Early life.

Green was born March 3, 1873 in Coshocton, Ohio, the son of Welsh immigrants. His father was a coal miner. Green went to work himself in the coal mines in 1889, at 16.

Union career.

He became involved in the trade union movement as a young miner and was elected as secretary of the Coshocton Progressive Miners Union in 1891. The Coshocton Progressive Miners Union later became a local of the United Mine Workers of America (UMWA). In 1890, Green became the subdistrict president of the UMWA; he became UMWA Ohio district president in 1906.  In 1910, he was elected to the Ohio Senate, where he served as both Senate president "pro tempore" and Democratic floor leader. As Ohio state senator, Green drafted and got passed a model Workmen’s Compensation Act in 1911. His accomplishments as state senator included Progressive Era legislation, including bills to limit the hours of women wage earners, institute a 1% income tax, elect Ohio's US senators by popular vote, and run judicial nonpartisan elections. Green’s experience and accomplishments contributed to his appointment as the UMWA's international statistician in 1911 and then as promotion to secretary-treasurer in 1913. He was named to the AFL's Executive Council in 1914 and became Secretary-Treasurer in 1916. His intensive involvement in labor had him serve as one of five delegates to the Paris Peace Conference in 1918.  In 1924, he became president of the AFL following the death of Samuel Gompers, he held the position until his own death. In 1933, Green's endeavors persuaded President Franklin D. Roosevelt to appoint him to the Labor Advisory Council of the National Recovery Administration. The following year, Green served on the National Labor Board. Later, President Harry Truman appointed Green to the National Advisory Committee on Mobilization during the Korean War.  He is best remembered for having presided over the split in the AFL, which led to the founding of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO).

Strategy.

Under Green's presidency in the 1920s, the AFL changed its political strategy of confrontation to one of co-operation. Unlike Green, Gompers had frequently projected an independent and confrontational approach for the federation, despite his affiliation to the National Civic Federation and to the Wilson administration.  Green favored a more co-operative style for the labor movement. He won public support for legislating benefits for all workers and co-operated with employers in the name of mutual self-interest and the collective good. Green supported union-management co-operation in everyday functions at the workplace. He also supported reducing hours of labor, as it would increase the worker's living standards and participation for civic engagement. Ultimately, Green supported a voluntary incomes policy between labor and management, binding higher wages to productivity growth.

Accomplishments.

Green's support was critical to winning passage of the Norris-La Guardia Act of 1932, which reduced the practice of labor restrictions and banned the yellow-dog contract. Green was also successful in acquiring federation support for a national unemployment insurance system, sponsored largely by employer donations.  In 1935, Green facilitated the passage of the National Labor Relations Act, aimed at empowering workers' rights to organize and take part in collective bargaining. In 1938, Green helped pass the Fair Labor Standards Act, becoming the first federal law in instituting minimum wages and the 40-hour workweek.

Death.

Green died November 21, 1952, at 79 in Coshocton, Ohio. He was buried in South Lawn Cemetery.

Legacy.

Roosevelt University in Chicago, Illinois named its library after Green and colleague Philip Murray in the 1960s to distinguish the functions that unions played in the university's founding in 1945. The library honored their service in American labor and their contributions in funding educational opportunities for everyone. The Chicago Housing Authority named the William Green Homes public housing project after Green. He is a member of the Labor Hall of Fame.

William B. Green (March 3, 1873 – November 21, 1952) was an American trade union leader. Green is best remembered as the president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) from 1924 to 1952. He was a strong supporter for labor-management co-operation and was on the frontline for wage and benefit protections and industrial unionism legislation.

William Green (né le à Coshocton (Ohio), mort en 1952) fut le deuxième président de la Fédération américaine du travail de 1924 à 1952.


NHL career.

Williams was drafted in the second round (31st overall) by the Toronto Maple Leafs of the NHL in the 1974 NHL amateur draft. He was also drafted by the Cincinnati Stingers of the World Hockey Association (WHA) in the third round (33rd overall) in the 1974 WHA Amateur Draft, but he chose instead to play in the NHL.  Williams was best known for his role as an enforcer, but he was also able to score goals. He played on five different NHL teams during his career. He was drafted by the Maple Leafs and played there from his NHL debut on 7 January against the New York Islanders in 1975 until he was traded to the Vancouver Canucks on 18 February, 1980 for Rick Vaive and Bill Derlago. While in Toronto, he broke many Maple Leaf and NHL penalty minute records and led the league in penalty minutes twice with 338 in 1976–77 and 298 in 1978–79. While it seemed that he lived in the "sin bin", he was able to score his fair share of goals. During his best season in Toronto, he scored 22 goals in 55 games before being traded to the Vancouver Canucks part way through that season. He scored 8 more goals in 23 games that season with Vancouver for, at that time, a career best 30 goals.  The next season, 1980–81, in Vancouver, Williams scored a career high of 35 goals and 62 points while amassing a league leading 343 penalty minutes in 77 games. The 343 penalty minutes would be the third highest of his career. Those 35 goals were the most by any Canuck that year. That season, Williams earned a place in the mid-season All-Star game, having scored 27 goals by the All-Star break, and played on a line with Wayne Gretzky and Mike Bossy. He would play an integral role in the team's surprise run to the Stanley Cup finals in 1982. Williams played in Vancouver until the end of the 1983–84 season.  After Vancouver, Williams played for the Detroit Red Wings for part of the 1984–85 NHL season before being traded to the Los Angeles Kings that same year. During his tenure in Los Angeles, he would set his career high of 358 penalty minutes for one season. He would play in Los Angeles until he was traded to the Hartford Whalers during the 1987–88 NHL season. That would also be his last NHL season as Hartford placed him on waivers and he was released on February 12, 1988. He officially retired in 1988.  Williams was nicknamed "Tiger" as a 5-year-old by his minor hockey coach in Weyburn, Saskatchewan. He also appeared as himself in the first episode of the Canadian sitcom "Rent-a-Goalie". Bryan Trottier credits Williams with talking him out of giving up hockey as a youngster, which eventually led to a Hall of Fame career with the New York Islanders.

After the NHL.

Co-written by James Lawton, Williams published his autobiography, "Tiger: A Hockey Story" in 1984. In 1987, Williams released a 101-page cookbook called "Done Like Dinner: Tiger In the Kitchen". It was co-written with Kasey Wilson. It included many hockey-inspired recipes, including "Habs Tourtière", "Stanley Cup Bars", and "Luc Robitaille's Lasagna Omelette".  Williams re-emerged briefly as a roller hockey player, appearing in one game, scoring two points, for the RHI's Vancouver Voodoo in 1993.  In 1996, Canadian punk rock band The Hanson Brothers spearheaded a campaign to agitate for Williams' induction into the Hockey Hall of Fame. They included a mail-in postcard with their album "Sudden Death" so that purchasers could make their feelings known to the NHL.  As a guest on the Tony Gallagher phone in radio program Williams claimed that then Canucks manager Pat Quinn attempted to have his Canucks #22 sweater retired by the team. However, due to arcane rules required at the time they had to receive permission from the previous player who wore it, Bob Manno. Manno refused so the team offered him money, according to Williams. Manno still refused. The #22 sweater was eventually worn (and later retired in honour of) from 2000 to 2018 by Canucks alternate captain and Art Ross trophy winner, Daniel Sedin.  At the 2002 NHL All Star Game in Los Angeles, the NHL held the NHL All-Star Celebrity Challenge. The home team all wore #22 in honor of Williams.  On February 9, 2018, Williams was charged with sexual assault while on a military trip to Latvia. These charges were withdrawn by Crown attorney Meaghan Cunningham after he issued an apology.

Career statistics.

Figures in "Italics" are records broken in that category

David James "Tiger" Williams (born February 3, 1954) is a former professional ice hockey player who played in the National Hockey League (NHL) from the 1974–75 NHL season to the 1987–88 NHL season. He is the NHL's career leader in penalty minutes.

David James Williams, surnommé Tiger, (né le à Weyburn dans la province de Saskatchewan au Canada) est un joueur professionnel de hockey sur glace. Il est connu pour être le joueur de l'histoire de la Ligue nationale de hockey à avoir été le plus pénalisé au cours de sa carrière avec 3 971 minutes de pénalité en saison régulière.


Career.

Barnes Wallis was born in Ripley, Derbyshire to Charles William George Robinson Wallis (1859–1945) and his wife Edith Eyre Wallis née Ashby (1859–1911). He was educated at Christ's Hospital in Horsham and Haberdashers' Aske's Hatcham Boys' Grammar School in southeast London, leaving school at seventeen to start work in January 1905 at Thames Engineering Works at Blackheath, southeast London. He subsequently changed his apprenticeship to J. Samuel White's, the shipbuilders based at Cowes on the Isle of Wight. He originally trained as a marine engineer and in 1922 he took a degree in engineering via the University of London External Programme.

Aircraft and geodetic construction.

He left J. Samuel White's in 1913 when an opportunity arose for him as an aircraft designer, at first working on airships and later aeroplanes. He joined Vickers – later part of Vickers-Armstrongs and then part of the British Aircraft Corporation – and worked for them until his retirement in 1971. There he worked on the Admiralty's first rigid airship HMA No. 9r under H. B. Pratt, helping to nurse it though its political stop-go career and protracted development. The first airship of his own design, the R80, incorporated many technical innovations and flew in 1920. By the time he came to design the R100, the airship for which he is best known, in 1930 he had developed his revolutionary geodetic construction (also known as geodesic), which he applied to the gasbag wiring. He also pioneered, along with John Edwin Temple, the use of light alloy and production engineering in the structural design of the R100. Nevil Shute Norway, later to become a writer under the name of Nevil Shute, was the chief calculator for the project, responsible for calculating the stresses on the frame.  Despite a better-than-expected performance and a successful return flight to Canada in 1930, the R100 was broken up following the crash near Beauvais in northern France of its "sister" ship, the R101 (which was designed and built by a team from the Government's Air Ministry). The later destruction of the "Hindenburg" led to the abandonment of airships as a mode of mass transport. By the time of the R101 crash, Wallis had moved to the Vickers aircraft factory at the Brooklands motor circuit and aerodrome between Byfleet and Weybridge in Surrey. The prewar aircraft designs of Rex Pierson, the Wellesley, the Wellington and the later Warwick and Windsor all employed Wallis's geodetic design in the fuselage and wing structures.  The Wellington had one of the most robust airframes ever developed, and pictures of its skeleton largely shot away, but still sound enough to bring its crew home safely, are still impressive. The geodetic construction offered a light and strong airframe (compared to conventional designs), with clearly defined space within for fuel tanks, payload and so on. However the technique was not easily transferred to other aircraft manufacturers, nor was Vickers able to build other designs in factories tooled for geodetic work.

Bombs.

After the outbreak of the Second World War in Europe in 1939, Wallis saw a need for strategic bombing to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war and he wrote a paper entitled "A Note on a Method of Attacking the Axis Powers". Referring to the enemy's power supplies, he wrote (as Axiom 3): "If their destruction or paralysis can be accomplished they offer a means of rendering the enemy utterly incapable of continuing to prosecute the war". As a means to do this, he proposed huge bombs that could concentrate their force and destroy targets which were otherwise unlikely to be affected. Wallis's first super-large bomb design came out at some ten tonnes, far more than any current bomber could carry. Rather than drop the idea, this led him to suggest a plane that could carry it – the "Victory Bomber". Early in 1942, Wallis began experimenting with skipping marbles over water tanks in his garden, leading to his April 1942 paper "Spherical Bomb — Surface Torpedo". The idea was that a bomb could skip over the water surface, avoiding torpedo nets, and sink directly next to a battleship or dam wall as a depth charge, with the surrounding water concentrating the force of the explosion on the target.  A crucial innovation was the addition of backspin, which caused the bomb to trail behind the dropping aircraft (decreasing the chance of that aircraft being damaged by the force of the explosion below), increased the range of the bomb, and also prevented it from moving away from the target wall as it sank. After some initial scepticism, the Air Force accepted Wallis's bouncing bomb (codenamed "Upkeep") for attacks on the Möhne, Eder and Sorpe dams in the Ruhr area.  The raid on these dams in May 1943 (Operation "Chastise") was immortalised in Paul Brickhill's 1951 book "The Dam Busters" and the 1955 film of the same name. The Möhne and Eder dams were successfully breached, causing damage to German factories and disrupting hydro-electric power. After the success of the bouncing bomb, Wallis was able to return to his huge bombs, producing first the Tallboy (6 tonnes) and then the Grand Slam (10 tonnes) deep-penetration earthquake bombs. These were not the same as the 5-tonne "blockbuster" bomb, which was a conventional blast bomb.  Although there was still no aircraft capable of lifting these two bombs to their optimal release altitude, they could still be dropped from a lower height, entering the earth at supersonic speed and penetrating to a depth of 20 metres before exploding. They were used on strategic German targets such as V-2 rocket launch sites, the V-3 supergun bunker, submarine pens, and other reinforced structures, large civil constructions such as viaducts and bridges, as well as the German battleship "Tirpitz". They were the forerunners of modern bunker-busting bombs.

Postwar research.

Having been dispersed with the Design Office from Brooklands to the nearby Burhill Golf Club in Hersham, after the Vickers factory was badly bombed in September 1940, Wallis returned to Brooklands in November 1945 as Head of the Vickers-Armstrongs Research & Development Department and was based in the former motor circuit's 1907 Clubhouse. Here he and his staff worked on many futuristic aerospace projects including supersonic flight and "swing-wing" technology (later used in the Panavia Tornado and other aircraft types). Following the terrible death toll of the aircrews involved in the Dambusters raid, he made a conscious effort never again to endanger the lives of his test pilots. His designs were extensively tested in model form, and consequently he became a pioneer in the remote control of aircraft.  A massive Stratosphere Chamber (which was the world's largest facility of its type), was designed and built beside the Clubhouse by 1948 and became the focus for much R&D work under Wallis's direction in the 1950s and 1960s, including research into supersonic aerodynamics that contributed to the design of Concorde, before finally closing by 1980. This unique structure was restored at Brooklands Museum thanks to a grant from the AIM-Biffa Fund in 2013 and was officially reopened by Mary Stopes-Roe, Barnes Wallis' daughter, on 13 March 2014. Although he did not invent the concept, Wallis did much pioneering engineering work to make the swing-wing functional. He developed the wing-controlled aerodyne, a concept for a tailless aeroplane controlled entirely by wing movement with no separate control surfaces. His Wild Goose", designed in the late 1940s, was intended to use laminar flow, and alongside it he also worked on the Green Lizard cruise missile and the Heston JC.9 manned experimental aeroplane. The "Swallow" was a supersonic development of Wild Goose, designed in the mid-1950s, which could have been developed for either military or civil applications. Both Wild Goose and Swallow were flight tested as large (30 ft span) flying scale models, based at Predannack in Cornwall. However, despite very promising wind tunnel and model work, his designs were not adopted. Government funding for "Swallow" was cancelled in the round of cuts following the Sandys Defence White Paper in 1957, although Vickers continued model trials with some support from the RAE.  An attempt to gain American funding led Wallis to initiate a joint NASA-Vickers study. NASA found aerodynamic problems with the Swallow and, informed also by their work on the Bell X-5, settled for a conventional tail which would eventually lead in turn to the TFX programme and the General Dynamics F-111. In the UK Vickers submitted a wing-controlled aerodyne for OR.346 for a reconnaissance/strike-fighter-bomber, effectively the TSR-2 specification with added fighter capability. When Maurice Brennan left Vickers for Folland he worked on the FO.147, a variable-sweep development of the Gnat lightweight fighter-trainer, offering both tailed and tailless options. Wallis's ideas were ultimately passed over in the UK in favour of the fixed-wing BAC TSR-2 (on which one of his sons worked) and Concorde. He was critical of both, believing that swing-wings design would have been more appropriate. In the mid-1960s, TSR-2 was ignominiously scrapped in favour of the American F-111, which had swing wings influenced by Wallis's work at NASA, although this order was also subsequently cancelled.  In the 1950s, Wallis developed an experimental rocket-propelled torpedo codenamed HEYDAY. It was powered by compressed air and hydrogen peroxide, and had an unusual streamlined shape designed to maintain laminar flow over much of its length. Tests were conducted from Portland Breakwater in Dorset. The only surviving example is on display in Explosion! Museum of Naval Firepower at Gosport.  In 1955 Wallis agreed to act as a consultant to the project to build the Parkes Radio Telescope in Australia. Some of the ideas he suggested are the same as or closely related to the final design, including the idea of supporting the dish at its centre, the geodetic structure of the dish and the master equatorial control system. Unhappy with the direction it had taken, Wallis left the project halfway into the design study and refused to accept his £1,000 consultant's fee.  In the 1960s, Wallis also proposed using large cargo submarines to transport oil and other goods, thus avoiding surface weather conditions. Moreover, Wallis's calculations indicated, the power requirements for an underwater vessel were lower than for a comparable conventional ship and they could be made to travel at a much higher speed. He also proposed a novel hull structure which would have allowed greater depths to be reached, and the use of gas turbine engines in a submarine, using liquid oxygen. In the end, nothing came of Wallis's submarine ideas.  During the 1960s and into his retirement, he developed ideas for an "all-speed" aircraft, capable of efficient flight at all speed ranges from subsonic to hypersonic. In particular, his ideas and understanding of supersonic aerodynamics led to research that underwrote the design of the air intakes for Concorde's Olympus 593 engines. Using variable geometry air intakes, the Olympus engines were able to perform efficiently at all speeds from sub-sonic take-off and climb through to supercruise at over Mach 2.  In the late 1950s, Wallis gave a lecture entitled "The strength of England" at Eton College, and continued to deliver versions of the talk into the early 1970s, presenting technology and automation as a way to restore Britain's dominance. He advocated nuclear-powered cargo submarines as a means of making Britain immune to future embargoes, and to make it a global trading power. He complained of the loss of aircraft design to the US, and suggested that Britain could dominate air travel by developing a small supersonic airliner capable of short take-off and landing.  Wallis became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1945 and was knighted in 1968. Wallis also received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 1969.

Christ's Hospital.

Wallis was awarded £10,000 for his war work from the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors. His grief at the loss of so many airmen in the dams raid was such that Wallis donated the entire sum to his alma mater Christ's Hospital School in 1951 to allow them to set up the RAF Foundationers' Trust, allowing the children of RAF personnel killed or injured in action to attend the school. Around this time he also became an Almoner of Christ's Hospital.  When he retired from aeronautical work in 1957, he was appointed Treasurer and Chairman of the Council of Almoners of Christ's Hospital, holding the post of Treasurer for nearly 13 years. During this time he oversaw its major reconstruction.

Personal life.

In April 1922, Wallis met his cousin-in-law, Molly Bloxam, at a family tea party. She was 17 and he was 34, and her father forbade them from courting. However, he allowed Wallis to assist Molly with her mathematics courses by correspondence, and they wrote some 250 letters, enlivening them with fictional characters such as "Duke Delta X". The letters gradually became personal, and Wallis proposed marriage on her 20th birthday. They were married on 23 April 1925, and remained so for 54 years until his death in 1979.  For 49 years, from 1930 until his death, Wallis lived with his family in Effingham, Surrey, and he is now buried at the local St. Lawrence Church together with his wife. His epitaph in Latin reads "Spernit Humum Fugiente Penna" ("Severed from the earth with fleeting wing"), a quotation from Horace Ode III.2.  They had four children – Barnes (1926–2008), Mary (1927–2019), Elisabeth (b. 1933) and Christopher (1935–2006) – and also adopted Molly's sister's children John and Robert McCormick when their parents were killed in an air raid.  His daughter Mary Eyre Wallis later married Harry Stopes-Roe, a son of Marie Stopes. His son Christopher Loudon Wallis was instrumental in the restoration of the watermill and its building on the Stanway Estate near Cheltenham, Gloucestershire.  Wallis was a vegetarian and an advocate of animal rights. He became a vegetarian at age 73.

In film and fiction.

In the 1955 film "The Dam Busters", Wallis was played by Michael Redgrave. Wallis's daughter Elisabeth played the camera technician in the water tank sequence.  Wallis, and his development of the bouncing bomb are mentioned by Charles Gray in the 1969 film "Mosquito Squadron".  Wallis appears as a fictionalized character in Stephen Baxter's "The Time Ships" (though its birthdate is not the same, 1883 instead of 1887, since he says he was eight when the Time Traveller first used his machine), the authorised sequel to "The Time Machine". He is portrayed as a British engineer in an alternate history, where the First World War does not end in 1918, and Wallis concentrates his energies on developing a machine for time travel. As a consequence, it is the Germans who develop the bouncing bomb.  His character and the Second World War research lab are featured in the mystery British television series "Foyle's War" (Series four, part 2).  In "" by Ian Edginton, he is responsible for the development of the Cavorite weapon used to win the war on Mars after the departure of Cavor.

Archives.

The Science Museum at Wroughton, near Swindon, holds 105 boxes of papers of Barnes Wallis. The papers comprise design notes, photographs, calculations, correspondence and reports relating to Wallis's work on airships, including the R100; geodetic construction of aircraft; the bouncing bomb and deep penetration bombs; the "Wild Goose" and "Swallow" swing-wing aircraft; hypersonic aircraft designs and various outside contracts.  Two boxes of records, containing copies of key aeronautical papers written between 1940 and 1958, are held at the Churchill Archives Centre in Cambridge.  Other Barnes Wallis papers are also held at Brooklands Museum, the Imperial War Museum, London, Newark Air Museum and the Royal Air Force Museum in Hendon, Trinity College, Cambridge and Bristol, Leeds and Oxford universities. The RAF Museum at Hendon also has a reconstruction of his postwar office at Brooklands.

Sir Barnes Neville Wallis (26 September 1887 – 30 October 1979), was an English scientist, engineer and inventor. He is best known for inventing the bouncing bomb used by the Royal Air Force in Operation Chastise (the "Dambusters" raid) to attack the dams of the Ruhr Valley during World War II.

Barnes Neville Wallis (-) est un ingénieur et inventeur britannique, principalement connu pour l'invention des bombes rebondissantes utilisé par la Royal Air Force pendant l'opération Chastise en mai 1943.


History.

Native Americans.

Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the area. Later Indian tribes included Comanches, Lipan Apache, and Kiowa.

County establishment and growth.

Crane County was formed in 1887 from Tom Green County, and named after William Carey Crane, former president of Baylor University. Settlement came years later, and the county was not organized until 1927. In 1900, the United States census enumerated only 51 people and 12 ranches in the county. As late as 1918, the county had no roads.  Church & Fields Exploration Company obtained a permit late in 1925 to drill for oil. The first well came in March 1926.  By 1927, an estimated 6,000 people were in the county, with 4,500 of them within the city of Crane. Water was trucked in and brought from $1.00 to $2.25 a barrel, though at times the rates could be as high as $5.00 a barrel. A barrel of drinking water would typically last a month if used judiciously, and barrels of non-potable water were available for cleaning and washing purposes. Crane City was incorporated in the early 1930s, and with that came State funds for the building of a city water system. At the same time the Texas Rangers were working to clean up oil towns, and the population in Crane began to include more families. As such numerous raids by law enforcement closed the red light district centered on Alford Street. By the beginning of 1991, almost of oil had been produced in the county since discovery in 1926.  County history is preserved in the Museum of the Desert Southwest, which opened in Crane in 1980.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.08%) is covered by water.  Between Crane and McCamey in neighboring Upton County is a division of the surrounding cliffs known as Castle Gap, a break in a mesa some 12 miles east of the Pecos River, used by Comanches, emigrants headed to the California Gold Rush, and cattlemen driving Longhorns on the Goodnight-Loving Trail, as explained in Patrick Dearen's "Castle Gap and the Pecos Frontier" (2000). It is also the alleged location of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico's buried treasure.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, 3,996 people, 1,360 households, and 1,082 families resided in the county. The population density was five people per square mile (2/km2). The 1,596 housing units averaged two per square mile (1/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 73.70% White, 2.90% Black or African American, 0.98% Native American, 0.35%, 19.49% from other races, and 2.58% from two or more races. About 43.87% of the population were Hispanic/Latino of any race.  Of the 1,360 households, 43.40% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.80% were married couples living together, 7.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.40% were not families. About 18.80% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.91, and the average family size was 3.35.  In the county, the population was distributed as 31.90% under the age of 18, 7.70% from 18 to 24, 26.90% from 25 to 44, 22.60% from 45 to 64, and 10.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.50 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $32,194, and for a family was $36,820. Males had a median income of $33,438 versus $16,806 for females. The per capita income for the county was $15,374. About 12.40% of families and 13.40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.30% of those under age 18 and 10.50% of those age 65 or over.

Economy.

The largest segment of the local economy is oil and gas production. The Waddell Ranch contains the single biggest portion of the Permian Basin Royalty Trust, with over 800 producing oil wells as of 2007. Crane County is one of the largest oil-producing counties in Texas, with a total of of oil pumped since oil was first discovered there. Cattle ranching and local government are other large employers; over of land are used for livestock grazing.

Politics.

Crane County has been dominated by the Republican Party since 1972.

Crane County is a county located in the U.S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 census, its population was 4,375. The county seat is Crane. The county was created in 1887 and later organized in 1927. It was named for William Carey Crane, a president of Southern Baptist-affiliated Baylor University in Waco, Texas.

Le comté de Crane, en, est un comté situé dans l'ouest de l'État du Texas aux États-Unis. Fondé le, il est nommé en l'honneur de, président de l'université Baylor à Waco (Texas). Le siège de comté est la ville de Crane. Selon le recensement des États-Unis de 2010, sa population est de. Le comté a une superficie de, dont de surfaces terrestres.


History.

Founded as the Geneeskundig Laboratorium, or Medical Laboratory, at Jalan Diponegoro No. 69 in Central Jakarta in 1888, Christiaan Eijkman was stationed there as its first director. During his time there, he discovered that Beriberi, which was commonly believed to be caused by external forces, was caused by a lack of thiamine in the human body. This led to a Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for Eijkman in 1929. In 1938, the laboratory was renamed the Eijkman Institute in honor of Eijkman.  During World War II, Japanese occupiers accused the center's first Indonesian director, Achmad Mochtar, of poisoning a batch of vaccine that was to be delivered to slave laborers. After Mochtar and his researchers were tortured and interrogated, he made a deal with the Japanese that he would plead guilty if his researchers were released. He was then executed and buried in an unmarked grave. It is possible that Mochtar was a scapegoat for a failed Japanese experiment designed to validate a conjured tetanus toxoid vaccine for their troops.  During the 1960s, the institute closed due to upheaval in the country and was absorbed into the Cipto Mangunkusomo Hospital. It remained closed for the next thirty years until 1992, when B.J. Habibie, the Minister of Research and Technology, decided to reopen the institute. By 1993, it was fully operational, but ran into further troubles in 1998 due to the Asian financial crisis.  In 2004, the institute identified the suicide bomber who blew himself up in front of the Australian Embassy, which drew recognition to the practical benefits of molecular biology. Today, the institute houses one of the few Biosafety Level 3 laboratories in the country, which is equipped with a gas decontamination chamber.

Building.

From the outside, the building has been described as looking like a museum, although the inside has not been renovated in an attempt to keep the building looking as it did when Eijkman was working there. This includes a visitor's lounge which is still furnished with wood and rattan chairs and other furnishings that have not been changed since the opening of the building.

The Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology is a laboratory in Jakarta, Indonesia. It is most known for the discovery by Christiaan Eijkman that Beriberi was caused by a lack of thiamine in the human body.

L'Institut Eijkman de biologie moléculaire est un institut de recherche à but non lucratif financé par le gouvernement indonésien. L'institut mène des travaux de recherches de base en biologie moléculaire médicale et en biotechnologie. Ses locaux, situés dans le centre de Jakarta, sont ceux de l'ancien Eijkman Instituut fondé à l'époque coloniale, et fermé dans les années 1960 à cause d'un manque de fonds.


Discovery.

Members of the Hsp70 family are very strongly upregulated by heat stress and toxic chemicals, particularly heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury, etc. Hsp70 was originally discovered by FM Ritossa in the 1960s when a lab worker accidentally boosted the incubation temperature of Drosophila (fruit flies). When examining the chromosomes, Ritossa found a "puffing pattern" that indicated the elevated gene transcription of an unknown protein. This was later described as the "Heat Shock Response" and the proteins were termed the "Heat Shock Proteins" (Hsps).

Structure.

The Hsp70 proteins have three major functional domains:

Function and regulation.

The Hsp70 system interacts with extended peptide segments of proteins as well as partially folded proteins to cause aggregation of proteins in key pathways to deregulate activity When not interacting with a substrate peptide, Hsp70 is usually in an ATP bound state. Hsp70 by itself is characterized by a very weak ATPase activity, such that spontaneous hydrolysis will not occur for many minutes. As newly synthesized proteins emerge from the ribosomes, the substrate binding domain of Hsp70 recognizes sequences of hydrophobic amino acid residues, and interacts with them. This spontaneous interaction is reversible, and in the ATP bound state Hsp70 may relatively freely bind and release peptides. However, the presence of a peptide in the binding domain stimulates the ATPase activity of Hsp70, increasing its normally slow rate of ATP hydrolysis. When ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP the binding pocket of Hsp70 closes, tightly binding the now-trapped peptide chain. Further speeding ATP hydrolysis are the so-called J-domain cochaperones: primarily Hsp40 in eukaryotes, and DnaJ in prokaryotes. These cochaperones dramatically increase the ATPase activity of Hsp70 in the presence of interacting peptides.  By binding tightly to partially synthesized peptide sequences (incomplete proteins), Hsp70 prevents them from aggregating and being rendered nonfunctional. Once the entire protein is synthesized, a nucleotide exchange factor (prokaryotic GrpE, eukaryotic BAG1 and HspBP1 are among those which have been identified) stimulates the release of ADP and binding of fresh ATP, opening the binding pocket. The protein is then free to fold on its own, or to be transferred to other chaperones for further processing. HOP (the Hsp70/Hsp90 Organizing Protein) can bind to both Hsp70 and Hsp90 at the same time, and mediates the transfer of peptides from Hsp70 to Hsp90.  Hsp70 also aids in transmembrane transport of proteins, by stabilizing them in a partially folded state. It is also known to be phosphorylated which regulates several of its functions.  Hsp70 proteins can act to protect cells from thermal or oxidative stress. These stresses normally act to damage proteins, causing partial unfolding and possible aggregation. By temporarily binding to hydrophobic residues exposed by stress, Hsp70 prevents these partially denatured proteins from aggregating, and inhibits them from refolding. Low ATP is characteristic of heat shock and sustained binding is seen as aggregation suppression, while recovery from heat shock involves substrate binding and nucleotide cycling. In a thermophile anaerobe ("Thermotoga maritima") the Hsp70 demonstrates redox sensitive binding to model peptides, suggesting a second mode of binding regulation based on oxidative stress.  Hsp70 seems to be able to participate in disposal of damaged or defective proteins. Interaction with CHIP ("C"arboxyl-terminus of "H"sp70 "I"nteracting "P"rotein)–an E3 ubiquitin ligase–allows Hsp70 to pass proteins to the cell's ubiquitination and proteolysis pathways.  Finally, in addition to improving overall protein integrity, Hsp70 directly inhibits apoptosis. One hallmark of apoptosis is the release of cytochrome c, which then recruits Apaf-1 and dATP/ATP into an apoptosome complex. This complex then cleaves procaspase-9, activating caspase-9 and eventually inducing apoptosis via caspase-3 activation. Hsp70 inhibits this process by blocking the recruitment of procaspase-9 to the Apaf-1/dATP/cytochrome c apoptosome complex. It does not bind directly to the procaspase-9 binding site, but likely induces a conformational change that renders procaspase-9 binding less favorable. Hsp70 is shown to interact with Endoplasmic reticulum stress sensor protein IRE1alpha thereby protecting the cells from ER stress - induced apoptosis. This interaction prolonged the splicing of XBP-1 mRNA thereby inducing transcriptional upregulation of targets of spliced XBP-1 like EDEM1, ERdj4 and P58IPK rescuing the cells from apoptosis. Other studies suggest that Hsp70 may play an anti-apoptotic role at other steps, but is not involved in Fas-ligand-mediated apoptosis (although Hsp 27 is). Therefore, Hsp70 not only saves important components of the cell (the proteins) but also directly saves the cell as a whole. Considering that stress-response proteins (like Hsp70) evolved before apoptotic machinery, Hsp70's direct role in inhibiting apoptosis provides an interesting evolutionary picture of how more recent (apoptotic) machinery accommodated previous machinery (Hsps), thus aligning the improved integrity of a cell's proteins with the improved chances of that particular cell's survival.

Cancer.

Hsp70 is overexpressed in malignant melanoma and underexpressed in renal cell cancer.

Expression in skin tissue.

Both HSP70 and HSP47 were shown to be expressed in dermis and epidermis following laser irradiation, and the spatial and temporal changes in HSP expression patterns define the laser-induced thermal damage zone and the process of healing in tissues. HSP70 may define biochemically the thermal damage zone in which cells are targeted for destruction, and HSP47 may illustrate the process of recovery from thermally induced damage.

Family members.

Prokaryotes express three Hsp70 proteins: DnaK, HscA (Hsc66), and HscC (Hsc62).  Eukaryotic organisms express several slightly different Hsp70 proteins. All share the common domain structure, but each has a unique pattern of expression or subcellular localization. These are, among others:  The following is a list of human Hsp70 genes and their corresponding proteins:

Hsp110.

The Hsp70 superfamily also includes a family of Hsp110/Grp170 (Sse) proteins, which are larger proteins related to Hsp70. The Hsp110 family of proteins have divergent functions: yeast Sse1p has little ATPase activity but is a chaperone on its own as well as a nucleotide exchange factor for Hsp70, while the closely related Sse2p has little unfoldase activity.  The following is a list of currently named human HSP110 genes. HSPH2-4 are proposed names and the current name is linked:

The 70 kilodalton heat shock proteins (Hsp70s or DnaK) are a family of conserved ubiquitously expressed heat shock proteins. Proteins with similar structure exist in virtually all living organisms. The Hsp70s are an important part of the cell's machinery for protein folding, and help to protect cells from stress.

HSP signifie protéines de choc thermique ("heat shock proteins"). Ce sont en fait des protéines chaperonnes, de classe 1. En effet, elles sont garantes de la bonne conformation des protéines de la cellule, et les aide à se protéger des stress externes. Le suffixe « 70 » correspond au poids moléculaire (70 kdaltons)


History.

The project was announced on 5 June 2007, the same day that both The Gathering and Anneke van Giersbergen issued separate announcements that van Giersbergen would leave the band in August.

"Air" and "Pure Air" (2007–2008).

She and her new bandmates laid down some basic tracks for the first album at the Waterfront Studios in Rotterdam and recorded overdubs at The Void in Eindhoven, as well as in her own home studio. Several of these songs were made available on the band's official web site. A track, "Ice Water", has been said to feature a string arrangement by Jeffrey Fayman. Additional vocals for the track "Lost and Found" were done by Kristin Fjellseth, who also wrote the track "Sunken Soldiers Ball". Heleen de Witte is said to play flute on unspecified tracks while Timothy Conroy provides some trumpet work. They released their first album called "Air" at the end of 2007, mixed by Jon Anders Narum.  For the week ending 2 July 2009, "Pure Air" (a compilation of tracks from "Air" but also of songs featuring Anneke with other artists like Within Temptation) entered the GfK Dutch Charts at No.42 during the first week of release, her highest ever chart position.

"In Your Room" (2009–2010).

A second album, titled "In Your Room", was released on 30 October 2009. Under the name Anneke van Giersbergen & Agua de Annique, they released the concert album "Live in Europe" in 2010.

"Everything is Changing" (2011–2012).

In 2011, Anneke signed to PIAS Records as a solo artist, changing the name of the band from Agua de Annique to Anneke van Giersbergen. Her debut album under her own name, "Everything Is Changing", was released on 20 January 2012.

Anneke van Giersbergen (formerly Agua de Annique) was the solo project of the former The Gathering vocalist, Anneke van Giersbergen.

Agua de Annique est un groupe de rock alternatif néerlandais, originaire d'Oss. Il est formé par la chanteuse Anneke van Giersbergen en 2007. Après avoir été la chanteuse du groupe à succès The Gathering durant 13 ans, Anneke décide de lancer ses projets personnels et s'entoure d'amis pour musiciens. De cette alliance naît son groupe, Agua de Annique.


History.

Exploration and Settlement (1521–1643).

Spanish contact began on, when a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan reached the Mariana Islands. He named Guam and the other islands ""Islas de los Ladrones"" (Islands of the Thieves) because the natives came aboard his galleon (the "Trinidad") and pilfered many of its supplies. The expedition later continued its journey west and reached the island of Homonhon in the eastern Philippines on, with only 150 crewmen. There they were able to communicate with the local peoples because the Malayan interpreter, Enrique of Malacca, could understand their language. The expedition took them further into the archipelago to the Visayan island of Cebu, where Magellan's chaplain, Pedro Valderrama, baptised the local monarch Rajah Humabon, his chief consort, and his subjects.Seeking to develop trade between the East Indies and the Americas across the Pacific Ocean, Antonio de Mendoza encouraged the exploration of these Asian territories and commissioned the expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos to the Philippines in 1542–1543. Miguel López de Legazpi set out from Mexico, and established the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines in 1565, which became the town of San Miguel in present-day Cebu. That same year, another member of the expedition, Andrés de Urdaneta discovered a maritime route from the Philippines to Mexico, across the Pacific, leading to the important transpacific trade link of the Manila-Acapulco Galleons. In 1571, Manila was captured from the Sultanate of Brunei and then Manila was made the seat of the Spanish Captaincy General of the Philippines. These and other Asian territories claimed by the Spanish crown were to be governed from the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Mexico City.  The Manila-Acapulco galleons shipped products gathered from both Asia-Pacific and the Americas, such as silk, spices, silver, gold and other Asian-Pacific islander products to Mexico. Products brought from Asia-Pacific were sent to Veracruz and shipped to Spain and, via trading, to the rest of Europe, while Spanish-Mexican navigators brought with them Hispanic and indigenous Mexican customs, religion, languages, foods, and cultural traditions to the Philippines, Guam, and the Mariana Islands.  In 1606, the Spaniards established trade links with the Maluku Islands, which continued until 1663. Contacts with Japan were also established and Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent as ambassador in 1611, until Japan closed its trading post in 1630. In northeastern Taiwan, the Spaniards built Fort Santo Domingo near Keelung in 1626 and a mission in Tamsui in 1628, which they occupied until they lost in the Second Battle of San Salvador. Several Pacific islands were visited by Spanish ships in the 16th century, including New Guinea (Yñigo Ortiz de Retez in 1545), the Solomon Islands (Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa in 1568), and the Marquesas Islands (Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira in 1595), but they made no effort to trade with or colonize them.  In 1668, Blessed Diego Luis de San Vitores established the first mission on Guam, where he and Saint Pedro Calungsod were later martyred.  In 1762 British troops briefly captured the city of Manila during the Seven Years' War. However, they were unable to establish control over areas outside Manila—through the efforts of the Spanish lieutenant governor, Simón de Anda y Salazar, the remainder of the islands remained loyal to Spain. The British promised support for an uprising led by Diego Silang and his wife Gabriela but the British force never materialized. Under the peace settlement Manila was exchanged, along with British-occupied Havana, for Florida and Menorca. Manila was ceded back to Spanish authorities in April 1764.

Colonial government.

The Seven Years' War prompted Charles III to initiate extensive governmental reforms throughout the overseas possessions. An "intendencia" was established in Manila in 1784 to handle the government finances and to promote the economy. (The plan to introduce more intendencias throughout the Philippines did not materialize.) In a similar vein, to promote innovation and education among the residents of the islands, Governor-General José Basco y Vargas established the Economic Society of the Friends of the Country.  For over 256 years, the Spanish East Indies were governed by a governor-captain general, and an audiencia. All economic matters of the Philippines were managed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain, located in Mexico. Because the eastward route was more widely used for military purposes, in addition to commerce that included the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade, most government correspondence went through Mexico, rather than directly to Spain (with the exception of a short period at the end of the 18th century).  In 1821 the New Spanish Viceroyalty collapsed following the Mexican War of Independence, which resulted in the First Mexican Empire. All control of the Spanish East Indies government was then transferred to Madrid, until the United States annexed most Spanish territories in the Asia-Pacific region after the Spanish–American War of 1898.

The Audiencia and Captaincy General.

In 1574 the Captaincy General of the Philippines was created as a dependency of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. The Real Audiencia of Manila was created on and established in 1584 as the highest tribunal of the Spanish Empire in the East Indies, that had the Governor-General of the Philippines as its "ex officio" highest judge. Both institutions were created by Royal Decree from King Felipe II  Law XI (Audiencia y Chancillería Real de Manila en las Filipinas) of Title XV (De las Audiencias y Chancillerias Reales de las Indias) of Book II of the "Recopilación de Leyes de los Reynos de las Indias" of 1680—which compiles the original decree and the one of —describes the limits and functions of the Audiencia and its president.  "In the city of Manila on the Island of Luzon, Head of the Philippines, shall reside another Royal Audiencia and Chancellery of ours, with a president, who shall be governor and captain general; four judges of civil cases ["oidores"], who will also be judges of criminal cases ["alcaldes del crimen"]; a crown attorney ["fiscal"]; a bailiff ["alguacil mayor"]; a lieutenant of the Gran Chancellor; and the other necessary ministers and officials; and which shall have for district said Island of Luzon, and the rest of the Philippines, the Archipelago of China, and its Mainland, discovered and to be discovered. And we order that the governor and captain general of said Islands and Provinces, and president of their Royal Audiencia, have exclusively the superior government of the entire district of said Audiencia in war and peace, and shall make provisions and favors in our Royal Name, which in conformity to the laws of this Compilation and the rest of the Kingdoms of Castile and the instructions and powers that We shall grant, he should and can do; and in gubernatorial matters and cases that shall arise, that are of importance, said president-governor should consult on them with the judges of said Audiencia, so that they give their consultive opinions, and having heard them, he should provide the most convenient to the service of God and ours and the peace and tranquility of said Province and Republic".

Territories.

The Spanish East Indies came to be defined as:  The Spanish used several names that are not currently used. Gran Moluca (Great Molluccas) for the island of Mindanao and Nueva Castilla (New Castile) for Luzon.  Because Spanish interest in the region was primarily focused on its use as a base for trade with East Asia, direct Spanish control over the area expanded slowly. The Batanes Islands were conquered in the 18th century by José Basco. The highlands of Luzon remained outside Spanish control until the early 19th century, and the southernmost tip of Palawan, not until the late 1890s. The rest of Mindanao (Caesarea Karoli)—aside from outposts in Northern Mindanao, Zamboanga, Cotabato, and the islands of Basilan and Jolo, the rest was nominally under Spanish control, recognizing Spanish rule, but left to administer their own affairs, as in the cases of the Sulu, and the Maguindanao sultanates, as well as a number of other Lumad tribes not affiliated with either. Similarly, Palau and the vast majority of the Caroline Islands were not governed by Spanish missions until the early 19th century.

Cultural influence in the former Spanish East Indies.

Hispanic.

Spain's influence on its former territories in Asia-Pacific is significant to this day. The majority of the people of the Philippines, Guam and the Mariana Islands belong to the Roman Catholic faith which was introduced by Spanish missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries. A large part of the population in these countries use Spanish names and surnames. Also, because of the introduction of new tools, products, crops and technology by Spaniards and Mexicans in the three centuries of colonial rule, many Spanish loanwords entered the native languages of these countries. Art forms such as music, architecture and fashion also have much Spanish influence. The national cuisines of these countries also have Mexican and Spanish elements. In terms of ethnicity, the inhabitants of these territories (1/3rd of Luzon island's population and port-cities and military outposts, mainly Iloilo, Cebu, Legaspi, Vigan and Zamboanga etc.) are descendants of Latin American and Spanish settlers. These descendants of mixed heritage are known as mestizos.

Filipino.

A sizeable proportion of the current population of the Northern Marianas Islands (45–55%) and Guam (30–45%), as well as that of Palau (15–25%) is of Filipino descent. Some of the local peoples in the previously stated territories also use Filipino names and surnames (one example is the surname Pangelinan, which comes from the Filipino surname Pangilinan). The current Chamorro population is believed to be partly of Filipino descent, both because of the historic links between Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands and the Philippines during Spanish rule, and currently through different waves of migration. The cuisines of Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and Palau are also heavily influenced by Filipino cuisine, with dishes like Pancit, Lumpia, Kelaguen, Halo-halo and Okoy being the most noticeable.

The Spanish East Indies were the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire in Asia and Oceania from 1565 to 1901 governed from Manila in the Spanish Philippines. The seat of government was in the Spanish Philippines and it encompassed the Marianas, Carolines, Palaos and Guam, as well as parts of Formosa (Taiwan), Sulawesi (Celebes) and the Moluccas (Maluku). The King of Spain traditionally styled himself "King of the East and West Indies".

Les Indes orientales espagnoles, en espagnol ', désignent les possessions espagnoles des Indes orientales, en Asie de l'Est et dans l'océan Pacifique, c'est-à-dire :'(îles Philippines) et leurs dépendances (les Mariannes, les îles Marshall, la Micronésie et les Palaos).


History.

Mohall was founded in 1901 by M.O. Hall, a businessman from Duluth, Minnesota. The city was originally named Hall but this conflicted with another community in North Dakota with the same name, so it was changed to Mohall in 1902. In 1910, Mohall was established as the county seat for Renville County.

Geography.

Mohall is located at (48.765010, -101.511043). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all of it land.

Mohall Municipal Airport.

The Mohall Municipal Airport is located at (48.7683833, -101.5369953), about a mile west of Mohall proper. Beginning operations in December 1944, the airport is owned by the city.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 783 people, 321 households, and 199 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 372 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 97.1% White, 0.3% African American, 1.1% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.4% from other races, and 1.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.3% of the population.  There were 321 households of which 28.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.8% were married couples living together, 9.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.0% were non-families. 34.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.90.  The median age in the city was 44.8 years. 22.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.3% were from 25 to 44; 26.1% were from 45 to 64; and 23.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.7% male and 50.3% female.

2000 census.

At the 2000 census, there were 812 people, 340 households and 214 families residing in the city. The population density was 747.9 per square mile (287.6/km2). There were 397 housing units at an average density of 365.6 per square mile (140.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 98.40% White, 0.74% Native American, 0.25% Asian, and 0.62% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.25% of the population.  There were 340 households of which 25.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.9% were married couples living together, 7.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.8% were non-families. 35.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 21.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.88.  Age distribution was 20.9% under the age of 18, 4.8% from 18 to 24, 20.8% from 25 to 44, 23.3% from 45 to 64, and 30.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 48 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.5 males.  The median household income was $30,139, and the median family income was $38,636. Males had a median income of $27,344 versus $16,776 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,341. About 8.8% of families and 10.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.8% of those under age 18 and 5.6% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

The Mohall, Sherwood, and Lansford school districts consolidated into the Mohall Lansford Sherwood School District in 2005. In order to minimize controversy, the three school districts' old nicknames were retired. Voters in the consolidated districts chose as the new nickname the Mavericks. Before the consolidation, the nickname for the Mohall school district was the Yellowjackets.

Climate.

This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Mohall has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

Mohall is a city in Renville County, North Dakota, United States. It is the county seat of Renville County. The population was 783 at the 2010 census. Mohall is part of the Minot Micropolitan Statistical Area.

La ville de est le siège du comté de Renville, dans l’État du Dakota du Nord, aux États-Unis. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


Canyon depth.

As the canyon passes between the peaks of the Namcha Barwa (Namjabarwa) and Gyala Peri mountains, it reaches an average depth of about 5,000 m (16,000 feet) around Namcha Barwa. The canyon's average depth "overall" is about 2,268 m (7,440 feet), the deepest depth reaches 6,009 m (19,714 feet). This is the deepest canyon on land. This part of the canyon is at. Namcha Barwa, 7,782 m (25,531 feet) high, is at, and Gyala Peri, at 7,234 m (23,733 feet), is at.

Ecosystem.

The gorge has a unique ecosystem with species of animals and plants barely explored and affected by human influence. Its climate ranges from subtropical to Arctic. The highest temperature in Tibet is and is recorded near the border of India at about above sea level. The rare takin is one of the animals hunted by the local tribes.

The "Everest of Rivers".

Western interest in the Tsangpo began in the 19th century when British explorers and geographers speculated where Tibet's east-flowing Tsangpo ended up, suspecting the Brahmaputra. Since British citizens were not allowed to enter Tibet they recruited Indian "pundits" to do the footwork. Kinthup from Sikkim entered the gorge near Gyala, but it proved to be impenetrable. In 1880 Kinthup was sent back to test the Brahmaputra theory by releasing 500 specially marked logs into the river at a prearranged time. His British boss Captain Henry Harman posted men on the Dihang-Brahmaputra to watch for their arrival. However, Kinthup was sold into slavery, escaped, and ended up employed at a monastery. On three leaves of absence he managed to craft the logs, send a letter from Lhasa with his new intended schedule, and send off the logs. Four years had passed. Unfortunately his note to alert the British got misdirected, his boss had left India, and nobody checked for the appearance of the logs.  In 1913, Frederick Marshman Bailey and Henry Morshead launched an expedition into the gorge that finally confirmed that the Tsangpo was indeed the upper Brahmaputra. Frank Kingdon-Ward started an expedition in 1924 in hopes of finding a major waterfall explaining the difference in altitude between the Tsangpo and the Brahmaputra. It turned out that the gorge has a series of relatively steep sections. Among them was a waterfall he named "Rainbow Falls", not as big as he had hoped.  The area was closed after China invaded Tibet and disputed the location of the border in the Sino-Indian War. The Chinese government resumed issuing permits in the 1990s. Since then the gorge has also been visited by kayakers. It has been called the "Everest of Rivers" because of the extreme conditions. The first attempt was made in 1993 by a Japanese group who lost one member on the river. In October 1998 an expedition sponsored by the National Geographic Society attempted to kayak the entire gorge. Troubled by unanticipated high water levels, it ended in tragedy when Doug Gordon was lost. In January–February 2002 an international group with Scott Lindgren, Steve Fisher, Mike Abbott, Allan Ellard, Dustin Knapp, and Johnnie and Willie Kern completed the first full descent of the upper Tsangpo gorge section.  The largest waterfalls of the gorge (near Tsangpo Badong, Chinese: ) were visited in 1998, by a team consisting of Ken Storm, Hamid Sarder, Ian Baker and their Monpa guides. They estimated the height of the falls to be about. The falls and rest of the Pemako area are sacred to Tibetan Buddhists who had concealed them from outsiders including the Chinese authorities. In 2005 Chinese National Geography named them China's most beautiful waterfalls. There are two waterfalls in this section: Rainbow Falls (about high) at and Hidden Falls just downstream at (about high).

Yarlung Tsangpo Hydroelectric and Water Diversion Project.

While the government of the PRC has declared the establishment of a "Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon National Reservation", there have also been governmental plans and feasibility studies for a major dam to harness hydroelectric power and divert water to other areas in China. The size of the dam in the Tsongpo gorge would exceed that of Three Gorges Dam as it is anticipated that such a plant would generate 50,000 megawatts of electricity, more than twice the output of Three Gorges. It is feared that there will be displacement of local populations, destruction of ecosystems, and an impact for downstream people in India and Bangladesh. The project is criticized by India because of its potential negative impact upon the residents downstream.  In 1999, R.B. Cathcart suggested that a fabric dam—inflatable with freshwater or air—could block the Yarlung Tsangpo Canyon upstream of Namcha Barwa. Water would then be conveyed via a hard rock tunnel to a point downstream from that mountain. Steel dams are more advantageous and economical in remote hilly terrain at high altitude for diverting the run off water of the river to power generating units.

The Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon, also known as the Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon, the Tsangpo Canyon, the Brahmaputra Canyon or the Tsangpo Gorge (', is a canyon along the Yarlung Tsangpo River in Tibet Autonomous Region, China. It is the deepest canyon in the world, and at is slightly longer than the Grand Canyon in the United States, making it one of the world's largest. The Yarlung Tsangpo (Tibetan name for the upper course of the Brahmaputra) originates near Mount Kailash and runs east for about, draining a northern section of the Himalayas before it enters the gorge just downstream of Pei, Tibet, near the settlement of Zhibe. The canyon has a length of about as the gorge bends around Mount Namcha Barwa () and cuts its way through the eastern Himalayan range. Its waters drop from about near Pei to about at the end of the Upper Gorge where the Po Tsangpo River enters. The river continues through the Lower Gorge to the Indian border at an elevation of. The river then enters Arunachal Pradesh and eventually becomes the Brahmaputra.

Le canyon du Yarlung Tsangpo (ou gorges du Yarlung Tsangpo) est le canyon le plus long et le plus profond au monde. Il a été creusé par le Yarlung Tsangpo dans sa traversée de l'extrémité orientale de l'Himalaya au Tibet.


1839.

In 1839 an article on Mainz in "The Penny Cyclopædia" stated that Mainz was one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, and a chief bulwark of Germany against France. At the Congress of Vienna, Mainz was assigned to the Louis, Grand-Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, but it was decided that, as a fortress, it should belong to the German Confederation, with a garrison of Austrian, Prussian, and Hessian troops. This garrison in time of peace consisted of 6,000 men. The military governor, who retained his post five years, was alternately an Austrian and a Prussian general. A criticism of the fortress was that it was too large, as it required for its defence a garrison of 30,000 men.  The fortress of Mainz was connected, by a bridge over the Rhine, with the strongly fortified village of Kastel. The extent of the works, which were much enlarged by the French while the city was in their possession, including the work called the "Weisenauer Schanze" or "Fort Weisenau", but exclusive of Kastel and of the small redoubt, was two and a half leagues. Among the principal works were the citadel, with the "Eichelstein", and that called the "Hauptstein", an extremely strong work projecting beyond all the rest, on an eminence called the "Linsenberg". Kastel, which at that time was united with Mainz as an outwork, had very extensive fortifications, which consisted of four strong forts besides the strongly fortified island of Petersau, including which latter the works were of greater extent than even those of Mainz itself. The inner works consisted of 14 principal and 13 smaller bastions. On the land side there were four great gates with double drawbridges, and toward the river several more gates. The Rhine runs from south to north, and the Main from east to west. About a mile above the junction of the two rivers was the village of Kostheim on the Main, and a little farther up a bridge of boats, defended by a strong "tête-de-pont".

1864.

Karl Baedeker writing in 1864 stated that Mainz was amongst the strongest fortresses of the German Confederation. It was surrounded by a threefold line of fortifications: first ring, the chief rampart consisting of 14 bastions comprising the citadel; second ring, a line of advanced forts, connected by glacis; third ring, by still more advanced entrenchments, erected partly by the Prussian, partly by the Austrian engineers, of which the principal were the "Weisenauer Lager", the "Hartenberg", and the "Binger Thurm". On the north side of the town stood a vast Military Hospital, facing the "Schlossplatz". In time of peace the garrison consisted of 3,000 Prussian, and a similar number of Austrian troops; in time of war the number of soldiers could be trebled.

Structures and buildings.

According to Lehnhardts map of Mainz ~ 1844 many bastions are to be found:

The Fortress of Mainz was a fortressed garrison town between 1620 and 1918. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, under the term of the 1815 Peace of Paris, the control of Mainz passed to the German Confederation and became part of a chain of strategic fortresses which protected the Confederation. With the dissolution of the Confederation and the Austro-Prussian War, control of the fortress first passed to Prussia, and, after the 1871 Unification of Germany, to the German Empire.

Mayence fut, de 1619 à 1918, une forteresse et une ville de garnison. La présence des militaires et les fortifications étendues ont fortement marqué la vie des citoyens mayençais. En raison de sa position stratégiquement favorable, Mayence a joué un grand rôle dans le passé : d'un côté à l'autre de la frontière, on l'appelait "le boulevard de la France" ou "das Bollwerk Deutschlands".


Creation and casting.

The television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (often simplified as "Buffy") was created by Joss Whedon, who originally used the concept of a teenage girl who is given superhuman powers to fight evil, in a screenplay that became a film in 1992. Unhappy with the outcome of the film, Whedon created the series, which picks up shortly after the events of the film and is loosely based on its ending. At the end of the film, which was set in Los Angeles, Buffy fights and defeats a gang of vampires in her school's gymnasium. At the start of the television series Buffy and her mother Joyce, who has divorced Buffy's father, move to a new town named Sunnydale where Buffy is to attend Sunnydale High School, which, unknown to her, is situated on a portal to hell, called a Hellmouth. The series explains that she has relocated from Los Angeles after burning down the gymnasium, marking her as a trouble-making student and a worrisome daughter. The series regularly employs the elements of dark fantasy and horror to represent the real problems regularly encountered by adolescents, with many situations also reflecting adult fears and anxieties.  Buffy's parents are barely seen in the film, but her mother Joyce (Kristine Sutherland), plays a prominent role in the series. Sutherland, a fantasy fiction fan who dislikes the horror genre, had recently moved to Hollywood from New York City in 1996 and was not actively looking for acting jobs when her agent called her with the opportunity to play Joyce. Sutherland auditioned the same day as David Boreanaz, Buffy's romantic interest Angel, and was impressed with how naturally she felt at ease with the material in the readings with the writers and casting agents. Sutherland stated in an interview that she felt she identified strongly with adolescents. Her empathy for them made her protective not only of the actors, but their characters as well. However, a storyline that has Joyce possessed as the mother from hell was one of Sutherland's favorite possible scripts, but it was cut.

Progression.

Seasons 1 and 2.

Buffy is introduced to her new school as a student who is both emotionally and academically troubled. With the move to Sunnydale, she believes she is starting fresh, a notion her mother also believes and encourages. As Buffy establishes herself in school in early episodes, Joyce, who is recently divorced, is preoccupied with setting up their home and running an art gallery. Initially unwilling to become involved again with her role as the Slayer, Buffy is nevertheless confronted by the school librarian Giles (Anthony Head), her new Watcher, the mentor and teacher assigned to instruct her how to fight vampires and other demons she is destined to face. Buffy does not tell her mother about this development, and Joyce remains ignorant of Buffy's role as the Slayer and of Giles' influence in her life, something she later resents when he seems to be closer to Buffy in ways Joyce is not.  Joyce's initial role in the series is, according to scholar J. P. Williams, very similar to the Superman character Lois Lane, who is unable to discern the likeness between Clark Kent with his glasses on and Superman with his glasses off. Buffy is frequently referred to as a superhero by authors, and Joyce's initial ignorance of Buffy's abilities and responsibilities creates skepticism among both characters in the series and viewers about Joyce's intelligence and motivations. For example, Joyce sees the extremely attentive Giles merely as a teacher concerned about Buffy as a student who has experienced academic problems in the past.  This willful ignorance of Buffy's vocation has been well-analyzed by Buffy studies scholars. A persistent theme in "Buffy" is the nearly unbreachable generation gap between adolescents and adults. Throughout the series, adults are either unable or unwilling to see the genuine horrors teenagers face. As Buffy's mother, Joyce is repeatedly confronted with evidence of her daughter's role as the Slayer; Sutherland saw this as a form of denial on Joyce's part. The resulting conflict between Joyce and Buffy is both tragic and humorous. When Buffy skips class or stays out late to attend to her Slayer duties, Joyce is left trying to punish her by restricting her to the house. Joyce responds to the dire situations Buffy must face by placing regular and inconvenient restrictions on her, such as grounding her at a time when Buffy must confront and try to kill the Master (the head of a vampire cult who is attempting to fulfill a prophecy that he will kill the Slayer and open the Hellmouth in Sunnydale), saying sarcastically to Buffy, "I know—if you don't go out it'll be the end of the world", when in fact, it just may be, or telling Buffy that she is free to make her own life choices, when Buffy knows exactly what her destiny is, and that it may include dying young. This duality of language reinforces the generation gap between the characters.  Joyce is, according to author Lorna Jowett, a typical "teen-horror parent": loving and supporting, but not really facing or knowing the true extent of reality, therefore ineffective at helping her child. She embodies the expectation that mothers should intuitively understand their children. Buffy confronts her mother's denial in "Becoming", the second-season finale, forcing Joyce to see the reality of what Buffy is and does. As a result of their confrontation, Joyce gives Buffy an ultimatum that she either stay at home or never come back. As Buffy is compelled to thwart the apocalypse, she accepts her mother's decision, leaves the house and, ultimately, Sunnydale. Sutherland read the script for the second-season finale in her car, unable to stop reading until the resolution, where she sat sobbing when it is revealed Buffy leaves. In their heated encounter Buffy says to her mother, "Open your eyes, Mom. What do you think has been going on for the past two years? The fights? The weird occurrences. How many times have you washed blood out of my clothing and you still haven't figured it out?" Joyce responds by trying to restrict Buffy again, then attempting to physically restrain her, at which point Buffy ends Joyce's ideas of parental authority by easily overpowering her and walking out the door.  Despite her difficulty with understanding Buffy, Joyce frequently expresses her love for her daughter and supports her when other adults do not. The love Joyce expresses is interpreted by scholars as an attempt to compensate for having failed to understand intuitively that something was going on with her daughter before the revelation that Buffy is the Slayer. Following that revelation, Joyce makes many attempts to understand what a Slayer does. Many scenes showing Joyce giving love and support to Buffy take place in their home, establishing it as center of motherly devotion, stability, and safety. Shots are usually composed so that the two are not seen in the same frame, or are separated by objects such as tables, or placed in opposite sides of rooms, a visual representation of Joyce's inability to understand her daughter's responsibilities and powers.

Seasons 3 and 4.

The third season opens with Buffy returning home from Los Angeles at the end of "Anne". Joyce and Buffy are at first very ill at ease with each other during the next episode "Dead Man's Party", while Buffy starts to understand how difficult Joyce's time has been without her. Sutherland welcomed the change; she felt the relationship between Joyce and Buffy "became so much richer" after Joyce finally knew of and faced Buffy's role as the Slayer. The overt conflict of "Dead Man's Party" has Joyce bringing home a cursed mask that calls zombies to the house while a party is occurring, killing several people. Author Nikki Stafford sees the zombies at the party as symbolism for the utter confusion of dealing with Buffy's return. During the party, Buffy feels so uncomfortable around her family and friends she considers leaving again. Joyce and Buffy's best friend Willow Rosenberg (Alyson Hannigan) both angrily confront Buffy; Joyce admits that she does not know all the answers and that giving Buffy an ultimatum was a mistake. The episode marks Joyce's return as a parent; her recognition of her own shortcomings in the error of pushing Buffy away is a measure of nobility common among Joss Whedon's characters.  Following her realization that Buffy is the Slayer, Joyce begins to express concern for Buffy's well-being and long-term plans. The third season showcases two episodes in which Joyce is a major character. Both of them posit Buffy as a parent figure over Joyce. With "Band Candy" the episode begins with Buffy being petulant and Joyce working with Giles to create a schedule for studying and slaying, but these roles quickly dissolve in the ensuing chaos. In an attempt to offer a sacrifice to a demon, Sunnydale's shadowy mayor intoxicates the adults of the town with drugged chocolate bars, making them devolve into adolescents. Joyce descends into the behavior of a 16-year-old, a prospect Kristine Sutherland found not only fun, but painful as it brought back memories she had not faced in years. Giles is also affected, turning into his adolescent miscreant self, which Joyce finds irresistible (the two have sex on a police car in the middle of downtown Sunnydale). Giles has become Buffy's father figure following her parents' divorce, and Buffy finds Joyce's attraction to Giles disquieting. Joyce had dated before ("Ted") but Buffy, and consequently the audience, do not see Joyce as a sexual character; she is foremost a mother. According to Lorna Jowett, Joyce is rare among the characters on the series: "Joyce is always and only Buffy's mother, never just another person or a member of the team."  The second instance of role-reversal is in the episode "Gingerbread", where again children demonstrate more wisdom than the adults. The episode is noted as highlighting this motif specifically, as the divide between parents and children is exaggerated and symbolized by Joyce's confusion. In an attempt to learn more about her daughter's Slayer duties, Joyce follows Buffy on patrol at night, bringing snacks and saying she wants to observe Buffy work. Joyce finds two dead children in a playground and is deeply disturbed. After Buffy comforts her mother, the Scoobies discover that the children are the manifestation of a demon whose sole purpose is to tear communities apart by sparking moral panics. Joyce, meanwhile, becomes entirely consumed with finding the culprit of the apparent murders. She starts a parents' activist organization named "Mothers Opposed to the Occult" (or "M.O.O." to Buffy's mortification) with Willow's mother, an academic and parenting expert so self-involved that she virtually ignores her daughter. Both Buffy and Willow—whose skills in witchcraft are growing—are seized by M.O.O., who attempt to burn them at the stake. Joyce takes a leadership role, giving a speech to concerned parents about the unnatural evils in the town, citing the "slayers and witches" among other monsters. Her compulsion to become involved in Buffy's dark world, with its disastrous results, represents her feeling of helplessness in relation to Buffy's calling. She is unable to protect or comprehend what Buffy must endure—another expression of teenage-parent alienation.  In the fourth season, as Buffy and Willow attend college, Joyce's role is scaled back considerably. Kristine Sutherland and her family moved to Italy to live, so she starred in only five episodes in the season, including the first one, "The Freshman," when Buffy comes home during her bewildering first week at college to discover that Joyce has filled her room with packing crates from the art gallery. This sign of her mother's life going on without her increases Buffy's disorientation and underscores Joyce's independent life. Consequent to her mother's distance, Buffy must begin to face some of her problems alone, the least of which is cooking Thanksgiving dinner for Giles and the Scooby Gang in "Pangs". Buffy encounters a female psychology professor at college who challenges and frustrates her, but also validates her intellect, something Buffy has not been well known for. Professor Maggie Walsh becomes, for the first part of the season, a substitute mother for Buffy. The last episode of the season,"Restless", explores the dreams of Willow, Xander Harris (Nicholas Brendon), Giles, and Buffy. Joyce appears as a seductress to Xander (in a red silk nightgown), and appears again in Buffy's dream as Buffy wanders the halls of college. Joyce is stuck inside a wall, saying that she is content making lemonade and learning to play mahjong. The enigmatic nature of "Restless" allows analysts to explain the depth of the characters and their relationships, as well as the foreshadowing of events to come in subsequent seasons. Joyce's confinement in a tight space in Buffy's dream indicates that Buffy considers her mother's life to be very limited. The hole in the wall through which Joyce and Buffy speak briefly shows only Joyce's head and shoulders, which, according to Nikki Stafford, is the prevailing image in the fifth-season episode "The Body", an episode which explores Joyce's death and its immediate aftermath.

Season 5: Joyce's death.

As noted by author Roz Kaveney, Joyce becomes central to the fifth season themes of family and Buffy facing forces she is unable to fight or control. A new character is introduced to the Summers family: Buffy gets a 14-year-old sister named Dawn (Michelle Trachtenberg), who is the mystical embodiment of a "key" which opens a portal to a hell dimension. Prior to Dawn's arrival, Joyce has been experiencing loneliness as Buffy's increasing responsibilities takes over, at one point remarks that her house gets very quiet without Buffy present. She inadvertently invites the Romanian vampire mystic Count Dracula as the result. Although Dawn is unaware of what she is, Buffy learns her true identity after becoming suspicious that Dawn is attempting to harm Joyce. After experiencing debilitating headaches, collapsing, then requiring hospitalization, Joyce learns that she has a brain tumor. A side-effect of the tumor is that Joyce sees Dawn as she truly is: a bright, beautiful, mystical energy that must be protected from harm. Despite knowing the truth of Dawn's origins, Joyce still loves her, realizing that she is an innocent who belongs in the Summers family, and collaborate with Buffy and Giles of protecting her. The spell which made Dawn human also made her biologically related to Joyce and Buffy. To protect Dawn as well as tend to Joyce after she has brain surgery, Buffy moves out of her dorm and returns to the family home. Riley Finn (Marc Blucas), Buffy's boyfriend for the past year, leaves in the episode "Into the Woods". Following his departure, and in the course of the episode "I Was Made to Love You", Buffy comes to feel that she does not need a boyfriend. Her confidence in this decision is immediately shaken at the end of the episode when she comes home to find her mother's lifeless body on the sofa. Joyce's death is fully explored in "The Body" as the entire cast of characters struggles to understand how the once-vibrant Joyce has become a body in the morgue. Scholar Jes Battis writes that in contrast to the way family members are portrayed throughout the series as absent (Willow's), chaotic (Xander's), or highly disruptive (Anya's), Joyce straddles these extremes. The ease of her success at mothering a violent superhero and a mystical key while appearing to enjoy a normal life is eroded by a brain tumor, and only then do she and the other characters come to understand what a complex job she has. To scholars the tumor represents the physical manifestation of not being able to take care of Buffy, or a form of mortality that Buffy will not soon face.  To Joss Whedon, the tumor represented nothing more than cancer. He planned to kill Joyce as early as the third season, and he wrote the episode to reflect what he experienced when he lost his own mother to a brain aneurysm. In 2001, Whedon told an interviewer, "I knew I was going to kill Joyce, and I knew that what I wanted to capture — because I had lost my own mother — was that weird dumb grief and the various reactions that people have to death." "The Body" begins with a Christmas dinner scene presided over by Joyce as the head of her chosen family. At the table are Buffy, Dawn, Giles, Willow, her girlfriend Tara (Amber Benson), Xander, and his ex-demon girlfriend Anya (Emma Caulfield). Pragmatically, the scene was included so the credits would not roll over the dramatic moments of Buffy finding her dead mother and trying to revive her. Whedon did not want to include any element that broke the illusion presented in the episode. In a realm where the main adolescent characters, who are becoming adults, must regularly face horrors and evils, Joyce represents a stable and predictable life. Her death crushes the illusion that real or normal life — which Buffy frequently says she wants but cannot have — is trouble-free. Joyce is mourned by all of the characters in the series. Even the amoral vampire Spike (James Marsters) expresses his condolences. In an earlier episode he had confided in a very sympathetic Joyce about his equally amoral and insane lover Drusilla (Juliet Landau) leaving him. Likewise, Anya, who has very little experience with human emotions and frailties, is confused and unexpectedly saddened by Joyce's death.

Other appearances.

Joyce appears in four episodes after her death in "The Body", first as a young woman in season five's "The Weight of the World": Buffy has a recurring but false memory of her parents bringing Dawn home as a newborn. The episode deals with Buffy's inability to cope with her mother's death and her inadequacy at protecting Dawn, and explores Buffy's obsession with her failure and guilt. The sixth-season episode "Normal Again" posits Buffy's world of Sunnydale as a manifestation of psychopathology: after being stabbed by a demon, Buffy becomes convinced that the world in which she is a hero is an illusion. Her parents, who have remained happily married, visit her in a mental institution and encourage her to fight the seductive world she has imagined and return home with them. Joyce appears twice in the seventh season: she haunts Dawn as a face of the First Evil in "Conversations with Dead People", and makes her final appearance again as an incarnation of the First Evil in Buffy's dream in "Bring on the Night".

Influence.

Throughout the series, Buffy frequently expresses anxiety about being wanted and accepted. One of the most overt expressions of her concern is in the first-season episode "Nightmares", where characters' nightmares come true. In Buffy's nightmare, her father cruelly tells her he no longer wants to spend any time with her because of her defects as a daughter. She further worries that her ostensible troubled behavior at school and disobedience at home may have been a significant reason for the ending of her parents' marriage. She pushes away her friends and family to protect them from what she must face, while simultaneously depending on their assistance. Psychologists writing about Buffy state that she is a candidate for an anxiety disorder, as most often people diagnosed with anxiety disorders worry and fixate on problems, behaviors which studies suggest are inherited. In this light, they analyze Joyce's actions as overprotective of Buffy in early seasons: her vigilance causes Buffy to need to sneak in and out of the house through her bedroom window. Joyce is also continually encouraging her to avoid badly-behaved classmates. Regardless of this, Joyce's nurturing of Buffy is cited as being one of the reasons Buffy has been able to live as long as she has — much longer than other Slayers, who historically have usually died very young — and is a source of Buffy's strength. Joyce and Giles often work in similar ways to guide Buffy morally and emotionally. Buffy's tragic love affair with Angel, a relationship that could bring neither of them any happiness, was broken off, in part, after Joyce's request that Angel be the one to end it.  According to Lorna Jowett, Joyce is a vehicle through which older viewers can judge the actions of the younger characters. Jowett sees Joyce as a "post-feminist matriarch": she is the head of a household that rarely requires the presence of men. Buffy, according to Jowett, descends from two female lines: the Slayer line and the Summers line. In opposition to Buffy, Joyce never expresses that she has been abandoned by men, and she retains feminine characteristics: she runs an art gallery, has other friends, and dates. Jes Battis argues that Joyce's role as Buffy's mother goes mostly unnoticed because of societal expectations audiences are expected to make about single mothers — at least until her death. Buffy's grief must coincide with Buffy becoming who Joyce was. In this process, Buffy struggles to fill Joyce's role, finding it more difficult than being a Slayer.

Joyce Summers is a fictional character in the action-horror television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" (1997–2003). Played by Kristine Sutherland, Joyce is the mother of the main character, Buffy Summers, and appears in 58 of the 144 episodes, the show's most recurring character and only one to appear in every season.

Joyce Summers est un personnage de la série télévisée américaine "Buffy contre les vampires" interprété par Kristine Sutherland. Candy Clark interpréta la première ce rôle en 1992 dans le film "Buffy, tueuse de vampires". Le personnage est extrêmement différent de celui de la série, beaucoup moins maternelle, et ne fait que quelques apparitions tout au long du film.


Background.

The Thirty Years War began in 1618 when the Protestant Frederick, ruler of the Electoral Palatinate, accepted the crown of Bohemia. Many Germans remained neutral, viewing it as an inheritance dispute within the Holy Roman Empire, and Emperor Ferdinand quickly suppressed the Bohemian Revolt. However, Imperial forces then invaded the Palatinate, forcing Frederick into exile.  Depriving Frederick of his inheritance changed the nature and extent of the war, as it potentially threatened other German princes. Concern increased with the 1629 Edict of Restitution, requiring all properties transferred since 1552 restored to their original owners. In nearly every case, this meant from Protestants to the Catholic Church, effectively undoing the 1555 Peace of Augsburg. In addition, Imperial general Wallenstein and his army of mercenaries supported themselves by living off the territories they passed through, including those of Ferdinand's allies.  The combination bolstered Protestant resistance within the Empire, and drew in external players, concerned by the prospect of a Catholic Counter Reformation. In 1625, Christian IV of Denmark landed in Northern Germany and had some success, before forced to withdraw in 1629. This led to intervention by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, partly driven by a genuine desire to support his Protestant co-religionists, but also to ensure control of the Baltic trade that provided much of Sweden's income.  In June 1630, nearly 18,000 Swedish troops landed in the Duchy of Pomerania, occupied by Wallenstein since 1627. Gustavus signed an alliance with Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Pomerania, securing his interests in Pomerania against the Catholic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, another Baltic competitor linked to Ferdinand by family and religion.  Despite expectations of widespread support, by the end of 1630, the only new Swedish ally was the Imperial town of Magdeburg, then besieged by the Catholic League. Despite the Edict, and the devastation inflicted on their territories by Imperial soldiers, Swedish intervention presented risks. Saxony and Brandenburg-Prussia had their own ambitions in Pomerania, while previous experience showed inviting external powers into the Empire was easier than getting them to leave. Although the Swedes expelled the Imperialists, this simply replaced one set of plunderers with another; Gustavus could not support so large an army, and his unpaid and unfed troops became increasingly mutinous and ill-disciplined.  In January 1631, John George of Saxony hosted a conference of German Protestant states at Leipzig, hoping to create a neutrality pact. Gustavus responded by advancing through Brandenburg, as far as Bärwalde, on the Oder, where he set up camp. This secured his rear before moving onto Magdeburg, while making a clear point to those meeting in Leipzig.

Negotiations.

For much of the 16th and 17th centuries, Europe was dominated by the rivalry between France and the Habsburgs, rulers of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. During the 1620s, France was divided by renewed religious wars and Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister from 1624 to 1642, avoided open conflict with the Habsburgs. Instead, he financed their opponents, including the Dutch, the Ottomans, and Danish intervention in the Thirty Years War.  From 1628 to 1630, France fought a proxy war with Spain over Mantua, in Northern Italy. Hoping to use Sweden to occupy Spanish forces in Germany, in 1629 Richelieu appointed Hercule de Charnacé French envoy in the Baltic region, with responsibility for negotiating a deal with Gustavus. Talks progressed slowly; de Charnacé quickly concluded the Swedish monarch was too powerful a character to be easily controlled and urged caution. One major issue was the insistence by Gustavus that Frederick V be restored as ruler of the Palatinate, currently occupied by another French ally, Maximilian of Bavaria.  The October 1630 Treaty of Ratisbonne concluded the Mantuan War in France's favour but in return, French negotiators undertook not to agree alliances with members of the Holy Roman Empire without Ferdinand's approval. Doing so would undermine the entire basis of French foreign policy; Louis XIII refused to ratify the deal, leading to an internal power struggle between Richelieu and the Queen Mother, Marie de Medici. At one point, it was widely believed he had been dismissed, an event known as the Day of the Dupes.  Although Richelieu triumphed over his domestic opponents, Swedish support became even more important, since as an external player it was not subject to the restrictions of Ratisbonne. De Charnacé was instructed to agree a treaty as soon as possible; after discussions with the Swedish diplomats, Gustav Horn and Johan Banér, it was signed at Bärwalde on 23 January 1631.

Terms.

The stated purpose of the agreement was securing the Baltics, and ensuring freedom of trade, including French trading privileges in the Øresund strait. Sweden agreed to maintain an army of 36,000 in Germany, of which 6,000 were cavalry; to support this force, France agreed to pay 400,000 Reichstaler or one million livres per year, plus an additional 120,000 Reichstalers for 1630. These subsidies were less than 2% of the total French state budget, but over 25% of the Swedish.  Gustavus promised to comply with Imperial laws on religion, allow freedom of worship for Catholics and respect the neutrality of Bavaria and the lands of the Catholic League. Both parties agreed not to seek a separate peace and the period of the treaty was set at five years.

Aftermath.

The haste with which the treaty was agreed concealed serious weaknesses, which soon became apparent. In May 1631, an army of the Catholic League under the Bavarian Count Tilly sacked the Protestant town of Magdeburg. Over 20,000 were alleged to have died in the most serious atrocity of the entire war, increasing the bitterness of the conflict and leading to intervention by other Protestant states. Gustavus embarked on a series of stunning military victories, and Protestant retribution for Magdeburg became a considerable embarrassment for Richelieu, a Cardinal of the Catholic Church.  Under the May 1631 Franco-Bavarian Treaty of Fontainebleau, Richelieu agreed to provide Maximilian military support if attacked by any other party. In theory, it did not conflict with the terms of Bärwalde, since Gustavus undertook to respect Bavarian and Catholic League neutrality. In practice, his obligation applied only so long as their compliance and as Richelieu pointed out to Maximilian, even Tilly's presence at Magdeburg violated that neutrality.  The poorly worded Bärwalde treaty gave Gustavus a great deal of freedom, while Magdeburg brought him support from the Dutch and England among others. This made him increasingly independent of French control; his upward trajectory ended only with his death at Lützen in November 1632. Swedish intervention continued; its acquisition of Swedish Pomerania was confirmed in the Treaty of Stettin (1653) and retained until 1815.

Notes.

The Treaty of Bärwalde (; ; ), signed on 23 January 1631, was an agreement by France to provide Sweden financial support, following its intervention in the Thirty Years' War.

Le traité de Barwald ou traité de Bärwalde est un traité signé à Bärwalde entre les souverains de France (Louis XIII) et de Suède (Gustave-Adolphe), le, durant la Guerre de Trente Ans.