History.

The first match between two local US clubs was played in 1996 between Cincinnati and Louisville. In the first year the Mid American Australian Football League was formed. Many of the local players had found out about the game in the 1980s on television via the then-nascent ESPN cable network. Although the local game grew, ESPN no longer broadcast AFL matches, and in response the lobby group, Australian Football Association of North America was formed.  In 1997, the first club national championships were held in Cincinnati. Nashville hosted the first Australian Grand Final Festival in the same year. The United States Australian Football League (USAFL) was formed in 1997 to govern the code in the country.  The involvement of many well-known Australians has helped boost the relations between the USAFL and AFL. In the early days, Paul Roos was a key figure.  Robert DiPierdomenico, Leigh Matthews and Michael Voss are official USAFL ambassadors.

National teams.

USAFL is responsible for the co-ordination of the National Teams, the USA Revolution men's team and the USA Freedom women's team. The team plays in international tournaments and exhibition matches against other countries. National team players are selected from the best US-born players from the club teams across the country.  With close proximity to Canada, the Revolution & Freedom participate in the annual 49th Parallel Cup against Canada each year except for years of the International Cup in Australia.  The Revolution competed in the 2002 Australian Football International Cup, finishing 5th out of 11 countries and in the 2005 Australian Football International Cup finishing 3rd out of 10 countries. They competed in the 2008 Australian Football International Cup where the Revolution finished 7th out of 16 countries. At the 2011 Australian Football International Cup, the Revolution finished 4th in an increased field of 18 countries. The Revolution finished 8th at the 2014 Australian Football International Cup, again with 18 countries participating.

The United States Australian Football League (USAFL) is the governing body for Australian rules football in the United States. It was conceived in 1996 and organized in 1997. It is based in Sun Prairie, Wisconsin.

La United States Australian Football League ou USAFL ou US Footy est la ligue américaine de football australien. Elle fut conçue en 1996 et organisée pour la première fois en 1997. En 2006, la ligue possédait 40 clubs affiliés, 60 équipes et environ joueurs


Frontière entre la république démocratique du Congo et le Soudan du Sud

Description.

The border starts in the west at the CAR tripoint, proceeding overland in a broadly south-eastwards direction, and then eastwards directions via series of irregular lines, terminating at the tripoint with Uganda. The boundary roughly follows the division between the Nile and Congo drainage divide.

History.

The border first emerged during the Scramble for Africa, a period of intense competition between European powers in the later 19th century for territory and influence in Africa. The process culminated in the Berlin Conference of 1884, in which the European nations concerned agreed upon their respective territorial claims and the rules of engagements going forward. At this time the area of the modern DRC was controlled by the Congo Free State, a state held under the personal rule of Belgian King Leopold II, who had sponsored various explorations in the region under the guise of humanitarianism. Sudan (including South Sudan) was conquered by Britain in the 1890s, who then created a condominium with Egypt called Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in January 1899. Britain has already signed a treaty with King Leopold on 12 May 1894 outlining their respective spheres of influence in Central Africa, roughly divided along the Nile-Congo drainage divide. However the treaty also leased large areas of land in Central Africa to the Congo Free State, including the Lado Enclave. The current boundary was confirmed further by a treaty of 9 May 1906.  Administration of the Congo Free State was taken over by the Belgian government in 1908 following controversies engendered by the atrocities committed by Leopold's forces there. The Belgian lease over Lado was terminated by an Anglo-Belgian treaty of 14 May 1910, and the area was thereafter annexed to Sudan.  Sudan gained independence in 1956, followed by the Belgian Congo (as the Republic of the Congo, later renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo) on 30 June 1960. In 2011 South Sudan declared independence from Sudan, and thereby inherited the border with the DRC. The porous boundary today is extremely insecure owing to the after-effects of civil wars in South Sudan, DRC and CAR, as well as the Lord's Resistance Army insurgency which has spilled over from Uganda.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo–South Sudan border is 714 km (444 m) in length and runs from the tripoint with the Central African Republic in the west to the tripoint with the Uganda in the east.

La frontière entre la république démocratique du Congo et le Soudan du Sud est la frontière séparant la république démocratique du Congo et le Soudan du Sud. Avant l'indépendance de ce dernier état le elle constituait une partie de la limite méridionale du territoire soudanais.


United Kingdom.

In the UK the original D-Notice system was introduced in 1912 and run as a voluntary system by a joint committee headed by an Assistant Secretary of the War Office and a representative of the Press Association. Any D-Notices or DA-notices are only advisory requests and are not legally enforceable; hence, news editors can choose not to abide by them. However, they are generally complied with by the media.  In 1971, all existing D-Notices were cancelled and replaced by standing D-Notices, which gave general guidance on what might be published and what was discouraged; and what would require further advice from the secretary of the Defence, Press and Broadcasting Advisory Committee (DPBAC). In 1993, the notices were renamed DA-Notices (Defence Advisory Notices).  One of the recommendations resulting from the 2015 review of the DA-notice system included the renaming of the system to the Defence and Security Media Advisory (DSMA) Committee. This name reflected better the longstanding inclusion of the work of the intelligence agencies. In 2017, the notices were reworded and then reorganized into the following categories:  According to an article in "Defense Viewpoints", between 1997 and 2008 there were "30 occasions where the committee secretary has written to specific editors when a breach in the D-Notice guidelines is judged to have occurred".

Known notable uses.

In 1967, a political scandal known as the D-notice affair occurred, when Prime Minister Harold Wilson made an attack on the "Daily Express" newspaper, accusing it of breaching two D-notices which advised the press not to publish material which might damage national security. When the newspaper asserted it had not been advised of any breach, an inquiry was set up under a committee of Privy Counsellors. The committee found against the government, whereupon the government refused to accept its findings on the disputed article, prompting press outrage and the resignation of the Secretary of the D-notice committee.  It has been reported that in 1971, four days following the Baker Street robbery, a D-Notice was issued, requesting that reporting be discontinued for reasons of national security. It is claimed that some security boxes contained embarrassing or nationally sensitive material. However, an investigation some years later showed that a request had never been made to the D-Notice committee. In fact, "The Times" newspaper was still reporting about the case over two months later.  In 2004 and 2005, three blanket letters were sent to newspapers advising against publication of countermeasures used against roadside ambushes of British forces in the Iraq War.  On 8 April 2009, the Committee issued a DA-Notice in relation to sensitive anti-terror documents photographed when Assistant Commissioner Bob Quick arrived at Downing Street for talks about current police intelligence.  On 25 November 2010, the Committee issued a note to editors drawing attention to standing DA-Notices 1 and 5 in relation to sensitive documents expected to be released on the website WikiLeaks.  In June 2013, a DA-Notice was issued asking the media to refrain from running stories on the US PRISM surveillance programme, and on British involvement therein.  In October 2013, Prime Minister David Cameron made a veiled threat to newspapers over NSA and GCHQ leaks, stating in Parliament that the government might use "injunctions or D-notices or the other tougher measures" to restrain publication of leaked classified information if newspapers did not voluntarily stop publishing them.  In 2017, a notice was issued to British journalists regarding revealing the author of a controversial dossier alleging collusion between Donald Trump and the Russian government during the 2016 presidential election. Multiple British outlets ignored this advisory and revealed his name anyway, including BBC News, "The Daily Telegraph" and "The Guardian".  On 7 March 2018 and on 14 March 2018 two notices were issued to protect MI6 in relation to some aspects of the Skripal affair. In the early 1990s Sergei Skripal was recruited by Pablo Miller, the MI6 agent inside the UK embassy to Estonia in Tallinn. The MI6 officer under diplomatic cover in Moscow at this time was Christopher Steele. Miller was also the handler of Skripal after he went to jail and was released by Russia in a spy swap. Both lived in Salisbury. Steele and Miller worked for Orbis Business Intelligence which compiled the controversial Trump–Russia dossier, comprising 17 memos written in 2016 alleging misconduct and conspiracy between Donald Trump's presidential campaign and the Putin administration. While the precise nature of the relations between Skripal, Miller, and Steele were hidden, enough was already known to raise questions about Skripal's ongoing involvement with British intelligence.

Australia.

A voluntary system of D-Notices was also used in Australia starting in 1952 during the Cold War period; these were issued by the Defence, Press and Broadcasting Committee. At the first meeting of the Committee, eight D-Notices were issued covering atomic tests in Australia, aspects of naval shipbuilding, official ciphering, the number and deployment of Centurion tanks, troop movements in the Korean War, weapons and equipment information not officially released, aspects of air defence and certain aerial photographs.  In 1974 the number of D-Notices was reduced to four, covering:  A fifth D-Notice relating to the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS) was issued in 1977.  In 1982 D-Notices were again revised to four.  The Defence, Press and Broadcasting Committee has not met since 1982 although the D-Notice system remains the administrative responsibility of the Minister for Defence. The D-Notice system fell out of common use at the end of the Cold War but remained in force. The 1995 Commission of Inquiry into the Australian Secret Intelligence Service reported that newspapers confessed ignorance that the D-Notice system was still operating when it was drawn to their attention in 1993 and 1994.  On 26 November 2010, Australian Attorney-General Robert McClelland sent a letter to heads of Australian media and other organisations proposing the creation of a new system similar to the D-Notice system. The proposed National Security Legislation Amendment Bill (2014) has been described as an extension of the D-Notice system that would subject journalists who reveal details of intelligence operations to criminal penalties.

In popular culture.

The use of the D-Notice is demonstrated and referenced several times in the first episode of the "Black Mirror" television series. The episode is titled "The National Anthem" and within it the UK government imposes a D-Notice to try and stifle a controversial ransom demand that the (fictional) prime minister have sex with a pig to secure the release of a member of the royal family.  In the comic book series "Transmetropolitan", a legally binding type of D-Notice is issued by the US President in an attempt to prevent the title character, gonzo journalist Spider Jerusalem, from exposing police corruption and a government-sponsored massacre.  The film "Defence of the Realm" illustrates the implications of the D-Notice protocols. In the film "Bank Job" MI-5 discusses issuing a D-Notice about sensitive photos stolen from a safe deposit box during a bank heist..

In the United Kingdom, a DSMA-Notice (Defence and Security Media Advisory Notice) is an official request to news editors not to publish or broadcast items on specified subjects for reasons of national security. DSMA-Notices were formerly called a DA-Notice (Defence Advisory Notice), and before that called a Defence Notice (D-Notice) until 1993.

En Grande-Bretagne, une DA-Notice (abréviation de "Defence Advisory Notice"), aussi appelée une D-Notice jusqu'en 1993, est une demande du gouvernement britannique auprès des éditeurs de ne pas publier ou de ne pas diffuser à propos de certains sujets en raison de la sécurité nationale.


Life.

Frans de Costere was received into the Society of Jesus by St. Ignatius on 7 November 1552. While still a young man he was sent to Cologne (western Germany) and lectured there on Sacred Scripture and astronomy. His reputation as a professor was established within a very short time, and on 10 December 1564, the university of Cologne conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and Theology.  He was ever ready to defend the teaching of the Catholic Church, which at this period was engaged in the struggle with Protestant 'new ideas', and by word and by writing he brought people back to Catholicism. He was for two terms provincial of the Jesuit province of Belgium, for one term provincial of that of the Rhine, and assisted at three General Congregation of his order.  In 1575 he was recalled to Cologne to lead the College of the Three Crowns, after its previous rector was murdered. While there he established two local sodalities, the Sodality of the Blessed Sacrament and the Sodality of the Blessed Virgin.

Works.

The catalogue of his writings (De Backer, I, 218) mentions forty-two titles. They include works on ascetical subjects, meditations on the Blessed Virgin Mary, and sermons on the Gospel for each Sunday of the year.  Probably the most famous was his "Enchiridion controversiarum præcipuarum nostri temporis de Religione" (Cologne, 1585, 1587, 1589, 1593). This was afterwards revised and enlarged by its author in 1596, 1605, 1608; and was translated into various languages.  To each of the attacks made upon it by Protestant writers, such as Philip Marbach, Franciscus Gommar or Lucas Osiander, Coster gave an able reply. His works directed against these opponents are entitled: "Liber de Ecclesiâ contra Franciscum Gommarum" (Cologne, 1604); "Apologia adversus Lucæ Osiandri hæretici lutherani refutationum octo propositionum catholicarum" (Cologne, 1606); "Annotationes in N. T. et in præcipua loca, quæ rapi possent in controversiam" (Antwerp, 1614).

Francis Coster (or Frans de Costere, ) (Mechelen, 16 June 1532 (1531) - Brussels, 16 December 1619) was a Flemish Jesuit, theologian and author.

François De Costere (nom latinisé en Franciscus Costerus), né le à Malines (Seigneurie de Malines, Pays-Bas des Habsbourg) et décédé le à Bruxelles, est un jésuite brabançon, écrivain spirituel et prédicateur, appelé le "Marteau des hérétiques" pour ses succès dans les controverses avec les Protestants. Il mourut en odeur de sainteté.


Ceirano family background.

The Ceirano brothers, Giovanni Battista, Giovanni, Ernesto and Matteo, were influential in the founding of the Italian auto industry, being variously responsible for : Ceirano; Welleyes (the technical basis of F.I.A.T.); Fratelli Ceirano; S.T.A.R./Rapid (Società Torinese Automobili Rapid); SCAT (Società Ceirano Automobili Torino); Itala and S.P.A. (Società Piemontese Automobili). Giovanni's son Giovanni "Ernesto" was also influential, co-founding Ceirano Fabbrica Automobili (aka Giovanni Ceirano Fabbrica Automobili) and Fabrica Anonima Torinese Automobili (FATA).  In 1888, after eight years apprenticeship at his father's watch-making business, Giovanni Battista started building "Welleyes" bicycles, so named because English names had more sales appeal. In October 1898 Giovanni Battista and Matteo co-founded Ceirano GB & C and started producing the "Welleyes" motor car in 1899. In July 1899 the plant and patents were sold to Giovanni Agnelli and produced as the first F.I.A.T.s - the Fiat 4 HP. Giovanni Battista was employed by Fiat as the agent for Italy, but within a year he left to found Fratelli Ceirano & C. which in 1903 became Società Torinese Automobili Rapid (S.T.A.R.) building cars badged as 'Rapid'. In 1904 Matteo Ceirano left Ceirano GB & C to create his own brand - Itala. In 1906 Matteo left Itala to found S.P.A. (Società Piemontese Automobili) with chief designer, Alberto Ballacco. In 1906 Giovanni founded SCAT (Società Ceirano Automobili Torino) in Turin. In 1919 Giovanni and Giovanni "Ernesto" co-founded Ceirano Fabbrica Automobili (aka Giovanni Ceirano Fabbrica Automobili) and in 1922 they took control of Fabrica Anonima Torinese Automobili (FATA).

History.

The company was established in 1906 by Matteo Ceirano and Michele Ansaldi (founder of Ansaldi automobiles) in Turin under the name of Società Piemontese Automobili. The chief designer was Alberto Ballacco.  In 1908, the company merged with Fabbrica Ligure Automobili Genova (FLAG) and the new company became Società Ligure Piemontese Automobili. The headquarters was in Genoa while production continued in Turin.  During World War I the company produced aero engines such as the 6A. Shortly afterwards, in 1916, both Ceirano and Ansaldi left.  In 1923 the company moved to Turin. Severe financial problems lead to a take-over by Fiat in 1925 and the discontinuation of car manufacture in favor of commercial and military vehicles.  After World War II they resumed car production, but, in 1947, the company was fully absorbed into Fiat.

Cars.

The first S.P.A.s designed by Alberto Ballacco and Ceirano were the "28/40HP" and "60/70 HP" which had four cylinder engines, side valves and live rear axles. They were exhibited at the "Esposizione di Torino".  By 1907 they also produced two six-cylinder models, one of which had the flywheel mounted at the front of the crankshaft.  By 1911 they had introduced "L-head" monobloc engine designs, unitary gearboxes, and High tension magneto ignition systems. The next year they sold 500 cars and introduced a new four cylinder 14/16 hp engine as the basis of their modern, compact car.  By 1914 the range included twin, four and six cylinder cars - the biggest had an 11,536cc displacement.  After World War I production resumed with the pre-war models; the "14/16 HP" using a 2.700cc side-valve engine and the "'25/30 HP" using a 4,400cc six cylinder engine.  In 1922 the highly sophisticated 30/40 Super Sports was launched, with a 4,400cc six cylinder engine, using twin overhead camshafts (dohc) operating four valves per cylinder. The aluminium alloy cylinders had steel liners and aluminium pistons, plus dual carburettors and dual-ignition. The car was also equipped with front-wheel brakes and a V-shaped radiator. By the next year, the sporting range was marketed as "Tipo 23", "Tipo 24" and "Tipo 25".

Racing.

In 1908 Ernesto Ceirano finished third in the Targa Florio driving a four-cylinder, 7,785cc, S.P.A. 28/40 HP.  In 1909 an S.P.A. racer driven by Francesco Ciuppa won the Targa Florio race. Completing a single lap of the 148km "Grande Circuit" in 2 hours 43 minutes 19 seconds at an average speed of 54.67 km/h.

Aero engines.

During World War I the company also produced aero engines. The S.P.A. 6A was a water-cooled inline six-cylinder engine that produced 220 horsepower (164 kW).  The SPA 6A was used to power:

S.P.A. (Società Piemontese Automobili), was an Italian automobile, military vehicle and aero-engine manufacturer founded in Turin by Matteo Ceirano and Michele Ansaldi. It was active between 1906 and 1926. In 1908, it merged with Fabbrica Ligure Automobili Genova (FLAG) and the new company, Società Ligure Piemontese Automobili, was headquartered in Genoa while manufacturing in Turin.

La société Società Piemontese Automobili Ansaldi-Ceirano, simplement appelée "S.P.A.", a été créée en 1906 mais ne vécut que deux ans avant de se voir transformée, en 1908, en Società Ligure Piemontese Automobili, qui sera un des acteurs importants du monde de la construction automobile italienne jusqu'en 1947. La société "S.P.A." fut un des principaux constructeurs automobiles turinois, mais aussi de moteurs d'avions et de véhicules industriels. La société a été créée par les ingénieurs Michele Ansaldi, qui avait quitté FIAT-Ansaldi, une division de Fiat et Matteo Ceirano, qui venait de chez Itala. Les deux associés avaient des spécialités complémentaires : Michele Ansaldi était réputé pour être un organisateur de l'activité industrielle hors pair, spécialiste de la production à la chaîne et des méthodes de management, tandis que Matteo Ceirano était un ingénieur d'études et concepteur de moteurs sans égal ; il sera l'auteur de tous les projets "S.P.A." jusqu'en 1918, date à laquelle il prendra sa retraite. Ce qui pénalisait le plus la société, mais cela était le lieu commun de cette activité naissante, était la faiblesse de ses ressources financières. Même si le capital de la société à sa création était d'un million de £ires de l'époque, c'est-à-dire une somme très importante, le besoin de nouveaux capitaux pour financer la recherche, les prototypes et la publicité pour faire connaître la marque, restait un souci permanent. Il y avait une société FLAG, implantée à Gênes, près du port, dont les moyens financiers étaient très importants et qui recherchait un allié pour se diversifier dans le domaine de la construction automobile, déjà à l'époque, concentré à Turin. Après un accord de coopération entre ces deux entités, la fusion des deux structures fut décidée en 1908, ce qui eut pour conséquence la disparition de la marque FLAG au profit de S.P.A.. L'augmentation de capital à 4.5 millions redonna une seconde vie à "S.P.A." qui va connaître une période des plus fastes dans les compétitions. En 1908, le pilote Ruggerone effectue le trajet Turin-St Petersbourg sans aucune assistance. Il participe ensuite à la course Saint-Pétersbourg-Moscou et arrive à la seconde place.


Reworked tracks.

The two key hit tracks from the EP ("Beat Box" and "Moments in Love") were subsequently featured on the group's first LP, "Who's Afraid of the Art of Noise?", except for the EP, "Beat Box" was remixed, reconstructed and substantially modified to concentrate more on musical experimentation rather than the raw hip-hop sound of the original. The LP version was designated "Diversion One", while the original EP version of "Beat Box" has since (unofficially) become known as "Diversion Zero."

Reissues.

In 1986, "Who's Afraid" was combined with portions of "Into Battle..." and the 1985 "Moments in Love" 12-inch single, to form the "Daft" compilation.  In 2003, the original "Into Battle..." EP was issued on CD for the first time on a German-only release, but the release inexplicably included "Diversion One" of "Beat Box" in place of "Diversion Zero."  "Into Battle..." also features as part of disc four of the 2006 Art of Noise boxed set "And What Have You Done with My Body, God?". The project was conceived, researched and compiled by music journalist (and Art of Noise aficionado) Ian Peel – sourced from the original masters – and restored the original version of "Beat Box" and features the 5:10 edit of "Moments in Love" from the cassette issue of the EP, neither track having been officially released on CD before.  In April 2011, Peel continued his archiving of ZTT material, now named the Element Series, with a Deluxe Edition reissue of "Into Battle with the Art of Noise". As part of Record Store Day (16 April 2011), this Deluxe Edition was also released as a Limited Edition 2 LP vinyl version: both the original EP and the "Worship" material LP on 180g blue vinyl, limited to 500 copies worldwide.

Cover art.

The artwork depicted on the original EP sleeve was derived from the Ghent Altarpiece.

Parody.

The EP's title and elements of its visual and musical style were parodied by the group Mainframe with their 1984 12-inch single, "Into Trouble with the Noise of Art".

Reception.

Allmusic reviewer Ned Raggett had positive views on the EP, stating "One listen to into Battle With the Art of Noise and some of the influences in industrial, hip-hop, techno, and pop become clearer."

Track listing.

All songs except "Donna" were written by Anne Dudley, Trevor Horn, J.J. Jeczalik, Gary Langan, and Paul Morley.

US/UK Vinyl.

Side 1  Side 2

UK cassette.

Side 1  Side 2

US cassette.

Side 1  Side 2

2011 Deluxe CD/Vinyl Record Store Day Reissue.

Into Battle  Worshi

Into Battle with the Art of Noise is a 1983 EP by the Art of Noise—its first release, and also the first release by ZTT Records. The record represented the first instalment in the ZTT's Incidental Series (catalogue number ZTIS 100).

Into Battle with the Art of Noise est le premier mini-album du groupe de musique britannique the Art of Noise, et c'est aussi le premier album du label ZTT Records.


Network and partners.

Spot Image is a worldwide distributor of products and services using imagery from Earth observation satellites and works through a network of subsidiaries, local offices (Australia, Brazil, China, United States, Japan, Peru, Singapore), and partners. The goal is to provide on-the-spot service with worldwide availability.  Spot Image works with a network of more than 30 direct receiving stations handling images acquired by the SPOT satellites.  Spot Image collaborates with ESA's GMES programme, shares geographic information with the OGC and contributes to the interoperability of web services; with Infoterra Global it continues to offer services for precision-agriculture.

Satellites.

The 3 SPOT satellites in orbit (Spot 5, 6, and 7) provide images with a large choice of resolutions – from 2.5 m to 10 m. Spot Image also distributes multiresolution data from other optical satellites, in particular from Formosat-2 (Taiwan) and Kompsat-2 (South Korea), for which it has exclusive distribution rights, and from radar satellites (TerraSAR-X, ERS, Envisat, Radarsat). Spot Image is also the exclusive distributor of data from the very-high resolution Pleiades satellites. The launch of Pléiades-1, via a Soyuz rocket, was confirmed on December 16, 2011. The second (Pléiades-2) was launched mid-2012. Spot Image also offers infrastructures for receiving and processing, as well as added value options.

Products.

In addition to images, Spot Image proposes innovative added-value products to meet new user-needs:  Among the services offered by Spot File: On-line services:

Planet Action, an initiative launched by Spot Image.

Its goal is to encourage the Earth observation industry and geographic information professionals to support local projects searching for adaptive solutions to climate change problems. The products and materials available to these professionals – satellite images, geographic information systems, image processing and display software – are indispensable for studying the impact of global warming on our planet, on local and global scales. Planet Action supports projects that study:  Planet Action Web Site

Spot Image, a public limited company created in 1982 by the French Space Agency, Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES), the IGN, and Space Manufacturers (Matra, Alcatel, SSC, etc.) is a subsidiary of Airbus Defence and Space (99%). The company is the commercial operator for the SPOT Earth observation satellites.

Airbus DS Geo (anciennement Spot Image), société anonyme créée en 1982 par le Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES), l'IGN, et l'industrie spatiale (Matra, Alcatel, SSC, etc.), est une filiale d’Airbus Defence & Space (81 %) commercialement dénommée Intelligence. Sous mandat du CNES, la société est l’opérateur commercial des satellites d’observation de la Terre SPOT dont la réalisation (dès l'origine avec SPOT 1) est issue d'un partenariat technico-financier franco-belgo-suédois. Son siège est à Toulouse, à proximité immédiate du centre spatial.


Fusillade de l'université d'État de Kent

Background.

The Vietnam War had escalated under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson before Richard Nixon took office. Under Johnson, the number of American troops in Vietnam soared from 16,000 when he replaced Kennedy in 1963 to more than 500,000 in 1968 but with no tangible results. When Nixon was elected in 1968, he promised to end the conflict. However, in November, 1969, the My Lai Massacre by American troops of between 347 and 504 civilians in a Vietnamese village was exposed, which heightened opposition especially among younger people around the country. The nature of military participation also changed on Dec. 1, 1969, when the first draft lottery since World War II took place. The new procedure eliminated deferments allowed in the prior draft process, leaving many college students and teachers unsure of their immediate futures.  The escalation of the invasion of Cambodia in 1970 angered those who believed it only exacerbated the conflict by enlarging it and invading a neutral, sovereign nation. Across the U.S., campuses erupted in protests in what "Time" called "a nation-wide student strike", setting the stage for the events of early May, 1970.

Kent State protest activity, 1966–1970.

During the 1966 Homecoming Parade, protesters walked dressed in military paraphernalia with gas masks.  In the fall of 1968, the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and a campus Black Student Organization staged a sit-in to protest police recruiters on campus. Two hundred fifty black students walked off campus in a successful amnesty bid for the protesters.  On April 1, 1969, SDS members attempted to enter the administration building with a list of demands where they clashed with police. In response, the university revoked the Kent

Timeline.

Thursday, April 30.

President Nixon announced that the "Cambodian

Friday, May 1.

At Kent State University, a demonstration with about 500 students was held on May 1 on the Commons (a grassy knoll in the center of campus traditionally used as a gathering place for rallies or protests). As the crowd dispersed to attend classes by 1 p.m., another rally was planned for May 4 to continue the protest of the expansion of the Vietnam War into Cambodia. There was widespread anger, and many protesters issued a call to "bring the war home". A group of history students buried a copy of the United States Constitution to symbolize that Nixon had killed it. A sign was put on a tree asking: "Why is the ROTC building still standing?"  Trouble exploded in town around midnight, when people left a bar and

Saturday, May 2.

City officials and downtown businesses received threats, and rumors proliferated that radical revolutionaries were in Kent to destroy the city and university. Several merchants reported they were told that if they did not display anti-war slogans, their businesses would be burned down. Kent's police chief told the mayor that according to a reliable informant, the ROTC building, the local army recruiting station, and post office had been targeted for destruction that night. There were unconfirmed rumors of students with caches of arms, plots to spike the local water supply with LSD, and of students building tunnels for the purpose of blowing up the town's main store. Satrom met with Kent city officials and a representative of the Ohio Army National Guard. Because of the rumors and threats, Satrom feared that local officials would not be able to handle future disturbances. Following the meeting, Satrom

Sunday, May 3.

During a press conference at the Kent firehouse, an emotional Governor Rhodes pounded on the desk, pounding which can be heard in the recording of his speech. He called the student protesters un-American, referring to them as revolutionaries set on destroying higher education in Ohio.  We've seen here at the city of Kent especially, probably the most vicious form of campus-oriented violence yet perpetrated by dissident groups... they make definite plans of burning, destroying, and throwing rocks at police and at the National Guard and the Highway Patrol....this is when we're going to use every part of the law enforcement agency of Ohio to drive them out of Kent. We are going to eradicate the problem. We're not going to treat the symptoms....and these people just move from one campus to the other and terrorize the community. They're worse than the brown shirts and

Monday, May 4.

On Monday, May 4, a protest was scheduled to be held at noon, as had been planned three days earlier. University officials attempted to ban the gathering, handing out 12,000 leaflets stating that the event was canceled. Despite these efforts, an estimated 2,000 people gathered on the university's Commons, near Taylor Hall. The protest began with the ringing of the campus's iron Victory Bell (which had historically been used to signal victories in football games) to mark the beginning of the rally, and the first protester began to speak.  Companies A and C, 1/145th Infantry and Troop G of the 2/107th Armored Cavalry, Ohio National Guard (ARNG), the units on the campus grounds, attempted to disperse the students. The legality of the dispersal was later debated at a subsequent wrongful death and injury trial. On appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit ruled that authorities did indeed have the right to disperse the crowd.  The dispersal process began late in the morning with campus patrolman Harold Rice riding in a National Guard Jeep, approaching the students to read an order to disperse or face arrest. The protesters responded by throwing rocks, striking one campus patrolman and forcing the Jeep to retreat.  Just before noon, the Guard returned and again ordered the crowd to disperse. When most of the crowd refused, the Guard used tear gas. Because of wind, the tear gas had little effect in dispersing the crowd, and some launched a second volley of rocks toward the Guard's line and chanted "Pigs off campus!" The students lobbed the tear gas canisters back at the National Guardsmen, who wore gas masks.  When it became clear that the crowd was not going to disperse, a group of 77 National Guard troops from A Company and Troop G, with bayonets fixed on their M1 Garand rifles, began to advance upon the hundreds of protesters. As the guardsmen advanced, the protesters retreated up and over Blanket Hill, heading out of the Commons area. Once over the hill, the students, in a loose group, moved northeast along

May 4, after the shootings.

Immediately after the shootings, many angry students were ready to launch an all-out attack on the National Guard. Many faculty members, led by geology professor and faculty marshal Glenn Frank, pleaded with the students to leave the Commons and to not give in to violent escalation:  I don't care whether you've never listened to anyone before in your lives. I am begging you right now. If you don't

Victims.

"Killed (and approximate distance from the National Guard):"  "Wounded (and approximate distance from the National Guard):"  In the "President's Commission on Campus Unrest" (pp. 273–274) they mistakenly list Thomas V. Grace, who is Thomas Mark Grace's father, as the Thomas Grace injured.  All those shot were students in good standing at the university.  Although initial newspaper reports had inaccurately stated that a number of National Guard members had been killed or seriously injured, only one Guardsman, Sgt. Lawrence Shafer, was injured enough to require medical treatment, approximately 10 to 15 minutes prior to the shootings. Shafer is also mentioned in

Aftermath and long-term effects.

Photographs of the dead and wounded at Kent State that were distributed in newspapers and periodicals worldwide amplified sentiment against the United States' invasion of Cambodia and the Vietnam War in general. In particular, the camera of Kent State photojournalism student John Filo captured a 14-year-old runaway, Mary Ann Vecchio, screaming over the dead body of Jeffrey Miller, who had been shot in the mouth. The photograph, which won a Pulitzer Prize, became the most enduring image of the events, and one of the more enduring images of the anti-Vietnam War movement.  The shootings led to protests on college campuses throughout the United States, and a student strike, causing more than 450 campuses across the country to close with both violent and non-violent demonstrations. A common sentiment was expressed by students at New York University with a banner hung out of a window that read, "They Can't Kill Us All." On May 8, eleven people were bayonetted at the University of New Mexico by the New Mexico National Guard in a confrontation with student protesters. Also on May 8, an antiwar protest at New York's Federal Hall National Memorial held at least partly in reaction to the Kent State killings was met with a counter-rally of pro-Nixon construction workers (organized by Peter J. Brennan, later appointed U.S. Labor Secretary by President Nixon), resulting in the Hard Hat Riot. Shortly after the shootings took place, the Urban Institute conducted a national study that concluded the Kent State shooting was the first nationwide student strike in U.S. history; over 4 million students protested and hundreds of American colleges and universities closed during the student strikes. The Kent State campus remained closed for six weeks.  Just five days after the shootings, 100,000 people demonstrated in Washington, D.C., against the war and the killing of unarmed student protesters. Ray Price, Nixon's chief speechwriter from 1969 to 1974, recalled the Washington demonstrations saying, "The city was an armed camp. The mobs were smashing windows, slashing tires, dragging parked cars into intersections, even throwing bedsprings off overpasses into the traffic down below. This was the quote, student protest. That's not student protest, that's civil war." Not only was the President taken to Camp David for two days for his own protection, but Charles Colson (Counsel to President Nixon from 1969 to 1973) stated that the military was called up to protect the Nixon Administration from the angry students; he recalled that: "The 82nd Airborne was in the basement of the executive office building, so I went down just to talk to some of the guys and walk among them, and they're lying on the floor leaning on their packs and their helmets and their cartridge belts and their rifles cocked and you're thinking, 'This can't be the United States of America. This is not the greatest free democracy in the world. This is a nation at war with itself.'"  President Nixon and his administration's public reaction to the shootings was perceived by many in the anti-war movement as callous. Then National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger said the President was "pretending indifference". Stanley Karnow noted in his "Vietnam: A History" that: "The [Nixon] administration initially reacted to this event with wanton insensitivity. Nixon's press secretary, Ron Ziegler, whose statements were carefully programmed, referred to the deaths as a reminder that 'when dissent turns to violence, it invites tragedy.'" Three days before the shootings, Nixon had talked of "bums" who were antiwar protestors on United States campuses, to which the father of Allison Krause stated on national TV: "My child was not a bum."  Karnow further documented that at 4:15 a.m. on May 9, 1970, the president met about 30 student dissidents conducting a vigil at the Lincoln Memorial, whereupon Nixon, "treated them to a clumsy and condescending monologue, which he made public in an awkward attempt to display his benevolence." Nixon had been trailed by White House Deputy for Domestic Affairs Egil Krogh, who saw it differently, saying, "I thought it was a very significant and major effort to reach out." In any regard, neither side could convince the other and after meeting with the students, Nixon expressed that those in the anti-war movement were the pawns of foreign communists. After the student protests, Nixon asked H. R. Haldeman to consider the Huston Plan, which would have used illegal procedures to gather information on the leaders of the anti-war movement. Only the resistance of J. Edgar Hoover stopped the plan.  A Gallup Poll taken the day after the shootings reportedly showed that 58 percent of respondents blamed the students, 11 percent blamed the National Guard and 31 percent expressed no opinion. However, there was wide discussion as to whether these were legally justified shootings of American citizens, and whether the protests or the decisions to ban them were constitutional. These debates served to further galvanize uncommitted opinion by the terms of the discourse. The term "massacre" was applied to the shootings by some individuals and media sources, as it had been used for the Boston Massacre of 1770, in which five were killed and several more wounded.  Students from Kent State and other universities often got a hostile reaction upon returning home. Some were told that more students should have been killed to teach student protesters a lesson; some students were disowned by their families.  On May 14, ten days after the Kent State shootings, two students were killed (and 12 wounded) by police at Jackson State University, a historically black university ("HBCU"), in Jackson, Mississippi, under similar circumstances—the Jackson State killings—but that event did not arouse the same nationwide attention as the Kent State shootings.  On June 13, 1970, as a consequence of the killings of protesting students at Kent State and Jackson State, President Nixon established the President's Commission on Campus Unrest, known as the Scranton Commission, which he charged to study the dissent, disorder, and violence breaking out on college and university campuses across the nation.  The Commission issued its findings in a September 1970 report that concluded that the Ohio National Guard shootings on May 4, 1970, were unjustified. The report said:  Even if the guardsmen faced danger, it was not a danger that called for lethal force. The 61 shots by 28 guardsmen certainly cannot be justified. Apparently, no order to fire was given, and there was inadequate fire control discipline on Blanket Hill. The Kent State tragedy must mark the last time that, as a matter of course, loaded rifles are issued to guardsmen confronting student demonstrators.

Memorials and remembrances.

In January 1970, only months before the shootings, a work of land art, "Partially Buried Woodshed", was produced on the Kent State campus by Robert Smithson. Shortly after the events, an inscription was added that recontextualized the work in such a way that some people associate it with the event.  Each May 4 from 1971 to 1975, the Kent State University administration sponsored an official commemoration of the shootings. Upon the university's announcement in 1976 that it would no longer sponsor such commemorations, the May 4 Task Force, a group made up of students and community members, was formed for this purpose. The group has organized a commemoration on the university's campus each year since 1976; events generally include a silent march around the campus, a candlelight vigil, a ringing of the Victory Bell in memory of those killed and injured, speakers (always including eyewitnesses and family members), and music.  On May 12, 1977, a tent city was erected and maintained for a period of more than 60 days by a group of several dozen protesters on the Kent State campus. The protesters, led by the May 4 Task Force but also including community members and local clergy, were attempting to prevent the university from erecting a gymnasium annex on part of the site where the shootings had occurred seven years earlier, which they believed would obscure the historical event. Law enforcement finally brought the tent city to an end on July 12, 1977, after the forced removal and arrest of 193 people. The event gained national press coverage and the issue was taken to the U.S. Supreme Court.  In 1978, American artist George Segal was commissioned by the Mildred Andrews Fund of Cleveland, in agreement with the University, to create a bronze sculpture in commemoration of the shootings, but before its completion, the sculpture was refused by the university administration, who deemed its subject matter (the biblical Abraham poised to sacrifice his son Isaac) too controversial. Segal's completed cast-from-life bronze sculpture, "Abraham and Isaac: In Memory of May 4, 1970, Kent State", was instead accepted in 1979 by Princeton University and currently resides there between the university chapel and library.  In 1990, twenty years after the shootings, a memorial commemorating the events of May 4 was dedicated on the campus on a 2.5-acre

Cultural references.

Music.

The best-known popular culture response to the deaths at Kent State was the protest song "Ohio", written by Neil Young for Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. They promptly recorded the song, and preview discs (acetates) were rushed to major radio stations, although the group already had

The Kent State shootings (also known as the May 4 massacre or the Kent State massacre), were the shootings of 13 unarmed Kent State University students in Kent, Ohio, by the Ohio National Guard on May 4, 1970. The killings took place during a peace rally against the expanding involvement of the Vietnam War into neutral Cambodia by United States military forces as well as the National Guard presence on campus. The incident marked the first time that a student had been slain in an anti-war gathering in United States history.

La fusillade de l'université d'État de Kent (" en anglais) a eu lieu le, sur le campus de l'université d'État de Kent, dans l'Ohio. La Garde nationale de l'Ohio a tiré à 67 reprises en sur des étudiants qui manifestaient de manière pacifique ; quatre d'entre eux furent tués, et neuf blessés (dont un paralysé à vie). La plupart de ces étudiants manifestaient contre l'intervention américaine au Cambodge, annoncée par le président Richard Nixon le, mais certains ne faisaient que passer. En réponse à cette fusillade, une grève et des manifestations impliquant quatre millions d'étudiants entraînèrent des centaines d'universités et d'établissements scolaires à fermer à travers tous les États-Unis. Ceci retourna en partie l'opinion publique déjà sensible à la présence militaire des États-Unis au Viêt Nam.


Organization.

The Denver Health and Hospital Authority is an integrated health care system that consisting of a main hospital, 911 response and EMS, poison and toxicology, family health centers, school-based clinics, detoxification services, correctional care, and medical response to terrorism, mass casualties and epidemics.  The Denver Department of Environmental Health (DEH), a Denver government agency, manages and oversees the operating agreement to contract with Denver Health and Hospital Authority (DHHA) to provide services related to the medical investigations and medical services for disease control (including clinics) and the administration of vital birth and death records. DEH and Denver Public Health work together to conduct communicable disease reporting, investigation, and control for Denver. Public and environmental health functions and regulatory authority remains with DEH. DHHA provides communicable disease surveillance and medically oriented public health functions through their Denver Public Health (DPH) department.  Through grant-funded programs, DPH conducts research on infectious diseases, including hepatitis surveillance; tuberculosis clinical trials; HIV/AIDS prevention, counseling, testing and treatment; and vaccine trials.  DHHA's Denver Health Paramedic Division, a hospital based paramedic service, is based out of Denver Health.

Governance.

The health system is named Denver Health and Hospital Authority (DHHA), created by the Colorado General Assembly in 1994, and transitioned from the Denver Department of Health and Hospitals to an independent authority in 1997. The DHHA is governed by a nine-member Board of Directors, who are appointed for five years by the Mayor of Denver and confirmed by the Denver City Council.

History.

Denver General was established in 1860. The hospital was founded near 11th and Wazee, but in 1873, a new medical center was built at the corner of 6th Avenue and Cherokee; this is where Denver Health is located to this day.  The hospital was well known for founding the first nursing school west of the Mississippi and for being one of the earliest facilities for treating Tuberculosis.  The hospital employed many health care visionaries, including Florence Sabin who was instrumental in creating a functional Public Health department.  In 1989 a book was written about The Denver General emergency room, "The Knife and Gun Club, Scenes from an Emergency Room" by photographer Eugene Richards which received an Award of Excellence from the American College of Emergency Physicians. The book is a collection of stories taken from the emergency department and ambulances. The emergency room of Denver Health gained the nickname "Knife and Gun Club" due to the frequency of knife and gun related injuries.  On January 1, 1997, Denver General became a political subdivision of the state, and was renamed Denver Health and Hospital Authority.

Denver Health operates the Denver Health Medical Center, a hospital in the Lincoln Park neighborhood of Denver, founded in 1860. It is one of five Level I Trauma Centers in Colorado. Denver Health is one of the primary teaching hospitals in Denver and is affiliated with the University of Colorado Denver, Children's Hospital Colorado, and the Veteran's Affairs Hospital in Aurora, Colorado. Denver Health's CEO is Robin D. Wittenstein, Ed.D., FACHE.

Le Denver Health Medical Center est un grand centre médical localisé à Denver dans l'État du Colorado. Anciennement nommé Denver General Hospital, l'hôpital est reconnu pour soigner des personnes défavorisées ou non assurées. Il fut fondé en 1860 et possède 477 lits. Environ 25 % de la population de la ville se fait soigner dans cet hôpital. L'hôpital est également un centre de formation hospitalier. Il a des liens étroits avec le centre des sciences de la santé de l'université du Colorado à Denver. Les médecins sont également membres de la faculté de médecine de cette même université.


History.

In 1933 Mick Leahy, brother Dan Leahy, and government officer Jim Taylor conducted an aerial reconnaissance of the highlands and discovered the huge and heavily populated Wahgi Valley. A short time later they walked in with a well supplied patrol and became the first westerners to come into contact with the tribes that are now in the location of Mount Hagen. The first patrol built an airstrip at Kelua, a short distance from modern Mount Hagen. From 1934, a new airstrip, the 'Mogei drome' or 'Mogai Aerodrome', was located on a site where the future town was formed. The first flight arrived here on 1 April 1934, piloted by Bob Gurney, with the first airmail leaving the next day. Later, this airstrip was to become the main street passing by China town and the airstrip (current) was moved 15 minutes out of town.

Culture.

Each year, Mount Hagen hosts the Mount Hagen Cultural Show, one of the largest cultural events in Papua New Guinea. Various regional, provincial, even national tribal dance groups gather to celebrate their cultural heritage in the form of sing-sing. It is also one of the biggest tourist attractions of the country. Its near the Baiyer District which hosts the biggest collection of birds and wildlife in Papua New Guinea, the Baiyer River Sanctuary. Although locals do not recommend visiting the sanctuary as the road through the Baiyer District is prone to many highway robberies.  Traditional culture and beliefs remain strong in Mount Hagen and its surrounds. In 2009, and again 2013, local women were reportedly burned alive after being accused of sorcery. Recent thinking links the upsurge in such accusations with poor development outcomes in Papua New Guinea and the erosion of social capital through fear and mistrust.

Transport.

Mount Hagen Airport is located at Kagamuga, a satellite town 15 minutes drive from the centre of Mount Hagen. It is an international airport although flights into and out of it are not always available to the public. The airport altitude is above sea level. Currently, Hevilift operates a charter service using ATR-42 and Twin Otter aircraft from Cairns, Queensland, for mine workers at the Porgera Gold Mine in Enga Province. Asia Pacific Airlines also fly Dash 8s regularly to Tabubil, their hub, to service the Ok Tedi Mine. Air Niugini also service Mount Hagen, with regular Fokker 100 and Dash 8 services to destinations such as Port Moresby, Moro and Cairns. PNG Air also operate regular services to and from Mt Hagen to Port Moresby, Tabubil, Kiunga and Wewak. Near the airport is Airport Hotel.  From time to time, the combination of altitude, midday temperatures and runway length restrict takeoff weights for domestic flights out of Mount Hagen.  Mount Hagen is connected via the Highlands Highway to the city of Lae and other provincial capitals such as Madang, Goroka, Wabag, Mendi and Kundiawa. The road between Mount Hagen and all these centers is theoretically sealed, although frequent landslides and general deterioration can lead to parts of the road becoming unsealed or rough.  You can travel from Mt Hagen along the Highlands Highway by using the popular PMV buses which operate as taxis or hire a car from the numerous hire car companies within Mt Hagen. Because of the difficult road conditions of the Highlands Highway, it is advisable to use four-wheel drive cars.

Climate.

Mount Hagen has a subtropical highland climate (Cfb) with heavy rainfall year-round.

Mount Hagen is the third largest city in Papua New Guinea, with a population of 46,250. It is the capital of the Western Highlands Province and is located in the large fertile Wahgi Valley in central mainland Papua New Guinea, at an elevation of.

Mount Hagen est la quatrième plus grande ville par nombre d'habitants de Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée. Elle est située dans la large et fertile vallée Wahgi à l'intérieur des terres à une altitude de. C'est le chef-lieu de la province des Hautes-Terres occidentales et elle tire son nom du mont Hagen un volcan situé à de là.


Design.

Green-Wood was able to take advantage of the varied topography provided by glacial moraines, particularly the Harbor Hill Moraine. Battle Hill (also known as Gowan's Heights), the highest point in Brooklyn, is on cemetery grounds, rising approximately above sea level. It was the site of an important action during the Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776. A Revolutionary War monument by Frederick Ruckstull, "Altar to Liberty: Minerva", was erected there in 1920. From this height, the bronze Minerva statue gazes towards the Statue of Liberty across New York Harbor.  Green-Wood was less inspired by Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, which at the time retained the primarily axial formality of Alexandre Théodore Brongniart's original design, than by Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where a cemetery in a naturalistic park-like landscape in the English manner was first established. It has been called "Brooklyn's first public park by default long before Prospect Park was created." The architecture critic Paul Goldberger, quoting "The New York Times" from 1866, observed that "it is the ambition of the New Yorker to live upon the Fifth Avenue, to take his airings in the [Central] Park, and to sleep with his fathers in Green-wood".  Green-Wood Cemetery contains 600,000 graves and 7,000 trees spread out over. The rolling hills and dales, several ponds, and an on-site chapel provide an environment that still draws visitors. In 2017 it received 280,000 visitors. Though at one point there were numerous gravediggers at Green-Wood, there were just a few gravediggers due to a decrease in the number of burials, as well as the limited amount of space for new burials. Because of this shortage of space, some plots are composed of "stacked" graves in which several family members may be buried atop each other.  Several wooden shelters were also built, including one in a Gothic Revival style, one resembling an Italian villa, and another resembling a Swiss chalet. A descendant colony of monk parakeets that are believed to have escaped their containers while in transit now nests in the spires of the gate, as well as other areas in Brooklyn. In 2008, Green-Wood started to acquire a collection of art pertaining to those buried in the cemetery.

Landscaping and circulation.

Green-Wood Cemetery contains numerous landscape features, which in turn are named after terms that evoke a naturalistic scene. These names include Camellia Path, Halcyon Lake, Oaken Bluff, Sylvan Cliff, and Vista Hill. David Bates Douglass, Green-Wood's landscape architect, mostly kept the cemetery's natural landscaping intact. Much of Douglass's plan is still in place with its original plantings and curving-road systems. The original street names and original cast-iron perimeter fence have been retained, but many of the roads have been paved.  The cemetery has been expanded several times. Most of these regions have been landscaped to resemble the original plot, except the area near Fort Hamilton Avenue to the north, which is flatter because it was acquired last.

Monuments.

There are several famous monuments and mausoleums located there, designed in several architectural styles including the Classical, Egyptian, Gothic, and Romanesque styles. In addition, many tombs contain ornate sculptural decoration. The National Register of Historic Places designation subdivides these monuments into four primary categories: those honoring events or professions; those with architectural significance; those whose graves contain people of historical significance; and "monuments of sculptural interest".  Among the first monuments was a statue of DeWitt Clinton, built in 1853. There is also a memorial erected by James Brown, president of Brown Brothers bank and the Collins Line, to the six members of his family lost in the disaster of 1854. This incorporates a sculpture of the ship, half-submerged by the waves, as well as a Civil War Memorial. During the American Civil War, Green-Wood Cemetery created the "Soldiers' Lot" for free veterans' burials; this lot included less than of land. In 1868-1876, after the war ended, the Civil War Soldiers' Monument was erected at the highest point in Green-Wood.  Other monuments of note include the Pilot's Monument and the Sea Captain's Monument, each dedicated to a notable person in these respective professions. "J. Marion Sims", a monument of gynecologist J. Marion Sims by Ferdinand Freiherr von Miller, is also planned to be installed in Green-Wood; the statue was formerly in Bryant Park and Central Park but was removed from the latter in 2017. Some elaborate monuments honor notable figures, such as William Niblo's Grand Gothic mausoleum, the Steinway & Sons family's Classical mausoleum, Abiel Abbot Low's tomb, and the Lispenard family's Norman-style mausoleum. Numerous other monuments to notable figures exist but are extremely simple in design, such as the tombs of Samuel Morse, William M. Tweed, Lola Montez, Henry Ward Beecher, and Currier and Ives. On the other hand, several monuments commemorate less well-known figures, including a Gothic memorial for 17-year-old Charlotte Canda, and a High Victorian pier designed by William or Edward Potter for their relatives.

Gates.

The gates were designed by Richard Upjohn in Gothic Revival style. There are four gates in total. Two are city landmarks: the main gate at 25th Street to the northwest, which is closest to South Slope/Greenwood Heights, and Fort Hamilton Parkway to the south, which is in Kensington. Two additional gates exist. One of these, at 20th Street and Ninth Avenue, provides access from the northeast and is in Windsor Terrace. The other, at 34th Street and Fourth Avenue, provides access from the southwest and is located next to Sunset Park and the 36th Street station of the New York City Subway, serving the. These gates were developed from the 1840s to the 1860s. A fifth gate at Ninth Avenue and 37th Street no longer exists.

25th Street gate.

The main entrance to the cemetery, a double-gate located at 25th Street and Fifth Avenue near its northwestern corner, was built in 1861–65, though the entrance itself opened in 1862. It is composed of Belleville, New Jersey brownstone. The sculptured groups on Nova Scotia limestone panels depicting biblical scenes of death and resurrection from the New Testament including Lazarus, The Widow's Son, and Jesus' Resurrection over the gateways are the work of sculptor John M. Moffitt. In between the two gateways is a clocktower in the Flamboyant style. A cemetery office is located to one side of the gate, while the chapel and reception room are located on opposite side.  A Designated Landmarks of New York plaque was erected on it in 1958 by the New York Community Trust, and it was designated an official New York City landmark in 1966.

Fort Hamilton gate.

The Fort Hamilton gate is located at Fort Hamilton Parkway and Macieli Place. Similar to the 25th Street gate, it is made of a double gateway made of brownstone. It is also flanked by two structures, a visitor's lounge and the gatekeeper's residence. The gate was built in 1876 and completed the next year; it was designated as an official New York City landmark in 2016.  To the east of the entrance is the visitor's lounge, a brownstone building. It is a -story structure with an entrance located inside a center bay on the west side of the building. The visitor's lounge contains two side bays, each with a porch, as well as restrooms for men and women. The hip roof is made of gray slate with metal ornamentation along the ridge at the top. The roof slopes down toward the perimeter walls of the building, though each of the four sides of the roof is punctuated by dormers with small windows. The corner porches feature stone banisters, and contain four yellow sandstone bas-reliefs sculpted by Moffitt.  The west side of the entrance, also a brownstone structure, contains the gatekeeper's residence, a -story structure that is similar in design to the visitor's lounge. Only the center section is stories, while the two pavilions to the west and east are stories. The residence's main entrance is through the eastern pavilion, while there is another pavilion on the western facade. Both pavilions have hip roofs of gray slate, and the second floor contains dormers with windows that project from the hip roof. The central "tower" section contains entrances to both the north and south, as well as windows on the second, third, and attic floors that face north and south. The roof of the central tower contains a stone chimney.

Chapel.

The Green-Wood Cemetery chapel is located near the 25th Street gate. Built in 1911–1913 by Warren and Wetmore, the chapel is located on the site of one of Green-Wood's original ponds. Though it is generally designed in the late Gothic style, its massing is in the Beaux-Arts style. It is made of limestone, and consists of multiple towers, including a central octagonal tower and four octagonal turrets, one at each corner. The chapel contains three levels: ground level, clerestory level, and the second story in the central tower. It is a reduced version of the upper sections of Christopher Wren's Tom Tower at Christ Church College in Oxford.  Plans for the Green-Wood chapel date to shortly after the chapel's establishment, when a "Chapel Hill" was set aside within the cemetery. Though Richard Upjohn submitted plans for such a chapel in 1855, Green-Wood initially voted against such a chapel. A new location was selected near Arbor Water in the first decade of the 20th century, and plans were solicited from three firms in 1909. After Warren and Wetmore were selected, work started in 1911, and the chapel was officially opened in June 1913. The chapel was made a city landmark in 2016.

History.

Founding and construction.

Following the founding of Mount Auburn Cemetery in Massachusetts in 1831, leaders of the cities of New York and Brooklyn began discussing locations to build a cemetery of their own. At the time, over 10,000 people were being buried per year in the two cities. The cemetery was the idea of Henry Evelyn Pierrepont, a Brooklyn social leader. As early as 1832, Pierrepont was considering constructing such a cemetery on a hilly area to the east of Gowanus Bay. Acts of incorporation for "The Greenwood Cemetery" were passed on April 18, 1838, entitling the corporation to a capital of $300,000 and the right to of land. On April 11, 1839, a modification to that act was enacted, changing the corporation to a nonprofit organization. Construction started in May 1839 and the first interment was performed on September 5, 1840. At that point, the cemetery commissioners decided to enclose the site with a long picket fence (later replaced with a metal fence in 1860).  David Bates Douglass, Green-Wood's landscape architect, mostly kept the cemetery's natural landscaping intact, but worked on the cemetery until he resigned in 1841. Douglass modeled his two subsequently designed garden cemeteries upon Green-Wood: Albany Rural Cemetery (1845–1846), located in Menands, New York, and Mount Hermon Cemetery (1848), in Quebec City. Initially some of roads were paved inside Green-Wood to showcase its natural scenery. The earliest map dating from 1846 indicates that there were originally three ponds in Green-Wood: Sylvan Water, Green-Isle Water, and Arbor Water, all on the western side of the modern cemetery. Initially there were very few burials per year; by 1843, there had been 352 burials total, though the number of burials doubled just in the next year. Throughout the 1840s, several churches were allocated plots in Green-Wood Cemetery These included the Presbyterian, Unitarian, and German Lutheran churches of Brooklyn. By the 1850s, various fauna were being introduced to the cemetery.  After the initial opening of Green-Wood Cemetery, it was expanded multiple times. Originally 175 acres were enclosed, stretching between 21st and 37th Streets from 5th to 9th Avenue. The first additional acquisition in 1847 was for at the southwest corner of the cemetery, adjacent to the contemporary border of the city of Brooklyn. Another to the east was acquired in 1852 through the annexation of land in the then-separate village of Flatbush. Finally, in 1858 another was acquired at the southeastern corner of the cemetery grounds. A plot at the southeast corner of the cemetery was purchased in 1863, allowing the commissioners to straighten out that border.  This era was also associated with the construction of other structures. A receiving tomb was installed in 1853, and around the same time, the ponds were cleaned and landscaped. In addition, several gates to the cemetery were added. The main gate at 5th Avenue and 25th Street was built in 1861-65, followed by other entrances near the cemetery's service yard; at 9th Avenue and 20th Street; and at 9th Avenue and 37th Street (later removed). In addition, a gatekeeper's house was installed at the original southern entrance in 1848, the "Thirty Vaults" catacombs in 1854, and a well house in 1855. Furthermore, the paths were paved in the 1860s to allow for easier transport within the cemetery. Several additional ponds were carved out through the 1870s, including Border Water, Dell Water, Crescent Water, Dale Water, and Meadow Water.

Growing popularity.

At first, lots were being sold for $100 apiece, and it soon became a frequent place for burials, with 7,000 annual burials and 100,000 graves by the 1860s. To accommodate those who came to the cemetery, a ferry service to the cemetery was established in 1846. Green-Wood became more popular after former governor DeWitt Clinton was disinterred from a cemetery in Albany, the New York state capital, and moved to Green-Wood, where a monument to him was erected in 1853. By the early 1860s it was drawing annual crowds second in size only to Niagara Falls.  At the same time, Prospect Park was being constructed and public streetcar and elevated lines were established across Brooklyn. In particular, the opening of the Fifth Avenue Elevated station at 25th Street, near the main entrance, proved to be a benefit to lot owners in Green-Wood Cemetery. As a result, in 1876, Green-Wood built the Fort Hamilton gate to accommodate the anticipated extra crowds. By the end of the 19th century, several florists, greenhouses, and monument sellers had opened shops near each of the gates. One such structure was the Weir Greenhouse, located across from the 25th Street entrance; that building is now both a National Register of Historic Places listing and a city landmark.  Improvements also continued throughout the late 19th century. In 1871, Border Water was partially eliminated to make extra burial space, and in 1874, the cemetery was slightly expanded to. Also, an underground drainage system, extra roads, and a permanent stone fence were built through the late 1870s. The cemetery was enlarged again in 1884 to via the acquisition of land on the northern border. To prevent the view being marred by the construction of tenements, Green-Wood also purchased lots on the southwest corner. By the 1890s, a reservoir was added atop Mt. Washington, the highest point in the cemetery, while two ponds had been removed. At the turn of the century, an old engine house, stables, and several enclosures were being removed, while waiting rooms and restrooms were added at the southern entrance. During this period, thousands of trees were planted, and roads continued to be graded.  Most famous New Yorkers who died during the second half of the 19th century were buried at Green-Wood. Starting in 1862, free interments were offered to the families of New York soldiers who died in war. In 1868, work started on the installation of the Civil War Soldiers' Monument at the highest point in Green-Wood to commemorate hundreds of thousands of New Yorkers who fought in the war. The monument was not dedicated until 1876. On December 5, 1876, the Brooklyn Theater Fire claimed the lives of at least 278 individuals, with some accounts reporting over 300 dead. Out of that total, 103 unidentified victims were interred in a common grave at Green-Wood Cemetery. An obelisk near the main entrance marks the burial site.

20th century.

Green-Wood has remained non-sectarian, but was generally considered a Christian burial place for white Anglo-Saxon Protestants of good repute. One early regulation was that no one executed for a crime, or even dying in jail, could be buried there. However, the family of infamous political leader "Boss" Tweed managed to circumvent this rule even though he died in the Ludlow Street Jail. The cemetery's chapel was completed in 1913 by Warren and Wetmore, on the site of Arbor Water. By 1916, the cemetery had 325,000 burials.  Modifications to Green-Wood's landscape continued through the 20th century. In 1915, the entrance at 20th Street was realigned to connect with 9th Avenue/Prospect Park West (the entrance there being completed in 1926), and another pond was drained. The landscape was in decline by the late 1910s, but this was followed shortly after by dead-tree removals in the 1920s and a five-year road repaving project began in 1924. Road reconstructions continued through the mid-1930s and demolition of enclosures continued. Notably, the clock tower at the 34th Street entrance was demolished in 1941, and iron fences were removed during World War II for the war effort. The old main entrance was demolished in 1951, and four years later, the first new crematorium in New York City in a half-century was built at Green-Wood, with a columbarium. By the end of the 1950s, another reservoir had been filled for new lots.  More than 1,000 enclosures were removed from 1950 to 1961, the same year that work on a new crematorium began. The columbarium was expanded from 1975 to 1977. However, through the 1970s, vandalism was common at Green-Wood Cemetery. The cemetery was also affected by labor strikes among the gravediggers in 1966, 1973, and 1982. The cemetery also continued to add new structures: the Garden Mausoleum and Community Mausoleum were finished in the late 1980s, and the Hillside Mausoleum was expanded. In addition, in 1994, the north gate was restored and new offices were built. This was followed by the restoration of the chapel in the late 1990s, and it reopened in 2000 after having been closed for four decades.

21st century.

In 1999, The Green-Wood Historic Fund, a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit institution, was created to continue preservation, beautification, educational programs and community outreach as the current "working cemetery" evolves into a Brooklyn cultural institution. The Historic Fund's Civil War Project, an effort to identify and remember Civil War veterans buried at Green-Wood, was created following the rededication ceremony of the Civil War Soldiers' Monument. These early graves had either sunk into the soil, been damaged, or had their markers erased before the monument was restored between 2000 and 2002. Further, construction of the last phase of the Hillside Mausoleum began in 2001, and the same year 50 victims of the September 11 attacks were buried there.  On August 21, 2012, in one of the worst cases of vandalism encountered in Green-Wood, about 50 monuments and memorials were damaged. On October 13, 2012, another "Angel of Music" was installed to replace the one vandalized in 1959, this one made by sculptors Giancarlo Biagi and Jill Burkee, was unveiled to memorialize Louis Moreau Gottschalk. Two weeks later, Hurricane Sandy toppled or damaged at least 292 of the mature trees, 210 gravestones, and 2 mausoleums in the cemetery. The damage was estimated at $500,000. In December 2012 the statue "The Triumph of Civic Virtue" by Frederick MacMonnies was moved to Green-Wood. In August 2013, in partnership with the Connecticut Society of the Cincinnati, signage in the Battle Hill area of the cemetery was updated to reflect new research on Battle Hill's importance in the Battle of Brooklyn.

Notable burials.

Among the burials at the cemetery are six British Commonwealth service personnel whose graves are registered by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, three from World War I and three from World War II.

Landmark designations.

The gates of the cemetery were designated a New York City landmark in 1966, and the Weir Greenhouse, used as a visitor's center, was designated as such in 1982. The cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997 and was granted National Historic Landmark status in 2006 by the U.S. Department of the Interior. The Fort Hamilton Parkway Gate and the cemetery's chapel were designated as official New York City landmarks in 2016.

References.

Notes Further reading

Green-Wood Cemetery is a cemetery in the western portion of Brooklyn, New York City. The cemetery is located between South Slope/Greenwood Heights, Park Slope, Windsor Terrace, Borough Park, Kensington, and Sunset Park, and lies several blocks southwest of Prospect Park. It is generally bounded by 20th Street to the northeast, Fifth Avenue to the northwest, 36th and 37th Streets to the southwest, Fort Hamilton Parkway to the south, and McDonald Avenue to the east.

Le cimetière de Green-Wood ("Green-Wood Cemetery") est un cimetière de la ville de New York situé dans l'ouest de l'arrondissement de Brooklyn.


History.

The “petit théâtre en bois” (wooden theatre) was first created in 1776 by Marquess Alli-Maccarani. Sold in 1787 to a group of gentry, it reopened in 1790 under the name “Théâtre Royal”.  In 1826, the city of Nice, encouraged by King Charles Félix, bought it from its owners and had it demolished and rebuilt. It was inaugurated in 1828 with Giovanni Pacini's "Il Barone di Bolsheim".  In 1856, a great ball was organized in the honour of King Victor Emmanuel II.  In 1860, Napoleon III was invited to attend an evening at the Théâtre Royal. For this special occasion, Johann Strauss led the orchestra. The same year, the theatre became the “Théâtre Impérial”. In 1864, Napoleon III returned, accompanied by Tsar Alexander II of Russia. In 1868, Louis II, Duke of Bavaria attended a performance of "Cendrillon". The Théâtre Royal was renamed “Théâtre Municipal” in 1870.  On Wednesday, March 23rd 1881, as the opera "Lucia di Lammermoor" began, a gas leak started a huge fire. The fire was controlled the next day but there was nothing left of the theatre. Three siblings of Marjory Kennedy-Fraser died in the fire: Lizzie, Kate and James (soprano, contralto and baritone respectively). The city of Nice immediately decided to rebuild another theatre on the same site. It was designed by architect François Aune with the apparent approval of Charles Garnier, the architect of the Paris Opera. On February 7th 1885, the Théâtre Municipal re-opened with Verdi’s "Aida". Over the following years it hosted the French stage premieres of operas such as "A Life for the Tsar", "Eugene Onegin", "La Gioconda", "Manon Lescaut", "Marie-Magdeleine", "Katerina Ismailova" and "Elegy for Young Lovers". Artistic directors included Edoardo Sonzogno (1887-88), Raoul Gunsbourg (1889-91) and Ferdinand Aymé (1950-82). Musical directors included Alexandre Luigini (1888-89 and 1897-98), Albert Wolff (1930-32 and 1934-37), Antonio de Almeida (1976-78) and Pierre Dervaux (1978-82).  In 1902, it was named Opéra de Nice and is today referred to as Opéra Nice Côte d’Azur.  With the support of the Médecin family of Nice, the house flourished, attracting major singers and directors in opera, but despite the efforts of Jean-Albert Cartier from 1994–1997, the importance of the house declined.

21st century.

From 2001 to 2009 the director-general was the Belgian producer Paul-Émile Fourny. He was succeeded by Jacques Hédouin, with a policy of closer working with the Opéra de Monte-Carlo, as well as closer collaboration with the two regional orchestras, the Orchestre philharmonique de Nice and the Orchestre régional de Cannes-Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur.  In November 2012, Marc Adam became the new artistic director of the opera. The same month tenor Jonas Kaufmann performed there. Adam departed in 2015 to be replaced by Eric Chevalier.  The Diacosmie is the workshop of the Opéra de Nice, where everything from costumes to sets is created. The building also houses rehearsal rooms for the Nice Philharmonic Orchestra and the Ballet Nice Méditerrannée.

The Opéra de Nice is the principal opera venue in Nice, France, which houses the Ballet Nice Méditerrannée and the Nice Philharmonic Orchestra. It offers three types of performances: operas, ballets and classical music concerts.

L’opéra de Nice est un théâtre lyrique municipal situé dans le Vieux-Nice. Il est géré par la ville de Nice en régie municipale directe et compte places.


Etymology.

The word Epitáphios is composite, from the Greek ἐπί, "epí", "on" or "upon", and τάφος, "táphos", "grave" or "tomb". In Greek the word has, inter alia, the meaning of both the English "epitaph" and the liturgical one presented here, the latter having been acquired during the Christian period.

Iconography.

The icon depicts Christ after he has been removed from the cross, lying supine, as his body is being prepared for burial. The scene is taken from the Gospel of St. John (). Shown around him, and mourning his death, may be his mother (the Theotokos or Blessed Virgin Mary); John the beloved disciple; Joseph of Arimathea; and Mary Magdalene, as well as angels. Nicodemus and others may also be depicted. Often the Four Evangelists will be shown in the corners. Sometimes, the body of Christ appears alone, except for angels, as if lying in state. The oldest surviving embroidered icon, of about 1200 (Venice) is in this form. The equivalent subjects in the West are called the "Anointing of Christ's body", or "Lamentation of Christ" (with a group present), or the "Pietà", with just Christ held by Mary.  The image may be embroidered or painted on fabric or some other substrate, which is then mounted in a wide cloth border (burgundy is the most common colour) often edged in gold fringe. Some cloths are missing the corners of the border, to allow them to sit neatly on the holy table. Usually, the troparion of the day is embroidered in gold letters around the edges of the icon:  In the Late Byzantine period, the icon depicting the burial of Jesus was commonly painted below a Christ Pantocrator in the apse of the prothesis (the chapel where the Liturgy of Preparation was performed) in Orthodox churches, illustrating a liturgical hymn which celebrated Christ "On the throne above and in the tomb below". The icon, in particular a panel mosaic version taken to Rome, probably in the 12th century, developed in the West into the subject Man of Sorrows, which was enormously popular in the Late Middle Ages, though that image shows a living Christ, normally with eyes open.

Liturgical use.

The Epitaphios is used on the last two days of Holy Week in the Byzantine rite, as part of the ceremonies marking the death and resurrection of Christ. It is then placed on the Holy Table (altar table), where it remains throughout the Paschal season.

Vespers on Great Friday.

The Deposition from the Cross. Prior to the "Apokathelosis", Vespers on the afternoon of Great Friday, the priest and deacon will place the Epitaphios on the Holy Table. The priest may also anoint the Epitaphios with perfumed oil. A chalice veil and the Gospel Book is placed on top of the Epitaphios. This may be either the large Gospel Book that otherwise lies on the Holy table, or it may be a small one.  During the reading of the Gospel lesson (a concatenation compiled from selections of all four Gospels) which recounts the death and burial of Christ, an icon depicting the "soma" (corpus) of Christ is taken down from a cross which has been set up in the middle of the church. The "soma" is wrapped in a white cloth and taken into the sanctuary.  Near the end of the service, the priest and deacon, accompanied by acolytes with candles and incense, bring the Epitaphios in procession from the Holy Table into the center of the church and place it on a table which is often richly decorated for that purpose. The Gospel Book is laid on top of the epitaphios. In some Greek churches, an elaborately carved canopy, called a "kouvouklion", stands over the Epitaphios. This bier or catafalque represents the Tomb of Christ, and is made of wood, usually elaborately carved. On Good Friday morning, the bier is decorated with spring flowers, mostly white, red, and purple, until it is covered by the flowers in its entirety. The Tomb is often sprinkled with flower petals and rosewater, decorated with candles, and ceremonially censed as a mark of respect. The bells of the church are tolled, and in traditionally Orthodox countries, flags are lowered to half-mast. Then the priest and faithful venerate the Epitaphios as the choir chants hymns. In Slavic churches, the service of Compline will be served next, during which a special Canon will be chanted which recalls the lamentations of the Theotokos.  The faithful continue to visit the tomb and venerate the Epitaphios throughout the afternoon and evening, until Matins—which is usually served in the evening during Holy Week, so that the largest number of people can attend. The form which the veneration of the epitaphios takes will vary between ethnic traditions. Some will make three prostrations, then kiss the image of Christ on the Epitaphios and the Gospel Book, and then make three more prostrations. Sometimes, the faithful will crawl under the table on which the Epitaphios has been placed, as though entering into death with Christ. Others may simply light a candle and/or say a short prayer with bowed head. In Ukrainian Catholic churches and others of the Ruthenian tradition, the laity will often sing vernacular hymns at this point. One such hymn is "stradal'na maty" ("страдальна мати"), the contents of which approximate the Stabat mater, and may be heard here:  The priest may hear confessions at the Epitaphios, and he may anoint people who were not able to be present for the Unction service earlier in the week. The Acolouthia of the Holy and Great Saturday and hence the Epitaphios procession (see below), started according to ancient customs during the Saturday Matins (Orthros), but nowadays, it frequently begins a bit earlier, at the night of Holy and Great Friday.

Matins on Great Saturday.

The Burial of Christ. During Matins, "Lamentations" (Greek: Ἐπιτάφιος Θρῆνος, "Epitaphios Thrēnos", "Epitaphic Lamentation"; or Ἐγκώμια, "Enkōmia", "praises") are sung before the Epitaphios as at the tomb of Christ, while all hold lighted candles. The verses of these Lamentations are interspersed between the verses of Psalm 118 (the chanting of this psalm forms a major part of the Orthodox funeral service as well as being a usual part of Saturday Matins). The Lamentations are divided into three sections called "stáses", each commonly known by its first phrase; in Greek these are:  At the beginning of each stásis, the priest or deacon will perform a censing. In the Greek use, at the third and final stásis, the priest will sprinkle rosewater on the Epitaphios and the congregation, symbolising the anointing of Christ's body with spices.  Near the end of Matins, during the Great Doxology, a solemn procession with the Epitaphios is held, with bells ringing the funeral toll, commemorating the burial procession of Christ. In Slavic churches, the Epitaphios alone is carried in procession with candles and incense. It may be carried by hand or raised up on poles like a canopy. Many Greek churches, however, will carry the entire bier, with its carved canopy attached. In societies where Byzantine Christianity is traditional, the processions may take extremely long routes through the streets, with processions from different parishes joining together in a central location. Where this is not possible, the procession goes three times around the outside of the church building. The procession is accompanied by the singing of the Trisagion, typically in a melodic form used at funerals. Those unable to attend the church service will often come out to balconies and sidewalks where the procession passes, holding lit candles and sometimes hand-held censers. In many Greek villages, the Epitaphios is also paraded in the cemetery, among the graves, as a covenant of eternal life to those who have died.  In many towns where more than one parishes exist, the processions often converge to a single spot, e.g. a square, where they temporarily stop and a common "Triságion" is sung before they resume their routes. This is notably done on the island of Hydra, where the Epitaphios from the Kamíni parish is brought into the sea until the bier bearers are waist-high in the water, as a special blessing for those who have perished at sea. In larger towns the procession is led by a local marching band playing funeral marches; in some cities the Epitaphios is escorted by military detachments, their arms in the mourning (muzzle towards the ground) position.  At the end of the procession, the Epitaphios is brought back to the church. Sometimes, after the clergy carry the Epitaphios in, they will stop just inside the entrance to the church, and hold the Epitaphios above the door, so that all who enter the church will pass under it (symbolically entering into the grave with Christ) and then kiss the Gospel Book. In Greek churches, the Epitaphios is then brought directly to the sanctuary, where it remains on the Holy Table until Ascension Thursday. In Slavic churches, it is brought back to the catafalque in the middle of the church (and may be honoured further with more petals, rosewater and incense), where it remains until the Midnight Office at the Paschal Vigil on Great Saturday night. Where the Epitaphios remains in the centre of the church, the faithful will continue to venerate it throughout Great Saturday.

Liturgy on Holy Saturday.

The Little Hours on Holy Saturday are read near the Epitaphios, rather than the kliros; and certain portions of the Divine Liturgy that would normally be performed at the ambo in front of the Holy Doors (Ektenias, reading the Gospel, the Great Entrance, etc.) are instead performed in front of the Epitaphios. Only the Communion of the Faithful and the dismissal take place at the ambo.  In some places, the entire Liturgy takes place around the Epitaphios, with it serving as the Holy Table (altar), and the clergy standing around it instead of behind the iconostasis.

Midnight Office of Pascha.

During the Midnight Office, after the Usual Beginning and Psalm 50, the Canon of Great Saturday, repeated from the preceding Matins as a reflection upon the meaning of Christ’s death and his Harrowing of Hell. During the last Ode of the Canon, at the words, "weep not for me, O Mother, for I shall arise...", the priest and deacon dramatically lift the Epitaphios (which represents the dead body of Christ) from the bier and carry it through the Holy Doors into the sanctuary, laying it upon the Holy Table (altar), so that its border hangs down in front of the Holy Table and is visible through the open Holy Doors. There it will remain throughout the Paschal season as a reminder of the burial cloth left in the empty tomb ().

Paschal season.

During Bright Week (Easter Week), the Holy Doors of the sanctuary remain open as a symbol of the empty tomb of Christ. The Epitaphios is clearly visible through the open doors, and thus symbolizes the winding sheet left in the tomb after the resurrection.  At the end of Bright Week, the Holy Doors are closed, but the Epitaphios remains on the Holy Table for 40 days, as a reminder of Jesus' physical appearances to his disciples from the time of his Resurrection until his Ascension into heaven.

Epitaphios of the Theotokos.

An Epitaphios of the Theotokos also exists. This too is a richly embroidered cloth icon, but depicting instead the body of the Theotokos lying in state. This is used on the feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos on 15 August, known in the West as the Assumption of Mary. The Epitaphios of the Theotokos is used with corresponding hymns of lamentation, placed on a bier, and carried in procession in the same way as the Epitaphios of Christ, although it is never placed on the Holy Table.  The Rite of the "Burial of the Theotokos" began in Jerusalem, and from there it was carried to Russia, where it was used in the Uspensky (Dormition) cathedral in Moscow. Its use has slowly spread among the Russian Orthodox, though it is not by any means a standard service in all parishes, or even most cathedrals or monasteries. In Jerusalem, the service is chanted during the All-Night Vigil of the Dormition. In some Russian churches and monasteries, it is served on the third day after Dormition.

The Epitaphios (Greek: Ἐπιτάφιος, "epitáphios", or Ἐπιτάφιον, "epitáphion"; Slavonic: Плащаница, "plashchanitsa"; Arabic: نعش, "naash") is a Christian religious icon, typically consisting of a large, embroidered and often richly adorned cloth, bearing an image of the dead body of Christ, often accompanied by his mother and other figures, following the Gospel account. It is used during the liturgical services of Good Friday and Holy Saturday in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, as well as those Eastern Catholic Churches, which follow the Byzantine Rite. It also exists in painted or mosaic form, on wall or panel.

L'Épitaphios (en grec : Επιτάφιος, epitaphios, ou Επιτάφιον, epitaphion ; en slave : Плащаница, plashchanitsa ; en arabe : نعش, naash) est une icône, existant le plus souvent aujourd'hui sous la forme d'un grand tissu brodé et souvent richement orné. Elle est utilisée au cours des offices du Vendredi saint et du Samedi saint dans l'Église orthodoxe et les Églises orientales catholiques de rite byzantin. L'icône existe également peinte ou en mosaïque.