Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)

Président de la Chambre des communes du Royaume-Uni

History.

Early history.

The office of Speaker is almost as old as Parliament itself. The earliest year for which a presiding officer has been identified is 1258, when Peter de Montfort presided over the Parliament held in Oxford. Early presiding officers were known by the title "parlour" or "prolocutor". The continuous history of the office of Speaker is held to date from 1376 when Sir Peter de la Mare spoke for the commons in the "Good Parliament" as they joined leading magnates in purging the chief ministers of the Crown and

17th to mid-19th century.

Until the 17th century, members of the House of Commons often continued to view their speaker (correctly) as an agent of the Crown. As Parliament evolved, however, the Speaker's position grew to involve more duties to the House than to the Crown; this was definitely true by the time of the English Civil War. This change is sometimes said to be reflected by an incident in 1642, when King Charles I entered the House in order to search for and arrest five members for high treason.

The modern speakership.

The speakership evolved into its modern form—in which the holder is an impartial and apolitical officer who does not belong to any party—only during the middle of the 19th century.  Over 150 individuals have served as Speaker of the House of Commons. Their names are inscribed in gold leaf around the upper walls of Room C of the House of Commons Library. Betty Boothroyd, elected in 1992, was the first female Speaker (the first woman to sit in the Speaker's chair was Betty Harvie Anderson, a Deputy Speaker from 1970). Michael Martin, elected in 2000, was the first Catholic speaker since the Reformation. John Bercow, elected in 2009, was the first Jewish speaker.  The Speaker has significant influence

Election.

MPs elect the Speaker from amongst their own ranks. The House must elect a Speaker at the beginning of each new parliamentary term after a general election, or after the death or resignation of the incumbent. Once elected, a Speaker continues in office until the dissolution of Parliament, unless they resign prior to this. Customarily, the House re-elects speakers who desire to continue in office for more than one term. Theoretically, the House could vote against re-electing a Speaker, but such an event is contrary to historical convention.  The procedure for electing a Speaker has changed in recent years. Until 1971, the Clerk of the House of Commons became temporary Chairman of the House. As the clerk is never a member, and therefore is not permitted to speak, he would silently stand and point at the member who was to speak. However, this procedure broke down at the election of a new Speaker in 1971 (see below) and had to be changed. Since that time, as recommended by a Select committee, the Father of the House (the member of the House with the longest period of unbroken service who is not a minister) becomes the presiding officer.  Until 2001, the election of a Speaker was conducted as a routine matter of House of Commons business, as it used motions and amendments to elect. A member would move "That Mr(s) [X] do take the Chair of this House as Speaker", and following debate (which may have included an amendment to replace the name of the member on whom the speakership was to be conferred), a routine division of the House would resolve in favour of one candidate. There was, however, a considerable amount of behind-the-scenes lobbying before suitable candidates were agreed upon, and so it was very rare for a new speaker to be opposed. However, this system broke down in 2000 when twelve rival candidates declared for the job and the debate occupied an entire parliamentary day. The House of Commons Procedure Committee then re-examined the means of electing a speaker and recommended a new system that came into effect in 2007 and was first used in June 2009, following the resignation of Michael Martin.  Under the new system, candidates must be nominated by at least twelve members, of whom at least three must be of a different party from the candidate. Each member may nominate no more than one candidate. The House then votes by secret ballot; an absolute majority (i.e. more than 50% of the votes cast) is required for victory. If no candidate wins a majority, then the individual with the fewest votes is eliminated, as are any other candidates who receive less than 5% of the votes cast, and as are any candidates who choose to withdraw. The House continues to vote, for several rounds if necessary, until one member receives the requisite majority. Then, the House votes on a formal motion to appoint the member in question to the Speakership. (In the unlikely event that this motion fails, the House must hold a fresh series of ballots on all of the nominees.)  If only one candidate is nominated, then no ballot is held, and the House proceeds directly to the motion to appoint the candidate to the Speakership. A similar procedure is used if a Speaker seeks a further term after a general election: no ballot is held, and the House immediately votes on a motion to re-elect the Speaker. If this motion fails, candidates are nominated, and the House proceeds with voting (as described above).  Upon the passage of the motion, the speaker-elect is expected to show reluctance at being chosen; they are customarily "dragged unwillingly" by MPs to the speaker's bench. This custom has its roots in the speaker's original function of communicating the Commons' opinions to the monarch. Historically, the Speaker, representing the House to the monarch, potentially faced the monarch's anger and therefore required some persuasion to accept the post. Contrary to an often repeated claim, no speaker has ever been executed for his actions in that capacity. Six former speakers have been executed (sometimes many years after their terms); for five of these, the execution was due to their close association with a former king after a new monarch had succeeded.  The speaker-elect must receive approbation by the sovereign before they may take office. On the day of the election, the speaker-elect leads the Commons to the Chamber of the House of Lords, where Lords Commissioners appointed by the Crown confirm him or her in the monarch's name. The speaker then requests "in the name and on behalf of the Commons of the United Kingdom, to lay claim, by humble petition to Her Majesty, to all their ancient and undoubted rights and privileges, especially to freedom of speech in debate, to freedom from arrest, and to free access to Her Majesty whenever occasion shall require." After the Lords Commissioners, on the behalf of the sovereign, confirm the Commons' rights and privileges, the Commons return to their chamber. If a speaker is chosen in the middle of a parliament due to a vacancy in the office, they must receive the royal approbation as described above but does not again lay claim to the Commons' rights and privileges.

Non-partisanship.

By convention the Speaker severs all ties with his or her political party while in office, as it is considered essential they be seen as an impartial presiding officer. Many have served in ministerial or other political positions beforehand. For example, Selwyn Lloyd and George Thomas had both served as high-ranking Cabinet members and Bernard Weatherill had been a party whip.  In the House, the Speaker does not vote on any motion, except to resolve ties (see section below). By modern convention the deputies (actively presiding roles) adhere to this and number one from the Speaker's former party, and two from the other side of the House. Thus no net voting, nor Commons speeches, power is lost for government or the opposition.  After leaving office, the Speaker normally takes no part in party politics; if elevated to the House of Lords, they would normally sit as a crossbencher.

Seat in Parliament.

The speaker will customarily seek re-election at a general election (or if there is a voting/candidacy anomaly resulting in a by-election) not under a party label – being entitled to describe themselves on the ballot as "The Speaker seeking re-election". Most were returned unopposed but this has not happened since the 1960s. The main (usually two) parties taking part in the offsetting of three Deputies and Speaker (i.e. two each) seldom field opponents by logic and convention; opponents are deemed to question the Speaker's role, performance or means of appointment if they stand.  When ex-Tory Edward FitzRoy was opposed by a Labour Party candidate at the 1935 general election, there was strong disapproval from other parties and a sub-committee of the Cabinet considered whether a special single-candidate constituency should be created for the speaker. The sub-committee concluded that parliamentary opinion would not

Role.

Presiding officer.

The Speaker's primary function is to preside over the House of Commons. Traditionally, the Speaker when presiding wore court dress—a black coat with white shirt and bands, beneath a black gown, with stockings and buckled shoes, and a full-bottomed wig. But in 1992 Betty Boothroyd, the first female Speaker, eschewed the wig. Her successor, Michael Martin, also declined to wear the wig; moreover, he chose to simplify other aspects of the costume, doing away with the once customary buckled court shoes and silk stockings. His successor John Bercow abandoned traditional dress, wearing a plain black gown over his lounge suit when presiding. For ceremonial occasions such as the State Opening, the Speaker wears a black and gold robe with a train; previously, this was worn over court dress with a white waterfall cravat,

Casting votes.

When the Ayes and Noes are tied, the Speaker must use the casting vote. By convention the casting vote is issued in accordance with the constitutional convention known as Speaker Denison's rule, rather than in line with the Speaker's personal opinion in the matter. The principle is always to vote in favour of further debate, or, where it has been previously decided to have no further debate or in some specific instances, to vote

Other functions.

According to parliamentary rules, the Speaker is the highest authority of the House of Commons and has final say over how its business is conducted, as well as other key choices, for example, which tabled amendments are selected for votes. In addition to the role of presiding officer, the Speaker performs several other functions on the behalf of the House of Commons. The Speaker represents the body in relations with the Sovereign, the House of Lords, and non-parliamentary bodies. On important occasions of state (such as Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee in 2002), the Speaker presents Addresses to the Crown on behalf of the House. The Speaker performs various procedural functions such as recalling the House from recess during a national emergency, or when otherwise requested by the Government. When vacancies arise, the Speaker authorises the issuance of writs of election. Furthermore, the Speaker is responsible

Deputies.

The Speaker is helped by three deputies elected by the House (addressed "Mr/Madam Deputy Speaker"). The most senior has an alternate style "Chairman of Ways and Means"; the title derives from the defunct Ways and Means Committee which could amend and expedite bills to tax. The others can be called the second or third deputy speakers but are formally in the House named the First and Second Deputy Chairmen of Ways and Means (this resembles the "Junior Lords of the Treasury" being the government chief whips). Typically the Speaker presides for three hours each day; otherwise a deputy takes the

Precedence, salary, residence and privileges.

The Speaker is one of the highest-ranking officials in the United Kingdom. By an Order in Council issued in 1919, the Speaker ranks in the order of precedence above all non-royal individuals except the Prime Minister, the Lord Chancellor, and the Lord President of the Council. In England and Wales, he also ranks below the two archbishops of the Church of England, in Scotland, he also ranks below the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and in Northern Ireland, he also ranks below the Church of Ireland and Roman Catholic archbishops of Ireland, and the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church.  In 2010, the Speaker received a salary of £145,492, equal to that of a Cabinet Minister. Speaker's House, the official residence, is at the northeast corner of the Palace of Westminster and is used for official functions and meetings, with private accommodation in a four-bedroom apartment upstairs. Each day, prior to the sitting of the House of Commons, the Speaker and other officials travel in procession from the apartments to the Chamber. The procession includes the Doorkeeper, the Serjeant-at-Arms, the Speaker, a trainbearer, the Chaplain, and the Speaker's Private Secretary. The Serjeant-at-Arms attends the Speaker on other occasions, and in the House; they bear a ceremonial mace that symbolises the royal authority under which the House meets, as well as the authority of the House of Commons itself.  Speakers, according with their high order of precedence, are appointed to the Privy Council on election. Thus they keep entitlement to the style "The Right Honourable" and postnominal letters. On retirement most were since the Wars of the Three Kingdoms elevated to the House of Lords as viscounts. The last ennobled was George Thomas, 1st Viscount Tonypandy in 1983. Since then, the custom has been to offer life peerages (life baronies) to those retiring. Division on John Bercow's legacy led to the universality of this precedent being questioned by the 2017-2019 minority government.

Speaker's Chaplain.

Chaplain to the Speaker was traditionally a canon residentiary of Westminster Abbey; from 1990-2010 the post was held by that canon who is Rector of St Margaret's, Westminster (the parish church between Parliament and the Abbey). Under Speaker Bercow for

Official dress.

On normal sitting days, the Speaker wears a black silk lay-type gown (similar to a Queen's Counsel's gown) with a train and a mourning rosette (also known as a 'wig bag') over the flap collar at the back.  On state occasions (such as the Opening of Parliament), the Speaker wears a robe of black satin damask trimmed with gold lace and frogs with full bottomed wig and, in the past, a tricorne hat.  The previous Speaker, John Bercow, no longer wore the traditional court dress outfit, which included knee breeches, silk stockings and buckled court shoes under the gown, or the wig. Betty Boothroyd first decided not to wear the wig and Michael Martin chose not to wear knee breeches, silk stockings or the traditional buckled shoes, preferring flannel trousers and Oxford shoes. Bercow chose not to wear court dress altogether in favour of a lounge suit, as he felt uncomfortable in court dress (he wore morning dress under the State Robe at State Openings). As seen at the 2015 State Opening of Parliament, Bercow further toned down the state robe by removing the gold frogging on the sleeves and train, so that it now resembles a pro-chancellor's robe at certain universities. However, he returned to wearing the traditional robe in 2016. The new speaker elected in November 2019, Sir Lindsay Hoyle, wears a gown like Bercow, but continues to wear his parliamentary identification card on a lanyard, as he did while Deputy Speaker. He later said he would wear the full court dress on ceremonial occasions, which he first did at the State Opening on 19 December 2019, albeit without the wig, which had gone missing.

The Speaker of the House of Commons is the chief officer and highest authority of the House of Commons, the lower house and primary chamber of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The current Speaker, Sir Lindsay Hoyle, was elected Speaker on 4 November 2019, following the resignation of John Bercow. Hoyle began his first full parliamentary term in the role on 17 December 2019, having unanimously been re-elected after the election.

Le président de la Chambre des communes (en anglais, "Speaker of the House of Commons") est l'officier qui préside la chambre basse du Parlement britannique.


Publications.

Publications included "Softdisk" for the Apple II; "Loadstar" for the Commodore 64; "Big Blue Disk"; "PC Business Disk" for the IBM PC; "Diskworld" (later "Softdisk for Mac") for the Apple Macintosh; "Softdisk G-S" for the Apple IIGS; "Softdisk for Windows" for the Windows platform, published from 1994-1999; and "Shareware Spotlight", a short-lived publication featuring the best Shareware offerings for the PC. By the late 1990s, these publications were discontinued, although "Loadstar" had a continued life as an independent company catering to a cult following of Commodore buffs.

"Big Blue Disk".

"Big Blue Disk" was a monthly disk magazine that was published by Softdisk for IBM PC and compatibles that began publication in 1986. It required 256k of memory. Softdisk was sued by IBM for trademark infringement over the use of the name "Big Blue" in 1989.

Standalone programs and Gamer's Edge.

Softdisk is most famous for being the former workplace of several of the founders of id Software, who worked on a short-lived game subscription product, "Gamer's Edge". "Gamer's Edge" was a monthly PC game disk started in 1990 by John Romero. The disk's developers were John Carmack, John Romero, and Adrian Carmack. Tom Hall, then a programmer who worked in the Apple II department of Softdisk, would come in at night to help with the game design. Lane Roathe was the editor.  These developers later left Softdisk to found id Software. To complete their contractual obligation to Softdisk, the developers built several more games for Softdisk, including "Dangerous Dave in the Haunted Mansion", "Rescue Rover", "Hovertank 3D", "Rescue Rover 2", "Tiles of the Dragon", "Catacomb 3D" and "Keen Dreams" (the "lost" episode of the "Commander Keen" series). Softdisk later hired a new team to create new titles using the game engines of the earlier games, including the later founders of JAM Productions. This connection led to Softdisk being mentioned extensively in the earlier parts of the id chronicling book "Masters of Doom".  Also, some of the earliest employees of Origin Systems worked there before moving on: Greg Malone "(Moebius, Windwalker)", Dallas Snell ("The Quest" and "Ring Quest"), Joel Rea ("The Quest" and "Ring Quest"), and Alan Gardner "(Windwalker, Ultima VI)". Malone also later worked as a producer for 3D Realms.  Softdisk continued to publish video games into the mid-1990s, most notably "In Pursuit of Greed", based on an alpha version of the Doom engine derived from "Shadowcaster", and "Alien Rampage", based on the original "Ravager" side-scroller once being developed by Apogee.

Current state.

Since 1995, Softdisk had been an Internet service provider, Web hosting service, and Internet developer as well, and this eventually became their primary area of business. They have offered local dialup service in the Shreveport area, and Web hosting and development services.  As of 2006, their Web site redirected to that of Bayou Internet, which had taken over their Internet operations. The downloadstore.com site formerly owned and operated by Softdisk was later run by Flat Rock Software, which also published former Softdisk product Screen Saver Studio and most of the Gamer's Edge titles (as well as on GoG.com). The source code for "Catacomb", "Catacomb 3D" and "Hovertank 3D" was released by Flat Rock in June 2014 under the GNU General Public License in a manner similar to those done by id and partners.

Softdisk was a software and Internet company based in Shreveport, Louisiana. Founded in 1981, its original products were disk magazines (which they termed "magazettes", for "magazine on diskette"). It was affiliated and partly owned by paper magazine "Softalk" at founding, but survived its demise.

Softdisk est un éditeur de jeux vidéo fondé en 1981 à Shreveport, en Louisiane et disparu en 2006. Softdisk est, en 1986, à l'origine de « Big Blue Disk », une sorte de magazine sur disquette pour micro-ordinateurs, envoyée par voie postale uniquement sur abonnement, et a publié sur ce support de nombreux jeux comme "Dangerous Dave". De nombreux développeurs de jeux vidéo y ont travaillé comme John Romero.


Structure.

The sternocleidomastoid muscle originates from two locations: the manubrium of the sternum and the clavicle. It travels obliquely across the side of the neck and inserts at the mastoid process of the temporal bone of the skull. The sternocleidomastoid is thick and narrow at its centre, and broader and thinner at either end.  The sternal head is a round fasciculus, tendinous in front, fleshy behind, arising from the upper part of the front of the manubrium sterni. It travels superiorly, laterally, and posteriorly.  The clavicular head is composed of fleshy and aponeurotic fibers, arises from the upper, frontal surface of the medial third of the clavicle; it is directed almost vertically upward.  The two heads are separated from one another at their origins by a triangular interval ("supraclavicular fossa") but gradually blend, below the middle of the neck, into a thick, rounded muscle which is inserted, by a strong tendon, into the lateral surface of the mastoid process, from its apex to its superior border, and by a thin aponeurosis into the lateral half of the superior nuchal line of the occipital bone.

Nerve supply.

The sternocleidomastoid is innervated by the accessory nerve of the same side. It supplies only motor fibres. The cervical plexus supplies sensation, including proprioception, from the ventral primary rami of C2 and C3.

Variation.

The clavicular origin of the sternocleidomastoid varies greatly: in some cases the clavicular head may be as narrow as the sternal; in others it may be as much as in breadth.  When the clavicular origin is broad, it is occasionally subdivided into several slips, separated by narrow intervals. More rarely, the adjoining margins of the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius are in contact. This would leave no posterior triangle.  The supraclavicularis muscle arises from the manubrium behind the sternocleidomastoid and passes behind the sternocleidomastoid to the upper surface of the clavicle.

Function.

The function of this muscle is to rotate the head to the opposite side or obliquely rotate the head. It also flexes the neck. When both sides of the muscle act together, it flexes the neck and extends the head. When one side acts alone, it causes the head to rotate to the opposite side and flexes laterally to the same side (ipsilaterally).  It also acts as an accessory muscle of respiration, along with the scalene muscles of the neck.

Contraction.

The signaling process to contract or relax the sternocleidomastoid begins in Cranial Nerve XI, the accessory nerve. The accessory nerve nucleus is in the anterior horn of the spinal cord around C1-C3, where lower motor neuron fibers mark its origin. The fibers from the accessory nerve nucleus travel upward to enter the cranium via the foramen magnum. The internal carotid artery to reach both the sternocleidomastoid muscles and the trapezius. After a signal reaches the accessory nerve nucleus in the anterior horn of the spinal cord, the signal is conveyed to motor endplates on the muscle fibers located at the clavicle. Acetylcholine (ACH) is released from vesicles and is sent over the synaptic cleft to receptors on the postsynaptic bulb. The ACH causes the resting potential to increase above -55mV, thus initiating an action potential which travels along the muscle fiber. Along the muscle fibers are t-tubule openings which facilitate the spread of the action potential into the muscle fibers. The t-tubule meets with the sarcoplasmic reticulum at locations throughout the muscle fiber, at these locations the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions that results in the movement of troponin and tropomyosin on thin filaments. The movement of troponin and tropomyosin is key in facilitating the myosin head to move along the thin filament, resulting in a contraction of the sternocleidomastoid muscle.

Anatomical landmark.

The sternocleidomastoid is within the investing fascia of the neck, along with the trapezius muscle, with which it shares its nerve supply (the accessory nerve). It is thick and thus serves as a primary landmark of the neck, as it divides the neck into anterior and posterior cervical triangles (in front and behind the muscle, respectively) which helps define the location of structures, such as the lymph nodes for the head and neck.  Many important structures relate to the sternocleidomastoid, including the common carotid artery, accessory nerve, and brachial plexus.

Clinical significance.

Examination of the sternocleidomastoid muscle forms part of the examination of the cranial nerves. It can be felt on each side of the neck when a person moves their head to the opposite side.  The triangle formed by the clavicle and the sternal and clavicular heads of the sternocleidomastoid muscle is used as a landmark in identifying the correct location for central venous catheterization.  Contraction of the muscle gives rise to a condition called torticollis or "wry neck", and this can have a number of causes. Torticollis gives the appearance of a tilted head on the side involved. Treatment involves physiotherapy exercises to stretch the involved muscle and strengthen the muscle on the opposite side of the neck. Congenital torticollis can have an unknown cause or result from birth trauma that gives rise to a mass or tumor that can be palpated within the muscle.

History.

Etymology.

It is given the name "sternocleidomastoid" because it originates at the manubrium of the sternum ("sterno-") and the clavicle ("cleido-"), and has an insertion at the mastoid process of the temporal bone of the skull.

The sternocleidomastoid muscle is one of the largest and most superficial cervical muscles. The primary actions of the muscle are rotation of the head to the opposite side and flexion of the neck. The sternocleidomastoid is innervated by the accessory nerve.

Le muscle sterno-cléido-mastoïdien (' en latin), ou sterno-mastoïdien dans l'ancienne nomenclature, est un muscle pair du cou, tendu verticalement, entre la clavicule et le sternum en bas et la mastoïde de l'os temporal et l'os occipital en haut. Le muscle sterno-cléido-mastoïdien est un muscle prévertébral. Il se divise en deux chefs, dont chaque chef comporte deux terminaisons. Le muscle sterno-cléido-mastoïdien contient donc un chef sternal, associé au sternum, et un chef claviculaire, associé à la clavicule. Le chef sternal va donc donner deux trajets de terminaisons : sterno-mastoïdien et sterno-occipital. Et le chef claviculaire va également donner deux trajets de terminaisons : cléido-occipital et cléido-mastoïdien.


Biography.

She was born near the end of the 18th century. It was once believed that the Beothuk population was decimated by conflict with European settlers. However, the most reliable research today suggests something different. The Beothuk population was very small, between 500-1000 people at the time of European contact. When European settlers arrived permanently, the Beothuk were cut off from their traditional coastal hunting grounds. Furthermore, there was no one to promote peaceful relations between the Beothuk and white man. This was because Newfoundland's population was so small, a missionary effort could not be supported, and because the European governments were mainly interested in marine resources, no agents were appointed to deal with the native population. Further contributing to the Beothuk's demise was the introduction of European diseases.  In the fall of 1818, a small group of Beothuks had taken a boat and some fishing equipment at the mouth of the Exploits River. The governor of the colony, Charles Hamilton, authorized an attempt to recover the stolen property. On March 1, 1819, John Peyton Jr. and eight armed men went up the Exploits River to Red Indian Lake in search of Beothuks and their equipment. A dozen Beothuk fled the campsite, Demasduit among them. Bogged down in the snow, she exposed her breasts, a nursing mother, begging for mercy. Demasduit was captured; Nonosbawsut, her husband and the leader of the group, was killed while attempting to prevent her capture. Her infant son died a few days after she was taken.  Peyton and his men were absolved of their murder by a grand jury in St. John's, the judge concluding that "[there was] no malice on the part of Peyton's party to get possession of any of [the Indians] by such violence as would occasion bloodshed".  Demasduit was taken to Twillingate and for a time lived with the Church of England priest, the Reverend John Leigh. He learned that she was also called Shendoreth and Waunathoake, but he renamed her Mary March, after the Virgin Mary and the month in which she was kidnapped. Demasduit was brought to St. John's and spent much of the spring of 1819 in St. John's, brought there by Leigh and John Peyton Jr. While there, Lady Hamilton painted her portrait.  During the summer of 1819, a number of attempts were made to return her to her people, without success. Captain David Buchan was to go overland to Red Indian Lake with Demasduit in November, the people of St. John's and Notre Dame Bay having raised the money to return the Beothuk to her home. She died of tuberculosis at Ship Cove (now Botwood) aboard Buchan's vessel "Grasshopper", on 8 January 1820. Her body was left in a coffin on the lakeshore, where it was found by members of her tribe and returned to her village in February. She was placed in a burial hut beside her husband and child. There were only thirty-one of the Beothuk remaining at that time.

Legacy.

Demasduit's niece, a young woman named Shanawdithit (1801–1829), was the last known Beothuk.  The song "Demasduit Dream", recorded by Newfoundland band Great Big Sea, describes this incident.  The Mary March Provincial Museum in the town of Grand Falls-Windsor, Newfoundland and Labrador, is named after her. In May 2006, a group of local grade 2 students, led by student Conor O'Driscoll, helped collect more than 500 signatures on a petition to rename the museum to reflect Demasduit's real identity, rather than the name she was given after her capture.

Genetic testing.

In 2007, DNA testing was conducted on material from the teeth of Demasduit and her husband Nonosabasut. The results assigned them to Haplogroup X (mtDNA) and Haplogroup C (mtDNA), respectively, which are also found in current Mi'kmaq populations in Newfoundland.  The novel "River Thieves" by Michael Crummey explores this part of Newfoundland history (cf).

Demasduit (c. 1796 – January 8, 1820) was a Beothuk woman, one of the last of her people on the island of Newfoundland.

Demasduit était une autochtone Béothuk capturée en 1819 avec son bébé par une équipe dirigée par John Peyton Jr. Afin de la prendre vivante, on avait abattu son mari Nonosbawsut et son frère. L'enfant mourut deux jours plus tard.


Wines.

A characteristic of the wines from this appellation is their great diversity due to the many and mixed soil types and varied climates. The central part of the region comprises sandstone hills, while the southeast is covered with stones or gravel. The west is mainly alluvial soil with calcairous stones, and the north is covered with large glacial pebbles.  Red wines which comprise 95% of the total production, are made from the principal varieties of Grenache noir and Syrah (10% minimum), with secondary varieties of Cinsault, Mourvèdre Carignan. No single variety may be present at more than 80%. A non defined quantity of secondary varieties must not exceed 30%, or if declared separately, not more than 15% each.  Rosé: The same varieties in the same permitted proportions are used as for the red.  White wines are produced from Grenache blanc, Roussanne, Clairette blanc, Marsanne, Roussanne, and Viognier. No variety may be present in excess of 60%  All wines must contain a minimum of 11% alcohol.

Economy.

The Grignan-Les Adhemar wines are produced by a total of 324 concerns which include 307 growers, 49 private wineries, 13 cooperative wineries, and 8 producer/merchants. INAO statistics show that in 2007, 94,961 hectolitres were produced from 2,566 cultivated at an average yield of 52 hectolitres per hectare.  The wines are produced in 21 communes of the Drôme département at the northern limit of the Provence: Allan, Baume de Transit, Chamaret, Chantemerle-lès-Grignan, Châteauneuf-du-Rhône, Clansayes, Comonzelle, Donzère, Garde-Adhémar, Granges-Gontardes, Grignan, Malataverne, Montségur-sur-Lauzon, Reauville, Roche-Saint-Secret-Béconne, Roussas, Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux, Saint Restitut, Salles-sous-Bois, Solérieux, Valaurie.

Name change.

Following an accident at the Tricastin Nuclear Power Plant in July 2008, when uranium was released, the sale of Coteaux du Tricastin wine decreased. The wine growers therefore wished to change the name of the appellation to something without "Tricastin", to avoid being associated with the nuclear power plant. In June 2010, INAO signalled its intention to allow a name change to "Grignan-Les Adhemar" effective from the 2010 vintage.

The Grignan-Les Adhemar AOC (formerly the Côteaux du Tricastin) is the northernmost wine-growing AOC in the southern area of the Rhône wine region of France. The wines are produced in 21 communes in the department of Drôme on the east bank of the Rhône River in a triangle bounded by Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux, Montélimar, and Grignan; opposite the Côtes du Vivarais AOC on the right bank. the vineyards straddle both the true Mediterranean and the continental climatic regions where in this part of France the transition is rapid, winter snow being frequent in Montélimar but rare some 20 - 30 kilometres further south. In this transitional area between the northern and southern Rhône wine regions that constitutes the northern limit of the Provence, the climate in Baume-le-Transit and St Paul are more typically Mediterranean climate than the slightly cooler areas dominated by the Lance mountain.

Le grignan-les-adhémar est l'une des AOC faisant partie du vignoble de la vallée du Rhône. Son terroir s'étend au sud de Montélimar sur les garrigues et les contreforts du Tricastin. Grignan-les-adhémar est depuis 2010 la nouvelle appellation des « côteaux du Tricastin ».


Overview.

A molecular orbital (MO) can be used to represent the regions in a molecule where an electron occupying that orbital is likely to be found. Molecular orbitals are obtained from the combination of atomic orbitals, which predict the location of an electron in an atom. A molecular orbital can specify the electron configuration of a molecule: the spatial distribution and energy of one (or one pair of) electron(s). Most commonly a MO is represented as a linear combination of atomic orbitals (the LCAO-MO method), especially in qualitative or very approximate usage. They are invaluable in providing a simple model of bonding in molecules, understood through molecular orbital theory. Most present-day methods in computational chemistry begin by calculating the MOs of the system. A molecular orbital describes the behavior of one electron in the electric field generated by the nuclei and some average distribution of the other electrons. In the case of two electrons occupying the same orbital, the Pauli principle demands that they have opposite spin. Necessarily this is an approximation, and highly accurate descriptions of the molecular electronic wave function do not have orbitals (see configuration interaction).  Molecular orbitals are, in general, delocalized throughout the entire molecule. Moreover, if the molecule has symmetry elements, its nondegenerate molecular orbitals are either symmetric or antisymmetric with respect to any of these symmetries. In other words, application of a symmetry operation S (e.g., a reflection, rotation, or inversion) to molecular orbital ψ results in the molecular orbital being unchanged or reversing its mathematical sign: Sψ = ±ψ. In planar molecules, for example, molecular orbitals are either symmetric (sigma) or antisymmetric (pi) with respect to reflection in the molecular plane. If molecules with degenerate orbital energies are also considered, a more general statement that molecular orbitals form bases for the irreducible representations of the molecule's symmetry group holds. The symmetry properties of molecular orbitals means that delocalization is an inherent feature of molecular orbital theory and makes it fundamentally different from (and complementary to) valence bond theory, in which bonds are viewed as localized electron pairs, with allowance for resonance to account for delocalization.  In contrast to these symmetry-adapted "canonical" molecular orbitals, localized molecular orbitals can be formed by applying certain mathematical transformations to the canonical orbitals. The advantage of this approach is that the orbitals will correspond more closely to the "bonds" of a molecule as depicted by a Lewis structure. As a disadvantage, the energy levels of these localized orbitals no longer have physical meaning. (The discussion in the rest of this article will focus on canonical molecular orbitals. For further discussions on localized molecular orbitals, see: natural bond orbital and sigma-pi and equivalent-orbital models.)

Formation of molecular orbitals.

Molecular orbitals arise from allowed interactions between atomic orbitals, which are allowed if the symmetries (determined from group theory) of the atomic orbitals are compatible with each other. Efficiency of atomic orbital interactions is determined from the overlap (a measure of how well two orbitals constructively interact with one another) between two atomic orbitals, which is significant if the atomic orbitals are close in energy. Finally, the number of molecular orbitals formed must be equal to the number of atomic orbitals in the atoms being combined to form the molecule.

Qualitative discussion.

For an imprecise, but qualitatively useful, discussion of the molecular structure, the molecular orbitals can be obtained from the "Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method" ansatz. Here, the molecular orbitals are expressed as linear combinations of atomic orbitals.

Linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO).

Molecular orbitals were first introduced by Friedrich Hund and Robert S. Mulliken in 1927 and 1928. The linear combination of atomic orbitals or "LCAO" approximation for molecular orbitals was introduced in 1929 by Sir John Lennard-Jones. His ground-breaking paper showed how to derive the electronic structure of the fluorine and oxygen molecules from quantum principles. This qualitative approach to molecular orbital theory is part of the start of modern quantum chemistry. Linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO) can be used to estimate the molecular orbitals that are formed upon bonding between the molecule's constituent atoms. Similar to an atomic orbital, a Schrödinger equation, which describes the behavior of an electron, can be constructed for a molecular orbital as well. Linear combinations of atomic orbitals, or the sums and differences of the atomic wavefunctions, provide approximate solutions to the Hartree–Fock equations which correspond to the independent-particle approximation of the molecular Schrödinger equation. For simple diatomic molecules, the wavefunctions obtained are represented mathematically by the equations  where formula_3 and formula_4 are the molecular wavefunctions for the bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals, respectively, formula_5 and formula_6 are the atomic wavefunctions from atoms a and b, respectively, and formula_7 and formula_8 are adjustable coefficients. These coefficients can be positive or negative, depending on the energies and symmetries of the individual atomic orbitals. As the two atoms become closer together, their atomic orbitals overlap to produce areas of high electron density, and, as a consequence, molecular orbitals are formed between the two atoms. The atoms are held together by the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged nuclei and the negatively charged electrons occupying bonding molecular orbitals.

Bonding, antibonding, and nonbonding MOs.

When atomic orbitals interact, the resulting molecular orbital can be of three types: bonding, antibonding, or nonbonding.  Bonding MOs:  Antibonding MOs: Nonbonding MOs:

Sigma and pi labels for MOs.

The type of interaction between atomic orbitals can be further categorized by the molecular-orbital symmetry labels σ (sigma), π (pi), δ (delta), φ (phi), γ (gamma) etc. These are the Greek letters corresponding to the atomic orbitals s, p, d, f and g respectively. The number of nodal planes containing the internuclear axis between the atoms concerned is zero for σ MOs, one for π, two for δ, three for φ and four for γ.

σ symmetry.

A MO with σ symmetry results from the interaction of either two atomic s-orbitals or two atomic p-orbitals. An MO will have σ-symmetry if the orbital is symmetric with respect to the axis joining the two nuclear centers, the internuclear axis. This means that rotation of the MO about the internuclear axis does not result in a phase change. A σ* orbital, sigma antibonding orbital, also maintains the same phase when rotated about the internuclear axis. The σ* orbital has a nodal plane that is between the nuclei and perpendicular to the internuclear axis.

π symmetry.

A MO with π symmetry results from the interaction of either two atomic p orbitals or p orbitals. An MO will have π symmetry if the orbital is asymmetric with respect to rotation about the internuclear axis. This means that rotation of the MO about the internuclear axis will result in a phase change. There is one nodal plane containing the internuclear axis, if real orbitals are considered.  A π* orbital, pi antibonding orbital, will also produce a phase change when rotated about the internuclear axis. The π* orbital also has a second nodal plane between the nuclei.

δ symmetry.

A MO with δ symmetry results from the interaction of two atomic d or d orbitals. Because these molecular orbitals involve low-energy d atomic orbitals, they are seen in transition-metal complexes. A δ bonding orbital has two nodal planes containing the internuclear axis, and a δ* antibonding orbital also has a third nodal plane between the nuclei.

φ symmetry.

Theoretical chemists have conjectured that higher-order bonds, such as phi bonds corresponding to overlap of f atomic orbitals, are possible. There is as of 2005 only one known example of a molecule purported to contain a phi bond (a U−U bond, in the molecule U).

Gerade and ungerade symmetry.

For molecules that possess a center of inversion (centrosymmetric molecules) there are additional labels of symmetry that can be applied to molecular orbitals. Centrosymmetric molecules include:  Non-centrosymmetric molecules include: If inversion through the center of symmetry in a molecule results in the same phases for the molecular orbital, then the MO is said to have gerade (g) symmetry, from the German word for even. If inversion through the center of symmetry in a molecule results in a phase change for the molecular orbital, then the MO is said to have ungerade (u) symmetry, from the German word for odd. For a bonding MO with σ-symmetry, the orbital is σ (s' + s<nowiki>"</nowiki> is symmetric), while an antibonding MO with σ-symmetry the orbital is σ, because inversion of s' – s<nowiki>"</nowiki> is antisymmetric. For a bonding MO with π-symmetry the orbital is π because inversion through the center of symmetry for would produce a sign change (the two p atomic orbitals are in phase with each other but the two lobes have opposite signs), while an antibonding MO with π-symmetry is π because inversion through the center of symmetry for would not produce a sign change (the two p orbitals are antisymmetric by phase).

MO diagrams.

The qualitative approach of MO analysis uses a molecular orbital diagram to visualize bonding interactions in a molecule. In this type of diagram, the molecular orbitals are represented by horizontal lines; the higher a line the higher the energy of the orbital, and degenerate orbitals are placed on the same level with a space between them. Then, the electrons to be placed in the molecular orbitals are slotted in one by one, keeping in mind the Pauli exclusion principle and Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity (only 2 electrons, having opposite spins, per orbital; place as many unpaired electrons on one energy level as possible before starting to pair them). For more complicated molecules, the wave mechanics approach loses utility in a qualitative understanding of bonding (although is still necessary for a quantitative approach). Some properties:  The general procedure for constructing a molecular orbital diagram for a reasonably simple molecule can be summarized as follows:  1. Assign a point group to the molecule.  2. Look up the shapes of the SALCs.  3. Arrange the SALCs of each molecular fragment in increasing order of energy, first noting whether they stem from "s", "p", or "d" orbitals (and put them in the order "s" < "p" < "d"), and then their number of internuclear nodes.  4. Combine SALCs of the same symmetry type from the two fragments, and from N SALCs form N molecular orbitals.  5. Estimate the relative energies of the molecular orbitals from considerations of overlap and relative energies of the parent orbitals, and draw the levels on a molecular orbital energy level diagram (showing the origin of the orbitals).  6. Confirm, correct, and revise this qualitative order by carrying out a molecular orbital calculation by using commercial software.

Bonding in molecular orbitals.

Orbital degeneracy.

Molecular orbitals are said to be degenerate if they have the same energy. For example, in the homonuclear diatomic molecules of the first ten elements, the molecular orbitals derived from the p and the p atomic orbitals result in two degenerate bonding orbitals (of low energy) and two degenerate antibonding orbitals (of high energy).

Ionic bonds.

When the energy difference between the atomic orbitals of two atoms is quite large, one atom's orbitals contribute almost entirely to the bonding orbitals, and the other atom's orbitals contribute almost entirely to the antibonding orbitals. Thus, the situation is effectively that one or more electrons have been transferred from one atom to the other. This is called an (mostly) ionic bond.

Bond order.

The bond order, or number of bonds, of a molecule can be determined by combining the number of electrons in bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals. A pair of electrons in a bonding orbital creates a bond, whereas a pair of electrons in an antibonding orbital negates a bond. For example, N, with eight electrons in bonding orbitals and two electrons in antibonding orbitals, has a bond order of three, which constitutes a triple bond.  Bond strength is proportional to bond order—a greater amount of bonding produces a more stable bond—and bond length is inversely proportional to it—a stronger bond is shorter.  There are rare exceptions to the requirement of molecule having a positive bond order. Although Be has a bond order of 0 according to MO analysis, there is experimental evidence of a highly unstable Be molecule having a bond length of 245 pm and bond energy of 10 kJ/mol.

HOMO and LUMO.

The highest occupied molecular orbital and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital are often referred to as the HOMO and LUMO, respectively. The difference of the energies of the HOMO and LUMO is called the HOMO-LUMO gap. This notion is often the matter of confusion in literature and should be considered with caution. Its value is usually located between the fundamental gap (difference between ionization potential and electron affinity) and the optical gap. In addition, HOMO-LUMO gap can be related to a bulk material band gap or transport gap, which is usually much smaller than fundamental gap.

Examples.

Homonuclear diatomics.

Homonuclear diatomic MOs contain equal contributions from each atomic orbital in the basis set. This is shown in the homonuclear diatomic MO diagrams for H, He, and Li, all of which containing symmetric orbitals.

H.

As a simple MO example, consider the electrons in a hydrogen molecule, H (see molecular orbital diagram), with the two atoms labelled H' and H". The lowest-energy atomic orbitals, 1s' and 1s", do not transform according to the symmetries of the molecule. However, the following symmetry adapted atomic orbitals do:  The symmetric combination (called a bonding orbital) is lower in energy than the basis orbitals, and the antisymmetric combination (called an antibonding orbital) is higher. Because the H molecule has two electrons, they can both go in the bonding orbital, making the system lower in energy (hence more stable) than two free hydrogen atoms. This is called a covalent bond. The bond order is equal to the number of bonding electrons minus the number of antibonding electrons, divided by 2. In this example, there are 2 electrons in the bonding orbital and none in the antibonding orbital; the bond order is 1, and there is a single bond between the two hydrogen atoms.

He.

On the other hand, consider the hypothetical molecule of He with the atoms labeled He' and He". As with H, the lowest energy atomic orbitals are the 1s' and 1s", and do not transform according to the symmetries of the molecule, while the symmetry adapted atomic orbitals do. The symmetric combination—the bonding orbital—is lower in energy than the basis orbitals, and the antisymmetric combination—the antibonding orbital—is higher. Unlike H, with two valence electrons, He has four in its neutral ground state. Two electrons fill the lower-energy bonding orbital, σ(1s), while the remaining two fill the higher-energy antibonding orbital, σ*(1s). Thus, the resulting electron density around the molecule does not support the formation of a bond between the two atoms; without a stable bond holding the atoms together, the molecule would not be expected to exist. Another way of looking at it is that there are two bonding electrons and two antibonding electrons; therefore, the bond order is 0 and no bond exists (the molecule has one bound state supported by the Van der Waals potential).

Li.

Dilithium Li is formed from the overlap of the 1s and 2s atomic orbitals (the basis set) of two Li atoms. Each Li atom contributes three electrons for bonding interactions, and the six electrons fill the three MOs of lowest energy, σ(1s), σ*(1s), and σ(2s). Using the equation for bond order, it is found that dilithium has a bond order of one, a single bond.

Noble gases.

Considering a hypothetical molecule of He, since the basis set of atomic orbitals is the same as in the case of H, we find that both the bonding and antibonding orbitals are filled, so there is no energy advantage to the pair. HeH would have a slight energy advantage, but not as much as H + 2 He, so the molecule is very unstable and exists only briefly before decomposing into hydrogen and helium. In general, we find that atoms such as He that have full energy shells rarely bond with other atoms. Except for short-lived Van der Waals complexes, there are very few noble gas compounds known.

Heteronuclear diatomics.

While MOs for homonuclear diatomic molecules contain equal contributions from each interacting atomic orbital, MOs for heteronuclear diatomics contain different atomic orbital contributions. Orbital interactions to produce bonding or antibonding orbitals in heteronuclear diatomics occur if there is sufficient overlap between atomic orbitals as determined by their symmetries and similarity in orbital energies.

HF.

In hydrogen fluoride HF overlap between the H 1s and F 2s orbitals is allowed by symmetry but the difference in energy between the two atomic orbitals prevents them from interacting to create a molecular orbital. Overlap between the H 1s and F 2p orbitals is also symmetry allowed, and these two atomic orbitals have a small energy separation. Thus, they interact, leading to creation of σ and σ* MOs and a molecule with a bond order of 1. Since HF is a non-centrosymmetric molecule, the symmetry labels g and u do not apply to its molecular orbitals.

Quantitative approach.

To obtain quantitative values for the molecular energy levels, one needs to have molecular orbitals that are such that the configuration interaction (CI) expansion converges fast towards the full CI limit. The most common method to obtain such functions is the Hartree–Fock method, which expresses the molecular orbitals as eigenfunctions of the Fock operator. One usually solves this problem by expanding the molecular orbitals as linear combinations of Gaussian functions centered on the atomic nuclei (see linear combination of atomic orbitals and basis set (chemistry)). The equation for the coefficients of these linear combinations is a generalized eigenvalue equation known as the Roothaan equations, which are in fact a particular representation of the Hartree–Fock equation. There are a number of programs in which quantum chemical calculations of MOs can be performed, including Spartan and HyperChem.  Simple accounts often suggest that experimental molecular orbital energies can be obtained by the methods of ultra-violet photoelectron spectroscopy for valence orbitals and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy for core orbitals. This, however, is incorrect as these experiments measure the ionization energy, the difference in energy between the molecule and one of the ions resulting from the removal of one electron. Ionization energies are linked approximately to orbital energies by Koopmans' theorem. While the agreement between these two values can be close for some molecules, it can be very poor in other cases.

In chemistry, a molecular orbital (MO) is a mathematical function describing the wave-like behavior of an electron in a molecule. This function can be used to calculate chemical and physical properties such as the probability of finding an electron in any specific region. The term "orbital" was introduced by Robert S. Mulliken in 1932 as an abbreviation for "one-electron orbital wave function". At an elementary level, it is used to describe the "region" of space in which the function has a significant amplitude. Molecular orbitals are usually constructed by combining atomic orbitals or hybrid orbitals from each atom of the molecule, or other molecular orbitals from groups of atoms. They can be quantitatively calculated using the Hartree–Fock or self-consistent field (SCF) methods.

En chimie quantique, une orbitale moléculaire est une fonction mathématique décrivant le comportement ondulatoire d'un électron dans une molécule. Cette fonction peut être utilisée pour calculer la configuration électronique des molécules, la distribution spatiale et énergétique des électrons dans les molécules, et en déduire des propriétés physiques ou chimiques, comme la probabilité de trouver un électron dans une région donnée. La combinaison linéaire d'orbitales atomiques offre un moyen simple de construire une représentation approchée des orbitales moléculaires, notamment pour les descriptions qualitatives. Cette méthode est très utilisée par exemple pour établir un modèle simple des liaisons chimiques dans les molécules, décrites à l'aide de la théorie de l'orbitale moléculaire. La méthode de Hartree-Fock et l'hybridation permettent également d'y parvenir. Les méthodes plus actuelles de la chimie numérique calculent les orbitales moléculaires de chaque électron placé dans le champ électrique généré par l'ensemble des noyaux atomiques et la distribution spatiale moyenne des autres électrons. Lorsque deux électrons occupent la même orbitale, le principe d'exclusion de Pauli impose qu'ils soient de spin opposé.


Name.

The city has two official names. In the Kazakh language, its name is Өскемен/"Óskemen" and in the Russian language it is known as Усть-Каменогорск. Both names appear on the seal of the city.

History.

The city was founded in 1720 at the confluence of the Irtysh and Ulba rivers as a fort and trading post named "Ust-Kamennaya". It was established according to the order of the Russian Emperor Peter the Great, who sent a military expedition headed by major Ivan Vasilievich Likharev in the search of Yarkenda gold. Likharev’s expedition directed up the Irtysh River to Zaysan Lake. There, at the confluence of the Ulba and the Irtysh rivers the new fortress was laid – the Ust-Kamennaya Fortress. The Ust-Kamennaya Fortress appeared on the map of the Russian Empire, the very southern end of the Irtysh line. In 1868 the city became the capital of the Semipalatinsk Oblast. It was the site of Georgy Malenkov's 30-year internal exile, during which he managed a local hydroelectric plant.  One of the main industrial enterprises, the Ulba Metal Works (UMW) which produced and still produces uranium products, was kept entirely secret despite it employing thousands of workers. An explosion at the UMW's beryllium production line in 1990 led to the diffusion of a highly toxic beryllium-containing "cloud" over the city. The health effects of this incident are not entirely known, partly because the incident was kept secret by the Soviet authorities.

Economy.

The city developed into a major mining and metallurgical center during the Soviet period. Processing of non-ferrous metals, especially uranium, beryllium, tantalum, copper, lead, silver and zinc remain important. It is a center for the construction industry producing manufactured housing and ferroconcrete articles. The post-war industrial history of the city is very closely intertwined with the Soviet nuclear bomb project, and the city was therefore kept closed to outsiders.  The number of enterprises in Oskemen is very high relative to the number of people living there. There are about 169 firms according to the data from 2002. Most of them are industrial firms, working in mining and processing of raw materials, mostly heavy metals.  The highest lock in the world is the Oskemen Lock and lies at Ablaketka where it allows river traffic to pass around a hydroelectric dam on the Irtysh river. It has a drop of more than 40m.  A new car plant owned jointly by AvtoVAZ and Azia Avto, which will produce 120,000 cars a year, will be opened in 2016.

Religion.

There are 32 religious unions, presenting 15 religious confessions, including Christian, Muslim and non-traditional religions. There are 21 cultural buildings in the city: among them Orthodox Christian churches and mosques. However, in 2017 a court fined and banned Oskemen's New Life Protestant Church for singing religious songs at a summer camp.

Transport.

The city has an international airport, Oskemen Airport.  Oskemen's tram system has 4 lines.  Intercity bus service is available at two bus stations. The most extensive network, with more than 35 lines, is at the railway station, which is located by the Sports Palace on Novoshkolnaya Street. From this station, buses not only serve cities within Kazakhstan, but also Russian cities such as Krasnoyarsk. The route network at the second station covers a smaller area with 17 lines.

Climate.

Oskemen has a continental climate with intermittent precipitation. The coldest months are November through March. Record low temperatures range from −49 °C in January to 4 °C in July, and record highs range from 8 °C in January to 43 °C in July.

Ecology.

As expected in a city with a lot of heavy industry, the atmosphere of the city holds the by-products of the heavy metals production: nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, Zn, Cd, Cl, As, C, Be, phenol, benzol, NaOH, NH3, radioactivity etc. in general there are about 170 polluting components found in the city.  There are 3 impact points that are influenced in Oskemen. The atmosphere is hit most. With a poor urban ventilation (the average percentage of calm 48%), with a large number of vehicles and stationary sources relevance of air pollution in Oskemen is not in doubt. The concentration of harmful substances in the air is increasing each year because of the nature of the companies which are looking for increases in the production and profits. As usual, the pollution is enhanced by the low quality of car fuels and an increase in the number of cars. As a result of all this, Oskemen is often recognized as one of the most polluted regional centers of Kazakhstan.  The most polluted rivers of the Republic are those flowing through the territory of the East Kazakhstan region, where the highest index of surface water pollution is observed in the mining areas and enrichment of polymetallic ores. Mostly the water is affected through the industrial wastes and the storages of waste. Contamination of the water with lead, selenium, cadmium, nitrates spreads on many kilometers as a consequence of which a few drinking water intakes in the Western part of the city are closed or to be closed.  The soil close to the industry territories holds the solid wastes of the firms and becomes less suitable for planting. An increasing number of industrial waste requires a large area for the storage of waste.  As a result of large production of uranium and presence of other radioactive elements such thorium, radon or radioactive dust the radioactive background of the city is remarkable with the zones of radioactive anomaly which are spread around the city.  Oskemen is known to be the leader in Kazakhstan by the number of people having respiratory problems and the diseases of immune system. The statistics show that the most frequent diseases are respiratory diseases and urogenital system diseases. In the last years, the number of people having cancer is also increasing.

Culture.

The city has three cinemas (although during the Soviet era, there were a lot more), three museums, a drama theater with Russian and Kazakh (since 2000) troupes, the Boris Alexandrov Sports Palace.

Economy.

In the 1950s, the heavy economy began to develop in the city. In 1959 a mechanical workshop for boilers and tools was built in the city.Today, the city has a large machine-building plant, automobile plant and metallurgical plant

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Oskemen is twinned with:

Oskemen () or Ust-Kamenogorsk () is the administrative center of East Kazakhstan Region of Kazakhstan. It is served by Oskemen Airport. Population:

Öskemen (en kazakh : ; en, Oust-Kamenogorsk) est une ville de l'est de la République du Kazakhstan et la capitale de l'oblys du Kazakhstan-Oriental. Sa population s'élevait à habitants en 2012.


Name.

The name "Llullaillaco" is derived from the Quechua word meaning "false", "lie" or "deceitful" and or meaning "water". This name probably refers to the meltwater from snow, which flows down the slopes but then is absorbed into the soil. Normally such mountains are sources for water. Another translation in Aymara is "hot water".

Geography and geology.

Volcanism in the Andes is caused by the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate beneath the South America Plate. The Nazca Plate subducts at a speed of and the Antarctic Plate at a speed of. Volcanism does not occur along a continuous chain; there are four separate regions named: the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone, and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The formation of magma results from the release of water and other volatile material from the subducting plate, which is then injected into the above-lying mantle wedge. The volcanic zones are separated by areas where the subducting plate subducts at a flatter angle and volcanism is absent. The Peruvian flat slab between the Northern and the Central Volcanic Zones is associated with the subduction of the Nazca Ridge, the Pampean flat slab between the Central and the Southern Volcanic Zone is associated with the subduction of the Juan Fernandez Ridge, and the Patagonian volcanic gap between the Southern and the Austral Volcanic Zone is associated with the Chile Triple Junction.  About 178 volcanoes are found in the Andes, 60 of which have been active in historical times. In addition, large calderas and monogenetic volcanoes exist in the Andes.

Local setting.

Llullaillaco is part of the Central Volcanic Zone. At least 44 volcanic centres with historical activity and 18 large caldera-forming volcanoes have been identified in the Central Volcanic Zone. Volcanism in the Central Volcanic Zone mostly occurs on the Altiplano and the Cordillera Occidental. A number of volcanoes there reach heights of over above sea level. Large Miocene ignimbrites that cover large surfaces are also part of the regional geology. Llullaillaco is located about east of the Peru-Chile Trench. The Wadati-Benioff zone is deep.  Llullaillaco is located in the northwestern Argentine Andes, towards the southern end of the Puna. The border between Argentina (Salta Province) and Chile crosses the volcano. It lies in the Puna de Atacama, a region of very high volcanic peaks on a high plateau close to the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places in the world. The volcano is an imposing mountain, rising by above the Salar de Punta Negra away. With a summit height of, or alternatively or, it is the second highest active volcano in the world after Ojos del Salado (, ). The height of the mountain and the clear air in the region make Llullaillaco visible from Cerro Paranal, 189 km away as measured by Google Maps. The region is dry and located at high altitudes, making work in the area difficult.

The volcano.

Llullaillaco is a stratovolcano which rises above the surrounding terrain. The edifice has an elliptical shape with dimensions of and has a volume of about -. It is formed by thick dacitic lava flows erupted during the Quaternary. These flows extend away from the volcano and form its summit. An older unit is formed by ignimbrites and pyroclastic flows. Older lava flows extend west from the volcano and are partly buried by sediments closer to the edifice. These flows reach lengths of and form about 70% of the surface of the volcano.  The slopes of the volcano are fairly steep, with an altitude drop of over only horizontal distance. The slopes high up are steeper than those at lower altitudes. A crater at altitude was formed early in the development of the Llullaillaco volcano. Erosion has reduced it to a plateau. This crater is filled with snow and ice. The ice shows evidence of recent geothermal heating. The summit of Llullaillaco is formed by a small cone with about four associated lava domes, which reach lengths of and have abrupt walls. Large dacitic coulees emanate from the summit of the volcano and are young in appearance. One extends north of the volcano and the other one south. Their overall length is and their flow fronts are up to thick. Morphologically, these flows are reddish-black aa lava flows and feature blocks with sizes of. The southern lava flow is long and was fairly viscous when it was erupted. It almost reaches a road southwest of the volcano. These flows feature levees and ridges. At first they were considered to be Holocene, but argon-argon dating indicates they are of late Pleistocene age. Some traces of glacier activity are found in the summit area.  At least two stages of construction are recognized, Llullaillaco I and Llullaillaco II. The first stage originated from two centres and is now extensively degraded by glaciation and hydrothermal alteration. This applies especially to the high Azufrera Esperanto mountain north of Llullaillaco, where little original volcanic substance is preserved and where erosion has exposed deeply altered white rock. Llullaillaco II on the southern and northeastern flank is better preserved; the toes of the lava flows reach thicknesses of. Its lava flows are less extensive than the ones of Llullaillaco I. Pyroclastic flow deposits with a composition similar to Llullaillaco II are found on the southern slope of the volcano and may have formed before the lava eruptions began.  Volcanism in the Central Volcanic Zone may be affected by deep-seated lineaments, which control where volcanoes and geothermal systems form. Such lineaments extend diagonally across the volcanic arc and are accompanied by volcanic manifestations at substantial distances from the arc. One of these lineaments, the Archibarca, runs beneath Llullaillaco and is also associated with the Escondida copper deposit, Corrida de Cori, Archibarca, Antofalla, and the Galán caldera. Other lineaments include the Calama-El Toro.  Several dry valleys originate on Llullaillaco, including Quebrada de las Zorritas on the north-northeastern slope, Quebrada El Salado and Quebrada Llullaillaco on the northwestern slope, and Quebrada La Barda on the southwestern slope. The Quebrada Llullaillaco drains into the Salar de Punta Negra northwest of the volcano. The volcano is relatively unaffected by water erosion, water is only episodically present on the mountain. In addition, there is a lake called the "Llullaillaco volcano lake" on the mountain; it is one of the highest lakes in the world.  Periglacial phenomena are observed on Llullaillaco, commencing at altitude and reaching their maximum around on the Chilean and on the Argentine side. There, solifluction and cryoplanation surfaces are developed, including lobe-shaped ground and block ramparts. These landforms have been mapped on the northwestern side of the volcano. Patterned ground is also common. Permafrost is found at higher altitudes. Cryoplanation and solifluction landforms are also observed on Iris and Mitral. Other than on periglacially influenced terrain, the ground at Llullaillaco is formed mostly by lavic rocks and block debris, which are frequently buried by tephra.  Two abandoned sulfur mines can be found north and south of Llullaillaco. The northern mine is known as Azufrera Esperanto and associated with an area of hydrothermal alteration. A path or road leads up to that mine from northwest.

Debris avalanche.

A major landslide occurred in the volcano's history during the late Pleistocene, probably triggered by volcanic activity. This landslide descended the eastern-southeastern flanks of the volcano into Argentina, first over a steep slope of 20° on the volcano, split around Cerro Rosado and entered the Salina de Llullaillaco east of the summit, extending up to into the salar. The toe of the avalanche reaches a thickness of above the salar in the avalanche's southern lobe. Part of the avalanche was channelled in a valley between Cerro Rosado and an unnamed volcano farther south. When it reached Cerro Rosado, the avalanche climbed about and mostly continued to flow southeast into the main avalanche path, with only a small flow continuing northeastwards. Part of the run-up avalanche later collapsed backwards over the main avalanche deposit. Unlike Socompa farther north, a landslide scar is only poorly developed at Llullaillaco despite the large size of the collapse; it was largely filled in later by lava flows and volcaniclastic debris.  This landslide has been subdivided into four facies and features landforms like levees up to high, longitudinal ridges and a run-up mark on Cerro Rosado. Such ridges may be associated with uneven underlying terrain. The surface of the slide is covered by lava bombs less than long, blocks exceeding width, cobbles, and gravel-like rocks. Close to the collapse scarp on Llullaillaco the largest blocks with sizes of up to are found. Overall, the margins of the landslide are very crisp and the surface covered by hummocks.  The landslide deposit covers a surface of about. Its volume has been estimated at and the speed at. This speed range is comparable to that of the Colima, Lastarria, and Mount St. Helens debris avalanches. The landslide occurred no later than 156,000 – 148,000 ± 5,000 years ago, it might coincide with the 48,000 year old lava flow. Some volcanic rocks were still hot at the time of the collapse, indicating that volcanic activity occurred immediately before the collapse. A smaller undated avalanche occurred on the northeastern flank.  Such landslides are common at volcanoes, where they are favoured by the steep edifices that form from lava flows being stacked on top of each other. It is not usually known what triggers the collapse, although eruption-associated earthquakes are suspected to play a role. Other volcanoes in the region with sector collapses are: Lastarria, Ollague, San Pedro, Socompa, and Tata Sabaya. The Mellado and Cerro Rosado volcanoes close to Llullaillaco also display evidence of sector collapses.

Basement.

The terrain around Llullaillaco consists of andesite and dacite lavas and pyroclastics of Miocene to Pliocene age. Some Oligocene-Miocene layers are exposed in the Quebrada de las Zorritas. Dates obtained by argon-argon dating range between 11.94 ± 0.13 and 5.48 ± 0.07 million years ago. west of Llullaillaco do Paleozoic granites and volcanite rocks crop out. Elsewhere these layers are buried by Cenozoic rocks. There are several faults in the region, such as the Imilac-Salina del Fraile lineament whose movement has influenced the activity of Llullaillaco.

Composition.

Llullaillaco has mostly erupted dacites with medium potassium content, with rocks becoming more felsic the younger they are. Rock samples taken from Llullaillaco are mostly porphyritic or vitrophyric, with a glassy or microcrystalline matrix. Phenocrysts are mostly plagioclase, with mafic phenocrysts being dominated by orthopyroxene and smaller amounts of biotite, clinopyroxene, and hornblende. Ilmenite, magnetite, and sulfide minerals are also present, magnetite especially in the more oxidized older lavas. Some phenocrysts show evidence of a complex history. Quartz is rare. Older lavas have developed a red colour and contain oxidized iron in form of hematite. Lavas from Llullaillaco I are grey. The content of is 65–67%.  The rocks belong to the calc-alkaline series. Trace element data are typical for Central Volcanic Zone rocks. High potassium content is typical for shoshonite-like lavas erupted at large distance from the trenches.  The composition may reflect magma differentiation in a solitary magma chamber, but with occasional replenishment with more primitive magma. Magma mixing and plagioclase crystallization occurred in it. A lithospheric structure probably directed magma flows over long time periods along the same pathway. The depth of the magma source probably varied over the history of the volcano. The total magma output at Llullaillaco is about -.

Geological history.

Research by J.P. Richards and M. Villeneuve has allowed the determination of the geological history of the region. Had volcanism during the Eocene and Oligocene been centered on the Precordillera, increased subduction of the Nazca Plate during the late Oligocene caused the volcanic arc to broaden to about. 25 million years ago, the "Quechua event" triggered the uplift of the Puna-Altiplano, a highland covering a surface area of and reaching an altitude of. In the late Miocene-Pliocene a phase of strong ignimbrite volcanism occurred. About 2 million years ago, the "Diaguita deformation" was characterized by a change in the deformation regimen from crustal shortening to strike-slip faulting and of volcanism from voluminous felsic eruptions to isolated stratovolcanoes and back-arc mafic volcanism. A slowdown in the subduction may have caused this change. Nowadays most volcanism occurs at the western edge of the Puna, where volcanoes such as Lascar and Llullaillaco formed.

Climate, glaciers and biota.

The climate at Llullaillaco is cold and dry. The average temperature is about, with temperature maximums ranging between summer and winter. Ground temperatures however can reach during the day in summer. The temperature of the ground fluctuates strongly during the day. The climate is extremely sunny on account of the lack of a cloud cover, the high altitude, and the close coincidence between summer solstice with the day where Earth is closest to the Sun. Snowfall can occur down to altitudes of. Precipitation is episodic to the point that it is difficult to give average values. It is most often associated with either convective or cyclonic activity during summer and winter respectively. Small glaciers are found above altitude. Other sources contend there are no glaciers on Llullaillaco, which would make it the highest mountain in the world without one; although the existence of an ice slab on the western slope was reported in 1958. However, Llullaillaco has snow fields. high penitentes occur above altitude, especially in more sheltered areas. high penitentes were observed in 1954. Snow covers the terrain above altitude. Gullies that are found in the area probably result from meltwater runoff. The snowfields on Llullaillaco supply water to the Salar de Punta Negra.  The existence of a cirque on the northwestern slope has been postulated. It was once believed that Llullaillaco had experienced three large glaciations, but the "moraines" are actually mudflow deposits. However, during the Pleistocene glaciers reached down to altitude on the northwestern slope. Lava flows have overrun some of the glaciated surfaces and it is possible that lava flows induced the melting of glaciers. A number of glacial landforms elsewhere were destroyed by mudflows during the time of Llullaillaco's last activity. Llullaillaco may not have been glaciated at all during the Pleistocene.  Between 24 and 25° degrees southern latitude the Andean Dry Diagonal crosses the Andes. At this latitude, half of the precipitation falls in summer and the other half in winter. The formation of this dry diagonal is an effect both of the rainshadow effect of the Andes, air subsidence within South Pacific High, and the cold Humboldt Current off the Pacific coast. This is the reason why the Atacama Desert exists. The extremely arid climate at Llullaillaco is also a consequence of these climatic effects.  Vegetation is scarce in the arid climate. Vegetation at Llullaillaco begins at altitude with "Acantholippia punensis", "Atriplex imbricata", and "Cristaria andicola". They are joined at altitude by "Stipa frigida" which can be found up to of altitude. The maximum vegetation density is found around with 12% of the surface and decreases thereafter, probably due to the low temperatures. At this altitude, "Adesmia spinosissima", "Fabiana bryoides", "Mulinum crassifolium", and "Parastrephia quadrangularis" are found in addition to the previously mentioned plants. Above elevation there is no vegetation.  Mice were filmed at 6205 metres in 2013, and an expedition in February 2020 found mice all the way to the summit, where a mouse of the species "Phyllotis xanthopygus" was captured. The biologists of the expedition did not determine what the mice eat, since there are no green plants at those altitudes. This is the highest altitude in the world at which a mammal has been found to live.  Weakly developed fungal and bacterial communities have been found in the soils at Llullaillaco, with better developed algal and cyanobacterial communities found on the penitentes; some soil microbes may depend on volcanic carbon monoxide. The environmental conditions in these soils are among the most extreme on the planet., with aridity, strong UV radiation, daily freeze-thaw cycles and a lack of nutrients. Organic material transported on the mountain by winds may be the principal source of food for some of these microorganisms.  Dry valleys and sheltered areas feature grasses. A permanent spring is found in Quebrada de las Zorritas. Deposits in this valley indicate that between 2,436.8 ± 49 and 1,593.1 ± 36 radiocarbon years ago runoff was more intense.

Archeology.

Llullaillaco was first climbed by Inkas centuries ago. In 1999, a team of archeologists, led by Johan Reinhard, found three mummies of children on the top of Llullaillaco. At the time of their death they were six, seven, and fifteen years old. They were ostensibly human sacrifices offered to the gods of the Incan pantheon on mountaintops. In 2003 they were at the Catholic University of Salta, but starting from 2007 they can be found at the Museum of High Altitude Archaeology of Argentina.  The mummies were found buried beneath a large platform. The existence of ruins in the summit area had been reported during the first climb of the volcano in 1950. Because of the findings, the summit area of the volcano in 2001 was classified as a "" by the government of Argentina.  Other archeological objects found along with the mummies included: headdresses with feathers, pottery, statues made out of gold and silver and textiles. A total of 145 objects were found together with the mummies. The hairs found with the mummies and as offerings accompanying the mummies have been subject of research to establish the background of the victims. At least three paths lead up to Llullaillaco. Two of them meet at a "tambo" or inn at an altitude of, while the third passes through a "cementerio" (cemetery) where 16 bodies were found in 1972 before reaching the "tambo". From the "tambo" another path leads up the mountain, past two further archeological sites to of altitude. At this altitude the path is marked by cairns, probably to indicate where the path is when the volcano is covered by snow. The path ends at altitude at the Portezuelo del Inca ruins, where a staircase begins. From these ruins one path goes to a cemetery at altitude and another to the summit platform. The other path reaches two subrectangular walls farther up, and continues to the platform where the mummies were found. These are the highest archeological sites in the world. The paths were discovered by Mathias Rebitsch in 1958.  Llullaillaco appears to have been the most important Inca sacred mountain in the region. Archeological sites are also found in the valleys that drain Llullaillaco towards the Salar de Punta Negra, including the Quebrada Llullaillaco and the Quebrada de las Zorritas. The paths connect with the major north-south axis that runs between San Pedro de Atacama and Copiapo. This axis is associated with the extensive Inca road system.

Eruptive history.

The volcano is about 1.45 ± 0.41 million years old, and Llullaillaco I is of early Pleistocene age. The oldest date, 1.5 ± 0.4 million years ago, was determined on a lava flow northwest of Llullaillaco's main edifice. Two dates obtained on lava flows of Llullaillaco II are 401,000 ± 6,000 and 1,500,000 ± 400,000 years ago, based on argon-argon dating and potassium-argon dating respectively. The northern young lava flow is less than one million years old based on potassium-argon dating, the southern flow is 48,000 ± 12,000 years old based on argon-argon dating on biotite. Surface exposure dating based on helium has yielded ages of 41,000 ± 1,000 years for Llullaillaco I at over altitude and of 5,600 ± 250 years for Llullaillaco II at an altitude of over.  Llullaillaco has been active in historical time, with the last eruption occurring in the late 19th century. Eruptions were recorded in February 1854, September 1868, and May 1877, involving two explosive eruptions and one with lava flows. According to a report in 1899, during the 1868 eruption large fissures opened on its slopes. The last eruption consisted of smoking reported at the time of the 1877 Iquique earthquake.  The volcano is currently considered dormant and there are no known fumaroles. Future eruptive activity may cause sector collapses, although they would be a small danger to human life, given that the area is sparsely inhabited.

Llullaillaco () is a dormant stratovolcano at the border of Argentina (Salta Province) and Chile (Antofagasta Region). It lies in the Puna de Atacama, a region of tall volcanic peaks on a high plateau close to the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places in the world. It is the second highest active volcano in the world after Ojos del Salado.

Le Llullaillaco ou Llullay-Yacu est le deuxième plus haut volcan actif au monde, après l'Ojos del Salado et est le site archéologique le plus haut du monde. Le volcan se trouve dans les Andes à la frontière entre l'Argentine (dans la province de Salta) et le Chili (dans la région d'Antofagasta).


History.

The Acropolis Rally has been held since 1951 by the Greek Motorsports Organization Automobile and Touring Club of Greece (ELPA), making it one of the longest-standing competitions in world rallying. Many world renown drivers have won this event including Walter Röhrl, Björn Waldegård, Ari Vatanen, Stig Blomqvist, Juha Kankkunen, Carlos Sainz and Colin McRae, among others.  Due to the nature of the race, with a mix of rough, twisty mountain stages and coupled with blistering heat and choking dust, the Acropolis Rally is one of the toughest on the European and world rally circuits. The cars used in the race must be built with extra sturdiness in order to cope with the fast but rock-strewn stages. Drivers and co-drivers also have to contend with the pounding terrain and high summer temperatures which often reached 50 °C within the cockpit.

Super Special Stage (SSS).

In 2005 a new stage was introduced; a superspecial stage held within the Athens Olympic Stadium. The Super Special Stage (SSS) was the highlight of the rally as well as the 2005 WRC schedule and in the same year, the Acropolis Rally was awarded the “Rally of the Year” title.  In 2006 there were 2 superspecials, again in the same stadium. The rally headquarters and the service park also moved from Lamia to the Athens Olympic Sports Complex. In the 2007 event, the superspecial (along with the rally headquarters and the service park) moved to the Markopoulo Olympic Equestrian Centre. In 2008 the super special stage was held twice at the Tatoi military airport. In 2009 the rally headquarters and the service park were moved to the Greek city of Loutraki near the Corinth Canal. For the 2016 ERC Season, the rally headquarters were moved back to the classic mountain stages above Lamia.

Number of victories per driver (WRC only).

Since 1973, the first WRC season (excluding the 1995 event).

The Acropolis Rally of Greece () is a rally competition which used to be part of the European Rally Championship (ERC) schedule, and was formerly a round of the World Rally Championship (WRC). The rally is held on very dusty, rough and rocky mountain roads around Athens during the Greek hot summer period. The rally is known for being extremely tough on the competing cars and drivers.

Le rallye de l'Acropole est une course automobile se déroulant en Grèce. Créée en 1953, elle fut organisée par "l'Automobile and Touring Club of Greece" (ELPA) jusqu'en 2002.


Interwar.

In its very beginning, "Je suis partout" was centered on covering international topics, without displaying extremism, antisemitism, or even a consistently right-wing approach. However, the group of editors was heavily influenced by the ideas of Charles Maurras and the integralist Action Française, and the ideology quickly spilled into the editorial content, as the more moderate journalists quit in protest.  The paper became a staple of anti-parliamentarianism, nationalism, and criticism of ""decadent"" Third Republic institutions and culture, becoming close to fascist movements of the era, French and foreign alike. It clearly supported Benito Mussolini as of October 1932, when Italian politics were awarded a special issue. "Je suis partout" was favorable to the Spanish Falange, the Romanian Iron Guard, the Belgian Léon Degrelle's Rexism, as well as to Oswald Mosley and his British Union of Fascists. From 1936, it also opened to Nazism and Adolf Hitler.  Despite its international connections, "Je suis partout" did not recommend copying over local origin in establishing a Fascist régime: ""We will regard foreign fascism only through French fascism, the only real fascism"" (14 April 1939). Thus, it held Jacques Doriot in esteem for his attempts to unite the French far right into a single Front.  The antisemitic rhetoric of the paper exploded after the Stavisky Affair and the attempted "coup d'état" introduced by the far right rally in front of the Palais Bourbon on 6 February 1934 ("see: 6 February 1934 crisis"). It turned vitriolic after the forming of the left-wing Popular Front government under the Jewish Léon Blum (1936). From 1938 on, "Je suis partout" matched the racist propaganda in Nazi Germany by publishing two special issues, "Les Juifs" ("The Jews") and "Les Juifs et la France" ("The Jews and France"). The extreme attack caused the publishers Fayard to cut links with the paper, and it was sold to a new board - which included the Argentine Charles Lescat (who was, according to his own depiction, ""a fascist as genuine as he is calm""). Shortly before World War II and the German occupation in 1940, the paper was banned.

Collaboration.

It was published again from 1941, and its ultra-collaborationist stances attracted the harsh criticism of Maurras, who repudiated the paper. "Je suis partout" triumphed as the voice of far right forces, and published calls for the murder of Jews and Third Republic political figures: ""The death of men to which we owe so many mournings... all French people are demanding it"" (6 September 1941). It exercised an influence over an intellectual and young audience, going from 46,000 issues in 1939 to 250,000 in 1942.  Robert Brasillach was its editor-in-chief from June 1937 to September 1943 (he was to be executed for treason in 1945). Brasillach was believed to be too lenient, and was replaced with Pierre-Antoine Cousteau, brother of Jacques Cousteau. Cousteau aligned "Je suis partout" with the Nazi leadership, went against its roots by adhering to Nazi anti-intellectualism, and opened itself to advertising for the Waffen-SS and the Légion des Volontaires Français. Several of its editors joined either the Parti Populaire Français or the Milice. It continued to be published as late as August 1944 (the moment of the Liberation of Paris).

Je suis partout (, lit. "I am everywhere") was a French newspaper founded by Jean Fayard, first published on 29 November 1930. It was placed under the direction of Pierre Gaxotte until 1939. Journalists of the paper included Lucien Rebatet,, the illustrator Ralph Soupault, and the Belgian correspondent Pierre Daye.

Je suis partout est un hebdomadaire français publié par Arthème Fayard, dont le premier numéro sort le. Pierre Gaxotte est son responsable jusqu'en 1939. Jusqu'en 1942, la rédaction se trouve rue Marguerin à Paris avant de s'installer rue de Rivoli. Journal rassemblant des plumes souvent issues ou proches de l'Action française, il devient, à partir de 1941, le principal journal collaborationniste et antisémite français sous l'occupation nazie. Le dernier numéro est daté du, et ses rédacteurs sont ensuite jugés et condamnés.


Early life.

Yann Arthus-Bertrand was born in Paris on 13 March 1946 in a renowned jewellers' family founded in 1803 by Claude Arthus-Bertrand and Michel-Ange Marion. His sister Catherine is one of his closest collaborators. He has been interested in nature and wildlife from an early age.

First jobs.

In 1963 when he was 17, he became an assistant director, then an actor in movies. He played alongside famous actors such as Michèle Morgan in "Dis-moi qui tuer" (1965) by Etienne Perier and in "OSS 117 prend des vacances" (1970) by Pierre Kalfon.  He gave up the movie industry in 1967 to run the Château de Saint Augustin wildlife park in Château-sur-Allier (centre of France). He then left the country with his wife Anne when he was 30 (1976) to live in Kenya in the Masai Mara National Reserve. He lived amongst the Maasai tribe for 3 years to study the behaviour of a lions' family and took daily pictures of them during those years. He thus discovered a new passion for photography and the beauty of landscapes when observed from above in hot air balloons and understood how to communicate using these means.  He came back to France in 1981, published a photographs book "Lions" in 1983, and became an international journalist, reporter and photographer specialised in documentaries on sports, wildlife and aerial photography for French magazines such as "Paris Match" and "GEO". He photographed ten Paris-Dakar rallies. Every year he published a book on Roland Garros, the tennis French open. He also took pictures every year at the Paris International Agricultural Show, and of ethologist Dian Fossey and gorillas in Rwanda.

Aerial photography.

He founded the Altitude Agency in 1991, which was the world's first press agency and images bank specialising in aerial photography (500,000 pictures taken in more than 100 countries by more than 100 photographers).  In 1994 Arthus-Bertrand started a thorough study on the state of the Earth sponsored by UNESCO. As part of the study, he made a picture inventory of the world's most beautiful landscapes, taken from helicopters and hot-air balloons. The book from this project, "Earth from Above" ("La Terre vue du ciel") sold over 3 million copies and was translated into 24 languages.  In 2000, his "Earth from Above" free exhibition was set up on numerous big posters on the gates of the Jardins du Luxembourg in Paris. It then travelled worldwide from Lyon to Montreal, to 110 cities and was visited by 120 million people.  In 2008, Earth from Above was released on DVD.

Environmental work.

On 1 July 2005, he founded the international environmental organisation GoodPlanet, and set up the programme Action Carbone to offset his own greenhouse gas emissions generated by his helicopter transports. Since then this program has evolved to help people and companies to reduce and offset their climate impact by funding projects on renewable energies, energy efficiency and reforestation.  Since then, the organisation has been involved in several projects:  Arthus-Bertrand was made a Knight of the Légion d'honneur (national order of the legion of honour) and a Knight of the Ordre du Mérite Agricole (national order of agricultural merit). He was also made Officer of the Ordre National du Mérite (national order of merit) by President Nicolas Sarkozy in June 2008. Moreover, he was elected alongside Lucien Clergue at the Académie des Beaux Arts (academy of fine arts).  In 2006, he launched a series of documentaries called "Vu du ciel" ("Seen from Above") for the French public channels. The 5th episode was aired in December 2007 and was about agriculture.  Also in 2006 he published "Algeria From Above" which he considers as one of his best works so far. This book offers a brand new view on this country.  In April 2007 he started directing a film originally called "Boomerang", later re-titled "Home". The film was produced by Luc Besson and financed by the PPR group (a French multinational company). It was Arthus-Bertrand's intention to show the state of our planet and the challenges humanity faces. The emissions of greenhouse gases produced by the movie's shooting were offset through Arthus-Bertrand's organisation GoodPlanet and its 'Action Carbone' program. The film was released internationally on 5 June 2009. On the night of its release many theatres offered screening for free and an open-air screening at the Champ-de-Mars in Paris drew 20 000 spectators. The aerial photography, music score and high post-production values were intended to create a more emotional response than most previous films about the subject. The simultaneous TV broadcast of the film on the France 2 TV channel drew more than 8 million people. The following Sunday, at the European elections, the environmentalist coalition Europe Écologie made an unexpectedly strong showing. On the night of the elections, many political commentators expressed concerns that the film screening may have influenced the result.  "Home" is available on DVD and via free streaming on the internet (Arthus-Bertrand gave up his author's rights).  On 19 March 2008, he was given the Georges Pompidou Award which rewards a cultural personality each year (2006: painter Pierre Soulages, 2005: orchestra conductor William Christie).  Since 2008, he has participated in the Board of Directors of the Fondation Chirac, a foundation launched in 2008 by former French President Jacques Chirac in order to promote world peace through five advocacy programmes, two of which deal with environmental issues such as access to fresh water, desertification and deforestation.  A few schools have been named after Yann Arthus-Bertrand (primary schools of Cysoing, Noviant-aux-Prés, Carentoir and Villaines-sous-Bois, nursery schools of Cairanne and Saint-Aignan-de-Cramesnil as well as the Radinghem high school specialised in agriculture). He stated that it was one of the greatest honours he could receive.  In 2008, he launched the project called 6 billion others. It is a video exhibition of people across the world answering the same questions.  On 22 April 2009 he was officially designated as the United Nations Environment Program Goodwill Ambassador (UNEP) and received the "Earth Champion" award for his commitment towards the environment and his work on public environmental awareness.  Arthus-Bertrand also supports the Zeitz Foundation, an organization focused on sustainable development and conservation.

Yann Arthus-Bertrand (born 13 March 1946) is an environmentalist, activist, journalist and photographer. He has also directed films about the impact of humans on the planet. He is especially well known for his book "Earth from Above" (1999) and his films "Home" (2009) and "Human" (2015). It is because of this commitment that Yann Arthus-Bertrand was designated Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations Environment Programme on Earth Day (22 April 2009).

Yann Arthus-Bertrand, né le à Paris, est un photographe, reporter, réalisateur et écologiste français. Il préside la fondation GoodPlanet. Son livre "La Terre vue du ciel", paru pour la première fois en 1999 et dont a été tiré un documentaire du même nom en 2004, est un best-seller mondial.