Medical uses.

Female sterilization through tubal ligation is primarily used to permanently prevent a patient from having a spontaneous pregnancy (as opposed to pregnancy via in vitro fertilization) in the future. While both hysterectomy (the removal of the uterus) or bilateral oophorectomy (the removal of both ovaries) can also accomplish this goal, these surgeries carry generally greater health risks than tubal ligation procedures.  Less commonly, tubal ligation procedures may also be performed for patients who are known to be carriers of genes that increase the risk of ovarian and fallopian tube cancer, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2. While the procedure for these patients still results in sterilization, the procedure is chosen preferentially among these patients who have completed childbearing, with or without a simultaneous oophorectomy.

Benefits and advantages for use as contraception.

High effectiveness.

Most methods of female sterilization are approximately 99% effective or greater in preventing pregnancy. These rates are roughly equivalent to the effectiveness of long-acting reversible contraceptives such as intrauterine devices and contraceptive implants, and slightly less effective than permanent male sterilization through vasectomy. These rates are significantly higher than other forms of modern contraception that require regular active engagement by the user, such as oral contraceptive pills or male condoms.

Avoidance of hormonal medications.

Many forms of female-controlled contraception rely on suppression of the menstrual cycle using progesterones and/or estrogens. For patients who wish to avoid hormonal medications because of personal medical contraindications such as breast cancer, unacceptable side effects, or personal preference, tubal ligation offers highly effective birth control without the use of hormones.

Reduction of pelvic inflammatory disease risk.

Occluding or removing both fallopian tubes decreases the likelihood that a sexually transmitted infection can ascend from the vagina to the abdominal cavity, causing pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) or a tubo-ovarian abscess. Tubal ligation does not completely eliminate the risk of PID, and does not offer protection against sexually transmitted infections.

Reduction of ovarian and fallopian tube cancer risk.

Partial tubal ligation or full salpingectomy reduces the lifetime risk of developing ovarian or fallopian tube cancer later in life. This is true both for patients who are already known to be at high risk for ovarian or fallopian tube cancer secondary to genetic mutations, as well as women who have the baseline population risk.

Risks and complications.

Risks associated with surgery and anesthesia.

Most tubal ligation procedures involve accessing the abdominal cavity through incisions in the abdominal wall and require some form of regional or general anesthesia (see Procedure technique below). Major complications from laparoscopic surgery may include need for blood transfusion, infection, conversion to open surgery, or unplanned additional major surgery, while complications from anesthesia itself may include hypoventilation and cardiac arrest. Major complications during female sterilization are uncommon, occurring in an estimated 0.1-3.5% of laparoscopic procedures, with mortality rates in the United States estimated at 1-2 patient deaths per 100,000 procedures. These complications are more common for patients with a history of previous abdominal or pelvic surgery, obesity, and/or diabetes.

Failure.

While female sterilization procedures are highly effective at preventing pregnancy, there is a small continuing risk of unintended pregnancy after tubal ligation. Several factors influence the likelihood of failure: increased time since sterilization, younger age at the time of sterilization, and certain methods of sterilization are all associated with increased risk of failure. Pregnancy rates at 10 years after sterilization vary depending on the type of procedure used, documented as low as 7.5 per 1000 procedures to as high as 36.5 per 1000 procedures. (See Tubal ligation methods below.)

Ectopic pregnancy.

Overall, all pregnancies, including ectopic pregnancies, are less common among patients who have had a female sterilization procedure than among patients who have not. However, if patients do have a pregnancy after tubal ligation, a greater percentage of these will be ectopic; approximately one third of pregnancies that occur after a tubal ligation will be ectopic pregnancies. The likelihood of ectopic pregnancy is higher among women sterilized before age 30 and differs depending on the type of sterilization procedure used. (See Tubal ligation methods below.)

Regret.

The majority of patients who undergo female sterilization procedures do not regret their decisions. However, regret appears to be more common among patients who undergo sterilization at a young age (often defined as younger than 30 years old), patients who are unmarried at the time of sterilization, patients who identify as a non-white race, patients with public insurance such as Medicaid, or patients who undergo sterilization immediately after or soon after the birth of a child. Regret has not been found to be associated with the number of children a person has at the time of sterilization.

Side effects.

Menstrual changes.

Patients who have undergone female sterilization procedures have minimal or no changes in their menstrual patterns. They were more likely to have perceived improvements in their menstrual cycle, including decreases in the amount of bleeding, in the number of days of bleeding, and in menstrual pain.

Ovarian reserve.

Studies of hormone levels and ovarian reserve have demonstrated no significant changes after female sterilization, or inconsistent effects. There is no strong evidence that women undergoing sterilization will experience earlier onset of menopause.

Sexual function.

Sexual function appears unchanged or improved after female sterilization compared with non-sterilized women.

Hysterectomy.

Patients who had tubal occlusion surgeries have been found to be four to five times more likely to undergo hysterectomy later in life than those whose partners underwent vasectomy. There is no known biologic mechanism to support a causal relationship between tubal ligation and subsequent hysterectomy, but there is an association across all methods of tubal ligation.

Postablation tubal sterilization syndrome.

Some women who have undergone tubal ligation prior to an endometrial ablation procedure experience cyclic or intermittent pelvic pain; this may happen in up to 10% of women who have undergone both surgeries.

Contraindications.

Given its permanent nature, tubal ligation is contraindicated in patients who desire future pregnancy or who want to have the option of future pregnancy. In such cases, reversible methods of contraception are recommended.  Since most forms of tubal ligation require abdominal surgery under regional or general anesthesia, tubal ligation is also relatively contraindicated in patients for whom the risks of surgery and/or anesthesia are unacceptably high considering their other medical issues.

Procedure technique.

Tubal ligation through blocking or removing the tubes may be accomplished through an open abdominal surgery, a laparoscopic approach, or a hysteroscopic approach. Depending on the approach chosen, the patient will need to undergo local, general, or spinal (regional) anesthesia. The procedure may be performed either immediately after the end of a pregnancy, termed a "postpartum" or "postabortion tubal ligation", or more than six weeks after the end of a pregnancy, termed an "interval tubal ligation". The steps of the sterilization procedure will depend on the type of procedure being used. (See Tubal ligation methods below.)  If the patient chooses a "postpartum tubal ligation", the procedure will further depend on the delivery method. If the patient delivers via Cesarean section, the surgeon will remove part or all of the fallopian tubes after the infant has been delivered and the uterus has been closed. Anesthesia for the tubal ligation will be the same as that being used for the Cesarean section itself, usually regional or general anesthesia. If the patient delivers vaginally and desires a postpartum tubal ligation, the surgeon will remove part or all of the fallopian tubes usually one or two days after the birth, during the same hospitalization.  If the patient chooses an "interval tubal ligation", the procedure will typically be performed under general anesthesia in a hospital setting. Most tubal ligations are accomplished laparoscopically, with an incision at the umbilicus and zero, one, or two smaller incisions in the lower sides of the abdomen. It is also possible to perform the surgery without a laparoscope, using larger abdominal incisions. It is also possible to perform an interval tubal ligation hysteroscopically, which may be performed under local anesthesia, moderate sedation, or full general anesthesia. While no methods of hysteroscopic sterilization are currently on the market in the United States as of 2019, the Essure and Adiana systems were previously used for hysteroscopic sterilization, and research trials are investigating new hysteroscopic approaches.

Tubal ligation methods.

There are a number of methods of removing or occluding the fallopian tubes, some of which rely on medical implants and devices.

Postpartum tubal ligation.

Performed immediately after a delivery, this method removes a segment, or all, of both fallopian tubes. The most common techniques for partial bilateral salpingectomy are the Pomeroy or Parkland procedures. The ten year pregnancy rate is estimated at 7.5 pregnancies per 1000 procedures performed, and the ectopic pregnancy rate is estimated at 1.5 per 1000 procedures performed.

Interval tubal ligation.

Bilateral salpingectomy.

This method removes both tubes entirely, from the uterine cornuae out to the tubal fimbriae. This method has recently become more popular for female sterilization, given evidence to support the fallopian tube as the potential site of origin of some ovarian cancers. Some large medical systems such as Kaiser Permanente Northern California and professional medical societies such as the Society of Gynecologic Oncology and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) have endorsed complete bilateral salpingectomy as the preferred means of female sterilization. While complete bilateral salpingectomy theoretically should have an efficacy rate that approaches 100 percent and eliminates the risk of tubal ectopic pregnancy, there is not high quality data available comparing this method to older methods.

Bipolar coagulation.

This method uses electric current to cauterize sections of the fallopian tube, with or without subsequent division of the tube. The ten year pregnancy rate is estimated at 6.3 to 24.8 pregnancies per 1000 procedures performed, and the ectopic pregnancy rate is estimated at 17.1 per 1000 procedures performed.

Monopolar coagulation.

This method uses electric current to cauterize the tube, but also allows radiating current to further damage the tubes as it spreads from the coagulation site. The tubes may also be transected after cauterization. The ten year pregnancy rate is estimated at 7.5 pregnancies per 1000 procedures performed.

Tubal clip.

This method uses a tubal clip (Filshie clip or Hulka clip) to permanently clip the fallopian tubes shut. Once applied and fastened, the clip blocks movement of eggs from the ovary to the uterus. The ten year pregnancy rate is estimated at 36.5 pregnancies per 1000 procedures performed, and the ectopic pregnancy rate is estimated at 8.5 per 1000 procedures performed.

Tubal ring (Fallope ring).

This method involves a doubling over of the fallopian tubes and application of a silastic band to the tube. The ten year pregnancy rate is estimated at 17.7 pregnancies per 1000 procedures performed, and the ectopic pregnancy rate is estimated at 8.5 per 1000 procedures performed.

Less commonly used or no longer used procedures.

Irving's procedure.

This method places two ligatures (sutures) around the fallopian tube and removing the segment of tube between the ligatures. The medial ends of the fallopian tubes on the side closer to the uterus are then connected to the back of the uterus itself.

Essure tubal ligation.

This method closed the fallopian tubes through a hysteroscopic approach by placing two small metal and fiber coils in the fallopian tubes through the fallopian ostia. After insertion, scar tissue forms around the coils, blocking off the fallopian tubes and preventing sperm from reaching the egg. It was removed from the US market in 2019.

Adiana tubal ligation.

This method closed the fallopian tubes through a hysteroscopic approach by placing two small silicone pieces in the fallopian tubes. During the procedure, the health care provider heated a small portion of each fallopian tube and then inserts a tiny piece of silicone into each tube. After the procedure, scar tissue formed around the silicone inserts, blocking off the fallopian tubes and preventing sperm from reaching the egg. It is was removed from the US market in 2012.

Reversal or in vitro fertilization after tubal ligation.

All tubal ligation procedures are considered permanent and are not reliably reversible forms of birth control. Patients who wish to have the option of future pregnancy should ideally be directed towards effective but reversal forms of birth control, rather than sterilization procedures. However, patients who desire pregnancy after having undergone a female sterilization procedure have two options.  Tubal reversal is a type of microsurgery to repair the fallopian tube after a tubal ligation procedure. Successful pregnancy rates after reversal surgery are 42-69%, depending on the sterilization technique that was used.  Alternatively, in vitro fertilization (IVF) may allow patients with absent or occluded fallopian tubes to successfully carry a pregnancy. The choice of whether to attempt tubal reversal or move straight to IVF depends on individual patient factors, including the likelihood of successful tubal reversal surgery and the age of the patient.

Recovery and rehabilitation.

Most laparoscopic methods of interval tubal ligation are outpatient surgeries and do not require hospitalization overnight. Patients are counseled to expect some soreness but to expect to be ready to perform daily activities 1-2 days after surgery. Patients undergoing postpartum tubal ligations will not be delayed in their discharge from the hospital after birth, and recovery is not significantly different than normal postpartum recovery.

History.

The first modern female sterilization procedure was performed in 1880 by Dr. Samuel Lungren of Toledo, Ohio, in the United States. Hysteroscopic tubal ligation was developed later by Mikulicz-Radecki and Freund.  Since its development, female sterilization has been periodically performed on patients without their informed consent, often specifically targeting marginalized populations. Given this history of human rights abuses, current sterilization policy in the United States requires a mandatory waiting period for tubal sterilization on Medicaid beneficiaries. This waiting period is not required for private insurance beneficiaries, which has the effect of selectively restricting low-income women's access to tubal sterilization.

Society and culture.

Prevalence.

Of the 64% of married or in-union women worldwide using some form of contraception, approximately one third (19% of all women) used female sterilization as their contraception, making it the most common contraceptive method globally. The percentage of women using female sterilization varies significantly between different regions of the world. Rates are highest in Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America, Oceania, and selected countries in Western Europe, where rates of sterilization are often greater than 40%; rates in Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Eastern Europe, however, are significantly lower, sometimes less than 2%. An estimated 180 million women worldwide have undergone surgical sterilization, compared to approximately 42.5 million men who have undergone vasectomy.  In the United States, female sterilization is used by 30% of married couples and 22% of women who use any form of contraception, making it the second-most popular contraceptive after the birth control pill. Slightly more than 8.2 million women in the US use tubal ligation as their main form of contraception, and approximately 643,000 female sterilization procedures are performed each year in the United States.

Tubal ligation (commonly known as having one's "tubes tied") is a surgical procedure for female sterilization in which the fallopian tubes are permanently blocked or removed. This prevents the fertilization of eggs by sperm and thus the implantation of a fertilized egg. Tubal ligation is considered a permanent method of sterilization and birth control.

La ligature des trompes est une procédure chirurgicale de stérilisation qui offre une contraception permanente et fiable aux femmes. L'occlusion des trompes est une méthode de régulation permanente des naissances par une chirurgie qui est exécutée sous anesthésie générale et dure de 15 à 20 minutes.


Early life and education.

Wolfe was born on March 2, 1930, in Richmond, Virginia, the son of Helen Perkins Hughes Wolfe, a garden designer, and Thomas Kennerly Wolfe Sr., an agronomist and editor of "The Southern Planter".  He grew up on Gloucester Road in the Richmond North Side neighborhood of Sherwood Park. He recounted childhood memories in a foreword to a book about the nearby historic Ginter Park neighborhood. He was student council president, editor of the school newspaper, and a star baseball player at St. Christopher's School, an Episcopal all-boys school in Richmond.  Upon graduation in 1947, he turned down admission to Princeton University to attend Washington and Lee University. At Washington and Lee, Wolfe was a member of the Phi Kappa Sigma fraternity. He majored in English, was sports editor of the college newspaper, and helped found a literary magazine, "Shenandoah," giving him opportunities to practice his writing both inside and outside the classroom. Of particular influence was his professor Marshall Fishwick, a teacher of American studies educated at UVA and Yale. More in the tradition of anthropology than literary scholarship, Fishwick taught his students to look at the whole of a culture, including those elements considered profane. Wolfe's undergraduate thesis, entitled "A Zoo Full of Zebras: Anti-Intellectualism in America," evinced his fondness for words and aspirations toward cultural criticism. Wolfe graduated "cum laude" in 1951.  While still in college, Wolfe continued playing baseball as a pitcher and began to play semi-professionally. In 1952, he earned a tryout with the New York Giants, but was cut after three days, which he blamed on his inability to throw good fastballs. Wolfe abandoned baseball and instead followed his professor Fishwick's example, enrolling in Yale University's American studies doctoral program. His Ph.D. thesis was titled "The League of American Writers: Communist Organizational Activity Among American Writers, 1929-1942." In the course of his research, Wolfe interviewed many writers, including Malcolm Cowley, Archibald MacLeish, and James T. Farrell. A biographer remarked on the thesis: "Reading it, one sees what has been the most baleful influence of graduate education on many who have suffered through it: It deadens all sense of style." Originally rejected, his thesis was finally accepted after he rewrote it in an objective rather than a subjective style. Upon leaving Yale, he wrote a friend, explaining through expletives his personal opinions about his thesis.

Journalism and New Journalism.

Though Wolfe was offered teaching jobs in academia, he opted to work as a reporter. In 1956, while still preparing his thesis, Wolfe became a reporter for the "Springfield Union" in Springfield, Massachusetts. Wolfe finished his thesis in 1957.  In 1959, he was hired by "The Washington Post". Wolfe has said that part of the reason he was hired by the "Post" was his lack of interest in politics. The Post's city editor was "amazed that Wolfe preferred cityside to Capitol Hill, the beat every reporter wanted." He won an award from The Newspaper Guild for foreign reporting in Cuba in 1961 and also won the Guild's award for humor. While there, Wolfe experimented with fiction-writing techniques in feature stories.  In 1962, Wolfe left Washington D.C. for New York City, taking a position with the "New York Herald Tribune" as a general assignment reporter and feature writer. The editors of the "Herald Tribune", including Clay Felker of the Sunday section supplement "New York" magazine, encouraged their writers to break the conventions of newspaper writing. Wolfe attracted attention in 1963 when, three months before the JFK assassination, he published an article on George Ohsawa and the sanpaku condition foretelling death.  During the 1962–63 New York City newspaper strike, Wolfe approached "Esquire" magazine about an article on the hot rod and custom car culture of southern California. He struggled with the article until his editor, Byron Dobell, suggested that Wolfe send him his notes so they could piece the story together. Wolfe procrastinated. The evening before the deadline, he typed a letter to Dobell explaining what he wanted to say on the subject, ignoring all journalistic conventions. Dobell's response was to remove the salutation "Dear Byron" from the top of the letter and publish it intact as reportage. The result, published in 1963, was "There Goes (Varoom! Varoom!) That Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby." The article was widely discussed—loved by some, hated by others. Its notoriety helped Wolfe gain publication of his first book, "The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby", a collection of his writings from the "Herald-Tribune", "Esquire", and other publications.  This was what Wolfe called New Journalism, in which some journalists and essayists experimented with a variety of literary techniques, mixing them with the traditional ideal of dispassionate, even-handed reporting. Wolfe experimented with four literary devices not normally associated with feature writing: scene-by-scene construction, extensive dialogue, multiple points of view, and detailed description of individuals' status-life symbols (the material choices people make) in writing this stylized form of journalism. He later referred to this style as literary journalism. Of the use of status symbols, Wolfe has said, "I think every living moment of a human being's life, unless the person is starving or in immediate danger of death in some other way, is controlled by a concern for status."  Wolfe also championed what he called "saturation reporting," a reportorial approach in which the journalist "shadows" and observes the subject over an extended period of time. "To pull it off," says Wolfe, "you casually have to stay with the people you are writing about for long stretches... long enough so that you are actually there when revealing scenes take place in their lives." Saturation reporting differs from "in-depth" and "investigative" reporting, which involve the direct interviewing of numerous sources and/or the extensive analyzing of external documents relating to the story. Saturation reporting, according to communication professor Richard Kallan, "entails a more complex set of relationships wherein the journalist becomes an involved, more fully reactive witness, no longer distanced and detached from the people and events reported."  Wolfe's "The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test" is considered a striking example of New Journalism. This account of the Merry Pranksters, a famous sixties counter-culture group, was highly experimental in Wolfe's use of onomatopoeia, free association, and eccentric punctuation—such as multiple exclamation marks and italics—to convey the manic ideas and personalities of Ken Kesey and his followers.  In addition to his own work, Wolfe edited a collection of New Journalism with E. W. Johnson, published in 1973 and titled "The New Journalism". This book published pieces by Truman Capote, Hunter S. Thompson, Norman Mailer, Gay Talese, Joan Didion, and several other well-known writers, with the common theme of journalism that incorporated literary techniques and which could be considered literature.

Non-fiction books.

In 1965, Wolfe published a collection of his articles in this style, "The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby", adding to his notability. He published a second collection of articles, "The Pump House Gang", in 1968. Wolfe wrote on popular culture, architecture, politics, and other topics that underscored, among other things, how American life in the 1960s had been transformed by post-WWII economic prosperity. His defining work from this era is "The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test" (published the same day as "The Pump House Gang" in 1968), which for many epitomized the 1960s. Although a conservative in many ways (in 2008, he claimed never to have used LSD and to have tried marijuana only once). Wolfe became one of the notable figures of the decade.  In 1970, he published two essays in book form as "Radical Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers". "Radical Chic" was a biting account of a party given by composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein to raise money for the Black Panther Party. "Mau-Mauing The Flak Catchers" was about the practice by some African Americans of using racial intimidation ("mau-mauing") to extract funds from government welfare bureaucrats ("flak catchers"). Wolfe's phrase, "radical chic", soon became a popular derogatory term for critics to apply to upper-class leftism. His "Mauve Gloves & Madmen, Clutter & Vine" (1977) included Wolfe's noted essay, "The "Me" Decade and the Third Great Awakening". In 1979, Wolfe published "The Right Stuff", an account of the pilots who became America's first astronauts. Following their training and unofficial, even foolhardy, exploits, he likened these heroes to "single combat warriors" of a bygone era, going forth to battle in the Space Race on behalf of their country. In 1983, the book was adapted as a feature film.  In 2016 Wolfe published "The Kingdom of Speech", a critique of the work of Charles Darwin and Noam Chomsky. Wolfe synthesized what he construed as the views of Wallace and Chomsky on the language organ as not being a product of natural selection to suggest that speech is an invention that is responsible for establishing our humanity. Some critics claimed that Wolfe's view on how humans developed speech were not supported by research and were opinionated.

Critiques of art and architecture.

Wolfe also wrote two critiques of and social histories of modern art and modern architecture, "The Painted Word" and "From Bauhaus to Our House", published in 1975 and 1981, respectively. "The Painted Word" mocked the excessive insularity of the art world and its dependence on what he saw as faddish critical theory. In "From Bauhaus to Our House" he explored what he said were the negative effects of the Bauhaus style on the evolution of modern architecture.

Made for TV movie.

In 1977, PBS produced "Tom Wolfe's Los Angeles", a fictional, satirical TV movie set in Los Angeles. Wolfe appears in the movie as himself.

Novels.

Throughout his early career, Wolfe had planned to write a novel to capture the wide reach of American society. Among his models was William Makepeace Thackeray's "Vanity Fair", which described the society of 19th-century England. In 1981, he ceased his other work to concentrate on the novel.  Wolfe began researching the novel by observing cases at the Manhattan Criminal Court and shadowing members of the homicide squad in The Bronx. While the research came easily, he encountered difficulty in writing. To overcome his writer's block, Wolfe wrote to Jann Wenner, editor of "Rolling Stone", to propose an idea drawn from Charles Dickens and Thackeray: to serialize his novel. Wenner offered Wolfe around $200,000 to serialize his work. The frequent deadline pressure gave him the motivation he had sought, and from July 1984 to August 1985, he published a new installment in each biweekly issue of "Rolling Stone".  Later Wolfe was unhappy with his "very public first draft" and thoroughly revised his work, even changing his protagonist, Sherman McCoy. Wolfe had originally made him a writer, but recast him as a bond salesman. Wolfe researched and revised for two years, and his "The Bonfire of the Vanities" was published in 1987. The book was a commercial and critical success, spending weeks on bestseller lists and earning praise from the very literary establishment on which Wolfe had long heaped scorn.  Because of the success of Wolfe's first novel, there was widespread interest in his second. This novel took him more than 11 years to complete; "A Man in Full" was published in 1998. The book's reception was not universally favorable, though it received glowing reviews in "Time", "Newsweek", "The Wall Street Journal", and elsewhere. An initial printing of 1.2 million copies was announced and the book stayed at number one on "The New York Times" bestseller list for ten weeks. Noted author John Updike wrote a critical review for "The New Yorker", complaining that the novel "amounts to entertainment, not literature, even literature in a modest aspirant form." His comments sparked an intense war of words in the print and broadcast media among Wolfe and Updike, and authors John Irving and Norman Mailer, who also entered the fray.  In 2001, Wolfe published an essay referring to these three authors as "My Three Stooges." That year he also published "Hooking Up" (a collection of short pieces, including the 1997 novella "Ambush at Fort Bragg").  He published his third novel, "I Am Charlotte Simmons" (2004), chronicling the decline of a poor, bright scholarship student from Alleghany County, North Carolina, after attending an elite university. He conveys an institution filled with snobbery, materialism, anti-intellectualism, and sexual promiscuity. The novel met with a mostly tepid response by critics. Many social conservatives praised it in the belief that its portrayal revealed widespread moral decline. The novel won a Bad Sex in Fiction Award from the London-based "Literary Review", a prize established "to draw attention to the crude, tasteless, often perfunctory use of redundant passages of sexual description in the modern novel". Wolfe later explained that such sexual references were deliberately clinical.  Wolfe wrote that his goal in writing fiction was to document contemporary society in the tradition of Charles Dickens, Émile Zola, and John Steinbeck.  Wolfe announced in early 2008 that he was leaving his longtime publisher, Farrar, Straus and Giroux. His fourth novel, "Back to Blood", was published in October 2012 by Little, Brown and Company. According to "The New York Times", Wolfe was paid close to US$7 million for the book. According to the publisher, "Back to Blood" is about "class, family, wealth, race, crime, sex, corruption and ambition in Miami, the city where America's future has arrived first." The book was released to mixed reviews. "Back to Blood" was an even bigger commercial failure than "I Am Charlotte Simmons".

Critical reception.

Kurt Vonnegut said Wolfe is "the most exciting—or, at least, the most jangling—journalist to appear in some time," and "a genius who will do anything to get attention." Paul Fussell called Wolfe a splendid writer and stated "Reading him is exhilarating not because he makes us hopeful of the human future but because he makes us share the enthusiasm with which he perceives the actual." Critic Dwight Garner praised Wolfe as "a brilliantly gifted social observer and satirist" who "made a fetish of close and often comically slashing detail" and was "unafraid of kicking up at the pretensions of the literary establishment." Harold Bloom described Wolfe as "a fierce storyteller, and a vastly adequate social satirist".  Critic James Wood disparaged Wolfe's "big subjects, big people, and yards of flapping exaggeration. No one of average size emerges from his shop; in fact, no real human variety can be found in his fiction, because everyone has the same enormous excitability."  In 2000, Wolfe was criticised by Norman Mailer, John Updike and John Irving, after they were asked if they believed that his books were deserving of their critical acclaim. Mailer compared reading a Wolfe novel to having sex with a 300 lb woman, saying 'Once she gets to the top it's all over. Fall in love or be asphyxiated.' Updike was more literary in his reservedness: he claimed that one of his books 'amounts to entertainment, not literature, even literature in a modest aspirant form.' Irving was perhaps the most dismissive, saying 'It's like reading a bad newspaper or a bad piece in a magazine... read sentences and watch yourself gag.' Wolfe responded, saying, 'It's a tantrum. It's a wonderful tantrum. "A Man in Full" panicked Irving the same way it panicked Updike and Norman. Frightened them. Panicked them.' He later called Updike and Mailer 'two old piles of bones' and said again that Irving was frightened by the quality of his work. Later that year he published an essay titled "The Three Stooges" about the critics.

Recurring themes.

Wolfe's writing throughout his career showed an interest in social status competition.  Much of Wolfe's later work addresses neuroscience. He notes his fascination in "Sorry, Your Soul Just Died", one of the essays in "Hooking Up". This topic is also featured in "I Am Charlotte Simmons", as the title character is a student of neuroscience. Wolfe describes the characters' thought and emotional processes, such as fear, humiliation and lust, in the clinical terminology of brain chemistry. Wolfe also frequently gives detailed descriptions of various aspects of his characters' anatomies.

White suit.

Wolfe adopted wearing a white suit as a trademark in 1962. He bought his first white suit, planning to wear it in the summer, in the style of Southern gentlemen. He found that the suit he'd bought was too heavy for summer use, so he wore it in winter, which created a sensation. At the time, white suits were supposed to be reserved for summer wear. Wolfe maintained this as a trademark. He sometimes accompanied it with a white tie, white homburg hat, and two-tone spectator shoes. Wolfe said that the outfit disarmed the people he observed, making him, in their eyes, "a man from Mars, the man who didn't know anything and was eager to know."

Views.

In 1989, Wolfe wrote an essay for "Harper's Magazine", titled "Stalking the Billion-Footed Beast". It criticized modern American novelists for failing to engage fully with their subjects, and suggested that modern literature could be saved by a greater reliance on journalistic technique.  Wolfe supported George W. Bush as a political candidate and said he voted for him for president in 2004 because of what he called Bush's "great decisiveness and willingness to fight." Bush reciprocates the admiration, and is said to have read all of Wolfe's books, according to friends in 2005.  Wolfe's views and choice of subject material, such as mocking left-wing intellectuals in "Radical Chic", glorifying astronauts in "The Right Stuff" and critiquing Noam Chomsky in "The Kingdom of Speech" sometimes resulted in his being labeled conservative. Due to his depiction of the Black Panther Party in "Radical Chic", a member of the party called him a racist. Wolfe rejected such labels. In a 2004 interview in "The Guardian", he said that his "idol" in writing about society and culture is Émile Zola. Wolfe described him as "a man of the left"; one who "went out, and found a lot of ambitious, drunk, slothful and mean people out there. Zola simply could not—and was not interested in—telling a lie."  Asked to comment by "The Wall Street Journal" on blogs in 2007 to mark the tenth anniversary of their advent, Wolfe wrote that "the universe of blogs is a universe of rumors" and that "blogs are an advance guard to the rear." He also took the opportunity to criticize Wikipedia, saying that "only a primitive would believe a word of" it. He noted a story about him in his Wikipedia bio article at the time which he said had never happened.  Wolfe was an atheist.

Personal life.

Wolfe lived in New York City with his wife Sheila, who designs covers for "Harper's Magazine". They had two children: a daughter, Alexandra; and a son, Thomas Kennerly III.

Death and legacy.

Wolfe died from an infection in Manhattan on May 14, 2018, at the age of 88.  The historian Meredith Hindley credits Wolfe with introducing the terms "statusphere", "the right stuff", "radical chic", "the Me Decade" and "good ol' boy" into the English lexicon.  Wolfe was at times incorrectly credited with coining the term "trophy wife". His term for extremely thin women in his novel "The Bonfire of the Vanities" was "X-rays".  According to journalism professor Ben Yagoda, Wolfe is also responsible for the use of the present tense in magazine profile pieces; before he began doing so in the early 1960s, profile articles had always been written in the past tense.

Thomas Kennerly Wolfe Jr. (March 2, 1930 – May 14, 2018) was an American author and journalist widely known for his association with New Journalism, a style of news writing and journalism developed in the 1960s and 1970s that incorporated literary techniques.

Thomas Kennerly Wolfe, dit Tom Wolfe, né le à Richmond en Virginie et mort à Manhattan (New York) le, est un journaliste, essayiste et écrivain américain.


History.

In 1971, Fred Prysquel, photographer and automobile journalist, sketched and cut out a swimsuit design from a paper table cloth in a Saint Tropezian café. Inspired by the swimsuits of surfers at the time, he created a longer boxer short style much different than the shorter and fitted swimsuits of that period. Designed from spinnaker cloth, his l swimsuit was bright, original and designed to dry quickly in the sun.  In 1991, fellow Tropezian and textile worker, Loïc Berthet, took over the brand and added new styles and models. To men's swim trunks, he added a back pocket secured with Velcro, eyelet holes made from a stainless alloy, Zamac, and a cotton lining.  In 1994, Vilebrequin expanded its collection to include boys' garments.  Between 1990 and 2000, the brand expanded worldwide and opened locations in London, Alassio, Paris, Geneva, New York, Hong Kong and Madrid. The brand also developed a network of distribution partners in over 50 countries.  In 2012, Vilebrequin was acquired by the American company G-III Apparel Group, Ltd., which also licenses Calvin Klein, Tommy Hilfiger, Levi's and Dockers. Roland Herlory, prior general director for Hermès Latin America and Caribbean, became the new CEO.  In 2013, after more than 40 years in menswear, Vilebrequin launches their first ladies' line and extended their product offering to also include resort wear as well as beach accessories for both men and women.  In 2014, Vilebrequin opened stores with a particular focus on expansion throughout Asia with openings in South Korea, Thailand and Singapore.  In 2013, the brand released a men's collector swimsuit embroidered in gold thread with solely 20 models available. In 2014, the model was replicated and sapphire elements were added.

Distribution.

As of 2014, Vilebrequin is present across 5 continents and in 52 countries with more than 150 stores. The brand has e-shops in Europe and the United States.

Vilebrequin is a French luxury brand specializing in swimwear and ready-to-wear for men and women. The brand was created in 1971 in Saint Tropez by Fred Prysquel, a photographer and sports automobile journalist. The brand has stores in Saint-Tropez, Paris, Beverly Hills, Las Vegas, Milan, Monte Carlo, New York City, and Washington DC, among others. It was due to Prysquel's passion for automobiles that he named his brand, Vilebrequin, the French word for "crankshaft".

Vilebrequin est une marque française aux origines tropéziennes, spécialisée dans la confection de maillot de bain et de prêt-à-porter masculin et féminin Elle fut créée en 1971 à Saint-Tropez par Fred Prysquel, photographe et journaliste sportif automobile, qui lui donna alors le nom d’une pièce de moteur.


History.

Origins.

The steam tractors of the 1890s and early 1900s were extremely heavy, sometimes weighing per horsepower, and often sank into the rich, soft earth of the San Joaquin Valley Delta farmland surrounding Stockton, California. Benjamin Holt attempted to fix the problem by increasing the size and width of the wheels up to tall and wide, producing a tractor wide. But this also made the tractors increasingly complex, expensive and difficult to maintain. Another solution considered was to lay a temporary plank road ahead of the steam tractor, but this was time-consuming, expensive, and interfered with earthmoving. Holt thought of wrapping the planks around the wheels. He replaced the wheels on a Holt steamer, No. 77, with a set of wooden tracks bolted to chains. On Thanksgiving Day, November 24, 1904, he successfully tested the updated machine plowing the soggy delta land of Roberts Island.  Contemporaneously Richard Hornsby & Sons in Grantham, Lincolnshire, England, developed a

Initial Establishment in Peoria (1910) and Headquarters Move to Deerfield (2017).

On February 2, 1910, Holt opened up a plant in East Peoria, Illinois, led by his nephew Pliny Holt. There Pliny met farm implement dealer Murray Baker who knew of an empty factory that had been recently built to manufacture farm implements and steam traction engines. Baker, who later became the first executive vice president of what became Caterpillar Tractor Company, wrote to Holt headquarters in Stockton and described the plant of the bankrupt Colean Manufacturing Co. of East Peoria, Illinois. On October 25, 1909, Pliny Holt purchased the factory, and immediately began operations with 12 employees. Holt incorporated it as the Holt Caterpillar Company, although he did not trademark the name "Caterpillar" until August 2, 1910.  The addition of a plant in the Midwest, despite the hefty capital needed to retool the plant, proved so profitable that only two years later the company employed 625 people and

Use in World War I.

The first tanks used in WW1 were manufactured by William Foster & Co. also in Lincolnshire and were introduced to the battlefield in 1916. That company had collaborated with Hornsby in the development of the vehicles demonstrated to the British military in 1907, providing the paraffin (kerosene) engines.  Holt's track-type tractors played a support role in World War I. Even before the U.S. formally entered WWI, Holt had shipped 1,200 tractors to England, France and Russia for agricultural purposes. These governments, however, sent the tractors directly to the battlefront where the

Post-war challenges.

Holt tractors had become well known during World War I. Military contracts formed the major part of the company's production. When the war ended, Holt's planned expansion to meet the military's needs was abruptly terminated. The heavy-duty tractors needed by the military were unsuitable for farmers. The company's situation worsened when artillery tractors were returned from Europe, depressing prices for new equipment and Holt's unsold inventory of military tractors. The company struggled with the transition from wartime boom to

Caterpillar company formed (1925).

The banks and bankers who held the company's large debt forced the Holt board of directors to accept their candidate, Thomas A. Baxter, to succeed Benjamin Holt. Baxter initially cut the large tractors from the company's product line and introduced smaller models focused on the agricultural market. When the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 funded a US$1 billion federal highway building program, Baxter began refocusing the company towards building road construction equipment. Both companies also faced fierce competition from the Fordson company.  Between 1907 and 1918, Best and Holt had spent about US$1.5 million in legal fees fighting each other in a number of contractual, trademark and patent infringement lawsuits. Harry H. Fair of the bond brokerage house of Pierce, Fair & Company of San Francisco had helped to finance C. L. Best's debt and Holt shareholders approached him about their company's financial difficulty. Fair recommended that the two companies should merge. In April and May 1925, the

Expansion in developing markets.

Caterpillar built its first Russian facility in the town of Tosno, located near St. Petersburg, Russia. It was completed in 16 months, occupied in November 1999, and began fabricating machine components in 2000. It had the first electrical substation built in the Leningrad Oblast since the Communist government was dissolved on December 26, 1991. The facility was built under harsh winter conditions, where the temperature was below −13 °F (−25 °C). The facility construction

Acquisitions.

In addition to increasing sales of its

Divestitures.

Caterpillar occasionally divests assets that

Business lines.

Through fiscal year 2010, Caterpillar divided its products, services and technologies into three principal lines of business: machinery, engines and financial products for sale to private and governmental entities. Starting in 2011, Caterpillar reports its financials using five business segments: construction industries, resource industries, power systems, financial products, and all other segments.

Machinery.

Caterpillar has a list of some 400 products for purchase through its dealer network. Caterpillar's line of machines range from tracked tractors to hydraulic excavators, backhoe loaders, motor graders, off-highway trucks, wheel loaders, agricultural tractors and locomotives. Caterpillar machinery is used in the construction, road-building, mining, forestry, energy, transportation and material-handling industries. Caterpillar is

On-road trucks.

Caterpillar began selling a line of on-road trucks in 2011, the Cat CT660, a Class 8 vocational truck. As of March 2016, Caterpillar has ceased production of on-highway vocational trucks stating that “Remaining a viable competitor in this market would require significant

Engines and gas turbines.

A portion of Caterpillar's business is in the manufacturing of diesel and natural gas engines and gas turbines which, in addition to their use in the company's own vehicles, are used as the prime movers in locomotives, semi trucks, marine vessels and ships, as well as providing the power source for peak-load power plants and emergency generators.  Caterpillar 3116 engine was used up until 1997, when Caterpillar introduced the inline 6 cylinder 7.2 litre Caterpillar 3126 engine as its first electronic diesel engine for light trucks and buses. Caterpillar decreased emissions and noise the next year in the 3126B version of the engine, and improved emissions further

Caterpillar Defense Products.

The Caterpillar Defence Products subsidiary, headquartered in Shrewsbury, United Kingdom, provides diesel engines, automatic transmissions and other parts for the UK's Titan armored bridge layer, Trojan combat engineering tank, Terrier combat engineering vehicles, and tank transporters; the Romanian MLI-84 armored personnel carrier and the Swiss Piranha III light armored vehicle, which is currently being developed for use by American light armored formations; large fleets of military trucks in both the U.S. and UK; and the CV90 family of infantry fighting vehicles used by the armies of Sweden, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Denmark.  This division also provides both propulsion engines and power generation systems to the naval shipbuilding industry, such as the Series 3512B turbocharged V-12 diesel engine for American "Virginia" class nuclear submarines. Caterpillar diesel engines are also used in "San Antonio" class amphibious transport docks, Spanish "Alvaro de Bazán" class frigates, British "River" class patrol vessels, Mexican "Sierra" class patrol boats, and Malaysian "Kedah" class MEKO A-100 offshore patrol vessels. The poor network security of the Caterpillar engines puts America's submarine force at risk for cyberattack.

Caterpillar Electronics.

The Caterpillar Electronics business unit has formed Caterpillar Trimble Control Technologies LLC (CTCT), a 50:50 joint venture with Trimble Inc. CTCT develops positioning and control products for earthmoving and paving machines in the construction

Agriculture products.

Caterpillar introduced the "Challenger" range of agricultural tractors as the result of several development programs over a long period of time. The program started in the 1970s and involved both D6-based units and Grader power units. A parallel program was also developing wheeled high hp tractors based on using the articulated loading shovel chassis was later merged with the crawler team. The result was the Challenger Tractor and the "Mobi-Trac" system.

Financial products and brand licensing.

Caterpillar provides financing and insurance to customers via its worldwide

Brand licensing.

Caterpillar sells the right to manufacture, market and sell products bearing the Cat trademark to licensees worldwide. Wolverine World Wide is one example, a licensee

Operations.

Manufacturing.

Caterpillar products and components are manufactured in 110 facilities worldwide. 51 plants are located in the United States and 59 overseas plants are located in Australia (until 2015), Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Czech Republic, England, France, Germany, Hungary, India (Chennai), Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, Poland, Russia, Singapore, South Africa and Sweden.  Caterpillar's historical manufacturing home is in

Remanufacturing.

Major facilities

Distribution.

Caterpillar products are distributed to end-users in nearly 200 countries through Caterpillar's worldwide network of 220 dealers. Caterpillar's dealers are independently owned and operated businesses with exclusive geographical territories. Dealers provide sales, maintenance and repair services, rental equipment, and parts distribution. Finning, a dealer based

Management.

Caterpillar has a corporate governance structure where the chairman of the board also acts as chief executive officer (CEO). The board of directors is fully independent and is made up of non-employee directors selected from outside the company. Several group presidents report to the

Current board of directors.

As of December 2018, the board of directors was composed as follows:  On January 1, 2017, Jim Umpleby succeeded Douglas R.

Workforce and labor relations.

As of December 31, 2009, Caterpillar employed 93,813 persons of whom 50,562 are located outside the United States. Current employment figures represent a decline of 17,900 employees compared the third quarter of 2008. Due to the restructuring of business operations which began in the 1990s, there are 20,000 fewer union jobs in the Peoria, Illinois area while employment outside the U.S. has increased.

Labor practices.

Caterpillar came close to bankruptcy in the early 1980s, at one point losing almost US$1 million per day due to a sharp downturn in product demand as competition with Japanese rival Komatsu increased. (At the time, Komatsu used the internal slogan "encircle Caterpillar".) Caterpillar suffered further when the United States declared an embargo against the Soviet Union after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, causing the company to be unable to sell US$400 million worth of pipelaying machinery that had already been built.

Environmental record.

Environmental stewardship.

Caterpillar divisions have won Illinois Governor's Pollution Prevention Awards every year since 1997. Caterpillar was awarded the 2007 Illinois Governor's Pollution Prevention Award for three projects: The Hydraulics and Hydraulic Systems business unit in Joliet implemented a flame sprayed coating for its truck suspension system, replacing a chroming process, reducing hazardous waste by 700,000 pounds annually and saving of water. Caterpillar's Cast Metals Organization in Mapleton worked with the American Foundry Society to help produce a rule to reduce hazardous waste in scrap metal that meet strict quality requirements, and also allow foundries to continue recycling certain types of scrap and maintain a competitive

Clean Air Act violation.

In July 1999, Caterpillar and five other diesel engine manufacturers signed a consent decree with the Justice Department and the State of California, after governmental investigations revealed violations of the Clean Air Act. The violation involves over a million diesel engines sold with defeat devices, devices that regulated emissions during pre-sale tests, but that could be disabled in favor of better performance during subsequent highway driving. Consequently, these engines "...emit up to triple the permissible level of smog-forming nitrogen

Controversies.

Tax deferral techniques.

In March 2017, when US federal agents raided Caterpillar's headquarters in Peoria Ill., it was already evident that the company engaged in aggressive measures to control tax costs. Since April 2014, the company's tax policies have been investigated by a senate subcommittee headed by Senator Carl Levin. Those investigations uncovered significant changes in Caterpillar's offshore tax strategy, culminating in the creation of the new Swiss subsidiary Caterpillar SARL (CSARL) in Geneva. In 1999, the former Caterpillar executive Daniel

Israel Defense Forces sales.

In 2004 the Office of the UN High Commissioner on Human Rights sent a warning letter

Trademark claims.

Caterpillar Inc. has sought the revocations of registered trademarks in the United States incorporating the word "Cat" within the market of

Advocacy, philanthropy and awards.

Caterpillar is a leading member of the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition, a Washington D.C.-based coalition of over 400 major companies and NGOs that advocates for increased funding of American diplomatic and development efforts abroad through the International Affairs Budget. Economic development projects in developing countries (particularly in rural, agricultural regions) serve as new markets for Caterpillar products by improving political and economic stability and raising average incomes. 2011 recipient of the Henry C. Turner Prize for Innovation in Construction Technology from the National Building Museum.

Caterpillar Inc. (sometimes shortened to CAT) is an American Fortune 100 corporation which designs, develops, engineers, manufactures, markets and sells machinery, engines, financial products and insurance to customers via a worldwide dealer network. It is the world's largest construction equipment manufacturer. In 2018, Caterpillar was ranked #65 on the Fortune 500 list and #238 on the Global Fortune 500 list. Caterpillar stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.

Caterpillar Inc est un groupe industriel américain, fabriquant des machines dans les domaines de la construction, des mines et de la forêt. Ce manufacturier fabrique des chargeurs sur pneus, des pelles mécaniques hydrauliques, des moteurs Diesel ainsi que des groupes électrogènes.


History and use.

The use of a MacGuffin as a plot device predates the name MacGuffin. The Holy Grail of Arthurian Legend has been cited as an early example of a MacGuffin. The Holy Grail is the desired object that is essential to initiate and advance the plot. The final disposition of the Grail is never revealed, suggesting that the object is not of significance in itself.  The World-War-I-era actress Pearl White used the term "weenie" to identify whatever object (a roll of film, a rare coin, expensive diamonds, etc.) impelled the heroes, and often the villains as well, to pursue each other through the convoluted plots of "The Perils of Pauline" and the other silent film serials in which she starred. In the 1930 detective novel "The Maltese Falcon", a small statuette provides both the book's title and its motive for intrigue.  The name MacGuffin was coined by the English screenwriter Angus MacPhail and was popularized by Alfred Hitchcock in the 1930s.

Alfred Hitchcock.

Director and producer Alfred Hitchcock popularized the term MacGuffin and the technique with his 1935 film "The 39 Steps", an early example of the concept. Hitchcock explained the term MacGuffin in a 1939 lecture at Columbia University in New York City:  It might be a Scottish name, taken from a story about two men on a train. One man says, 'What's that package up there in the baggage rack?' And the other answers, 'Oh, that's a MacGuffin'. The first one asks, 'What's a MacGuffin?' 'Well,' the other man says, 'it's an apparatus for trapping lions in the Scottish Highlands.' The first man says, 'But there are no lions in the Scottish Highlands,' and the other one answers, 'Well then, that's no MacGuffin!' So you see that a MacGuffin is actually nothing at all.  Interviewed in 1966 by François Truffaut, Hitchcock explained the term MacGuffin using the same story.  Hitchcock also said "The MacGuffin is the thing that the spies are after but the audience don't care."  Hitchcock's term MacGuffin helped him to assert that his films were in fact not what they appeared to be on the surface. Hitchcock also related this anecdote in a television interview for Richard Schickel's documentary "The Men Who Made the Movies", and in an interview with Dick Cavett.

George Lucas.

In contrast to Hitchcock's view of a MacGuffin as an object around which the plot revolves but about which the audience does not care, George Lucas believes that "the audience should care about it almost as much as the dueling heroes and villains on-screen." Lucas describes R2-D2 as the MacGuffin of the original "Star Wars" film, and said that the titular MacGuffin in "Raiders of the Lost Ark" was an excellent example as opposed to the more obscure MacGuffins of the next two Indiana Jones films.

Yves Lavandier.

For the filmmaker and drama writing theorist Yves Lavandier, in the strictly Hitchcockian sense, a MacGuffin is a secret that motivates the villains. "North by Northwest"s supposed MacGuffin is nothing that motivates the protagonist; Roger Thornhill's objective is to extricate himself from the predicament that the mistaken identity has created, and what matters to Vandamm and the Central Intelligence Agency is of little importance to Thornhill. A similar lack of motivating power applies to the alleged MacGuffins of "The Lady Vanishes", "The 39 Steps", and "Foreign Correspondent". In a broader sense, says Lavandier, a MacGuffin denotes any justification for the external conflictual premises of a work.

Examples.

Alfred Hitchcock popularized the use of the MacGuffin technique. Examples from Hitchcock's films include plans for a silent plane engine in "The 39 Steps" (1935), radioactive uranium ore in "Notorious" (1946), and a clause from a secret peace treaty in "Foreign Correspondent" (1940). Many other films have also employed this technique; for example, the Maltese Falcon in the 1941 film of the same name, the meaning of "Rosebud" in "Citizen Kane" (1941), the Heart of the Ocean necklace in "Titanic" (1997), the letters of transit in "Casablanca" (1942), and the "Rabbit's Foot" in "" (2006).  To emphasize how the nature of the MacGuffin is not important, in the thriller-action film "Ronin" (1998) the MacGuffin is a metallic briefcase that the characters fight for, but whose contents are never revealed. A similar example is the briefcase shown throughout "Pulp Fiction" (1994), in which the glowing contents of the briefcase are never revealed, despite being violently coveted by many major characters.  In discussing the mixed critical reception of "Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull" (2008), the primary criticism was that the crystal skull in the film was seen as an unsatisfying MacGuffin. The director Steven Spielberg said, "I sympathize with people who didn't like the MacGuffin because I never liked the MacGuffin."  In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, the Infinity Stones serve at times as MacGuffins. Kevin Feige said, "We started to realize that a lot of these films required MacGuffins like the Orb in "Guardians of the Galaxy", the scepter in the first Avengers film. And the notion that all of them could be a Stone started to come about right around the time Joss wrote that little tag in Avengers 1."  In "Guardians of the Galaxy" (2014), Peter Quill observes, "This orb has a real shiny blue suitcase, Ark of the Covenant, Maltese Falcon sort of vibe", a reference to MacGuffins in other fictional works.  In both film and literature, the Holy Grail is often used as a MacGuffin. The cult classic comedic film "Monty Python and the Holy Grail" (1975) is structured around a knightly quest for the sacred relic.  Examples in television include various Rambaldi artifacts in "Alias", the orb in "The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.", and Krieger Waves in the "" episode "A Matter of Perspective". Carl Macek created protoculture as a MacGuffin to unite the storylines of the three separate anime that composed "Robotech". The Hellmouth in "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" has been described as a kind of topological MacGuffin, or as Joss Whedon put it: "...a shortcut, in lieu of scientific explanation."  Examples in literature include the television set in Wu Ming's novel "54" (2002) and the container in William Gibson's "Spook Country" (2007).  In the online game "The Kingdom of Loathing", the player's character eventually must complete a long and convoluted quest named "player name and The Quest for the Holy MacGuffin". It involves going to several locations while following clues from the character's father's diary and collecting various items. Eventually, it ends in a boss battle and the MacGuffin is returned to the council. The game never reveals what exactly it is or how it will aid in saving the kingdom.

In fiction, a MacGuffin (sometimes McGuffin) is an object, device, or event that is necessary to the plot and the motivation of the characters, but insignificant, unimportant, or irrelevant in itself. The term was originated by Angus MacPhail for film, adopted by Alfred Hitchcock, and later extended to a similar device in other fiction.

Le MacGuffin est un prétexte au développement d'un scénario. C'est presque toujours un objet matériel et il demeure généralement mystérieux au cours de la diégèse, sa description est vague et sans importance. Le principe date des débuts du cinéma mais l'expression est associée à Alfred Hitchcock, qui l'a redéfinie, popularisée et mise en pratique dans plusieurs de ses films. Pour Yves Lavandier (dans "La Dramaturgie"), le MacGuffin n'est pas toujours un objet, il peut aussi s'agir d'un secret qui motive les méchants (mais pas nécessairement le protagoniste) et qui est de peu d'intérêt pour le spectateur, car celui-ci ne doute pas que les méchants ont d'excellentes raisons de mettre le protagoniste dans l'embarras. L'objet lui-même n'est que rarement utilisé, seule sa récupération compte.


Rosenthal–Jacobson study.

Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson's study showed that, if teachers were led to expect enhanced performance from children, then the children's performance was enhanced. This study supported the hypothesis that reality can be positively or negatively influenced by the expectations of others, called the observer-expectancy effect. Rosenthal argued that biased expectancies could affect reality and create self-fulfilling prophecies.  All students in a single California elementary school were given a disguised IQ test at the beginning of the study. These scores were not disclosed to teachers. Teachers were told that some of their students (about 20% of the school chosen at random) could be expected to be "intellectual bloomers" that year, doing better than expected in comparison to their classmates. The bloomers' names were made known to the teachers. At the end of the study, all students were again tested with the same IQ test used at the beginning of the study. All six grades in both experimental and control groups showed a mean gain in IQ from before the test to after the test. However, First and Second Graders showed statistically significant gains favoring the experimental group of "intellectual bloomers". This led to the conclusion that teacher expectations, particularly for the youngest children, can influence student achievement. Rosenthal believed that even attitude or mood could positively affect the students when the teacher was made aware of the "bloomers". The teacher may pay closer attention to and even treat the child differently in times of difficulty.  Rosenthal predicted that elementary school teachers may subconsciously behave in ways that facilitate and encourage the students' success. When finished, Rosenthal theorized that future studies could be implemented to find teachers who would encourage their students naturally without changing their teaching methods. Rosenthal and Jacobson's study of the Pygmalion effect was criticized for both weak methodology and lack of replicability (see Pygmalion in the Classroom).  The prior research that motivated this study was done in 1911 by psychologists regarding the case of Clever Hans, a horse that gained notoriety because it was supposed to be able to read, spell, and solve math problems by using its hoof to answer. Many skeptics suggested that questioners and observers were unintentionally signaling Clever Hans. For instance, whenever Clever Hans was asked a question the observers' demeanor usually elicited a certain behavior from the subject that in turn confirmed their expectations. For example, Clever Hans would be given a math problem to solve, and the audience would get very tense the closer he tapped his foot to the right number, thus giving Hans the clue he needed to tap the correct number of times.

Students' views of teachers.

Teachers are also affected by the children in the classroom. Teachers reflect what is projected into them by their students. An experiment done by Jenkins and Deno (1969) submitted teachers to a classroom of children who had either been told to be attentive, or unattentive, to the teachers' lecture. They found that teachers who were in the attentive condition would rate their teaching skills as higher. Similar findings by Herrell (1971) suggested that when a teacher was preconditioned to classrooms as warm or cold, the teacher would start to gravitate towards their precondition. To further this concept, Klein (1971) did the same kind of study involving teachers still unaware of any precondition to the classroom but with the class full of confederates who were instructed to act differently during periods over the course of the lecture. "Klein reported that there was little difference between students' behaviors in the natural and the positive conditions." In a more observational study designed to remove the likes of the Hawthorne effect, Oppenlander (1969) studied the top and bottom 20% of students in the sixth grade from a school that tracks and organizes its students under such criteria.

In the workplace.

Leader expectations of the employee may alter leader behavior. This behavior that is expressed toward an employee can affect the behaviors of the employee in favor of the leader's expectations. The more an employee is engaged in learning activities, the higher the expectation is from the leader. In turn, the employee participates in more learning behavior. Leaders will show more leader behaviors such as leader-member exchange (trust, respect, obligation, etc.), setting specific goals, and allowing for more learning opportunities for employees, and giving employees feedback. These factors were brought about by Rosenthal's model of the Pygmalion effect.

The Pygmalion effect, or Rosenthal effect, is the phenomenon whereby others' expectations of a target person affect the target person's performance. The effect is named after the Greek myth of Pygmalion, a sculptor who fell in love with a statue he had carved, or alternately, after the psychologist Robert Rosenthal. Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson, in their book, applied the idea to teachers' expectations of their students affecting the students' performance, a view that has been undermined partially by subsequent research (e.g., Raudenbush [1984]).

L’effet Pygmalion (ou effet Rosenthal & Jacobson) est une prophétie autoréalisatrice qui provoque une amélioration des performances d'un sujet, en fonction du degré de croyance en sa réussite venant d'une autorité ou de son environnement. Le simple fait de croire en la réussite de quelqu'un améliore ainsi ses probabilités de succès.


Origin.

The loganberry was derived from a cross between "Rubus ursinus" ("R. vitifolius") 'Aughinbaugh' (octaploid) as the female parent and "Rubus idaeus" 'Red Antwerp' (diploid) as the male parent (pollen source); the loganberry is hexaploid. It was accidentally created in 1881 in Santa Cruz, California, by the American judge and horticulturist James Harvey Logan (1841–1928).  Logan was unsatisfied with the existing varieties of blackberries and tried crossing two varieties of blackberries to produce a superior cultivar. He happened to plant them next to plants of an old variety of red raspberry, 'Red Antwerp', all of which flowered and fruited together. The two blackberry cultivars involved in these experiments were probably 'Aughinbaugh' and 'Texas Early' (a cultivar of "Rubus velox"), which were two of the three varieties that Logan had planted in his yard that year. Logan then gathered and planted the seed from his cross-bred plants. His 50 seedlings produced plants similar to the blackberry parent 'Aughinbaugh', but larger and more vigorous. One was the loganberry; the others included the 'Mammoth' blackberry. Since Logan's time, crosses between the cultivars of raspberry and blackberry have confirmed the loganberry's parentage, with an earlier theory that the loganberry originated as a red-fruiting form of the common Californian blackberry "Rubus ursinus" now disproved. Progeny from Logan's original plant was introduced to Europe in 1897. A prickle-free mutation of the loganberry, the 'American Thornless', was developed in 1933.  The tayberry is a similar raspberry-blackberry hybrid. The 'Phenomenal' berry or 'Burbank's Logan', developed by Luther Burbank in 1905, is also a raspberry-blackberry hybrid, but is a second-generation cross (i.e., two first-generation crosses between blackberry and raspberry were then crossed to each other). Other similar hybrids include the nessberry, which is a cross between a dewberry and a red raspberry, and youngberry, a three-way cross between blackberry, raspberry, and dewberry.  The loganberry has been used as a parent in more recent crosses between various "Rubus" species, such as boysenberry (Loganberry × raspberry × blackberry), the Santiam blackberry (loganberry × California blackberry ["R. ursinus"]), and the olallieberry (Black Logan × youngberry). The loganberry is part of the ancestral line leading to the Marionberry, a common and popular berry grown mainly in Oregon.

History.

Excerpt from "Santa Cruz County; a faithful reproduction in print and photography of its climate, capabilities, and beauties" (1896).  The Loganberry, being a variety unfamiliar to people in any other place, I will devote more space to its account than to others. From a circular giving its history I extract these notes: The Loganberry originated with Judge J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, Cal., from whom it derives its name. Several years ago, growing in his garden, were plants of the Aughinbaugh blackberry and Red Antwerp raspberry. The plants, being near each other, had intermixed or grown together. The judge, having noticed that they bloomed and ripened their fruit together, conceived the idea of planting the seeds, from which planting resulted the production of the Loganberry. He is entitled to all credit for the origination of this noble fruit, which will be a perpetual monument, placing his name beside those of Longworth, Hovey, Wilson and other originators of new varieties of fruit. He has even done more than they. He has produced a fruit or berry entirely unlike any in previous existence, a hybrid or mixture of two fruits, partaking of the characteristics of both of its parents. The Aughinbaugh blackberry, from the seed of which the Logan is supposed to have originated, has pistillate or imperfect flowers, which must have been fertilized by the pollen of the raspberry, producing this most singular and valuable fruit.  The vines or canes of the Loganberry grow entirely unlike either the blackberry or raspberry. They trail or grow upon the ground more like the dewberry. They are exceedingly strong growers, each shoot or branch reaching a growth of eight to ten feet in one season without irrigation, the aggregate growth of all the shoots on one plant amounting to from forty to fifty feet. The canes or vines are very largewithout the thorns of the blackberry bushesbut have very fine soft spines, much like those of raspberry bushes. The leaves are of a deep green color, coarse and thick, and also like those of the raspberry. The fruit is as large as the largest size blackberry, is of the same shape, with globules similar to that fruit, and the color, when fully ripe, is a 'dark bright red'. It has the combined flavor of both berries, pleasant, mild, vinous, delightful to the taste and peculiar to this fruit alone. It is excellent for the table, eaten raw or cooked, and for jelly or jam is without an equal. The seeds are very small, soft and not abundant, being greatly different from both its parents in this respect. The vines are enormous bearers, and the fruit is very firm and carries well. The fruit begins to ripen very earlythe bulk being ripe and gone before either blackberries or raspberries become plentiful. In filling in a place just ahead of these fruits the market value of the Loganberry is greatly enhanced. In ordinary seasons the fruit begins to ripen from the middle to the last of May. When extensively planted and generally known, this berry is destined to take front rank owing to its earliness, large size, beautiful appearance, superior quality, and delightful flavor, together with its firmness and good carrying or shipping quality. Mr. James Waters, of this valley, has sole right with this vine.  Due to its high vitamin C content, the loganberry was used by the British navy at the beginning of the 20th century as a source of vitamin C to prevent sailors from getting scurvy, in much the same way as the British did with limes during the late 18th century (hence the American term for the British, "limey"). During this period at the beginning of the 20th century, the largest proportion of loganberries grown for the British navy (roughly 1/3) were grown on a single farm in Leigh Sinton, near Malvern in Worcestershire, England, run by the Norbury family.

Cultivation.

Loganberry plants are sturdy and more disease- and frost-resistant than many other berries. However, they are not very popular with commercial growers due to several problems which increase labor costs, since the plants tend to be thorny and the berries are often hidden by the leaves. Additionally, berries of varying maturity may grow on a single plant, making it difficult to completely harvest each plant. Loganberries are therefore more commonly grown in household gardens.  A loganberry bush usually produces about ten canes (vines). The canes are not as upright as its raspberry parent, and tend instead to vine more like its blackberry parent. Growth can be undisciplined, with the canes growing five or more feet in a year. Some gardeners train the canes fanwise along a wall or a wire frame. Old canes die after their second year, and should be cut away as they can become diseased, and also hinder harvesting.  The loganberry fruits earlier than its blackberry parent. Fruit is produced for about two months, generally from midsummer until mid-autumn, with a plant at a given time mid-season bearing fruit in different stages, from blossom to maturity. The berries are generally harvested when they are a deep purple color, rather than red. Each bush can produce 7 kg to 8 kg (15 lb to 18 lb) of fruit a year. Plants continue to fruit for around 15 years, and can also self-propagate.  The cultivars 'Ly 59' and 'Ly 654' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Uses.

Loganberries are consumed fresh, or used for juice or in jams, pies, crumbles, fruit syrups, and country wines.  In the UK, fresh or canned (tinned) loganberries are often paired with English Sherry trifle, or their juice (or syrup) paired with the sherry.  Loganberry is a popular beverage flavoring in Western New York and parts of Southern Ontario, beginning there as a drink sold at Crystal Beach Park in Crystal Beach, Ontario. Even though the park has long been closed down, several companies still sell varieties of loganberry drinks through stores throughout the area, which are sold at several local fast-food franchises such as Mighty Taco in Buffalo, Sport of Kings Restaurant in Batavia, New York as well as at supermarkets. There are also milkshakes flavored with loganberry syrup.

The loganberry (Rubus" × "loganobaccus) is a hybrid of the North American blackberry ("Rubus ursinus") and the European raspberry ("Rubus idaeus").

La mûre de Logan (Rubus "×"loganobaccus) est une espèce hybride de ronce issue probablement du croisement naturel entre une ronce sauvage (la ronce du Pacifique, "Rubus ursinus") et le framboisier ("Rubus idaeus"). Son fruit s'appelle la mûroise.


Early life.

Köhler was born in the port city of Reval (now Tallinn), Governorate of Estonia, Russian Empire. His family was ethnic German, and shortly after his birth, they moved to Germany.

Education.

In the course of his university education, Köhler studied at the University of Tübingen (1905–06), the University of Bonn (1906–07) and the University of Berlin (1907–09). While a student at the latter, he focused on the link between physics and psychology, in the course of which he studied with two leading scholars in those fields, Max Planck and Carl Stumpf, respectively. He completed his Ph.D. thesis (titled "Akustische Untersuchungen" [Acoustic investigations]) in 1909. His dissertation addressed certain aspects of psychoacoustics; Köhler had Stumpf as his advisor.

Gestalt psychology.

In 1910–13, he was an assistant at the Psychological Institute in Frankfurt in which he worked with fellow psychologists Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka. He and Koffka functioned as subjects for Wertheimer's now-famous studies of apparent movement (or the phi phenomenon), which led them in turn to conclusions about the inherent nature of vision. They collaborated on the founding of a new holistic attitude toward psychology called Gestalt theory (from the German word for "shape" or "form"), aspects of which are indebted to the earlier work of Stumpf (Köhler's teacher) and Christian von Ehrenfels (whose lectures at the University of Prague Wertheimer had attended).  In an introduction to the book, "The Task of Gestalt Psychology," Carroll Pratt emphasizes Köhler's irritation at misinterpretation of his famous quote, "The whole is different from the sum of its parts". Though perhaps a simple error made in translation, many lectures in textbooks of modern-day psychology refer to Gestalt theory by saying "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts". When the word 'different' is used, as Köhler originally stated, it implies that the whole bears no resemblance to the parts creating it. Most psychologists, however, understand "greater" to mean that the relationship between the parts is "itself" a significant part of the whole, something that is not present in the other parts if simply summed up. Example: if all the parts of a car are laid out on the floor of a garage, they do not make up a car. Only when the factor of assembly is added to the parts, do they become a car.

Problem solving.

In 1913, Köhler left Frankfurt for the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands, where he had been named the director of the Prussian Academy of Sciences anthropoid research station. He worked there for six years, during which he wrote a book on problem solving titled "The Mentality of Apes" (1917). In this research, Köhler observed how chimpanzees solve problems, such as that of retrieving bananas when positioned out of reach. He found that they stacked wooden crates to use as makeshift ladders, in order to retrieve the food. If the bananas were placed on the ground outside of the cage, they used sticks to lengthen the reach of their arms. Köhler concluded that the chimps had not arrived at these methods through trial-and-error (which American psychologist Edward Thorndike had claimed to be the basis of all animal learning, through his law of effect), but rather that they had an insight, in which, having realized the answer, they proceeded to carry it out in a way that was, in Köhler's words, "unwaveringly purposeful."  This is one of the prominent findings from the research done on apes. Köhler's work on the mentality of apes was seen as a turning point in the psychology of thinking. He believed that people underestimated the influence of a number of external conditions on such higher animals. In his book, "The Mentality of Apes", Köhler explains that he was inspired to work with the chimpanzees for two main reasons. The first was because the "structure of their brains is more closely related to the chemistry of the human body and brain-structure than to the chemical nature of the lower apes and their brain development". He was intrigued that human traits could be observed in the everyday behaviours of this animal. Secondly, he wanted to study the chimps to gain knowledge of the nature of intelligent acts.  In the early stages of observing chimps, it was clear that the examinations should not be considered characteristic for each member of this species. Köhler recognized that, as in humans, chimpanzees demonstrated considerable differences in the intellectual field. Chimps demonstrated that they were able to grasp the objects around them in a variety of fashions. This is incorporated in their everyday playing behaviours. For this reason, it was not necessary to use experimental tests to introduce chimps to handle matter. In his book, "The Mentality of Apes", Köhler describes how the apes use their hands, saying "large, powerful and flexible hands are natural links between himself and the world of things, and he attains the necessary amount of muscular force and co-ordination at an earlier age than the human child".  Köhler made most of his observations during the first six months of 1914, while working with Mr. Teuber. They provided the animals with problems that would be difficult but not impossible for the chimps to solve.  The conclusions drawn from the experiments with apes were that these animals exhibit insight and that they demonstrate intelligent behaviour that is common in humans. Köhler states that these findings hold true for every member of the species. He describes that "the correlation between intelligence and the development of the brain is confirmed". Köhler points out that a downfall of educational psychology at the time of the experiments with apes was that it had yet to create a test that was capable of assessing how far mentally healthy and mentally-ill children could go in particular situations. Köhler believed that studies of this type could be performed on young children, and that future research should focus on these possibilities. He stated that: "where the lack of human standards makes itself so much felt, I should like to emphasize particularly the importance and- if the anthropoids do not deceive us- the fruitfulness of further work in this direction".

Criticism of introspection.

In his book titled "Gestalt Psychology," Köhler criticized the concepts of introspection, a sub-discipline in psychology that was dominant in Germany throughout the late 1800s and early 1900s. Stemming from the ideas of the structuralist psychologists, introspection was defined as the self-reporting of conscious thoughts and sensations. It was believed that consciousness could be understood by breaking its elements down into basic parts.  Köhler was quick to dismiss this train of thought. He claimed that the introspectionists were too subjective in their methodologies and did not test for reliability in their findings. For example, the description of sensing the colour red made by one individual may not be the same as the description of another. Where the introspectionists failed was their inability to adequately replicate particular findings. If one person was tested for sensations regarding the colour red, these descriptions were simply shared among followers of the discipline. These descriptions were automatically taken as valid, and no further testing of a particular sensation took place. In addition to this, Köhler claimed that introspection did not focus on immediate problems regarding direct human experience. He believed that an important goal of empirical science was to obtain objective results that apply to almost everyone. The introspectionists, according to Köhler, did not consider objective experience a key point in their science.

Opinions on behaviorism.

Köhler was also vocal in his stance against behaviorism, another competing school of thought in North America. At the time, behaviourism focused solely on overt acts that were easily observable and measurable. Inner thoughts, feelings, and processes that occurred between the presentation of a stimulus and the onset of behaviour were considered part of a black box not easily understood. This black box, which could be described as cognition today, was not accessible and therefore should be discarded from psychology as being something unimportant. Köhler criticized the behaviourists' dismissal of direct experience. They said that it was not measurable, and therefore did not contribute to the furthering of human understanding.  Köhler analyzed the difference between overt and covert behaviours. He argued that the behaviourists focused solely on overt behaviours in order to make inferences concerning human functioning. Using his background in physiology, Köhler suggested that covert behaviours (such as heart rate and blood pressure) could offer additional insight into how we function and interact with the environment. In "Gestalt Psychology", Köhler describes advancements made in physiological research and the tools created to measure covert behaviours. Covert behaviours such as increased heart rate could provide additional insight into how people interact with particular stimuli. The behaviourists, according to Köhler, never adequately utilized these new instruments to make sound inferences on human behaviour.  Köhler argued against the idea that direct experience was not measurable or usable. Drawing upon his personal experience and interest in the field of physics, Köhler posed the example of two physicists observing a galvanometer (an instrument that detects and measures electric current) and making inferences based on the information it provides. According to Köhler, behaviourists act in a similar way when observing behaviours. One behaviourist will observe a behaviour and share results, leading to an extension of these findings by others in the field. While behaviourism denies direct experience, Köhler suggests that behaviourists are unknowingly accepting it in this regard. Just as the galvanometer is independent of the physicist, so is the subject from the behaviourist. Direct experience results in the observation of phenomena and leads to results. In this regard, he felt that the standpoint of the behaviourists appears somewhat paradoxical.

Berlin Psychological Institute.

Köhler returned to Germany in 1920, and soon after was appointed the acting director, and then (as Carl Stumpf's successor) professor and director of the Psychological Institute at the University of Berlin, where he remained until 1935. In those fifteen years, his accomplishments were considerable, including, for example, the directorship of the school's prestigious graduate program in psychology; the co-founding of an influential journal about perceptual psychology, titled "Psychologische Forschung" (Psychological Research: Journal of Psychology and its Neighboring Fields); and the authorship of an early book titled "Gestalt Psychology" (1929), written especially for an American audience. During the 1920s and early 1930s psychology reached a high point at the institute. Aside from Köhler, many other influential minds were at work. Max Wertheimer was part of the institute from 1916 to 1929, until he left to take a position in Frankfurt. In addition, Kurt Lewin remained at the institute until 1933 (the year of his resignation). Köhler also had many well-known assistants at the institute, including Karl Duncker, whose work revolved around problem solving and induced movement. Von Lauenstein, another assistant of Köhler, is known mainly for his investigation of time errors and memory. Finally, von Restorff is best known for her collaboration efforts with Köhler on both the isolation effect and theory of recall.

Nazi Germany.

The Nazi party, led by Adolf Hitler, rose to power on January 30, 1933. The regime started practicing discriminatory policies against Jews, and dismissed any professors with a Jewish background from German universities. Max Planck, the well-known physicist, petitioned Hitler to stop the dismissal of Jewish professors, stressing their importance regarding scientific contributions. Hitler has been quoted as responding to Planck, "if the dismissal of Jewish scientists means the annihilation of contemporary German science, then we shall do without science for a few years".  Köhler did not make a public stand against the Nazi regime until the end of April 1933. During the beginning of that month, he still expressed ambivalence as to how serious a threat was posed by the regime. He was wary, but did not become more active against the Nazis until they forced the dismissal of Karl Planck, another well-known experimental physicist. On April 28, 1933, Köhler wrote an article titled "Gespräche in Deutschland" (Conversations in Germany). It was written for the "Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung" and is officially the last published article that openly attacked the Nazi Regime during their reign.  After the article was published, Köhler expected immediate arrest. But, the Nazis did not come for him. Even four months after the article was originally published, reprints were still being distributed. Köhler received numerous letters from Jews and non-Jews, expressing their gratitude and admiring his courage. To strengthen his stance against the Nazis, Köhler also sought assistance from his colleagues. To his disappointment, many of his colleagues refused to become involved in the anti-Nazi movement. Some suggested the Nazis would not be able to take over the large and complex German political system. In addition, some colleagues argued that Köhler's resistance fell outside their particular spheres of influence. In turn, they could contribute nothing.  On November 3, 1933, the Nazi government demanded that professors begin their lectures by giving the Nazi salute. Köhler thought this was a violation of his own beliefs and told his students that he was unable to engage in such an act. His explanation was met with applause, from both Nazi sympathizers and rebels alike. His situation at the institute began to deteriorate more quickly after this statement. In December 1933, Nazi officials stood outside Köhler's seminar room. As students left, the officials stopped them and examined their student cards. Although Köhler did not interfere, he later contacted the institute rector, Eugen Fischer, complaining that an unannounced raid had occurred. Köhler also took his argument to the Minister of Education. He was told, "there is nothing I care to do for you. Heil Hitler."

Later life.

Having fallen out of favor with the Nazis, Köhler emigrated to the USA in 1935. He was offered a professorship at Swarthmore College, where he served on the faculty for twenty years.  In 1956, he became a research professor at Dartmouth College. Soon after, he also served as the president of the American Psychological Association. He lectured freely in the United States and made yearly visits to the Free University of Berlin. Here, he acted as an adviser for the faculty. He kept the psychologists in touch with American psychology by collaborating with them in research and enthusiastically engaging in discussions with them. He died in 1967 in Enfield, New Hampshire.

Books by Köhler.

These are the editions in English:

Wolfgang Köhler (21 January 1887 – 11 June 1967) was a German psychologist and phenomenologist who, like Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka, contributed to the creation of Gestalt psychology.

Wolfgang Köhler (Tallinn, - ) est un psychologue allemand et l'un des fondateurs de la psychologie de la forme avec Max Wertheimer et Kurt Koffka.