north from the southern Anamudi Reserved Forest and High Range Plateau. The area belonging to Tamil Nadu in the Periyar basin is situated here. This area forms the north-eastern corner of the Periyar basin. It is drained by the tributary Nirar, which runs in a South Westerly Direction and falls into Idamalayar. Within this section there are a series of deep west-sloping valleys where the valley floors are often at elevations less than. Separating these valleys are a jumble of steep hills and flat topped plateaux with scarp faces rearing up to elevations of around. The Idamala and Pooyamkutty rivers drain most of this section while its southern edge drains into the main Periyar. This tract is almost entirely forested and the forests extend northwest between Periyar and Chalakudy rivers along the plains almost up to Kalady.

Periyar Midlands and Lowlands.

To the west of the Lower Periyar Valleys are the midlands, which are characterized by undulating topography with small hills separated by valleys. The general gradient is towards the west here. The lowlands occur as a narrow belt almost parallel to the present shoreline. The landforms of this section are broad valleys, submerged lands with swamps and marshes and subdued sand dunes. Many parts of the area are directly connected to the backwaters with a network of canals. The river bifurcates near Aluva into two major distributaries; one continues to flow through Desam as Mangalappuzha and finally drains into the Lakshadweep Sea. The Chalakudy river also joins to this branch of the Periyar south-east of Kodungalloor which expands to its maximum width at Munambam. The Marthandavarma branch flows southwards, again dividing into two near Kunjunnikkara Island, and finally drains into the Vembanad backwaters at Varapuzha. The most industrialized zone of Periyar lies in this part of the basin between Angamaly and Cochin, with over 50 large and medium scale industries. The Edayar branch of Periyar caters to the needs of these industries.

Dams.

Hydro-electric projects.

The Idukki Dam is the largest hydro-electric project in Kerala and lies on the Periyar. It is the biggest dam of its kind (a concrete, double curvature parabolic, thin arc dam) in Asia and the second-biggest in the world. Its generators have a power output of 780 MW (), and generate electricity through the underground facility at Moolamattam, built by an India-Canada joint venture. Power generation at Idukki is minimal during the monsoon. The dam also permits storage of water for the dry summer period when many other reservoirs in the area are low. Since the commissioning of the Idukki project in 1976, tail-race water (between 19.83-78.5 m/s) has been diverted from the Idukki reservoir through the Moolamattom power station into the Thodupuzha tributary of the Muvattupuzha river.  There are other hydro-electric generation facilities on the river at Pallivasal, Chenkulam, Panniyar, Neriyamangalam and Lower Periyar.

Reservoirs.

The important reservoirs in the Periyar basin within Kerala are Bhoothathankettu, Idamalayar, Lower Periyar, Mattupetty, Anayirangal, Kundala, Ponmudi, Kallarkutti, Idukki (formed by construction of three dams—Idukki, Cheruthoni and Kulamavu), Sengulam, Kallar, Erattayar and Mullaperiyar. The dams falling within Tamil Nadu in the Periyar basin are the Upper Nirar Weir and the Lower Nirar Dam. These dams help divert water from the Nirar tributary of Periyar to the adjacent Sholayar basin.

Irrigation.

The Periyar valley Irrigation project in Ernakulam district envisages the utilization of the tail race discharge from the completed Hydel scheme in the Muthirapuzha tributary of river Periyar together with the controlled release from Ennackal dam constructed by Kerala State Electricity Board under Hydel scheme across the Idamalayar tributary and the dependable run off from the uncontrolled catchment of Periyar river, for irrigating an area of of land lying on the left bank of Periyar river through a network of canal system and controlling devices. The scheme consists of the Periyar Barrage at Bhoothathankettu with a catchment area of along with a network of canals.  Apart from irrigation on left bank of Periyar, the project also enables a supply of minimum quantity of water through the river to check the intrusion of salinity at lower reaches of the river as well as to meet the requirements of many lift irrigation schemes of river Periyar. Supply of water for drinking and industrial purposes are met by a portion of storage water by the barrage of Bhoothathankettu.

Inter-basin transfer of water.

Mullaperiyar dam was one of the earliest instances of inter-basin transfers in the peninsular India. While it met the demand for water on one hand, it led to the deterioration of water quality downstream of the river. Salinity intrusion and pollution dispersion problems arose in the lower reaches of the Periyar due to non-availability of sufficient quantity of water for flushing. Another inter-basin transfer from the Periyar to the Muvattupuzha river due to the Idukki project has further adversely affected the downstream flow in the Periyar river.  The Parambikulam Aliyar Project (PAP) agreement was conceived to harness and share the waters in the inter-State rivers in Bharathappuzha, Chalakkudypuzha and Periyar basins. Nirar and Anamalayar, tributaries of Periyar are covered under this agreement. Water from these rivers are transferred to the adjacent Sholayar basin as part of the PAP agreement.  Due to all the diversions in its basin, the Periyar has lost 22 per cent of its average flow.

Ecological significance.

South of the Mullaperiyar reservoir, at the source of Periyar River, there is an unbroken stretch of about of sheltered, unmodified rainforests within the Periyar Tiger Reserve. These rainforests extend further west into the adjacent Pamba basin within the Gudarakal Forest Range and continue south beyond the Gudarakal Range into the forests of the Achankovil Division. This entire stretch contains about of undisturbed wet evergreen forests typical of the Western Ghats. The forests on the upper reaches of Periyar are mostly inaccessible and is one of the least disturbed evergreen forests left in the Western Ghats.  The Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR) is also one of the most ecologically diverse regions in India. The flora of the reserve is very rich and diverse. Out of the estimated 3,800 species of angiosperms of Kerala, 1,966 have been reported from within the reserve. Nowhere in the subcontinent, has such a large number of taxa been reported from an area comparable to that of the PTR. Apart from this, the reserve also contains an estimated 323 species of birds, 38 species of fish and 44 species of reptiles.  The Periyar plateau forms a part of the Project Elephant Reserve 10, which also includes the Agasthyamalai-Mahendragiri hills. The landscape on the Periyar Plateau portion of Elephant Reserve 10 maintains the most intact elephant range in Southern India. This area is believed to harbour about 2,000 elephants and is one of the potential landscapes for the long-term conservation of the species. This population is genetically more diverse and distinct from the much larger elephant population further north in the Ghats. This region is also known for its rich biodiversity. On the other hand, the landscape has also witnessed a variety of developmental activities including commercial plantations, hydroelectric and irrigation projects and other forms of infrastructural development that impede the movement of elephants.  Thattekad Bird Sanctuary, one of the important bird sanctuaries of India, is an evergreen low-land forest located between the branches of Periyar River. It has a rich and varied birdlife. Several species of birds, both forest birds as well as the water birds visit the sanctuary. Dr. Salim Ali, India's greatest ornithologist, once described this tiny, bird sanctuary, located about north-east of Kochi, as "The richest bird habitat in peninsular India".  Periyar is one of the six major rivers flowing into the Vembanad lake. Vembanad Kol Wetland was included in the list of wetlands of international importance, as defined by the Ramsar Convention for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. It is home to more than 20,000 waterfowls—the third largest such population in India.

Religious and cultural significance.

There are several places of religious significance along the banks of the Periyar. The famous Aluva Sivarathri festival is celebrated on the banks of the Periyar River in Aluva. The temple festival is conducted every year on Sivarathri day of the Kumbham month of Malayalam calendar. The Siva temple on the sand bank of Periyar River throngs with devotees every year on Mahasivarathri day.  Kalady is a town located on the banks of the Periyar river. It is the birthplace of Sri Adi Shankara, the Hindu philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta. Kalady started featuring in the spiritual map of India only after its rediscovery in the late 19th century by the then Shankaracharya of Sringeri and the subsequent consecration of a temple for Sri Adi Shankara in 1910.  Located from Kochi, the Malayatoor Church is situated atop the high Malayatoor Hill. The church is dedicated to St. Thomas, who is believed to have prayed at this shrine. One of the most important Christian pilgrim centres in Kerala, this holy shrine attracts devotees in very large numbers not only from Kerala but also from the neighbouring states. This famous church is situated at Kurisumudi, a verdant hill in the Western Ghats girdled partially by the Periyar (river). The Church has a life-size statue of St. Thomas and the imprint of the feet of the Apostle on a rock. This shrine has now been accorded an international pilgrimage station.  The town of Kodungallur lying close to the Periyar river is famous for the Cheraman Juma Masjid. The tradition holds that the mosque, built in 629 AD by Mālik bin Dīnār, is the oldest mosque in India and the second oldest mosque in the world to offer Jumu'ah prayers. Constructed during the lifetime of Muhammad, the bodies of some of his original followers are said to be buried there. Unlike other mosques in the region that face westwards this mosque faces east.

Environmental issues.

Pollution.

The lower reaches of the Periyar are heavily polluted. Industries in the Eloor industrial zone discharge waste into the river. Greenpeace India describes the lower Periyar as "a cesspool of toxins, which have alarming levels of deadly poisons like DDT, endosulfan, hexa and trivalent chromium, lead, cyanide, BHC". Several studies have pointed out that the riverbed has deposits of heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury, chromium, nickel, cobalt and zinc and the ecosystem of the river has many dead zones. Some of the major recommendations are ensuring zero effluent discharge from the industrial units in the Eloor-Edayar stretch and zero emission from companies. Pollution of the river and surrounding wetlands has almost wiped out traditional occupations, including fishing and farming.

Illegal sand mining.

Illegal sand mining from the Periyar is another major environmental issue. Studies have pointed out that the quantity of sand being mined from the Periyar is at least 30 times the actual quantity that can be taken out without causing damage to the river’s environmental system. In the Periyar river basin, land sand mining is widespread in the plateau region in the highlands. Mining of sands from these areas impose severe environmental problems to the river basin environment.

Environmental protection efforts.

Efforts have been made to prevent soil erosion on the banks of river periyar at Aluva Sivarathri manappuram (sand bank) through afforestation programs headed by renowned environmentalist, Prof. S. Sitaraman, since 1992. The Aluva Environmental Protection Forum started by Sitaraman and others have played a pivotal role in the prevention of illegal sand mining and water pollution in the lower reaches of the river.

Dispute.

The control and safety of the Mullaperiyar dam on the river and the validity and fairness of the corresponding lease agreement have been points of dispute between Kerala and Tamil Nadu states. Intertwined with this, there is a dispute as to whether the Periyar should be classified as an inter-state river or not. Kerala states that the Periyar is an intrastate river since no part of it flows through Tamil Nadu. The river originates in Kerala, flows entirely through Kerala and joins the Arabian Sea in the Kerala. Although these facts have been admitted by Tamil Nadu, it counters that the Periyar should be considered an inter-state river since a part of the catchment of the river lies in Tamil Nadu. It has also cited a 1950 report signed by the then Kerala state irrigation minister V R Krishna Iyer recording that Periyar is an inter-state river since some of its drainage area lay in Madras state. Essentially, the dispute over the status of the river comes down to the definition of an inter-state river, with Kerala supporting the definition to be according to the course of the river, while Tamil Nadu favouring the definition to be according to the catchment area of the river.  The Supreme Court of India, in its verdict on 7 May 2014, stated that although the Periyar rises in and traverses only in the territory of Kerala before entering into Arabian sea, no part of the land in Tamil Nadu abuts river Periyar and that Tamil Nadu is not a riparian state of the Periyar river, the fact that a small part of the Periyar river basin lies in Tamil Nadu is enough to make the river interstate in nature.

Periyar (meaning: "big river") is the longest river and the river with the largest discharge potential in the Indian state of Kerala. It is one of the few perennial rivers in the region and provides drinking water for several major towns. The Periyar is of utmost significance to the economy of Kerala. It generates a significant proportion of Kerala's electrical power via the Idukki Dam and flows along a region of industrial and commercial activity. The river also provides water for irrigation and domestic use throughout its course besides supporting a rich fishery. Due to these reasons, the river has been named the "Lifeline of Kerala". Kochi city, in the vicinity of the river mouth draws its water supply from Aluva, an upstream site sufficiently free of seawater intrusion. Twenty five percent of Kerala's industries are along the banks of river Periyar. These are mostly crowded within a stretch of in the Eloor-Edayar region (Udhyogamandal), about north of Kochi harbor.

La Periyar ( en malayalam et en tamoul, "Grande rivière") est un fleuve du sud de l'Inde coulant vers l'ouest, long de.


Creation and design.

Robert Garcia was based on the actors Steven Seagal and Andy Garcia. SNK staff members Youichiro Soeda said that Ryo and Robert's debut was unique to other games based on the company because it did not focus on fighting tournaments but instead of the duo's quest to save Yuri Sakazaki. Artist Shinkiro has expressed difficulties in designing Robert due how he does not understand how rich people behave. In contrast, he had no problem with Ryo. In the making of "The King of Fighters" Robert was made "the slimmest of them all" in comparison to his original design. His Osaka accent was given to fit "Psycho Soldier" Sie Kensou and give both of them the traits of comedians. Due to fears of Robert's outfit feeling dated, SNK revised him for "The King of Fighters XIV" to make him stand out more by giving a new redesign based on an unspecified American actor.  In the first "Art of Fighting" Robert sports a black T-shirt with short sleeves, a brown vest and a gold medallion around the neck. He also wears white pants, white and black shoes and black gloves. He has the same outfit in the following "Art of Fighting" but without sleeves in his T-shirt. This costume is also featured in the first two "King of Fighters" as well as "The King of Fighters XII" and XIII.  In the third "Art of Fighting" game, Robert is bare-chested under a light blue jacket and does not wear his medallion. He also sports white gloves and brown shoes, but keeps having his white pants. He has the same appearance from "The King of Fighters '96" to "The King of Fighters '98".  From "The King of Fighters '99" to "The King of Fighters 2002", Robert wears a similar outfit to the one from the first two Art of Fighting games but with long sleeves and white gloves and shoes. His "The King of Fighters 2003" outfit is similar to his "Art of Fighting 3" clothes but with white sleeves. In "NeoGeo Battle Coliseum" and the PlayStation 2 version from "The King of Fighters XI", Robert appears as an older version from himself wearing a similar outfit from "Art of Fighting 3". The jacket is purple, his gloves are black and his shoes are brown.  There is an Alternate Striker version of Robert in "The King of Fighters 2000" called "Another Robert". This Robert wears a white male Kyokugen Karate gi with a blue shirt underneath. His clothing now parodies Ryo Sakazaki while his looks and playstyle parody "Street Fighter Alpha"'s Dan Hibiki, right down to his Chouhatsu no Ken that parodies the Chouhatsu Densetsu.

Appearances.

In video games.

In "Art of Fighting", Yuri is kidnapped by the criminal Mr. Big. As such, both Ryo Sakazaki and Robert go to Southtown to interrogate fighters until finding Mr. Big. After defeating Mr. Big, Ryo and Robert face an assassin named an assassin purportedly held Yuri. Ryo nearly finishes him off, but Yuri sneaks in and tells Ryo not to kill him since Mr. Karate is their father, Takuma. The second "Art of Fighting" game features Robert, Ryo, Takuma and a now fighter Yuri entering into the first King of Fighters tournament held by Geese Howard, the main responsible for the kidnap. In "Art of Fighting 3", Robert visits Central America to help Freya Lawrence, a childhood friend, save her brother Wyler, whose demonic power made him go berserk. In his ending, Robert stops Wyler and goes back to Italy. However, before entering into the plane, Yuri accompanies him.  In "The King of Fighters" series, Takuma, Ryo, and Robert are part of the Art of Fighting Team, but in some games they form different allies. With the arrival of "The King of Fighters '99" and its teams of four, Takuma returns to the Art of Fighting team. Though the Garcia Foundation no longer faced liquidation as it did in "The King of Fighters 2001", it needed significant help to rebuild its prior fortunes, causing Robert to be absent in "The King of Fighters XI". Nevertheless, he is present in the Art of Fighting Team where he fails to stage a date between Ryo and King. He appears in the spin-off "The King of Fighters Kyo", in which he helps the main character Kyo Kusanagi into finding his girlfriend Yuki. Alongside an aged Ryo Sakazaki from "Buriki One", an aged Robert appears in "NeoGeo Battle Coliseum" with moves largely from "The King of Fighters 2000" and "The King of Fighters 2003". In his ending, it is revealed that Robert wishes to stay away from his family business and still work as part of teaching the Kyokugen Ryu. He appears in this form as a hidden character in the PlayStation 2 version of "The King of Fighters XI". He returns in "The King of Fighters XII" onwards as part of the Art of Fighting Team.  In "The King of Fighters" game without storylines "The King of Fighters 2002" and "The King of Fighters Neowave" the Art of Fighting Team remains as in '94, while in "The King of Fighters '98" and "The King of Fighters 2002: Unlimited Match", it appears with Yuri taking Takuma's place.  Both of these latest games also feature an "EX" version of Robert with his moves from the "Art of Fighting" series as a playable character. He is also present in mobile phone games "Metal Slug Defense","The King of Fighters '98 Unlimited Match Online" and "Kimi wa Hero". The dating sim "Days of Memories" also features him. Although he is not playable in "", Robert is often mentioned by other characters and makes a cameo in the endings from Takuma and Ryo. Another cameo of him is in Yuri's ending from "". He is also present in as well as the otome game "King of Fighters for Girls".

In other media.

Besides the games from SNK, Robert also appears in the "Art of Fighting" anime film from 1993. The plot from film is loosely based on the first "Art of Fighting" game, with Robert and Ryo searching for Yuri, who has been kidnapped by Mr. Big. However, in the film Mr. Big wants to obtain a diamond held by Ryo and Robert He is voiced by Masanori Ikeda in the Japanese version of film, and by Nick Sullivan in the English adaptation. Two manga based on the "Art of Fighting" games also follow Robert's role in the games. Robert is featured in the manhua adaptations from "The King of Fighters" series, which tell how he participates in the fighting tournaments.

Reception.

Robert has been well received by gamers and has appeared in popularity polls from journals and websites. In "Gamest"'s 1997 Heroes Collection, Robert was voted as the staff's 46th favorite character. He shared the spot with seven other characters, including "Samurai Shodown" character, Hattori Hanzo, and "Darkstalkers" character, Demitri Maximoff. In the January 30, 1995 issue of "Gamest" magazine in Japan, Robert ranked at No. 36 (tied with Iceman from "") in list of Top 50 Characters of 1994.  Videogame publications have commented on Robert's character, adding praise and criticism. Xataka felt that Robert and Ryo shared one of the most unique stories in fighting games as the first "Art of Fighting" featured them in a quest to save Yuri rather than participating in a fighting game. The same site noted that Robert's origins remained as a mystery to the fanbase; Upon his introduction to "The King of Fighter '94" as a member of Team Mexico, the fans believed Robert to be Mexican. However, SNK would later reveal he was Italian stopping this speculation. Mexican company Evoga originally thought Robert was Mexican due to the team being called Mexico in "The King of Fighters '94" yet "Art of Fighting 3" revealed he was Italian much to their comical response. David Simpson from AceGamez noted Robert to be very similar to the "Street Fighter" main characters due to his practice in karate and his relation with Ryo Sakazaki as both are best friends and rivals. Videogamer.com writer Wesley Yin-Poole labeled Robert and Ryo as "two double-hard bastards" and commented they had the best designs from the "Art of Fighting" series in comparison to the other characters who had "wicked" appearances. Spanner Spencer from Eurogamer added that Robert had the best appearance from all the characters of the "Art of Fighting" series but labelled him as a "greasy yuppie". Juan E. Hernandez from IGN also compared both Robert and Ryo to "Street Fighter" as well "Dragon Ball" characters based on their type of techniques.  Gaming Age writer Jeff Keely criticized Robert's redesign in "The King of Fighters '99" as his movesets' input were highly changed, something that might bother his players. In a review from "The King of Fighters XI", Eurogamer writer Luke Albiger noted Robert's addition to the game as hidden character is a good way to compensate the several recurring who were absent. However, Kurt Kalata from Armchairempire.com criticized that unlocking Robert in that game was "a pain" due to the difficult challenges the players has to do to unlock him. Greg Kasavin from GameSpot listed his "Haohshokohken" move from "Art of Fighting" as one of the most influential fireball moves in fighting games' history. Den of Geek listed him as the 54th with the site comparing him to "Street Fighter" character Ken Masters based on their similar personalities but found that he did have notable actions in SNK's games outside the third "Art of Fighting" game which the writer felt few fans cared. Despite criticizing the graphics of "The King of Fighters XIV", Juan Garcia from IGN praised the redesigns of both Robert and Kyo Kusanagi. Den of Geek also liked the new design of Robert, comparing him comic book hero Tony Stark. Robert has also been described as praised "lavish style is sure to attract many players". Niche Gamer noted that while Robert performs the same fighting style as Yuri and Ryo, each present their own variety of Kyokugen Ryu. Den of Geek noted that the trio and the team in general has been characterized as more comical characters in "The King of Fighters" than in "Art of Fighting" though in "XI" they accidentally created their own rival.  Outside the video games, Robert has been analyzed by his role in the "Art of Fighting" original video animation. Akemi's Anime World found the character a poser and found his lack of danger the special "cheesy". AnimeOnDVD.com enjoyed the contrast between Ryo and Robert as both "are like night and day in some respects." The character of Dan Hibiki from the "Street Fighter Alpha" series is deemed as a parody of Ryo due to his similarities with Ryu and Ken. However, his design is more similar to Robert's to the point that in "SVC Chaos", characters often confuse Dan with Robert.

Robert appeared in the film adaptation of "Art of Fighting", and the manhua from "The King of Fighters". He received mixed critics from video games publication, which praised his design, but some also noted him similar to the "Street Fighter" main characters. He has also been well received by gamers, appearing in several popularity polls developed by journals and websites.

Robert est le fils d'une famille espagnole qui semble assez riche et le meilleur ami de Ryo. Les héros s'allient pour sauver Yuri qui est enlevé par Mr. Big. Ce dernier envoie un homme se faisant appeler "Mr. Karate" les combattre, il échoue et Ryo et Robert finissent par sauver Yuri. Robert et Yuri ont un faible l'un pour l'autre, leur relation est visible dans plusieurs jeux.


Relations entre l'Iran et le Royaume-Uni

History of Anglo–Iranian relations.

Safavid era.

In the year 1553, King Edward VI of England hired the wealthy merchant and explorer, Sebastian Cabot to develop a semi-profitable trading company. He was given two ships that sailed towards the port city of Arkhangelsk. The captain of one of those ships was Cpt. Richard Chancellor, who successfully reached the northern city. From there, Sebastian Cabot and his envoy traveled towards the Russian city of Moscow with a business proposition for the Grand Duke Ivan IV the Terrible. When it was accepted, the Moscow Trading Company came into existence. South of the Moscow Trading Company Headquarters was the wealthy realm of the Safavid Empire. The company started sending envoys during the reign of Shah Tahmasp I during the first years in business. Anthony Jenkinson was one of the first leaders of these envoys. In total, there were six visits and the last one was in June 1579 during the reign of Shah Mohammad Khodabandeh led by Arthur Edwards. But at the time the company's envoys reached the royal

Qajar era.

Anglo-Persian relations picked up momentum as a weakened Safavid empire, after the short-lived revival by the military genius Nader Shah (r. 1736-1747), eventually gave way to the Qajarid dynasty, which was quickly absorbed into domestic turmoil and rivalry, while competing colonial powers rapidly sought a stable foothold in the region. While the Portuguese, British, and Dutch, competed for the south and southeast of Persia in the Persian Gulf, Imperial Russia was largely left unchallenged in the north as it plunged southward to establish dominance in Persia's northern territories.  Plagued with

Pahlavi era.

Of the public outcry against the inability of the Persian throne to maintain its political and economic independence from Great Britain and Imperial Russia in the face of events such as the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 and "the 1919 treaty", one result was the Persian Constitutional Revolution, which eventually resulted in the fall of the Qajar dynasty.  The great tremor of the Persian political landscape occurred when the involvement of General Edmund Ironside eventually led to the rise of Reza Shah Pahlavi in the 1920s. The popular view that the British were involved in the 1921 coup was noted as early as March 1921 by the American embassy and relayed to the Iran desk at the Foreign Office. A British Embassy report from 1932 concedes that the British put Reza Shah "on the throne".  After his establishing of power and strengthening of the central government, Rezā Khan quickly put an end to the autonomous activities of the British-backed Sheikh Khazal in the south. London withdrew its support of Khaz'al in favor of Rezā Shāh. However, Rezā Shāh was removed from power just as quickly during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran during World War II.  A novel chapter in Anglo-Iranian relations had begun when Iran canceled its capitulation agreements with foreign powers in 1928. Iran's success in revoking the capitulation treaties, and the failure of the

The Islamic Republic.

On 30 April 1980, the Iranian Embassy in London was taken over by a six-man terrorist team holding the building for six days until the hostages were rescued by a raid by the SAS. After the Revolution of Iran in 1979, Britain suspended all diplomatic relations with Iran. Britain did not have an embassy until it was reopened in 1988.  During the Iran–Iraq War, Saddam Hussein acquired metal tubes from firms in the United Kingdom, intended for the Project Babylon supergun. All were

Current relations.

Trade.

The first Persian Ambassador to The United Kingdom was Mirza Albohassan Khan Ilchi Kabir. The "Herald Tribune" on 22 January 2006 reported a rise in British exports to Iran from £296 million in 2000 to £443.8 million in 2004. A spokesperson for "UK Trade and Investment" was

Political tension.

The confrontation between the United States–European Union pact on one side and Iran on the other over Iran's nuclear program also continues to develop, remaining a serious obstacle in the improvement of Tehran–London ties.  A by UK diplomat John Sawers to French, German and US diplomats, dated 16 March 2006, twice referred to the intention to have the United Nations Security Council refer to Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter in order to put pressure on Iran. Chapter VII describes the Security Council's power to authorize economic, diplomatic, and military sanctions, as well as the use of military force, to resolve disputes.  The "Sunday Telegraph" reported that a secret, high-level meeting would take place on 3 April 2006 between the UK government and military chiefs regarding plans to attack Iran. The Telegraph cited "a senior Foreign Office source" saying that "The belief in some areas of Whitehall is that an attack is now all but inevitable. There will be no invasion of Iran but the nuclear sites will be destroyed." The BBC reported a denial that the meeting would take place, but no denial of the alleged themes of the meeting, by the UK Ministry of Defence, and that "there is well sourced and persistent speculation that American covert activities aimed at Iran are already underway".

2004 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel.

On 21 June 2004, eight sailors and Royal Marines were seized

2007 Iranian seizure of Royal Navy personnel.

On 23 March 2007 fifteen Royal Navy personnel were seized by the naval forces of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard for allegedly having strayed into Iranian waters. Eight sailors and seven Royal Marines on two boats from HMS "Cornwall" were detained at 10:30 local time by six Guard boats of the IRGC Navy. They were subsequently taken to Tehran. Iran reported that the sailors are well. About 200 students targeted the British Embassy on 1 April 2007 calling for the expulsion of the country's

Arms sales.

Despite the political pressure and sanctions, a probe by customs officers suggests that at least seven British arms dealers have been supplying the Iranian air force, its elite Revolutionary Guard Corps, and the country's controversial nuclear ambitions. A UK businessman was caught smuggling components for

Gholhak Garden.

In 2006 a dispute about the ownership of Gholhak Garden, a large British diplomatic compound in northern Tehran was raised in the Iranian Parliament when 162 MPs wrote to the speaker. The British Embassy have occupied the site since at least 1934 and assert that they have legal ownership but the issue was raised again in 2007 when a group of MPs claimed that the ownership papers for the site were unlawful under the laws extant in 1934. In July 2007 a conference was held to discuss the ownership of the compound but was not attended by the British side.

Asylum.

On 14 March 2008, Britain said it would reconsider the asylum application of a gay Iranian teenager who claims he will be persecuted

Escalating war talk.

As talk of strikes and counter-strikes in relation to war talk between the United States-Israel-Iran trio heated up in 2008, a senior Iranian official suggested his regime should target London to deter such an attack. The head of the Europe and US Department in the Iranian Foreign Ministry, Wahid Karimi, said an attack on London could deter the US from attacking Tehran. He said: "The most appropriate means of deterrence that Iran has, in addition to a retaliatory operation in the [Persian Gulf] region, is to take action against London." He also suggested a propensity to

2009 Iranian election controversy.

In the aftermath of the disputed 2009 Iranian presidential election and the protests that followed, UK-Iran relations were further tested. On 19 June 2009, the Supreme Leader of Iran Ayatollah Khamenei described the British Government as the "most evil" of those in the Western nations, accusing the British government of sending spies into Iran to stir emotions at the time of the elections, although it has been suggested by British diplomats that the statement was using the UK as a "proxy" for the United States, in order to prevent damaging US–Iranian relations. Nonetheless, the British Government, unhappy at the statement, summoned the Iranian ambassador Rasul Movaheddian to the Foreign Office to lodge a protest. Iran then proceeded to expel two British diplomats from the country, accusing them of "activities inconsistent with their diplomatic status". On 23 June 2009, the British Government responded, expelling two Iranian diplomats from the United Kingdom. Prime Minister Gordon Brown stated that he was unhappy at having to take the action, but suggested there was no option after what he described as 'unjustified' actions by Iran. On 24 June 2009, Iranian Foreign Minister Manouchehr Mottaki announced that the country was considering 'downgrading' its ties with the UK.  Four days later it was reported that Iranian authorities had arrested a number of British embassy staff in Tehran citing their "considerable role" in the recent unrest. After this event, the UK Government responded strongly demanding that the Iranian authorities release the British staff immediately as it stated that Iran's accusations are baseless without evidence. After the arrest of UK staff, the European Union

2009 international arbitration court ruling.

In April 2009 the British government lost its final appeal in the arbitration court of the International Chamber of Commerce at The Hague against a payment of $650 million to Iran. The money is compensation for an arms deal dating from the 1970s which then did not come about due to the occurrence of the Iranian Revolution. The Shah's government had ordered 1,500 Chieftain tanks and 250 Chieftain armoured recovery vehicles (ARVs) in a contract worth £650 million, but only 185 vehicles had been delivered before the revolution occurred. The contract also covered the provision of training to the Iranian army and the construction of a

2011 attack on the British Embassy.

On 29 November 2011, despite heavy police resistance, two compounds of the British embassy in Tehran were stormed by Iranian protesters. The protesters smashed windows, ransacked offices, set fire to government documents, and burned a British flag. Six British diplomats were initially reported by the Iranian semi-official news agency Mehr as being taken hostage, while later reports indicated that in fact they were escorted to safety by the police.

Since 2011.

The UK Defence Secretary Philip Hammond warned that Britain may take military action against Iran if it carries out its threat to block the Strait of Hormuz. He said any attempt by Iran to block the strategically important waterway in retaliation for sanctions against its oil exports would be “illegal and unsuccessful” and the Royal Navy will join any action to keep it open. British defense officials met with US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta on 6 January to criticize other members of the NATO for not being willing to commit resources to joint operations, including in Libya and Afghanistan. The following day, UK officials reported its intention to send its most powerful naval forces to the Persian Gulf to counter any Iranian attempt to close the Strait of Hormuz. The Type 45 destroyer will arrive in the Gulf by the end of January. According to officials, the ship is capable of shooting down "any missile in Iran's armory." On July 2013, it is announced that the UK would consider opening better relations with Iran "step-by-step" following the

Tanker detention and Strait of Hormuz tensions.

On 4 July 2019, Royal Marines boarded the Iranian-owned tanker "Grace 1" by helicopter off Gibraltar where it was detained. The reason given was to enforce European Union sanctions against Syrian entities, as the tanker was suspected of heading to Baniyas Refinery named in the sanctions that concern Syrian oil exports. Gibraltar had passed regulations permitting the detention the day before. Spain's Foreign Minister Josep Borrell stated that the detention was carried out at the request of the United States. An Iranian Foreign Ministry official calling the seizure "piracy," stating that the UK does not have the right to implement sanction against other nations "in an extraterritorial manner".  On 10 July 2019, boats belonging to Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps approached a British Petroleum tanker, "British Heritage", impeding it while it was transiting the Strait of Hormuz. The Royal Navy frigate moved between the boats and ship. This further ignited tensions between both the countries.  On 14 July 2019, British Foreign Secretary Jeremy Hunt said "Grace 1" could be released if the UK received guarantees the oil — 2.1 million barrels worth — would not go to Syria. On 19 July 2019, Iran media reported that the Swedish owned but British-flagged oil tanker "Stena Impero" had been seized by the Iranian Revolutionary Guard in the Strait of Hormuz. A first tanker, MV "Mesdar", which was a Liberian-flagged vessel managed in Scotland, jointly Algerian and Japanese owned, was boarded but later released. Iran stated that the British-flagged ship had collided with and damaged an Iranian vessel, and had ignored warnings by Iranian authorities. During the incident HMS "Montrose" was stationed too far away to offer

U.S. Assassination of Iranian General Qassem Soleimani.

On the 2nd January 2020, the United States launched an airstrike in Iraq which killed Iranian General Qassem Soleimani who was arguably the 2nd most powerful person in Iran.

Iran–United Kingdom relations are the bilateral relations between the United Kingdom and Iran. Iran, which was called Persia by the West before 1935, has had political relations with England since the late Ilkhanate period (13th century) when King Edward I of England sent Geoffrey of Langley to the Ilkhanid court to seek an alliance.

Les relations entre le Royaume-Uni et l'Iran sont des relations bilatérales entre les deux pays que sont le Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d’Irlande du Nord et la République islamique d'Iran. L'Iran, connu sous le nom de Perse avant 1935, a établi des relations politiques avec l'Angleterre dès la fin de l'ère Ilkhanides, au, lorsqu'Édouard Ier d'Angleterre envoie Geoffrey de Langley en tant qu'ambassadeur à la cour ilkhanide afin de sceller une alliance.


History.

Ong (옹) (甕, 瓮) is the Korean word for "pottery" and refers to the form of the bowl.  Pottery has been used on the Korean peninsula since prehistoric times for storing food. In the Three Kingdoms period, images of large and small pottery appear on the tomb murals of Anak 3 in Goguryeo. Baekje and Silla records that they stored rice, liquor, oil, soy sauce, and salted fish. It is also used for drinking water storage. In the early period of the Joseon Dynasty, there were 104 'Ongjang(옹장)' in 14 institutions such as Bongsung Temple, and there were two assistants according to ≪Ggyeong-guk Dae-jeon(경국대전)≫ in Joseon. In Sung-Hyun's ≪선화봉사 고려도경 宣和奉使高麗圖經≫, "Pottery is the most necessary vessel for people. Now, in Mapo and Noryangjin, mud baking is done as a clay pot, a kind of earthenware. " Thus, it can be seen that pottery has been used for life since prehistoric times.

Uses.

Compared to porcelain, onggi has a microporous structure and has been found to assist in the fermentation in food processing such as the preparation of gochujang (fermented chili pepper, bean and rice paste), doenjang (fermented bean paste), kimchi (fermented seasoned vegetables), and soy sauce. Onggi with proper porosity and permeability needs to be used in order to produce an optimally ripened quality in fermented foodstuff. Fine-tuned onggi containers are, in fact, suitable for many different kinds of fermented products. Since early times, Korea has been famous for fermented foods. In ancient Chinese historiography, in the Biographies of the Wuhuan, Xianbei, and Dongyi () in the "Records of Wèi" (), which is part of the "Records of the Three Kingdoms", there is this remark: "Goguryeo people have a custom of making fermented foods". The abundance of soybeans, which grow naturally in Korea, the fresh fishery resources from the sea surrounding the Korean Peninsula and a proper climate for microbial development, all give account of the importance of fermentation as food processing. The development and refinement of onggi ware also contributed to the development of fermented dishes within Korean cuisine. Large onggi ware were stored on the jangdokdae, an elevated floor near the house.

Features.

Onggi, which are made by a specialized group of workmen called "onggijang" (), has been influenced by the characteristics and climate of the regions where it has been made. Therefore, there are shapes and sizes of onggi and ways of manufacturing it that vary from region to region. Nevertheless, all onggi types share some properties. These are biodegradability, porosity, and its proof against rot as well as firmness or "vertebration". Due to the low firing temperatures often used in producing onggi, they are rarely found archaeologically since the sherds return to the clay state or are used as grog. Features of Onggi include its Breathability, Stability, Suitability for Fermentation, Economical Price, Porosity and Diversity of use.

Breathability.

By heating to a high temperature, the crystal water contained in the wall of the pottery vessel is discharged, and pores are generated, so that air flows between the inside and the outside of the pottery pot. For this reason, Onggi was recognized as a breathable vessel from ancient times.

Stability.

The pores of the pottery wall act as pushing out the impurities formed on the inner surface, so that the contents have excellent storage ability that can be stored for a long time without decaying.

Suitability for Fermentation.

The most important characteristic of Korean cuisine is its use of fermented food. Fermented food is mostly fermented in Onggi pots. Tobacco, candlesticks, and cooked rice are also stored in containers made for fermentation purposes.

Economical Price.

Since onggi the materials used in making Onggi can be easily and cheaply obtained, Onggi has traditionally retailed at a low price, which is not burdensome for ordinary people.

Porosity.

While burning onggi, the onggijang master glazes its surface. This glaze plays a key role in giving a waterproof surface and preventing leaks. Following up, many particles of sand are included in the body of the clay acting as passages for air. This way, air can move through onggi while water cannot. Koreans call this action "Onggi drawing breath." This is one of the most critical reasons to use onggi in making Korean fermented foods.

Variety of Usage.

Onggi is mainly used for food containers, but they can also be used to store household appliances such as lamps, fireplaces, ashtrays, ashtrays, coins, and ink pads, as well as ceremonial instruments, and for percussion instruments such as cans, onion jugs, and wind instruments.

Production method.

Onggi pots are made of clay with a high percentage of iron. First, the soil to make the pottery is put into the water and whipped out to remove sand and impurities. Then, when the water comes out from the fine sediment that you have received, it forms a bowl and is dried in the sun. The potters then dry the dried-up bowl again in the sun, wash it with a lye solution, then dry it again. The glaze that is applied to the bowl is mixed with various substances and is then sifted through a sieve. After the glaze is applied to the bowl, an orchid or grass pattern is drawn on the body and the pot is air-dried thoroughly, then baked in a kiln and finished.  Another process of making Onggi is to first knead the soil, dry it in the shade and then with a tool to make it into a brick shape, and hit it on the floor into a plank shape. This is referred to as 'Panzhangjil(판장질)'. Then put it on a spinning wheel and iron it (batting) with a Ddukmae(떡매). The shape of the Onggi is determined by the speed and hand movements of the spinning wheel. Since the pottery culture seemed likely to disappear after the 1960s due to the appearance of plastic and stainless steel bowls, the Ministry of Culture designated the Onggi Human Cultural Property in May 1989. In 1990, Onggijang(Onggi technician) was designated as Important Intangible Cultural Properties No. 96.

Types of Onggi Pots.

The kinds of Onggi and its usage are as follows.  The act of putting red pepper, charcoal, jujube in a handhold and putting a gold wire on a rope and cutting and attaching a bouquet or a sword pattern is a way of saying that "the house is ruined if the taste changes.".  The gold bars are intended to prevent irregularities that may be caught in the dipping sauces. The sod is always pale, meaning that the sour taste does not change at all times. The fact that the sushi line is reversed means that it will return to its original taste even if the taste has changed. Also, putting charcoal, red pepper, jujube etc was like black as charcoal, red like red pepper and sweet as sweetness.  After the strength of the Japanese colonial rule, the liquor was replaced with a standardized form in the unique form of transferring alcoholic beverages, which was made only by the licensed sake maker.  In general, the sake used in the sake brewery is the'sake, stone, stone, number, doo, bottle,, 'Year','month','month', 'test' and so on, and sometimes the name of a zodiac or a dragon appears.  This bottle, also known as the ear cup, is mainly made of liquid to make it easier for the snout to follow a small bottle.

Onggi () is Korean earthenware, which is extensively used as tableware, as well as storage containers in Korea. It includes both unglazed earthenware fired near 600 to 700°C and pottery with a dark brown glaze that burnt over 1100°C.The origin of onggi dates to around 4000 to 5000 BC. The two types of earthenware are a patternless earthenware which is called "mumun" and a black and red earthenware. The former, a patternless earthenware, was made with lumps of clay including much fine sand; however, the predecessor of Goryeo celadon and Joseon white porcelain, a black/red earthenware, was being made with only lumps of clay. The color of earthenware is determined by the iron contained in the clay and the way of burning the pottery. The present onggi shape dates from the Joseon era. Many records about onggi are found in "Sejong Sillok Jiriji" (, "King Sejong's Treatise on Geography"): "There are three kilns that make the yellow onggi in Chogye-gun and Jinju-mok, Gyeongsang Province".

Les onggi sont des terres cuites d'origine coréenne, largement utilisées comme vaisselle ainsi que récipients de conservation alimentaire en Corée. Elles sont constituées à la fois de céramiques non émaillées cuites à près de 600 ~ et de grès couvertes d'une glaçure brun foncé, cuites à plus de.


Service history.

"Monssen" was laid down on 12 July 1939 by Puget Sound Navy Yard, Bremerton, Washington and launched on 16 May 1940, sponsored by Mrs. Mons Monssen, widow of Lieutenant Monssen. The ship was commissioned on 14 March 1941, Lieutenant Commander R. N. Smoot in command.  Following shakedown and training, "Monssen" reported to the Atlantic Fleet on 27 June 1941 as a unit of Destroyer Division 22 (DesDiv 22). For the next five months she operated in the northwestern Atlantic, from the coast of New England and the Maritime Provinces to Iceland, on neutrality patrol. Her escort and patrol duties changed from neutral to belligerent 7 December 1941, continuing until 9 February 1942 when she entered the Boston Navy Yard for overhaul in preparation for her transfer to the Pacific Fleet.

Transfer to the Pacific.

On 31 March "Monssen" arrived at San Francisco, joined Task Force 16 (TF 16), and departed 2 April. Steaming west, she was in the antisubmarine screen for the aircraft carrier as the carrier headed for Japan with Lt. Col. Jimmy Doolittle's B-25s on her flight deck. In the early morning hours of 18 April the force was sighted by the enemy and the air raid was launched to bomb their targets of Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, and Kobe.  Following the Doolittle Raid, the force returned to Pearl Harbor, from which it sortied 30 April to aid the carriers and in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Reaching the scene after the battle was over, the force returned to Pearl Harbor, arriving on 26 May. Two days later they departed again — this time for Midway to repulse an expected assault on that advanced base. By 2 June, TF 16 had rendezvoused with Task Force 17 (TF 17) and was in position northeast of Midway. On 4 June the Battle of Midway commenced as Japanese aircraft flew against installations on the island. By 7 June, the American forces had won the battle, sinking four Japanese aircraft carriers and one cruiser at the cost of the destroyer and carrier "Yorktown".

Solomon Islands campaign.

After Midway the force remained at Pearl Harbor for a month before departing again for combat. Steaming via the Tonga Islands, they headed for the Japanese held Solomons. By 7 August they were from the targets, Guadalcanal and Tulagi. On 7–8 August, "Monssen" with stood off Gavutu and Tanambogo, circling those islands and providing fire support to units of the 2nd Marine Regiment as the U.S. Navy struck with the first of its giant amphibious assaults. She was then assigned to the screening forces guarding the eastern approaches to Sealark, Lengo, and Nggela Channels.  She remained in the immediate area through the Battle of the Eastern Solomons, which prevented Japanese reinforcements from reaching Guadalcanal, and then took up duties patrolling the sea routes to Guadalcanal. At the end of the month the carrier was damaged and "Monssen" was one of the ships designated to escort her to the Tonga Islands.

Sinking at the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal.

"Monssen" returned to Guadalcanal 18 September to insure the integrity of an Allied supply line and to block Japanese efforts at resupply. On 8 November, she departed Nouméa with two cruisers and two other destroyers as Task Group 67.4 (TG 67.4), under Rear Admiral Daniel J. Callaghan, as escort for transports carrying reinforcements to the Marines on Guadalcanal. At the same time, another convoy set out from Espiritu Santo, covered by one cruiser and four destroyers under Rear Admiral Norman Scott. Arriving off Lunga Point on 12 November, a day after those from Espiritu Santo they commenced unloading. By dusk as reports of Japanese ship movements from Truk increased, 90 percent of the transports had been unladen despite afternoon torpedo plane attacks, one of which had cost "Monssen" the use of her fire control radar. The transports were pulled out, escorted through Lengo Channel, and seen safely on their way to Espiritu Santo. Then Admiral Callaghan's force, heavily outnumbered even with the addition of Admiral Scott's ships, reversed course and steamed back to engage the enemy in the initial action of what would later be called the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal.  Shortly, after 01:40, 13 November, they sighted the enemy fleet, under Vice Admiral Hiroaki Abe, north of Kukum. The enemy was headed toward Henderson Field — to bombard it and cripple Allied air operations long enough to sneak in 11 of their transports, then en route to relieve their beleaguered comrades fighting on the island.  Battle was given at 01:50. At about 02:20 "Monssen", forced to rely on radio information and optics, was spotlighted, hit by some 39 shells, including three of battleship caliber, and reduced to a burning hulk. Twenty minutes later, completely immobilized in all departments, the ship was ordered abandoned. After daybreak "Monssen" was still afire. C. C. Storey, BM2c, L. F. Sturgeon, GM2c, and J. G. Hughes F1c, climbed back into the inferno and rescued eight men still aboard and alive, five of whom lived after reaching land. The survivors, 40 percent of the crew, were picked up at about 08:00 and taken to Guadalcanal. The ship herself continued to blaze until early afternoon, when she sank.  "Monssen" was awarded four battle stars for World War II service.

Wreck discovery.

In 1992, an expedition headed by oceanographer Robert Ballard found the wreck of "Monssen" and other ships sunk during the Solomon Islands battles. The wreck lies upright on the bottom of the sound, with the gun turrets still trained out to the starboard side as they had been in combat.

USS "Monssen" (DD-436), a, was the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for Mons Monssen, who was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions aboard in 1904. Commissioned in 1941, the destroyer saw service during World War II in both Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. "Monssen" was sunk at the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on 13 November 1942.

L’USS "Monssen" est un destroyer de classe Gleaves en service dans la marine américaine durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Il est coulé en 1942 durant la bataille de Guadalcanal.


History.

Franz Joseph I built a small lodge in the imperial hunting grounds in Neuberg an der Mürz in 1869 using his own funds. The plans for the lodge, which was built in a Swiss style, came from and his partner, the court architect. The lodge soon proved to be too small, and was expanded in two phases, first in 1879 and then again in 1903.  In 1883 a riding trail was established for Empress Elisabeth between Kuhhörndl and Hocheck. Elisabeth was a good and enthusiastic rider, but did not take part in the hunting activities at the lodge. Three years later in 1886, the park around the hunting lodge was established and water pipes were built into the house.  The hunting lodge was established not for appearances but for the local hunting groups. It was only after the last expansion that the lodge became a political hub. Czar Nicholas II was a guest of the emperor at the lodge in 1903. The two leaders signed the Mürzsteger Protocol there on October 3, 1903, concerning the future of the Balkans.  The lodge, which was Habsburg private property, was seized after World War I and was taken up by the Austrian Republic. A small museum was furnished in the official rooms, with some mementos of the Emperor as a hunter. The other rooms were rented out to summer guests.  During World War II the hunting lodge remained mostly empty. Toward the end of the war, Ferenc Szálasi, the leader of the Arrow Cross Party, hid treasures in the lodge in order to keep them from the advancing Red Army. The treasure included the Holy Crown of Hungary, as well as royal garments, scepters, an orb, and a sword. The cellar of the lodge stored the Holy Dexter, the preserved right hand of Stephen I of Hungary. Szálasi himself fled further west.  Today the hunting lodge is owned by the Republic of Austria. Since 1947 it has served as a summer resort for the sitting Austrian president. The lodge has been continuously renovated, though the official rooms have remained essentially unchanged. The Burghauptmannschaft of Austria now manages the lodge. According to the campaign promises of Heinz Fischer from 2004, the lodge should soon be sold, which has in any case not yet happened. Many foreign guests, including the Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-moon, have been received at the lodge.

Construction.

The lodge has an upper floor which is disguised as a wooden-shingled roof. It has three third-floor doors with steep tops. The interior furnishing is simple and humble, with the exception of some works from Rudolf von Alt and Franz von Pausinger.

The Mürzsteg Hunting Lodge is a small lodge in Mürzsteg, Styria which has served as the summer residence of the president of Austria since 1947.

Le pavillon de Mürzsteg est un petit château situé à Mürzsteg qui depuis 1947 sert de résidence d'été au président autrichien.


Design.

German Type VIIC submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIB submarines. "U-310" had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. She had a total length of, a pressure hull length of, a beam of, a height of, and a draught of. The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four-stroke, six-cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of for use while surfaced, two Garbe, Lahmeyer & Co. RP 137/c double-acting electric motors producing a total of for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to.  The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a maximum submerged speed of. When submerged, the boat could operate for at ; when surfaced, she could travel at. "U-310" was fitted with five torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and one at the stern), fourteen torpedoes, one SK C/35 naval gun, 220 rounds, and two twin C/30 anti-aircraft guns. The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty.

Service history.

The boat's service life began with training with the 8th U-boat Flotilla in February 1943. She was then transferred to the 7th flotilla for operations on 1 August. She was reassigned to the 13th flotilla on 5 September 1944.  The boat made two short journeys from Kiel in Germany to Marvika and Egersund in Norway, between June and August 1944.

1st patrol.

The submarine's first patrol began with her departure from Egersund (south of Stavanger), on 13 September 1944. She moved up the Norwegian coast, arriving in Narvik on the 21st.

2nd patrol.

The boat torpedoed the "Edward H. Crockett" on 29 September 1944. The wreck was finished off with gunfire from. She also sank the "Samsuva" in the same attack off the North Cape.

3rd, 4th and 5th patrols.

"U-310"s third sortie covered the Norwegian and Barents Seas.  In her fourth patrol, the U-boat rounded Bear Island and passed east of Murmansk.  Her fifth foray began in Harstad (northwest of Narvik), on 25 December 1944 and ended in Bogenbucht, (west of Narvik), on 5 January 1945.

6th patrol and fate.

The U-boat's last patrol was relatively uneventful. She finished in Trondheim at war's end. There, she was broken up in March 1947.

German submarine "U-310" was a Type VIIC U-boat of Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine" during World War II. The submarine was laid down on 30 January 1942 at the "Flender Werke" yard at Lübeck as yard number 310, launched on 3 January 1943 and commissioned on 24 February under the command of "Leutnant zur See" Klaus Friedland.

Le Unterseeboot 310 (ou U-310) est un sous-marin allemand (U-Boot) de type VII.C utilisé par la Kriegsmarine (marine de guerre allemande) pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.


History.

Founded in Silicon Valley in 2003 by Paul J.J. Payack, the GLM describes its role as "a media analytics company that documents, analyzes and tracks cultural trends in language the world over, with a particular emphasis upon Global English". GLM's main services include various products based on the Narrative Tracker technologies for global Internet and social media analysis. NarrativeTracker is based on global discourse, providing a real-time, accurate picture about any topic, at any point in time. NarrativeTracker analyzes the Internet, blogosphere, the top 275,000 print and electronic global media, as well as new social media sources as they emerge. In April 2008, GLM moved its headquarters from San Diego to Austin.  GLM announced "Emoji" as its Top Word of 2014 for Global English along with its complete lists of Top Words, Phrases and Names in December 2014.  Earlier in 2015 GLM has released:

Counting English words.

GLM announced the 1,000,000th English word on June 10, 2009. This controversial exercise was widely covered in the global media. The count itself was widely criticized by a number of prominent linguists, including Geoffrey Nunberg, and Jesse Sheidlower and Benjamin Zimmer, on the grounds that since there is no generally accepted definition of a word, there can never be a definitive count.  The finalists, which met the criteria of a minimum of 25,000 citations with the necessary breadth of geographic distribution and depth of citations, were:  1. Web 2.0. 2. Jai Ho! 3. N00b. 4. Slumdog. 5. Cloud computing. 6. Carbon Neutral. 7. Slow Food. 8. Octomom. 9. Greenwashing. 10. Sexting. 11. Shovel ready. 12. Defriend. 13. Chengguan. 14. Recessionista. 15. Zombie Banks.  Critics noted that the target date had been changed a number of times from late in 2006 to early in 2009. It was also criticized on grounds that a count is impossible because "word" is not a scientifically valid concept. Google addressed this situation by counting the words in the 15 million scanned texts in their corpus. Global Language Monitor states the general criteria for inclusion on its site, maintaining that it is simply updating the established criteria for printed dictionaries beginning with the works of Samuel Johnson and Noah Webster.  The New York Times quoted Paul JJ Payack as saying that the PQI is "an algorithm that tracks words and phrases in the media and on the Internet in relation to frequency, context and appearance in global media. It is a weighted index that takes into account year-to-year increases and acceleration in the last several months". In general terms, GLM describes its Predictive Quantities Indicator (PQI), used to run its analytics on global language trends and, as a weighted index, factoring in long-term trends, short-term changes, momentum and velocity, using frequency data on words and phrases in the global print and electronic media, on the Internet, and throughout the blogosphere, as well as in proprietary databases (Factiva, Lexis-Nexis, etc.). It can also create "signals" that can be used in a variety of applications.

Obama an English language word.

On 20 February 2008 GLM announced that the latest word to enter the English language was "obama", derived from Barack Obama, in its many variations. GLM described Obama- as a "root" for words including obamanomics, obamican, obamamentum, obamacize, obamarama, obamaNation, Obamafy, obamamania and obamacam. GLM announced it to be an accepted word, once it met the group's published criteria: a minimum of 25,000 citations in the global media, as well as achieving the necessary 'breadth' and 'depth' of citations.

Top US Colleges and University Rankings.

The Global Language Monitor publishes other lists relating to the English language including: the TrendTopper MediaBuzz College Guide rankings of the top 425 U.S. colleges and universities according to their internet brand equity.  Top Universities (January 2016): Rank/University/Previous Ranking  Top Universities Last

Top 50 US Colleges by TrendTopper MediaBuzz 2016.

Rank/College/Previous Ranking

Top US Colleges by Category.

and 15 Top All-Time Bushisms, and many others.

The Global Language Monitor (GLM) is an Austin, Texas-based company that collectively documents, analyzes, and tracks trends in language usage worldwide, with a particular emphasis upon the English language. It is particularly known for its Word of the Year, political analysis, college and university rankings, High Tech buzzwords, and media analytics.

Le Global Language Monitor (GLM) est une société basée à Austin, Texas qui collecte et analyse le contenu des médias et piste les tendances dans le monde entier avec une prédominance pour la Langue anglaise. Elle est connue pour son Word of the Year et ses classements.


The building.

The city hall has three main stories, lined with pointed Gothic windows on the three sides visible from the Markt. Above is a gallery parapet, behind which rises a steep roof studded with four tiers of dormers. At the angles of the roof are octagonal turrets pierced with slits allowing for the passage of light.  Statues in canopied niches are distributed all over the building. The corbels supporting the statues are carved with Biblical scenes in high relief. While the niches and corbels are original with the building, the 236 statues themselves are relatively recent, dating from after 1850. Those of the first floor represent personages of importance in the local history of the city; those of the second, patron saints and symbolic figures; those of the third, the Counts of Leuven and Dukes of Brabant from various ages.  The main façade has an entrance staircase, and two portals in the center, above which are figures of Saint Peter (left) and Madonna and Child (right), the former in compliment to the patron of the church opposite.  The interior accommodates an interesting collection of artwork, including sculptures by Constantin Meunier and Jef Lambeaux. Inside can also be seen the portraits of the Leuven mayors since 1794.

History.

The building today known as the city Hall was the "Voirste Huys" (front house) of a larger complex of municipal buildings on which construction started in 1439 at the site of an existing City hall. The first architect, Sulpitius Van Vorst, died soon after the back wings of the complex got started and was succeeded briefly by Jan Keldermans II, whose death in 1445 ended the first construction campaign.  The project resumed in 1448 under the direction of Matheus de Layens. The first stone of the "Voirste Huys" was laid on 28 March of that year. The cellars of some demolished houses were incorporated into the new construction and can today be accessed through a small door at the left side of the city hall. The initial plans, influenced by the City hall at Brussels, included a belfry tower at one of the corners. This design was modified by de Layens, resulting in the symmetrical arrangement of turrets observed today.  The exterior masonry and roof were finished in 1460, and in 1469 the building was complete.  In the 19th century, the city Hall underwent renovations made necessary by centuries' worth of decay. The building remained standing amid the devastation of Leuven during World War I, escaping with only minor damage. In the Second World War, a bomb strike in front of the building caused yet more damage; it took until 1983 before repairs were completed.

The City Hall (Dutch: ) of Leuven, Belgium, is a landmark building on that city's "Grote Markt" (Main Market) square, across from the monumental St. Peter's Church. Built in a Brabantine Late Gothic style between 1448 and 1469, it is famous for its ornate architecture, crafted in lace-like detail.

L'hôtel de ville de Louvain ("Stadhuis Leuven" en néerlandais) est un édifice de style gothique situé à Louvain, dans la province du Brabant flamand en Belgique.


Design.

German Type VIIC submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIB submarines. "U-314" had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. She had a total length of, a pressure hull length of, a beam of, a height of, and a draught of. The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four-stroke, six-cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of for use while surfaced, two Garbe, Lahmeyer & Co. RP 137/c double-acting electric motors producing a total of for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to.  The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a maximum submerged speed of. When submerged, the boat could operate for at ; when surfaced, she could travel at. "U-314" was fitted with five torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and one at the stern), fourteen torpedoes, one SK C/35 naval gun, 220 rounds, and two twin C/30 anti-aircraft guns. The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty.

Service history.

The boat's service life began with training with the 8th U-boat Flotilla from June 1943. She was then transferred to the 11th flotilla for operations on 1 January 1944.

1st patrol.

"U-314"s first patrol took her to the Barents Sea, then south of Bear Island. She departed from Trondheim in Norway on 22 December 1943; the patrol finished at Hammerfest, northeast of Narvik, on 14 January 1944.

2nd patrol and loss.

The boat left Hammerfest on 25 January 1944. She was sunk on the 30th by depth charges dropped by the British destroyers and southeast of Bear Island.  Forty-nine men died; there were no survivors.

Wolfpacks.

"U-314" took part in four wolfpacks, namely.

German submarine "U-314" was a Type VIIC U-boat of Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine" during World War II. The submarine was laid down on 9 June 1942 at the Flender Werke yard at Lübeck as yard number 314, launched on 17 April 1943 and commissioned on 10 June under the command of "Kapitänleutnant" Georg-Wilhelm Basse.

Le Unterseeboot 314 (ou U-314) est un sous-marin allemand (U-Boot) de type VII.C utilisé par la Kriegsmarine (marine de guerre allemande) pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.