Background.

The dive-bomber is often associated with German aerial development in the pre-war era, but the type remained a low-priority for air planners who shaped the embryonic "Luftwaffe". This apparent regression from the practices and experiences of World War I stemmed from the belief among the General Staff ("Oberkommando der Luftwaffe") that army support aviation in 1917–1918 was purely a reaction to trench warfare.  German air doctrine remained rooted in the fundamentals of "Operativer Luftkrieg" (Operational Air War) which stressed interdiction, strategic bombing (when and if possible) but primarily the air supremacy mission. The Spanish Civil War experience encouraged the General Staff to embrace the dive-bomber concept later in the 1930s, though the war's influence on German operational preferences remain ambiguous.  On the eve of World War II, some German air planners regarded the dive-bomber as a strategic weapon to strike with precision at enemy industry. Even factored into the army support groups, only fifteen percent of "Luftwaffe" front-line strength contained specialist ground-attack aircraft in September 1939. The lack of specialist close support aircraft left the general-purpose dive-bomber, the Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka", most suited to the close support role.

Formation.

"Sturzkampfgeschwader" 2 was formed on 1 May 1939 upon the establishment of all three "Gruppen". The "Stabsstaffel" (command unit) was formed at Köln–Ostheim on 15 October 1939. The stab unit was predominantly equipped with Dornier Do 17 aircraft and a handful of Ju 87s for reconnaissance and personnel transport purposes. The "Gruppen" were equipped with the Ju 87 dive bomber.  The wing's first commanding officer was Oskar Dinort. I./StG 2 was established in Breslau from I./StG 163. II./StG 2 in Stolp-Reitt from I./StG 162, and III./StG 2 from III./StG 163 in Langensalza. Dinort led the wing and first "Gruppe"

World War II.

Poland.

On 1 September 1939 the German "Wehrmacht" began the invasion of Poland followed sixteen days later by the Soviet invasion of Poland. "Luftflotte" 4 supported the 14th Army attacking out of Slovak Republic. "Luftflotte" 4's bombers dropped 389 tons of bombs on 1 September, 200 on Kraków in 1,200 sorties. "Leutnant" Frank Neubert and "Unteroffizier" Frank Kilnger from 1 "staffel" are believed to have claimed the first aerial victory of the war against a PZL P.11. Captain Mieczysław Medwecki, 121 Squadron, Polish Air Force, was taking off from Balice airfield.  Dinort led his "gruppe" into action against airfields at Kraków and Katowice. Later in the morning Dinort led the group in the bombing of Wieluń, ostensibly to destroy a Polish Army cavalry unit reported in the town. German intelligence was wrong and Polish sources assert no Polish military unit was present. Dinort's I./StG 2 attacked the roads in the town; the bombing caused many civilian fatalities. Schmidt and Ulrich's "gruppen" attacked other targets and were not involved. Schmidt was replaced by "Hauptmann" Claus Hinkelbein from 10 September. Counter air operations against the Polish Air Force failed since the Polish fighter force dispersed and succeeding in getting airborne. Along with elements of StG 77, I./StG 2 claimed the destruction of the Wołyńska Cavalry Brigade at the Battle of Mokra. Though it sustained 20 percent casualties the brigade was far from destroyed. On 3 September the Ju

Western Europe.

Stab., I. and III./StG 2 were placed under the control of "Fliegerkorps" VIII, subordinated to Kesselring's "Luftflotte" 2 initially. Stab. gained I./StG 76 but lost II./StG 2 which was placed under the command of Stab./StG 3 subordinated to "Luftflotte" 3 commanded by Hugo Sperrle. Hitschhold had 40 aircraft with 33 operational. Enneccerus was given 38 Ju 87s with 33 serviceable under StG 3 commodore Karl Angerstein. Major Clemens Graf von Schönborn-Wiesentheid took command of III./StG 2 on 15 April 1940 from Ott. Only 27 of the 38 machines assigned to him were combat ready. Despite the condition of the "gruppe", all units were committed to Fall Gelb.  Cologne hosted stab. and I./StG 2 at the beginning of the offensive. Nörvenich was home to III./StG 2. All of them were under the control of Richthofen. II./StG 2 located to Siegburg under von Griem's "Fliegerkorps" V. Hitschhold's "gruppe" were involved in the counter air campaign during the invasion of Belgium on 10 May 1940. A dive bombing attack at Brustem airfield destroyed nine Belgian Air Force Fiat CR.42 fighters of the 15. Belgian air defences were rendered useless.  Dinort's StG 2 played a crucial role in supporting the Battle of Fort Eben-Emael by preventing Belgian reinforcements from counterattacking German paratroopers. III./StG 2 and I./StG 77, with elements of LG 2 assisted with the fort's capture though the position remained under heavy Belgian fire. Hitschhold lost five Ju 87s attacking forts at Namur and Liège on 11 May to Royal Air Force fighter. III./StG 2 fought in the battles and engaged in combat operations during the Battle of the Netherlands at the Battle of Maastricht. Road traffic at Tirlemont and Antwerp on 11 May. It aided the crossing of the Oise in the initial days. 11 Ju 87s from I. and II./StG 2 were lost to 3, 87 and No. 607 Squadron RAF, despite fighter protection from "Jagdgeschwader" 27 during 11 May. Third "gruppe" lost four aircraft to French Curtiss P-36 Hawks on the 11 May and supported the battles at Gembloux by attacking French armour suffering a solitary casualty to RAF fighters on 12 May. Another was lost on 14 and 15 May at Gembloux. I./StG 76, under Dinort's direct command, with Otto Weiß's II.(S)/LG 2, supported XVI Army Corps commanded by Erich Hoepner. During the course of the Battle of Hannut, and Battle of Gembloux Gap I./StG 76 lost seven Ju 87s to anti-aircraft defences. Some of Weiß's pilots flew eight sorties. Hitschhold's "gruppe" was engaged in support of the battles. StG 2 remained supporting the 6th Army against the K-W Line to the 12/13 May.  Thereafter, StG 2 turned to the Battle in France. The wing contributed 200 sorties to the Battle of Sedan, and the breakout to the English Channel. Specifically second group were involved in the battle during the breakout phase on 14 May. StG 2 switched to support the 12th army for two days, south of Namur from 18 May. Over 15–17 May, Hitschhold's group moved to Saint-Quentin, Aisne, then on to Cambrai. III./StG 2 move through southern Belgium to Bastogne by 15 May. Operating from forward airfields, it played a role in the defeat of Charles de Gaulle's 4th

Battle of Britain.

From 22 June to 10 July 1940 aerial skirmishes occurred over the English Channel between RAF Fighter Command and the "Luftwaffe", operating from airfields in German-occupied Belgium and France. The "Oberkommando der Wehrmacht" was planning for a possible invasion, codenamed Operation Sea Lion. The aerial battles gradually escalated as German operations moved to destroying Channel shipping—termed the Kanalkampf phase—and then Fighter Command defences in what became known as the Battle of Britain. The "Oberkommando der Luftwaffe" left the two German air fleet commanders, Sperrle and Kesselring to carry out attacks on targets of their choosing in June and early July for there was little direction from the OKL.  On 2 July, German attacks caught convoy OA177G en route for Gibraltar. StG 2 sank the British steamer "Aeneas" () south-east of Start Point, Devon; 18 crewmen died and the rest were rescued by the destroyer and later StG 2 damaged the British steamer "Baron Ruthven" (). I. and II./StG 2 moved to Laon and Lannion before moving to the Pas-de-Calais and III./StG 2 group moved to Caen. On 4 July 1940 the wing attacked Convoy OA 178 ("convoy outbound Atlantic") as it passed through the Channel. 14 merchantmen left the Thames Estuary, bound for the west coast and passed Dover on 3 July. German radar picked up the convoy and the "Luftwaffe" was ordered to intercept the ships. A Junkers Ju 88 reconnaissance aircraft from 1.(F)/123 flew over the Channel and reported that the convoy was south-west of Portland. I./StG 2 took off, led by Dinort with 24 Ju 87s, escorted by a "Staffel" of fighters from I./JG 1. The attack was followed by 23 Ju 87s of III./StG 51. The ships were close to the French coast when "Dallas City" was damaged, engulfed in flames and collided with "Flimson" which was also hit and the ships took 15 minutes to disengage; "Dallas City" later sank. "Antonio" was heavily damaged. "Deucalion" (), "Kolga" () and "Britsum" () were sunk and "SS Canadian Constructor", was damaged for no German loss.  Convoys "Booty" and "Agent" passed through on 11 July. Dinort's wing attacked shipping along the coast. The "Stukas" sank () with one casualty. 501 Squadron had scrambled but was engaged by the Bf 109 escort and lost one pilot shot down and drowned; No. 609 Squadron RAF arrived as the Ju 87s began their dives. The six Spitfires split, one section of three engaging the "Stukas" and the other taking on the escort. Overwhelmed by odds of 6:1, the squadron was routed, with the loss of two pilots killed for no loss to the Germans; none of the merchant vessels were hit. A second attack was ordered. At 11:00 GMT, Hawker Hurricanes from No. 601 Squadron RAF were scrambled to intercept a reconnaissance Do 17, missed it and stumbled into a formation from III./StG 2 escorted by about 40 Messerschmitt Bf 110s, that British radar failed to locate. The escorts were too high above the Ju 87s to stop the first attack. Most squadrons in the Middle Wallop sector were re-fuelling but six 238 Squadron Hurricanes were scrambled, with three more from 501 and 87 Squadrons and nine from 213 Squadron near Exeter. None arrived in time to stop the attack on Portland at 11:53 GMT but little damage was done and only one vessel was damaged. A Ju 87 was destroyed and another force-landed; the light "Stuka" losses were a result of the Bf 110s bearing the brunt of the fighter attacks. Bf 110 pilot Hans-Joachim Göring, nephew of

Malta and North Africa.

I. with III./StG 2 moved to Otopeni north of Bucharest, Romania under Richthofen in January 1941 after the cancelation of Operation Felix. II./StG 2 remained with Stab./StG 3. It staged southward to Sicily in December 1940 to interdict shipping between Sicily and Tunisia. Walter Enneccerus and II "gruppe" began operations supporting the Italian Siege of Malta. The group was in action on 10 January. The British Operation Excess was launched, which included a series of convoy operations by the British across the Mediterranean Sea. On 10 January they were within range of the Ju 87 bases. II./StG 2 sent 43 Ju 87s with support from I./StG 1. Some 10 Ju 87s attacked the carrier unopposed. Witnessed by Andrew Cunningham, C-in-C of the Mediterranean Fleet from the battleship, the Ju 87s scored six hits. One destroyed a gun, another hit near her bow, a third demolished another gun, while two hit the lift, wrecking the aircraft below deck, causing explosions of fuel and ammunition. Another went through the armoured deck and exploded deep inside the ship. Two further attacks were made without result. Badly damaged, but with her main engines still intact, she steered for Malta. "Warspite" was also damaged. The attack lasted six minutes; killed 126 crew members and wounded 91. Within sight of Malta, Italian torpedo bombers also attacked the carrier, but were driven off by intense anti-aircraft fire. Cunningham remarked of the "Stukas";There was no doubt we were watching complete experts. Formed roughly in a large circle over the fleet, they peeled off one by one when reaching attacking position. We could not but admire the skill and precision of it all. The attacks were pressed home to point-blank range, and as they pulled out of the dives some were seen to fly along the flight deck of the "Illustrious" below the level of the funnel.  On 11 January 1941, 10 more Ju 87s were sent by Enneccerus to sink "Illustrious". They chanced upon the light cruisers and. Hits were scored on both; "Southampton" was so badly damaged her navy escorts scuttled her. Over the next 12 days, the workers at the shipyard in the Grand Harbour repaired the carrier under determined air attack so that she might make Alexandria. On 13 January, the Ju

Yugoslavia, Greece and Crete.

In October 1940 the Greco-Italian War began with the invasion of Greece by the Italian Empire. The invasion failed, and the Greek Army pushed out their enemy into Italian protectorate of Albania. The prospect of British Empire support and the establishment of a second Allied foothold on the continent forced Hitler to assist Mussolini. Hitler developed Operation Marita, the German-led invasion of Greece with support from Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria. Yugoslavia refused to join the Axis powers, and the operation was expanded to include the country in German plans. Richthofen's air corps was given two wings of Ju 87s for the task; StG 2 and 3. Stab./StG 2 was moved to Kraynitsi, 42 km south-south west of Sofia, Bulgaria on 6 March 1941. Hitschhold's group, I./StG 2 followed on 27 March with 39 "Stukas". II/StG 2 remained in Africa, but III./StG 2 under Brücker moved to Belica-North, 85 km south-south east of Sofia on 6 March. 35 of the 38 Ju 87s were available for combat operations on 6 April. The German invasion of Yugoslavia and the Battle of Greece commenced on 6 April.  Richthofen's Ju 87s supported the German Twelfth Army in southern Yugoslavia, which cut the Yugoslav Army off from Greece and the Allied expeditionary forces there. The victory in Yugoslavia was complete with the bombing of Belgrade, which facilitated a rapid victory by destroying command and control centres. I./StG 2 dive-bombed Yugoslav force opposite Petrich and the Metaxas Line, and subsequent Battle of the Metaxas Line. It is not clear whether the group took part in the Belgrade bombing; it may have done. The group attacked British forces in Arta, and the advances on Skopje, Prilep, Veles and Salonika. The "Stukas" facilitated the breakthrough at the Battle of Lake Kastoria, and the battles at Olympia, Larissa, Volos and Battle of Thermopylae. They also supported the advances in Corinthia and Pelponisia. From 22 April they were operating in against shipping in the Megara Gulf. They also sank a number of ships in the Gulf of Corinth. III./StG 3 in the majority of the same battles. It flew combat missions against the Royal Yugoslav Air Force

Eastern Front 1941; Operation Barbarossa.

On 22 June 1941, Operation Barbarossa the invasion of the Soviet Union began the war on the Eastern Front. Dinort and StG 2 moved to German-occupied Poland with Stab., I., and III./StG 2. The wing was placed under the command of Richthofen again, subordinating them to "Fliegekorps" VIII, attached to Kesselring's "Luftflotte" 2. The air fleet was detailed to support Army Group Centre. StG 2 was tasked with bombing Alytus airfield after 5./ZG 26 carried out a low-level attack. 8 SAD's 15 IAP managed to get airborne, though the I./JG 27 fighter screen; elements of JG 53 attacked the airfield simultaneously. Just two Ju 87s were lost on the Eastern Front on 22 June.  In the first days of the invasion, the "gruppen" supported the break through of the 9th army and 3rd Panzer Army, breaking through at Suwałki. They fought in the Battle of Białystok–Minsk, and the advances on Vitebsk and Vilnus, which forced a bridgehead over the Dnieper. StG 2 assisted in air attacks of Red Army concentrations near Grodno. From 22–30 June StG 2 lost seven aircraft.  The entire air corps was deployed in support of the encirclement and then a further such operation in the Battle of Smolensk. Richthofen, Dinort and Walter Storp, commanding SKG 210, were awarded the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves for their contribution to the Minsk battle. StG 2 bombed the railhead at Yermachevo, and the road from Polotsk to Nevel. In July the wing suffered nine losses with another damaged.  I./StG 2's commander Hitschhold was shot down on 23 June near Vilna. 3./StG 2's Bruno Freitag landed to pick them up.  On 8 August Richthofen's air corps was moved to support Army Group North under the command of Luftflotte 1. Dinort was ordered to support the capture or encirclment of the city. The purpose of the move was to assist the 16th army's advance across the Velikaya River between Idritsa and Pskov, to Staraya Russa near Lake Ilmen. Thereafter, it supported the push to Lyuban on the road to Leningrad. On 13 August I./StG 2 knocked out a major supply bridge on the Volkhov River which disrupted withdrawing Soviet forces. StG 2 rendered invaluable support to the XXXIX Panzer Corps and XXXVIII Army Corps at Schlüsselburg, cutting off Leningrad, beginning the siege of the city and leaving the Road of Life the only means to supply the defenders. By September 1941, both "gruppen" were operating against supply and troop concentrations around Lake Ladoga. On 19 September StG 2 formed part of six major bombing raids

Eastern Front 1942; Moscow and Stalingrad.

III./StG 2 pulled back to Rzhev on 16 December losing seven Ju 87s in the transfer. II./LG 2 was attached to the "gruppe" but the combination could muster only 30 aircraft. JG 51 and the two bomber groups formed a provisional tactical command. The 4th Shock Army captured the supply hub at Toropets. The capture began a series of intensive battles which lasted another six months for III./StG 2 until withdrawn in May 1942. Recorded losses were six aircraft and one damaged. Eight men were reported missing, two killed and two wounded. The group was ordered to Markersdorf to rest and refit. It returned to the front to support the 1942 offensive towards Voronezh, before returning to Vyazma on 14 August 1942.  II./StG 2 spent two months building its strength. At the time combat operations started on the Volkhov front in March 1942, it possessed only 12 aircraft, barely the size of a "staffel". The group was in action over Novgorod and Leningrad, against the Baltic Fleet in April–the raids against shipping took place over the 24th to 27th of the month. I./StG 2 supported the relief of German forces trapped in the Demyansk pocket. On 12 February 1942 "Gruppenkommandeur" Dilly was shot down near Staraya Russa but returned to German lines. By 13 March it claimed 25 Ju 87s operational but lost two "Staffelkapitän" killed. Few losses were experienced to fighters because the Ju 87s were escorted by Bf 109s from JG 54. Stab./StG 2 remained at the front. It had on strength 9 Messerschmitt Bf 110s and one Henschel Hs 123. Three Bf 110s were lost from 31 January to 19 March 1942. The unit was still based at Vyazma on 22 March. The command was withdrawn to East Prussia in May 1942.  I./StG 2 moved at Graz in Austria to Akhtyrka airfield north west of Kharkov in June 1942. StG 2 remained with Richthofen's air corps, though now it subordinated to Luftflotte 4. From 22 June it supported German forces in the Battle of Voronezh, which formed part of Operation Blue, the 1942 German summer offensive into the Soviet Caucasus. The group began operating the Ju 87D at this time; it moved to Tatsinskaya Airfield on 20 July, then to Oblivskaya along the Chir River as the German 6th army advanced to Stalingrad. By mid-August it was bombing dug in Soviet armour west of the city. II./StG 2 lost 5 and 6 "staffel" commanding officers killed and wounded in the initial battles. The group fought at the Battle of Kalach in August, which defeated strong Soviet tank formations counter-attacking the 6th army. The Regia Aeronautica 21o Gruppo provided fighter escort during July 1942 owing to the lack of Bf 109 units available because of the actions over Stalingrad. The arrangement was not always adequate. On 25 July for example, 4./StG 2 lost four Ju 87s and their leader [Möbus] in combat with the 434 IAP. The two groups, with SG 1 and JG 3 helped the 6th army clear the Don Bend.  In the battle for Kalach German air units dominated the sky and harried the 1st and 4th Tank Armies. Despite the efforts of the Soviet 8th Air Army, the Kalach pocket was destroyed with the loss of 50,000 men and 1,000 tanks as German bomber formations attacked, troop, vehicle, tanks, rail and airfield targets.  On 23 August 1942 the Battle of Stalingrad began with the Bombing of Stalingrad from the air. Hozzel's wing was now based only 40 kilometres from the city. StG 2 was able to fly multiple missions per day and maintain a constant presence over the city. For the duration of the battle, this was "probably a typical day." The 62nd army commanded by Vasily Chuikov sought to negate the threat of German air attacks by engaging the 6th army in close combat. Hozzel remarked that StG 2 had to abandon traditional dive-bombing in favour of improvised tactics;We had to do precision bombing to avoid danger to our troops entrenched too close to the target area. We could not risk making a dive-bombing attack from 4,000 metres because of the wide area of bomb dispersion. We had to fly a slant range attack, releasing bombs directly over the roofs. We had to push bombs directly into the target like loaves of bread into an oven,

Eastern Front 1943: Crimea, Kuban and Kursk.

I./StG 2 did not return to Stalingrad. The remnants of the group were based at Samorsk, north of Kalach in the Crimea by 15 February 1943. Operating under "Fliegerkorps" VIII the formation fought against Soviet advances towards Dnepropetrovsk and the Dnieper River. Elements bombed the Black Sea port of Novorossisk on 27 February and it fought over the Mius and Taganrog front from Stalino, in the Donets Basin. The group also operated in the Kharkov area and around Belgorod in March 1943. In the first half of April 1943, it fought over the Kuban bridgehead, on the Taman Peninsula from Kerch. On 16 April it bombed the beachhead at Novorossisk, where Black Sea Fleet infantry had made an amphibious landing. II./StG 2 supported the same operations, but fought at the Third Battle of Kharkov. From 2 March to 27 June 1943, the group recorded the loss of 15 Ju 87s and one damaged. Nine men were posted missing, three wounded and six killed. III./StG 2 conducted wider ranging operations in 1943. The main body of the group was still at Vyazma but elements fought at Kharkov, then south along the Voronezh, Rossosh and Millerovo. Some "staffeln" were known to have fought at Third Kharkov. From 1 to 15 April, elements transferred from Poltava to Kerch and operate dover the Kuban bridgehead. The group prevented the advance of Soviet forces through to the Sea of Azov from 5 May. The group used incendiary bombs to burn off reeds and vegetation surrounding the lagoons and swamps to expose Soviet infantry. The group claimed the destruction of 427 small boats. The Soviets abandoned attempts to negotiate the region on 4 July. Nine Ju 87s were reported as destroyed and another two damaged; 9 crew were killed, one wounded and two missing.  From 1943, the large numbers of T-34 medium tanks created an urgent need for heavier aerial weapons to destroy them. The German aircraft industry failed to produce a replacement for the Ju 87, which forced its continued use with new weapons. The BK 3,7 cannon was introduced which operated on a remote pneumatic system rather than an electrically sighted mechanism. The weapon showed promise as an armoured-piercing system. The muzzle velocity was 855 metres per second firing a 1.4 kg, 18 tungsten-cored explosive shell. It could penetrate 58 mm of armour at a 60 degree angle of impact at a range of 100 metres and 95mm armour could be penetrated at a range of 600 metres at a 90 degree horizontal trajectory. Further improvements allowed for penetrations of 140 mm of armour at the same range. The weight of the weapon required the

Retreat and disbandment.

The Soviet summer offensives drove the Wehrmacht and its allies back into Central Ukraine, from August through to October 1943. I./StG 2 retreated to Karachev by 19 July. From 14 August it operated at Poltava, and then along the Mius front, in the vicinity of Stalino and over Dmitriyevka, 84 km east of Dnepropetrovsk by 29 August. The goup ended operations at Pervomaisk on 18 October 1943. Of the losses recorded, there were seven Ju 87s destroyed and two damaged from 20 August to 18 October 1943. Among the victims was commanding officer, Alwin Börst, wounded in action on 27 September 1943.  II./StG 2

"Sturzkampfgeschwader" 2 (StG 2) "Immelmann" was a Luftwaffe dive bomber-wing of World War II. It was named after the World War I aviator Max Immelmann. It served until its dissolution in October 1943. The wing operated the Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka", exclusively, in the combat role.

La Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 "Immelmann" (St.G.2) ( de bombardement en piqué) est une unité de bombardements en piqué de la Luftwaffe pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.


Stimulation.

In "partial suspension" the person is bound in a way that part of their body weight is held by suspension ropes, cables or chains. The classic partial suspension position is to have the person balancing on one foot with part of their weight supported through a chest harness and the other leg pulled up in some direction. A person lying on their upper back with legs tied upwards to a suspension point to pull their lower back off the ground would also qualify as partial suspension.  In "full suspension" the person is completely supported by suspension ropes, cables or chains, and they have no contact with the ground. The position of the person's body in a full suspension is only limited by their endurance and the skill of the binder.  The main effect of suspension bondage is to create a heightened sense of vulnerability and inescapability, as the subject is made to feel that by attempting to free themselves they may fall and hurt themselves, thus also creating a form of mental bondage in addition to the physical one that holds them. Being suspended, especially in a large open space, also creates a sense of objectification, submissiveness and erotic helplessness for the subject, which can be erotically stimulating for them and for those observing them. Rope suspension is sometimes done as performance art at BDSM conventions and fetish-themed nightclubs.  Suspension can alternatively create a sense of liberation in that one can "fly" around the room, and some styles of rigging are optimal for the suspendee to have control over their spin rate, body position, and general activities. Trance-like states are also common, resulting alternatively or simultaneously from the sensations of 'anti-gravity", the heightened awareness of one's body, and the sacrifice of one's natural physical strengths.

Three main positions.

The three main suspension positions are vertical, horizontal and inverted.

Vertical suspension.

This primarily involves the person being lifted from the ground by their wrists. This is usually achieved by use of rope or by special suspension cuffs. When using rope, extreme damage can be caused to the soft tissues of the wrists, as well as reducing circulation, so being suspended by ropes can only normally be achieved for a very short period of time. Often in fiction and movies a person may be pictured hanging from metal cuffs or handcuffs. This is possible, although extremely painful and will leave deep marks in the wrists. The safest and "most comfortable" method of suspension by the wrists is to use suspension cuffs as they are specifically designed to spread the weight around the wrist as much as possible.  An alternative method of vertical suspension is to use a bondage rope harness. With the ropes tied around the body and in particular around the upper arms close to the shoulders as well as around the upper leg and through the groin, it is possible to suspend a person with ropes attached to these areas similar to the way a parachute is attached to a person. In this position the arms and legs may be left to hang free, as the person would have great difficulty getting free without assistance.

Horizontal suspension.

This position has the subject bound in a horizontal position, sometimes face up but usually face down. The body is lifted into this position either by attaching bondage equipment to the wrists and ankles, or to other areas of the body, or a mixture of both, with the subject's weight born by these areas. The ankles or wrists may be brought together or kept apart by a spreader bar. In case of the wrists and ankles ropes or suspension cuffs can be used. When the body itself is used to suspend the person, they may first be tied into a conventional bondage position such as a hogtie or ball tie, then by attaching ropes or chains to ropes under areas of the body able to take weight the person is lifted into the air.  A variation on this position is to secure the wrists to either the spreader bar or to a securing point between their ankles forming a hogtie, resulting in what is called a suspension bow. In this position, if the subject is a female and facing down, her breasts would be pointing almost straight down depending on the strictness of the position, and nipple clamps and weights can be added for painful stimulation. The clamps may alternatively be secured to a point on the floor, limiting the subject's ability to struggle or move at all without causing pain.

Inverted suspension.

Being suspended upside down can be a very hard position to maintain as a result of the position causing the blood to rush to the head. This means that this position probably cannot be maintained for any length of time and can even lead to the person blacking out. To be suspended in this position, ropes or suspension cuffs are used to lift the person into the air by their ankles.  Unlike when a person is suspended by their wrists, rope suspension around the ankles can be maintained for much longer as the ankle region naturally is able to take far more weight and stress than the wrists. This is especially so if boots are used as the ropes can run around the outside surface of the boot thus protecting the skin from damage. The person may be suspended with their legs together, or held apart either by using a spreader bar or by securing the ankles to two separate locations. With the legs held in this position, the subject may have an increased sense of vulnerability as their genital region would be easily accessible.

Risks.

The danger most often associated with suspension bondage, over and above the usual risks inherent in bondage, is falling; whether due to a weak suspension point, faulty equipment or poor technique. Inverted positions are especially hazardous in this regard since a head-first fall of only a few inches can kill or paralyze a person. Less obvious dangers include nerve compression and resulting damage, circulation problems and fainting, and the recently recognized harness hang syndrome. Harness hang syndrome appears to relate to suspension with the legs below the heart, as in the case when someone is suspended in a standing position, with no weight on their legs. Extracting a person safely out of suspension bondage can be difficult if they are unconscious, or if a winch or hoist jams. Suspension tops will often work with spotters who can help get the person down in an emergency.

Experts.

Suspension bondage is a difficult subject to find information on. While many famous riggers regularly perform suspensions, they have expressed hesitation in committing such knowledge for dissemination, due to the increased risk of injury to amateurs attempting to imitate without enough prior research or practice.  Most suspension bondage educational material is found on the web, however there are a couple of books available. Douglas Kent's Complete Shibari Volume 2: Sky (2010) is a bondage suspension guide companion to his Complete Shibari Volume 1: Land (2010) which focuses on the basic knots and ties of rope bondage. Go Arisue's Kinbaku Theory And Practices (2008) is written in Japanese, the extensive color photographs and step by step guide provide an incredible pictorial resource.

Suspension bondage is a form of sexual bondage where a bound person is hung from one or more overhead suspension points. Suspension bondage carries a higher risk than other forms of sexual bondage.

Le bondage de suspension est une forme de bondage (dans laquelle une personne, est attachée par un harnais de corde à un point de suspension. Ce type de bondage est considéré comme une pratique BDSM plus risquée que le bondage standard.


Club career.

Corini started his career in the Brescia youth squad, but he soon joined the first team, being called to be part it of when just 16 years old, making his debut the following season. He became a regular for the Lombardian team in both 1988–89 and 1989–90 seasons, before being noticed and signed by Juventus.  In his first season with Juventus, at just 20 years old, Corini played 25 times and scored one goal.  In 1992–93, Corini was sold to Sampdoria, where he made 24 appearances, and had several injury problems. In the next few years, Corini moved from team to team almost every season (Napoli, Brescia again, and Piacenza) without being able to show his full potential.  In October 1998, Verona loaned him to city rivals Chievo Verona, in Serie B. Corini soon became a mainstay of the team, being named captain and leading his team to an extraordinary promotion to Serie A in 2001, and UEFA Cup qualification the following season, after having been first-placed at the winter break.  Corini joined Palermo in 2003, helping the Sicilian team win the 2003–04 Serie B league title, followed by UEFA Cup qualification the following season. He later served as the club's captain. In June 2007, he announced he was not going to renew his contract with Palermo, and a few days later he was signed by Torino, aged 37. He was confirmed with the "granata" also for the 2008–09 season, which he stated it would be his final one as a footballer. On May 2009 Corini confirmed his retirement as a player, after he failed to recover from a recurring Achilles tendon injury which forced him to have surgery, which caused him to miss the final part of the season which saw Torino being relegated to Serie B. He also stated his intention to try himself as a head coach in the next future.

International career.

Corini became a regular also in the Italy national under-21 football team squad of the early 1990s, winning a UEFA European Under-21 Championship, and representing Italy in the 1992 Summer Olympics held in Barcelona.  Despite his success for Italy at the youth levels and for various teams at club level, he has never been capped for the full national team in a career spanning almost two decades. However, he did receive call-ups during the 1992–93 season, and more recently on November 2002.

Managerial career.

After announcing his retirement, Corini confirmed his interest in becoming a coach, being successively linked on a number of vacancies in the Italian football panorama. On 5 July 2010 Eugenio Corini was then unveiled as new head coach of Portosummaga, a newly promoted 2010–11 Serie B club; he agreed to become the club's new head coach despite not having the required coaching badges (he had only UEFA A License at the time of the appointment), so it was agreed that UEFA Pro graduate Salvatore Giunta would work alongside him.  However, Corini unexpectedly left the club only twelve days later, together with director of football Giuseppe Magalini, due to disagreements with the board regarding the transfer market policy and the future plans for the team.  On 27 November 2010 he was appointed head coach of Serie B club Crotone, replacing Leonardo Menichini. His experience with the Calabrian club turned out to be short-lived, as he was dismissed later on 20 February 2011 following a string of poor results that left Crotone in danger of relegation.  From 30 November 2011 through the end of the season he coached Frosinone in Lega Pro Prima Divisione in place of the resigned Carlo Sabatini.  On 2 October 2012 he was named new head coach of Chievo in place of Domenico Di Carlo, after the team suffered five consecutive defeats in the first six games of the season. Corini and Chievo parted ways on 29 May 2013 by mutual consent; only for Corini to return to Chievo 4 months later, appointed on 12 November 2013 to replace Giuseppe Sannino. He guided Chievo to maintain Serie A status by the end of the season and was thus confirmed as head coach, but was successively sacked on 19 October following a 0–3 defeat to Roma that left his club with four points in seven games.  On 30 November 2016, Corini was appointed manager of Palermo. He resigned on 24 January 2017.  On 4 February 2018, he was fired as manager of Novara.  He returned into management on 18 September 2018, by being named new head coach of Brescia, his first club as a player, in place of David Suazo. He was sacked on 3 November 2019. He was rehired by Brescia on 2 December 2019. On 5 February 2020, he was dismissed by Brescia once more.

Career statistics.

Club.

"Reference: La Gazzetta dello Sport"

Honours.

Player.

Palermo  Individual

Manager.

Brescia

Eugenio Corini (born 30 July 1970) is an Italian association football coach and former player. A talented, dynamic, and hard-working playmaker, known for his precise long passing, flair, and his ability to orchestrate his team's attacking moves or provide assists for teammates, Corini usually played either as an attacking midfielder or as a deep lying playmaker in midfield. A set-piece specialist, he was also known for his accuracy from free kicks, corners, and penalty kicks.

Eugenio Corini (né le à Bagnolo Mella, dans la province de Brescia, en Lombardie) est un footballeur italien, aujourd'hui reconverti en entraîneur. Il jouait au poste de milieu de terrain.


History.

The modern town of Laurium is at the site of the ancient village of Thoricus; its name is taken from that of the entire region of the Mines of Laurium.  The earliest evidence for mining dates to the beginning of the Bronze Age, ca. 3200 BC.  Systematic exploitation of mineral resources seem to have begun in the 6th century BC under Peisistratus. After the battle of Marathon, Themistocles persuaded the Athenians to devote the anticipated revenue derived from a major silver vein strike in the mines of Laurion circa 483 BC to expanding the Athenian fleet to 200 triremes, and thus laid the foundation of the Athenian naval power. The mines, which were the property of the state, were usually farmed out for a certain fixed sum and a percentage on the working; slave labour was exclusively employed. An unrecorded number were children. It was a miserable, dangerous, and brief life. As many as 20,000 slaves were employed at the height of the mining. A silver mint (Argyrocopeum) was at Laurion.  Towards the end of the 5th century, the output fell, partly owing to the Spartan occupation of Decelea. But the mines continued to be worked, though Strabo records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and Pausanias speaks of the mines as a thing of the past. The ancient workings, consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and washing tables for concentrating the ore, may still be seen at many locations. There were well engineered tanks and reservoirs to collect rainwater for washing the ore since abundant supplies from streams or rivers was impossible at the site. The mines were reworked in the early 20th century by French and Greek companies, but mainly for lead, manganese and cadmium. The Mineralogical Museum of Lavrion comprises samples of minerals from the region of Lavrion.

Facilities.

The Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport is 35 km away from Lavrio or about 30 minutes drive. Lavrio is connected to Athens by car using the Lavrio/Sounio Leoforos (Highway) and then Attiki Odos. This trip takes about an hour. A quite convenient solution to go to Athens is to "park and drive". Drive from Lavrio to Koropi Train Station and there take the train proastiakos or metro that goes straight to Athens center. (30 minutes drive + 30 minutes train)  Lavrio was the terminal station of the Athens-Lavrion Railway, which was abandoned in 1957.  The mining town of Laurium, Michigan was named after the famous Greek Laurium.

Sports.

Laurium hosts the football club Olympiacos Laurium, which played in the Gamma Ethniki in the past, and the basketball club Lavrio B.C., which plays in the Basket League.

Laurium, Lavrio, Lavrion or Laureion (; ; before early 11th century BC: Θορικός "Thorikos"; from Middle Ages until 1908: Εργαστήρια "Ergastiria") is a town in southeastern part of Attica, Greece. It is part of Athens metropolitan area and the seat of the municipality of Lavreotiki. Laurium was famous in Classical antiquity for its silver mines, which was one of the chief sources of revenue of the Athenian state. The metallic silver was mainly used for coinage. The Archaeological Museum of Lavrion shows much of the story of these mines.

Lávrio ou Laurion (, ) est une petite ville du sud-est de l'Attique, siège du dème de Lavreotikí. Elle se situe à 60 km environ au sud-est d'Athènes et à 13 km au nord du cap Sounion, dans une baie faisant face à l'île de Makronissos.


Professional career.

New York Yankees.

Peña was signed by the New York Yankees out of the Mexican League in 2005. He played for the Tampa Yankees in the Class-A Advanced Florida State League and Trenton Thunder of the Class-AA Eastern League that season and in 2006. He played for Trenton in 2007 and 2008, and was selected to participate in the 2008 All-Star Futures Game.  In 2009, Peña made the Yankees Opening Day roster, beating out Ángel Berroa to be the utility infielder. He made his major league debut on April 6, 2009, appearing in the game as a pinch runner. On April 9 he got a hit in his first major league at bat, off Chris Ray of the Baltimore Orioles. On April 14 against the Tampa Bay Rays, Pena started his first career game at third base, going 0 for 3 with a walk. On April 30, Peña got his first career run batted in in the bottom of the 8th inning against Justin Speier of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim by hitting a double down the right field line. With the acquisition of Eric Hinske on June 29, 2009, Peña was optioned to the Triple-A Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Yankees of the International League to receive regular at-bats and learn to play in the outfield. Manager Joe Girardi said he expected Peña to be back with the Yankees later in the season. He was recalled to the Yankees on August 7.  Peña was recalled in September, and he hit his first major league home run on September 28, 2009, off of Kansas City Royals pitcher Luke Hochevar at Yankee Stadium.  Peña was a member of the Yankees 2009 World Series championship team which defeated the Philadelphia Phillies in 6 games.  Peña was optioned to Triple-A's Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Yankees to start the 2011 season. On May 6, he was recalled to the majors after Eric Chavez was placed on the disabled list. On July 18, 2011, Peña required an emergency appendectomy.  Ramiro was recalled on July 25, 2012, to replace Alex Rodriguez on the roster after Rodriguez sustained a fractured left pinkie during a game in Seattle. He was optioned back to Triple-A on August 1, 2012, after the Yankees acquired Casey McGehee from the Pittsburgh Pirates. He was designated for assignment on September 1.

Atlanta Braves.

After the 2012 season, Peña became a free agent. He signed a one-year contract worth $550,000 with the Atlanta Braves. On June 20, 2013, Peña was placed on the disabled list for right shoulder pain; it was later revealed that he would require right shoulder surgery, ending his season. After the season, Peña signed a one-year deal with the Braves, avoiding arbitration. Peña was designated for assignment by the Braves on November 19, 2014. He was outrighted to the Triple-A Gwinnett Braves on November 27, 2014. Pena refused the assignment and elected for free agency.

San Diego Padres.

Peña signed a minor league deal with the San Diego Padres on January 26, 2015. He played for the El Paso Chihuahuas, the Padres' Triple-A affiliate.

San Francisco Giants.

On December 13, 2015, Peña signed a minor league deal with the San Francisco Giants. On June 10, 2016, the Giants purchased Peña's contract to replace the injured Kelby Tomlinson. Peña batted.299 in 30 games for the Giants starting games at second base, third base and shortstop. Peña was designated for assignment on July 30, 2016 when Hunter Pence was activated from the DL.

Hiroshima Toyo Carp.

On January 30, 2017, Peña signed with the Hiroshima Toyo Carp of Nippon Professional Baseball.

Sultanes de Monterrey.

On February 26, 2018, Peña signed with the Sultanes de Monterrey of the Mexican Baseball League.

International career.

Peña was selected to play for the Mexico national team in the 2013 World Baseball Classic and 2019 exhibition games against Japan.

Ramiro Peña Gauna (born July 18, 1985) is a Mexican professional baseball infielder for the Sultanes de Monterrey in the Mexican Baseball League. He previously played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the New York Yankees, Atlanta Braves, and San Francisco Giants.

Ramiro Gauna Peña (né le à Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexique) est un joueur d'utilité des Padres de San Diego de la Ligue majeure de baseball.


History of English Affairs.

William's major work was Historia rerum Anglicarum or Historia de rebus anglicis ("History of English Affairs"), a history of England from 1066 to 1198, written in Latin. The work is valued by historians for detailing The Anarchy under Stephen of England. It is written in an engaging fashion and still readable to this day, containing many fascinating stories and glimpses into 12th-century life. He is a major source for stories of medieval revenants, animated corpses that returned from their graves, with close parallels to vampire beliefs, and the only source for the bishop-pirate Wimund.  The 19th-century historian Edward Augustus Freeman expressed the now outdated opinion that William was "the father of historical criticism." Indeed, he was very critical of King John, whom he describes as "nature's enemy", and in general his discussion of English kings is "loyal but critical and cool".  William saw his own work as being based on reliable sources, unlike Geoffrey of Monmouth's "Historia Regum Britanniae", of which Newburgh was critical, saying "only a person ignorant of ancient history would have any doubt about how shamelessly and impudently he lies in almost everything." He criticised Geoffrey for writing a history that conflicted with the accounts found in the writings of Bede.  Because belief in souls returning from the dead was common in the 12th century, William's "Historia" briefly recounts stories he heard about revenants, as does the work of Walter Map, his Welsh contemporary. Although they form a minor part in each work, these folklore accounts have attracted attention within occultism. He also described the arrival of green children from "St. Martin's Land" and other mysterious, wondrous occurrences. While he says that these have an apparent signification, he does not explain what that meaning might be: "he offers these prodigious events to his readers with questions, hesitations, and doubt – with, in short, all the confessions of a critical and honest mind".  William also composed a lengthy Marian exposition on the Song of Songs and three sermons on liturgical texts and Saint Alban.

William of Newburgh or Newbury (, "Wilhelmus Neubrigensis", or "Willelmus de Novoburgo". 1136 -1198), also known as William Parvus, was a 12th-century English historian and Augustinian canon of Anglo-Saxon descent from Bridlington, Yorkshire.

William de Newburgh ou de Newbury (traduction du latin "Guillelmus Neubrigensis", né vers 1136 et mort vers 1198), aussi connu sous le nom de Guillaume de Newburgh, William Parvus ou de Guillaume de Neubrige, est un historien anglais du Moyen Âge et un chanoine de saint Augustin qui a demeuré à Bridlington au Yorkshire.


History.

Following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. It aimed to be a regional organisation of Arab states with a focus to developing the economy, resolving disputes and coordinating political aims. Other countries later joined the league. Each country was given one vote in the council. The first major action was the joint intervention, allegedly on behalf of the majority Arab population being uprooted as the state of Israel emerged in 1948 (and in response to popular protest in the Arab world), but a major participant in this intervention, Transjordan, had agreed with the Israelis to divide up the Arab Palestinian state proposed by the United Nations General Assembly, and Egypt intervened primarily to prevent its rival in Amman from accomplishing its objective. It was followed by the creation of a mutual defence treaty two years later. A common market was established in 1965.

Geography.

The Arab League member states cover over and straddles two continents: Africa and Asia. The area largely consists of arid deserts, such as the Sahara. Nevertheless, it also contains several highly fertile lands like the Nile Valley, the Jubba Valley and Shebelle Valley in the Horn of Africa, the Atlas Mountains in the Maghreb, and the Fertile Crescent that stretches over Mesopotamia and the Levant. The area comprises deep forests in southern Arabia and parts of the world's longest river, the Nile.

Membership.

The Charter of the Arab League, also known as the Pact of the League of Arab States, is the founding treaty of the Arab League. Adopted in 1945, it stipulates that "the League of Arab States shall be composed of the independent Arab States that have signed this Pact."  Initially, in 1945, there were only six members. Today, the Arab League has 22 members, including three African countries among the largest by area (Sudan, Algeria and Libya) and the largest country in Western Asia (Saudi Arabia).  Five countries have observer status that entitles them to express their opinion and give advice but denies them voting rights.  There was a continual increase in membership during the second half of the 20th century., there are 22 member states: and 5 observer states: Libya was suspended on 22 February 2011, following the start of the Libyan Civil War. The National Transitional Council, the partially recognised interim government of Libya, sent a representative to be seated at the Arab League meeting on 17 August to participate in a discussion as to whether to readmit Libya to the organisation.  Syria was suspended on 16 November 2011. On 6 March 2013, the Arab League gave the Syrian National Coalition Syria's seat in the Arab League. On 9 March 2014, secretary general Nabil al-Arabi said that Syria's seat would remain vacant until the opposition completes the formation of its institutions.

Politics and administration.

The Arab League is a political organization which tries to help integrate its members economically, and solve conflicts involving member states without asking for foreign assistance. It possesses elements of a state representative parliament while foreign affairs are often conducted under UN supervision.  The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland while respecting the sovereignty of the individual member states. The internal regulations of the Council of the League and the committees were agreed in October 1951. Those of the Secretariat-General were agreed in May 1953.  Since then, governance of the Arab League has been based on the duality of supra-national institutions and the sovereignty of the member states. Preservation of individual statehood derived its strengths from the natural preference of ruling elites to maintain their power and independence in decision making. Moreover, the fear of the richer that the poorer may share their wealth in the name of Arab nationalism, the feuds among Arab rulers, and the influence of external powers that might oppose Arab unity can be seen as obstacles towards a deeper integration of the league.  Mindful of their previous announcements in support of the Arabs of Palestine the framers of the Pact were determined to include them within the League from its inauguration. This was done by means of an annex that declared: At the Cairo Summit of 1964, the Arab League initiated the creation of an organisation representing the Palestinian people. The first Palestinian National Council convened in East Jerusalem on 29 May 1964. The Palestinian Liberation Organization was founded during this meeting on 2 June 1964. Palestine was shortly admitted in to the Arab League, represented by the PLO. Today, State of Palestine is a full member of the Arab League.  At the Beirut Summit on 28 March 2002, the league adopted the Arab Peace Initiative, a Saudi-inspired peace plan for the Arab–Israeli conflict. The initiative offered full normalisation of the relations with Israel. In exchange, Israel was required to withdraw from all occupied territories, including the Golan Heights, to recognise Palestinian independence in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, with East Jerusalem as its capital, as well as a "just solution" for the Palestinian refugees. The Peace Initiative was again endorsed at 2007 in the Riyadh Summit. In July 2007, the Arab League sent a mission, consisting of the Jordanian and Egyptian foreign ministers, to Israel to promote the initiative. Following Venezuela's move to expel Israeli diplomats amid the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, Kuwaiti member of parliament Waleed Al-Tabtabaie proposed moving Arab League headquarters to Caracas, Venezuela. On 13 June 2010, Amr Mohammed Moussa, Secretary-General of the Arab League, visited the Gaza Strip, the first visit by an official of the Arab League since Hamas' armed takeover in 2007.  In 2015, the Arab League voiced support for Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who was deposed in the 2011 uprising.  On 15 April 2018, in response to the Turkish invasion of northern Syria aimed at ousting U.S.-backed Syrian Kurds from the enclave of Afrin, the Arab League passed a resolution calling on Turkish forces to withdraw from Afrin.  In September 2019, the Arab League condemned Benjamin Netanyahu's plans to annex the eastern portion of the occupied West Bank known as the Jordan Valley.  The Arab League met in Cairo on 12 October 2019 to discuss Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria. Upon meeting, its member states voted to condemn the Turkish offensive, dubbing it both an 'invasion' and an 'aggression' against an Arab state, adding that the organization saw it as a violation of international law.

Military.

The Joint Defence Council of the Arab League is one of the Institutions of the Arab League. It was established under the terms of the Joint Defence and Economic Co-operation Treaty of 1950 to coordinate the joint defence of the Arab League member states.  The Arab League as an organisation has no military Force, similar to the UN, but at the 2007 summit, the Leaders decided to reactivate their joint defence and establish a peacekeeping force to deploy in South Lebanon, Darfur, Iraq, and other hot spots.  At a 2015 summit in Egypt, member states agreed in principle to form a joint military force.

Economic resources.

The Arab League is rich in resources, such as enormous oil and natural gas resources in certain member states. Another industry that is growing steadily in the Arab League is telecommunications. Within less than a decade, local companies such as Orascom and Etisalat have managed to compete internationally.  Economic achievements initiated by the League amongst member states have been less impressive than those achieved by smaller Arab organisations such as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Among them is the Arab Gas Pipeline, that will transport Egyptian and Iraqi gas to Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey. As of 2013, a significant difference in economic conditions exist between the developed oil states of Algeria, Qatar, Kuwait and the UAE, and developing countries like the Comoros, Djibouti, Mauritania, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen. The Arab League also includes great fertile lands in the southern part of Sudan. It is referred to as the food basket of the Arab World, the region's instability including the independence of South Sudan has not affected its tourism industry, that is considered the fastest growing industry in the region, with Egypt, UAE, Lebanon, Tunisia, and Jordan leading the way. Another industry that is growing steadily in the Arab League is telecommunications.  Economical achievements within members have been low in the league's history, other smaller Arab Organizations have achieved more than the league has, such as the GCC, but lately several major economic projects that are promising are to be completed, the Arab Gas Pipeline is to end by the year 2010, Connecting Egyptian and Iraqi Gas to Jordan, Syria and Lebanon, and then to Turkey thus Europe, a free trade Agreement (GAFTA) is to be completed by 1 January 2008, making 95% of all Arab Products tax free of customs.

Transport.

The Arab League is divided into five parts when it comes to transport, with the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East being entirely connected by air, sea, roads and railways. Another part of the League is the Nile Valley, made up of Egypt and Sudan. These two member states have started to improve the River Nile's navigation system to improve accessibility and thus foster trading. A new railway system is also set to connect the southern Egyptian city of Abu Simbel with the northern Sudanese city of Wadi Halfa and then to Khartoum and Port Sudan. The third division of the League is the Maghreb, where a 3,000 km stretch of railway runs from the southern cities of Morocco to Tripoli in Western Libya. The fourth division of the League is the Horn of Africa, whose member states include Djibouti and Somalia. These two Arab League states are separated by only ten nautical miles from the Arabian Peninsula by the Bab el Mandeb and this is quickly changing as Tarik bin Laden, the brother of Osama bin Laden, has initiated the construction of the ambitious Bridge of the Horns project, which ultimately aims to connect the Horn of Africa with the Arabian Peninsula via a massive bridge. The project is intended to facilitate and accelerate the already centuries-old trade and commerce between the two regions. The last division of the League is the isolated island of the Comoros located off the coast of East Africa, which is not physically connected to any other Arab state, but still trades with other Arab League members.

Literacy in Arab league countries.

In collecting literacy data, many countries estimate the number of literate people based on self-reported data. Some use educational attainment data as a proxy, but measures of school attendance or grade completion may differ. Because definitions and data collection methods vary across countries, literacy estimates should be used with caution. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2010. It is also important to note that the Persian Gulf region has had an oil boom, enabling more schools and universities to be set up.

Demographics.

The Arab League is a culturally and ethnically one association of 22 member states, with the overwhelming majority of the League's population identified as Arab (on a cultural ethnoracial basis). As of July 1, 2013, about 359 million people live in the states of the Arab League. Its population grows faster than in most other global regions. The most populous member state is Egypt, with a population of about 100 million. The least populated is the Comoros, with over 0.6 million inhabitants.

Religion.

The majority of the Arab League's citizens adhere to Islam, with Christianity being the second largest religion. At least 15 million Christians combined live in Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Sudan and Syria. In addition, there are smaller but significant numbers of Druze, Yazidis, Shabaks and Mandaeans. Numbers for nonreligious Arabs are generally not available, but research by the Pew Forum suggests around 1% of people in the MENA region are "unaffiliated".

Languages.

The official language of the Arab League is Literary Arabic, based on Classical Arabic. However, several Arab League member states have other co-official or national languages, such as Somali, Afar, Comorian, French, English, Berber and Kurdish. In most countries, there is a dominant non-codified spoken Arabic dialect.

Culture.

Sports.

The Pan Arab Games are considered the biggest Arab sporting event, which brings together athletes from all the Arab countries to participate in a variety of different sports.  The Union of Arab Football Associations organises the Arab Nations Cup (for national teams) and the Arab Club Champions Cup (for clubs). Arab sport federations also exist for several games, include basketball, volleyball, handball, table tennis, tennis, squash and swimming.

The Arab League (, '), formally the League of Arab States (, '), is a regional organization in the Arab world, which is located in Africa and Western Asia. The Arab League was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 initially with six members: Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan (renamed Jordan in 1949), Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945. Currently, the League has 22 members, but Syria's participation has been suspended since November 2011.

La Ligue arabe (, "Jāmiʿat al-ʿarabiyya"), officiellement la Ligue des États arabes (, "Jāmiʿat ad-duwal al-ʿarabiyya"), est une organisation régionale à statut d’observateur auprès de l'Organisation des Nations unies. Elle est fondée le au Caire par six pays et compte aujourd'hui vingt-deux États membres. L'organisation de la Ligue arabe repose sur quatre organismes principaux : le sommet des chefs d'État, le Conseil des ministres, les comités permanents et le Secrétariat général dirigé par Ahmed Aboul Gheit depuis 2016. De plus, divers organismes ont été créés en application de traités qui complètent le pacte de 1945 et plusieurs agences spécialisées travaillent en étroite collaboration avec elle.


High school.

Brown attended Bathurst Heights Secondary School in Toronto, and led the school's AAA basketball team to the Ontario provincial championship in 2000. In his junior year, he averaged 30 points per game (ppg). However, he transferred to West Hill Collegiate Institute for his senior season after Bathurst Heights closed. In 2002, his senior year, Brown was highly celebrated in the media when he scored 111 points in a basketball game against R. H. King Academy. After Brown scored 111 points in a game he was featured in "SLAM" magazine; not only because of the 111 points, but also because he had committed to an elite college program at the University of Connecticut (UConn).

College.

Brown was a sophomore at UConn when the Huskies won the 2004 national championship. In his senior year at UConn (2005-06 season), he averaged 10.7 points, 1.3 assists, and 4.4 rebounds per game. In November the Huskies beat Gonzaga to win the Maui Invitational on a last-second jumper by Brown. His season-high came during a game against Villanova in which he scored 23 points. In the regional finals of the 2006 NCAA Tournament, Brown made a last-second lay-up to force overtime against George Mason, but missed a potential game-winning three pointer at the buzzer resulting in an 86-84 loss. During his tenure with the Huskies, Brown had a reputation for being a clutch performer, as well as possessing an above average handle for a wing player.

NBA.

Brown was selected with the 40th pick in the 2nd round in the 2006 NBA Draft by the Seattle SuperSonics. After playing two preseason games with totals of eight points and five rebounds with the Sonics, he was waived by the team on October 26, 2006. However, the Tulsa 66ers subsequently used the eighth overall pick in the 2006 NBA D-League Draft on Brown.  In his first preseason game with the SuperSonics, Brown scored 8 points in a winning effort against the Portland Trail Blazers. After that game Brown saw little action for the SuperSonics in the preseason appearing in just one more game. He was playing well in the D-League averaging close to 19 ppg for the Tulsa 66ers.  On November 7, 2008, Brown was selected with the 9th pick in the first round of the 2008 NBA D-League Draft by the Utah Flash. He began the 2008–09 season with the Dakota Wizards.  On December 19, 2008, Brown was waived by the Wizards due to injury.  On March 4, 2009, Brown signed with the D-League's Iowa Energy.

Overseas.

Brown left the Tulsa 66ers later in the 2006–07 season, and played in a pro league in Turkey for Galatasaray Café Crown. For the 2007–08 season, he signed with the Serie A Italian team Tisettanta Cantù.  Brown took his talents to Philippines for three weeks in June 2010, as one of a series of import players for the Philippine Basketball Association's Barangay Ginebra Kings.  On August 25, 2010, Polish league champion for two straight years, Asseco Prokom Gdynia, added Brown to their roster.

National team.

Brown has extensive experience playing on the Canadian national team. He first made the team in 2003 when he was on the roster for the FIBA Americas Qualification Tournament. At the FIBA Tournament he played in ten games, starting none of them; but he averaged 12.4 ppg, 4.2 rebounds per game (rpg), 1.0 assist per game (apg) and 20 minutes per game (mpg). In 2004, he was on the roster for the Four Nations Tournament. At that tournament, he upped his scoring average to 13.8 ppg, while starting all six games and averaging 23.3 mpg, 5.3 rpg, and 1.3 apg. He also played with the team in 2005, but did not play in 2006, as he was attempting to play in NBA. Brown played for the team during the 2007 FIBA Americas Championship.

NBL Canada.

On October 11, 2011, it was announced that Brown had signed a deal with the National Basketball League of Canada's Oshawa Power. Not only does this give him the opportunity to play professionally in his native Canada, but it also marks his return to the Greater Toronto Area, of which Oshawa is a part.

Denham Washington Brown (born January 6, 1983) is a Canadian professional basketball player who last played for BC Mures in the Romanian National League.

Denham W. Brown (né le, à Toronto, Ontario) est un joueur canadien de basket-ball, évoluant aux postes d'arrière et d'ailier.


Early years.

Morais was born in Livorno, Italy. He was the elder son and the third of nine children of Samuel and Bona Morais. The Morais family came originally from Portugal, being probably among the large number of Jews who fled thence from the Inquisition. At the time of Sabato's birth, Italy was in the thick of her great struggle for freedom. Samuel Morais was an ardent republican, at one time undergoing imprisonment for his political views, and his father, Sabato Morais, was prominently identified with the political movements of his day.  Upon young Sabato early rested the responsibility of aiding in the support of the family. While still a child he earned a little by teaching Hebrew hymns and prayers to other children, meantime pursuing his own studies under Rabbis Funaro, Curiat, and others, and then under his Hebrew master, Rabbi Abraham Baruch Piperno, and gaining honorable mention in belles-lettres under Prof. Salvatore de Benedetti. In addition to Hebrew and Italian, he acquired familiarity with Aramaic, French, and Spanish.  He remained at his home studying and teaching until 1845, when he went to London to apply for the vacant post of assistant hazzan of the Spanish and Portuguese congregation in that city. (The position of "hazzan", literally "cantor", in the context of 19th-century American Judaism was generally equivalent to the contemporary position of "rabbi"). Owing to his unfamiliarity with English he was unsuccessful and returned to his home, but in the following year (1846) he accepted an invitation to become Hebrew master of the Orphans' School of the same congregation. Here he remained five years, meantime perfecting himself in English. During this period he formed a close friendship with Joseph Mazzini, and that patriot's struggle for Italian freedom was warmly seconded by Morais.

Elected hazzan in Philadelphia.

In 1850, owing to the withdrawal of Isaac Leeser, the pulpit of the Mikveh Israel Synagogue congregation at Philadelphia, became vacant, and Morais was an applicant for the post. He arrived in Philadelphia on March 17, 1851, and was elected April 13 following, the synagogue services in the interval being conducted by him. In 1855 he married Clara Esther Weil, who died in 1872, leaving seven children. From the date of his installation as hazzan until his death his influence was a continually growing power for traditional (Orthodox) Judaism. The synagogue formerly (c.1906) occupied by the Mikveh Israel congregation was built and consecrated during his incumbency.  Though his ministry covered the period of greatest activity in the adaptation of Judaism in America to changed conditions, he, as the advocate of Orthodox Judaism, withstood every appeal in behalf of ritualistic innovations and departures from traditional practice, winning the esteem of his opponents by his consistency and integrity. His sermons covered a wide scope of thought and action, and he showed the loftiness of his spirit when, in spite of congregational opposition to the expression of his views during the American Civil War, he continued, both in prayer and in his discourses, to show his warm sympathy with the cause of the slave. In appreciation of his attitude during these trying times the Union League Club of Philadelphia placed him on the roll of its honorary members.

Aids in founding the Theological Seminary.

When, in 1867, Maimonides College was established in Philadelphia, Morais was made professor of the Bible and of Biblical literature, and he held the chair during the six years that the college existed. For a number of years thereafter he felt the urgent need of an institution for the training of Jewish ministers on historical and traditional lines, and the declarations of the Pittsburg Conference in 1885 urged him to immediate action. After a considerable agitation of the subject he succeeded, in conjunction with a few others, in establishing (January, 1886) the Jewish Theological Seminary at New York.  He was at once made president of the faculty and professor of Bible, holding both posts until his death. Unquestionably the establishment of the seminary constitutes Morais' most lasting influence upon Judaism in America. The directors of that body have fittingly recognized his memory by naming the chair of Biblical literature and exegesis "the Sabato Morais professorship." In 1887 the University of Pennsylvania conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws, he being the first Jew so honored by that institution. Many of his papers are evidently held in that institution's library.

His multifarious activity.

In addition to the work which he did in official positions, Morais was most active in religious, educational, and charity matters. The Hebrew Sunday-School Society, the Hebrew Education Society of Philadelphia, and the Young Men's Hebrew Association of that city numbered him among their most steadfast friends. In his own home he gathered about him a small band of young men whom he instructed in Hebrew, Talmud, and Jewish history, and in whom he inspired a zealous love for Judaism which has had a very marked effect upon the character not only of his pupils (among them Isaac Husik), but of the community at large. Among his children, Henry Samuel Morais was also a well-known communal rabbi, serving at several different congregations in Mikve Israel and other congregations in New York and Rhode Island.  The strong conservatism of the Jews of Philadelphia and the warm interest in the higher things of Judaism evinced by the younger men of that city may be in a large measure directly traced to the influence of Sabato Morais. He was greatly interested in the Alliance Israélite Universelle, and was in constant correspondence with rabbis and scholars in Europe and the Orient. Through his friend Chevalier Emanuel Felice Veneziani, the almoner of Baron de Hirsch, he was enabled to secure timely aid for the agricultural colonies in New Jersey and was the representative of Baron de Hirsch in the Carmel Colony.  When the Russo-Jewish exodus began, in 1882, and Russian Jews in large numbers settled in Philadelphia, Morais immediately became their friend. Although unable to speak their language, his perfect familiarity with Hebrew as a living tongue gave him a ready means of communication. Among Gentiles also he was widely known and esteemed, and was very frequently called upon to address public assemblies.  Besides his sermons, he contributed to Jewish literature much in the form of addresses to various Jewish organizations and of theological, polemical, literary, and critical articles for the Jewish press at home and abroad. He wrote classic Hebrew in prose and in verse with ease and elegance.  In all his life, Morais maintained close (cultural, religious and political) ties with his motherland, Italy. His translations and essays in Italian Jewry made him the founding father of Italian Jewish Studies in America.  Among his later works are:  Morias is interred in the Mikveh Israel Cemetery (11th and Federal).

Sabato Morais (; April 13, 1823 – November 11, 1897) was an Italian-American rabbi, leader of Mikveh Israel Synagogue in Philadelphia, pioneer of Italian Jewish Studies in America, and founder of the Jewish Theological Seminary, which initially acted as an center of education for Orthodox Rabbis.

Sabato Morais ( Shabbetaï Moraïs) est un dirigeant communautaire italo-américain du (Livourne, 1823 - Philadelphie, 1897). Bien que dépourvu du titre de rabbin, il en assume les fonctions de 1851 jusqu’à sa mort.


Personal life.

Halbwachs was born on 24 August 1986 on Curepipe, Mauritius. She is married to Yannick Lincoln who is a six time Tour Mauritius champion. She paired with him from 2003 in several mixed doubles squads and cycle championships. They got married in 2006. She gave birth to a girl child, Yana, on 13 September 2015. She volunteered in the initiative of the Ministry of Sports in Mauritius to build a velodrome constructed to enable the infrastructure facilities in Roches Brunes.

Events.

She started her career in cycling in 2006 and competed in various local and international tournaments. She had good success in African Championship winning most of her medals there. She competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics, finishing in 68th place, and the 2012 Summer Olympics in the Women's road race, where she failed to finish. Halbwachs best international performance as of 2016 are the silver medal at African Continental Championships WE in 2010, bronze medal at African Continental Championships WJ in 2009-11, silver in National Championships Mauritius WE - Road Race in 2016 and bronze at stage Tour de Free State in 2012. In Mauritius, she was the winner of National Championships Mauritius - Road Race in 2012 and National Championships Mauritius - ITT in 2012. During 2016, she started participating in mountain bike races which typically were of 1,200 m climbs and long. She has partial association with South African Airways, who have enabled her participate in the events. She has been named Mauritius's Athlete of the Year in 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2011.

Aurelie Halbwachs (born 24 August 1986 in Curepipe, Mauritius) is a Mauritian road bicycle racer. She competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics, finishing in 68th place, and the 2012 Summer Olympics in the Women's road race, where she failed to finish.

Aurélie Marie Halbwachs (née le à Curepipe à Maurice) est une coureuse cycliste mauricienne. Elle a notamment terminé à de nombreuses reprises sur le podium du championnat d'Afrique du contre-la-montre dont plusieurs victoires.


Early years.

Carlos was born in Úbeda, Andalusia. At the age of seven, he moved to Catalonia with his family for working purposes, beginning his career with local amateur clubs and making his senior debut in Tercera División with CF Igualada.  In 1981, Carlos moved to Cádiz for his military service, going on to spend one year out of football as local Cádiz CF tried to acquire him, being denied by Igualada.

Club career.

In 1983, Carlos signed for FC Barcelona, going on to appear almost exclusively for its reserves during his spell – he did compete with the first team in the Copa de la Liga – and also being consecutively loaned to Elche CF, Hércules CF and Real Murcia, all in La Liga. In the 1987–88 season, still owned by the "Blaugrana", he joined Real Oviedo in Segunda División, with whom he achieved promotion (finished fourth, but Real Madrid Castilla were ineligible) while becoming the tier's top scorer.  Carlos subsequently returned to Barcelona and, despite his wish to remain with Oviedo, was sold to Atlético Madrid where he could never settle, being barred in the capital side by the likes of Baltazar and Manolo. He returned to the Asturians for the following campaign, proceeding to amass more than 100 overall goals for them; in seven top level seasons, he only netted once in single digits and had 20 in 1993–94.  Subsequently, Carlos had an abroad spell with Mexico's Puebla FC, where he continued to display his scoring ability. In a 12 October 1996 match against Tecos UAG, he netted four times in a 5–2 success; he retired from football altogether after a few games with another club in the country and region, Lobos BUAP, at the age of 40.

International career.

For the Spain national team, Carlos played six times with as many goals in a one-year span. His first cap came on 12 September 1990 in a friendly match with Brazil in Gijón, and he scored after ten minutes in a 3–0 win.  After his stellar campaign with Oviedo, Carlos was overlooked by national boss Javier Clemente for his 1994 FIFA World Cup squad, even though he was the best national goal scorer in the season. The pair had had a run-in whilst at Atlético Madrid.

Carlos Antonio Muñoz Cobo (born 25 August 1961), known simply as Carlos, is a Spanish retired footballer who played as a striker.

Carlos Antonio Muñoz Cobo, plus communément appelé Carlos (né le à Úbeda en Espagne) est un joueur de football espagnol.


Premise.

"Chase" revolves around Kelli Giddish's character, U.S. Deputy Marshal Annie Frost. The other principal cast members, who all portray Marshals, are Cole Hauser as Jimmy Godfrey, Amaury Nolasco as Marco Martinez, Rose Rollins as Daisy Ogbaa, and Jesse Metcalfe as Luke Watson. Siena Goines has a recurring role as Jimmy's girlfriend Natalie.

Development and production.

NBC picked up the script penned by Jennifer Johnson with a put pilot commitment in September 2009. Johnson will serve as an executive producer, along with Jerry Bruckheimer and Jonathan Littman. David Nutter was signed to direct the pilot.  Casting announcements began the second week of February 2010. Rose Rollins was first to be cast, in the role of Daisy Ogbaa, the team's weapon specialist. This was followed quickly by the announcements of the casting of Jesse Metcalfe as Luke Watson, a Marshal from Washington, D.C., and Cole Hauser, as an experienced ex-cop who co-heads the apprehension team. Amaury Nolasco came on board a few days later to portray veteran cop Marco Martinez.  The role of the show's central character, Annie Frost, was offered to actresses Maria Bello, Téa Leoni, and Christina Applegate. The producers were seeking a "strong female lead actress" for the role of Frost. Eventually Kelli Giddish landed the female lead role in late February. The show is primarily set in Houston, Texas episode 2 onward.  The pilot takes place in Houston, Texas and was shot in Dallas and Anna, Texas in March. NBC ordered "Chase" to series on May 10, 2010. The series will continue to be filmed in the Dallas area.  On December 3, 2010 the episode order for "Chase" was cut from 22 to 18.

Reception.

The show has received mixed reviews from critics, gaining a 48 out of 100 from a review aggregator site Metacritic.

Broadcasts.

"Chase" premiered on September 20, 2010. On November 15, 2010 it was announced that "Chase" would be moving to Wednesdays at 9:00 pm Eastern/8:00 pm Central beginning in January. On February 3, 2011 NBC pulled "Chase" from its schedule to be replaced with "Minute to Win It".  On July 26, 2010, Sky Living secured the rights to air "Chase" in the United Kingdom. The show will be called "Jerry Bruckheimer's Chase" and it will be broadcast in the UK, and is expected to start airing in August 2011. "Chase" was simulcast in Canada on Citytv.  "Chase" was included in the test broadcast of CHASE on BEAM 31 Philippines, aired every Monday at 10 pm. When the channel ceased its operation on October 19, 2012, the series was carried over by its succeeding station Jack City.  For late night filler on Thursday from January 17, 2013, TVNZ began airing this on New Zealand's TV2.

Chase is an American police procedural drama television series created by Jennifer Johnson for the NBC network. The series follows a U.S. Marshals fugitive-apprehension team, based out of Houston, Texas. Jerry Bruckheimer and Johnson serve as executive producers for the one-hour drama. The series originally aired on Mondays at 10:00 pm ET/9:00 pm CT and premiered on September 20, 2010. After the mid-season break, "Chase" returned on Wednesdays at 9:00 pm ET/8:00 pm CT. On October 19, 2010, the network ordered a full season consisting of 22 episodes, but this order was cut to 18 in December. On February 3, 2011, the show was put on "a hiatus" with no plan regarding the remaining episodes. On April 6, 2011, NBC announced the remaining five episodes would be broadcast on Saturday nights beginning on April 23 and ended the series on May 21, 2011. Later the show was replaced by "Harry's Law".

En Belgique, la série est diffusée depuis le sur La Une, au Québec, depuis le sur Séries+, et en France, depuis le sur TF1 puis rediffusée à partir du sur HD1 en VM.


Discovery and research history.

Volcanic activity at Monowai was discovered between 1877 and 1924, and a shoal was first noted in 1944 (although this may constitute a misinterpreted pumice raft or disturbance of the water.) Monowai was first recognized to be a volcano in 1977 and was named in 1980 after the research ship. The caldera was discovered only in 2004. The volcano has been dredged and further investigated by the submersibles Pisces V and ROPOS and various research cruises. It is also informally known as "Orion seamount".

Geography and structure.

Regional.

Monowai lies at the northern end of the Kermadec Arc north of New Zealand, in the Southwestern Pacific Ocean about halfway between Tonga and the Kermadec Islands. The Kermadec Arc is the southern part of the about long Tonga-Kermadec arc; this volcanic arc contains about 12 volcanic islands and at least 37 submarine volcanoes, which occur about every. Many of these volcanoes were only recently discovered and are poorly studied; hydrothermal activity has been observed at many. The Osbourn Trough and the Louisville seamount chain are being subducted close to Monowai and might have influenced the development of the seamount and the volcanic arc and back-arc in general. Monowai is one of the most active volcanoes in the Kermadec arc; two other active volcanoes are Raoul Island and Rumble III while Clark, Rumble V, Healy, Brothers, Volcano-W, Macauley, and Giggenbach are hydrothermally active.

Local.

Monowai is a large volcano which consists of an wide conical stratovolcano that rises from the Tonga-Kermadec Ridge in a part of the ocean with a depth of to a depth of less than below sea level; the exact depth of the summit is subject to changes owing to the ongoing volcanic activity. This activity is also responsible for frequent changes in its morphology with up to height variation recorded between surveys made in 1998, 2004 and 2007. Recent volcanic activity has smoothed the slopes of the Monowai volcano and covered them with lapilli sand and scoria in some places. Migration of the summit vent has formed a long ridge at the top of Monowai, and aligned vents and radial ridges occur on its slopes as well.  To its north-northeast lies a large and deep caldera that is elongated in the northwest-southeast direction; the Monowai volcano as a whole has a similar elongation. The caldera appears to consist of two nested calderas, the outer of which is the largest in the northern Kermadec arc with a surface area of. although an origin as one single long-lived caldera is also possible. This caldera is the largest in the Kermadec volcanic arc.  The rim of the caldera lies at a depth of about. Parasitic cones occur around the caldera, and a cone is also found within the inner caldera and appears to be about high resurgent dome; additional cones can be found on the caldera floor which is covered by sediments. On Mussel Ridge, a ridge located within the caldera and close to its southwestern margin, seafloor observations have found cemented volcanic ash, dispersed rocks, mud, pillow lavas, pillow tube lavas, and talus. Another about high cone is situated between the Monowai cone and the caldera. Both Monowai cone and Monowai caldera rise from a lava shield and the entire volcanic complex covers an area of about.  Hydrothermal activity including venting at temperatures of less than occurs at Mussel Ridge where several low-temperature vents can be found; additional venting occurs on the Monowai main cone and satellite vents on its flanks; deep hydrothermal plumes hint at additional vents at greater depths. In addition to "true" hydrothermal fluids, the slopes of Monowai are the sources of non-hydrothermal plumes that probably originate from landslides or when material is remobilized by eruptions.

Geology.

Subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Australian Plate occurs at a rate of, at a rate that decreases towards the south, and is responsible for the volcanism in the Kermadec arc. Behind the trench back-arc, spreading takes place at a rate of also with a southwards decreasing tendency.  Other volcanic centres close to Monowai are the Hinepuia centre about south-southwest and the "U" volcanic centre about farther north. Less than north lies Volcano-19, which has erupted basaltic andesite and is hydrothermally active.  The basement that Monowai volcano is constructed on may be the same as the one underpinning the rest of the Kermadec Ridge – compacted Miocene to Oligocene volcanic sediments above an Eocene volcanic arc which in the area of Monowai form a graben structure. Several faults that occur west of the volcano relate to the developing graben and additional faults dissect the volcano, including ring faults that surround the caldera. The faults that dissect the Monowai volcano have strikes and trends comparable to those of other volcanoes in the central Kermadec arc.  The Kermadec arc has been active for the past 1 million years. About 5–6 million years ago, the Lau-Havre backarc trough opened up and separated the Kermadec arc from the Colville-Lau arc, where volcanic activity ceased about 5-3.5 million years ago. The subduction of the Louisville seamount chain appears to have altered the behaviour of the backarc since north of the subducting area the Lau Basin is undergoing full-fledged seafloor spreading while the Havre Trough south of the subducting area only features short rift segments.

Composition.

Monowai has erupted rocks ranging from andesite and basaltic andesite, both mainly around the caldera, to basalt which makes up the bulk of Monowai cone. Dredged samples contain phenocrysts of clinopyroxene, olivine, and plagioclase and define a mainly mafic rock suite, which is unusual for a large caldera. Ultimately, the magmas originate from partial melting of the mantle wedge beneath the Australian Plate and the mixing of water-rich and water-poor melts in a magma chamber. Magma evolution processes occurring in the magma chamber at temperatures of eventually yielded the andesites from a basaltic parental melt.  On Mussel Ridge, hydrothermal alteration of rocks has produced several minerals like alunite, amorphous silica, anhydrite, barite, chalcopyrite, cristobalite, magnetite, marcasite, natroalunite, natrojarosite, pyrite, pyrophyllite, smectite, and native sulfur; in some places, the volcanic rocks have been entirely replaced by alteration products. Hyaloclastic rocks have also been observed.

Biology.

The hydrothermal vents on Mussel Ridge features a rich life characterised by anemones, crabs, crustaceans, fish, mussels, polychaetes, shrimps, sponges and tube worms; mussel beds can be so thick that the seafloor disappears below them. Fish and mussels have been observed on Monowai cone as well and rhizocephalan parasitic barnacles have been found at certain unspecified vents. Chemicals exhalated by the Monowai volcano are used by microbes to produce organic material through a process known as chemosynthesis, and these microbes are a food source for animals. Additionally, phytoplankton has been observed to grow after eruptions when the fallout from Monowai fertilises the waters.

Eruption history.

The chronology of volcanic activity at Monowai is largely unknown given the absence of available dating; it is not known, for example, whether the two nested calderas formed during the same eruption. However, the parasitic cones appear to be older than the caldera and the main Monowai cone and most of the volcanic complex probably formed within the last 780,000 years. The formation of the caldera most likely occurred in a nonexplosive fashion and regional tectonic processes may be involved. The caldera formation was probably followed by the formation of the resurgent dome and the cone between the Monowai cone and the caldera, with a trend towards a more explosive activity.  Present-day activity occurs at the top of the Monowai cone, and manifests itself in the form of earthquakes, discoloured water, emission of gases and pumice rafts, rumbling sounds and upwelling water. Underwater, this activity generates cones, debris flows, lava flows and pyroclastic flows as well as sector collapses and lava dome growth, which has caused the summit of Monowai cone to shift southward. Several seismic swarms have been observed on Monowai, including a strong swarm in May 2002 that may be associated with a sector collapse, and sound waves from the volcano have been recorded as far aways as Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean. Monowai volcano is a fast-growing edifice, with growth rates ranging between. Monowai's magma output rate reaches during some periods and exceeds that of many oceanic volcanoes such as Hawaii; this fast growth is accompanied by cyclical landslides and sector collapses that redistribute material down its slopes. These landslides, while much smaller than comparable landslides at other volcanoes, appear to occur at a very high frequency. Such submarine landslides can lead to tsunamis; there is however no evidence for tsunamis triggered by eruptions at Monowai volcano.  Early observations of volcanic activity at Monowai occurred in 1977 and 1978. The last eruption sequence may have occurred in October 2014 or May 2016, when pumice rafts and water discolouration were observed, respectively. Both events were accompanied by seismic episodes which indicate that between April 2014 and January 2017 there were about two eruptions per month. Monowai may be the most active submarine volcano in the world.

Monowai is a volcanic seamount to the north of New Zealand. It is formed by a large caldera and a volcanic cone just south-southeast from the caldera. The volcanic cone rises to depths of up to but its depth varies with ongoing volcanic activity, including sector collapses and the growth of lava domes. The seamount and its volcanism were discovered after 1877, but only in 1980 was it named "Monowai" after a research ship of the same name.

Le Monowai ou Orion, en anglais'et ', est un volcan sous-marin de l'océan Pacifique situé dans les îles Kermadec appartenant à la Nouvelle-Zélande. Il se compose de plusieurs cônes volcaniques disposés autour d'une caldeira.