History of the Army.

The Ethiopian army's origins and military traditions date back to the earliest history of Ethiopia. Due to Ethiopia's location between the Middle East and Africa, it has long been in the middle of Eastern and Western politics, and has been subject to foreign invasion and aggression. In 1579, the Ottoman Empire's attempt to expand from a coastal base at Massawa was defeated. The Army of the Ethiopian Empire was also able to defeat the Egyptians in 1876 at Gura, led by Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes IV. Clapham wrote in the 1980s that the "Abyssinians [had suffered] from a'superiority complex' which may be traced to Gundet, Gura and Adwa".  In accordance with the order of the emperor of Ethiopia, Directly Nikolay Leontiev organized the first battalion of the regular Ethiopian army in February 1899. Leontiev formed the first regular battalion, the kernel of which became the company of volunteers from the former Senegal shooters, which he chose and invited from Western Africa, with training of the Russian and French officers. The first Ethiopian military orchestra was organized at the same time.

Battle of Adwa.

The Battle of Adowa is the best known victory of Ethiopian forces over invaders. It maintained Ethiopia's existence as an independent state. Fought on 1 March 1896 against the Kingdom of Italy near the town of Adwa, it was the decisive battle of the First Italo–Ethiopian War. Assisted by all of the major nobles of Ethiopia including, Alula Abanega, Negus, Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, Sebhat Aregawi, Ras Makonnen, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, and Ras Mikael of Wollo, Emperor Menelek II of Ethiopia struck a powerful blow against the Italians.  The Ethiopian army had been able to execute the strategic plan of Menelik's headquarters, despite a feudal system of organization and adverse circumstances. A special role was played by the Russian military advisers and the volunteers of Leontiev's mission. The first problem was the quality of its arms, as the Italian and British colonial authorities were able to sabotage the transportation of 60,000 to 100,000 modern Berdan rifles from Russia into landlocked Ethiopia.  Secondly, the Ethiopian army was based on a feudal system of organization, and as a result, nearly the entire army was a peasant militia. Russian military experts advising Menelik II suggested trying to achieve full battle collision with Italians, to neutralize the superior firepower of their opponent and potentially nullify their problems with arms, training, and organization, rather than engaging in a campaign of harassment. In the battle that ensued wave upon wave of Menelik's warriors successfully attacked the Italians.

Boundary confrontation against the UK's colonialists (1896–1899).

After the successful colonial capture of the Sudan, Kenya and Uganda, the British expansion against Ethiopia became a real danger, which diminished only after the start of the Second Boer War in 1899. The Ethiopian army became more effective against British colonial forces. The numerous expeditions of Ethiopian forces stopped colonial expansion. As the Russian Alexander Bulatovich, one of the Russian military advisers and a participant in the expedition of the legendary army of Ras Wolde Giyorgis, wrote:  "Many consider the Abyssinian army to be undisciplined. They think that it is not in any condition to withstand a serious fight with a well-organized European army, claiming that the recent war with Italy doesn't prove anything. I will not begin to guess the future, and will say only this. Over the course of four months, I watched this army closely. It is unique in the world. And I can bear witness to the fact that it is not quite so chaotic as it seems at first glance, and that on the contrary, it is profoundly disciplined, though in its own unique way. For every Abyssinian, war is normal business, and military skills and rules of army life in the field enter in the flesh and blood of each of them, just as do the main principles of tactics. On the march, each soldier knows how to arrange necessary comforts for himself and to conserve his strength; but on the other hand, when necessary, he shows such endurance and is capable of action in conditions which are difficult even to imagine. You see remarkable expediency in all the actions and skills of this army; and each soldier has an amazingly intelligent attitude toward managing the mission of the battle. Despite such qualities, because of its impetuousness, it is much more difficult to control this army than a well-drilled European army, and I can only marvel at and admire the skill of its leaders and chiefs, of which there is no shortage."  In obedience to the agreement with Russia and the order of Menelik II, First Ethiopian officers began to be trained at the First Russian cadet school in 1901. 30 to 40 Ethiopian officers were trained in Russia from 1901 until 1913.

Under Haile Selassie I.

Modernization of the army took place under the regency of Tafari Mekonnen, who later reigned as Emperor Haile Selassie I. He created an Imperial Bodyguard, the "Kebur Zabagna", in 1917 from the earlier "Mahal Safari" who had traditionally attended the Ethiopian Emperor. Its elite were trained at the French military academy at Saint-Cyr or by Belgian military advisers. He also created his own military school at Holeta in January 1935.  Ethiopian military aviation efforts were initiated in 1929, when Tafari Mekonnen hired two French pilots and purchased four French biplanes. By the time of the Italian invasion of 1935, the air force had four pilots and thirteen aircraft.  However, these efforts were not sufficient nor instituted in enough time to stop the rising tide of Italian fascism. Ethiopia lost its independence in the Italian invasion of Ethiopia of 1935-36, marked for the first time Ethiopia was colonized by a foreign power. The country regained its independence after the 1941 East African Campaign of World War II with the intervention of British and British imperial forces. After the Italians had been driven from the country, a British Military Mission to Ethiopia (BMME), under Major General Stephen Butler, was established to reorganise the Ethiopian Army. The Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement of 1944 removed the BMME from the jurisdiction of East Africa Command at Nairobi and made it responsible to the Ethiopian Minister of War.  Ethiopia bought twenty AH-IV tankettes from Sweden in the late 1940s. They arrived in Djibouti on 9 May 1950 after which they were carried by rail to Addis Ababa. They were used until the 1980s when they participated in the fighting against Somalia.

Korean War.

In keeping with the principle of collective security, for which Haile Selassie was an outspoken proponent, Ethiopia sent a contingent under General Mulugeta Buli, known as the Kagnew Battalion, to take part in the Korean War. It was attached to the American 7th Infantry Division, and fought in a number of engagements including the Battle of Pork Chop Hill. 3,518 Ethiopian troops served in the war, of which 121 were killed and 536 wounded.  On May 22, 1953, a U.S.-Ethiopian Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement was signed. A U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group was dispatched to Ethiopia, and began its work by reorganising the army into three divisions. On 25 September 1953, Selassie created the Imperial Ministry of National Defense that unified the Army, Air Force, and Navy. By 1956, the First Division had its headquarters at Addis Ababa (First, Second, Third Brigades, 5,300 strong); the Second Division was headquartered at Asmara, with the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth, and Twelfth Brigades (4,500 strong); and Third Division Harar (with the Fourth, Ninth, Tenth, and Eleventh Brigades, 6,890 strong) respectively. The three divisions had a total of 16,832 troops. In May 1959, the Emperor established the Imperial Territorial Army as a reserve force that provided military training to civil servants.  In 1960 the U.S. Army Area Handbook for Ethiopia described the very personalised command arrangements then used by the Emperor: The Emperor is by constitutional provision Commander-in-Chief, and to him are reserved all rights respecting the size of the forces and their organisation and command, together with the power to appoint, promote, transfer and dismiss military officers. He seeks the advice and consent of Parliament in declaring war. Traditionally, he assumes personal command of the forces in time of war.'  The Office of the Chief of Staff of the Imperial Ethiopian Armed Forces directed the Commanders of the Army, Air Force, and Navy, and the three army divisions were directly responsible to the Commander of the Army. The three divisions seemingly included the Third Division in the Ogaden, seen as a hardship post. While technically the Imperial Bodyguard (Kebur Zabagna) was responsible to the Army Commander, in reality its commander received his orders directly from the Emperor.  "Balambaras" Abebe Aregai was one of the noted patriotic resistance leaders of Shoa (central Ethiopia) that rose to preeminence in the post-liberation period. He became "Ras," a general and minister of defense of the Imperial Ethiopian Armed Forces until his death in the 1960 Ethiopian coup attempt.  Ethiopia contributed troops for the United Nations operation in the Congo – the United Nations Operation in the Congo - from July 1960. By 20 July 1960, 3,500 troops for ONUC had arrived in the Congo. The 3,500 consisted of 460 troops from Ethiopia (later to grow into the Tekil Brigade) as well as troops from Ghana, Morocco and Tunisia. Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie raised some 3,000 Imperial Bodyguard personnel- about 10 percent of the Ethiopian army’s entire strength at that time-and made it part of the UN peacekeeping force in the Congo, along with an air force squadron. This volunteer battalion from the Imperial Bodyguard were authorized by the Emperor. The Tekil (or “Tekel”) Brigade was stationed in Stanleyville.  Aman Mikael Andom commanded the Third Division during the Ogaden War of 1964. He later became chief of staff of the Armed Forces in July 1974, and then Minister of Defense. He then became chairman of the Derg from September to December 1974.  Emperor Haile Selassie divided the Ethiopian military into separate commands. The US Army Handbook for Ethiopia notes that each service was provided with training and equipped from different foreign countries "to assure reliability and retention of power." The military consisted of the following: Imperial Bodyguard (also known as the "First Division", 8,000 men); three army divisions; services which included the Airborne, Engineers, and Signal Corps; the Territorial Army (5,000 men); and the police (28,000 men).  Among reported U.S. equipment deliveries to Ethiopia were 120 M59 and 39 M75 armoured personnel carriers.

Seizure of power by the Derg 1974 and aftermath.

The Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army, or the Derg (Amharic "Committee"), was officially announced 28 June 1974 by a group of military officers to maintain law and order due to the powerlessness of the civilian government following widespread mutiny in the armed forces of Ethiopia earlier that year. Its members were not directly involved in those mutinies, nor was this the first military committee organized to support the administration of Prime Minister Endelkachew Makonnen: Alem Zewde Tessema had established the Armed Forces Coordinated Committee on 23 March. However, over the following months radicals in the Ethiopian military came to believe he was acting on behalf of the hated aristocracy, and when a group of notables petitioned for the release of a number of government ministers and officials who were under arrest for corruption and other crimes, three days later the Derg was announced.  The Derg, which originally consisted of soldiers at the capital, broadened its membership by including representatives from the 40 units of the Ethiopian Army, Air Force, Navy, Kebur Zabagna (Imperial Guard), Territorial Army and Police: each unit was expected to send three representatives, who were supposed to be privates, NCOs and junior officers up to the rank of major. According to Bahru Zewde, "senior officers were deemed too compromised by close association to the regime."  The committee elected Major Mengistu Haile Mariam as its chairman and Major Atnafu Abate as its vice-chairman. The Derg was initially supposed to study the grievances of various military units, and investigate abuses by senior officers and staff, and to root out corruption in the military. In the months following its founding, the power of the Derg steadily increased. In July 1974 the Derg obtained key concessions from the Emperor, Haile Selassie, which included the power to arrest not only military officers, but government officials at every level. Soon both former Prime Ministers Tsehafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold, and Endelkachew Makonnen, along with most of their cabinets, most regional governors, many senior military officers and officials of the Imperial court found themselves imprisoned.  When the Derg gained control of Ethiopia, they lessened their reliance on the West. Instead they began to draw their equipment and their sources for organisational and training methods from the Soviet Union and other Comecon countries, especially Cuba. During this period, Ethiopian forces were often locked in counter-insurgency campaigns against various guerrilla groups. They honed both conventional and guerrilla tactics during campaigns in Eritrea, and by repelling an invasion launched by Somalia in the 1977–1978 Ogaden War.  The Ethiopian army grew considerably under the Derg (1974–1987), and the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia under Mengistu (1987–1991), especially during the latter regime. The Library of Congress estimated forces under arms in 1974 at 41,000. By July 1975 the International Institute for Strategic Studies was listing a mechanised division in addition to three infantry divisions. Ayele writes that in November 1975, the "Nabalbal" ("Flame") force was created, subdivided into battalion-sized units of 400. Each battalion-sized unit was known as a "hayl" (force), and 20 were created within sixteen months. The "Nabalbal" units entered combat in 1977. When Ethiopian intelligence sources discovered Somali planning to seize the Ogaden, militia brigades were also created; first 30, then a total of 61 brigades totalling 143,350 by 1977-78. It appears that there were five regular line divisions active by the time of the 1977 Ogaden War, and the Library of Congress estimated the force size at the time as 53,500. With significant Soviet assistance, after that point the army's size grew rapidly; in 1979 it was estimated at 65,000. The 18th and 19th Mountain Infantry Divisions were then established in 1979-80 originally to seize Nakfa, in the Sahel Mountains, one of the remaining strongholds of the Eritrean insurgents. By the beginning of 1981 recruitment for the 21st and 22nd Mountain Infantry Divisions was underway; soon afterwards, preparations for the large Operation Red Star were stepping up.  In April 1988 the Derg reorganised the army. The restoration of relations with Somalia meant that forces could be transferred from the First Revolutionary Army in the Ogaden, to the Second and Third Revolutionary Armies, the Third (TRA) being responsible for the provinces of Assab, Tigray, Wello, Gondar, and Gojjam. The very small Fourth Revolutionary Army became responsible not only for protecting the border with Kenya, but also those with Somalia and Sudan. In the place of the previous commands, thirteen corps were established instead, distributed amongst the army headquarters. Intensive efforts were made to enlist additional personnel. Total manpower after the reorganisation reached a reported 388,000.  In May 1988 the Derg decided that before it could concentrate on destroying the EPLF, it would have to first eliminate the TPLF. Thus Operation Adwa was devised to seize the main TPLF base at Adi Ramets in Gondar Province. The Third Revolutionary Army's 603rd and 604th Corps were to play the main role, while the 605th Corps secured the rear, in Wello. The TRA's command structure was disrupted when Major General Mulatu Negash, the army commander, was supplanted by the arrival of Mengistu's favorite, Captain Lagesse Asfaw.  Cuba provided a significant influx of military advisors and troops over this period, with the largest escalation during the Ogaden War with Somalia, supported by a Soviet airlift:

1990-91 Order of Battle.

Gebru Tareke listed Ethiopian ground forces in 1990 as comprising four revolutionary armies organized as task forces, eleven corps, twenty-four infantry divisions, and four mountain divisions, reinforced by five mechanised divisions, two airborne divisions, and ninety-five brigades, including four mechanised brigades, three artillery brigades, four tank brigades, twelve special commando and paracommando brigades – including the Spartakiad, which became operational in 1987 under the preparation and guidance of North Koreans – seven BM-rocket battalions, and ten brigades of paramilitary forces.  Forces under arms were estimated at 230,000 in early 1991. Mengistu's People's Militia had also grown to about 200,000 members. The mechanized forces of the army comprised 1,200 T-54/55, 100 T-62 tanks, and 1,100 armored personnel carriers (APCs), but readiness was estimated to be only about 30 percent operational, because of the withdrawal of financial support, lack of maintenance expertise and parts from the Soviet Union, Cuba and other nations.  The army commands consisted of the:  To these armies were assigned the operational forces of the army, comprising:

From 1991.

In 1991 Mengistu's government was overcome by the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ, former EPLF), Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) and other opposition factions. After the defeat of the military government, the provisional government disbanded the former national army and relied on its own guerrilla fighters. In 1993, however, the Tigrayan-led government announced plans to create a multi-ethnic defense force. This process entailed the creation of a new professional army and officer class and the demobilization of many of the irregulars who had fought against the military government. With the collapse of the Soviet Union Ethiopia again turned to the Western powers for alliance and assistance. However, many Tigrayan officers remained in command positions. This transformation was still underway when war with Eritrea broke out in 1998, a development that saw the ranks of the armed forces swell along with defense expenditures.  Although the armed forces have significant battlefield experience, their militia orientation has complicated the transition to a structured, integrated military. Ranks and conventional units were only adopted in 1996. A United States-assisted effort to restructure the armed forces was interrupted by mobilisation for the war with Eritrea.

The Ethiopia-Eritrea war.

The former allies EPRDF and PFDJ (former EPLF) led their countries Ethiopia and Eritrea, respectively, into the Eritrean-Ethiopian War of 1998. The war was fought over the disputed region of Badme. During the course of the war, some commanders and pilots from the former army and air force were recalled to duty. These officers helped turn the tide decisively against Eritrea in 2000. Following the war's end, the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission, a body founded by the UN, established that the Badme region had in fact belonged to Eritrea. Although the two countries are now at peace, Ethiopia rejected the results of the international court's decision, and continued to occupy Badme. Most observers agree that Ethiopia's rejection of international law, coupled with the high numbers of soldiers maintained on the border by each side – a debilitatingly high number, particularly for the Eritrean side – means that the two countries are effectively still in conflict.  After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Ethiopian army began to train with the U.S. Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) established in Djibouti. Ethiopia allowed the US to station military advisors at Camp Hurso. Part of the training at Camp Hurso has included U.S. Army elements, including 4th Battalion, 31st Infantry, training the 12th, 13th and 14th Division Reconnaissance Companies, which from July 2003 were being formed into a new Ethiopian anti-terrorism battalion.

Somalia.

Ethiopian troops helped drive the Islamic Courts Union out of Mogadishu in Somalia. In December 2006, the ENDF entered Somalia to confront the Islamic Courts Union, initially winning the Battle of Baidoa. This led to the seizure of Mogadishu by Ethiopian troops and TFG militias, and subsequent heavy fighting there. After the Islamists split into two groups, moderate Islamists led by Sheikh Ahmed signed a UN backed peace deal with the TFG and established a larger government in Mogadishu. Ethiopian troops withdrew as part of the terms of the peace deal. Government forces have been engaged in battle against Ogaden insurgents led by the Ogaden National Liberation Front.  Gabre Heard commanded the forces in Somalia. As of 2014, the Ethiopian troops in Somalia are being integrated into the AMISOM peacekeeping force. According to Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson Ambassador Dina Mufti, the Ethiopian military's decision to join AMISOM is intended to render the peacekeeping operation more secure. Analysts also suggested that the move was primarily motivated by financial considerations, with the Ethiopian forces' operational costs now slated to be under AMISOM's allowance budget. It is believed that the Ethiopian military's long experience in Somali territory, its equipment such as helicopters, and the potential for closer coordination will help the allied forces advance their territorial gains.

Peacekeeping.

Ethiopia has served in various United Nations and African Union peacekeeping missions. These have included Ivory Coast, on the Burundi border, and in Rwanda.  Two major Ethiopian missions are in Liberia and Darfur. The United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1509, of 19 September 2003, to support the implementation of the ceasefire agreement and the peace process, protect United Nations staff, facilities and civilians, support humanitarian and human rights activities; as well as assist in national security reform, including national police training and formation of a new, restructured military. In November 2007, nearly 1,800 Ethiopian troops serving with the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) were presented with UN Peacekeeping medals for their "invaluable contribution to the peace process." Up to three Ethiopian battalions used to constitute Sector 4 of the UN Mission, covering the southern part of the country.  Many thousands of Ethiopian peacekeepers are involved in the joint African Union/United Nations Hybrid operation in Darfur, western Sudan. The Security Council authorized a UNAMID force of about 26,000 uniformed personnel.  Ethiopia also provides the entire force for the UN's Abyei mission, the United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei. An Ethiopian officer commands the force.

Ground forces.

The International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated in the Military Balance 2009 that the army comprised 4 Military Regional Commands; (Northern (HQ Mekele.), Western, Central, and Eastern) each acting as corps HQ, there also being a Support Command and a strategic reserve of four divisions and six specialist brigades centred on Addis Ababa.  Each of the four corps comprises a headquarters, an estimated one mechanised division and between 4-6 infantry divisions.  In 2014 the regional commanders were listed by dissident sources as:  The modern ENDF has a wide mix of equipment. Many of its major weapons systems stem from the Communist era and are of Soviet and Eastern bloc design. The United States was Ethiopia's major arms supplier from the end of the Second World War until 1977, when Ethiopia began receiving massive arms shipments from the Soviet Union. These shipments, including armored patrol boats, transport and jet fighter aircraft, helicopters, tanks, trucks, missiles, artillery, and small arms have incurred an unserviced Ethiopian debt to the former Soviet Union estimated at more than $3.5 billion.  Ethiopia made significant purchases of arms from Russia in late 1999 and early 2000 before the May 2000 United Nations arms embargo went into effect. It is likely that much of that equipment suffered battle damage in the war with Eritrea. Thus, raw numbers alone will probably overstate the capacity of the ENDF.

Tanks and armored fighting vehicles.

The Military Balance 2012 estimated that about 450 BRDM, BMP, BTR-60, BTR-152, and Type 89 armoured fighting vehicles and armoured personnel carriers were in service.  A total of 1,270 T-55 - 900 from, +40 from Belarus, +190 from Bulgaria, +50 from, +90 from, and 260 T-54 (200 from the USSR and 60 from East Germany) may have been in service over the years. Up to 150 M113 armoured personnel carriers may have been delivered from the United States.

Air defense & anti-tank weapons.

16 M55 Quad quadruple anti-aircraft machine guns may have been in service from the US. M163 Vulcan self-propelled anti-aircraft guns may have been ordered but never delivered.

Further reading.

Further sources on defense in Ethiopia include "SSR in Ethiopia, A Prerequisite for Democracy".

The Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) is the military of Ethiopia. Civil direction of the military is carried out through the Ministry of Defense, which oversees the ground forces, air force, as well as the Defense Industry Sector. The current minister of defense is Lemma Megersa.

Les Forces de défense nationale éthiopiennes (FDNE) est la dénomination de l'armée éthiopienne depuis l'établissement de la République fédérale en 1991. Le Ministère de la Défense est responsable des armées: des forces militaires au sol et de l'air ainsi que du secteur de l'industrie de la défense. Le ministère actuel de la défense est Lemma Megersa.


Surrounding land.

Fallen Leaf Lake is located within the National Forest System lands managed by the Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit, adjacent to El Dorado County. The land surrounding the lake is privately owned, leased from the U.S. Forest Service, and part of the Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit. Like some areas where the Forest Service has leased land intermingled with private land, the two land types appear in a mosaic or checkerboard pattern.

Access.

Fallen Leaf Road is approximately 5 miles (8 km) long, and begins at State Route 89, which runs along the south shore of Lake Tahoe. The road intersects the highway approximately half a mile (800 m) west of Camp Richardson, a resort and campground on the southern shore of Lake Tahoe. The road runs generally to the south, is one lane wide and paved, and has turnouts to allow cars to pass each other. The road passes the Fallen Leaf Lake Campground, operated by the Forest Service, and then past privately owned meadows. Two miles south of State Route 89, Angora Road provides access to Angora Lookout, a Forest Service fire lookout on the east side of the lake and approximately 1,000 feet (300 m) above the lake's surface, and to Angora Lakes Resort. It also connects to US 50/SR 89 via Sawmill Road.  Fallen Leaf Road continues south past privately owned homes following the lakeshore. Emigrant Road connects to Fallen Leaf Road approximately three miles from SR 89, and provides access to houses above the lake on the eastern slope. There is little commercial development at the lake other than the tiny Fallen Leaf Marina and Store at the southern extremity of the lake. The road winds around the south end of the lake, past St. Francis of the Mountains, an Episcopalian chapel, and then across a concrete bridge spanning Glen Alpine Creek. Glen Alpine Road begins at the bridge and runs for about two miles southwest to Glen Alpine Springs, one of the trailheads to the Desolation Wilderness Area.  Cathedral Road also intersects State Route 89, and travels south to the houses on the west side of the lake. While it runs to within about three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km) of Fallen Leaf Road, they do not connect. Some of the homes on the west side of the lake have no road access and are accessed on foot or by boat.

Tributaries.

Fallen Leaf Lake is fed almost entirely by Glen Alpine Creek at the south end, which is in turn fed by several lakes in the Desolation Wilderness area including Gilmore Lake, Susie Lake, Heather Lake, and Grass Lake. In the spring, melting snow causes a vigorous flow of cold water into the lake which gradually tapers off during the summer months until the creek flow is greatly reduced in late summer and the fall. Other much smaller creeks and streams feed the lake, including Cathedral Creek, but they are not nearly as important as Glen Alpine Creek.  Taylor Creek is the only outflow, and it is controlled by a long, low concrete dam with an adjustable spillway to control the rate at which the water leaves the lake. This dam is 12 ft high and 265 ft in length. Taylor Creek flows northward, passing under State Route 89, and enters Lake Tahoe at Baldwin Beach.

The lake.

Fallen Leaf is approximately 415 feet (125 m) deep at its deepest point, which is east of the sheer face of Mount Tallac and north of Stanford Sierra Camp. The average depth of the lake is around 240 feet (72 m), and the bottom falls away rapidly as one moves away from the shorelines. Due to the action of the glaciers that carved the lake, the northern end of the lake has a much more gradual depth change, and the bottom can be seen from the surface for a quarter-mile (400 m) offshore. Along other shores, the bottom may be hidden in as little as 100 feet (30 m) offshore.  The water quality is extremely good due to the lack of commercial development (including golf courses and their fertilizer-rich runoff), the universal use of sewers, and modern sediment retention techniques associated with new development. Visibility runs around 40–50 feet (10–15 m) under most conditions. The water is potable, and many homes along the shoreline run a pipe offshore to provide water during the winter when other water systems may be turned off.  The water in the lake is exchanged every eight years, compared to the much deeper, therefore slower, Lake Tahoe, which exchanges every 700 years.  The surface elevation of the lake is 152 feet (46 m) above Lake Tahoe.  Mature conifer trees can be found on the bottom of Fallen Leaf Lake, preserved for some 800 years by the cold water. Some scientists believe that these trees show evidence of a so-called "megadrought" occurring between the 9th and 12th centuries that eliminated or reduced the lake, allowing conifers to grow to maturity. Even older trees have been identified by dendrologists dating to between 18 and 35 centuries ago. A recent expedition by the Undersea Voyager Project concluded that the ancient trees did not grow there during an ancient drought, but rather slid into the lake during one of the many seismic events that have occurred in the Tahoe Basin since it was formed.  After the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency banned two-stroke outboard boat motors in the late 1990s, pollution from these engines was virtually eliminated.

Local terrain.

As the glaciers receded from the Fallen Leaf basin, they left some dramatic rock formations including Cathedral Peak to the west, and the ridge upon which the Angora Lookout is located on the east (now forested). Cathedral Peak () might be better named Cathedral Ridge since, while it appears to be a solitary peak from the vantage point on the lake, it is really the beginning of a ridge that leads in the direction of Gilmore Lake and Mount Tallac. Incidentally, Mount Tallac () is familiar to anyone who was a fan of the television series "Bonanza" as it appeared with its characteristic cross of snow behind the Cartwright family as they rode towards the camera.  Cathedral Peak does not have a trail that leads directly to it, but can be reached by three different approaches. The Middle Trail to Tallac is a trail that begins near Lily Lake and which runs along the northern side of Glen Alpine Valley. It runs up to a junction which splits off to Gilmore Lake and Mount Tallac. Intrepid hikers can set off cross-country in the general direction of Cathedral Peak, about half a mile (800 m) away. Another route is from Gilmore Lake, to the same junction. Finally, the "Lake Trail" begins at the end of Fallen Leaf Road and slowly climbs up to Cathedral Lake and Floating Island Lake, and eventually to the Mount Tallac trail.

Ecology.

Lahontan cutthroat trout ("Oncorhynchus clarkii henshawi") is the only trout species native to Fallen Leaf Lake, Lake Tahoe and the Truckee River Basin but were extirpated by introduction of predatory non-native lake trout ("Salvelinus namaycush"), other competing non-native salmonids, and overfishing. Re-introduction into Fallen Leaf Lake of the Pilot Peak strain of Lahontan cutthroat trout (LCT), established as the LCT strain native to the watershed, began in 2006. This strain grows larger than any other LCT subspecies. Although the LCT suffer from heavy predation by lake trout, interbreeding with non-native rainbow trout ("Oncorhynchus mykiss"), and foraging competition with non-native kokanee salmon ("Oncorhynchus nerka"), their population is gradually increasing in the lake.

Water activities.

Most homes that have lake front property have docks and/or boathouses, generally with an older ski boat or a 16–20 feet (5–7 m) sailboat. The marina has room for approximately 60 boats, many of which are owned by property owners without direct access to the water. Wakeboard and waterski boats are the most common, followed by dedicated fishing boats, a few sailboats and pontoon boats, and some manually propelled craft. Kayaking is becoming more popular, as is recreational rowing.  Fishing is popular, if not particularly productive, for brown trout, rainbow trout and lake trout. The Forest Service stocks the lake and Glen Alpine Creek, which improves anglers' odds. The lake has also seen what appears to be a successful reintroduction of the Lahontan cutthroat trout, which were fished to extinction in the Lake Tahoe area in the twenties and thirties.  Sailing is challenging on the lake due to the shifty and gusty winds. The prevailing winds can either be southerlies from Glen Alpine Valley, or northerlies from Lake Tahoe. Sailors must contend with occasionally strong gusts, and the water temperature is not amenable to capsizes.

Fallen Leaf Lake is a mountain lake located in El Dorado County, California, near the California–Nevada state border, about one mile south west of the much larger Lake Tahoe. It is approximately aligned north-to-south and oval in shape, measuring approximately 2.9 miles (4.6 km) on the long axis and 0.9 miles (1.4 km) on the short axis. The lake was created by at least two glaciers that traveled northward down the Glen Alpine Valley. If the glacier had continued instead of stopping, Fallen Leaf Lake would be a bay of Lake Tahoe, similar to nearby Emerald Bay. A terminal moraine is visible at the north end of the lake on the northeast edge.

Le lac Fallen Leaf (en ) est un lac de Californie aux États-Unis. Il se situe au sud du lac Tahoe, qui est plus étendu, et de la frontière entre la Californie et le Nevada. Il est entièrement protégé au sein de la Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit.


History.

"Orion" was built by Devonport Dockyard (Plymouth, U.K), Vickers-Armstrong (Newcastle-on-Tyne, UK). "Orion" was commissioned on 18 January 1934, for service with the Home Fleet but she was transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in 1937 where she was with the 8th Cruiser Squadron. The cruiser conveyed the ashes of Lord Tweedsmuir, Governor-General of Canada, back to England in February 1940.  In June 1940 she was transferred to the Mediterranean, where she was with the 7th Cruiser Squadron as John Tovey's flagship. She took part in the bombardment of Bardia, and the Battle of Calabria in July 1940. Late in that month, she sank the small Greek freighter "Ermioni" which was ferrying supplies to the Italian-held Dodecanese islands. During the rest of 1940 she escorted Malta convoys and transported troops to Greece. In the early part of 1941 she was in the Crete and Aegean areas and was also at the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941.  In the course of an attack on a German convoy headed for Crete on 22 May, she was damaged in a duel with its escort, the Italian torpedo boat "Lupo". On 29 May 1941, during the evacuation of Crete, she was bombed and badly damaged while transporting 1900 evacuated troops. Around 360 lives were lost, of whom 100 were soldiers. After extensive damage control had been undertaken she limped to Alexandria at, providing a spectacular sight in the harbour with the mast wedged into the ship’s funnel and significant battle damage. On 29 June "Orion" sailed for passage to Simonstown, South Africa via Aden for temporary repairs and then sent to the Mare Island Naval Shipyard in Vallejo, California for major repairs.  "Orion"'s repairs were completed in March 1942 and she returned initially to Plymouth where new radar was installed. During mid 1942, she was widely employed, in home waters and on convoy escort duties to Africa and the Indian Ocean.  "Orion" returned to the Mediterranean in October 1942. This time she was with the 15th Cruiser Squadron. She was involved in convoy escort duties and supported the army in the invasion of Sicily. She spent most of the rest of the war around the Mediterranean. James Gornall the former English first-class cricketer, promoted to Captain in 1941 was placed in command of her in 1943. She also took part in the Normandy Landings in June 1944, where she fired the first shell.

Corfu Channel Incident.

"Orion" was involved in the Corfu Channel Incident.

Fate.

"Orion" ended service in 1947, was sold for scrap to Arnott Young (Dalmuir, Scotland) on 19 July 1949 and was scrapped in August 1949.

Battle honours.

Only and, who served in the Mediterranean with "Orion" matched this record; it was exceeded by "Warspite", the Mediterranean Fleet flagship, which saw service in both World Wars.

HMS "Orion" was a light cruiser which served with distinction in the Royal Navy during World War II. She received 13 battle honours, a record only exceeded by and matched by two others.

Le HMS "Orion" était un croiseur léger de la de la Royal Navy. Il se distingua à de nombreuses reprises durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale et reçut 13 "", un record égalé seulement par les destroyers et et dépassé par le cuirassé qui, il est vrai, eu l'avantage de combattre durant les deux guerres mondiales.


Club career.

Early years / Braga.

Born in Lisbon, Figueiredo played youth football for three clubs, including local Sporting CP from ages 10–16. In the summer of 2010 he joined S.C. Braga to complete his development, and made his debut as a senior with the latter's reserves, playing his first game in the Segunda Liga on 19 August 2012 in a 0–0 home draw against Associação Naval 1o de Maio (five minutes played).

Boavista.

In the 2013 off-season, Figueiredo dropped down to the third division and signed with Boavista FC. Even though the team finished outside the promotion zone, they were reinstated in the Primeira Liga following the final developments of the "Apito Dourado" affair.  Figueiredo's maiden appearance in the Portuguese top level occurred on 4 January 2015, as he featured the entire 3–1 home win over F.C. Arouca. He scored his first league goal on 16 August of that year, in a 2–2 away draw to Vitória de Setúbal.  During his spell at the "Estádio do Bessa", Figueiredo appeared in 72 matches all competitions comprised.

Rennes.

On 1 July 2016, free agent Figueiredo moved to Stade Rennais F.C. from the French Ligue 1 on a four year-contract. His official debut only arrived on 1 February of the following year, in a 0–4 home loss against Paris Saint-Germain F.C. for the Coupe de France. His first league came took place two months later, when he played roughly 30 minutes as a substitute in a 1–1 draw to Olympique Lyonnais also at the Roazhon Park.  On 30 January 2018, Figueiredo was loaned to PFC Levski Sofia from Bulgaria until the end of the season.

Return to Portugal.

Figueiredo returned to his homeland on 15 June 2018, signing with Rio Ave F.C. for two years. One year later, he agreed to a three-year deal at C.D. Aves also of the top tier.

International career.

Figueiredo played once for the Portugal Olympic team, featuring 30 minutes in a 4–0 friendly win with Mexico in the Azores on 28 March 2016. He was not, however, selected for Rui Jorge's squad for the Olympic tournament held that year.

Afonso Mendes Ribeiro de Figueiredo (born 6 January 1993) is a Portuguese footballer who plays for C.D. Aves as a left back.

Afonso Mendes Ribeiro de Figueiredo, couramment appelé Afonso Figueiredo, né le à Lisbonne, est un footballeur portugais. Il évolue au poste d'arrière gauche au CD Aves.


Inscription.

<poem>  </poem>  The second to last stanza was intended to be taken from "Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady" by Alexander Pope though there are some differences.

Accounts and speculation.

Early accounts.

In May 1833, a poem regarding a visit to the grave of the Female Stranger was composed for the "Alexandria Gazette", and published almost a year later, in March 1834. This was at first submitted under the initials S.D. and was later found to be the work of poet Susan Rigby Dallam Morgan of Baltimore, Maryland when her husband Rev. Lyttleton Morgan published his wife's poems posthumously.  The earliest appeal to the national audience was in 1836, when columnist "Lucy Seymour" of Maryland recorded the account in "The Philadelphia Saturday Courier". Lucy Seymour was the pen name of Susan Rigby Dallam Morgan.  In Seymour's account, the Stranger had been a young, foreign woman with a tearful face and a pale complexion. The woman also seemed ill and troubled. The Stranger's male companion appeared inauthentic to the locals as her husband. True to form, the man quickly left after the Stranger was buried. The only person that the Stranger confided in was a local pastor.  Seymour's sources are not explicitly named. She implies that she took interest in the cemetery first and then began to ask questions about the interesting gravesite. This pattern of discovery closely mirrors her earlier poem. Furthermore, Seymour speculates that the tombstone inscription was written in a manner "strangely calculated to awaken interest and elicit sympathy."  In September 1848, the "Alexandria Gazette" published a response to an article about the Female Stranger written in the "Baltimore Sun". The "Alexandria Gazette" writer states that the woman who arrived was indeed a beautiful woman of a pale complexion and further elaborates on her grace and the admiration of those around her. The author adds that the man's surname was "Clermont," and that after his sudden departure, it was revealed that the $1500 in English currency he had used to pay his bills was counterfeit. Lawrence Hill, one of the men to whom the money was owed, purportedly confronted Clermont sometime later at Sing Sing prison.  Lawrence Hill was indeed a businessman living in Alexandria at the time. He sold his house in Alexandria in 1830, and moved to New York. He died of cholera in New York in the spring of 1849.

Later accounts.

Since the 1880s there has been speculation that the woman may have been Theodosia Burr Alston, the daughter of Aaron Burr who was lost at sea. However, this idea seems contrived and the dates given for Theodosia and the Stranger are not consistent.  In September 1886, the "Hyde Park Herald" published Frank George Carpenter's piece about Alexandria, Virginia, including a section about the Female Stranger. This telling includes a doctor sworn to secrecy, two French maids, and a reclusive English husband who would not allow anyone to see his wife's face or attend her funeral. The author touches on how Alexandria was a wealthy trading port at the time, and it would not be odd for foreign diplomats to land there. In addition, perhaps the wife had another jealous lover, or she was a famous American such as Theodosia Burr Alston.  By 1887, Col. Fred D Massey of Alexandria wrote to the "Cincinnati Commercial Gazette" (which was later published nationally) that while the legend is well spread, it has only helped to further tangle the story and add to the confusion. The author's version of the story was that a noble couple, seemingly English, arrived by ship with a valet. The wife was a voluptuous blonde with large eyes and a small mouth. She became ill in Alexandria while the couple lived at the "leading hotel" at the time.  The husband, valet and doctor were the only ones to see her during the illness. She died in her husband's arms locked in a kiss. Further, only the husband and the valet were present at the burial. The husband left by ship, and was later reported to have been seen in New Orleans. He is rumored to have returned to Alexandria in the dead of night with a crew of seamen and exhumed the body, taking it with him.  The "Times-Picayune of New Orleans" rather boldly published in January 1893, that the grave was Theodosia Burr Alston's and that her husband, Governor Alston (misspelled as Ashton), was seen visiting the grave approximately seventy years prior to the article.  In the 1890s, the concept of the couple being star-crossed lovers was first introduced. In May 1898, the "Washington Evening Star" reported that two elderly people visited the grave and told church superintendent Webb that the female stranger was a "connection" of theirs, an English noblewoman who ran away with a British officer for love. They also said that they would visit again with more details, but never returned.  Many subsequent accounts have included all or most of these elements. There is also an addition of two local women, also sworn to secrecy, helping the Stranger during her illness.

Modern retelling.

The most modern retelling of the story is recorded perhaps as early as 1913, and is quite elaborate given that it was published nearly one hundred years after the Stranger had died. A large spread, including a dramatic illustration, was featured in the "Ladies' Home Journal" for January 1913. It tells of the brig "Four Sons" en route from Halifax, Nova Scotia, to the West Indies diverting her course for the Potomac River and letting off a small lifeboat carrying a man and a woman. A sick woman covered in a black veil was lifted out of the boat and carried to "Bunch-of-Grapes Tavern" (a misnomer for Gadsby's Tavern, due to the image on the establishment's sign). The man, assumed to be the husband, found the best room at the tavern and sent for the doctor. The doctor was sworn to secrecy, and the woman's face remained covered. Two women staying at the hotel were also sworn to secrecy and helped to nurse the sick woman.  The husband alone witnessed the death, prepared the body for burial, and sealed the coffin. He disappeared, but returned every fall to put flowers on the grave. At some point, the grave fell into disrepair and three elderly people appeared at the site. When questioned by the church sexton, they revealed that they were relatives of the woman, and that she had married a British officer.  Another account stipulated that the woman was indeed Theodosia Burr Alston and the supposed husband was a pirate. Another theory suggests that the woman was Sarah Curran, fiancée of Irish Revolutionist Robert Emmet, who may have been forced to marry a British naval officer. However, the unknown author further acknowledges that this is "pure speculation."  "The Female Stranger: An Archibald Mercer Mystery" examines the story of the Female Stranger and goes with the theory of the Female's identity being that of Theodosia Burr Alston. The story also explains how the legend was created in order to protect her identity and misdirect anyone who tried to come after her. This story also looks into the death of Theodosia, namely due to the uncertainty as to how she died. While history does record her death being from a ship disaster, there is some speculation she may have been killed during a pirate raid on the ship she was sailing on.

DNA evidence.

It has been pondered in recent years whether or not the remains, if any exist, should be exhumed and tested. The grave is well-maintained for visitors, and while there was a dip when the casket eroded, there has never been any solid evidence of anyone tampering with the remains. The only changes to the grave have been the removal of the iron fence and the surrounding trees.

The Grave of the Female Stranger is a famous historical oddity as well as a local landmark and visitor's attraction in St. Paul's Cemetery of the St Paul's Episcopal Church in Alexandria, Virginia.

La « Femme étrangère » (en ) fait partie du folklore de la ville d'Alexandria en Virginie, aux États-Unis. Sa tombe, située dans le cimetière de l', est une curiosité touristique locale. L'identité de la « Femme étrangère » est inconnue et l'épitaphe particulier de sa pierre tombale incitent à de nombreuses spéculations à son sujet.


Definitions.

There are at least three competing definitions of the polar of a set, originating in projective geometry and convex analysis. In each case, the definition describes a duality between certain subsets of a dual pair of (topological) vector spaces formula_8.

Geometric definition.

The polar cone of a convex cone formula_9 is the set  This definition gives a duality on points and hyperplanes, writing the latter as the intersection of two oppositely-oriented half-spaces. The polar hyperplane of a point formula_11 is the locus formula_12; the dual relationship for a hyperplane yields that hyperplane's polar point.  Some authors (confusingly) call a dual cone the polar cone; we will not follow that convention in this article.

Functional analytic-definition.

Suppose that formula_13 is a dual system. The polar of a subset "A" of "X" is the set:  This is an affine shift of the geometric definition; it has the useful characterization that the functional-analytic polar of the unit ball (in "X") is precisely the unit ball (in "Y").  The prepolar of a subset "B" of "Y" is the set:  The prepolar of a subset "B" of "Y" is also often called the polar of "B" and denoted by formula_16.  The bipolar of a subset "A" of "X" is the set formula_17. The bipolar theorem characterizes the bipolar of a subset of a topological vector space.  Some authors define "polar sets" differently. For instance, some authors do not include absolute values around "b"("x", "y"). We now briefly discuss how these various definitions relate to one another.  If "b" is real-valued and "A" is symmetric (i.e. "A" = -"A") then formula_18. If "b" is complex-valued, "A" is symmetric, and "iA" ⊆ "A", then Furthermore, if formula_20"A" ⊆ "A" for all real "r" then formula_21.  Thus for all of the common definitions of the polar set "A" to agree, if "b" is real-valued then it suffices for "A" to be symmetric, while if "b" is complex-valued then it suffices that formula_20"A" ⊆ "A" for all real "r". Thus for all the common definitions of the polar set "A" to agree, it suffices that "sA" ⊆ "A" for all scalars "s" of unit length (i.e. all scalars "s" such that |"s"| = 1). In particular, all definitions of the polar of "A" agree when "A" is a balanced set.

In functional and convex analysis, related disciplines of mathematics, the polar set formula_1 is a special convex set associated to any subset formula_2 of a vector space formula_3 lying in the dual space formula_4. The bipolar of a subset is the polar of formula_5, but lies in formula_3 (not formula_7).

En analyse fonctionnelle et en analyse convexe, le polaire d'une partie formula_1 d'un espace localement convexe est un convexe fermé de son dual topologique, contenant l'origine et ayant une « relation de dualité » avec formula_1. Bien qu'il soit usuellement défini dans le cadre bien plus général de deux espaces en dualité, nous nous limiterons dans cet article au cas d'un espace euclidien, qui s'identifie à son dual.


Kaizen.

Some successful implementations use the approach known as kaizen (the translation of kai (“change”) zen (“good”) is “improvement”). This method became famous from Imai's 1986 book "Kaizen: The Key to Japan's Competitive Success."  Key features of kaizen include:  The elements above are the more tactical elements of CIP. The more strategic elements include deciding how to increase the value of the delivery process output to the customer (effectiveness) and how much flexibility is valuable in the process to meet changing needs.

PDCA.

The PDCA (plan, do, check, act) or (plan, do, check, adjust) cycle supports continuous improvement and Kaizen. It provides a process for improvement since the early design (planning) stage of any process, system, product or service.

In environmental management.

The CIP-concept is also used in environmental management systems (EMS), such as ISO 14000 and EMAS. The term "continual improvement", not "continuous improvement", is used in ISO 14000, and is understood to refer to an ongoing series of small or large-scale improvements which are each done discretely, i.e. in a step-wise fashion. Several differences exist between the CIP concept as it is applied in quality management and environmental management. CIP in EMS aims to improve the natural consequences of products and activities, not the products and activities as such. Secondly, there is no client-orientation in EMS-related CIP. Also, CIP in EMS is not limited to small, incremental improvements as in Kaizen, it also includes innovations of any scale.

ISO change from "continuous" to "continual".

In the late 1990s, the developers of the ISO 9001:2000 standard—which addressed quality management systems and principles—debated whether or not to update the use of the word "continuous" to "continual". ISO Technical Committee 176 and regulatory representatives ultimately decided that "continuous was unenforceable because it meant an organization had to improve minute by minute, whereas, continual improvement meant step-wise improvement or improvement in segments". The committee reportedly did not base the change on dictionary definitions or the standard's vocabulary. This change ran contrary to the common usage of "continuous" in the standard and other prior business management documentation.

A continual improvement process, also often called a continuous improvement process (abbreviated as CIP or CI), is an ongoing effort to improve products, services, or processes. These efforts can seek "incremental" improvement over time or "breakthrough" improvement all at once. Delivery (customer valued) processes are constantly evaluated and improved in the light of their efficiency, effectiveness and flexibility.

Le processus d'amélioration continue consiste en un effort continu pour améliorer les produits, les services ou les processus. Ces efforts peuvent viser à apporter des petites améliorations à intervalles réguliers (de façon incrémentale) ou, au contraire, à regrouper toutes les améliorations dans une implémentation globale. L'efficience, la praticabilité et la flexibilité des processus ayant un impact sur le client sont constamment évalués et améliorés.


Sélection de la ville hôte pour les Jeux olympiques de 2022

Bidding calendar.

On 3 October 2012, the IOC announced in a letter to the NOCs the bidding calendar for the 2022 Winter Olympics:

Candidate cities venues list.

Note that the selected candidate cities have slightly changed venues plan in the final proposal to the IOC. Almaty moved technical alpine skiing events from Shymbulak to Tau, and completely removed both Kok Zhaylau and Ak-Bulak ski resorts, previously proposed for snowboarding and freestyle skiing events. Beijing dropped both Taiwu and Wanlong ski resorts, and proposed hosting snowboarding and freestyle skiing events in the two venues (A and B) in Genting Snow Park.

Candidate cities comparison.

All data come from applicant cities bid books. candidate cities public support data has been updated.

Evaluation of the applicant cities.

Each cell of the table provides a minimum and a maximum figure obtained by the applicant city on the specific criteria. These figures are to be compared to a benchmark which has been set at 6.

Candidate cities overview.

On 15 November 2013, the IOC announced the list of the six applicant cities. On 7 July 2014, the IOC announced that there were three remaining applicant cities that would move on to the candidate phase; these were Almaty, Beijing and Oslo.  On 1 October 2014, Oslo withdrew its application after one of the country's governing political parties Høyre decided not to support the application. The remaining two candidate cities were therefore Almaty and Beijing.  Both of the candidate cities suggested hosting the Games between February 4–20, 2022. The Paralympics will be held from March 4–13. While another city suggested hosting the Games between February 11–27, 2022. The Paralympics will be held from March 11–20.

Almaty.

Since 2011, the National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan has been considering a bid for the 2022 games in Almaty, the former longtime capital city and still the largest city and financial centre of the country. Kazakhstan hosted the 2011 Asian Winter Games. Almaty will host 2017 Winter Universiade. The current Kazakh capital Astana considered to joint bid with Almaty but the idea was later declined. On 17 August 2013, Almaty announced they were bidding for the 2022 Games. Under the slogan "Keeping it Real", Almaty has emphasized her traditional winter setting with tall mountains and plenty of natural snow coverage as well as compactness — most venues are within half an hour's travel through Alpine scenery.  Presenting Kazakhstan's bid at the final event in Kuala Lumpur, Prime Minister of Kazakhstan Karim Massimov made a powerful speech with a key message that Almaty was "not a risk choice for 2022", but "a golden opportunity to prove that smaller advancing nations can successfully host the winter games". He called to the OCI core values saying that letting Almaty host the Games was "a golden opportunity to showcase the real long-term power of Olympic legacy for a region that has never hosted the Games". In the final voting Almaty lost to Beijing by only 4 votes.

Beijing.

On 5 November 2013, the Chinese Olympic Committee announced that it would submit a bid for Beijing to host the 2022 Winter Olympics. Beijing (where the indoor ice sports and the ceremonies would take place), was the host city of the 2008 Summer Olympics. Zhangjiakou would host the outdoor snow events.  Before the final voting in Kuala Lumpur Beijing's bid was presented by Yang Lan, a renowned former CCTV host, who said sports and fitness were becoming a new fashion trend in China. In her speech she focused on China's economy and its ability to support every commitment it made "protecting long time financial viability and the reputation of the Games".

Oslo.

On 6 November 2013, the Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports announced that Oslo would be submitted as the Norwegian candidate for the 2022 Winter Olympic Games. Oslo last hosted the 1952 Winter Olympics, and Norway last hosted the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer. On 1 October 2014 the Conservative Party decided that they would not support a bid for the games citing costs and lack of public support. A vast number of polls were conducted, and since April 2014 support had varied between 24% and 37%. The days leading up to the deliberation in the Conservative Party had consisted of a series of negative developments for the bid. Those negative developments included the Centre Party saying no through a grass root vote, a poll showing that even within the Norwegian Confederation of Sports the majority of members opposed the bid, an external revision which clarified that the newly suggested cheaper budget was unrealistic and public scrutiny on IOC ́s 7000 pages of demands.  Norway rejected the olympic committee's application for government funding to hold the event in Norway after the private organisation IOC made a large number of demands which caused a scandal in Norway. The demands notably included "diva-like demands for luxury treatment" for the IOC members themselves, such as special lanes on all roads only to be used by IOC members and a cocktail reception at the Royal Palace with drinks paid for by the royal family. Several commentators pointed out that such demands were unheard of in a western democracy; "Slate" described the IOC as a "notoriously ridiculous organization run by grifters and hereditary aristocrats."  On 7 November 2013, the Polish Olympic Committee announced they submitted a bid to the IOC for the 2022 Winter Olympics, together with Zakopane, Poland, and Jasná, a village in central Slovakia, near the Polish border. If the bid had been successful, it would have been the first time either Poland or Slovakia hosted the Olympics. Zakopane previously bid to host the 2006 Winter Olympics but failed to become a candidate. Kraków's bid was submitted to a local referendum held on 25 May 2014, which had a negative result. After that Kraków discontinued the application on 26 May 2014. The National Olympic Committee of Ukraine officially submitted a bid for Lviv to host the 2022 Winter Olympic Games on 5 November 2013. On 30 June 2014, however, the IOC announced that Lviv would "turn its attention to an Olympic bid for 2026, and not continue with its application for 2022. The decision comes as a result of the 2013–15 Ukrainian crisis" which seriously influences Lviv and the country. On 11 November 2013, the Swedish Olympic Committee announced that it had submitted a bid, but on 17 January 2014, Stockholm dropped the bid due to lack of political support. Åre, about from Stockholm, was scheduled to host the alpine skiing events. Stockholm previously hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and hosted equestrian events of the 1956 Summer Olympics, but this was the first time the Swedish capital was bidding for the Winter Olympics. Also, it would have been the first city to host both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics, but that honour went to Beijing.

Voting results for the 2022 Winter Olympics and Paralympics.

Beijing was selected as host city of the 2022 Winter Olympics and Winter Paralympics after beating Almaty by just four votes. Beijing received one more vote than the 43 needed for majority.

A total of six bids were initially submitted for the 2022 Winter Olympics. Four of the bids were subsequently withdrawn by 1 October 2014, citing either the high costs of hosting the Games or the lack of local support, leaving Almaty, Kazakhstan and Beijing, China as the only two remaining candidate cities. Beijing was then elected as the host city at the 128th IOC Session in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, on 31 July 2015.

La sélection de la ville hôte pour les Jeux olympiques et paralympiques 2022, voit s'affronter deux villes : Almaty au Kazakhstan, et Pékin en Chine. À l'issue d'un vote ayant eu lieu lors de la du Comité international olympique organisée à Kuala Lumpur le, c'est la candidature chinoise qui est sélectionnée.


History.

Founding and early history.

The company's background starts with Frederick Trump and Elizabeth Christ Trump, a German immigrant couple who moved to the borough of Queens in 1906. Frederick began developing real estate there. On May 30 1918, however, he died of "Spanish flu" in the 1918 influenza pandemic, leaving an estate valued at $31,359 (or about $345,000 in 1999 dollars).  Elizabeth carried on in the real estate business after her husband's death. She had contractors build houses on the empty lots Frederick had owned, sold the houses, and lived off the mortgage payments. Her vision was to have her three children continue the family business. Her middle child, Fred Trump, began construction of his first house in 1923, soon after graduating high school. Elizabeth partially financed Fred's houses, and held the business in her name because Fred had not reached the age of majority. They did business as "E. Trump & Son", building hundreds of houses in Queens over the next several years. E. Trump & Son went out of business during the Great Depression. Fred Trump next opened a supermarket, but quickly sold it and returned to the real estate business by 1933.  Fred Trump became a prolific builder of single-family homes in Queens and Brooklyn. During World WarII he constructed apartments and temporary housing for military personnel in Virginia and Pennsylvania. In 1944, he shifted his focus back to Brooklyn and began planning to develop large apartment buildings. He opened the 1,344-unit Shore Haven complex in 1949, followed by Beach Haven in 1950 and Trump Village in 1964.  Elizabeth remained involved in the family business throughout her life. Even in her 70s, she collected coins from the laundromats in the Trump buildings.

Leadership under Donald Trump.

Donald Trump worked for his father's business while attending the University of Pennsylvania, and in 1968 officially joined the company. In the early 1970s, Donald was made president of the company, while Fred became chairman of the board. Around 1973, Donald began referring to the business, which had previously had no single formal name, as the Trump Organization.  Donald Trump focused his efforts on major development projects in Manhattan, including the renovation of the Commodore Hotel, in partnership with Hyatt, as the Grand Hyatt New York (opened in 1980); the construction of Trump Tower in partnership with The Equitable (1983); and the development of Trump Plaza (1984). He also opened three casino hotels in Atlantic City, New Jersey: Trump Plaza (1984), Trump Castle (1985), and Trump Taj Mahal (1990).  In 1990, the Trump Organization approached a financial crisis and was believed to be on the brink of collapse, with Donald Trump and his companies owing estimated debts of $3.4 billion. Trump hired Stephen Bollenbach as the company's first chief financial officer, while Allen Weisselberg continued to serve under him as controller. Trump spent the following years renegotiating his debts, and gave up some properties, including the Trump Shuttle airline and a stake in the Plaza Hotel in Manhattan. Bollenbach left the company in 1992. In 1995, Trump took another major step towards financial stability, launching a publicly traded company for the Trump casinos, Trump Hotels & Casino Resorts. By 1996, Trump was widely considered to be making a comeback. The casino company did not fare as well, however, and Trump eventually lost his stake in the company to bankruptcy.  In 1997, Fred Trump transferred ownership of the bulk of his portfolio of apartment buildings to his four surviving children (Donald, Robert, Maryanne, and Elizabeth). Fred died in 1999. In 2004, the four siblings sold the apartments for $700 million to a group led by Rubie Schron, marking the family's exit from ownership of their father's business.

Trump presidency.

Donald Trump relinquished his role in the Trump Organization after the 2016 election. On January 11, 2017, he announced that he and his daughter Ivanka would fully resign and his sons Donald Jr. and Eric would take executive charge of the various businesses, along with Chief Financial Officer (CFO) Allen Weisselberg.  Trump retained his financial stake in the business, despite having offered during the campaign to put all his assets in a "blind trust" should he win the presidency. His attorney at the time, Sheri Dillon, said Trump's assets would be overseen by an ethics officer, and that the Trump Organization would not pursue any new foreign business deals.  Under the pre-inaugural management agreement, "Forbes" magazine reported in March 2017: The Trump Organization has curtailed some of its international work, pulling out of deals in Azerbaijan, Georgia and Brazil, while pledging to do no new foreign deals (though it has apparently resurrected an old deal in the Dominican Republic). Trump's international hotel licensing and management business makes up only $220 million of his estimated $3.5 billion fortune, but it's the most dynamic part of the Trump portfolio—and it throws off chunks of cash with virtually no risk. As the Trumps have wound down some international deals, they continue to push forward with new domestic agreements.  Eric Trump, in the "Forbes" article, discussed the "clear separation of church and state that we maintain" between the business and his father and said that with his father's presidency and related changes "[y]ou could look at it either way" in terms of business prospects. He also said that "he will continue to update his father on the business while he is in the presidency... 'probably quarterly... profitability reports and stuff like that'." The article quoted Larry Noble, general counsel of the nonpartisan Campaign Legal Center and a former chief ethics officer at the Federal Election Commission, and President George W. Bush's former chief ethics lawyer, Richard Painter, as looking negatively at such multiple planned updates of President Trump per year. Noble said in part "if he is now going to get reports from his son about the businesses, then he really isn't separate in any real way." Painter said in part "at the end of the day, he owns the business. He has the conflicts that come with it."  Also in March 2017, "Forbes" did a listing of all "36 mini-Trumps", as it termed the domestic and international partners—often described as "billionaires"—with whom the Trump Organization has worked over the years. Introducing the listing, the magazine reported that at least 14 of the partners attended the president's inauguration and some of them paid for $18,000-a-night accommodations at the Trump International Hotel in Washington, D.C., for the event.  In April 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, Eric Trump stated that the Trump Organization had requested rental relief from the landlord for its Trump International Hotel, which is the General Services Administration of the federal government.

Real estate.

As of 2019, Trump's net worth (as estimated by "Forbes Magazine") is $3.1 billion, with about half of that coming from his New York City real estate holdings, and about a third coming from his national and international properties (including hotels and golf courses). Licensing fees paid by outside owners for using Trump's name on their properties also contribute to his overall net worth

Carousel.

The Trump Organization operates the Central Park Carousel, a merry-go-round located in Manhattan's Central Park. In 2010, Trump took over the management of the carousel, where he promised to revive the merry-go-round after its previous operator was removed by the city's parks department. The carousel generates $589,000 from annual admissions. The Trump Organization has a contract to operate the carousel through 2021.

Skating rinks.

The Trump Organization operates the Wollman and Lasker rinks, both in Central Park, jointly with Rink Management Services of Mechanicsville, Virginia. In 1986, Trump offered New York City mayor Ed Koch to rebuild the deteriorating Wollman Rink at his expense within six months in return for the leases to operate the rink and an adjacent restaurant to recoup his costs. The work was completed two months ahead of schedule and $750,000 under the estimated costs. As part of the agreement to keep operating Wollman Rink, Trump agreed to also take a concession for the Lasker Rink as well, and the Trump Organization won concessions for the rinks in 1987.  The Trump Organization and Rink Management Services won the concessions to operate both rinks when the concessions were renewed in 2001. The Trump name is prominently displayed on the walls of the Wollman Rink as well as on the Zamboni that maintains it. It generates close to $8.7 million in annual income from rink admissions. The Trump Organization has a contract to operate the rinks through 2021.

Trump Winery.

Trump Winery is a winery situated on Trump Vineyard Estates near Charlottesville, Virginia. It is valued between $5 million to $25 million.  The vineyard was purchased by Trump in April 2011 from Patricia Kluge, the widow of John Kluge. The property was distressed. and was officially opened in October 2011. Trump Winery is situated in the Monticello Wine Trail. Trump's son Eric was a partner in the purchase.  After purchasing the property, Trump turned over management of the winery to his son.

Golf courses.

The Trump Organization owns or manages seventeen golf courses in the United States, Scotland, Ireland, and the United Arab Emirates., Trump listed income of at least $176 million in an 18-month span from his golf courses—about 41% of the low-end estimate of his income.

Real estate licensing.

Many developers pay Donald Trump to market their properties and be the public face for their projects. For that reason, Trump does not own many of the buildings that display his name. According to "Forbes", this portion of Trump's empire, actually run by his children, has valuation of $562 million. According to "Forbes", there were 33 licensing projects under development including seven "condo hotels" (the seven Trump International Hotel and Tower developments). Trump has generated more than $74 million in real estate licensing deals and has $823.3 million worth of real estate in joint ventures.

Scion and American Idea hotels.

Early in the Trump presidency, Eric and Donald Jr. Trump announced the creation two new signature hotel brands, Scion and American Idea, as "the next generation of the company". After initially announcing as many as thirty potential deals in their pipeline, the ventures were scrapped in early 2019, with only one uncompleted hotel in Mississippi.

Other ventures and investments.

Trump owns a wide variety of other enterprises outside real estate (which had an estimated 2013 value of $317.6 million). Other investments include a 17.2% stake in Parker Adnan, Inc. (formerly AdnanCo Group), a Bermuda-based financial services holdings company.  Beyond his traditional ventures in the real-estate, hospitality, and entertainment fields and having carved out a niche for the Trump brand within these industries, Trump has moved on to establish the Trump name and brand in a multitude of other industries and products. He has made millions attaching his name to numerous products and services that range from energy drinks to books. He took in $1.1 million in men's wear licensing royalties. Trump earns $15,000 to $100,000 in book royalties and $2.2 million for his involvement with Trump Model Management every year. Until 2015 Trump owned the Miss Universe, Miss USA and Miss Teen USA pageants, collectively worth $15 million.  Trump has marketed his name on a large number of products and services achieving mixed success doing so. Some of his external entrepreneurial and investment ventures include or have included:  In addition, Trump reportedly receives $1.5 million for each one-hour presentation he does for The Learning Annex. Trump also endorsed ACN Inc. a multi-level marketing telecommunications company. He has spoken at ACN International Training Events at which he has praised the company's founders, business model and video phone. He earned a total $1.35 million for three speeches given for the company amounting to $450,000 per speech.  The Trump Organization also houses ventures started by Donald Trump's daughter Ivanka, which includes Ivanka Trump Fine Jewelry (a jewelry line) and the Ivanka Trump Lifestyle Collection (a high-end designer-fashion and cosmetics line that includes fragrances, footwear, handbags, outerwear and eyewear collections).

Coats of arms.

Donald Trump has used a number of logos in the style of coats of arms for his businesses.  Joseph E. Davies, third husband of Marjorie Merriweather Post and a former U.S. ambassador of Welsh origins, was granted a coat of arms by British heraldic authorities in 1939. After Donald Trump purchased Mar-a-Lago, the Florida estate built by Merriweather Post, in 1985, the Trump Organization started using Davies's coat of arms at Trump golf courses and estates across the country. It was also registered with the U.S. patent and trademark office.  In 2008, Trump attempted to establish the American logo at his new Trump International Golf Links in Balmedie, Scotland, but was warned by the Lord Lyon King of Arms, the highest authority for Scottish heraldry, that an act of the Scottish Parliament from 1672 disallows people using unregistered arms. In January 2012, shortly after the inauguration of the golf course, Trump unveiled the new coat of arms that had been granted to "The Trump International Golf Club Scotland Ltd" by the Lord Lyon in 2011. Sarah Malone, executive vice-president of "The Trump International Golf Links, Scotland", said that "the coat of arms brings together visual elements that signify different aspects of the Trump family heritage [...], the Lion Rampant [in the crest] makes reference to Scotland and the stars to America. Three chevronels are used to denote the sky, sand dunes and sea—the essential components of the site, and the double-[headed] Eagle represents the dual nature and nationality of Trump's heritage (Scottish and German). The Eagle clutches golf balls making reference to the great name of golf, and the motto "Numquam Concedere" is Latin for Never Give Up—Trump's philosophy."  From 2014, Trump used the same logo for "The Trump International Golf Links, Ireland", the golf resort built from his acquisition of Doonbeg Golf Club.

Valuation disputes.

The financial statements of the Trump Organization's holdings are private, as are Donald Trump's personal tax returns, and there exist a wide range of estimates of the Trump Organization's true value. Donald Trump has been accused on several occasions of deliberately inflating the valuation of Trump Organization properties through the aggressive lobbying of the media, in particular the authors of the annual Forbes 400 list, in order to bolster his perceived net worth among the public over several decades. He has released little definitive financial documentation to the public confirm his valuation claims.  It is difficult to determine a net value for the Trump Organization's real estate holdings independently since each individual property may be encumbered by debt.  In October 2015, "Forbes" published an article titled "Inside The Epic Fantasy That's Driven Donald Trump For 33 Years" detailing its struggle to estimate the true net worth of Trump and the Trump Organization. In 2018 a former "Forbes" journalist who had worked on the "Forbes" list claimed in an op-ed to "The Washington Post" that Trump had lied about his wealth to "Forbes" to get on the list repeatedly and suggested that Forbes' previous low-end estimates of Trump's net worth were still well above his true net worth.

Controversies.

In 1973, the U.S. Department of Justice's (DOJ) Civil Rights Division filed a civil rights suit against the Trump Organization charging them for violating the 1968 Fair Housing Act by refusing to rent to black people. The National Urban League had sent black and white testers to apply for apartments in Trump-owned complexes; the white testers got the apartments, whereas the black testers did not. According to court records, four superintendents or rental agents reported that applications sent to the central office for acceptance or rejection were coded by race. A 1979 "Village Voice" article quoted a rental agent who said Fred Trump had instructed him not to rent to black people and to encourage existing black tenants to leave. In 1975, a consent decree described by the head of DOJ's housing division as "one of the most far-reaching ever negotiated" required Trump to advertise vacancies in minority papers and list vacancies with the Urban League. The Justice Department subsequently stated that continuing "racially discriminatory conduct by Trump agents has occurred with such frequency that it has created a substantial impediment to the full enjoyment of equal opportunity."  Also, it is alleged that the Trump Organization has a history of not paying for services rendered. Several hundred contractors or workers for the organization have filed lawsuits or liens saying they were not paid for their work, and others say they had to settle for cents on the dollar.  In 1989, New York State officials ordered the Grand Hyatt New York, a hotel owned at the time by the Trump Organization and the Hyatt Corporation, to pay New York City $2.9 million in rent that had been withheld by the hotel in 1986 due to "unusual" accounting changes approved by Donald Trump. An investigation by New York City auditors noted that the hotel was missing basic financial records and found the hotel was using procedures that violated generally accepted accounting principles.  From 2000 on, the Trump Organization held 50% of TD Trump Deutschland AG, a corporate venture with a German company, planning to build a skyscraper named "Trump Tower Europe" in Frankfurt, Berlin or Stuttgart, but allegedly never paid the full amount of their €2 million share. At least three lawsuits followed and the company was disestablished in 2005. In December 2015, Trump said in a radio interview that he had a "conflict of interest" in dealing with Turkey and Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan because of his Trump Towers Istanbul, saying "I have a little conflict of interest because I have a major, major building in Istanbul and it's a tremendously successful job... It's called Trump Towers—two towers instead of one... I've gotten to know Turkey very well." , Tom Scharfeld owns the trademark of "iTrump" mobile app which plays the trumpet. As "the word trump has other meanings", the Court did not rule in favour of the Trump Organization.  On March 15, 2018, the New York Times reported that Special Counsel Robert Mueller, as part of his inquiry into Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election, had previously issued a subpoena for documents from the Trump Organization. Alan S. Futerfas, a lawyer representing the Trump Organization, said: "Since July 2017, we have advised the public that the Trump Organization is fully cooperative with all investigations, including the special counsel, and is responding to their requests."  In August 2018, the New York County district attorney was reported to be considering criminal charges against the organization and two of its senior executives regarding the payment of hush money to Stormy Daniels.  In October 2018, "The New York Times" published an exposé arguing that the Trump family evaded over $500 million in gift taxes and estate taxes on the transfer of Fred Trump's wealth to his children. The alleged schemes involved siphoning money from Fred's companies to his children throughout their lives, and understating the value of transferred properties. The Trump family denied the allegations. New York tax authorities opened an investigation into the matter.  In December 2018, there were reports of Saudi Arabia's using Trump businesses to indirectly funnel funds to Donald Trump, which may be in breach of the Emoluments Clause of the U.S. Constitution.  After former Trump Organization attorney Michael Cohen testified to the House Oversight Committee in February 2019 that the company had inflated its asset values to insurance companies, the New York State Department of Financial Services issued a subpoena to Aon, the Trump Organization's longtime insurance broker. The Trump Organization is under investigation by the Southern District of New York regarding inflated insurance claims allegations, as of May 2019.

References.

Footnotes Citations

The Trump Organization is a group of about 500 business entities of which Donald Trump is the sole or principal owner. About 250 of these entities use the Trump name. The organization was founded in 1923 by Donald Trump's grandmother, Elizabeth Christ Trump, and father, Fred Trump, as E. Trump & Son. Donald Trump began leading it in 1971, renamed it around 1973, and handed off its leadership to his children in 2017.

The Trump Organization est une Limited Liability Company organisée sous la forme d'un conglomérat appartenant en totalité à la famille Trump. Son siège social se situe dans la Trump Tower à New York.


History.

Toponymy.

The name derives from Purley Farm which was originally part of the Benendon estates owned in the Middle Ages by the Huscarle and Carew families. They also held estates in Berkshire and men from this area who had worked on the estates were brought up to 'headquarters' to work and were generally known as xx de Pirley or xx de Woodcote etc. denoting the villages whence they came. (there was no consistent spelling in those days so you will find the Berkshire Purley variously spelled Purle, P'lee, Pirley etc.) One, John de Purley, tenanted the farm which became known as Purley Farm after his family succeeded him for several generations. The original meaning of Purley was a riverside field inhabited by snipe or bittern.

Local government.

Under the Local Government Act 1894, Purley became part of the Croydon Rural District of Surrey. In 1915 Purley and the neighbouring town of Coulsdon formed the Coulsdon and Purley Urban District which in 1965, under the London Government Act 1963, was abolished and its area transferred to Greater London and used to form part of the London Borough of Croydon.  The urban district council was based in a colonial-style building opened in 1930. The building, on the A23 Brighton Road near Reedham Station, became the property of the London Borough of Croydon and was sold to developers. It was left derelict for many years but was converted into flats in 2012. Plans to dig under the building and build additional flats were refused in 2015.

Aviation.

Kenley Aerodrome, to the east of the town, is currently official property of the Ministry of Defence. It was one of the key fighter stations – together with Croydon Airport and Biggin Hill – during the World War II support of Dunkirk, Battle of Britain and for the defence of London.

Suburban growth.

Purley grew rapidly in the 1920s and 1930s, providing spacious homes in a green environment. Northeast Purley stretches into the chalk hill spurs of the North Downs.  One road, Promenade de Verdun, created by William Webb, has a distinction all of its own. It is 600 yards (550 m) long and has on one side Lombardy poplars planted in local soil mixed with French earth specially shipped over to the UK. A plaque at one end of the road explains that the French ministry of the interior donated the soil from Armentières, as a memorial to the alliance of World War One and the soldiers who died. At the other end stands an obelisk carved from a single piece of stone with the inscription "Aux soldats de France morts glorieusement pendant la Grande Guerre".  The 32nd Surrey Battalion of the Home Guard was known as the Factory Battalion, and had the specific task of guarding the Purley Way factories: its units were mainly based on staff from the individual firms. The factories adjoining Croydon Airport took the worst of the air raid of 15 August 1940: the British NSF factory was almost entirely destroyed, and the Bourjois factory gutted, with a total of over sixty civilian deaths.  A comprehensive history of Purley and its growth around Caterham Junction (now Purley Station) with the coming of the railways some 150 years ago is found in the Bourne Society's 'Purley Village History' and in its Local History Records publications.  The Webb Estate made headlines in a 2002 survey, which found that it had over the years attracted the highest-earning residents in the UK. In the same year Purley topped Britain's rich list becoming the most affluent suburb and consistently features among the most affluent suburbs in Britain owing to its exclusive gated estates, large houses and greenery yet only less than 30 minutes from central London thus attracting wealthy city workers.

Education.

Purley is home to a number of schools; including four notable Catholic schools, two of which are in Peaks Hill, Surrey: these schools are The John Fisher School a high-performing Catholic all boys state school (formerly an independent and then highly selective state school), Laleham Lea School a co-educational prep-school and Oakwood School, a co-educational Catholic primary. Cumnor House School, a prep school, is also in Purley. Oakwood Prep School is located on Godstone Road, Purley, and has been awarded Outstanding by Ofsted for over 10 years. Purley has one of the UK's longest-established language schools, Purley Language College, founded in 1928.  Other schools in Purley include:

Retail and commerce.

Purley used to have many different kinds of shops such as greengrocers, butchers, fishmongers, card shops, sport shops, etc. The old Sainsbury's was closed in the early 1980s (and has now been demolished as part of redevelopment plans by the congregation of Purley Baptist Church). Since the opening of a new Sainsbury's in the early 1980s (closed 2001) and, more significantly, a Tesco superstore in 1991, there has been a shift in the town's retail offering towards estate agents, restaurants and bars.  The island opposite Purley Baptist Church has been refurbished and the Church, under the banner of 58:12 (a company and charity set up by the Church) are planning to redevelop it. Other partners in the development of a strategy for the regeneration of central Purley include the Purley & Woodcote Residents' Association and Purley Rotary who actively participate in the Neighbourhood Partnership forums hosted by Croydon Council.

Demography.

White British is the largest ethnic group at 61%, as of the 2011 census.

Politics.

Purley has consistently returned Conservative Party MPs to the local seat of Croydon South since 1974 and has also returned Conservative members to Croydon Council since 1965. Since the north of Croydon tends to return Labour councillors, the two halves of the borough are often at loggerheads. In the 2006 local elections the Conservatives were returned to power in Croydon removing Liberal Democrats and replacing Labour from the local political scene. Prominent members of the new Council are residents of Purley & of Woodcote (now part of Coulsdon West Ward). In 2018, Purley was split into two wards; Purley and Woodcote, and Purley Oaks and Riddlesdown.

Transport.

Purley Cross gyratory connects routes leading south-east to East Grinstead and Eastbourne (the A22), west to Epsom and Kingston (the A2022), south to Redhill and Brighton (the A23), and north to Croydon and Central London (the A23 and A235). The A23 north from Purley forms the Purley Way, which leads to Croydon's trading and industrial hinterland and also to the former Croydon Airport, the predecessor of the present London Heathrow Airport and London Gatwick Airport.  The town is on the main London-to-Brighton railway line and is served by Purley and Purley Oaks stations on that line, and Reedham station on the Tattenham Corner Line.

Purley is an area of the London Borough of Croydon in London, England. It was part of the county of Surrey until 1965. It is located south of the town of Croydon, and south of Charing Cross. It had a population of about 14,000 in 2011.

Purley est une ville du borough londonien de Croydon situé dans le sud de Londres. Cette petite ville est située à 19 km de Charing Cross


Technical details.

The ABe 4/4 class was manufactured by the Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works (SLM) and ABB in two series, each of three cars. They were the first motive power on the Rhaetian Railway to use frequency changer technology together with AC induction motors. In addition, they were the world's first DC powered railway vehicles with GTO thyristors.  Each ABe 4/4 class railcar has a top speed of and weighs. At the time the class was delivered, it had, at, the highest hourly power output of any Rhaetian Railway DC motive power. The class's towing capacity is at a gradient of 7%, and if only bogie coaches are being hauled. The ABe 4/4 IIIs are also equipped with 12 seats in first class, and 16 second class seats.  Thanks to multiple-unit train control, each individual railcar can be operated in combination with other members of the class, and also with older ABe 4/4 class railcars, as well as Gem 4/4 class electro-diesel locomotives. Much use is made of the ABe 4/4 s' multiple unit control systems in the Bernina Railway's daily operations. Combined operation of two ABe 4/4 s under multiple unit control theoretically leaves sufficient power reserves for the haulage of no more than a further, as the maximum towing capacity of cannot be exceeded.  As of 2018 it was roumered that one ABe 4/4 III of the first batch in 1988 is set to be preserved by Rhb Historic as part of their fleet but the number hasn't been decided upon yet.

Livery.

For the ABe 4/4 class of railcars, the Rhaetian Railway chose a livery that corresponds with that of the Ge 4/4, Ge 4/4 and Ge 4/4 class electric locomotives. The dominant colour of the railcar bodies in this livery is red. Each cab front is emblazoned with a Graubünden coat of arms. Underneath a low level white coloured cheat line surrounding the railcar bodies, the chassis is dark grey. This livery was also subsequently applied to the ABe 4/4 class railcars and the Gem 4/4 locomotives.  Apart from its traffic number, each member of the class carries the name of a community and its coat of arms.  In 2007, ABe 4/4 no 51 received a special advertising livery publicising the subsequently successful candidature of the "Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes" for inclusion in the UNESCO World Heritage List. All other members of the class have since also been painted in an advertising livery.

References.

Literature.

"This article is based upon a translation of the as at January 2010."

The Rhaetian Railway ABe 4/4 is a class of metre gauge electric multiple unit railcars of the Rhaetian Railway (RhB), which is the main railway network in the Canton of Graubünden, Switzerland.

Les ABe 4/4 III sont des automotrices de ligne à voie métrique de type BoBo utilisées par les Chemins de fer rhétiques, qui sont le principal réseau de chemin de fer du canton des Grisons en Suisse. Ces automotrices sont utilisées sur la Ligne de la Bernina. Leur immatriculation est ainsi car ce sont des automotrices qui comportent des compartiments de première (A) et de seconde classe (B), la lettre (e) indique qu'il s'agit d'engins électriques. Elles sont de type BoBo (4/4) et c'est la troisième série de la compagnie à avoir ces caractéristiques (III).